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39,004,908	Arthur James Dingle	1,120,450,555	England international rugby union player	[ "1891 births", "1915 deaths", "Alumni of Keble College, Oxford", "Barbarian F.C. players", "British Army personnel of World War I", "British military personnel killed in World War I", "Deaths by firearm in Turkey", "East Yorkshire Regiment officers", "England international rugby union players", "English rugby union players", "Officers' Training Corps officers", "Oxford University RFC players", "People educated at Durham School", "People from Hetton-le-Hole", "Rugby union centres", "Rugby union players from Sunderland", "Rugby union players from Tyne and Wear", "Rugby union wings" ]	Arthur "Mud" James Dingle (16 October 1891 – 22 August 1915) was a rugby union centre and wing, who won three caps for England, and played for County Durham, Hartlepool Rovers and Oxford University. He was born and raised in County Durham, attending Durham School, where he was head boy and excelled at many sports, especially rugby. He went on to study at Keble College, Oxford, playing rugby for the college and captaining the team in his final year. He played in the 1911 Varsity Match, in which he scored a try. He was first selected for England in February 1913, against Ireland, although he had not been picked for Oxford that year. After graduating, he returned to Durham School as a master. He played for Hartlepool Rovers, scoring 55 tries in the 1913–14 season, as well as four hat-tricks for County Durham, helping them reach the County Championship finals. He was picked for England against Scotland and France in the last international matches before the outbreak of the First World War. Dingle, who had been a member of the Oxford Officers Training Corps, was gazetted second lieutenant in the 6th Battalion, East Yorkshire Regiment, which took part in the Suvla Bay Landing of the Gallipoli Campaign on 6 August 1915. His battalion took Scimitar Hill on 9 August, with great loss of life, only to be forced to make a tactical withdrawal. On 21 August, the Battle of Scimitar Hill ensued, a disaster for Britain and her allies: Dingle was killed the following day, defending a trench that had earlier been captured. He is commemorated on the Helles Memorial to the missing dead. ## Early life Arthur Dingle was born on 16 October 1891 at Hetton-le-Hole, County Durham, the eldest son of Beatrice (née Robson) and Reverend Arthur Trehane Dingle, Rector of Egglescliffe. He had a brother, Hugh John Dingle. Arthur attended Bow School, Durham and then Durham School, where he was head of school, and displayed an aptitude for cricket, gymnastics, rowing and rugby. He then went up to Keble College, Oxford in 1910, where he read theology in anticipation of being ordained. ## Rugby career At Oxford, Dingle played for his college, Keble, and captained the team in his final year. He also played on Saturdays for Rosslyn Park, joining a school friend, Nowell Oxland at the club. He was soon selected to play for Oxford, at centre, winning his Blue in the 1911 Varsity Match. In front of 10,000 spectators at Queen's Club on 12 December, Cambridge were the clear favourites to win: Oxford had lost 5 of the previous 13 games. Under the leadership of Ronnie Poulton, however, Oxford won a decisive victory, leading 11–0 already at half time. In the second half, a further two tries — one from Dingle, which Poulton described as "magnificent" — sealed the victory, 19–0. The following season, on 6 November 1912, Oxford hosted the South African team touring the United Kingdom and France. Dingle played at centre. It was a close contest, with South Africa coming through to win 6–0. After the Springboks' convincing victory over Cambridge a little later, Oxford were favourites to win the Varsity Match and to add to their winning series. Dingle was unable to play due to injury, missing a game that went against the odds. Dingle got his first call up to the England national team to face Ireland on 8 February 1913, playing centre alongside Poulton, although he had not been selected to play for Oxford. The Times described his debut performance as 'strong in defence, but ... not altogether a success', while The Aberdeen Journal described him as 'fair', amongst a backline that was 'lacking in finishing power', with Poulton, 'poor'. England gained an 'easy' victory 15–4 but failed to turn their opportunities into points. Dingle was not picked for the next match, against Scotland on 15 March. ### 1913–14 season After he graduated, Dingle played for Richmond RFC and Surrey then, returning to Durham to become a master at his old school, he played for Hartlepool Rovers, and captained the team. At county level, he played for Durham, and had a significant part in helping the team reach the finals of the County Championship Tournament, scoring in each of the seven matches. In total, he scored 55 tries in the season, 39 for Hartlepool and a further 16 for Durham. Early in the season, England played The South at Twickenham, winning 21–12, with outstanding performances from Dingle, as well as Johnson and Poulton. Dingle then played in the third and final trial against the Rest of England, which England won 42–27. His selection for the Five Nations came up for the match against Scotland, replacing Roberts on the left wing, who had had a poor game in the prior encounter against Ireland. Before the Scotland match on 21 March, Bill Maclagan described the English team as one of the best to visit Scotland. Having already defeated Wales and Ireland, England beat Scotland 15–16 in a close-fought game. Scotland, with the wind behind them, opened the scoring in the first half with a try but England equalised just before half time. After the break, England got up a lead of 6–16 and victory seemed certain. Scotland responded and closed the gap to one point. After Cherry Pillman's leg was broken in a tackle, England were playing with fourteen men, but they managed to hold on, thereby winning both the Triple Crown and the Calcutta Cup, as well as the Five Nations Championship. Dingle, in the opening minutes, missed a try-scoring opportunity when he knocked-on a pass from Poulton. Yet he had a positive impact in other parts of the game. It was England's last international test on British soil before the First World War: 11 of the 30 players went on to be killed in it, including the Scotsman William Middleton Wallace, who died the same day as Dingle. Dingle was kept on for the final match of the tournament against France. England overwhelmed France in a 13–39 defeat, in which the French crowd's behaviour towards the visiting team was 'disorderly'. The Times was once again critical of Dingle's performance: 'AJ Dingle was the weakest of the four [threequarters]. He failed to take the passes and was very slow getting into his stride.' With the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, competitive rugby matches were suspended. Despite this, Edgar Mobbs, the captain of the Barbarians invitation side, organised a match against the Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC) on 10 April 1915. The Barbarians team on that day was made up of military personnel, including Dingle, who contributed a try towards a 10–3 victory. Of Dingle's team-mates on that day, both Mobbs and another England international Billy Geen, would also die in action during the war. ### International appearances ## Military service Since Dingle was a school master, he was exempt from military service, but having been a member of the Oxford University Officers Training Corps (OTC), and having set up the OTC at Durham School, he sought permission to enlist from the headmaster, Canon Budworth. He was commissioned on 29 August 1914 temporary second lieutenant into the 6th Battalion, East Yorkshire Regiment. He was promoted to temporary lieutenant on 8 December. Dingle's regiment was sent to Gallipoli and took part in the Suvla Bay landings on 6 August 1915. His battalion soon took the small hill at Lala Baba, with the loss of many lives. Three days later, with Dingle made temporary captain, his battalion captured Scimitar Hill, once again with great loss of life, but then made a tactical withdrawal. On 21 August, with Dingle as acting commanding officer of the 150 men of B Company, the battalion was involved in the Battle of Scimitar Hill, a major assault to recapture the hill, which ended in disaster. Dingle was shot through the temple and killed at dawn on 22 August 1915, while defending a captured trench "against overwhelming odds". It was not possible to recover his body. Of his England team-mates who played Scotland in the final Calcutta Cup match in 1914 before the start of the war, three had already died: Bungy Watson, Francis Oakeley, and Ronald Poulton. The Ballad of Suvla Bay by John Still, has these lines about Dingle: > He is commemorated on panels 51 to 54 of the Helles Memorial to the missing. Other rugby internationals commemorated on the monument include the two Scotsmen William Campbell Church and Eric Templeton Young, and the Englishman William Nanson. There are also memorials to him at Durham School, St Margaret's Church in Durham, Keble College, Richmond, Rosslyn Park, Hartlepool Rovers and Oxford rugby club. There is also a tournament played amongst some of the first schools to adopt rugby, the Veterrimi IV, the winning team being awarded the AJ Dingle Cup. ## See also - List of international rugby union players killed in action during the First World War
49,118,742	2016 Berlin ePrix	1,144,686,142	Formula E race in 2016	[ "2015–16 Formula E season", "2016 in Berlin", "2016 in German motorsport", "Berlin ePrix", "May 2016 sports events in Germany" ]	The 2016 Berlin ePrix (formally the 2016 FIA Formula E BMW i Berlin ePrix) was a Formula E electric car race held on 21 May 2016 before a crowd of 15,000 people at the Berlin Street Circuit in Berlin, Germany. It was the eighth round of the 2015–16 Formula E Championship and the second Berlin ePrix. The 48-lap race was won by e.dams-Renault driver Sébastien Buemi who began from second position. Audi Sport ABT teammates Daniel Abt and Lucas di Grassi finished in second and third. Jean-Éric Vergne won the pole position by posting the fastest lap in qualifying but lost the lead to Buemi heading towards the first corner on the first lap. Vergne retook the lead from Buemi at the start of lap two until Buemi moved back into the position four laps later. Buemi held the lead through the mandatory pit stops, in which drivers switched into a second car, to win his and e.Dams-Renault's third race of the season. Further back, Abt passed Vergne and finished second despite ignoring team orders issued to him in the final two laps to allow di Grassi past as he became aware of the closing Nico Prost becoming a threat. The result meant Buemi reduced di Grassi's advantage at the top of the Drivers' Championship to one point and Sam Bird was still in third place despite finishing outside of the points-scoring positions. Jérôme d'Ambrosio maintained fourth place but was now two points ahead of Prost. e.Dams-Renault increased their lead over Audi Sport ABT in the Teams' Championship to eleven points and Virgin overtook Dragon for fourth position with two races left in the season. ## Background The Berlin ePrix was confirmed as part of Formula E's 2015–16 schedule in October 2015 by the FIA World Motor Sport Council. It was the eighth of ten single seater electric car races of the 2015–16 season, the second Berlin ePrix, and was held on 21 May 2016 at the Berlin Street Circuit in Berlin, Germany. The eleven-turn track is 2.030 km (1.261 mi) long, with the pit lane on Karl-Marx-Allee and the course went around Strausberger Platz and Alexanderplatz. Before the race, Audi Sport ABT driver Lucas di Grassi led the Drivers' Championship with 126 points, eleven ahead of Sébastien Buemi in second, who in turn, was a further 33 points in front of third-placed Sam Bird. Jérôme d'Ambrosio was fourth on 64 points and Stéphane Sarrazin was fifth with 58 points. e.dams-Renault Led the Teams' Championship with 165 points, seven in front of Audi Sport ABT in second. Dragon and Virgin (on 112 and 106 points) were third and fourth and Mahindra were fifth with 65 points. In November 2015, it was reported the Berlin Tempelhof Airport was "highly unlikely" to hold the race because the facility was being used to shelter refugees. After the series received official confirmation they were not allowed to use Tempelhof's facilities, Formula E's chief operating officer Alejandro Agag sought to hold the event at the Norisring street circuit in Nuremberg with alternatives for Munich and Berlin. Negotiations with Norisring's management ended when a decision had not been made by the 15 January deadline. It was announced one month later the race would be held in downtown Berlin pending approval from city authorities and motorsport's governing body, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile. The race came under disapproval from the mayors of the Friedrichshain and Berlin-Mitte districts Monika Herrmann [de] and Christian Hanke [de] who both stated they did not want to the race in the city centre. Although motor racing is forbidden on Germany's public roads, the Senate of Berlin granted dispensation for Formula E to hold the race on Berlin's streets in March. Construction of the track started on 9 May, 12 days before the race. After finishing in third in the preceding Paris ePrix, Buemi was confident about his chances for the Berlin race, saying the plan was to qualify in a higher starting position and attempt to race at the front of the field: "We know we can do it as in Paris the car was super-quick; we just started too far behind to be able to do any better." Daniel Abt said that while he was not interested in the drivers' standings, he wanted to finish the ePrix on the podium. He wished to celebrate the achievement with the German spectators, and it was the best method in helping his teammate di Grassi in the championship battle. After winning the season's previous two races, di Grassi stated that his team's objective was to win the title and aimed to continue their recent momentum into Berlin: "Our car is a winner, our team keeps cool and stays focused when the pressure is on – in this way we can win the home race.” For the ePrix, nine teams each entered two drivers for a total of 18 participants. There was one driver change before the race. Having been in one of the Aguri cars since the first round of the season in Beijing, António Félix da Costa missed the race because of a Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters commitment at the Red Bull Ring and was replaced by endurance driver René Rast. The deal was confirmed in the week before the race and was originally slated to be World Endurance Championship driver Adam Carroll but the agreement fell through. It marked Rast's first participation in single-seater machinery since the Formula BMW ADAC in 2004 and practised on the team's simulator to familiarise himself with the car. Oliver Turvey was set to be replaced by the Formula Renault 3.5 driver Ben Hanley because of a Super GT commitment at the Autopolis circuit, but that race was postponed because of the Kumamoto earthquakes, and his Formula E seat was reinstated. ## Practice Two practice sessions—both on Saturday morning—were held before the day's late afternoon race. The first session ran for 45 minutes and the second for 30 minutes. Both sessions took place in dry weather conditions. Buemi used 200 kW (270 hp) of power to set the first practice session's fastest lap of 57.648 seconds just before it ended; Turvey was second-fastest and was fastest until Buemi's lap. Di Grassi, Nico Prost, Bird, Loïc Duval, Mike Conway, d'Ambrosio, Sarrazin and Abt occupied positions three to ten. During the session, where many drivers struggled with traffic, Robin Frijns swerved to avoid hitting Bruno Senna at the turn five and six hairpin. Di Grassi later pressed the neutral button on his car's steering wheel, causing him to briefly stop on track. Although he was limited to one timed lap as he missed the majority of the second practice session due to a battery failure on his second car, Nelson Piquet Jr. recorded the fastest lap of 57.909 seconds, 0.013 seconds faster than Bird in second who was fastest until Piquet's lap. Jean-Éric Vergne, Frijns, Turvey, Duval, Senna, Abt, Conway and Nick Heidfeld were in positions three to ten. Buemi locked his tyres at turn five and struck the barrier, damaging his front wing. The cleanup was jeopardised when Simona de Silvestro narrowly avoided colliding with Buemi's car. Buemi was able to return to the pit lane for a new nose cone. Sarrazin pushed hard and went straight into the turn 11 barrier, damaging his car and temporarily stopping the session. Rast stopped in turn six, causing yellow flags to be waved. ## Qualifying Saturday afternoon's 60-minute qualifying session was divided into four groups of five cars. Each group was determined by a lottery system and was permitted six minutes of on-track activity. All drivers were limited to two timed laps with one at maximum power. The fastest five overall competitors in the four groups participated in a "Super Pole" session with one driver on the track at any time going out in reverse order from fifth to first. Each of the five drivers was limited to one timed lap and the starting order was determined by the competitor's fastest times. The driver and team who recorded the fastest time were awarded three points towards their respective championships. Qualifying took place in dry and warm weather. In the first group, despite making small errors shortly before he completed his lap, Turvey paced the session, seven-hundredths of a second faster than di Grassi in second who struck the kerbs at the first chicane. Frijns damaged his car's front-left tyre in a contact with a barrier and was third-quickest, ahead of Sarrazin who lost control of his vehicle at turn ten, causing the session to be stopped for a short period. Vergne was the fastest driver in the second group, nearly two-tenths of a second quicker than Abt. Bird was third-fastest, ahead of Prost who lost time after he went deep heading towards the final corner. Rast completed the second group's running. Heidfeld was the quickest driver in the third group, almost three-tenths of a second faster than Piquet who lost control of his car at the hairpin, losing him four-tenths of a second. D'Ambrosio struggled to locate reference points on the track because of a lack of running in practice and was third-quickest. Conway and de Silvestro were the two slowest drivers in the third group. Buemi set the fastest overall fastest time of any competitor in the group stages in the fourth group with a time of 57.322 seconds. He was 0.269 seconds faster than Senna in second. and Duval struggled with tyre grip to finish third. Ma Qinghua struggled and was the slowest overall driver. After group qualifying ended, Buemi, Senna, Vergne, Heidfeld and Abt had fast enough lap times to progress them to super pole. Abt was the first driver to attempt a lap time in super pole and made an error at the final turn in a 57.852-second lap. Heidfeld went narrowly faster in the first third of the lap but damaged his front-left suspension in a collision with the turn eight barrier, leaving him fifth. Vergne went quickest in the track's second sector, and despite narrowly colliding with Senna (who was leaving the pit lane) took provisional pole position with a lap of 57.811 seconds. Senna left the pit lane with oversteer and was one-tenth of a second slower in the first sector, and went half a second down in the following sector and ran wide in the final corner, and took fourth. Buemi, the pole position favourite, was slower than Vergne in the first third of the lap, and had similar results elsewhere to qualify second. This meant Vergne took his first pole position of the season, the fourth of his career, and his team's third consecutive of the year. After qualifying, Mahindra drivers Senna and Heidfeld were demoted to 15th and 16th on the grid because of irregular tyre pressures, while Sarrazin and d'Ambrosio were similarly penalised and started from the back of the field. The rest of the grid lined up after penalties as Bird, Piquet, Prost, Turvey, di Grassi, Duval, de Silvestro, Conway, Frijns, Rast, Ma, Senna, Heidfeld, Sarrazin and d'Ambrosio. ### Qualifying classification Notes: - – Bruno Senna and Nick Heidfeld were Excluded from Qualifying for irregular tyre pressures. - – Stéphane Sarrazin and Jérôme d'Ambrosio were Excluded from Qualifying due to irregular tyre pressures. ## Race A special feature of Formula E is the "Fan Boost" feature, an additional 100 kW (130 hp) of power to use in the driver's second car. The three drivers allowed to use the boost were determined by a fan vote. For the Berlin race, Buemi, Sarrazin and Heidfeld were handed the extra power. The weather at the start was dry and sunny with the air temperature between 23.5–24.05 °C (74.30–75.29 °F) and a track temperature of 24 °C (75 °F). 15,000 people attended the race. The race started at 16:00 Central European Summer Time (UTC+2). The chassis damage to Sarrazin's car meant his team initially announced he would not race, but repairs to it were completed in time, allowing him to drive. On the grid, Buemi accelerated faster than the distracted Vergne and passed him for the lead into the first turn, using its braking zone to keep the position. Di Grassi overtook NextEV drivers Piquet and Turvey to move into sixth. Piquet lost grip in the first turn; he began to slide but regained control of his car and continued. An error by Senna saw him collide with the rear of Rast's car, causing bodywork damage to both cars. At the end of the first lap, Vergne out-braked Buemi into the first corner and positioned himself on the inside to reclaim the lead in a near carbon-copy manoeuvre to which he had been subjected to by Buemi the previous lap. As the top six concertinaed together, the damage to the cars of Rast, Piquet and Turvey prompted officials to show the trio a black flag with an orange circle, mandating their entry to the pit lane for repairs. Initially Vergne began to open up a small advantage over Buemi, as the latter had elected to hold off in making a move on Vergne until lap six. Buemi retook the lead from Vergne by passing him on the inside into turn five and the two narrowly avoided contact. Vergne's exit out of the corner was compromised and he had to hold off Abt. At the front, Buemi pulled away from the rest of the field. On the 10th lap, Abt executed a similar manoeuvre to Buemi on the first lap and passed Vergne for second at the turn one hairpin. Bird had been pressuring Abt for third earlier in the race but was ordered to enter the pit lane as he took a kerb too fast, loosening his front wing end-plate. Bird emerged in 14th, and protested the penalty by radio. While Buemi increased his lead over Abt to five seconds, di Grassi was in a tight bunch of cars consisting of Vergne in fourth and Prost in fifth. Di Grassi's team told him that they would attempt to keep him on the track for one lap longer than his rivals. Further down the field, Frijns fought his way through into the top ten and slid and drifted through the first turn in a pass on Duval. Heidfeld had also moved through the field to run in the top ten and later mounted the kerb to overtake Conway for ninth place. Prost then drew closer to Vergne and the pressure put onto Vergne caused the latter to hit the bollards at the chicane. This shattered the front right section on Vergne's front wing. Vergne then took too much kerb again into the same chicane on lap 24, removing his front wing. Debris was littered on the track and Prost passed Vergne for third position. The leaders began making their mandatory pit stops to change into a second car on lap 24. Di Grassi's strategy allowed him to remain on the track for one extra lap, and made his pit stop on the 25th lap. After the pit stops, Buemi kept the lead with Abt second, Prost third and di Grassi passed Vergne for fourth. With the debris from Vergne's car littered across the track at the chicane, officials called for the full course yellow flag on lap 28 to allow marshals to clean the track. Racing resumed one lap later with Buemi leading Abt by 11 seconds. Bird moved into 12th by passing d'Ambrosio during lap 32. Attention focused on the battle for third place as di Grassi was closing up to Prost. Di Grassi had more electrical energy than Prost and his first move on the latter saw him steer onto the outside on the 38th lap. Di Grassi then drew alongside Prost but noted the lack of room available and could not overtake him. As he completed the following lap, Di Grassi passed Prost on the inside for third place at turn one. Senna recorded the race's fastest lap of 59.067 seconds on the 39th lap to earn two points. Soon after, it was announced di Grassi was under investigation for speeding during the full course yellow procedure as he drew closer to teammate Abt. Duval lost control of his car on the 42nd lap and slid backwards into the turn seven outside barrier. The incident necessitated the deployment of the safety car and the time gaps in the field were neutralised. Although Duval's vehicle was stuck in a place where it was difficult to retrieve, course marshals were able to move it quickly and allowing the race to restart with two laps left. Buemi kept the lead with Abt close behind. Abt was informed by his team di Grassi was faster than him and was ordered to let him pass. Abt attempted to let di Grassi past but the latter could not do so since Prost was drawing closer and Abt realised that switching positions with di Grassi carried the risk of losing a podium position. Buemi maintained the lead for the rest of the race to take his third victory of the season. Abt took his best Formula E finish at the time in second and teammate di Grassi was third. Off the podium, Prost secured fourth. Vergne, Frijns, Heidfeld, Conway, de Silvestro and Sarrazin completed the top ten. The British duo of Bird and Turvey took 11th and 12th, ahead of Piquet, Ma, Senna and d'Ambrosio were the final finishers. ### Post-race The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and spoke to the media in a later press conference. Buemi said he allowed Vergne to pass and attacked when the latter had used more electrical energy. He wanted for the fastest lap in his second car, and despite not achieving the goal, he described the race as "a good weekend" overall. Second-place finisher Abt stated the race was "simply amazing" and thanked his team for providing him with a fast car. He said from the start, he was aware he could perform well and the opposition he faced was strong. Di Grassi was happy to finish third despite the difficulties he faced with Vergne on his in-lap and the deployment of the safety car, adding "But we managed to pass Prost, who made it difficult to overtake but we managed to do another podium and stay in the lead by one point. It couldn't be closer than that going into London. Now everything is open. London, and London weather, will decide how the championship goes." After the race, di Grassi revealed to the press he was not favourable towards team orders favouring one driver over the other with expectations for the season's final race in the event one driver challenged for the championship. He remarked that he would rather lose the title by losing points to his rivals than another driver handing them to him. Abt said for him it did not matter if he finished second or third but affirmed his team's objective was to win both championships: "Lucas has what he needs to win it by himself. He's an amazing racing driver." Hans-Jürgen Abt, the team owner of Audi Sport ABT, accepted his son's failure of not complying with a team order and agreed driver integrity was an important area that needed protecting, "If we lose it by three points maybe the team is not good enough. But we showed people fair motorsport and I think people will like it more." Turvey and Bird were perplexed by the number of penalties issued to drivers, with Turvey saying, "I don't know why you get a technical flag for visual damage to the car. It's frustrating. Nelson had the same issue. There were a number of cars that got technical flags, which is a shame. I don't understand why we got a penalty." Buemi joined him in his criticism, claiming the safety car was sent out when there was no danger present. The result reduced di Grassi's advantage atop the Drivers' Championship to one point over Buemi. Bird maintained third place despite not scoring any points and d'Ambrosio kept fourth place. Prost's fourth-place result overtook Sarrazin for fifth. e.Dams-Renault extended their lead in the Teams' Championship to 11 points over Audi Sport ABT. Virgin gained one position to move into third while Dragon fell to fourth place. Mahindra were fifth with two races left in the season. ### Race classification Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold. Notes: - – Three points for pole position. - – Two points for fastest lap. ## Standings after the race Drivers' Championship standings Teams' Championship standings - Notes: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
2,707,626	Typhoon Ophelia	1,173,577,399	Pacific typhoon in 1960	[ "1960 Pacific typhoon season", "Retired Pacific typhoons", "Typhoons", "Typhoons in the Federated States of Micronesia" ]	Typhoon Ophelia was a long-lived and powerful tropical cyclone that had devastating impacts on the small atoll of Ulithi in the Caroline Islands. Forming as a tropical depression on November 21, 1960 near Enewetak Atoll, the incipient cyclone struggled to develop. Moving haphazardly along an s-shaped track over the western Pacific Ocean, it degenerated into a disturbance two days later. By November 27, the system reorganized and was classified a tropical depression for a second time well to the southeast of Guam. Moving slowly west-southwest, it steadily intensified into a tropical storm later that day and further into a typhoon on November 29 as it gained a steady westward track. The following day, the eye of Ophelia passed directly over Ulithi atoll with winds estimated at 230 km/h (140 mph). Turning gradually to the north, the typhoon attained peak winds of 250 km/h (160 mph) on December 1. Maintaining strength as a powerful system for several days, the storm remained over open waters. By December 4, it began to weaken as upper-level winds became unfavorable and forced the cyclone to move northeast. Passing Japan well to the southeast that day, its large circulation brought increased winds to the Tokyo area and heavy rain and snow to parts of the nation. Ophelia soon underwent an extratropical transition as it raced over the open Pacific, completing this structural change by December 6. Its remnants later crossed the International Date Line and dissipated over the Gulf of Alaska on December 10. Ophelia devastated much of Ulithi during its passage, damaging or destroying most structures and killing two people. Agriculture across the area was decimated and geographic changes to coastlines were noted. In Ophelia's wake, dramatic societal changes in the Ulithian culture arose. Traditional values were abandoned in favor of more western ones, with younger individuals attaining a notable increase in power. The local King was disposed of shortly after the storm and a total change in authority took place. In addition to the severe impact in Ulithi, the typhoon was blamed for the deaths of five fishermen when their vessel collided with a coral reef. The name Ophelia was later retired, though unusually its removal was due to its meteorological significance due to its long track and prolonged time as a significant typhoon rather than for loss of life or damage. ## Meteorological history On November 21, 1960, the formation of a small low-pressure area was noted following a shift in surface winds on Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands. Slowly developing, the low organized into a tropical depression by 1200 UTC, the 24th of the season. At this time, it was situated 270 km (170 mi) southwest of Enewetak Atoll. Though classified a depression, maximum sustained winds were only estimated at 35 km/h (22 mph). For unknown reasons, the system soon became diffuse and abruptly shifted direction to the east-southeast. Concurrently the cyclone lost its identity as a tropical cyclone and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) discontinued advisories on it by 0600 UTC on November 24. The remnant disturbance subsequently doubled back to the west, bypassing the islands of Pohnpei and Chuuk before re-intensifying. A circulation began redeveloping on November 26 and at 0000 UTC the next day, the JTWC reclassified the system as a tropical depression; the rejuvenated depression was situated 465 km (289 mi) southeast of Guam at this time. Over the next two days, the storm drifted west-southwest at an average speed of 3 km/h (1.9 mph). Roughly 18 hours after regeneration, the depression attained tropical storm status and was assigned the name Ophelia. Initially, Ophelia was forecast to turn northward and impact the Mariana Islands but it ultimately followed a "sinusoidal pattern" path west. Steady intensification took place through November 30, with Ophelia attaining typhoon status at 0000 UTC on November 29. By 0800 UTC on November 29, a 24 km (15 mi) wide eye formed over the storm's center and its central pressure had fallen to 982 mbar (hPa; 29.00 inHg), as measured by a United States Navy weather reconnaissance aircraft. Within 24 hours of this it attained winds in excess of 185 km/h (115 mph), ranking it as a Category 3-equivalent typhoon on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. During the intensification process, its forward speed greatly increased to 32 km/h (20 mph). At 0300 UTC on November 30, the eye of Ophelia passed directly over the small atoll of Ulithi in the Caroline Islands; Ulithi Atoll was the only island or land mass over which the eye of the storm passed while warnings were being issued. Sustained winds there reached 230 km/h (140 mph) while a barometer measured a minimum atmospheric pressure of 939.4 mbar (hPa; 27.744 inHg). Thereafter, Ophelia acquired a more northerly component to its track. The typhoon attained winds of 250 km/h (160 mph) while situated roughly halfway between the Philippines and the Mariana Islands at 0600 UTC on December 1. Later that day the storm had turned due north and weakened slightly. Maintaining an intensity between 220 and 230 km/h (140 and 140 mph), Ophelia traveled north toward Japan for two days. around 0600 UTC on December 2, reconnaissance measured a pressure of 928 mb (hPa; 27.41 inHg) within the now 40 km (25 mi) wide eye of Ophelia. The Japan Meteorological Agency estimated the pressure to have been slightly lower, reporting a minimum of 925 mb (hPa; 27.32 inHg). Additionally, the China Meteorological Administration assessed Ophelia to have been a stronger system, with winds of 270 km/h (170 mph). On December 4, strong upper-level westerlies forced the typhoon northeast and prompted dramatic acceleration. The typhoon's eye soon dissolved as the cyclone's structure waned. Moving at an exceptionally fast 98 km/h (61 mph), with a maximum forward speed of 120 km/h (75 mph), Ophelia began transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on December 5 and completed the transition on the following day, as winds dropped below typhoon-force. The briskly moving system crossed the International Date Line later on December 6, along an easterly track before turning north on December 8, south of Alaska. The system subsequently dissipated over the Gulf of Alaska on December 10. Throughout its tropical phase, Ophelia tracked along a path roughly 8,050 km (5,000 mi) long. ## Impact On November 30, Guam residents were given the all-clear after previously expecting potential impacts from the typhoon, as the storm remained south of the island. Ships in the area were warned to avoid the system, however. The Japanese Maritime Safety Agency reported that two vessels were "in trouble" due to the storm on December 1. A 200-ton ship was driven off-course and collided with a coral reef. Of the 17 crew, 5 were killed in the incident while the other 12 were later rescued by the United States Navy on December 4 and brought to Midway Island. Winds up to 140 km/h (87 mph) were reported on Yap; however, the storm's effects there are unknown. On December 2, storm warnings were raised for the Philippines as Ophelia was forecast to track toward the nation; however following the storm's northward turn these advisories were discontinued the following day. The weakening typhoon later bypassed Japan well to the southeast on December 4. Its outer bands brought heavy rain and snow. Sustained winds in Tokyo Bay reached 47 km/h (29 mph) and gusted to 65 km/h (40 mph). In the wake of the storm, the name Ophelia was retired from usage. For unknown reasons it was not replaced with any particular name, making it one of two storms in the basin to not have a replacement, although Ora took Ophelia's place in 1963. The reason behind Ophelia's removal is unique among Pacific typhoons. Normally, names are stricken from usage due to loss of life and/or damage; however, Ophelia was deemed meteorologically significant for its long track and significant intensity for a prolonged duration. ### Ulithi On December 1, the eye of Typhoon Ophelia passed directly over the small atoll of Ulithi, which has a total land area of 4.6 km<sup>2</sup> (1.8 sq mi). The atoll comprises multiple islands, the largest islet being no more than 1.6 km (0.99 mi) long and even shorter width-wise. It was regarded as the worst storm to hit the atoll since 1907 when similarly violent typhoon devastated the area. At the time of the storm, an estimated 450 people lived on the island and 16 members of the United States Coast Guard were stationed there. Residents and coast guard members were first alerted of the storm on November 21 when it was near Enewetak Atoll; however no action was taken. It was not until November 28 when Ophelia began intensifying that precautions were taken. By this time, winds had already begun increasing and the commanding officer ordered that all equipment, personal gear, and emergency rations were to be taken into a concrete shelter. Natives were not entirely prepared for the typhoon, with two villages receiving no word of its approach. Three villages that were informed were not given the necessary urgency of the typhoon and did not expect the severity of damage the occurred. A Trust Territory vessel, the MV Errol, was anchored in the lagoon but left without warning nearby natives on November 29. Striking as a Category 4-equivalent typhoon, Ophelia produced devastating winds across the atoll. Winds estimated at 260 km/h (160 mph) battered Ulithi, reportedly destroying every structure except for the concrete coast guard station. The station itself was badly affected, however, with its walls damaged and windows blown out. Nearby Falalop Airfield had 91 m (299 ft) of its runway swept away. An anemometer on the coast guard station measured a peak velocity of 137 km/h (85 mph); however, later analysis of the device revealed that it was broken and revolving slower than it should. It is estimated that winds were most likely on the order of 230 to 250 km/h (140 to 160 mph). Most structures across Ulithi were constructed after World War II and had tin roofs. Natives sought refuge in these structures and in many instances were forced to abandon them as they fell apart during the storm. On Falalop Island, the seawall erected during World War II was entirely destroyed and allowed storm surge to inundate the island; however, at no point was the entire island under water. Initially, Falalop was left under 1.2 m (3.9 ft) of water, though by the time the eye moved over this had decreased to 0.6 m (2.0 ft). Along the south shore, waves reached 1.8 m (5.9 ft) and caused moderate beach erosion. Sand from the coastline was found up to 215 m (705 ft) inland, filling many taro pits in the island's interior. Along the south shore, two children were killed when their home collapsed, pinning them underneath debris, and water later inundated the area and drowned them. Elsewhere on the island, three people sustained minor injuries. Asor Island experienced most of its flooding as the backside of Ophelia moved through. The island was shortened by 45 m (148 ft) to the north and southern beaches experienced varying degrees of erosion. Mogmog Island, located at the northern end of the atoll's lagoon, saw the deposition of large boulders and cobblestone along its north shore which covered an area 30 to 45 m (98 to 148 ft) wide. Flying debris resulted in one injury on both Asor and Mogmog. To the west, Potangeras Island saw an increase in land area by 60 m (200 ft) as sand was pushed from other areas. Across Ulithi, 29 homes were destroyed, 64 were damaged, and the remaining 33 were intact. Of the 79 non-residential structures, only 4 were left standing. All four schools and medical buildings were destroyed, with nearly all medical supplies being washed away. Agriculture saw extensive losses with nearly the entire taro crop devastated and more than 75% of the food crop was ruined. Roughly 23% of the coconut trees were destroyed and 45% were damaged. It took approximately two years for the coconut crop to return to normal. Banana and breadfruit trees were temporarily useless, though they were in recoverable statuses. ## Aftermath In the months and years after the typhoon, natives in Ulithi were examined for increased levels of stress. Unexpectedly, only a handful of people reported symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, with the majority seemingly unfazed by Ophelia. There was some talk among residents of leaving Ulithi and moving to nearby islands such as Yap, Palau, Saipan, or even the Philippines; however, mentions of this diminished relatively quickly. The devastation to the island's infrastructure hastened a previously gradual change in buildings. Reconstruction efforts had entirely abandoned traditional Ulithi building styles in favor of more modern ones. The survival of concrete buildings prompted an overall desire among people to construct all buildings with concrete. Alongside the infrastructural overhaul, a shift in dietary changes to a more western style occurred. Further social changes brought about by the presence of American military personnel were exemplified in the storm's wake. The use of currency as a means for obtaining goods was first seen in Ulithi in 1956, four years before the typhoon. However, despite the total destruction of markets by Ophelia they were quickly rebuilt, depicting the quick entrenchment of currency in native culture. The reconstruction also accelerated a desire for new goods from trading. Store owners requested a wider range of material to have in stock than seen previously. From a societal standpoint, Ophelia prompted great advances in the Ulithian culture. Women, previously limited to agriculture, housework, and eventually shopping, were found to be doing heavy work (i.e. carpentry, chopping, digging, and lifting) in the immediate wake of the typhoon. A shift in government took place as well, with authority of King Malefich waning to greater power among younger individuals. Malefich also displayed great ineptitude during the storm and was subsequently disposed of as King following Ophelia's passage. The changes in authority occurred due to spontaneous leadership during the storm by the younger persons in order to protect others. Prior to the typhoon, younger members of tribes never spoke during council meetings; however, by 1961 they made their presence known in such meetings. ## See also - List of retired Pacific typhoon names (JMA) - Typhoon Rita (1972) - Typhoon Wayne (1986) - Hurricane John (1994) - Hurricane Ioke
39,056,745	Spike Albrecht	1,162,426,663	American basketball player (born 1992)	[ "1992 births", "American men's basketball players", "Basketball players from Indiana", "Living people", "Michigan Wolverines men's basketball players", "Northfield Mount Hermon School alumni", "People from Crown Point, Indiana", "Point guards", "Purdue Boilermakers men's basketball players", "Sportspeople from Lake County, Indiana" ]	Michael Joseph "Spike" Albrecht (born August 24, 1992) is a former college basketball player who completed his collegiate eligibility as a redshirt fifth year graduate transfer student for the 2016–17 Purdue Boilermakers team. Albrecht played high school basketball in his hometown of Crown Point, Indiana. He played his undergraduate college career for the Michigan Wolverines. He is most well known for his 17-point first half performance off the bench for the 2012–13 Wolverines in the championship game of the 2013 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament. He won Big Ten Conference regular season championships with the 2013–14 Wolverines and 2016–17 Boilermakers. ## Early life At age five, Michael Albrecht, son of Tammy and Charles "Chuck" Albrecht, received his first baseball spikes and refused to take them off, earning his now famous nickname. Chuck now runs a summer basketball camp at which Spike assists. Albrecht attended Taft Middle School in Crown Point before attending Crown Point High School where he averaged 21 points, five assists, three steals and four rebounds as a senior in 2011. Albrecht committed to Michigan on April 6, 2012. Albrecht led Northfield Mount Hermon School to the 2012 New England Preparatory School Athletic Council (NEPSAC) Class AAA Boys' Basketball Tournament, defeating future Michigan teammate Mitch McGary's Brewster Academy in the semifinals. Albrecht was awarded the Most Valuable Player (MVP) of the tournament. Albrecht was a former Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) teammate of McGary and future Michigan teammate Glenn Robinson III. Albrecht's father was college teammates with Zack Novak's father; a generation later, when Spike Albrecht was an incoming freshman, Zack Novak was Michigan's captain during the 2011-12 season. ## College career ### Michigan (2012–2016) #### Freshman season (2012–2013) The 2011–12 Michigan Wolverines men's basketball team had been co-champions of 2011–12 Big Ten Conference, but lost both of its co-captains, Zack Novak and Stu Douglass, to graduation and three players as transfers. The team was returning a nucleus of All-Big Ten players Trey Burke and Tim Hardaway Jr. In Albrecht's role with the 2012–13 Wolverines team, he never scored more than 7 points in a game before the NCAA Tournament. In the regional finals on March 31 against Florida, Michigan built a 13–0 lead and never led by less than 10 the rest of the game. Several players had career-highs in the game, including Albrecht who had 7 points and 3 steals. The national championship rounds were held at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta, Georgia. In the April 6 national semifinal against Syracuse, Michigan emerged with its thirty-first victory, the most since the 1992–93 team went 31–5. The bench contributed 22 points, including 6 from Albrecht, who raised his NCAA tournament total to 5-for-5 on three-point shots. Michigan advanced to the April 8, 2013 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament championship game where the team lost to Midwest number one seed Louisville by an 82–76 margin despite 17 points, including 4-for-5 three-point shooting, from Albrecht in the game. Albrecht scored 17 first-half points on 4-for-4 three-point shooting. Albrecht made the seven-man All-Tournament team (which was revised multiple times) along with teammates McGary and Trey Burke. By the end of the first half of the game, Albrecht had tied Sam Cassell by making his first 9 three-point shots in his NCAA tournament games that season, and USA Today described Albrecht's place in history as "amongst the most unexpected NCAA heroes in history". #### Sophomore season (2013–2014) Albrecht established a career high with 6 assists as Michigan defeated Houston Baptist by 54 points on December 7, 2013. On January 22, 2014, against (#10 AP Poll/Coaches' Poll) Iowa, Albrecht made his first career start, posting new career highs of 7 assists and 4 steals, tying a career high with 3 rebounds and helping Michigan defeat consecutive ranked opponents for the first time since the 1996–97 team. Albrecht started in place of Derrick Walton who had the flu. Michigan clinched its first outright (unshared) Big Ten Conference championship since 1985–86. The 2013–14 team advanced to the elite eight round of the 2014 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament before being eliminated by Kentucky. #### Junior season (2014–2015) Albrecht was named co-captain of the 2014–15 team along with Caris LeVert. On November 29, he contributed a then career-high 7 assists against Nicholls State. Then on December 2, Albrecht posted a new career high with 9 assists and broke a 63–63 deadlock with a 31 seconds remaining to lead Michigan to a 68–65 victory over Syracuse. On January 3, 2015 against Purdue, Albrecht tied his career high with 17 points. On February 1 Albrecht tallied a career-high 18-points in the rivalry game against Michigan State. The March 3 double-overtime loss against Northwestern marked Albrecht's 8th consecutive double-digit scoring game as he picked up the scoring slack in the absence of Caris LeVert and Derrick Walton, who missed their 11th and 9th consecutive games. On March 7 against Rutgers, the streak ended, but Albrecht posted a career-high 9 assists. In April 2015, Albrecht had offseason surgery on his right hip to correct for a genetic condition. On December 2, Albrecht was named an Allstate Good Works Team nominee. #### Senior season (2015–2016) On December 11, 2015, Albrecht announced he would sit out the rest of the season for the 2015–16 Wolverines team due to injuries. During his career at Michigan, Albrecht played in 115 career games, and was named Michigan's co-MVP during the 2014–15 season, after starting 18 of 31 games and posting a career-best 7.5 points per game, while battling hip problems. On March 29, Albrecht announced that he would use the graduate transfer option to play a fifth year at another school. On April 1, head coach John Beilein decided not to restrict Albrecht or teammate Ricky Doyle from transferring to schools within the Big Ten if they desired to do so. By April 18, Albrecht was considering interest from home state Big Ten programs Purdue and Indiana as well as Wichita State, Texas A&M, Syracuse, USC, and Milwaukee (where Michigan assistant coach LaVall Jordan had just taken over as head coach). ### Purdue (2016–2017) It was announced on May 3, 2016, that Albrecht would play his final year of collegiate basketball at Purdue University. With their win over Indiana on February 28, 2017, Purdue clinched at least a share of the Big Ten regular season championship. With Wisconsin's loss on March 2, Purdue clinched an outright championship, their 23rd championship, the most in Big Ten history. ## Coaching career After earning his graduate degree from Purdue in 2017, Albrecht began his professional career in medical device sales. By October 2019, Albrecht was living in Nashville. Albrecht spent the 2019–20 season as an assistant coach at Northfield Mount Hermon. During the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, Albrecht began giving ball handling instructional videos with his sister on Zoom Video. Also in March 2020, Albrecht emailed Louisville's director of men's basketball operations, Kahil Fennell, (as well as someone at Villanova); Fennell responded that same day. Albrecht joined the Louisville staff as a graduate assistant in June. On May 28, 2021, Albrecht came back to Purdue as a graduate assistant.
9,482,410	New England Quarter	1,126,426,084	Mixed-use development in Brighton and Hove, England	[ "2008 establishments in England", "Areas of Brighton and Hove", "Buildings and structures in Brighton and Hove", "Housing estates in England", "Low-energy building in the United Kingdom" ]	The New England Quarter is a mixed-use development in the city of Brighton and Hove, England. It was built between 2004 and 2008 on the largest brownfield site in the city, adjacent to Brighton railway station. Most parts of the scheme have been finished, but other sections are still being built and one major aspect of the original plan was refused planning permission. The site, a steeply sloping hillside between a main railway line and one of Brighton's main roads, had been the home of a railway locomotive works and goods yard for more than a century. High-density housing was built at the same time and surrounded the railway buildings. From the 1960s, the area fell into decline: the works and goods yard were closed and demolished, and most of the housing was cleared. This left large areas of derelict land which attracted small-scale redevelopment and transient commercial enterprises. Proposals for redevelopment were made from the 1980s onwards; in 2001 a master plan was granted planning permission by Brighton and Hove City Council. Site clearance work followed, and construction began in 2004. The New England Quarter consists of separately planned areas (called "Blocks" in the master plan) connected by new or altered road infrastructure and pedestrian links. Land use includes private and council housing of various styles and configurations, office and retail space, a college, a hotel, public space and community facilities. Some of the residential development aims to meet high environmental and sustainability standards, and green space is being provided on former railway land. The scheme has attracted criticism from various sources, and certain aspects and proposals have been particularly controversial. A planned 42-storey hotel and residential building on one block—which was not in the original plan and for which planning permission was later denied—was opposed by many local people and politicians, and was eventually rejected by a government minister on appeal. The decision to allow a large supermarket branch to be built in the middle of the development was also unpopular. A campaign group was formed to co-ordinate and raise the awareness of people's concerns. ## Location The New England Quarter is in a central location in Brighton, the main urban centre in the city of Brighton and Hove. It is immediately east of the railway station and approximately 3⁄4 mile north of the seafront. It covers a broadly rectangular area of 8.7 hectares (21 acres), bounded by: - To the north: New England Road, leading to the Seven Dials area - To the east: The A23 London Road - To the south: Trafalgar Street, leading downhill from the station towards St Peter's Church, and forming the northern boundary of the North Laine area - To the west: the railway station and its associated trackwork and sidings (Some sources measure the site differently, and accordingly define it as smaller or larger than the size given in the master plan.) ## History The completion of the Brighton Main Line from London to Brighton in 1841 encouraged high-density housing development on the hill west of London Road. Between this area and the railway line and station stood Brighton's steam locomotive works and the lower part of the station goods yard. The first locomotive was produced here in 1852. By 1896, the works employed more than 2,200 people in the manufacture and maintenance of locomotives for the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway. The works and its associated buildings were situated on an artificial plateau dug into the side of the chalk slopes, with the railway line on top, the works at a lower level and the lower goods yard beneath, 9 metres (30 ft) below track level. (The works had been extended on a pier across the lower goods yard at one point.) Production lasted until 1957, after which the buildings survived for some time before being cleared in 1966 to make way for the largest car park on what was then British Rail's Southern Region. The lower goods yard section towards Trafalgar Street was no longer used by British Rail after the early 1970s, although it did not finally close until 1980. Part of the land was incorporated into the car park, and the rest saw a mixture of uncoordinated uses, such as small office blocks and used car dealerships. Many of the houses adjoining the goods yard were demolished in 1962 and 1968, and some tower blocks were built nearby. Further north, a large multi-storey car park was built in 1976 close to St Bartholomew's Church. Various proposals were put forward for more effective use of the land. The first was in 1989, when a mixed-use development, centred on a new pedestrianised square outside St Bartholomew's Church, was planned. It would have included a supermarket, offices, houses and other shops, and a relief road designed to take traffic away from the congested London Road. The Environmental Services Department of what was then Brighton Borough Council produced a planning brief for the site in October 1993, stating a desire to "recreate in the area west of London Road a vital, urban, mixed use townscape which links a regenerated and environmentally enhanced London Road shopping centre with North Laine and the station". The desire to use the site to its full potential was increased when city status was awarded to Brighton and Hove in 2000; it was the largest brownfield site in the city. ## Development of the scheme URBED (the Urban and Economic Development Group), a not-for-profit urban regeneration consultancy, designed and developed the master plan for the scheme on behalf of the New England Consortium. This is a group of companies and interested parties which together have the overall responsibility for the scheme, including Network Rail Infrastructure Ltd, J. Sainsbury Developments Ltd and Quintain Estates and Development (QED). The land was originally owned by British Rail, but passed to Railtrack when the railway system was privatised in the mid-1990s. It was sold to the New England Consortium in 1997. An initial planning application, including a new Sainsbury's supermarket, was rejected by the council in November 1997; the rejection was subsequently upheld on appeal in September 1998. URBED were then asked to develop a new master plan for the site. This design statement was published in July 2001, and was granted planning permission by Brighton & Hove City Council at the end of 2002. Construction work on the site began on 19 July 2004. ## Overview of the scheme The scheme is a mixed-use development, consisting of a wide range of residential, commercial, educational and community buildings, transport-related infrastructure and public space. The land has been divided into a series of "blocks", identified by letters, to which different types of development have been allocated. (Letters H, I and N are not used.) ## Residential areas When the scheme is complete, at least 355 new homes will be available, consisting of a mixture of standard houses, apartments and townhouses, and able to support a population of approximately 1,000 people. In 2005, a joint venture was formed between housebuilder Crest Nicholson and environmental project and design group BioRegional Quintain Ltd to acquire part of the site (Blocks E and F) and provide 172 of the new homes, including the affordable housing stock as mentioned above. The homes will be a mixture of one-, two- and three-bedroom flats and "eco-studios", contained within one six-storey and one ten-storey tower. This section of the development will also incorporate 925 square metres (9,960 sq ft) of community space, to include a community centre, and 1,134 square metres (12,210 sq ft) of floorspace for commercial use. The Southern Counties division of major British housebuilder Barratt Developments was responsible for building City Point, the other section of the private housing development. This covers Blocks A, B, C and D, to the south of the Crest Nicholson/Bioregional development. ### Block A This covers an area of 4,484 square metres (48,270 sq ft) and is bounded by the now partly pedestrianised New England Street (the former course of which it partially encroaches upon), Cheapside, a new pedestrian right of way (Kingscote Way) and Blocks B and C. The Harvest Forestry, a low-rise building with small dome-shaped turrets at each corner, previously stood here. The block has been designated a high-density, urban housing area, consisting of eight three-storey townhouses, each with four bedrooms, fronting New England Street; nine townhouses with roof gardens and small rear gardens—also with four bedrooms, and fronting the new pedestrian route; and two apartment blocks with 21 two-bedroom flats. The apartment block fronting the new Ann Square (facing north) has retail units at street level (total area 245 square metres (2,640 sq ft)). The housing has 17 allocated parking spaces. ### Block B Covering 3,953 square metres (42,550 sq ft), this block lies west of Block A and adjoins Fleet Street, part of the new main road through the New England Quarter. It contains a very high density of housing: 119 residential units per hectare (current government planning policy stipulates a minimum of 30 residential units per hectare, but no maximum density is advised). A retail unit and 47 residential units, none with allocated parking, make up the block. There are nine four-bedroom townhouses, 17 two-bedroom flats, 13 three-bedroom flats and eight two-bedroom duplexes. A single unit of 124 square metres (1,330 sq ft) was designated for use as a shop or café; it is occupied by a fast food restaurant. The apartment blocks in Block B are four and five storeys in height. The central area enclosed by the block has been developed as a courtyard. ### Block C The residential element of this large (6,432 square metres (69,230 sq ft)), complex block consists of 94 units, comprising four one-bedroom flats, 54 two-bedroom flats and 36 three-bedroom flats. These are all situated above the Sainsbury's supermarket, which forms a major component of the block. The flats are arranged across two apartment blocks, connected by a pedestrian route and sharing two courtyards. No parking is allocated to any of the flats. The blocks are each four storeys in height, on top of the height of the supermarket. ### Block D This is another mixed-use block, with a training centre at street level. The residential element within the 3,953 square metres (42,550 sq ft) area consists of 56 units: eight one-bedroom flats, two one-bedroom duplexes, 34 two-bedroom flats and 12 three-bedroom flats. Most of the building is five storeys high (the lowest floor being the training centre, with four residential floors above), but a further three storeys are incorporated within a tower in one corner. Again, no parking is allocated to this block. ### Blocks E and F These blocks are being developed by Crest Nicholson BioRegional Quintain LLP as an environmentally friendly set of "eco-apartments" called One Brighton. Construction started in autumn 2007. It consists of 172 apartments (369 beds in total), commercial space and a community facility. The scheme has been conceived to enable people living and working there to lead sustainable lifestyles. Of these blocks' housing stock, 30% has been classified by the developers as affordable housing, which will be managed by an independent housing association. ### Block G This will consist of three terraces of housing on top of a retaining wall alongside Stroudley Road. The ground area is 2,092 square metres (22,520 sq ft), of which 883 square metres (9,500 sq ft) will be allocated to B1-category office and utility space. The residential elements of the development are to be three storeys high, with balconies overlooking the "green corridor" immediately to the east. No off-street car parking has been planned for this block, but some on-street parking may be provided. ## Commercial areas A 4,180 square metres (45,000 sq ft) Sainsbury's supermarket (total "sales area" accessible to the public: 2,323 square metres (25,000 sq ft)) forms a major component both of Block C and of the New England Quarter itself. It extends across the east–west space of the block; as a result of the steeply sloping land at this point, the store frontage faces the newly built Ann Square and the newly pedestrianised New England Street, while the rear is at basement (sub-ground floor) level. A car park with 194 spaces for shoppers has been created beneath the store, and is linked to it by travelators. The service area and loading bay extend beneath the new road between Blocks C and D, and into the ground beneath Block D. The new store opened on 1 March 2007. It replaced a smaller outlet in London Road, which had opened in 1974 and which had seen little refurbishment since the original planning application for a Sainsbury's on the New England Quarter site was put through in 1997. In November 2005, Block K was granted planning permission for a four-storey office development (B1-category), in addition to the hotel and public open space therein. The amount of office space had been reduced, in favour of more hotel space, since the date when outline planning permission was granted for the New England Quarter development as a whole (September 2003). 2,793 square metres (30,060 sq ft) of office space will be provided, although the original master plan had indicated 3,159 square metres (34,000 sq ft). Blocks A and Block B have also been provided with a small amount of space for retail use. ## Hotels Block J, which has a ground area of 3,707 square metres (39,900 sq ft), has been granted planning permission for a luxury (four-star) hotel, with around 250 beds and a range of facilities including a restaurant, swimming pool and conference venue, taking the total floor space to 21,367 square metres (229,990 sq ft) spread across five or six storeys. The URBED master plan states that "no associated parking [has been provided] as it is anticipated that most guests will arrive by train", as the station is immediately adjacent. Controversy arose over a proposal—raised after the master plan was approved in principle—to build a 42-storey tower incorporating a large number of residential units and other facilities in addition to the already-approved hotel. The skyscraper was proposed by the Beetham Organization, a British property investment company, and would have been similar in scale and appearance to other recently built "Beetham Towers" in Liverpool, Manchester and Birmingham. Architects Allies and Morrison drew up the design. There was much criticism of the design, its height and the proposed location, both from local councillors (of all parties) and from people in the local community. Planning permission was denied in April 2005, but the Beetham Organization lodged an appeal and a public inquiry was held in November 2006. Ruth Kelly, the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government, was responsible for deciding whether to overrule the council's decision and approve the tower. A final decision on the site was initially expected in February 2007, but the inquiry eventually continued until 17 May 2007, when the decision to refuse planning permission was upheld. As well as agreeing with the council's original argument that the tower would not fit into the local area and would have a harmful effect on surrounding conservation areas (such as the North Laine and St Bartholomew's Church), Kelly stated that the proposal would give insufficient benefit in terms of regeneration of the area, and did not offer enough outdoor leisure and recreation space. The future of the Block J site is undecided as a result of this; however, within four days of the decision, the Beetham Organization announced that it intended to submit plans for an alternative scheme, which it would develop in consultation with the city council. Block K was acquired by the Jurys Doyle Hotel Group PLC, which operated hotels under the "Jurys Inn" brand until it sold its portfolio in 2007. It houses a three-star hotel, built over five and six storeys, as well as offices and public space. It has a floor area of 10,518 square metres (113,210 sq ft), and there are 234 bedrooms, various meeting rooms and similar facilities. The hotel was built by Northern Irish construction group McAleer & Rushe. It opened in late 2007. ## Education and community The Black and Minority Ethnic Community Partnership, a grant-aided registered charity, leases the ground and first floors of Block D from Sainsbury's. The space is used as a community training and resource centre. Block F will be mostly allocated to community use. This area originally had a collection of old buildings which had originally been part of the locomotive works. Subsequently, they had been put to various uses, such as a camping goods shop and a furniture outlet. A third building, behind these shops, was believed to have been used as a "clocking-on" point for employees at the works, who would go there to register their presence each day before starting work. By 2002, it consisted mostly of a series of staircases, bridges and ramps, and was in poor condition. Blocks L and M (total ground space 5,509 square metres (59,300 sq ft)) consist of accommodation for Study Group International, housing Bellerbys College, a preparatory college for foreign students intending to go to British universities; Embassy CES, a language school; Study Group head offices; and residential accommodation for students. The buildings contain four floors of teaching space, including 62 classrooms, a library and a bookshop (total area 4,336 square metres (46,670 sq ft)); five floors of accommodation (7,046 square metres (75,840 sq ft)) for approximately 375 students; a canteen and catering area (701 square metres (7,550 sq ft)); and offices and college administration space (1,965 square metres (21,150 sq ft)). There are 60 car parking spaces available beneath Block L for staff. The two blocks are connected by an enclosed glass walkway. An early version of the master plan showed three separate buildings on the site; the third, "Block N", was incorporated within the Block M building instead at the request of the college. ## Car parking Blocks O–R of the development make up Brighton station car park. This has two decks, a ground area of 8,884 square metres (95,630 sq ft) and 600 spaces, of which 26 are for disabled drivers. A pick-up and drop-off point with motorcycle parking and a turning circle is situated between the car park and the side entrance to the station. This was the first part of the New England Quarter to be completed; most of the work was undertaken by the Adenstar Construction Group, based in nearby Portslade. There was a contractual obligation to provide 600 spaces, although the form which this had to take was not specified and various proposals were considered, including a taller multi-storey structure with more floors and a much smaller ground area. During the construction works, a temporary car park was provided on land nearby. There is relatively little parking elsewhere on the site, other than the 190-space facility at the Sainsbury's supermarket; this is partly mitigated by the retention of the London Road multi-storey car park, located between Block C and the A23 London Road itself. The residential areas in particular have very few dedicated parking spaces. Block K will have 27 spaces to be shared between the hotel and the office building; nine of these will be for disabled drivers. The master plan proposed 34 (including five on-street spaces), all of which were allocated to the office building. ## Changes to the road layout Significant alterations have been made to the underlying road network in the area. Some roads have been downgraded, others are now expected to handle more traffic, and several new routes have been built. New pedestrian links and cycle paths have also been created. The largest change has been the downgrading of the former through route of New England Street in favour of a new north–south road, Fleet Street, which diverges to the west. This has allowed a large part of New England Street to be narrowed, pedestrianised and provided with cycle lanes. In contrast, Cheapside is expected to take a much higher volume of traffic, as it becomes the main east–west route in the New England Quarter, taking traffic between London Road and Fleet Street, the main north–south road. Two new roads, Stroudley Road and Billinton Road, have been built to the west of the new Fleet Street, between there and the railway line. These give access to the car park, Bellerbys College and a new pick-up and drop-off point immediately outside the side entrance to the station. Two new pedestrianised squares—Ann Square and New England Square—have also been created within the core site. ## Transport Some bus routes serve the New England Quarter. There are stops at various locations on Cheapside, Fleet Street and New England Street. As of September 2012, the following services operate: - Route 21, operated by Brighton & Hove Buses, runs every 20 minutes (hourly on Sundays) from Brighton Marina via Whitehawk to the rear entrance of Brighton station in Stroudley Road. - Route 37B, operated by Compass Travel, runs hourly from the Bristol Estate near Kemptown to the Meadowview area of Bevendean. - Route 38, operated by Brighton & Hove Buses, runs every 30 minutes from Meadowview to the rear entrance of Brighton station. The area is close to many other bus routes, both from outside the front entrance of Brighton station and along London Road. There is a direct pedestrian and vehicular route along Stroudley Road to the rear entrance of Brighton station. ## Environmental issues Part of the site, below and to the east of Block G, consists of a stretch of disused railway track which has for some time been designated a Site of Special Nature Conservation Importance (SNCI). This is defined as a "locally important site of nature conservation adopted by local authorities for planning purposes". This will be maintained and improved to create a "green corridor" called the Greenway, which will run from the embankment overlooking New England Road, at the northernmost point of the site (beyond Blocks L and M), through to the station. The northern section, which is already partly wooded and home to a variety of wildlife, will be maintained in this condition. The housing developed by the Crest Nicholson/BioRegional Quintain joint venture is intended to encourage environmentally friendly, sustainable lifestyles, based on lessons learnt from the award-winning BedZED development in Wallington, south London. This was developed by the Peabody Trust in partnership with BioRegional Development Group. Proposals include "green lifestyle" packs and information for residents, solar panels, a communal wood-burning boiler to heat the apartments and provide hot water, solar-powered recharging point for electric cars, roof-mounted wind turbines, a community allotment/garden irrigated by rainwater from the roof, a car club, and a high proportion of recycled materials used in construction. ## Criticism and controversy Various groups have expressed reservations about, and criticisms of, parts of the New England Quarter development or the scheme as a whole. Two aspects have been particularly controversial: the planning application for a 42-storey tower on the Block J site, which was refused but has been appealed against; and the Sainsbury's supermarket. ### BUDD Brighton Urban Design & Development (BUDD) is a campaign group which was set up in February 1997 in response to the original planning application for a Sainsbury's superstore and car park on what is now the New England Quarter site. Although initially created to oppose and protest against these original plans, it has subsequently developed into an all-encompassing point of contact for all issues relating to the New England Quarter, and its stated aim is now to "stimulate, encourage and initiate sustainable urban design and development through an inclusive participatory process, to combat social exclusion and to generate schemes that integrate social, cultural and environmental benefits to Brighton and Hove." In 1999, Brighton & Hove Council awarded the group a grant which enabled it to register as an industrial and provident society, noting that it was providing a significant community benefit by "providing a process for disparate communities of interest to develop their views and become involved in the planning and decision-making process". BUDD held a public meeting was on 24 July 1997, at which 99% of the approximately 300 people who attended voted against the original planning application, which had been submitted in May following several months of preparation. A 4,317-name petition to the same effect was submitted to the council three months later. Marches and rallies also took place. After the new master plan was submitted and approved, further action was taken by protestors; this was focused on the Harvest Forestry building at the corner of New England Street and Cheapside, which was squatted for a time. ### SchNEWS SchNEWS, a weekly anarchist newsletter, has frequently been critical of the plans for the New England Quarter site, and has regularly advertised BUDD's public meetings, protest events and similar. In April 2002, a demonstration was organised outside the Sainsbury's store in London Road. ### Block J proposals The original master plan granted outline planning permission for a 250-bed hotel of five to six storeys in height. However, property development and investment company The Beetham Organization Ltd, which has in recent years built several high-profile hotels, offices and other buildings in prominent city-centre locations in Britain, bought Block J in November 2004 and submitted a revised planning application (BH2005/00136/FP) early in 2005. This sought approval for a mixed-use development comprising one 42-storey building with 146 residential units (C3-category) and a hotel with ancillary facilities including a restaurant, cafés, conference facilities and a health and fitness centre; one six-storey building with retail units (A1- and A3-category) and a further 25 residential units; and a pedestrianised public square. The application was rejected on 20 separate counts, including the negative visual impact on surrounding listed buildings such as the railway station and St Bartholomew's Church; the reduction in quality of surrounding public spaces; the lack of provision of outdoor recreation space; negative effect on the surrounding microclimate, and loss of sunlight to nearby buildings; and the failure to consider fully the impact on transport. The reasons for the rejection were supported by various people and groups within the city, such as The Regency Society, which is involved with planning and conservation matters in Brighton and Hove. ## See also - Buildings and architecture of Brighton and Hove
13,692,932	60 Hudson Street	1,165,533,513	Telecommunications building in Manhattan, New York	[ "1930 establishments in New York City", "Art Deco architecture in Manhattan", "Art Deco skyscrapers", "Infrastructure completed in 1930", "Internet in the United States", "New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan", "New York City interior landmarks", "Office buildings completed in 1930", "Ralph Thomas Walker buildings", "Skyscrapers in Manhattan", "Telecommunications buildings in the United States", "Telephone exchange buildings", "Tribeca", "Western Union buildings and structures" ]	60 Hudson Street, formerly known as the Western Union Building, is a 24-story telecommunications building in the Tribeca neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. Built in 1928–1930, it was one of several Art Deco-style buildings designed by Ralph Thomas Walker of Voorhees, Gmelin and Walker for telecommunications in the early 20th century. 60 Hudson Street spans the entire block between Hudson Street, Thomas Street, Worth Street, and West Broadway. 60 Hudson Street is 371 feet (113 m) tall. Its design shows the influence of Dutch and German Expressionism, with Art Deco detailing. The building's shape features asymmetrical massing and numerous setbacks. The brick facade uses a gradient color scheme with nineteen distinct hues, moving from darker shades to lighter ones as the building rises, and several ornate entrances at ground level lead to a barrel-vaulted brick lobby. 60 Hudson Street was initially the headquarters of Western Union, and its construction was commissioned by Western Union president Newcomb Carlton. The building was described as the world's largest telegraph building upon its opening and served as the combined headquarters for all of Western Union's divisions, which were scattered across New York City prior to the building's completion. Though Western Union relocated elsewhere in 1973, its former headquarters remain a communications center, and since the late 20th century, has housed a colocation center, making it one of the most important Internet hubs in the world. The exterior and lobby were designated as official New York City landmarks in 1991. ## Architecture 60 Hudson Street is 371 feet (113 m) tall and contains 24 stories. It occupies a trapezoidal plot measuring 193 feet (59 m) on Hudson Street to the west, 180 feet (55 m) on West Broadway to the east, 254 feet (77 m) on Thomas Street to the south, and 329 feet (100 m) on Worth Street to the north. The Worth and Thomas Street elevations are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the West Broadway elevation. The Hudson Street elevation runs diagonally, intersecting both Worth and Thomas Streets. The building was designed by Ralph Walker of Voorhees, Gmelin and Walker in the Art Deco style. 60 Hudson Street was the third Art Deco building in the New York City area that Walker designed, after the Barclay–Vesey Building (1927) and New Jersey Bell Headquarters Building (1929); it was followed by 101 Willoughby Street and 1 Wall Street (1931) and 32 Avenue of the Americas (1932), as well as telephone buildings in Upstate New York. Within the New York City area, McKenzie, Voorhees & Gmelin designed numerous other buildings for AT&T or its affiliates during the same time span. 60 Hudson Street was one of several technologically advanced headquarters erected in the mid-20th century for communications and utility companies in the U.S. Unlike the AT&T buildings, 60 Hudson Street lacks a unified iconography in its ornamentation. ### Form The massing of 60 Hudson Street includes numerous setbacks. Though setbacks in New York City skyscrapers were mandated by the 1916 Zoning Resolution in order to allow light and air to reach the streets below, they later became a defining feature of the Art Deco style. 60 Hudson Street's massing mostly uses rectangular shapes in spite of its trapezoid-shaped lot. This may have been a response to architecture critic Lewis Mumford's previous criticism of the Barclay–Vesey Building's transition from a parallelogram shaped base to a right-angled tower, which he regarded as an "annoying defect". Walker subsequently wrote that Mumford's criticism made him realize "a building could take its own form regardless of the land below". Accordingly, Walker designed 60 Hudson Street as an intricate set of interlocking slabs. On the Hudson Street elevation is a two-story screen, behind which rise three rectangular slabs. The northern, center, and southern slabs are respectively 15, 21, and 19 stories tall. By contrast, the West Broadway elevation, which is perpendicular to both Thomas and Worth Streets, is symmetrical, with the top floors behind a central slab. Along the outer sections of the West Broadway elevation, the setbacks are at the 13th, 15th, 19th, and 22nd stories; the center section contains projecting dormers that rise an additional story above the previous setback, except at the 22nd floor. The series of setbacks on Thomas and Worth Streets are largely symmetrical, and are continuations of the setbacks on the outer edges of the West Broadway elevation. There are several projecting dormers along the setbacks near the western (Hudson Street) ends of both elevations. 60 Hudson Street's form was also influenced by its interior use, as it was a "hybrid building" that contained offices along with mechanical equipment. There were numerous functions that did not necessitate sunlight and could operate using artificial light, such as the central operating system and the mechanical space, which was placed inside the building's core. The office space, conversely, was placed on the exterior walls, so 60 Hudson Street did not require light courts that were as extensive as in nearby buildings. ### Facade A brick facade was used for 60 Hudson Street and for Walker's other communications buildings, since he preferred the material for its texture and its flexibility in color combinations. The brick ornamentation on the facade was concentrated around the base, as well as on the parapets on each setback (which were largely removed by the 1990s). The use of brick was likely influenced by Dutch and German Expressionism, as well as Walker's preference for "unity and harmony", his dislike of terracotta-on-brick ornamentation, and his observation that stone could change color within a short time. The brick was made by the Continental Clay Products Company of Fallston, Pennsylvania, which also made the facade for the David Stott Building in Detroit, Michigan. Walker also designed the facade with a grid of accented vertical piers, contrasting with horizontal spandrels. This emphasized the vertical lines of the building and, when combined with the setbacks, created an appearance of cascades. The bricks were tinted in various tones of red, arranged in a gradient, inspired by Louis Sullivan's use of "tapestry brick" in different hues. 60 Hudson Street was one of the first structures to use bricks in this manner. According to Walker, this was inspired by Western Union's inclination toward using a distinctive design for the building. There are 19 shades of brick used in the building. Each shade was created by baking the bricks in a kiln run under varying circumstances. The darkest bricks were used in the base, and the bricks on upper stories contained progressively lighter hues; the colors of the bricks changed every 29 feet (8.8 m). To create contrasts in the facade, the base also contained some light bricks and the upper stories also had some dark bricks. Though the facade mostly used brick in red and yellow hues, there were also bricks in very dark blue and purple hues. #### Base The base comprises the first two stories. The lowest section of the facade is composed of three courses of pink granite, while the brick facade rises above that. Around the doors and windows, the brickwork is arranged similarly to curtains. The base is also divided vertically by stepped brick piers. Most ornamentation is made of brick, though the friezes, window frames, and doorways are made of bronze. On the Hudson Street elevation, the facade forms a two-story "screen", behind which rise the upper stories. The main entrance archway is in the center of this "screen", near the intersection with Jay Street. It consists of five bronze doors beneath a bronze lintel, as well as a glazed window above the doors, which is subdivided by diagonal muntins. The other archways on Hudson Street include storefronts on the ground level, and curtain-shaped windows with vertical muntins on the second story. A smaller doorway faces the corner of Hudson and Worth Streets, on the northwest side of the plot. The West Broadway elevation is designed similarly to the "screen" on the Hudson Street elevation. There is a centrally positioned entrance with five doors, a bronze lintel, and a glazed window with diagonal muntins. Three storefronts are on either side of the doorway on West Broadway; at the second story, two of these storefronts contain curtain-shaped windows, and the third contains a pair of sash windows set between vertical brick piers. On the Worth Street elevation, there are storefront windows at either end. The central section of the Worth Street elevation contains triple-hung windows, which concealed an auditorium inside. On Thomas Street, there are two storefront windows on the easternmost bays, as well as two double-height loading docks. The remaining bays on Thomas Street contain rectangular windows or ventilation grates, which are set between brick piers. #### Upper stories The rest of 60 Hudson Street's facade is mostly consistent in design. On Hudson Street, Walker designed the facade with a pattern of wide and narrow piers that alternate. On the other elevations, the piers were largely flat against the rest of the facade, except behind the setbacks at the upper levels, where the piers were more prominent and designed similar to buttresses. At several locations on the north and south elevations, there were windowless bays that concealed stairways behind them. On the Worth Street elevation, the center window openings on the third floor are filled with copper chevron-shaped louvers. ### Interior When he designed the Barclay-Vesey Building, Walker had believed that it should serve "as a machine which had definite functions to perform for the benefit of its occupants." In a similar manner, 60 Hudson Street was described as "housing the production of the service which this company renders". As with his previous commissions, Walker designed the interior in a similar style to the exterior, at a time when many buildings were being designed with modern-styled exteriors and historically-styled interiors. In contrast to the complex stone designs of his previous commissions, the ornamental program at 60 Hudson Street is more subdued and exclusively uses brick. The interior spaces of 60 Hudson Street cover almost 1 million square feet (93,000 m<sup>2</sup>). When it was built, the structure had a gross floor area of 1,040,478 square feet (96,663.6 m<sup>2</sup>) and a usable floor area of 729,035 square feet (67,729.6 m<sup>2</sup>). #### Lobby The lobby, a 25-foot-wide (7.6 m) west–east corridor between Hudson Street and West Broadway, is usually not accessible to the public. The corridor contains a barrel-vaulted brick ceiling. Extending off this corridor are two elevator banks, one on each side, as well as numerous additional doorways to service areas, stairwells, and the storefronts at each of the building's four corners. Also on the south side is a telephone alcove; an entrance to the lobby outside the building's former auditorium; and a passageway to the former cafeteria, Small vestibules separate the main corridor from Hudson Street and West Broadway. On Hudson Street, between the vestibule and the main hall, is a wide entrance hall. This space contains plaster on the upper portions of its walls, as well as an arched ceiling supported by octagonal brick piers. Unlike most other Art Deco lobbies of the time, which incorporated traditional motifs with modern materials, 60 Hudson Street's lobby largely uses a modern brick design. Three shades of brick were used in the lobby. The lobby is clad largely in brick and tile, though the floors are made of terrazzo tile and the bottoms of the walls are clad with red granite. A Western Union publication described the lobby as the "only all-brick corridor in any office building in America". Many elements of the facade were also used in the lobby, such as the brick reliefs and chevrons; curtain-shaped thresholds and doorways; use of bronze trim; and the mailboxes and doors, which are designed in a style reminiscent of the exterior setbacks. The use of interior brick is inspired not only by Sullivan's "brick tapestries" but also by designs of brick halls created by Peter Behrens, Barry Byrne, and Peder Vilhelm Jensen-Klint. The tops of the walls contain curved covings, giving the appearance that the walls and ceilings have been blended. The lobby contains bronze and brick furnishings such as lampposts and signage. The lobby is illuminated almost entirely by sconces that provide indirect light. #### Other interior spaces Next to the lobby, on the corner of Hudson and Thomas Streets, was a cafeteria that could serve 5,000 workers per day. The second floor contained a gymnasium, a library, and a school for the education of messengers. Upon the building's completion, Western Union's operating departments and supporting staff occupied 17 floors. The upper floors contained mechanical shops, offices, and equipment rooms. The ninth floor included laboratories for the company, and the 24th floor served as a "presidential suite". The eleventh through fifteenth floors were devoted to facilities for Western Union's different modes of communication: simplex printers, multiplex transmitters, marine and stock ticker tapes, Morse code equipment, and telephone equipment. Four additional floors were set aside for the possible future expansion of these facilities. This reinforced 60 Hudson Street's role as "the heart of a nerve system of wires and cables reaching to every corner of the nation and the world." The building featured 70 million feet (21,000,000 m) of cable and 30 miles (48 km) of conduits, as well as a power plant. Pneumatic tubes led from 60 Hudson Street to twenty-five branch offices in Lower and Midtown Manhattan, allowing for the easy transport of pneumatic tube mail in the city. Some of these tubes were later repurposed to hold cables for the Internet companies that occupied the building. ## History Western Union, founded in 1851, became a major provider of telegraph services in the late 19th century. In 1875, it built the Western Union Telegraph Building at 195 Broadway between Dey Street and Fulton Street. Western Union was acquired by AT&T in 1909, and the next year, AT&T revealed plans to improve Western Union's offices "for the accommodation of the public and the welfare" of workers. William W. Bosworth was commissioned to design new headquarters on the same site, the present 195 Broadway, which was completed in 1916. The newer Broadway building came to be mainly associated with AT&T, to the extent that by the 1920s, Western Union did not have a building with which its headquarters was mainly associated. Simultaneously, work proceeded on 24 Walker Street, a shared-operations building erected five blocks north on the current 32 Avenue of the Americas site in 1911–1914. AT&T, under indictment of the Sherman Act, sold its shares in Western Union in 1913 due to the threat of antitrust action. Under the tenure of Western Union president Newcomb Carlton, the company's operations grew and its equipment was upgraded to modern standards. ### Development Western Union began land acquisition in September 1924, when the firm bought two seven-story buildings on Hudson Street (one occupied by grocer R. C. Williams & Company), a four-story stable, and a one-story building on Thomas Street. Western Union agreed to lease back R. C. Williams & Company's building to that company for five years. The site was close to 24 Walker Street, as well as the company's major clients in Lower Manhattan: the American Stock Exchange at their Trinity Place building, the New York Cotton Exchange, the New York Produce Exchange, and the ticker service on Wall Street. That November, Western Union acquired three more buildings, thereby obtaining about 75 percent of the land on the city block bounded by West Broadway and Worth, Hudson, and Thomas Streets. Western Union hired intermediaries to negotiate for the remainder of the block so existing property owners would not become suspicious. Western Union bought two additional five-story buildings at 160 and 166 West Broadway in January 1927, thereby securing much of the block. At this time, the company indicated that it would probably erect a structure of up to 36 stories on the block. Western Union acquired the final site on the block in July 1927. Newcomb Carlton, president of Western Union, announced on October 4, 1927, that the company had completed plans for a 15-story edifice on the block, which he said would be the world's largest telegraph building. Carlton estimated that the structure would cost between \$6 million and \$6.5 million excluding the site. In May 1928, Western Union filed construction plans for the Hudson Street site. Work started on August 21, 1928, at which point the building was to rise 24 stories. At the time of the site's official groundbreaking, the building was expected to be completed in January 1930. The Western Union Building's completion was predicted to raise land values along Worth Street. Excavations started the following month.; according to The Wall Street Journal, the building was the first project in New York City where the excavation used a "well-point system of drainage". Construction was to take two years because of the complexities of the project: the building was required to be fireproof and resistant to theft and outside interference, while the cable and conduit systems were supposed to handle 100 million messages yearly. During the building's construction, in April 1929, four workers died after a derrick on the 22nd floor collapsed. ### Western Union years Western Union started moving from 195 Broadway on August 29, 1930. At the time, Western Union did not occupy the entire structure; the first floor and mezzanine on Hudson Street were rented out to other companies, as were the fourth to seventh floors. Eventually, the company was expected to occupy the entire building, except for two storefronts at the ground story. On October 5, 1930, the telegraph lines from 24 Walker Street were "cut over" to 60 Hudson Street, with the help of 3,000 men. Telegraph service was maintained throughout the twelve-hour "cut over" period; this was considered a large engineering achievement for the time. The first transcontinental telegraph wire from the building was activated two days later. Just before the building's opening, Carlton protested against plans to demolish the adjacent Sixth Avenue elevated railroad in preparation for the construction of nearby subway lines, stating that it would inconvenience Western Union employees; the line remained open until 1938. The Western Union Building was a premier nexus of worldwide communications during the heyday of the telegraph and was called the "Telegraph Capitol of America". When 60 Hudson Street was Western Union's headquarters, equipment for communications was installed on the roof. The equipment was frequently updated to use the most modern technology, making the building desirable to communications companies. In 1948, Western Union sold 60 Hudson Street to a Chicago-based company for \$12.5 million, leasing back the structure. The proceeds from the sale would be used to pay back long-term debt and pay for modernization of the company's equipment. By late 1971, Western Union had indicated its intention to move corporate offices to New Jersey, although it would retain nearly 3,000 workers at 60 Hudson Street. Western Union moved its headquarters to Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, in 1973 and continued to occupy much of 60 Hudson Street. Western Union sold its leasehold of the building to 60 Hudson Associates in September 1981 for an estimated \$24 million. At the time, The New York Times said the building was one of five in Lower Manhattan where at least 50,000 square feet (4,600 m<sup>2</sup>) of continuous vacant space could be rented immediately. Western Union remained in the building until 1983, when a second sublease was made. Afterward, Western Union gradually moved out of its space. The structure began attracting companies who needed space for their back office departments. 60 Hudson Street remained a major telecommunications hub, as the wires of six long-distance communications providers converged under the building. ### Internet hub and offices After Western Union left, 60 Hudson Street was converted into a colocation center and grew into one of the most important internet hubs in the world. Hundreds of telecommunications companies interconnect their respective internet networks (known as peering) as well as conventional TDM traffic through numerous meet-me rooms and optical and electrical lines placed throughout the building. Many data center colocation providers are tenants in the building. Epsilon Telecommunications, one such company, has built optical and electrical cabling facilities throughout the building since 1997. Various data centers including Epsilon, Digital Realty, and DataBank house internet and telecommunications providers for the purpose of collocating high capacity transport equipment used to terminate traffic both inbound and outbound with each other. By the late 1990s, the building was nearly fully occupied. The exteriors and ground-floor lobbies of 60 Hudson Street and two other telecommunications buildings were designated city landmarks by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1991. After Western Union moved out of 60 Hudson Street, some of the space was occupied by city and state agencies. These included the New York City Department of Buildings, which had an office there by the late 1980s, and the New York City Department of Correction, which moved there in 2002. The city's departments of buildings and correction left 60 Hudson Street in 2010, and the space was subsequently used by internet providers. There has been some controversy about the usage of 60 Hudson Street as a colocation building. Residents of the surrounding neighborhood complained in 1999 that the cooling structures on the building were too loud. 60 Hudson Street's then-owners, Hudson Telegraph Associates, agreed to mitigate noise coming from the building. In 2006, a New York City panel approved the storage of nearly 2,000 gallons (7,500 liters) of diesel fuel on six floors of the building, part of some 80,000 gallons (300,000 liters) of fuel oil stored in the building. Community opposition had been raised regarding concerns that the presence of the fuel oil posed a fire hazard that could result in a catastrophic failure of the building. 60 Hudson Street underwent some renovations starting in 2015. In early 2022, Cordiant Digital Infrastructure announced that it would acquire the building's owner, DataGryd, whose sole property was 60 Hudson Street. ## Critical reception The facade served to give emphasis to the building's shape: the 1939 WPA Guide to New York City observed that 60 Hudson Street resembled "a huge red rock projecting out of the city". Stern wrote that 60 Hudson Street's decoration was "rather integral" to the brick facade, as opposed to at the Barclay–Vesey Building, which contained decorative elements and a facade in "contradiction" to each other. Critic Paul T. Frankl stated that designs like that of 60 Hudson Street were effective, comparing them to "brick tapestries hung from the sky". Architectural writer Robert A. M. Stern described the interlocking slabs of the massing as fulfilling "Hugh Ferriss's poetic conceit of the tall building as a manmade mountain". Writing for The New York Times in 1982, Paul Goldberger described 60 Hudson Street as "fine Art Deco building [...] which powerfully closes the vista from Duane Park to the north." ## See also - Art Deco architecture of New York City - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan below 14th Street - 111 Eighth Avenue, another technology and telecommunications building in Manhattan constructed during the early 1930s
33,056,422	Hitting for the cycle	1,172,916,562	Hitting a single, double, triple, and a home run in one game of baseball	[ "Baseball terminology" ]	In baseball, hitting for the cycle is the accomplishment of one batter who hits a single, a double, a triple, and a home run in the same game. Collecting the hits in that order is known as a "natural cycle". Cycles are rare in Major League Baseball (MLB), having occurred only 344 times, starting with Curry Foley in 1882. The most recent cycle in MLB was accomplished by José Altuve of the Houston Astros on August 28, 2023. ## Rarity The cycle is about as uncommon as a no-hitter; it has been called "one of the rarest" and "most difficult feats" in baseball. Based on 2009 offensive levels, the probability of an average MLB player hitting for a cycle against an average team in a game is about 0.0059%; this corresponds to about 21⁄2 cycles in a 162-game season with 30 teams. The most cycles hit in a single major league season is eight, which occurred in both 1933 and 2009. In other baseball leagues, the cycle is achieved less frequently. Through June 2022, there have been 76 cycles hit in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), the top-level baseball organization in Japan, most recently by Yasutaka Shiomi on September 18, 2021. One NPB player, Atsuya Furuta, has hit for the cycle in an NPB All-Star game. No player has ever hit for the cycle in the MLB All-Star Game. One MLB player has hit for the cycle in a postseason game: Brock Holt of the Boston Red Sox in Game 3 of the 2018 ALDS. Two players have hit for the cycle on the same day once in NPB history; this has occurred twice in MLB history. There have never been multiple cycles completed in a single MLB or NPB game; this is known to have occurred twice in Minor League Baseball: on April 11, 2018, by Gio Brusa and Jalen Miller of the Class A-Advanced San Jose Giants, and on August 7, 2018, by Kevin Newman and Jacob Stallings of the Triple-A Indianapolis Indians. ## Components ### Single Under Major League Baseball Rule 6.09(a), the "batter becomes a runner when he hits a fair ball". The single—in which the batter reaches first base without being put out, and without the benefit of a fielding error—is the most common type of hit in baseball: for example, there were 25,838 singles hit during the 1988 MLB season, compared to 6,386 doubles, 840 triples, or 3,180 home runs. The MLB leader in singles is Pete Rose, who is also the league's all-time hit leader. The single-season leader in singles is Ichiro Suzuki, who broke Willie Keeler's 106-year-old record in 2004 by notching 225, 19 more than the previous record. None of the top five players in singles (Rose, Ty Cobb, Eddie Collins, Cap Anson, and Keeler) in MLB history have hit for the cycle; of those five, only Rose had more than 150 home runs, and two (Collins and Keeler), who both played during the dead-ball era, had fewer than 50, lessening the probability of their completing the cycle. ### Double A double is a hit in which the batter reaches second base without being put out, and without the benefit of a fielding error. This scenario often occurs when a ball is hit into the gaps between the outfielders, or down the foul line on either side of the playing field. Tris Speaker is the all-time leader in doubles in MLB history, with 792, one of which was part of a cycle; Speaker accomplished the feat for the Boston Red Sox on June 9, 1912, against the St. Louis Browns. Two of the other top five players in MLB history in doubles have hit for the cycle: Stan Musial (725 doubles; third all-time) completed the cycle on July 24, 1949; and Craig Biggio (668; fifth all-time) accomplished the feat on April 8, 2002. The single-season MLB leader is Earl Webb, the left-handed outfielder who hit 67 in 1931. ### Triple The triple, in which the batter reaches third base without being put out and without the benefit of a fielding error, is the "hardest part of a cycle" to complete. Triples are often hit to the same areas as doubles, but may require impressive speed by the runner. It is rare to see a player with slower-than-average running speed complete the cycle, but it has happened, such as when catcher Bengie Molina hit for the cycle on July 16, 2010; Molina described himself as "the [slowest] guy in baseball" earlier that season. The MLB all-time leader in triples is Sam Crawford, with 309; he never hit for the cycle. Of the top five players in MLB history in triples, two have hit for the cycle: Honus Wagner in 1912 and Roger Connor in 1890. Chief Wilson hit for the cycle in 1910, two years before he hit for a record 36 triples in a single season. ### Home run A home run is a hit in which the batter reaches home plate, scoring a run on the same play without being put out, and without the benefit of a fielding error. Most often in modern baseball, this occurs when the batter hits the ball over the outfield wall in fair territory. Home-run hitters are commonly believed to be larger, slower players due to their strength, and may not be fast enough to complete the triple. The MLB single-season and all-time leader in home runs is Barry Bonds, who hit 73 home runs in the 2001 season and notched 762 in his 22-season career. Bonds never hit for the cycle. Among the MLB leaders in career home runs, the highest-ranking player with a cycle is Alex Rodriguez (fifth all-time; retired in 2016 with 696 home runs), who hit for the cycle on June 5, 1997. Home runs can also occur on a batted ball that does not leave the field of play; this is called an inside-the-park home run. Inside-the-park home runs are rare, and no player has hit one as part of a cycle since 1943. ## Accomplishments ### Major League Baseball #### Multiple cycles The most career cycles hit by an MLB player is three, accomplished by six players: All of Beltré's cycles occurred at Globe Life Park in Arlington; he is the only player to hit for the cycle with different teams in the same ballpark. All of Yelich's cycles were hit against the Cincinnati Reds; he is the only player to hit for the cycle three times against the same team. Forty-four players have hit for the cycle at least twice. Five have hit for the cycle twice in one season: One player has hit for the cycle twice against the same team in one season: Christian Yelich against the Cincinnati Reds in 2018. Cycles have occurred on the same day twice in MLB history; on September 17, 1920, by Bobby Veach of the Detroit Tigers and George Burns of the New York Giants; and on September 1, 2008, by the Arizona Diamondbacks' Stephen Drew and the Seattle Mariners' Adrián Beltré. The longest period of time between two players hitting for the cycle was 5 years, 1 month, and 10 days, a drought lasting from Bill Joyce's cycle in 1896 to Harry Davis's in 1901. #### Natural cycles The natural cycle, in which the hits come in order from fewest to most total bases (single, double, triple, home run), has been accomplished 15 times in MLB history: #### Reverse cycles The natural cycle has been accomplished in reverse (home run, triple, double, single)—also known as an "unnatural" cycle—ten times: #### Other accomplishments Nine players have hit a grand slam as part of their cycle: Six players have had a walk-off home run as the final hit of their cycles: Ten players have collected six hits in the game in which they hit their cycle. Only three of these—by Larry Twitchell, Sam Thompson, and Ian Kinsler—were accomplished in a nine-inning game in the American League or National League. `indicates an extra-innings game (Yelich collected his six hits in the first nine innings of a 10-inning game.)` Kinsler's six-hit cycle came on Jackie Robinson Day, honoring the African-American pioneer who had hit for the cycle in 1948. The most recent player to hit for the cycle with an inside-the-park home run was Leon Culberson in 1943. The earliest in a game that a cycle has been completed is the fourth inning, accomplished by Mike Lansing of the Colorado Rockies on June 18, 2000, when he had a first-inning triple, second-inning homer, third-inning double, and fourth-inning single. Four batters hit for the cycle in the same season in which they won the Triple Crown; Nap Lajoie (AL, 1901), Jimmie Foxx (AL, 1933), Chuck Klein (NL, 1933), and Lou Gehrig (AL, 1934). Gehrig is the only player to complete the MLB Triple Crown in his cycle-hitting season, leading both leagues in batting average, home runs, and runs batted in. Five players have hit for the cycle in the same season in which they won a Most Valuable Player (MVP) award; Jimmie Foxx in 1933, Ted Williams in 1946, Mickey Mantle in 1957, and both Mookie Betts and Christian Yelich in 2018. Three players — John Olerud, Michael Cuddyer, and Bob Watson — have hit for the cycle in both the National League and American League. Three family pairs have hit for the cycle; father and son Gary Ward (1980) and Daryle Ward (2004), grandfather and grandson Gus Bell (1951) and David Bell (2004), and father and son Craig Biggio (2002) and Cavan Biggio (2019). Two players have hit cycles both for and against the same team; Joe Cronin against (1929) and for (1940) the Red Sox, and Adrián Beltré against (2008) and for (2012, 2015) the Rangers. One player, Brock Holt of the Boston Red Sox, hit for the cycle in a postseason game: Game 3 of the 2018 ALDS, on October 8, 2018, against the New York Yankees at Yankee Stadium. On September 19, 2021, Eddie Rosario of the Atlanta Braves hit for the cycle on five pitches, the smallest number since at least 1900. ### Nippon Professional Baseball #### Multiple cycles During his eight seasons playing for the Yokohama BayStars, Bobby Rose hit for three cycles, the most of any Nippon Professional Baseball player. Spaced two seasons apart, his first cycle occurred on May 2, 1995, the next on April 29, 1997, and his final cycle on June 30, 1999. Three NPB players have hit for the cycle twice; Fumio Fujimura (both with the Osaka Tigers), Hiromi Matsunaga (both with the Hankyu/Orix Braves), and Kosuke Fukudome (one with the Chunichi Dragons, and one with the Hanshin Tigers). Fujimura is also the only player to have hit a cycle during both the single league era and the current dual league era. The 2003 NPB season saw the most cycles hit in a single season—five. That season also saw the only instance of cycles occurring on the same day: on July 1, hit by Atsunori Inaba of the Yakult Swallows and Arihito Muramatsu of the Fukuoka Daiei Hawks. The next day, Shinjiro Hiyama became the third player to hit for the cycle in two days. Conversely, the longest period of time between two players hitting for the cycle was 5 years, 11 months, and 30 days, a drought lasting from Michihiro Ogasawara's cycle in 2008 to Rainel Rosario's in 2014. #### Natural cycles The natural cycle has been accomplished five times in NPB history. Fumio Fujimura's second cycle on May 25, 1950, was the first time a player collected the hits in order. On average, the natural cycle occurs approximately every 13 years. Other than Fujimura, the four players to hit for the natural cycle are Kazuhiko Kondo in 1961, Takahiro Tokutsu in 1976, Takanori Okamura in 1985, and Muramatsu in 2003. The natural cycle has been accomplished in reverse by Alex Ochoa (2004) and Rosario (2014). #### Other related accomplishments Yakult Swallows catcher Atsuya Furuta is the only player to hit for the cycle in an NPB All-Star game, doing so in game 2 of the 1992 series. Inaba is the only player to hit for the cycle in a rain-shortened game—after hitting a triple in the first inning and hitting a home run in the fourth, Inaba collected the other two necessary hits in a seven-run fifth inning when the order batted around. Kosuke Fukudome is the only NPB player to have hit a grand slam as the home run of the cycle. Hiroshi Ohshita and Kazuhiko Kondo are the only two players to have hit a walk-off home run to win the game as the final hit of their cycles. Ochoa's cycle with the Chunichi Dragons on April 13, 2004, made him the first (and to date, only) player to hit a cycle in both MLB and NPB. He had previously accomplished the feat on July 3, 1996, while playing for MLB's New York Mets. ### KBO League #### Multiple cycles Eric Thames hit for the cycle twice during the 2015 season of the KBO League. ## See also - Home run cycle, when a player hits a solo home run, two-run home run, three-run home run, and grand slam all in one game
53,850,690	Bosnian genocide denial	1,169,596,510	Denial of Bosnian genocide	[ "Anti-Bosniak sentiment", "Bosnian genocide denial", "Genocide denial", "Historical negationism", "Pseudohistory" ]	Bosnian genocide denial is the act of denying the occurrence of the systematic Bosnian genocide against the Bosniak Muslim population of Bosnia and Herzegovina, or asserting it did not occur in the manner or to the extent that has been established by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Court of Justice (ICJ) through proceedings and judgments, and described by comprehensive scholarship. In its judgment, the ICJ adopted the ICTY's conclusion from Radislav Krstić's conviction and concluded what happened in and around Srebrenica was done by members of the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) "with the specific intent to destroy in part the group of the Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina as such, which constitute acts of genocide committed". These two courts have ruled differently only concerning direct responsibility for acts of genocide in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The ICJ, in a proceeding Bosnian genocide case that was brought by Bosnia and Herzegovina against Serbia and Montenegro, has made rulings to the extent Serbia was not directly responsible for the perpetration of genocide but was responsible under "customary international law" for violating the obligation to "prevent and punish the crime of genocide". Other international bodies, such as the European Court of Human Rights and the United Nations General Assembly, have also passed resolutions acknowledging genocide occurred in Bosnia. German courts have made convictions based upon a more expansive interpretation of genocide than that used by international courts. The origins of denial lie within groups of Serbian and international scholars, and are supported in part by Serb and international political bodies and media. After the Bosnian War, Serb culture generated a stance Serbs were the aggrieved party and that historical events had curtailed national goals. Sonja Biserko has drawn parallels with other examples of negationist historical revisionism and denialism, such as denial of genocides in Armenia and Rwanda. During the Yugoslav Wars, Serb policies and their foremost protagonists have been whitewashed and justified by some "anti-war" and "anti-imperialist" public intellectuals and authors abroad, mostly on the left side of the ideological spectrum, but also by "libertarian" right-wingers, and this has sometimes become outright denial. ## Background The term "Bosnian genocide" is sometimes used to refer to the genocide in Srebrenica perpetrated by Bosnian Serb forces in summer of 1995, or refers to the broader crimes against humanity, and ethnic cleansing campaign throughout areas controlled by the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) during the 1992–1995 Bosnian War. Genocide scholars widely acknowledge it as the biggest war crime perpetrated on European soil since World War II. The events in Srebrenica in 1995 included the killing of more than 8,000 Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) men and boys, and the mass expulsion of another 25,000–30,000 Bosniak civilians, in and around the town of Srebrenica in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was committed by units of the VRS under the command of General Ratko Mladić. The ethnic cleansing campaign took place in areas controlled by the Bosnian Serb forces, and targeted Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats. This campaign included extermination; unlawful confinement; mass rape; sexual assault; torture; plunder and destruction of property; inhumane treatment of civilians; the targeting of political leaders, intellectuals, and professionals; it also included the unlawful deportation and transfer of civilians; the unlawful shelling of civilians; the unlawful appropriation and plunder of real and personal property, the destruction of homes and businesses, and systemic destruction of places of worship. The United Nations tasked the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) with prosecuting the war crimes that had been committed during the Yugoslav Wars, including the Bosnian War. The (International Court of Justice) ICJ decided on the Bosnian genocide case, a public international law case brought by Bosnia and Herzegovina against Serbia and Montenegro. The ICJ, in a proceeding Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro, adopted the ICTY's conclusion from Radislav Krstić's conviction and concluded events that occurred in and around Srebrenica from 13 July 1995 were perpetrated by the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) "with the specific intent to destroy in part the group of the Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina as such, which constitute acts of genocide committed". The ICJ ruled, however, although Serbia and Montenegro had provided significant assistance to Republika Srpska, it was not established it was responsible for perpetrating the crime of genocide nor had it violated its obligations to "prevent and punish the crime of genocide". The court confirmed genocide took place at Srebrenica in July 1995 and that Serbia had not planned nor encouraged this genocide but that it was guilty of not doing everything in its power to prevent it. Besides the ICTY and the ICJ, other international bodies such as the European Court of Human Rights and the United Nations General Assembly also passed resolutions acknowledging genocide occurred in Bosnia. The 2005 resolutions of the United States Congress and Senate said; "the Serbian policies of aggression and ethnic cleansing meet the terms defining genocide". Three convictions for genocide have been made in courts in Germany. According to Theodor Meron, the Presiding Judge at the ICTY: > By seeking to eliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslims, the Bosnian Serb forces committed genocide. They targeted for extinction the forty thousand Bosnian Muslims living in Srebrenica, a group which was emblematic of the Bosnian Muslims in general. They stripped all the male Muslim prisoners, military and civilian, elderly and young, of their personal belongings and identification, and deliberately and methodically killed them solely on the basis of their identity. ## Culture and politics of denial ### Definition and origins Bosnian genocide denial is an act of denying the genocide against the Muslim population of Bosnia and Herzegovina occurred, or asserting it did not occur in the manner or to the extent that has been established by the ICTY and the ICJ through their proceedings and judgments, and described by subsequent comprehensive scholarship. The origins of denial lie with a group of Serbian nationalists, who were supported by part of the Serb political and media establishment. The post-war situation generated a stance within Serb culture that Serbs were the aggrieved side and that historical events had curtailed national goals. Sonja Biserko, president of the Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia at the time, drew parallels with other examples of negationist historical revisionism and denialism, such as denial of the Armenian and Rwandan genocides. According to Biserko, methods range from the "brutal to the deceitful". She noted denial in Serbia is present "most strongly in political discourse, in the media, in the sphere of law, and in the educational system". Biserko and the University of Sarajevo's criminology professor Edina Bećirević have identified a "culture of denial" in Serbian society, stating; "Denial of the Srebrenica genocide takes many forms in Serbia". ### Tactics and methods During the Bosnian War, Serbia's President Slobodan Milošević had effective control of most of Serbia's media. Following the end of the war, denialism continued to be widespread among Serbians. Revisionism ranges from challenging the judicial recognition of the killings as an act of genocide to the denial of the occurrence of a massacre. A variety of methods is used to deny genocide. ### Attempted cover-up by means of reburials From approximately 1 August 1995 to 1 November 1995, there was an organized effort on behalf of the military and political leadership of Republika Srpska to remove bodies from primary mass graves, and move them to secondary and tertiary sites. The reburial was crudely done using heavy, mechanized vehicles such as trenchers and baggers. In the ICTY court case "Prosecutor v. Blagojević and Jokić", the trial chamber found this reburial effort was an attempt to conceal evidence of mass murder. The trial chamber found the cover-up operation was ordered by the Bosnian Serb Army (BSA) Main Staff, and was subsequently carried out by members of the Bratunac and Zvornik Brigades. The crude manner of the cover-up operation had a direct impact on the recovery and identification of remains. The removal and reburial of the bodies caused them to become dismembered, with parts of different individuals interspersed, making it difficult for forensic investigators to positively identify the remains. In one case, one person's remains were found in two locations 30 km (19 mi) apart. In addition to the ligatures and blindfolds found at the mass graves, the effort to hide the bodies has been seen as evidence of the organised nature of the massacres and the non-combatant status of the victims; if the victims had died in normal combat operations, there would be no need to hide their remains. ### Official Republika Srpska reports #### First Republika Srpska report (2002) In September 2002, the Republika Srpska government commissioned the "Report about Case Srebrenica". Many leading Bosnian Serb politicians endorsed the document, which was written by Darko Trifunović. The report said 1,800 Bosnian Muslim soldiers died during fighting and 100 more died as a result of exhaustion. According to the report; "The number of Muslim soldiers killed by Bosnian Serbs out of personal revenge or lack of knowledge of international law is probably about 100 ... It is important to uncover the names of the perpetrators in order to accurately and unequivocally establish whether or not these were isolated instances". The report also makes allegations regarding examinations of the mass graves, saying they were made for hygiene reasons; it also questions the legitimacy of the missing-person lists, and undermines a key witness's mental health and military history. The International Crisis Group and the United Nations condemned the manipulation of their statements in this report, and Humanitarian Law Center thoroughly deconstructed all of the reports published by Republika Srpska commissions. Humanitarian Law Center described the first report's methods and manipulations in their report of February 2019. The ICTY described Republika Srpska's first report as "one of the worst examples of revisionism in relation to the mass executions of Bosnian Muslims committed in Srebrenica in July 1995". Outrage and condemnation by a wide variety of Balkan and international figures later forced Republika Srpska to disown the report. #### Second Republika Srpska report and apology (2004) On 7 March 2003, the Human Rights Chamber for Bosnia and Herzegovina issued a decision that ordered Republika Srpska, among other things, to conduct a full investigation into events in Srebrenica in July 1995 and to disclose the results by 7 September 2003. The Chamber had no power to implement the decision; it ceased to exist in late 2003. Republika Srpska published two reports—the first on 3 June 2003 and the second on 5 September 2003; the Human Rights Chamber concluded these reports did not fulfill the obligations of Republika Srpska. On 15 October 2003, The High Representative Paddy Ashdown said; "getting the truth from the [Bosnian Serb] government is like extracting rotten teeth". The Srebrenica commission, officially titled the "Commission for Investigation of the Events in and around Srebrenica between 10 and 19 July 1995", was established in December 2003, and submitted its final report on 4 June 2004, and then an addendum on 15 October 2004 after delayed information was supplied. The report said at least 7,000 men and boys were killed by Bosnian Serb forces, citing a provisional figure of 7,800. In the report, because of "limited time" and to "maximize resources", the commission "accepted the historical background and the facts stated in the second-instance judgment Prosecutor vs. Radislav Krstić, when the ICTY convicted Radislav Krstić for "assisting and supporting genocide committed in Srebrenica". The commission's findings remain generally disputed by Serb nationalists, who say the commission was heavily pressured by the High Representative, considering an earlier Republika Srpska government report that exonerated the Serbs was dismissed. Dragan Čavić, then President of Republika Srpska, said in a televised address Serb forces killed several thousand civilians in violation of international law, and that Srebrenica is a dark chapter in Serb history. On 10 November 2004, the government of Republika Srpska issued an official apology. #### Second Republika Srpska report revision (2010) On 21 April 2010, the government of Republika Srpska under Prime Minister Milorad Dodik initiated a revision of the 2004 report saying the numbers of persons killed were exaggerated and that the report was manipulated by a former peace envoy. The Office of the High Representative responded by saying; "The Republika Srpska government should reconsider its conclusions and align itself with the facts and legal requirements and act accordingly, rather than inflicting emotional distress on the survivors, torture history and denigrate the public image of the country". On 12 July 2010, the 15th anniversary of the massacre, Milorad Dodik said he acknowledged the killings that happened on the site but that what happened at Srebrenica was not genocide. In 2021, Dodik continued to say there had been no genocide and on Bosnian Serb television, he said coffins in the memorial cemetery were empty and bore only names. #### Republika Srpska's rejection of the 2004 report and the new commission (2018-19) On 14 August 2018, the People's Assembly of Republika Srpska dismissed the 2004 report and decided for the assembly of a new commission to revise the report about events in the area around Srebrenica in July 1995. The commission was initiated by Milorad Dodik and his Alliance of Independent Social Democrats party (SNSD), and the international community immediately criticised the action. Humanitarian Law Center's report described this new development as "the culmination of more than a decade of genocide denial and historical revisionism by the SNSD government in the Republika Srpska", adding the HLC regarded this initiative to be "illegitimate overall", and that it "represents a flawed response to a legitimate need". The United States State Department issued a communiqué in which they criticized move by Republika Srpska officials and institutions, describing it as "(a)ttempts to reject or amend the report on Srebrenica are part of wider efforts to revise the facts of the past war, to deny history, and to politicize tragedy". ## Revisionism and denialism abroad Serb policies in the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s and its foremost protagonists have been whitewashed and justified by some "anti-war" and "anti-imperialist" intellectuals and authors outside Serbia, mostly on the left wing of the political spectrum, but also "libertarian", right-wing sources. Serbian former president Milošević is still admired in some circles. This apologia often becomes attempts to whitewash war crimes perpetrated by Serbian security, military and paramilitary forces, or denial of the nature and extent of these crimes using revisionist and denialist narratives concerning the break-up of Yugoslavia. These often make accusations of a Western conspiracy against Yugoslavia and the Serbs, which culminated with NATO interventions against Serbia and Republika Srpska. ### Left-wing revisionists Revisionists mainly identified with the far-left of the ideological and political spectrum, such as Michael Parenti, economist Edward S. Herman, David Peterson, Jared Israel, Tariq Ali, British journalist Mick Hume, Diana Johnstone, and John Robles of Voice of Russia, engaged in revisionism and denial of the Bosnian genocide and its aspects while blaming the West, NATO, Croats, Bosniaks, and Albanians for the Serbian's and their forces' actions, absolving the latter of any responsibility for the atrocities. Herman and Hume said there is a discrepancy of over 8,000 victims between the official number and the number of bodies they said they found; they doubted the explanation of the events and ignored delays locating mass graves and identification of bodies by DNA analysis. Herman and Peterson engaged in revisionism and denial in several articles, such as Herman's "The Politics of the Srebrenica Massacre" and "The Srebrenica Massacre was a Gigantic Political Fraud" by Herman and Robles; they also repeated claims about political motives by Western governments and NATO conspirators in Herman's and Peterson's book Politics of Genocide, whose authors concentrate on the Srebrenica massacre, state Serbs at Srebrenica were "killing Bosnian-Muslim soldiers"; that this happened in response to the "killing of over 2,000 Serb civilians, mostly women and children, at the location by Bosnian-Muslim army"; and that the number of executed Bosnian-Muslim soldiers was "probably ... between 500 and 1,000 ... (i)n other words, less than half of the number of Serb civilians killed before July, 1995". For these claims they rely on information provided by writer Diana Johnstone, who had never entered Bosnia. In Politics of Genocide, Herman and Peterson claim that the Serbs only killed men of military age at Srebrenica. This view is not supported by the findings of the ICJ or the ICTY. Johnstone, Herman, Peterson, Robles and others omit, ICTY findings—especially in trial judgments of Naser Orić and Radislav Krstić—that villages surrounding Srebrenica, where according to this group of revisionists killings of Serb women and children took place, were in most cases Bosnian Muslim villages whose original inhabitants had escaped or were driven out by the Bosnian Serb military offensive, and were then occupied and front lines were established; and that Bosnian Serb civilians rarely entered. Villages surrounding Srebrenica, which belonged to the Serb population, were heavily fortified and militarized. Villages including Kravica were used to store caches of weapons and ammunition, and from which Serbs launched attacks on Bosnian Muslim villages, and on Srebrenica. ### Living Marxism Living Marxism was a British magazine that was launched in 1988 as the journal of the British Revolutionary Communist Party (RCP). It was later rebranded LM and ceased publication in March 2000 after it lost a libel lawsuit brought by Independent Television News (ITN), a British television company. In the first issue as LM, editor Mick Hume published an article by journalist Thomas Deichmann titled "The Picture that Fooled the World", which said ITN had deliberately misrepresented the Bosnian war in its 1992 coverage, specifically coverage of Serb-run concentration camps at Omarska, Keraterm and Trnopolje. The article said the report by UK journalists Ed Vulliamy, Penny Marshall and Ian Williams was falsified. These ITN reports had followed initial reports by Maggie O'Kane and Roy Gutman about camps from Bratunac to Prijedor, which had found Serb-run prison camps in Bosanska Krajina in north-western Bosnia. In August 1992 Vulliamy and O'Kane had gained access to the Omarska and Trnopolje camps. Their accounts of the conditions of the prisoners were recorded for the documentary Omarska's survivors: Bosnia 1992. Discovery of the camps was credited with contributing to the establishment of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in The Hague. In his LM article, which was published in February 1997, Deichmann said the ITN footage that was created in front of Trnopolje concentration camp, and depicts a group of emaciated Bosnian Muslim male prisoners—including Fikret Alić—standing behind a barbed wire fence, was deliberately staged to portray a Nazi-style extermination camp. The article also said the ITN reporters Penny Marshall and Ian Williams had stood inside a compound surrounded by a barbed wire fence and filmed their report. The article said the camp "was not a prison, and certainly not a 'concentration camp', but a collection centre for refugees, many of whom went there seeking safety and could leave again if they wished". #### Libel trial In 1998, ITN sued the publisher of LM Informinc (LM) Ltd. for libel. The case initially caused widespread condemnation of ITN. Among those who supported LM was journalist John Simpson, who in April 2012 publicly apologized for questioning ITN's reporting on the camps and for supporting the magazine. Journalist George Monbiot wrote in Prospect magazine; "some of the world's leading liberals", including Harold Evans, Doris Lessing, Paul Theroux and Fay Weldon, had defended the magazine, and that others had condemned ITN's "deplorable attack on press freedom". He added: "The Institute of Contemporary Arts, bulwark of progressive liberalism, enhanced LM's heroic profile by co-hosting a three-day conference with the magazine, called 'Free Speech Wars'. With the blessing of the liberal world, this puny iconoclastic David will go to war with the clanking orthodoxies of the multinational Goliath". Monbiot also said LM wished its struggle to be seen as a struggle for liberal values and that this cause was less liberal than LM's supporters wanted to believe. Monbiot concluded LM had less in common with the left than with the fanatical right. ITN won its libel case against LM, which was forced to close in March 2000. Reporters Penny Marshall and Ian Williams were each awarded £150,000 over the LM story and the magazine was ordered to pay £75,000 for libeling ITN in the February 1997 article. In an interview with The Times, Hume said the magazine's publisher could have avoided the case by apologising but that he believed in "freedom to state what you understand to be true, even if it causes offence", and that he would do anything to avoid similar proceedings in court, but that "some things really are more important than a mortgage". David Campbell, Visiting Professor in the Northern Centre of Photography at Sunderland University in the UK, said: > The LM defendants and Thomas Deichmann were properly represented at the trial and were able to lay out all the details of their claim that the ITN reporters had "deliberately misrepresented" the situation at Trnopolje. Having charged 'deliberate misrepresentation', they needed to prove 'deliberate misrepresentation'. To this end, the LM defendants were able to cross-examine Penny Marshall and Ian Williams, as well as every member of the ITN crews who were at the camps, along with other witnesses. (That they didn't take up the opportunity to cross-examine the Bosnian doctor imprisoned at Trnopolje, who featured in the ITN stories and was called to testify on the conditions he and others suffered, was perhaps the moment any remaining shred of credibility for LM's allegations evaporated). They were able to show the ITN reports to the court, including the rushes from which the final TV stories were edited, and conduct a forensic examination of the visuals they alleged were deceitful. And all of this took place in front of a jury of twelve citizens who they needed to convince about the truthfulness of their allegations. > > They failed. The jury found unanimously against LM and awarded the maximum possible damages. So it was not ITN that bankrupted LM. It was LM's lies about the ITN reports that bankrupted themselves, morally and financially. ### Russian Federation On 8 July 2015, Russia vetoed a UK-drafted resolution at the Security Council that would have declared the Srebrenica massacre was genocide on the 20th anniversary of the atrocity. Russian ambassador Vitaly Churkin said the resolution was "not constructive, confrontational and politically motivated". Russia was the only country at the Council that objected to the resolution. ## Denial by officials ### Serbian officials High-ranking Serbian officials have said no genocide of Bosniak Muslims took place. In 2010 and in 2018–19, Milorad Dodik and his Alliance of Independent Social Democrats party (SNSD) attempted to revise the 2004 Srebrenica report. The Humanitarian Law Center criticised these attempts and described them as "the culmination of more than a decade of genocide denial and historical revisionism" by the party's government in Republika Srpska. While President of Republika Srpska, Dodik described the Srebrenica massacre as a "fabricated myth". He stated in an interview with Belgrade newspaper Večernje Novosti in April 2010; "we cannot and will never accept qualifying that event as a genocide". Dodik disowned the 2004 Republika Srpska report that acknowledges the scale of the killing and had apologised to the relatives of the victims, saying the report had been adopted because of pressure from the international community. Without substantiating the figure, he said the number of victims was 3,500 rather than the 7,000 accepted by the report, saying 500 listed victims were alive and that over 250 people buried in the Potocari memorial centre had died elsewhere. In July 2010, on the 15th anniversary of the massacre, Dodik said he did not regard the killings at Srebrenica as genocide, and that; "If a genocide happened then it was committed against Serb people of [eastern Bosnia] where women, children and the elderly were killed en masse". In December 2010, Dodik condemned the Peace Implementation Council, an international community of 55 countries, for referring to the Srebrenica massacre as genocide. In 2017, Dodik introduced legislation that would ban the teaching of the Srebrenica genocide and Siege of Sarajevo in Republika Srpska schools, stating it was "impossible to use here the textbooks ... which say the Serbs have committed genocide and kept Sarajevo under siege. This is not correct and this will not be taught here." Tomislav Nikolić, President of Serbia, stated on 2 June 2012; "there was no genocide in Srebrenica. In Srebrenica, grave war crimes were committed by some Serbs who should be found, prosecuted and punished ... It is very difficult to indict someone and prove before the court that an event qualifies as genocide." Miloš Milovanović, a former commander of the Serb paramilitary unit Serbian Guard who represents the Serbian Democratic Party in the Srebrenica Municipal Assembly, said in March 2005: "the massacre is a lie; it is propaganda to paint a bad picture of the Serbian people. The Muslims are lying; they are manipulating the numbers; they are exaggerating what happened. Far more Serbs died at Srebrenica than Muslims." On 14 November 2018, Ana Brnabić, the Prime Minister of Serbia, said in an interview with Deutsche Welle; "No, I do not think that the terrible massacre at Srebrenica was genocide". Vojislav Šešelj, Ivica Dačić and Aleksandar Vulin have also denied the Srebrenica massacre was genocide. ### Former UN officials and military figures Phillip Corwin, former UN Civilian Affairs Coordinator in Bosnia, denied a genocide. He was engaged as an advisor and contributor to the work of the Srebrenica Research Group and said in 2003; "what happened in Srebrenica was not a single large massacre of Muslims by Serbs, but rather a series of very bloody attacks and counterattacks over a three-year period", and that the likely number "of dead Muslims may not be higher than the number of Serbs killed in the Srebrenica area". In 2009, Lewis MacKenzie, former commander of the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) in Bosnia, in an article titled "The real story behind Srebrenica", questioned the designation of genocide on the grounds the number of men and boys killed had been exaggerated by a factor of four. According to MacKenzie, 2,000 people had died in battle and 5,000 were considered missing. MacKenzie also said the transfer of the women and children by bus contradicted the notion of genocide—he said the women would have been killed first if there had been an intent to destroy the group. Portuguese retired general Carlos Martins Branco said Bosnian genocide never happened in his 1988 publication "Was Srebrenica a Hoax? Eyewitness Account of a Former UN Military Observer in Bosnia", and his memoir "A Guerra nos Balcãs, jihadismo, geopolítica e desinformação" (War in the Balkans, Jihadism, Geopolitics, and Disinformation) in November 2016. He said; "Srebrenica was portrayed—and continues to be—as a premeditated massacre of innocent Muslim civilians. As a genocide! But was it really so?". ## Denial by other individuals and groups Noam Chomsky drew criticism for not calling the Srebrenica massacre during the Bosnian War a genocide, which he said "cheapens" the word, and for appearing to deny Ed Vulliamy's reporting on the existence of Bosnian concentration camps. The subsequent editorial correction of his comments, which was viewed as a capitulation, was criticized by multiple Balkan watchers, including Marko Hoare, who elaborated on Chomsky's position in his essay "Chomsky's Genocidal Denial", which was published on 17 December 2005. Austrian writer Peter Handke, who received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2019, offered to testify on behalf of Slobodan Milošević at ICTY trials. Handke denied Serb-run concentration camps and the Srebrenica massacre, and repeated the myth Bosnian Muslims staged massacres in Sarajevo, and compared Serbia's situation during the 1990s to the faith of European Jewry during the Holocaust. Handke wrote essays, plays and books about the subject, such as A Journey to the Rivers: Justice for Serbia. Handke lauded Milošević and attended his trial and funeral. According to British journalist Ed Vulliamy: "[Handke] went out of his way to give credence to mass murder and, in this context, as importantly, to lies". Handke reacted to these criticisms by threatening to withdraw his play about the Bosnian War, The Journey To The Dug-Out, Or The Play About The War Film, from Vienna's Burgtheater unless media and peer criticism stopped. Serbian-American politician and historian Srđa Trifković, criticised a video that was captured by the Scorpions, paramilitary units of the Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs, who filmed themselves executing six Bosniak teenagers in woodland near Srebrenica. Trifković called the video a "manipulation", saying it was produced to retroactively justify Western policies and actions in Bosnia. According to Trifković, their aim, was to "inflict a collective responsibility upon the Serbian people", revise the Dayton Agreement, and abolish Republika Srpska. Trifković has also denied evidence of genocide, and of the number of people killed in Srebrenica; and that the Scorpions were under the control of Serbian officials and institutions. Darko Trifunović, who teaches at the Faculty of Security in Novi Sad and helped write a Srebrenica report, said fewer than 100 people were killed at Srebrenica, and denied the validity of the genocide verdict passed by the ICJ in the case against Serbia. He also denied the validity of ICTY's verdict the Srebrenica massacre was genocide in the case against Radislav Krstić. According to Trifunović, there was "Islamic radicalism" and "terrorism" in Bosnia-Herzegovina, and used this statement to justify his denial of the validity of court verdicts. La Nation, a bi-monthly Swiss newspaper, published a series of articles saying 2,000 soldiers were killed in the "pseudo-massacre" in Srebrenica. The Society for Threatened Peoples and Swiss Association Against Impunity filed a joint suit against La Nation for genocide denial, which is prohibited by Swiss law. The Srebrenica Research Group, which was led by Edward S. Herman and included two former UN officials, published Srebrenica And the Politics of War Crimes (2005), which said the "contention that as many as 8,000 Muslims were killed has no basis in available evidence and is essentially a political construct". Genocide scholar William Schabas in his 2009 book Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes summarised the legal opinions of the status of the atrocities committed in Srebrenica and throughout the Bosnian War, calling them ethnic cleansing and not genocide. According to Schabas; "Ethnic cleansing is also a warning sign of genocide to come. Genocide is the last resort of the frustrated ethnic cleanser". Efraim Zuroff, director of the Simon Wiesenthal Center office in Israel, said; "genocide is an attempt to completely erase one nation [so] ... there was no genocide in [Bosnia-Herzegovina]", and that the Srebrenica massacre could not have been genocide because Serb forces had separated men from children and women. Zuroff welcomed the life sentence given by the ICTY to Ratko Mladić in November 2017 but said the Srebrenica massacre was not genocide. Menachem Rosensaft, who in 2015 clashed with Zuroff over his remarks, dismissed Zuroff's response to the Mladić verdict, calling those who did not consider the Srebrenica massacre genocide incorrect from a legal viewpoint. Norwegian war correspondent Ola Flyum released the documentaries A Town Betrayed (Norwegian: Byen som kunne ofres) and Sporene etter Sarajevo ("The Remnants of Sarajevo"), in 2010, provoking heated debate in Norway. The documentaries were first broadcast as part of the television series Brennpunkt by the state broadcaster NRK; five months later, the Norwegian Press Complaints Commission condemned A Town Betrayed for "violation of good press practice" following a complaint by the Norwegian Helsinki Committee. Flyum said he wanted to nuance the picture of Srebrenica by also discussing earlier brutalities perpetrated by Naser Orić in the neighbouring villages. The documentary did not engage in outright genocide denial but construed the massacre as something more spontaneous and chaotic than a calculated action by Serb forces. Flyum also tried to shift the blame from Mladić and Karadžić to Izetbegović and Orić, saying Srebrenica was a strategic sacrifice rather than a planned ethnic cleansing. The decision not exclude the ICTY's final verdicts in the documentary was vehemently criticized, in particular by Mirsad Fazlic, the Bosnian reporter of Slobodna Bosna whom Flyum had interviewed for the film and had worked with for four years. In 2012, Russian lawyer and opposition politician Mark Feygin who served as a volunteer sniper in the Army of Republika Srpska gave an interview where he stated that the ethnic cleansing campaigns commited in Bosnia by Serbian forces were "mutual mass murders" and said that Ratko Mladić was not involved in the organization of the Srebrenica massacre. Mladić was found guilty of committing war crimes and crimes against humanity (including the massacre in Srebrenica), by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY). According to Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer, the Srebrenica massacre was an "act of mass murder, but not genocide". Israeli historian Gideon Greif headed a commission that in July 2021 issued a report saying the Srebrenica massacre did not constitute genocide. The report cast Bosniaks as aggressors before the events of Srebrenica, and Bosnian Serbs as victims prior to 1995. ### Reactions Menachem Z. Rosensaft publicly confronted Efraim Zuroff, who said the Srebrenica massacre did not constitute genocide, saying for Zuroff to be able to condemn the perpetrators and mourn victims of the genocide Jewish people suffered during the World War II, he has to condemn the perpetrators and mourn the victims of all acts of genocide, including the Srebrenica masscare. He also responded to denialists' arguments, particularly those made by Steven T. Katz, William Schabas, and Zuroff, in an essay titled "Ratko Mladić's Genocide Conviction, and Why it Matters", which was published by Tablet Magazine on the day the ICTY found Ratko Mladić guilty of "genocide, extermination, murder, and other crimes against humanity and war crimes", and sentenced him to life imprisonment. According to Rosensaft: "It is unconscionable and reprehensible for anyone to tell Adisada that the horrors to which her fellow Bosnian Muslims—including quite possibly members of her own family—were subjected at Srebrenica did not constitute a genocide". To one of the denialists' arguments—number, intent, and the combination of these depending on occasion and context—Rosensaft said the ICTY's Krstić Appeals Chamber "unequivocally held that the number of victims was not a determinative factor in concluding whether or not a genocide had occurred", and that the Trial Chamber concluded "the Srebrenica massacre was indeed a genocide because it was an essential element of the intent to destroy the Muslim population of Eastern Bosnia as a whole". Rosensaft said Nehemiah Robinson, the Director of the Institute of Jewish Affairs of the World Jewish Congress, and a leading authority on the UN Genocide Convention, the term "genocide" "applies even if victims constitute only part of a group either within a country or within a region or within a single community, provided the number is substantial ... it will be up to the courts to decide in each case whether the number was sufficiently large". Rosenssaft added; "the courts have spoken clearly and unambiguously". In a Globe and Mail article on 7 May 1999, British author Salman Rushdie, described Handke's denial of genocide and apologias for Serbian Milošević's government as "idiocy". After Handke's play "Voyage by Dugout" was staged, Susan Sontag called him "finished" in New York. Other noted reactions included Alain Finkielkraut, who said Handke had become "an ideological monster", while according to Slavoj Žižek, Handke's "glorification of the Serbs is cynicism". Bosnian-American novelist and lecturer of creative writing at Princeton University, Aleksandar Hemon criticised the Nobel Committee's decision to award Handke a Nobel Prize in Literature, in a piece in The New York Times on 15 October 2019, for their Opinion column, calling Handke the "Bob Dylan of genocide apologists", while the Berlin-based Serbian novelist, Bora Ćosić, wrote: > This writer, the Austrian, has his very personal style. The very worst crimes get mentioned rather sweetly. And so the reader completely forgets that we're dealing with crimes. The Austrian writer who visited my country found only very proud people there. They proudly put up with everything that happened to them, so much so that in their pride they didn't bother to ask why all this was happening to them. While defending Handke, German novelist Martin Walser described the mood surrounding Handke, in relation to his opinions and attitude toward Bosnian Muslims' plight, said Handke "is just being completely dismissed, in every respect morally, politically and professionally", and that all is "part of the war mood which I find a bit frightening". ## See also - Genocide denial - Historical revisionism - Historical negationism - Far-right politics in Serbia ## Readings and presentations - Campbell, David Atrocity, memory, photography: imaging the concentration camps of Bosnia, two part series of detailed presentation of the case of ITN versus Living Marxism, by David Campbell, Professor of International Politics at the University of Newcastle, first published in Journal of Human Rights, March & June 2002. - SREBRENICA - Genocid u osam činova / Genocide in eight acts, SENSE News Agency, an online presentation (presentation contains material that some viewers may find disturbing) - Srebrenica – a 'Safe haven', Netherlands Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, an extensive Dutch government report on events in eastern Bosnia and the fall of Srebrenica. - Leydesdorff, Selma Surviving the Bosnian Genocide: The Women of Srebrenica Speak, translation by Kay Richardson. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011. - Lehrman, Sally Missing No Longer – International commission forges ahead to identify genocide victims (Archived old portal), Scientific American, 1 September 2006 (1 August 2006) - Cohen, Nick Decline and fall of the puppetmasters, The Guardian, 16 July 2011
19,045,093	National Archives of Malta	1,171,854,211	Official archive records repository	[ "1971 establishments in Malta", "Archives in Malta", "Maltese culture", "National archives" ]	The National Archives of Malta (Maltese: L-Arkivji Nazzjonali ta' Malta) is the central archive maintained by the Mediterranean island nation of Malta. The Archives has been housed in the Grandmaster's Palace for most of its lifetime, having moved to three separate locations during the late 1980s. In 1988, the Legal Documentation Section of the National Archives of Malta was opened, after records of court and tribunal hearings and decisions had been transferred to a Mdina facility beginning the previous year. A Gozo facility was opened soon after, and in 1994, the then-President of Malta, Ugo Mifsud Bonnici, officially opened the Archives' new Rabat head office and main facility. All of the Archives' locations feature a reading room, with facilities for researchers open to those over the age of sixteen who produce valid identification. In recent years, the National Archives of Malta has been increasing its presence on the Internet, in line with many of its national archival counterparts throughout the world. This effort has included enabling members of the public to search the records of the Archives online, and view a short description of what is contained in the records found. Other efforts have included the digitising of a number of the Archives' holdings, the release of many of the Archives' publications on its web site, the sale of copies of the Archives' holdings through its 'e-shop', and an online presence for Malta's National Memory Project, dedicated to eternalising the memories of those who have contributed to the history of Malta. ## History Efforts to establish a national archive began in 1971, when a Committee on the Preservation of Public Records was established by Guze’ Cassar Pullicino. One year later, in 1972, a section of Malta's public records at Casa Leoni was opened up to the public and research facilities were provided for the public's use. Initially under the oversight of Malta's Ministry for Justice and Parliamentary Affairs, the Archives moved to the Grandmaster's Palace, the home of the House of Representatives of Malta, within a few months. At that point, the government official in charge of the Archives was Michael Ellul. In January 1986, a governmental committee was established to discuss options for the management of Malta's public records. It was decided that a stand-alone National Archives of Malta would be established, to be headquartered in Rabat in a building that once housed a hospital. In addition, the Banca Giuratale in Mdina was identified as suitable to house the records of Malta's courts from the beginning of the occupation of Malta by the Knights Hospitaller to the early period of occupation by the United Kingdom. In September 1987, the transfer of court records to the Mdina building began and was completed in October 1988. The transfer of all other records to the Rabat facility was not completed until July 28, 1989, and the official opening of the building did not occur until May 28, 1994, when Ugo Mifsud Bonnici, the fifth President of Malta, presided over the opening. At that time, the officer in charge was Joe Caruana. The first regulating Act for the National Archives of Malta was Act IV, passed in 1990. Catalogues were published on CD-ROM, an annual lecture was established and an exhibition centre was opened. In 2005, Act V came into force, creating the post of National Archivist (currently Charles J. Farrugia) and created the National Archives as a legal person under the Government of Malta's umbrella. Since its opening, the National Archives have opened up three new facilities. ## Facilities and services The National Archives of Malta maintains three facilities across Malta. The first facility to be opened was the Legal Documentation Section, located in Mdina, which was opened in 1988. This facility is located in an old bank building and houses court and tribunal records dating back to those decisions made under the Knights Hospitaller. The second facility is the Archives' Gozo location, which holds over 9,000 items. The final facility to be opened was the Head Office, located in Rabat, which was officially opened in 1994. This facility houses most of Malta's official records, and is the Archives' main facility. The National Archives of Malta offers services available to all residents of Malta, although many of its on-site facilities are only open to residents over the age of sixteen years. The National Archives repositories contain reading rooms accessible to the public. Visitors are required to show identification to enter. The National Archives' reading rooms contain a reference library, printed catalogues, photocopying facilities, an information desk featuring a number of publications and fact sheets and tools for preserving Malta's records. Items stored in the archives may be accessed by members of the public by filling out a form. The records are then brought out to the requester's table. In addition, the National Archives features a number of maps, plans and drawings of various public location in Malta, as well as photography work on royal celebrations and reconstruction work. In addition, the National Archives of Malta offers a group and school visit program to increase public awareness of the records held there. Groups of 25 people or less may be taken through the Archives and shown what it has to offer, and school visits can be arranged in both the Archives' Rabat and Mdina locations. School students are shown through the Archives to increase awareness of what they have to offer and also shown how archived documents are handled. Students are also given the chance to experience the difficulty involved in cataloging and reorganising the Archives' items. ## Online services The National Archives of Malta, like its counterparts in other areas of the world, has been moving to increase the availability of its services on the Internet. A number of items in its collection have been, or are in the process of being, digitised, and a catalogue listing search, along with a short description of each item, is available online on the Archives' web site. The Archives releases many of its publications, including periodical newsletters, its annual report and the State of the Archives report, on its web site, and maintains an 'e-shop' to facilitate the sale of copies of some of its text and image holdings to interested members of the public. It is also possible to search the holdings of Malta's National Memory Project, a memory of those who have contributed to the history of Malta, through the Archives' web site. ## See also - List of national archives - National Library of Malta - Notarial Archives (Malta)
46,796,961	Medjed	1,170,795,687	Ancient Egyptian deity	[ "Book of the Dead", "Egyptian gods", "Internet memes", "Internet memes introduced in the 2010s" ]	In Ancient Egyptian religion, Medjed (Egyptological: mḏd) is a minor deity mentioned in certain copies of the Book of the Dead. While not much is known about the deity, his ghost-like depiction in the Greenfield papyrus has earned him popularity in modern Japanese culture, and he has appeared as a character in video games and anime. ## In the Book of the Dead The Book of the Dead is made up of a number of individual Ancient Egyptian funerary texts with accompanying illustrations. They are in general written on papyrus and were used from the earliest period of the New Kingdom (c. 1550 BCE) until around 50 BCE. These texts consist of magic spells, some of which are to grant the dead person mystical knowledge in the afterlife, or to give them control over the world around them through their journey in the Duat, or underworld. Of the Book of the Dead copies that have been found, a limited number reference an obscure entity in spell 17b named "Medjed" (also spelled "Metchet"), which means "The Smiter". In an English translation of the Papyrus of Ani, Raymond O. Faulkner renders the portion of the spell referring to Medjed as follows: > I know the name of that smiter [i.e., Medjed] among them who belongs to the House of Osiris, who shoots with his eyes, yet is unseen. The sky is encircled with the fiery blast of his mouth and Hāpi makes report, yet he is unseen. Apart from this short passage, nothing is known about Medjed. Hermann Grapow proposed that Medjed could refer to a star (given that Medjed is said to radiate light and to have a connection with the cyclical flooding of the Nile), but as Ilaria Cariddi notes, the name is never written with a star determinative. ### Visual depictions According to Illaria Cariddi, visual representations of Medjed can be found on only nine papyrus scrolls, all of which date to around the time of Egypt's Twenty-first Dynasty (1077–943 BCE). These scrolls (of which the Greenfield papyrus is arguably the most well-known) are as follows: In these scrolls, Medjed is depicted as a dome with eyes, supported by two human-like feet. A few scrolls also portray the deity with a red knotted belt above or below his eyes. The scholars E. A. Wallis Budge, H. Milde, and Mykola Tarasenko have argued that Medjed's dome-like torso is either a shroud or a "shapeless body" that symbolizes the deity's imperceptible nature, and Cariddi has proposed that Medjed's prominent eyes and legs could signify that he can "see, move and act even though humans cannot perceive him". In contrast, Bernard Bruyère and Terence DuQuesne have contended that Medjed is actually a personification of an oil jar, and that his red "belt" is actually a stylized lid fastener. ## In popular culture After the Greenfield papyrus illustrations were exhibited in 2012 at the Mori Art Museum in Tokyo and the Fukuoka Museum of Art, Medjed became an internet meme on Japanese social media, thanks largely to his "cartoon ghost"-like appearance. He has since entered into Japanese popular culture and has appeared in video games (e.g., Fate/Grand Order) and anime (e.g., Kamigami no Ki and Oh, Suddenly Egyptian God). ## Gallery ## See also - Medjed (fish), also worshipped in ancient Egyptian religion
10,325,868	Richard de Southchurch	1,037,497,868	English knight	[ "1294 deaths", "13th-century English people", "13th-century births", "High Sheriffs of Essex", "High Sheriffs of Hertfordshire", "Medieval English knights", "People from Southend-on-Sea", "People of the Barons' Wars" ]	Sir Richard de Southchurch (Suthchirche, Suthcherch) (died 1294) was a knight and part of the landowning aristocracy of Essex in the thirteenth century. He was High Sheriff of Essex and of Hertfordshire in the years 1265–67, and as such became involved in the Second Barons' War (1264–1267). Southchurch has earned a special place in the historiography of the period due to an episode during the war where he allegedly planned to attack London with incendiary cocks. ## Biography Little is known of Southchurch's background, but his family came from the manor of Southchurch, now part of Southend-on-Sea. Richard de Southchurch held this manor of the Prior and Convent of Christ's Church, Canterbury. He also held other land in the county of Essex, including Prittlewell, which he held in fee of the king. He served as sheriff of the combined shrievalties of Essex and Hertfordshire from 27 October 1265 to 12 June 1267. In 1279, he received a pardon and was acquitted of a fine of 100 shilling for being present at the theft of a hart at the king's forest of Chelmsford. In 1289 he was also acquitted of the great sum of 1000 pounds for perjury, in return for releasing the manor of Hatfield Peverel to the king. Southchurch was dead by 2 April 1294, when the escheator was ordered to deliver his lands to his son and heir, Peter de Southchurch. ## Involvement in Barons' War In the mid-1260s, England found herself in a state of civil war between king Henry III and members of his aristocracy, a conflict known as the Second Barons' War. In April 1267, Gilbert de Clare entered London with the baronial forces. The city welcomed him, and king Henry III had to set up camp at Stratford, besieging the capital. Orders were sent out to the sheriffs of Kent and Essex to procure supplies for the royal army. It was in this situation that Southchurch, in his capacity as sheriff, levied requisitions on Chafford Hundred of; > ...oats and wheat, of bacon, beef, cheese and pease, 'pur sustenir le ost au Rey'; of chickens to feed the wounded and tow and eggs to make dressings for their wounds and linen for bandages, of chord to make ropes for the catapults, of picks and calthrops and spades to lay low the walls of London, and finally of cocks, forty and more, to whose feet he declared he would tie fire, and send them flying into London to burn it down. The story survives through the Hundred Rolls, the great survey of the English hundreds made by Edward I, in 1274-5, on returning to his new kingdom from crusade. The scheme, impractical as it might seem, was supposedly based on contemporary sagas of Viking heroes. But the complaints of the local community were based on the fact that Southchurch had taken all the supplies home to his own manor of Southchurch, received 200 marks from the exchequer, yet never paid out any of what the owners of the goods were entitled to. ## Historical transmission The account of Southchurch's provisioning was first made available to a wider audience through the writings of the English historian Helen Cam. Cam was responsible for groundbreaking work on the Hundred Rolls, and their relevance to English local government, through her Studies in the Hundred Rolls (1921) and The Hundred and the Hundred Rolls (1930). In both of these she made mention of what she calls '...the most picturesque series of extortions recorded in the Essex returns.' It was, however, in a paper published in the English Historical Review as early as 1916 that she gave the most detailed account of Southchurch's plot. Here she traced the dissemination of the Viking legend through Geoffrey of Monmouth, and speculated that Southchurch could have been acquainted with a later version by Gaimar, Wace or Layamon, or through a local, popular legend. The story was later retold by Sir Maurice Powicke in his King Henry III and the Lord Edward (1947). Yet even though both Cam and Powicke had included the tale as a humorous anecdote, it was not until Michael Prestwich wrote his monograph of Edward I in 1988 that anyone considered the possibility that the story of the incendiary roosters was simply a 'confidence trick' on Southchurch's part. Powicke, in Prestwich's words; 'is to be counted among those who fell for the sheriff's ruse.' ## See also - Olga of Kiev
11,004,087	Live in Cook County Jail	1,128,585,143	null	[ "1971 live albums", "Albums produced by Bill Szymczyk", "B.B. King live albums", "MCA Records live albums", "Prison music" ]	Live in Cook County Jail is a 1971 live album by American blues musician B.B. King, recorded on September 10, 1970, in Cook County Jail in Chicago. Agreeing to a request by jail warden Winston Moore, King and his band performed for an audience of 2,117 prisoners, most of whom were young black men. King's set list consisted mostly of slow blues songs, which had been hits earlier in his career. When King told ABC Records about the upcoming performance, he was advised to bring along press and recording equipment. Live in Cook County Jail spent thirty-three weeks on the Billboard Top LPs chart, where it peaked at number twenty-five. It also reached number one on the Top R&B chart, King's only album to do so. In addition to positive reviews from critics, much of the press surrounding Live in Cook County Jail focused on the harsh living conditions in the prison, which led to an eventual reform. Although Live in Cook County Jail continues to receive praise as one of King's best albums, critics often overlook it in favor of 1965's Live at the Regal. Rolling Stone ranked Live in Cook County Jail at number 499 on its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, and in 2002, it was inducted into the Blues Foundation Hall of Fame. The performance at Cook County Jail had a profound impact on King, who not only continued to perform free concerts at prisons throughout his life, but also co-established the Foundation for the Advancement of Inmate Rehabilitation and Recreation. ## Background The warden of Cook County Jail, Winston Moore, approached King after a 1970 performance at the popular Chicago nightclub Mister Kelly's and asked him to perform for the prisoners at the jail. As King recalled: "He said to me, 'It's a first for you at Mister Kelly's and it's a first for me as a black person over here, so why don't we both get together and do another first and get you to play for the inmates?' That's how it came about." King agreed, and politician Jerry Butler (former singer for the Impressions) helped to arrange a special free concert at the jail. Recordings of prison concerts were becoming popular around this time, as indicated by At Folsom Prison by Johnny Cash. Biographer Sebastian Danchin noted this performance was not to cash in on this craze however, but instead was to deliver hope. "The prisoners saw King's visit as an all-too-rare recognition of their humanity" wrote Danchin. When King told his record label ABC Records that he was going to perform at Cook County Jail, label executives told him to bring along the press and recording equipment. King and his backing band were given a personalized tour of the prison, and were taken through the mess hall and hallway of cells. The musicians felt uncomfortable while walking through the prison; pianist Ron Levy described the stares from the prisoners as "hauntingly hollow". The musicians were given a small stage in the courtyard, while the prisoners were given hundreds of folding chairs. Live in Cook County Jail was recorded on the afternoon of September 10, 1970. King's backing band consisted of: Levy on the piano, John Browning on the trumpet, Louis Hubert on the tenor saxophone, Brooke Walker on the alto saxophone, Wilbert Freeman on the bass guitar, and Sonny Freeman on the drums. The crowd consisted of 2,117 prisoners, who were required to sit through the performance. Prisoners who wanted to dance were allowed to stand toward the back of the yard. Around 80% of the prisoners attended the performance, while the rest stayed in their cells. King estimated around 70 to 75% of the prisoners were black or of other minority races, and were either in their late teens or early twenties. Prison officials hired additional security for the event, mainly retired boxers. ## Composition and recording Live in Cook County Jail opens with a female official introducing members of the prison administration. A light applause is quickly followed by loud booing. The official then introduces King and his backing band, who begin to play a brief, fast tempo version of "Every Day I Have the Blues". The rest of the setlist in Live in Cook County Jail features slow blues tracks, with lyrical themes of separation and loneliness. King occasionally has conversations with the audience, such as on "Worry, Worry, Worry", where he tells the audience that men and women are God's gift to each other. Biographer David McGee describes these conversations as "a classic bit of bluesman as evangelist or soothsayer". The setlist in Live in Cook County Jail favors King's early hits – songs which had been in his live repertoire since the 1950s. "3 O'Clock Blues", "Darlin' You Know I Love You", and "Every Day I Have the Blues" were important hits early in his career, while "Please Accept My Love", "Worry, Worry, Worry", and "Sweet Sixteen" date from 1958–1960. The sole contemporary song, 1969's "The Thrill Is Gone", became one of King's biggest hits in recent years. Author Ulrich Adelt believes the setlist was chosen to elicit the feeling of nostalgia from the primarily black audience. To record the performance, producer Bill Szymczyk hired Aaron Baron, the owner of a company called Location Recorders, to record the show from a remote truck. Baron then gave Szymczyk the tapes to be mixed. ## Release and reception Live in Cook County Jail was released in January 1971, by ABC Records. The album cover features a photo of King playing a guitar lick against the background of blue prison walls and barred windows. It spent thirty-three weeks on the Billboard Top LPs chart, where it peaked at number twenty-five. It also spent thirty-one weeks on the Top R&B chart, and became King's only album to reach number one. Much of the press surrounding Live in Cook County Jail focused on the jail itself. Journalists interviewed many of the prisoners and learned how some of them had been awaiting their trial for over a year. "A TV network did a big story on that some time later on and they changed the system somewhat and that made me happy. I felt that we had done something good" said King. The press surrounding the jail also gave King greater exposure to a white audience, to the point where a Chicago Tribune reporter felt the need to define blues music for the mainstream readership. Live in Cook County Jail received positive reviews from critics. Variety wrote: "King's mellow guitar notes and soulful voice shine throughout." Billboard noted the prison setting brought upon new meanings to tracks like "Everyday I Have the Blues" and "Please Accept My Love", before ultimately writing: "King has done it again with this LP". John Landau of Rolling Stone wrote a more mixed review, where he criticized King's tendency to talk too much, as well as the audience's lack of enthusiasm. He did however like Freeman's drumming and King's guitar play, which he described as "in top form from beginning to end". ### Legacy Although Live in Cook County Jail continues to receive praise as one of King's best albums, critics often overlook it in favor of Live at the Regal. Ulrich Adelt believes this is because Live at the Regal is routinely cited by critics as one of the greatest blues albums ever made. Neither The Rolling Stone Album Guide or MusicHound Rock: The Essential Album Guide mention Live in Cook County Jail when discussing King's discography, and instead simply assign it a score. Reviewing in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981), Robert Christgau applauded King's "intensity" on renditions of older hits and said, "I prefer the horn arrangements on the Kent originals, but the unpredictable grit with which he snaps off the guitar parts makes up for any lost subtlety." Rolling Stone listed Live in Cook County Jail at number forty on its list of the greatest live albums ever made, and at number 499 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. Live in Cook County Jail's entry on the magazine's list of the greatest albums of all time states: "[King] won over the hostile prisoners with definitive versions of his blues standards and his crossover hit 'The Thrill Is Gone.'" In 2002, Live in Cook County Jail was inducted into the Blues Foundation Hall of Fame under the category of "Classic of Blues Recording – Album". The performance at Cook County Jail had a profound impact on King. Saddened by the underlying racist conditions endured by some of the black prisoners, King offered his services for free to not only Cook County Jail but also to other prisons willing to have him. By 1998, King had performed in over fifty prisons. He also established the Foundation for the Advancement of Inmate Rehabilitation and Recreation with attorney F. Lee Bailey in 1972. According to King: "I don't think that when a guy does something wrong he shouldn't be punished, but if he does it as a human being, he should pay for it as a human being." ## Track listing Writing credits adapted from the liner notes of the original 1971 release. Reissues and other recordings often list different writers. ## Personnel Personnel credits adapted from the liner notes of the original 1971 release. ### Musicians - B.B. King – guitar, vocals - Wilbert Freeman – bass - Sonny Freeman – drums - John Browning – trumpet - Louis Hubert – tenor saxophone - Booker Walker – alto saxophone - Ron Levy – piano ### Production - Producer – Bill Szymczyk - Engineer – Aaron Baron - Photography – Chester Sheard - Art Direction – Woody Woodward - Inner Liner Photos – Geoffrey Harding ## See also - List of Billboard number-one R&B albums of 1971
67,214,434	Hedgehog's Dilemma (Neon Genesis Evangelion)	1,162,404,940	null	[ "1995 Japanese television episodes", "Neon Genesis Evangelion episodes", "Science fiction television episodes" ]	"Hedgehog's Dilemma", also known by the Japanese title is the fourth episode of the anime Neon Genesis Evangelion, which was created by Gainax. The episode, written by Akio Satsukawa and directed by Tsuyoshi Kaga, was first broadcast on TV Tokyo on October 25, 1995. The series is set fifteen years after a worldwide cataclysm named Second Impact, and is mostly set in the futuristic, fortified city Tokyo-3. The episode's protagonist is Shinji Ikari, a teenage boy who is recruited by his father Gendo to the organization Nerv to pilot a giant bio-machine mecha named Evangelion into combat with beings called Angels. In the episode, Shinji is overcome by the stress of being an Evangelion pilot and runs away from home. After wandering around Tokyo-3, he must choose between quitting and staying at Nerv. Production of "Hedgehog's Dilemma" took place after the fifth and sixth episodes were made, and the content varied from the staff's original ideas. It is the only episode in which Neon Genesis Evangelion director Hideaki Anno is not credited with direction or screenplay. The episode's title references the namesake concept proposed by German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer, variously called the "hedgehog's" or the "porcupine's dilemma". The episode scored a 5.8% rating of audience share on Japanese TV and was generally well-received by critics. The episode received appreciation for focusing on the psychological description of the characters. Critics also appreciated the philosophical themes and directorial choices of "Hedgehog's Dilemma", such as the representation of natural landscapes and the use of still images. ## Plot Special agency Nerv Major Misato Katsuragi notices Shinji Ikari, a minor in her custody and official Evangelion pilot, has run away from home. Shinji aimlessly wanders around the city of Tokyo-3 and the countryside, and meets his classmate Kensuke Aida sleeping in a tent. In the morning, men in black escort Shinji back to Nerv headquarters, where he renounces the title of pilot and chooses to return to ordinary life. Shinji is taken to a station to board a special government train, and meets Kensuke and Toji Suzuhara, another of Shinji's classmates, who had struck him in the previous episode. Toji reconciles with Shinji under Kensuke's push. Misato drives to the station, believing Shinji has already left. She notices Shinji, who has decided not to board the train, on the platform, and they smile at each other. ## Production "Hedgehog's Dilemma" was once omitted in terms of the series composition, and it was planned that the fifth episode "Rei I" would come after the third, "A Transfer". After the battle against Angel Shamshel, Shinji would become friends with Toji Suzuhara and Kensuke Aida in "A Transfer", receiving a call from them. As production progressed, however, staff members said they thought there was a need to depict Shinji's relationships with the people around him after the third episode. "Hedgehog's Dilemma" was thus made with contents that differ from the original plans. Moreover, Neon Genesis Evangelion director Hideaki Anno had already worked on the fifth and sixth episodes of the series, and tried to go beyond regular anime and develop realistic characters with the installments. The episode's script was written after the fifth episode's script had already been finalized, making "Hedgehog's Dilemma" the only episode in which director Anno did not have direct input into the plot and script. Akio Satsukawa wrote the episode, while Junichi Sato, who is credited as Kiichi Jinme, drew the storyboard. Tsuyoshi Kaga directed the episode and Satoshi Shigeta served as chief animator. In 1993, a presentation volume of Neon Genesis Evangelion named "Proposal" (企画書, Kikakusho) was published. In the original project, the fourth episode should have been titled "14 years, the first day" (14歳、始まりの日, 14-sai, hajimari no hi); during the episode, Shinji's birthday would occur, but his father Gendo would have ignored the son without wishing him a happy birthday. Rei Ayanami would then attempt to make dinner for both of them, while Misato would decide something for Shinji. During production, the staff thought about opening and closing the episode with Misato reading the day's notes from her diary, but the idea was dropped and used for the movie Neon Genesis Evangelion: Death and Rebirth (1997). The draft script for "Hedgehog's Dilemma" also mentions dates that were cut from the broadcast, according to which the fourth episode spanned 15 to 18 July 2015. Furthermore, in a scene in which Shinji watches the disaster film about the Second Impact in a cinema, a "story within a story" script was created and dubbed for realism, including all of the film's main characters, who were voiced by Kōichi Nagano, Hiro Yūki, Megumi Hayashibara, Fumihiko Tachiki as the doctor, Tetsuya Iwanaga and Tomokazu Seki as his assistants. A frame in which Rei is analyzed in a computerized scanning was added in the following scenes, in which normal cells have been integrated with computer-generated effects. The Tokyo-3 signs in the night scene were also produced by the staff on the computer, and were later incorporated into the final drawings. During the episode, existing geographical places such as Atsugi, Gōra, the Ōwakudani valley, and Lake Ashi, are named and drawn. A fictional JRG train model named Odakyu 7700 series CHiSE was also drawn for the episode. Hayashibara and Hiro Yūki served as female and male speakers of the train, respectively. Hayashibara and Yūko Miyamura also voiced two prostitutes in a scene in which Shinji wanders Tokyo-3 at night. For the last scene, which is set in the New Hakone Yumoto station, staff took inspiration from the real Hakone-Yumoto Station. The stairs into which Shinji is led by the men in black were depicted as dark, similar to the corridors of a prison. Another Okadyu Romancecar train similar to the Odakyu 10000 series HiSE was drawn for the scene, along with a Renault Alpine A310 car without modifications driven by Misato. In the same sequence, the songs Bay Side Love Story – from Tokyo and Face from Masami Okui's album Gyuu (1995) were used as background music. A fifty-second-long take in which Shinji and Misato look at each other in the station was added as a conclusion to the episode. The take was originally supposed to be one minute long, but staff decided to cut it during production. British singer Claire Littley also sang a cover of "Fly Me to the Moon" which was later used as the episode's closing theme song, replaced in late home video editions by another cover by Yoko Takahashi. ## Cultural references and themes The episode's English title "Hedgehog's Dilemma" references the psychoanalytic concept of the porcupine's dilemma, mentioned for the first time in the previous episode and usually used to describe the behaviors of individuals with a borderline personality disorder. Like the porcupines of Arthur Schopenhauer's Parerga and Paralipomena, Shinji is afraid to be hurt and withdraws from human contact. His relationship with Misato Katsuragi follows Schopenhauer's concept, since they both hurt but look for each other. Misato is also a victim of the dilemma, and during the episode she realizes Shinji's loneliness and communication difficulties. Gualtiero Cannarsi, who curated the Italian adaptation of the series, noticed the characters get closer without hurting each other at the end of the episode. Schopenhauer originally named his concept after the porcupine, or Hystricidae (Stachelschweine in German); Evangelion staff however chose an alternative translation, since they wanted to portray Shinji as a hedgehog, an animal with smaller, blunter spines than those of a porcupine, suggesting more delicacy for the character. Furthermore, according to director Anno, when Shinji says "I'm back" at the New Hakone Yumoto station, the first stage of his growth journey ends. Shinji's temporary resignation from Nerv is a tribute to the television series The Prisoner, while writer Dani Cavallaro noticed that "Van Gogh-style sunflowers" appear in the scene in which Shinji wanders through campaign fields. Junichi Sato compared the third and the fourth episode of Evangelion to Mobile Suit Victory Gundam, while critic Mario Pasqualini likened the scene in which Shinji stops near a Jizō statue to a similar sequence in the film My Neighbor Totoro (1988). Cannarsi also noticed Kensuke plays a survivor game alone in "Hedgehog's Dilemma", comparing him to a military fan who appears in Otaku no Video (1991), a previous work by Gainax. Multiversity Comics' Matthew Garcia traced an influence on the episodes "A Transfer" and "Hedgehog's Dilemma" to Hideaki Anno's personal experience, particularly the production of his previous work, Nadia; according to him, like Anno on Nadia, Shinji is thrown "into a situation he didn't understand or have much investment in". The main theme of "A Transfer" and "Hedgehog's Dilemma" is interpersonal communication. No battle against an Angel is presented in the episode, which is entirely focused on the psychology of the characters instead. Cannarsi and Yūichirō Oguro, the editor of supplemental materials included in the Japanese edition of the series, noticed Evangelion characters have communication difficulties, except for Kensuke, who shows great communication skills in the episode. Kensuke takes advantage of his dialectical skills with his classmates Toji and Shinji in "Hedgehog's Dilemma", but they described his communicative ability as a defense mechanism that could mask loneliness and inner fragility. Walter Veit in Psychology Today compared Shinji's behavior to Jean-Paul Sartre's existentialist concept of bad faith and Albert Camus's "philosophical suicide" for his passivity and his submissive attitude. During the episode, Shinji flees from reality and listens to music with his Sony Digital Audio Tape, constantly repeating tracks 25 and 26; Carl Gustav Horn, editor of the English edition of the Evangelion manga, linked the tracks to the last two episodes of Evangelion, which close the series in an interrogative style. Moreover, Joshua Sorensen of Film Daze compared Shinji's attitude in "Hedgehog's Dilemma" to otakus, a Japanese term for young people who are obsessed with computers or particular aspects of pop culture to the detriment of their social skills. The series' assistant director Kazuya Tsurumaki, noting "distant, awkward communication" can be observed between Shinji and other characters in the first episodes, described Evangelion as a "story about communication" that is directed to the otakus, criticized by director Anno for being overly closed in on themselves. ## Reception "Hedgehog's Dilemma" aired on October 25, 1995, and scored a 5.8% rating of audience share on Japanese TV. The episode was generally well received by critics. Stephen Bijan, writing for The Verge, described "Hedgehog's Dilemma"'s plot as one of the great tensions of the series and Shinji's reactions as instructive; he also considered the episode as an example of the show capacity of "synthesizing its philosophical influences into a coherent, cohesive whole". Anime News Network's reviewer Nick Creamer described it as "harrowing" and a "wholly tonal, visually driven experience". EX.org's Peter Cahill praised "A Transfer" and "Hedgehog's Dilemma", but also stated "action fans might be a little disappointed in the story", since character psychology has a more prominent role in it than mecha fights. Max Covill of Film School Rejects ranked "Hedgehog's Dilemma" among the lowest of Neon Genesis Evangelion episodes; he criticized Shinji for being "whiny and unlikable", attributing the negative traits to the exclusion of Anno from the screenplay, but he also listed the scene of the colloquy between Shinji and Misato, with the Nerv logo in the background, among the "perfect shots" of the series. Anthony Gramuglia from Comic Book Resources defended Shinji's refusal to pilot the Eva and his weakness, comparing him to Amuro Ray from Mobile Suit Gundam, which he said was viewed "more favorably" by anime fans. The Animé Café Japanese reviewer Akio Nagatomi described the scene in which Kensuke plays a survivor game alone as an example of the "incongruous character traits" presented in the episode. He also said that the viewer is never concerned about the plot development, since "It's just not that well written". Jane Nagatomi similarly described the ending as "predictable enough", but praised the scene in which Shinji, Toji and Kensuke talk as "really cute", "definitely a touch different". For writer and anime critic Dani Cavallaro, Shinji's train ride in "Hedgehog's Dilemma" supplies a "paradigmatic example" of the series' directorial style, and said the silence surrounding Shinji as he attempts to flee his responsibilities "evokes with admirable conciseness his pathological separation from his fellow humans". Cavallaro also praised the exchange between Shinji and Misato after he escapes from home as "emotionally intense". Writer Dennis Redmond described the natural scenery around Tokyo-3 shown in the episode as "gorgeous". Forbes Lauren Orsini praised the final scene's still frame of Shinji and Misato, describing it as a "refreshing alternative" from the frenetic action of modern shows and "a silent response to the noise that allows us to look inward alongside these characters". The episode's philosophical component was generally appreciated by critics. Psychology Today's Walter Veit attributed the popularization of the concept of the porcupine dilemma to Evangelion. Official merchandise based on the episode has also been released, including lighters, umbrellas, and t-shirts.
3,538,206	Sallekhana	1,170,706,158	Voluntarily fasting to death by gradually reducing the intake of food and liquids in Jainism	[ "Fasting", "Jain ethics", "Religion and euthanasia", "Religion and suicide", "Suicide by starvation and dehydration", "Suicide types" ]	Sallekhana (IAST: ), also known as samlehna, santhara, samadhi-marana or sanyasana-marana, is a supplementary vow to the ethical code of conduct of Jainism. It is the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by gradually reducing the intake of food and liquids. It is viewed in Jainism as the thinning of human passions and the body, and another means of destroying rebirth-influencing karma by withdrawing all physical and mental activities. It is not considered a suicide by Jain scholars because it is not an act of passion, nor does it employ poisons or weapons. After the sallekhana vow, the ritual preparation and practice can extend into years. Sallekhana is a vow available to both Jain ascetics and householders. Historic evidence such as nishidhi engravings suggest sallekhana was observed by both men and women, including queens, in Jain history. However, in the modern era, death through sallekhana has been a relatively uncommon event. There is debate about the practice from a right to life vs right to die and a freedom of religion viewpoint. In 2015, the Rajasthan High Court banned the practice, considering it suicide. In 2016, the Supreme Court of India stayed the decision of the Rajasthan High Court and lifted the ban on sallekhana. ## Vow There are Five Great vows prescribed to followers of Jainism; Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (not lying), Asteya (not stealing), Brahmacharya (chastity), and Aparigraha (non-possession). A further seven supplementary vows are also prescribed, which include three Gunavratas (merit vows) and four Shiksha vratas (disciplinary vows). The three Gunavratas are: Digvrata (limited movements, limiting one's area of activity), Bhogopabhogaparimana (limiting the use of consumable and non-consumable things), and Anartha-dandaviramana (abstain from purposeless sins). The Shikshavratas include: Samayika (vow to meditate and concentrate for limited periods), Desavrata (limiting movement and space of activity for limited periods), Prosadhopavāsa (fasting for limited periods), and Atithi-samvibhag (offering food to the ascetic). Sallekhana is treated as a supplementary to these twelve vows. However, some Jain teachers such as Kundakunda, Devasena, Padmanandin, and Vasunandin have included it under Shikshavratas. Sallekhana (Sanskrit: Sallikhita) means to properly 'thin out', 'scour out', or 'slender' the passions and the body through gradually abstaining from food and drink. Sallekhana is divided into two components: Kashaya Sallekhana (slendering of passions) or Abhayantra Sallekhana (internal slendering) and Kaya Sallekhana (slendering the body) or Bahya Sallekhana (external slendering). It is described as "facing death voluntarily through fasting". According to Jain texts, Sallekhana leads to Ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury), as a person observing Sallekhana subjugates the passions, which are the root cause of Himsa (injury or violence). ## Conditions While Sallekhana is prescribed for both householders and ascetics, Jain texts describe conditions when it is appropriate. It should not be observed by a householder without the guidance of a Jain ascetic. Sallekhana is always voluntary, undertaken after the public declaration, and never assisted with any chemicals or tools. Fasting causes thinning away of the body by withdrawing by choice of food and water oneself. As death is imminent, the individual stops all food and water, with full knowledge of colleagues and spiritual counsellor. In some cases, Jains with terminal illness undertake sallekhana, and in these cases, they ask for permission from their spiritual counsellor. For a successful sallekhana, the death must be with "pure means", voluntary, planned, undertaken with calmness, peace and joy where the person accepts to scour out the body and focuses his or her mind on spiritual matters. Sallekhana differs from other forms of ritual deaths recognized in Jainism as appropriate. The other situations consider ritual death to be better for a mendicant than breaking his or her Five Great vows (Mahavrata). For example, celibacy is one of the Five vows, and ritual death is considered better than being raped or seduced or if the mendicant community would be defamed. A ritual death under these circumstances by consuming poison is believed to be better and allows for an auspicious rebirth. ## Procedure The duration of the practice can vary from a few days to years. The sixth part of the Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra describes Sallekhana and its procedure as follows: > Giving up solid food by degrees, one should take to milk and whey, then giving them up, to hot or spiced water. [Subsequently] giving up hot water also, and observing fasting with full determination, he should give up his body, trying in every possible way to keep in mind the pancha-namaskara mantra. Jain texts mention five transgressions (Atichara) of the vow: the desire to be reborn as a human, the desire to be reborn as a divinity, the desire to continue living, the desire to die quickly, and the desire to live a sensual life in the next life. Other transgressions include: recollection of affection for friends, recollection of the pleasures enjoyed, and longing for the enjoyment of pleasures in the future. The ancient Svetambara Jain text Acharanga Sutra, dated to about 3rd or 2nd century BCE, describes three forms of Sallekhana: the Bhaktapratyakhyana, the Ingita-marana, and the Padapopagamana. In Bhaktapratyakhyana, the person who wants to observe the vow selects an isolated place where he lies on a bed made of straw, does not move his limbs, and avoids food and drink until he dies. In Ingita-marana, the person sleeps on bare ground. He can sit, stand, walk, or move, but avoids food until he dies. In Padapopagamana, a person stands "like a tree" without food and drink until he dies. Another variation of Sallekhana is Itvara which consists of voluntarily restricting oneself in a limited space and then fasting to death. ## History ### Textual The Acharanga Sutra (c. 5th century BCE – c. 1st century BCE) describes three forms of the practice. Early Svetambara text Shravakaprajnapti notes that the practice is not limited to ascetics. The Bhagavati Sūtra (2.1) also describes Sallekhana in great detail, as it was observed by Skanda Katyayana, an ascetic of Mahavira. The 4th-century text Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra and the Svetambara text Nava-pada-prakarana also provide detailed descriptions. The Nava-pada-prakarana mentions seventeen methods of "voluntarily chosen death", of which it approves only three as consistent with the teachings of Jainism. The practice is also mentioned in the 2nd century CE Sangam-era poem Sirupanchamoolam. The Panchashaka makes only a cursory mention of the practice and it is not described in Dharmabindu – both texts by Haribhadra (c. 5th century). In the 9th century text "Ādi purāṇa" by Jinasena the three forms are described. Yashastilaka by Somadeva (10th century) also describes the practice. Other writers like Vaddaradhane (10th century) and Lalitaghate also describe the Padapopagamana, one of its forms. Hemchandra (c. 11th century) describes it in a short passage despite his detailed coverage of the observances of householders (Shravakachara). According to Tattvartha Sutra, "a householder willingly or voluntarily adopts Sallekhana when death is very near." According to the medieval era Jain text, Puruşārthasiddhyupāya, both the ascetics and the householder should "court voluntarily death at the end of life", thinking that only sallekhana is a pious death. The Silappadikaram (Epic of the Anklet) by the Jain prince-turned-monk, Ilango Adigal, mentions Sallekhana by the Jain nun, Kaundi Adigal. ### Archeological In South India, especially Karnataka, a memorial stone or footprint is erected to commemorate the death of a person who observed Sallekhana. This is known as Nishidhi, Nishidige or Nishadiga. The term is derived from the Sanskrit root Sid or Sad which means "to attain" or "waste away". These Nishidhis detail the names, dates, the duration of the vow, and other austerities performed by the person who observed the vow. The earliest Nishidhis (6th to 8th century) mostly have an inscription on the rock without any symbols. This style continued until the 10th century when footprints were added alongside the inscription. After the 11th century, Nishidhis are inscribed on slabs or pillars with panels and symbols. These slabs or pillars were frequently erected in mandapas (pillared pavilions), near basadi (temples), or sometimes as an inscription on the door frame or pillars of the temple. In Shravanabelgola in Karnataka, ninety-three Nishidhis are found ranging from circa the 6th century to the 19th century. Fifty-four of them belong to the period circa the 6th to the 8th century. It is believed that a large number of Nishidhis at Shravanabelgola follow the earlier tradition. Several inscriptions after 600 CE record that Chandragupta Maurya (c. 300 BCE) and his teacher Bhadrabahu observed the vow atop Chandragiri Hill at Sharavnabelagola. Historians such as R. K. Mookerji consider the accounts unproven, but plausible. An undated inscription in old Kannada script is found on the Nishidhi from Doddahundi near Tirumakudalu Narasipura in Karnataka. Historians such as J. F. Fleet, I. K. Sarma, and E.P. Rice have dated it to 840 or 869 CE by its textual context. The memorial stone has a unique depiction in frieze of the ritual death (Sallekhana) of King Ereganga Nitimarga I (r. 853–869) of the Western Ganga Dynasty. It was raised by the king's son Satyavakya. In Shravanabelgola, the Kuge Brahmadeva pillar has a Nishidhi commemorating Marasimha, another Western Ganga king. An inscription on the pillar in front of Gandhavarna Basadi commemorates Indraraja, the grandson of the Rashtrakuta King Krishna III, who died in 982 after observing the vow. The inscriptions in South India suggest sallekhana was originally an ascetic practice that later extended to Jain householders. Its importance as an ideal death in the spiritual life of householders ceased by about the 12th century. The practice was revived in 1955 by the Digambara monk Acharya Santisagara. ### Modern Sallekhana is a respected practice in the Jain community. It has not been a "practical or general goal" among Svetambara Jains for many years. It was revived among Digambara monks. In 1955, Acharya Shantisagar, a Digambara monk took the vow because of his inability to walk without help and his weak eye-sight. In 1999, Acharya Vidyanand, another Digambara monk, took a twelve-year-long vow. Between 1800 and 1992, at least 37 instances of Sallekhana are recorded in Jain literature. There were 260 and 90 recorded Sallekhana deaths among Svetambara and Digambara Jains respectively between 1993 and 2003. According to Jitendra Shah, the Director of L D Institute of Indology in Ahmedabad, an average of about 240 Jains practice Sallekhana each year in India. Most of them are not recorded or noticed. Statistically, Sallekhana is undertaken both by men and women of all economic classes and among the educationally forward Jains. It is observed more often by women than men. ## Legality and comparison with suicide Jain texts make a clear distinction between the Sallekhana and suicide. Its dualistic theology differentiates between soul and matter. The soul is reborn in the Jain belief based on accumulated karma, how one dies contributes to the karma accumulation, and a pious death reduces the negative karmic attachments. The preparation for sallekhana must begin early, much before the approach of death, and when death is imminent, the vow of Sallekhana is observed by progressively slenderising the body and the passions. The comparison of Sallekhana with suicide is debated since the early time of Jainism. The early Buddhist Tamil epic Kundalakesi compared it to suicide. It is refuted in the contemporary Tamil Jain literature such as in Neelakesi. Professor S. A. Jain cites differences between the motivations behind suicide and those behind Sallekhana to distinguish them: > It is argued that it is suicide since there is voluntary severance of life etc. No, it is not suicide, as there is no passion. Without attachment etc, there is no passion in this undertaking. A person who kills himself by means of poison, weapon, etc, swayed by attachment, aversion or infatuation, commits suicide. But he who practices holy death is free from desire, anger, and delusion. Hence it is not suicide. Champat Rai Jain, a Jainist scholar, wrote in 1934: > Soul is a simple substance and as such immortal. Death is for compounds whose dissolution is termed disintegration and death is when it has reference to a living organism, that is a compound of spirit and matter. By dying in the proper way will is developed, and it is a great asset for the future life of the soul, which, as a simple substance, will survive bodily dissolution and death. The true idea of Sallekhana is only this when death does appear at last one should know how to die, that is one should die like a man, not like a beast, bellowing and panting and making vain efforts to avoid the unavoidable. Modern-era Indian activists have questioned this rationale, calling the voluntary choice of death an evil similar to sati, and have attempted to legislate and judicially act against this religious custom. Article 21 of the Constitution of India, 1950, guarantees the right to life to all persons within the territory of India and its states. In Gian Kaur vs The State Of Punjab, the state high court ruled, "... 'right to life' is a natural right embodied in Article 21 but suicide is an unnatural termination or extinction of life and, therefore, incompatible and inconsistent with the concept of the right to life". Nikhil Soni vs Union of India (2006), a case filed in the Rajasthan High Court, citing the Aruna Ramchandra Shanbaug vs Union Of India case related to euthanasia, and the Gian Kaur case, argued, "No person has a right to take his own life consciously, as the right to life does not include the right to end the life voluntarily." So the petitioner cited Sallekhana as suicide and thus punishable under Section 309 (attempt to commit suicide). The case also extended to those who helped facilitate the deaths of individuals observing Sallekhana, finding they were culpable under Section 306 (abetment of suicide) with aiding and abetting an act of suicide. It was also argued that Sallekhana "serves as a means of coercing widows and elderly relatives into taking their own lives". An attempt to commit suicide was a crime under Section 309 of the Indian Penal Code. In response, the Jain community argued that prohibiting the practice is a violation of their freedom of religion, a fundamental right guaranteed by Article 15 and Article 25 of the Constitution of India. The book Sallekhana Is Not Suicide by former Justice T. K. Tukol was widely cited in the court which opined that "Sallekhana as propounded in the Jaina scriptures is not suicide." The Rajasthan High Court stated that "[The Constitution] does not permit nor include under Article 21 the right to take one's own life, nor can it include the right to take life as an essential religious practice under Article 25 of the Constitution". It further added that it is not established that Sallekhana is an essential practise of Jainism and therefore not covered by Article 25 (1). So the High Court banned the practice in August 2015 making it punishable under Sections 306 (abetment of suicide) and 309 (attempt to commit suicide). Members of the Jain community held nationwide protest marches against the ban on Sallekhana. Advocate Suhrith Parthasarathy criticised the judgement of the High Court and wrote, "Sallekhana is not an exercise in trying to achieve an unnatural death, but is rather a practice intrinsic to a person's ethical choice to live with dignity until death." He also pointed out that the Supreme Court in the Gian Kaur case explicitly recognises the right to live with human dignity within the ambit of the right to life. He further cited that the Supreme Court wrote in the said case, "[The right to life] may include the right of a dying man to also die with dignity when his life is ebbing out. But the right to die with dignity at the end of life is not to be confused or equated with the right to die an unnatural death curtailing the natural span of life." On 31 August 2015, the Supreme Court admitted the petition by Akhil Bharat Varshiya Digambar Jain Parishad and granted leave. It stayed the decision of the High Court and lifted the ban on the practice. In April 2017, the Indian parliament decriminalised suicide by passing the Mental Healthcare Act, 2017. ## In Hinduism and Buddhism There are similar practices in other religions, like Prayopavesa in Hinduism and Sokushinbutsu in Buddhism. The ancient and medieval scholars of Indian religions discussed suicide, and a person's right to voluntarily choose death. Suicide is approved by Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina texts. For those who have renounced the world (sannyasi, sadhu, yati, bhikshu), the Indian texts discuss when ritual choice of death is appropriate and what means of voluntarily ending one's life are appropriate. The Sannyasa Upanishads, for example, discuss many methods of religious death, such as slowing then stopping the consumption of foods and drinks to death (similar to sallekhana), walking into a river and drowning, entering fire, a path of the heroes, and the Great Journey. Scholars disagree whether "voluntary religious death" discussed in Indian religions is same as other forms of suicide. ## See also - Jīva (Jainism) - Death in Jainism - Jain philosophy - Moksha (Jainism) - Catharist endura
23,294,664	Dominant white	1,173,169,598	Horse coat color and its genetics	[ "Horse coat colors" ]	Dominant white (W) is a group of genetically related coat color alleles on the KIT gene of the horse, best known for producing an all-white coat, but also able to produce various forms of white spotting, as well as bold white markings. Prior to the discovery of the W allelic series, many of these patterns were described by the term sabino, which is still used by some breed registries. White-colored horses are born with unpigmented pink skin and white hair, usually with dark eyes. Under normal conditions, at least one parent must be dominant white to produce dominant white offspring. However, most of the currently-known alleles can be linked to a documented spontaneous mutation that began with a single ancestor born of non-dominant white parents. Horses that exhibit white spotting will have pink skin under the white markings, but usually have dark skin beneath any dark hair. There are many different alleles that produce dominant white or white spotting; as of 2022 they are labeled W1 through W28 and W30 through W35, plus the first W allele discovered was named Sabino 1 (SB-1) instead of W1. They are associated with the KIT gene. The white spotting produced can range from white markings like those made by W20, to the irregularly-shaped or roaning patterns previously described as Sabino, to a fully white or almost fully white horse. For many of the W alleles, the white coats are, as the name suggests, inherited dominantly, meaning that a horse only needs one copy of the allele to have a white or white spotted coat. In fact, some such alleles may be embryonic lethal when homozygous. Others, such as SB-1 and W20, are incomplete dominants, capable of producing viable offspring with two copies of the gene, and who generally have more white than horses with only one copy. In addition, different alleles which on their own give a white-spotted but not completely white horse, such as W5 and W10, can combine to make a horse completely white. White can occur in any breed, and has been studied in many different breeds. Because of the wide range of patterns produced, some suggest the family be called “white spotting” rather than “white.” Other researchers suggest the term "dominant white" be used only for the W alleles thought to be embryonic lethal when homozygous. White is both genetically and visually distinct from gray and cremello. Dominant white is not the same as lethal white syndrome, nor are white horses "albinos"—Tyrosinase negative albinism has never been documented in horses. ## Description Although the term "dominant white" is typically associated with a pure white coat, such horses may be all-white, near-white, partially white, or exhibit an irregular spotting pattern similar to that of sabino horses. To add to the confusion, at least some horses in each of those groups might be referred to as "dominant white", "white spotted", or "sabino". The amount of white hair depends on which KIT alleles are involved. At birth, most of the white hair is rooted in unpigmented pink skin. The pink skin lacks melanocytes, and appears pink from the underlying network of capillaries. White spotting is not known to affect eye color, and most white horses have brown eyes. ### White or near-white White horses are born with pink skin and a white coat, which they retain throughout their lives. The genetic factors that produce an all-white horse are often also capable of producing a near-white horse, which is mostly white but has some areas that are pigmented normally. Near-white horses most commonly have color in the hair and skin along the topline (dorsal midline) of the horse, in the mane, and on the ears. The color is often interspersed as specks or spots on a white background. In addition, the hooves are usually white, but may have striping if there is pigmented skin on the coronary band just above the hoof. In some cases, foals born with residual non-white hair may lose some or all of this pigment with age, without the help of the gray factor. ### White spotting White spotting from a W allele is difficult to identify visually, as it can range from small white markings in the case of a heterozygous W20 horse all the way to an obvious pinto pattern. In addition, even completely white horses can have genes which by themselves would only give white spotting, such as W20 combined with W22 or W5 combined with W10. As such, the only reliable way to find out whether a horse has one of the known white spotting patterns from an allele on KIT is to have it genetically tested. ## Prevalence Dominant white is one of several potential genetic causes for horses with near-white or completely white coats; it may occur through spontaneous mutation, and thus may be found unexpectedly in any breed, even those that discourage excessive white markings. To date, forms of dominant white have been identified in Thoroughbreds, Standardbreds, American Quarter Horses, Frederiksborg horses, Icelandic horses, Shetland ponies, Franches Montagnes horses, South German Draft horses, and the Arabian horse. The American White Horse, which is descended primarily from one white stallion crossed on non-white mares, is known for its white coat, as is the Camarillo White Horse. ## Inheritance The W locus was mapped to the KIT gene in 2007. KIT is short for "KIT proto-oncogene receptor tyrosine kinase". White spotting is caused by multiple forms, or alleles, of the KIT gene. All horses possess the KIT gene, as it is necessary for survival even at the earliest stages of development. The presence or absence of dominant white is based on the presence of certain altered variants of KIT. Each unique form is called an allele, and for every trait, all animals inherit one allele from each parent. The original or "normal" form of KIT, which is expected in horses without dominant white spotting, is called the "wild type" allele. Thus, a dominant white horse has at least one KIT allele with a mutation associated with dominant white spotting. ### Allelic series The KIT gene contains over 2000 base pairs, and a change in any of those base pairs results in a mutant allele. Over forty seven such alleles have been identified by sequencing the KIT genes of various horses. The resultant phenotype of many of these alleles is not yet known, but over 30 have been linked to white spotting. DNA tests can identify if a horse carries the identified W alleles. - SB-1 (Sabino 1) was first identified in 2005. The allele was designated with "SB" in an attempt to align with traditional equine coat color terminology. It is located on the KIT gene and is a single nucleotide polymorphism designated KI16+1037A. The mutation results in the skipping of exon 17.When heterozygous, it creates a distinctive white spotting pattern of irregular, rough-edged white patches that usually include two or more white feet or legs, a blaze, spots or roaning on the belly or flanks, and jagged margins to white markings. Homozygous foals are typically at least 90% white-coated at birth, and sometimes termed "Sabino-White." - W1 was the second KIT allele found to be involved in horse coat color. The researchers who discovered W1-4 decided to name them "W" following the convention in mice, rather than continuing the "SB" series. W1 is found in Franches Montagnes horses descended from a white mare named Cigale born in 1957. Cigale's parents' coats were not extensively marked. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), a type of mutation in which a single nucleotide is accidentally exchanged for another, is thought to have occurred with Cigale. This mutation (c.2151C\>G) is predicted to truncate the protein in the middle of the tyrosine kinase domain, which would severely affect the function of KIT. It is a nonsense mutation located on exon 15 of KIT. Some horses with the W1 mutation are born pure white, but many have residual pigment along the topline, which they may then lose over time. Based on studies of KIT mutations in mice, the severity of this mutation suggests that it may be nonviable in the homozygous state. However, horses with the W1 mutation have been found to have normal blood parameters and do not suffer from anemia. - W2 is found in Thoroughbred horses descended from KY Colonel, a stallion born in 1946. While KY Colonel was described as a chestnut with extensive white markings, he is known for siring a family of pure white horses through his white daughter, White Beauty, born in 1963. His son War Colors was registered as roan because he had some spots of color, but later became white. The W2 allele is linked to a single nucleotide polymorphism (c.1960G\>A), a missense mutation where a glycine is replaced with arginine (p.G654R) in the protein kinase domain, located on exon 17. - W3 is found in Arabian horses descended from R Khasper, a near-white stallion born in 1996. Neither of his parents were white, and the causative mutation (c.706A\>T) is thought to have originated with this horse. It is a nonsense mutation on exon 4, predicted to truncate the protein in the extracellular domain. Horses with the W3 allele often retain interspersed flecks or regions of pigmented skin and hair, which may fade with time. Some members of this family possess blue eyes, but these are thought to be inherited separately from the white coat. Based on similar studies in mice, researchers have named W3 as potentially homozygous nonviable. - W4 is found in Camarillo White Horses, a breed characterized by a white coat, beginning with a spontaneous white stallion born in 1912 named Sultan. Like W1 and W3, these horses may be pure white or near-white, with pigmented areas along the topline that fade with time. This mutation is an SNP (c.1805C\>T) which produces a missense mutation replacing alanine with valine in the kinase domain, on exon 12. - W5 is found in Thoroughbreds descending from Puchilingui, a 1984 stallion with sabino-like white spotting and roaning. Horses with the W5 allele exhibit a huge range in white phenotype: a few have been pure white or near-white, while others have sabino-like spotting limited to high, irregular stockings and blazes that covered the face. Twenty-two members of this family were studied, and the 12 with some degree of white spotting were found to have a deletion in exon 15 (p.T732QfsX9), in the form of a frameshift mutation. A later study found that the members of this family with the greatest depigmentation were compound heterozygotes who also carried the W20 allele. - W6 is found in one near-white Thoroughbred named Marumatsu Live born to non-white parents in 2004. The potential range of expressivity, therefore, is not yet known. The mutation (c.856G\>A) is thought to have occurred spontaneously in this horse. It is a missense mutation on exon 5. - W7 is found in another near-white Thoroughbred named Turf Club born in 2005 to a dam that had nine other offspring, all non-white. The dam did not possess the W7 allele, which results from a splice site mutation (c.338-1G\>C), located on intron 2 of KIT. - W8 was found in an Icelandic horse with sabino-like white spotting, mottling, and roaning, named Þokkadís vom Rosenhof. Both parents and four maternal half-siblings, all non-white, were found without the W8 allele. The W8 allele is also a splice site mutation (c.2222-1G\>A), located on intron 15. - W9 was found in an all-white Holsteiner horse with a single nucleotide polymorphism (c.1789G\>A). No relatives were studied, but both parents are non-white. It is a missense mutation on exon 12. - W10 was found in a study of 27 horses in a family of American Quarter Horses, 10 of which were white or spotted and 17 that were solid and non-white. The 10 family members with W10 had a frameshifting deletion in exon 7 (c.1126_1129delGAAC). Like W5, a wide range of phenotypes were observed. The most modestly marked had large amounts of white on the face and legs and some medium-sized belly spots, while another was nearly all-white. The founder of this line was GQ Santana, foaled in 2000. - W11 is found in a family of South German Draft Horses descending from a single white stallion, in which the causative mutation is thought to have originated. The stallion is suspected to be Schimmel, foaled in 1997. The mutation responsible for the W11 phenotype is a splice site mutation of intron 20 (c.2684+1G\>A). - W12 was found in a single Thoroughbred colt, about half white, who both was born and died in 2010. The mutation is a deletion mutation found on exon 3. - W13 causes a fully white phenotype, and appears to be homozygous lethal. It was first found in a family Quarter Horse and Paso Peruviano crossbreds, and since has been seen in multiple horse and pony breeds, including some not descended from Quarter horse ancestors. The cause is a splice site mutation on intron 17. - W14 is a deletion mutation on exon 17, found in Thoroughbreds. The founder is suspected to be Shirayukihime, born in 1996. Horses with this mutation are usually fully white but may have some spots of color. - W15 is found in Arabians, and is a missense mutation on exon 10. The founder is suspected to be Khartoon Khlassic, born in 1996. Horses heterozygous for W15 tend to be partially white, while homozygotes are fully white. - W16 is found in the Oldenburger and is a missense mutation on exon 18. The three horses studied looked like roany sabinos or near whites, and the founder is suspected to be Celene, born in 2003. - W17 is found in a Japanese Draft horse and is a pair of missense mutations on exon 14. The horse studied was white with one brown eye and one blue eye. - W18 is a splice site mutation on intron 8 (c.1346 +1G\>A) found in a bay Swiss Warmblood named Colorina von Hoff, who had extensive speckling. Both parents were solid-colored and had no extended head or leg markings. - W19 was found in three part-Arabians with bald face markings, white leg markings extending above the knees and hocks, and irregular belly spots. All three horses tested negative for sabino-1, frame overo and splashed white. W19 is a missense mutation on exon 8 (c.1322A.G; p.Tur41Cys). The founder is suspected to be Fantasia Vu, born in 1990. W19 causes a bald face, extensive leg white, and belly spots. One horse has tested as W19/W19, indicating this allele is likely not homozygous lethal. However, all W19/W19 have presented at birth as max white and all that have been tested at maturity have been sterile. In Europe this was confirmed with extensive testing - W20 is associated with bold face and leg markings, and can greatly increase the amount of white when combined with certain other white patterns. The W20 sequence was first discovered in 2007, but was not recognized for its effect on coat color until 2013. Horses with one copy of W5 or W22 combined with one copy of W20 tend to be white or nearly all white. W20 on its own does tend towards adding white. W20 has been found in many breeds including the German Riding Pony, German Warmblood, Thoroughbred, Oldenburger, Welsh pony, Quarter horse, Paint horse, Appaloosa, Noriker, Old-Tori, Gypsy horse, Morgan horse, Clydesdale horse, Franches-Montagnes, Marwari horse, South German Draft, Paso Peruano, Camarillo White Horse, and Hanoverian horse. W20 is a missense mutation on exon 14 (c.2045G\>A; p.Arg682His). - W21 is a single nucleotide deletion found in Icelandics. The founder is Ellert frá Baldurshaga, who has a mostly white face with speckles and irregular patches of white across his body. The color has been named "ýruskjóttur". - W22 is a deletion thought to have originated in the Thoroughbred mare Not Quite White, born in 1989. She passed it to her two foals Airdrie Apache and Spotted Lady. On its own, W22 is sabino-like, but when paired with W20, it gives a completely white horse. - W23 was found in the white Arabian stallion Boomori Simply Stunning, who had two white foals Meadowview Ivory and Just a Dream. However, the line appears to have died out. - W24 is a mutation that disrupts splicing of KIT. The founder is a white Trottatore Italiano named Via Lattea, born in 2014. - W25 is a missense mutation on exon 4. The founder is suspected to be the Australian Thoroughbred mare Laughyoumay. She has had one pure white foal with blue eyes, who also carries frame, and one near-white colt with some color on and around the ears. - W26 is a single base pair deletion suspected to have originated with the Australian Thoroughbred mare Marbrowell, born in 1997. - W27 is a missense mutation thought to originate with the Australian Thoroughbred mare Milady Fair. Most horses with this mutation are descended from her great-grand-colt, Colorful Gambler, who has an extensive sabino-like pattern. - W28 is a deletion found in a German Riding Pony. - W29 has not been assigned. - W30 is found in a family of Berber horses. It is a missense mutation identical to the second missense mutation in W17. The horses with W30 are white or almost fully white. - W31 traces to an American Quarter Horse stallion, Cookin Merada. It leads to an early stop on the KIT protein sequence, truncating the protein. - W32 was found in a family of American Paint Horses, and seems to have a mild effect leading to high white on the limbs, belly spots and white facial markings. It is unclear whether the SNP described is actually the causative mutation, or merely linked to it. - W33 is a de novo variant found in a Standardbred horse that results in sabino-like white spotting. - W34 is a missense mutation linked to increased white spotting, found in multiple breeds including the American Paint Horse, American Quarter Horse, Appaloosa, Arabian, Mangalarga, Morgan, Mustang, Rocky Mountain horse and some Warmblood breeds. - W35 is associated with more white than is usually seen on Quarter horses. Researchers found a mutation in the untranslated region on the 5' side of KIT that correlates with the increased white, but it may only be a nearby marker rather than the actual cause. This variant is also called "Holiday" after the horse in which it was discovered. Some horses are homozygous for the marker. - Classic Roan is associated with the KIT gene. - Tobiano is caused by an inversion starting about 100 kb downstream of KIT, and is also considered an allele of KIT. These alleles do not account for all dominantly inherited white spotting in horses. More KIT alleles are expected to be found with roles in white spotting. Most W alleles occur within a specific breed or family and arise as spontaneous mutations. KIT appears to be prone to mutation, in part due to its many exons, so new alleles of W can occur in any breed. There are likely many KIT variants in the global horse population that have not yet been investigated. ### Relation to sabino Sabino can refer either specifically to Sabino 1 (SB1) or to a variety of visually similar spotting patterns. SB1 creates a nearly pure white horse when homozygous, and bold spotting when heterozygous. To add to the confusion, white spotting created by several W alleles, such as W5, W15, and W19 creates patterns that historically were called sabino. For that reason, the use of the word "sabino" is evolving. Genetically, Sabino 1 is simply another allele on KIT, and thus can be classified in the same “family” of KIT mutations as the alleles labeled W or dominant white. In its homozygous form, Sabino 1 can be confused with dominant white alleles such as W1, W2, W3, or W4 that create a white or near-white horse with only one copy. Both dominant white and "Sabino-White" horses are identified by all-white or near-white coats with underlying pink skin and dark eyes, often with residual pigment along the dorsal midline. However, it takes two copies of Sabino 1 to produce a Sabino-white horse, and Sabino 1 is not homozygous lethal. Initially, dominant white was separated from sabino on the grounds that the former had to be entirely white, while the latter could possess some pigment. However, the 2007 and 2009 studies of dominant white showed that many dominant white alleles produce a range of white phenotypes that include horses with pigmented spots in their hair and skin. Each of the larger families of dominant white studied included pure-white horses, horses described as having "sabino-like" white markings, as well as white horses described as "maximal sabino". More recently, dominant white and sabino were distinguished from one another on the grounds that dominant white alleles produce nonviable embryos in the homozygous state, while Sabino 1 was viable when homozygous. However, not all KIT alleles currently identified as "dominant white" have been proven lethal, and in fact W20 is known to be viable in the homozygous form. The similarities between Dominant White and Sabino 1 reflect their common molecular origin: The W series and SB1 have both been mapped to KIT. The researchers who mapped Sabino 1 in 2005 suggested that other sabino-like patterns might also map to KIT, which has been the case for many other alleles discovered since that time, including major alleles for white leg and facial markings that have also been mapped to or near to the KIT gene. ### Molecular genetics The KIT gene encodes a protein called steel factor receptor, which is critical to the differentiation of stem cells into blood cells, sperm cells, and pigment cells. A process called alternative splicing, which uses the information encoded in the KIT gene to make slightly different proteins (isoforms) for use in different circumstances, may impact whether a mutation on KIT affects blood cells, sperm cells, or pigment cells. Steel factor receptor interacts chemically with steel factor or stem cell factor to relay chemical messages. These messages are used during embryonic development to signal the migration of early melanocytes (pigment cells) from the neural crest tissue to their eventual destinations in the dermal layer. The neural crest is a transient tissue in the embryo that lies along the dorsal line. Melanocytes migrate along the dorsal line to a number of specific sites: near the eye, near the ear, and the top of the head; six sites along each side of the body, and a few along the tail. At these sites, the cells undergo a few rounds of replication and differentiation, and then migrate down and around the body from the dorsal aspect towards the ventral aspect and the limb buds. The timing of this migration is critical; all white markings, from a small star to a pure white coat, are caused by the failed migration of melanocytes. A certain degree of the eventual amount of white, and its "design", is completely random. The development of an organism from single-celled to fully formed is a process with many, many steps. Even beginning with identical genomes, as in clones and identical twins, the process is unlikely to occur the same way twice. A process with this element of randomness is called a stochastic process, and cell differentiation is, in part, a stochastic process. The stochastic element of development is partly responsible for the eventual appearance of white on a horse, potentially accounting for nearly a quarter of the phenotype. The research team that studied dominant white cited "subtle variations in the amount of residual KIT protein" as a potential cause for the variability in phenotype of horses with the same allele. They also speculated that variability in the phenotype of horses with W1 might be caused by "different efficacies of [nonsense-mediated decay] in different individuals and in different body regions." That is, some horses destroy more of the mutant KIT protein than others. ### Lethality Early embryonal lethality, also known as early embryonic death or a non-viable embryo, may occur when the embryo possesses two copies of certain dominant white alleles. The reason for this is that several mutations of W are caused by nonsense mutations, frameshift mutations or DNA deletions, which, if homozygous, would make it impossible to produce a functional KIT protein. However, it appears that not all W alleles are embryonic lethals. Homozygous embryos from alleles of certain missense and splice site mutations are sometimes viable, apparently because they have less effect on gene function. For instance, W1 is a nonsense mutation and it is thought that horses with the genotype W1/W1 would die in utero, while W20 is a missense mutation and living horses with the W20/W20 genotype have been found. A 2013 study also located horses that were compound W5/W20 heterozygotes, almost completely white, essentially with greater depigmentation than could be accounted for by either allele alone. ## "White" horses that are not dominant white White horses are potent symbols in many cultures. An array of horse coat colors may be identified as "white", often inaccurately, and many are genetically distinct from "dominant white". "Albino" horses have never been documented, despite references to so-called "albino" horses. Dominant white is caused by the absence of pigment cells (melanocytes), whereas albino animals have a normal distribution of melanocytes. Also, a diagnosis of albinism in humans is based on visual impairment, which has not been described in horses with dominant white nor similar coat colors. In other mammals, the diagnosis of albinism is based on the impairment of tyrosinase production. No mutations of the tyrosinase gene are known in horses, however, cream and pearl colors result from mutations to a protein involved in tyrosinase transport. ### Non-white colors - Cremello or Blue-eyed cream horses have rosy pink skin, pale blue eyes and cream-colored coats, indicating that pigment cells and pigment are present in the skin, eyes, and coat, but at lower levels. White horses do not have pigment cells, and thus no pigment, in the skin or coat. In addition, dominant white horses seldom have blue eyes. Other genetic factors, or combinations of genetic factors, such as the pearl gene or champagne gene, can also produce cremello-like coats. These coat colors may be distinguishable from dominant white by their unusually colored eyes. - Gray horses are born any color and progressively replace their colored coat with gray and white hairs. Most gray horses have dark skin, unless they happen to also carry genes for pink or unpigmented skin. Unlike white horses, grays are not born white, nor is their skin color affected by their coat color change. - Leopard complex horses, such as the Appaloosa and Knabstrupper breeds, are genetically quite distinct from all other white spotting patterns. The fewspot leopard pattern, however, can resemble white. Two factors influence the eventual appearance of a leopard complex coat: whether one copy or two copies of the Leopard alleles are present, and the degree of dense leopard-associated white patterning that is present at birth. If a foal is homozygous for the LP allele and has extensive dense white patterning, they will appear nearly white at birth, and may continue to lighten with age. In other parts of the world, these horses are called "white born." "White born" foals are less common among Appaloosa horses, which tend to have blankets and varnish roans, than Knabstruppers or Norikers, which tend to be full leopards. - Tovero, Medicine hat or War bonnet are terms sometimes applied to Pinto horses with residual non-white areas only around the head, especially the ears and poll, while most of the remaining coat is white. While dominant white horses may have areas of residual pigment only around the ears and poll, the term "medicine hat" usually refers to horses with more commonly known white spotting genes, most often tobiano, combined with frame overo, sabino or splashed white. ### Lethal white overo Foals with lethal white syndrome (LWS) have two copies of the frame overo gene and are born with white or nearly white coats and pink skin. However, unlike dominant white horses, foals with LWS are born with an underdeveloped colon that is untreatable, and if not euthanized, invariably die of colic within a few days of birth. Horses that carry only one allele of the LWS gene are healthy and typically exhibit the "frame overo" spotting pattern. In cases of "solid" horses with frame overo ancestry, uncertain "overo" (non-tobiano) phenotype, or horses with multiple patterns, the LWS allele can be detected by DNA test. ### Mosaicism Mosaicism in horses is thought to account for some spontaneous occurrences of white, near-white, spotted, and roan horses. Mosaicism refers to mutations that occur after the single-cell stage, and therefore affect only a portion of the adult cells. Mosaicism may be one possible cause for the rare occurrence of brindle coloring in horses. Mosaic-white horses would be visually indistinguishable from dominant whites. Mosaicism could produce white or partially white foals if a stem cell in the developing foal underwent a mutation, or change to the DNA, that resulted in unpigmented skin and hair. The cells that descend from the affected stem cell will exhibit the mutation, while the rest of the cells are unaffected. A mosaic mutation may or may not be inheritable, depending on the cell populations affected. Though this is not always the case, genetic mutations can occur spontaneously in one sex cell of a parent during gametogenesis. In these cases, called germline mutations, the mutation will be present in the single-celled zygote conceived from the affected sperm or egg cell, and the condition can be inherited by the next generation. ## History of dominant white research Dominant white horses were first described in scientific literature in 1912. Horse breeder William P. Newell described his family of white and near-white horses to researcher A. P. Sturtevant of Columbia University: > "The colour of skin is white or so-called pink, usually with a few small dark specks in skin. Some have a great many dark spots in skin. These latter usually have a few dark stripes in hoofs; otherwise the hoofs are almost invariably white. Those that do not have dark specks in skin usually have glass or watch eyes, otherwise dark eyes ... I have one colt coming one year old that is pure white, not a coloured speck on him, not a coloured hair on him, and with glass [blue] eyes." Sturtevant and his contemporaries agreed that this colt's blue eyes were inherited separately from his white coat. In 1912, Sturtevant assigned the "white" trait to the White or W locus. At the time there was no means of assigning W to a position on the chromosome, or to a gene. This family of white horses produced Old King in 1908, a dark-eyed white stallion that was purchased by Caleb R. and Hudson B. Thompson. Old King was bred to Morgan mares to produce a breed of horse known today as the American White Horse. A grandson of Old King, Snow King, was at the center of the first major study of the dominant white coat color in horses, conducted in 1969 by Dr. William L. Pulos of Alfred University and Dr. Frederick B. Hutt of Cornell. They concluded, based on test matings and progeny phenotype ratios, that the white coat was dominantly inherited and embryonic lethal in the homozygous state. Other factors, such as variations in expressivity and the influence of multiple genes, may have influenced the progeny ratios that Pulos and Hutt observed. The white coat of the American White Horse has not yet been mapped. A 1924 study by C. Wriedt identified a heritable white coat color in the Frederiksborg horse. Wriedt described a range of what he considered to be homozygote phenotypes: all-white, white with pigmented flecks, or weißgraue, which transliterates to "white-gray." The German term for gray horse is schimmel, not weißgraue. Heterozygotes, according to Wriedt, ranged from roaned or diluted to more or less solid white horses. Reviewers, such as Miguel Odriozola, reinterpreted Wriedt's data in successive years, while Pulos and Hutt felt that his work had been "erroneous" because Wriedt never concluded that white was lethal when homozygous. Other researchers prior to modern DNA analysis developed remarkably prescient theories. The gene itself was first proposed and named W in 1948. In a 1969 work on horse coat colors, A los colores del caballo, Miguel Odriozola suggested that various forms of dominantly inherited white spotting might be arranged sequentially along one chromosome, thus allowing for the varied expression of dominant white. He also proposed that other, distant genes might also influence the amount of white present. The embryonic lethality hypothesis was originally supported by Pulos and Hutt's 1969 study of Mendelian progeny ratios. Conclusions about Mendelian traits that are controlled by a single gene can be drawn from test breedings with large sample sizes. However, traits that are controlled by allelic series or multiple loci are not Mendelian characters, and may not be subject to Mendelian ratios. Pulos and Hutt knew that if the allele that created a white coat was recessive, then white horses would have to be homozygous for the condition and therefore breeding white horses together would always result in a white foal. However, this did not occur in their study and they concluded that white was not recessive. Conversely, if a white coat was a simple autosomal dominant, ww horses would be non-white, while both Ww and WW horses would be white, and the latter would always produce white offspring. But Pulos and Hutt did not observe any white horses that always produced white offspring, suggesting that homozygous dominant (WW) white horses did not exist. As a result, Pulos and Hutt concluded that white was semidominant and lethal in the homozygous state: ww horses were non-white, Ww were white, and WW died. Pulos and Hutt reported that neonatal death rates in white foals were similar to those in non-white foals, and concluded that homozygous white fetuses died during gestation. No aborted fetuses were found, suggesting that death occurred early on in embryonic or fetal development and that the fetus was "resorbed." Prior to Pulos and Hutt's work, researchers were split on the mode of inheritance of white and whether it was deleterious (harmful). Recent research has discovered several possible genetic pathways to a white coat, so disparities in these historical findings may reflect the action of different genes. It is also possible that the varied origins of Pulos and Hutt's white horses might be responsible for the lack of homozygotes. It now appears that not all equine dominant white mutations cause embryonic lethality in the homozygous state. The white (W) locus was first recognized in mice in 1908. The mutation of the same name produces a belly spot and interspersed white hairs on the dorsal aspect of the coat in the heterozygote (W/+) and black-eyed white in the homozygote (W/W). While heterozygotes are healthy, homozygous W mice have severe macrocytic anemia and die within days. A mutation which affects multiple systems is "pleiotropic." Following the mapping of the KIT gene to the W locus in 1988, researchers began identifying other mutations as part of an allelic series of W. There are dozens of known alleles, each representing a unique mutation on the KIT gene, which primarily produce white spotting from tiny head spots to fully white coats, macrocytic anemia from mild to lethal, and sterility. Some alleles, such as splash produce white spotting alone, while others affect the health of the animal even in the heterozygous state. Alleles encoding small amounts of white are no more likely to be linked with anemia and sterility than those encoding conspicuous white. Presently, no anecdotal or research evidence has suggested that equine KIT mutations affect health or fertility. A recent study showed that blood parameters in horses with the W1 mutation were normal. Between the time of Pulos and Hutt's study in 1969 and the beginning of molecular-level research into dominant white in the 21st century, a pattern known as "Sabino" began to describe certain white phenotypes. The first allele of the W series identified by researchers was an incomplete dominant that was named Sabino-1 (SB-1). It is found on the same locus as other W alleles. When homozygous, SB-1 can produce nearly all-white horses. In 2007, researchers from Switzerland and the United States published a paper identifying the genetic cause of dominant white spotting in horses from the Franches Montagnes horse, Camarillo White Horse, Arabian horse and Thoroughbred breeds. Each of these dominant white conditions had occurred separately and spontaneously in the past 75 years, and each represents a different allele (variation or form) of the same gene. These same researchers identified a further seven unique causes of dominant white in 2009: three in distinct families of Thoroughbreds, one Icelandic horse, one Holsteiner, a large family of American Quarter Horses and a family of South German Draft horses. ## Homologous conditions In humans, a skin condition called piebaldism is caused by more than a dozen distinct mutations in the KIT gene. Piebaldism in humans is characterized by a white forelock, and pigmentless patches of skin on the forehead, brow, face, ventral trunk and extremities. Outside of pigmentation, piebaldism is an otherwise benign condition. In pigs, the "patch," "belted," and commercial "white" colors are caused by mutations on the KIT gene. The best-known model for KIT gene function is the mouse, in which over 90 alleles have been described. The various alleles produce everything from white toes and blazes to black-eyed white mice, panda-white to sashed and belted. Many of these alleles are lethal in the homozygous state, lethal when combined, or sublethal due to anemia. Male mice with KIT mutations are often sterile.
1,531,480	Bill Oakley	1,169,763,313	American writer and producer (born 1966)	[ "1966 births", "20th-century American male writers", "20th-century American screenwriters", "21st-century American male writers", "21st-century American screenwriters", "American comedy writers", "American male screenwriters", "American male television writers", "American television producers", "American television writers", "Animation screenwriters", "Living people", "People from Union Bridge, Maryland", "People from Westminster, Maryland", "Primetime Emmy Award winners", "Screenwriters from Maryland", "Screenwriters from Oregon", "St. Albans School (Washington, D.C.) alumni", "Television producers from Oregon", "The Harvard Lampoon alumni", "Writers Guild of America Award winners", "Writers from Portland, Oregon" ]	William Lloyd Oakley (born February 27, 1966) is an American television writer and producer, known for his work on the animated comedy series The Simpsons. Oakley and Josh Weinstein became best friends and writing partners at St. Albans School; Oakley then attended Harvard University and was Vice President of the Harvard Lampoon. He worked on several short-term media projects, including writing for the variety show Sunday Best, but was then unemployed for a long period. Oakley and Weinstein eventually penned a spec script for Seinfeld, after which they wrote "Marge Gets a Job", an episode of The Simpsons. Subsequently, the two were hired to write for the show on a permanent basis in 1992. After they wrote episodes such as "\$pringfield (Or, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love Legalized Gambling)", "Bart vs. Australia" and "Who Shot Mr. Burns?", the two were appointed executive producers and showrunners for the seventh and eighth seasons of the show. They attempted to include several emotional episodes focusing on the Simpson family, as well as several high-concept episodes such as "Homer's Enemy", "Two Bad Neighbors" and "The Principal and the Pauper", winning three Primetime Emmy Awards for their work. After they left The Simpsons, Oakley and Weinstein created Mission Hill. The show was plagued by promotional issues and was swiftly canceled. They worked as consulting producers on Futurama, then created The Mullets in 2003. The two wrote several unsuccessful TV pilots, and were due to serve as showrunners on Sit Down, Shut Up in 2009. Oakley left the project over a contract dispute. He has since written for The Cleveland Show and Portlandia, without Weinstein. He also served as co-executive producer and writer on Portlandia, sharing a Writers Guild of America Award with his fellow writers in 2013. In 2018, Oakley reunited with Weinstein as co-executive producer on Disenchantment, Matt Groening's animated series for Netflix. Oakley is married to fellow writer Rachel Pulido. ## Early life William Lloyd Oakley was born on February 27, 1966, in Westminster, Maryland, and raised on a farm in Union Bridge, Maryland. He was a fan of Mad magazine from an early age, which helped shape his comic sensibility. He attended St. Albans School in Washington, D.C., where he met and became best friends with Josh Weinstein in the eighth grade. The two created the school humor magazine The Alban Antic in 1983. Such would be the length of their partnership; the two often finish each other's sentences. Oakley later attended Harvard University, where he wrote for and served as Vice President of the Harvard Lampoon, working on the famous 1986 USA Today parody issue. He graduated in 1988 after studying American history. ## Career Oakley did not land a job on a major comedy series, as previous Harvard graduates who wrote for the Lampoon had done, despite writing numerous spec scripts for shows such as Saturday Night Live and Late Night with David Letterman; he thus moved back home. There, he worked in publicity, doing promotion for America's Most Wanted. In their free time, Oakley and Weinstein wrote for local comedy groups, such as Gross National Product. In 1989, they moved to New York City after being hired to write for a game show on Ha!, before writing for a variety show on the network featuring Denis Leary. The two also wrote for the National Lampoon and Spy. An editor of Spy was hired by NBC to run the variety show Sunday Best, and took Oakley and Weinstein to Los Angeles with him in 1991. When the show was canceled after three episodes, they were unemployed for a lengthy period, and Oakley lived on unemployment benefits. He later considered applying to join the United States Foreign Service. ### The Simpsons #### As a writer After changing their agent, they wrote a spec script for Seinfeld, which was well received. Amongst those who liked it were Al Jean and Mike Reiss, showrunners of The Simpsons. There were no openings on the staff at the time, but Oakley and Weinstein were hired to write the episode "Marge Gets a Job", based on an idea by Conan O'Brien. The episode aired as part of season four. Their Seinfeld script and The Simpsons episode caught the attention of Diane English, and they were offered a job on a sitcom. Before they accepted this job, they were told that Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky were leaving The Simpsons, and then joined the writing staff on a permanent basis in 1992, in the third season of that show. They began as story editors. They were initially quiet and felt "intimidated", being in the same room as "10 of the greatest minds in comedy", but eventually started pitching jokes with confidence. They wrote their scripts together, working side by side at a computer. Their first episode as staff writers was "Marge in Chains", an existing idea that they were assigned. The first draft of the script was based on research about women in prison conducted by Oakley and Weinstein, making it "slightly more realistic" than the final version of the episode, in which many realistic elements were replaced. After season four, most of the original staff left the show. Before David Mirkin arrived to take over as showrunner for season five, Oakley, Weinstein, O'Brien and Dan McGrath were the only writers working on the show and spent a month mapping out most of the season's episodes. Oakley and Weinstein wrote several episodes for season five, penning the "Terror at 51⁄2 Feet" segment of "Treehouse of Horror IV", "\$pringfield (Or, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love Legalized Gambling)", "Lisa vs. Malibu Stacy", the show's 100th episode "Sweet Seymour Skinner's Baadasssss Song" and "Lady Bouvier's Lover". For season six they wrote "Sideshow Bob Roberts", basing much of the episode on the Watergate scandal, in which they had a great interest. They also wrote "Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy", and "Bart vs. Australia". The writing staff wanted to do an episode in which the Simpsons family traveled to a foreign country; they selected Australia because they thought that everyone in Australia had a good sense of humor and "would get the jokes", with the episode being intentionally inaccurate. The episode proved somewhat controversial; some Australian fans said the episode was a mockery of their country. Shortly after it had aired, the Simpsons staff received over a hundred letters from Australians who were insulted by the episode. The pair wrote the two-part episode "Who Shot Mr. Burns?", which was initially proposed by series creator Matt Groening. While deciding who the culprit was, Oakley and Weinstein pitched Barney Gumble because he was a character that could go to jail and it could change the dynamic of the show. Mirkin suggested Maggie because he felt it was funnier and wanted the culprit to be a family member. Oakley and Weinstein were initially unsure about having Maggie as the culprit, and it was decided that the episode would end with Maggie shifting her eyes and making it look like it was not a complete accident. #### As showrunner Oakley and Weinstein were appointed executive producers and showrunners of the seventh and eighth seasons. They were chosen partly because they had been with the show since the third season and understood many of its dynamics. The showrunner is responsible for overseeing all aspects of the show's production. Each episode takes ten months to produce, so the showrunner must "oversee many different episodes in different stages of production all at the same time", with roles including head writer, making notes on the storyboards and working with the voice actors, animators, editors and composers. Oakley and Weinstein often set two script-rewriting rooms in motion at the same time, delegating leadership in the rooms to writers such as Steve Tompkins and David Cohen. Mirkin, who had suggested that the two take over, remained on the show in an advisory capacity, helping Oakley and Weinstein with technical aspects of the show such as editing and sound mixing. When they took over the series, they wanted many of the episodes to be realistic ones that focused more on the five members of the Simpson family and explored their feelings and emotions towards each other. They wanted to produce Treehouse of Horror episodes, episodes about Sideshow Bob, Itchy & Scratchy and several "format-bending" episodes such as "22 Short Films About Springfield", for which Oakley wrote the Principal Skinner and Superintendent Chalmers scene, the latter being his favorite character. Oakley wrote the scene in one afternoon and the finished product resembles almost exactly its first draft. The scene is frequently cited as one of the show's greatest moments and decades later would become a pervasive Internet meme. Writing for Forbes in 2021, Dani Di Placido stated that the scene "serves as a nostalgic reminder of the show’s best years, when a single scene between two side-characters proved so memorable that fans were still quoting it, decades later, and so malleable that it can mutate into one of the internet’s most enduring memes." Oakley stated in 2021 he believed it was the most famous thing he had written and one of his favorites. They aimed for "at least two episodes per season that 'pushed the envelope', [and] expanded the definition of what an episode could be." This was a style they employed for both seasons they produced. Season eight featured several episodes in which focus was given to secondary characters and in which new issues were explored, such as divorce. Their preferred choice of guest stars were those with unique and interesting voices, and several of their guest stars were "old grizzled men with distinctive voices" such as R. Lee Ermey, Donald Sutherland, Kirk Douglas and Lawrence Tierney. Oakley considered season three to be the single greatest comedic season of television ever produced and so attempted to recreate the feel of that season for the two he ran, focusing on stories with real emotions and situations, as well as some off-the-wall episodes. Season three was their basis for Homer: "We liked Homer the way he was in the second and third seasons. That was what we consciously used as our model. Dimwitted, loving, hyper-enthusiastic, creatively goofy, parody of the American father – drawn with real emotions, though admittedly amplified. This was exemplified in "Mother Simpson", "Lisa the Iconoclast", "Diddly-Dum-Doodly", and a couple others. In some of the less reality-based episodes, i.e. the Beer Baron one – usually Swartzwelder's, we'd treat this stricture with a certain amount of latitude." One of their most notable episodes was "Homer's Enemy", an episode designed to "push the envelope conceptually." The idea for "Homer's Enemy" was first conceived by Oakley, who thought that Homer should have an enemy. This evolved into the concept of a "real world" co-worker who would either love or hate Homer. The writers chose the latter as they thought it would have funnier results. The result was the character of Frank Grimes, a man who has had to work hard all his life with nothing to show for it and is dismayed and embittered by Homer's success and comfort in spite of his inherent laziness and ignorance. "Homer's Enemy" explores the comic possibilities of a realistic character with a strong work ethic placed alongside Homer in a work environment. In the episode, Homer is portrayed as an everyman and the embodiment of the American spirit; in some scenes, his negative characteristics and silliness are prominently highlighted. By the close of the episode, Grimes, a hard working and persevering "real American hero," is relegated to the role of antagonist; the viewer is intended to be pleased that Homer has emerged victorious. Oakley says the episode was "hyper-meta" and focused on "parodying to some degree the Homer we don't like. That's one of the things that episode is supposed to illustrate – 'Homer gone wrong'. Although, I would argue that in 'Homer's Enemy' he's not even really even all that excessively stupid or immature, actually." Weinstein said: "We wanted to do an episode where the thinking was 'What if a real life, normal person had to enter Homer's universe and deal with him?' I know this episode is controversial and divisive, but I just love it. It really feels like what would happen if a real, somewhat humorless human had to deal with Homer. There was some talk [on NoHomers.net] about the ending—we just did that because (a) it’s really funny and shocking, (2) we like the lesson of 'sometimes, you just can't win'—the whole Frank Grimes episode is a study in frustration and hence Homer has the last laugh and (3) we wanted to show that in real life, being Homer Simpson could be really dangerous and life threatening, as Frank Grimes sadly learned." When the episode was first broadcast, many fans felt it was too dark, unfunny and that Homer was portrayed as overly bad-mannered. On the DVD commentary, Weinstein considers this episode one of the most controversial of the seasons he ran, as it involves sharp observational humor which many fans "didn't get." Weinstein talks about a "generation gap"—the episode was originally panned by viewers, but has since become a favorite among fans who grew up with the show. Other episodes included "Two Bad Neighbors", which sees Homer meet former President George H. W. Bush, a reference to the show's feud with the Bushes in the early 1990s. Weinstein said that the episode is often misunderstood. Many audiences expected a political satire, while the writers made special effort to keep the parody apolitical. Oakley stresses that "it's not a political attack, it's a personal attack!", and instead of criticizing Bush for his policies, the episode pokes fun at his "crotchetiness". Oakley described the episode as a companion piece to "Homer's Enemy", in that a character is juxtaposed alongside Homer and does not get along with him. Oakley considered working on the show to be similar to working in a bubble due to the lack of interference from the Fox network's executives, as is commonplace on other shows. This allowed them to produce any episodes they wanted, as Weinstein commented: "The great thing about The Simpsons is that we pretty much were able to get away with everything, so there weren't any episodes we really wanted to do that we couldn't do. Even the crazy high-concept ones like 'Two Bad Neighbors' and 'Homer's Enemy' we managed to put on the air because honestly there were no network execs there to stop us." Such was the network's limited input that, when an executive suggested the staff introduce a new character to live with the Simpsons so as to "liven up the show", the staff rejected the idea and instead created the episode "The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show", inserting the one-time character Roy, with no explanation as to who he was, or why he was living with the family, as a reference to the executive's proposal. The episode, which marked the point at which The Simpsons surpassed The Flintstones for the number of episodes produced for an animated series, was named by the BBC as one of the ten most memorable episodes of the show. They noted "the writers used the opportunity to pay tribute to the art of animation and rail against network interference in their show." The intrusion of the network censors was limited: the normal procedure is for an episode's script to be sent to the censor and then faxed back with a list of lines and words that should be substituted, causing limited problems, as often the offending lines are removed or changed for comedic purposes after animation. The episode "Homer's Phobia" drew the censor's objections. Its script came back with two pages of notes about almost every single line. The censors stated that they did not like the use of the word "gay", or the discussion of homosexuality at all, and closed with a paragraph which stated that "the topic and substance of this episode are unacceptable for broadcast". The censor problems ultimately came to nothing; when the episode came back from animation in South Korea, the then-Fox president had just been fired and replaced, with the censors being replaced as well. The new censors sent back merely one line: "acceptable for broadcast". #### Leaving the show Oakley and Weinstein stood down as showrunners after season eight because they "didn't want to break [the show]." Oakley said: "We always said we'd never do a joke that we'd done before." They felt the showrunner should not stay for more than two seasons. Due to the pressures of having to work on two seasons at once (writing season eight, while doing post-production of season seven), Oakley said that at least two episodes from season eight would ideally have been rewritten, had there been sufficient time, and that towards the end, they were "treading water". As they were working on post-production of season eight, they were credited as consulting producers for season nine, which was in its initial writing stages. Oakley stated that they contributed "somewhere between 0 and .0001%" of the season, only attending the table readings of the scripts. They produced three episodes held over from season eight, which aired as part of season nine: "The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson", "The Principal and the Pauper" and "Lisa the Simpson". "The Principal and the Pauper" was negatively received due to the sudden revelation that long-time character Seymour Skinner was actually an imposter. For example, in his book Planet Simpson, Chris Turner describes "The Principal and the Pauper" as the "broadcast that marked [the] abrupt plunge" from The Simpsons' "Golden Age", which he says began in the middle of the show's third season. He calls the episode "[one of] the weakest episodes in Simpsons history". As such, Oakley considers it the most controversial episode from his tenure as executive producer. He and Weinstein advise viewers to treat "The Principal and the Pauper" as an "experiment". They surmise that the negative reception was partly due to the fact that it was not immediately apparent to viewers that this was such an episode (as opposed to, for example, "The Simpsons Spin-Off Showcase"). They describe the ending of the episode as an attempt to reset the continuity and allow fans to consider the episode on its own. "Lisa the Simpson" was their final involvement with the show. The duo wanted to end on a good note—Weinstein stated that the episode "was meant to embody the humor, depth, and emotions of The Simpsons,"—and they were pleased with the result. #### Awards and critical reaction Oakley won three Emmys for his work on The Simpsons, and shared them with the other producers. When Oakley was the showrunner and executive producer, "Homer's Phobia" won the Emmy for Outstanding Animated Program (For Programming One Hour or Less) in 1997. The previous year, "Treehouse of Horror VI" was submitted for the award. The staff felt the 3D animation sequence "Homer3" would have given it the edge. The episode eventually lost to Pinky and the Brain. Oakley later expressed regret about not submitting an episode with a more emotionally driven plot, such as "Mother Simpson". In 1996, during season seven, the show received a Peabody Award. Oakley shared the awards for "Lisa's Wedding" and "Trash of the Titans" in 1995 and 1998 respectively. Oakley and Weinstein themselves were nominated, along with the show's composer Alf Clausen, for the Emmy for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music and Lyrics for writing "Señor Burns" from "Who Shot Mr. Burns? (Part Two)". Many of the episodes by Oakley and Weinstein are considered amongst the show's best. For example, in 2003, Entertainment Weekly included six episodes they produced ("Homer's Phobia", "A Fish Called Selma", "The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson", "22 Short Films About Springfield", "The Simpsons Spin-Off Showcase" and "The Itchy and Scratchy and Poochie Show") and one episode they wrote ("Who Shot Mr. Burns?") as part of their list of the show's 25 best episodes. Robert Canning of IGN said the episode "You Only Move Twice" from season eight "may well be the greatest Simpsons episode of all time. In my book, it's at least tied," with "Marge vs. the Monorail". A. O. Scott described their era as "reach[ing] a pinnacle of zany self-reference with "22 Short Films About Springfield" and "Simpsons Spin-off Showcase"." The two are popular amongst the show's fans, and in the early days of the Internet, Oakley read and participated in fan discussion of the show on newsgroups such as alt.tv.simpsons. In 2005 and 2006, they participated in two question-and-answer sessions on the fan message board NoHomers.net. ### Mission Hill and other work After Oakley and Weinstein left The Simpsons, they created Mission Hill in 1997, a show about a hip, lazy, 24-year-old cartoonist named Andy French, and sold it to The WB for a fall 1999 debut. They pitched the show in 1998 "as an animated series for young adults with a sophisticated, 'Simpsons'-style sensibility." They aimed to make the show about realistic issues affecting young adults, which were too mature for The Simpsons. The network was impressed and initially ordered 13 episodes; they ordered five more once the first was completed. Oakley explained: "The audience we're going for is one that's sophisticated, that likes high and low humor, that's very savvy in animation. [But] this show is definitely a case where a lot of people don't get it. It's not setup, setup, setup, punch line. It's observational humor. It's jokes told in a weird way, in the background or with a bizarre sound effect." The show was plagued by "public relations" difficulties, which meant it was "tarnished" from the start. A badly edited two-minute promotional video for the show, sent to advertisers in April 1999 for the annual upfronts, was poorly received. Oakley and Weinstein had been informed that the upfronts did not matter. Similarly, because no episodes were finished in time, journalists were not able to see anything of the show at the network's schedule presentation in July. Subsequently, as Weinstein commented to The Washington Post, "for seven months, the only impression people had of the show was based on a two-minute tape that looked terrible. Six major publications panned it before they even saw it." The pilot garnered largely negative reviews from publications such as The Deseret News; and earned a positive write-up in Variety. Furthermore, the show was forced to change from its originally planned title of The Downtowners due to its closeness to an MTV show. All of these factors combined to ensure the show received little attention, and the WB ran only a few commercials for it. Weinstein stated: "I don't know exactly why America doesn't know about this show. It's like Teen People came out with its fall preview, and we're not even in it." Mission Hill came at a time when the TV schedules were already saturated with animated shows; some of the response could be chalked up to its genre. The show was put out on a Friday, a night on which the WB had never broadcast before, at 8:00 pm, a time Oakley felt was inappropriate, and aired in front of The Wayans Bros., The Jamie Foxx Show and The Steve Harvey Show, all shows with which Oakley felt it was "incompatible". The show's poor reviews and ratings of an average of 1.8 million led to its swift cancellation. Oakley concluded that the pair had been "very naive" with regard to producing the show, and that it "would've been better on cable anyway because it would never have appealed to a broad enough audience due to the subject matter." The 13 completed episodes were later aired on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim block and the show garnered a worldwide cult following. After lobbying from Oakley and Weinstein, the WB eventually released the series on DVD. From 2001 to 2002, the two served as consulting producers on Futurama. They worked for two-and-a-half days a week, contributing jokes and helping with stories. They worked most substantially on the episodes "That's Lobstertainment!" and "Roswell That Ends Well". They produced The Mullets for UPN in 2003. Oakley and Weinstein have written and produced several television pilots. These include a CBS dramedy entitled 22 Birthdays, Business Class, a comedy for NBC about two traveling salesmen, The Funkhousers, an off-the-wall comedy for ABC about a close-knit family which was directed by Frank Oz and The Ruling Class for Fox, about a high school class who all got along, regardless of their social group. They have written two feature film screenplays: The Optimist for New Line Cinema, in which Seann William Scott was slated to star as a man born with no unhappiness gene, and Ruprecht, a Santa Claus-related comedy for Disney. Along with Weinstein, Oakley was to serve as an executive producer on the Fox television series Sit Down, Shut Up in 2009. Oakley ended his involvement with the show due to a contract dispute between the staff and Sony Pictures. Sony refused to offer a contract which operated under the complete terms of the Writers Guild of America. Weinstein continued working on the show. His two subsequent projects have been without Weinstein. In late 2009, NBC commissioned a pilot for Oakley's sitcom about "the youngest judge in a circuit courthouse." He wrote the 2010 episode of The Cleveland Show "Gone with the Wind". Amongst other projects, Oakley planned a live-action show where the characters are all robots, which would be made by the same people who produce the children's show Yo Gabba Gabba!. Oakley began writing for the sketch comedy show Portlandia in its second season. He became a co-executive producer from the show's third season, co-writing every episode with Fred Armisen, Carrie Brownstein and Jonathan Krisel. He and his fellow writers shared the Writers Guild of America Award for Outstanding Achievement in Writing Comedy/Variety (Including Talk) – Series in 2013. Oakley and Weinstein teamed up again to co-write and co-executive produce 22 Birthdays, the failed pilot they originally produced for CBS, as a pilot for Bravo. It was slated to air in 2013. Oakley subsequently worked on as a co-executive producer on the Matt Groening-created series Disenchantment. Since 2018, Oakley has regularly produced short reviews of various fast food items from restaurants across the US, uploading them to his Instagram channel. This led The Wrap to christen him "the Gordon Ramsay of fast food". He created the annual Steamie Awards to credit what he felt were the best items he reviewed each year in various categories. In 2022, Audible released Oakley's original sci-fi comedy Space: 1969, starring Natasha Lyonne and a full cast. ## Personal life Oakley and his wife Rachel Pulido have two daughters Mary and Bitsy, and a son named James. He and his family live in Portland, Oregon. Pulido graduated from Harvard, where she was a writer for the Harvard Lampoon. She wrote for The Simpsons and Mission Hill and was the only Hispanic staff writer in the twenty-year history of The Simpsons. She is of Mexican heritage. Pulido wrote the episode "Grade School Confidential", and the Bumblebee Man segment of "22 Short Films About Springfield". ## Credits Episodes listed are those Oakley has been credited as writing or co-writing. - Sunday Best (1991) – writer - The Simpsons (1992–98) – writer, producer, story editor, supervising producer, consulting producer, executive producer, showrunner (all episodes with Josh Weinstein) - "Marge Gets a Job" (1992) - "Marge in Chains" (1993) - "Treehouse of Horror IV" ("Terror at 51⁄2 Feet" segment) (1993) - "\$pringfield (Or, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love Legalized Gambling)" (1993) - "Lisa vs. Malibu Stacy" (1994) - "Sweet Seymour Skinner's Baadasssss Song" (1994) - "Lady Bouvier's Lover" (1994) - "Sideshow Bob Roberts" (1994) - "Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy" (1994) - "Bart vs. Australia" (1995) - "Who Shot Mr. Burns?" (Parts 1 & 2) (1995) - "22 Short Films About Springfield" (Skinner and Chalmers scene) (1996) - Mission Hill (1999–02) – creator, writer, executive producer, voice of George Bang - "Pilot" - Futurama (2001–02) – consulting producer (season 3 only) - Ruling Class (2001) – writer - The Funkhousers (2002) – writer - The Mullets (2003) – creator, executive producer - 22 Birthdays (2005) – writer - Business Class (2007) – creator, writer - The Cleveland Show (2010–12) – writer - "Gone with the Wind" - "American Prankster" - "All You Can Eat" (story with Assem Batra) - Regular Show (2010) - writer - "Just Set Up the Chairs" - "Caffeinated Concert Tickets" - "Rigby's Body" - Portlandia (2012–13) - writer, consulting producer - With Fred Armisen, Carrie Brownstein and Jonathan Krisel, Oakley co-wrote "Brunch Village" and all of Season 3 - Disenchantment (2018–19) - writer, co-executive producer - "Dreamland Falls" - "In Her Own Write" - Close Enough (2020–22) - writer, executive producer (season 3) - "100% No Stress Day"
39,140,062	Kris Bryant	1,169,407,636	American baseball player (born 1992)	[ "1992 births", "Albuquerque Isotopes players", "All-American college baseball players", "Arizona League Cubs players", "Baseball players from Nevada", "Boise Hawks players", "Chatham Anglers players", "Chicago Cubs players", "Colorado Rockies players", "Daytona Cubs players", "Golden Spikes Award winners", "Iowa Cubs players", "Living people", "Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award winners", "Major League Baseball third basemen", "Mesa Solar Sox players", "National League All-Stars", "National League Most Valuable Player Award winners", "San Diego Toreros baseball players", "San Francisco Giants players", "Sportspeople from the Las Vegas Valley", "Tennessee Smokies players" ]	Kristopher Lee Bryant (born January 4, 1992), nicknamed "KB", is an American professional baseball third baseman and outfielder for the Colorado Rockies of Major League Baseball (MLB). He has previously played in MLB for the Chicago Cubs and San Francisco Giants. Prior to playing professionally, Bryant attended the University of San Diego, where he played college baseball for the Toreros. Bryant starred in baseball for Bonanza High School. In college, he was named an All-American in 2012 and 2013, and won the Dick Howser Trophy and Golden Spikes Award in 2013. The Cubs selected him with the second overall selection in the 2013 MLB draft, and he quickly became one of the top prospects in baseball, winning the USA Today Minor League Player of the Year Award and Baseball America Minor League Player of the Year Award in 2014. Bryant made his major league debut in 2015. He was named an MLB All-Star and won the National League's (NL) Rookie of the Year Award. He was again named an All-Star in 2016, won a World Series championship with the Cubs, and was named the NL's Most Valuable Player. The Cubs traded him to the Giants in 2021, and he then signed a seven-year contract with the Rockies prior to the 2022 season. ## Early life Bryant attended Bonanza High School in Las Vegas, Nevada. Playing for the school's varsity baseball team all four years, he recorded a .418 batting average, a .958 slugging percentage (SLG), 103 hits, and 47 career home runs. He also played American Legion Baseball. USA Today named him to their All-USA baseball first-team in 2010. The Toronto Blue Jays selected Bryant in the 18th round of the 2010 Major League Baseball draft. He did not sign, and enrolled at the University of San Diego, to play college baseball for the San Diego Toreros baseball team. ## College career As a freshman at the University of San Diego in 2011, Bryant had a .365 batting average, a .482 on-base percentage (OBP), and a .599 SLG, with nine home runs. He was named a freshman All-American by Louisville Slugger and the West Coast Conference (WCC) Co-Freshman of the Year and Co-Player of the Year, sharing both honors with Marco Gonzales. Following his freshman season at San Diego, Bryant played collegiate summer baseball for the Chatham Anglers of the Cape Cod Baseball League, where he batted 29-for-130 (.223) with three home runs and 16 runs batted in (RBIs). As a sophomore in 2012, Bryant batted .366 with a .671 SLG, 14 home runs, and 57 RBIs. He was again named first team All-WCC and he was also named a first-team All-American by Baseball America. That summer, Bryant was selected by USA Baseball to play for the United States collegiate national team. In the 2013 season as a junior, Bryant hit 31 home runs to lead the nation. Bryant had the most home runs hit by a college player since the NCAA switched to a BBCOR composite bat in 2011. Bryant broke the previous record of 30 set by Georgia Southern's Victor Roache in 2011 and amounted to more home runs than 223 of 296 Division I teams hit that season. Bryant won the Golden Spikes Award and the Dick Howser Trophy, which are both awarded to the top collegiate player in the nation. He was also named a Louisville Slugger First Team All-American, the Collegiate Baseball Player of the Year, and the American Baseball Coaches Association (ABCA) Player of the Year. ## Professional career ### Draft and minor leagues Bryant was considered to be one of the best available players in the 2013 Major League Baseball draft. The Houston Astros, who had the first overall pick, scouted Bryant. Bryant believed he would be chosen by the Colorado Rockies, who had the third selection of the draft. After the Astros selected pitcher Mark Appel with the first overall selection, the Chicago Cubs chose Bryant with the second pick. This choice was surprising as the Cubs were expected to select a pitcher. The Cubs later acknowledged that they would have selected Appel had he still been available. Many baseball executives and scouts agreed that Bryant was the safest pick in the draft. He was also rated as the best hitter in the draft because of his abilities hitting for power and making contact on inside fastballs as well as down-and-away curveballs. Bryant and the Cubs came to terms on a contract with a \$6.7 million signing bonus two days prior to the signing deadline. Bryant began his professional career with the Boise Hawks of the Class A-Short Season Northwest League, where he batted .354 with four home runs. He was promoted to the Daytona Cubs of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League on August 12. He hit .333 with five home runs for Daytona. After the season, he played in Arizona Fall League (AFL). He was named co-player of the week, along with Mitch Haniger, in the first week of the fall league season. He was named the MVP of the AFL after hitting .364/.457/.727 with six home runs in 20 games. Bryant started 2014 with the Tennessee Smokies of the Class AA Southern League. In June, he won the Home Run Derby and participated in the All-Star game. On June 18, the Cubs promoted Bryant to the Iowa Cubs of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League after batting .355 with 22 home runs and 58 RBIs in 68 games with Tennessee. He played in the All-Star Futures Game in July. At the end of the regular season, Bryant's 43 combined home runs between Tennessee and Iowa won him the Joe Bauman Home Run Award. Bryant was named the USA Today Minor League Player of the Year and Baseball America Minor League Player of the Year. Baseball America named him the No. 1 prospect in 2015. Bryant was invited to spring training by the Cubs in 2015. In 40 at-bats, he hit nine home runs, which led all players. He had a .425 with a .477 on-base percentage and a 1.175 slugging percentage. Despite his performance, the Cubs elected to send Bryant back down to Iowa. Baseball analysts assumed that the service-time rules in baseball were the majority influence on the team's decision; if Bryant were to play 12 days in the minors before being promoted to the majors, the Cubs would receive another year of club control. The MLBPA issued a statement saying, "Today is a bad day for baseball". In seven games with the Iowa, Bryant hit three home runs and batted .321. ### Chicago Cubs (2015–2021) #### 2015 season On April 17, 2015, Bryant was called up to the majors by the Cubs. He made his debut that day at Wrigley Field, going 0-for-4 with three strikeouts. The next day at Wrigley, Bryant recorded his first hit, an RBI single. Bryant hit his first major league home run on May 9, off Milwaukee Brewers' Kyle Lohse. His second home run came two days later at Wrigley Field against the New York Mets off Jacob deGrom. Bryant finished the month of May with a .265 batting average, seven home runs, 22 RBIs, and 16 walks, and was named the NL Rookie of the Month for May. Bryant's first career grand slam came on June 17 in the ninth inning off David Murphy in a 17–0 win against the Cleveland Indians. In a July 4 game against the Miami Marlins, Bryant hit both a two-run home run and his second grand slam of the season off Jarred Cosart. This made him the second Cubs rookie to hit two grand slams since Billy Williams in 1961. Bryant was selected as an injury replacement selection for Giancarlo Stanton on the National League roster of the All-Star Game in Cincinnati, Ohio. He also participated in the Home Run Derby. On July 25, against the Philadelphia Phillies, Bryant flew out at the warning track for the last out of Cole Hamels' no-hitter. On July 27, Bryant hit his first career walk-off home run, a two-run shot, off John Axford in a 9–8 win over the Colorado Rockies. On September 6, against the Arizona Diamondbacks, Bryant hit a 495-foot (151 m) home run, the longest of the 2015 MLB season, off Rubby De La Rosa. With the home run, Bryant tied Williams (1961) and Geovany Soto (2008), for the Cubs' franchise single-season RBI record for rookies with 86. On September 11, he broke the record by driving in a run with a double. On September 22, Bryant passed Williams for the most home runs by a Cubs rookie, with 26. In 151 games of his first season in the Majors, Bryant batted .275 with 26 home runs, 31 doubles, and 99 RBIs, which were the most for a rookie since Albert Pujols's 130 for the St. Louis Cardinals in 2001. Bryant struck out 199 times, which led the National League and set a new rookie record. He had the lowest contact percentage on his swings in the major leagues (66.3%). According to sales on Major League Baseball's official website, Bryant had the best-selling jersey in all of baseball during the 2015 regular season. With the Cubs finishing the season, 97–65, the team clinched a Wild Card spot in the MLB postseason, their first playoff berth in seven years. Despite Bryant not having any hits in the 2015 National League Wild Card Game, the Cubs shut out the Pittsburgh Pirates, 4–0, and advanced to the 2015 National League Division Series (NLDS), wherein Game 3, Bryant hit a two-run home run against the rival St. Louis Cardinals to help the Cubs to an 8–6 win. The Cubs won the series-winning three-games-to-one, but lost to the New York Mets in the 2015 National League Championship Series (NLCS) in a four-game sweep. Bryant was named the Baseball America Rookie of the Year for the 2015 season, making him the first in history to win the Baseball America college player, minor league player, and major league rookie of the year awards in successive seasons. He was voted the "Esurance MLB Awards" Best Rookie – by fans, the media, former players, team front-office personnel, and the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR). Bryant won the Sporting News Rookie of the Year Award for the National League, becoming the first Cub to earn it since Soto in 2008. Further, he was the unanimous winner from the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) of the Jackie Robinson National League Rookie of the Year Award, becoming the 11th National League player to win by a unanimous vote and the 20th player overall. He was also named by his fellow players as the "Players Choice Awards" National League Outstanding Rookie. After the 2015 season, Bryant filed a grievance against the Cubs for delaying his call-up to the majors for the purpose of delaying his free agency, accusing the team of service time manipulation. About the grievance Bryant said, "For me it’s just important to continue to go out there and do what I do, so that I can help the team in any way possible in where we’re at today," Bryant added, "It's just important for me to not even worry about it right now because it takes away from so much of what we have going this year. And that was last year’s news." As of April 2017, the grievance had yet to reach a hearing. The grievance was finally heard in January 2020, with the arbitrator ruling against Bryant. #### 2016 season: NL MVP The Cubs gave Bryant a \$652,000 salary for the 2016 season, a 38% increase over his rookie salary. On June 27, 2016, against the Cincinnati Reds, Bryant became the first MLB player in modern history to hit three home runs and two doubles in the same game; he was 5-for-5 overall with 16 total bases in the 11–8 win. After leading the National League with 25 home runs in the first half of the season, he was selected to his second consecutive All-Star Game, and first as the starting third baseman. He hit a first-inning home run off Chris Sale of the Chicago White Sox, his first career home run in an All-Star Game. In the opening game of a late August series against the National League West-division-leading Los Angeles Dodgers, Bryant hit an eighth-inning home run to tie the game and the winning two-run home run in the 10th inning for a 6–4 victory. From the All-Star Break to the start of September, Bryant had a batting average of .346. On August 18, he became the second player in major league history to record five hits and five RBIs in two games in one season, joining 1945 MVP Phil Cavarretta of the Cubs. In August, as the Cubs went 22–6, Bryant batted .383, 1.220 OPS, 10 home runs, 22 RBI, and 29 runs scored. He was named the National League Player of the Month for August, his first Player of the Month award. Overall, he led the league with 121 runs scored and 7.7 Wins Above Replacement (WAR) per Baseball-Reference.com, and finished third with 39 home runs and 334 total bases and fourth with a .554 slugging percentage and .939 OPS. He also batted .292 and drove in 102 runs. In each of those categories, Bryant's statistics represented improvements over his rookie season totals. He was 9th in the NL with 154 strikeouts. The Cubs won the National League Central division title. Bryant recorded hits in all four games against the San Francisco Giants in the 2016 NLDS. With the Cubs trailing 5–3 in the ninth inning of Game 3, Bryant hit a two-run home run against Sergio Romo, helping send the game to extra innings, though the Giants would prevail in 13. In Game 4 with the Cubs down 5–2, Bryant singled to start a four-run rally in the top of the 9th, scoring on a double by Ben Zobrist, as the Cubs advanced to the 2016 NLCS. The Cubs then won the National League pennant—for the first time since 1945—by defeating the Los Angeles Dodgers, 4-games-to-2. In the World Series, the Cubs came back from a 3-games-to-1 deficit and defeated the Cleveland Indians, to secure their first championship after a 108-year-long drought. During the 2016 postseason, Bryant hit for a .308 average with three home runs and eight RBIs. Bryant concluded the 2016 season by winning the National League Most Valuable Player Award (MVP) in his second year in the major leagues. He became the first player to win a Golden Spikes Award, a Baseball America Minor League Player of the Year Award, a Rookie of the Year Award, and a Most Valuable Player Award in successive seasons. In addition, he became the sixth player in MLB history to win Rookie of the Year and MVP within his first two seasons, joining Fred Lynn (both in 1975), Cal Ripken Jr. (1982–83), Ichiro Suzuki (both in 2001), Ryan Howard (2005–06), and Dustin Pedroia (2007–08). Bryant also won the Hank Aaron Award as the National League's most outstanding hitter. #### 2017 season Bryant and the Cubs agreed to a \$1.05 million contract before the 2017 season, a new record salary for a pre-arbitration player, previously held by Mike Trout of the Los Angeles Angels who earned \$1 million in 2014. In 2017, Bryant finished second in fan voting to Nolan Arenado of the Colorado Rockies as the starting NL third baseman in the 2017 All-Star Game. He finished second in the All-Star Final Vote, behind Justin Turner, and did not make the All-Star team. Following the All Star Break, on July 25, Bryant was ejected for the first time in his major league career after arguing a third strike call. That August, MLB and the MLBPA introduced Players Weekend for the first time. Bryant chose to wear "KB" on his jersey. Finishing the regular season with a .295 average, 29 home runs, and 73 RBIs, the Cubs won their second consecutive Central Division title and earned their third consecutive appearance in the postseason. The Cubs defeated the Washington Nationals in the 2017 NLDS, with Bryant batting .200 in the series without a home run. The Cubs lost to the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 2017 NLCS. Bryant batted .200 with one home run in the NLCS. #### 2018 season In his first year of salary arbitration, Bryant and the Cubs agreed to a \$10.85 million salary for the 2018 season, breaking the record for a player in his first year of salary arbitration, previously held by Ryan Howard when he signed a \$10 million contract in 2008 with the Philadelphia Phillies. In February, Sports Illustrated ranked Bryant as the third-overall best player in baseball, trailing Mike Trout and José Altuve. In a May 9 game against the Miami Marlins, Bryant hit his 100th home run, becoming the 22nd Cubs player to reach the mark, and the quickest to reach the mark. He hit his 100th home run in his 487th game, barely eclipsing the previous mark of 500 games set by Ernie Banks. On June 26, Bryant was placed on the disabled list for the first time in his MLB career due to left shoulder inflammation, retroactive three days prior. On July 26, Bryant went back on the disabled list due to inflammation on the same shoulder. #### 2019 season Bryant had a slow start to 2019. After hitting a home run in the first regular season game against the Texas Rangers, his batting average through April 25 was .232, with a .730 on-base plus slugging percentage. Bryant's performance substantially improved heading into mid May. He hit seven home runs over the course of fifteen games, including a walk-off, three-run home run against the Miami Marlins on May 7. On May 18, Bryant hit three home runs in three consecutive innings in a game against the Washington Nationals. His 4-for-6 night extended his career-best on-base streak to 26 games. Bryant finished the 2019 season hitting .282/.382/.521 with 31 home runs, 77 runs batted in, and 108 runs scored. On defense, he had the lowest fielding percentage of all major league third basemen (.947). #### 2020 season In the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic-shortened season, Bryant batted .206/.293/.351 with four home runs and 11 RBIs in 131 at-bats in 34 games. #### 2021 season Bryant in the 2021 season for the Cubs played first base (12 games) and outfield (63 games), along with third (29 games), due to the rise of Patrick Wisdom at third base. He was selected as an All-Star as he hit .267/.358/.503 with 58 runs, 18 home runs, and 51 RBIs throughout 93 games and 326 at bats with the Cubs. ### San Francisco Giants (2021) On July 30, 2021, the Cubs traded Bryant to the San Francisco Giants in exchange for prospects Alexander Canario and Caleb Kilian. On August 1, Bryant made his Giants debut. He played third base and went 1-for-4 with a home run in the third inning. In the 2021 season, playing for the Giants Bryant batted .262/.344/.444 with 28 runs, seven home runs, and 22 RBIs in 187 at bats, as he stole six bases in six attempts. He played 26 games at third base, 19 games in left field, 11 games in right field, and 5 games in center field. ### Colorado Rockies (2022–present) On March 18, 2022, Bryant signed a seven-year contract worth \$182 million with the Colorado Rockies. It was announced that he would be the club's starting left fielder. Bryant missed the last two months of the 2022 season due to plantar fasciitis and a bone bruise in his right foot. ## Charitable acts In 2017, Bryant teamed up with Bryce Harper to help their hometown of Las Vegas in relief efforts assisting victims of a shooting at a music concert that left 58 people dead. Bryant and Harper used their platform to encourage people to donate to help Las Vegas with relief of the shooting. On Players Weekend in 2017, Bryant chose to wear three different cleats which promoted the Wings for Life Foundation, a non-profit organization that specializes in spinal cord research. Bryant has been heavily involved in this organization ever since 2011 when a friend of his, Cory Hahn, was paralyzed while a freshman playing baseball at Arizona State. In 2015, Bryant was awarded 2015 NL Outstanding Rookie from the Player Choice Awards. He chose to send the \$20,000 from the Major League Baseball Players Trust to the Wounded Warrior Project. ## Awards - ABCA College Player of the Year (2013) - Baseball America College Player of the Year Award (2013) - Baseball America Major League Rookie of the Year (2015) - Baseball America Minor League Player of the Year (2014) - Collegiate Baseball Player of the Year (2013) - 2× College Baseball All-America Team (2012, 2013) - Dick Howser Trophy (2013) - Esurance MLB Award for Best Rookie (2015) - Golden Spikes Award (2013) - Joe Bauman Home Run Award (2014) - 3× MLB All-Star (2015, 2016, 2019) - MLB Player of the Month (August 2016) - 3× MLB Rookie of the Month (May & August 2015) - National League Hank Aaron Award (2016) - National League Most Valuable Player (2016) - National League Rookie of the Year (2015) - Players Choice Award for NL Outstanding Rookie (2015) - The Sporting News National League Rookie of the Year (2015) - USA Today Minor League Player of the Year Award (2014) - World Series champion (2016) ## Personal life Bryant was named his high school's salutatorian, but allowed a classmate to take the role instead when he found out how badly she wanted it. In college, he majored in biology before switching to finance. Bryant's father, Mike, played in minor league baseball for the Boston Red Sox organization. Mike owned a patio furniture store but sold it in order to get a job that permitted him to coach his son. Bryant and fellow baseball players Bryce Harper and Joey Gallo grew up as acquaintances in the Las Vegas area and began playing baseball with each other at the age of 9. Bryant and Harper's friendly competition was displayed in the May 2015 series against the Washington Nationals at Wrigley Field, when they greeted each other for the first time in the Major Leagues. Bryant proposed to long-time girlfriend Jessica Delp in December 2015. They both grew up in Las Vegas and had dated since they were 14. They were married on January 7, 2017, with one of the groomsmen being Bryant's teammate, Anthony Rizzo. They have three children: a son who was born in April 2020; and twin boys who were born on July 11, 2022. They reside in the Denver area. ## See also - 2013 College Baseball All-America Team - Chicago Cubs award winners and league leaders - List of Major League Baseball annual runs scored leaders - List of people from Las Vegas - List of University of San Diego people
65,260,678	Among Us	1,173,291,743	2018 video game	[ "2018 video games", "2020 in Internet culture", "2020s fads and trends", "Among Us", "Android (operating system) games", "Golden Joystick Award winners", "IOS games", "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the video game industry", "Indie games", "Internet memes introduced in 2018", "Internet memes introduced in 2020", "Manga based on video games", "Multiplayer online games", "Nintendo Switch games", "Party video games", "PlayEveryWare games", "PlayStation 4 games", "PlayStation 5 games", "Science fiction video games", "Social deduction video games", "Strategy video games", "Survival video games", "The Game Awards winners", "Video games about extraterrestrial life", "Video games about shapeshifting", "Video games developed in the United States", "Video games set in outer space", "Video games set on fictional planets", "Video games with cross-platform play", "Video games with customizable avatars", "Webby Award winners", "Windows games", "Xbox One games", "Xbox Series X and Series S games" ]	Among Us is a 2018 online multiplayer social deduction game developed and published by American game studio Innersloth. The game was inspired by the party game Mafia and the science fiction horror film The Thing. The game allows for cross-platform play; it was released on iOS and Android devices in June 2018 and on Windows later that year in November. It was ported to the Nintendo Switch in December 2020 and on the PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S in December 2021. A virtual reality adaptation, Among Us VR, was released on November 10, 2022. Among Us takes place in space-themed settings where players are colorful, armless cartoon astronauts. Each player takes on one of two roles: most are Crewmates, but a small number are Impostors. Crewmates work to complete assigned tasks in the game while identifying and voting out suspected Impostors (who appear identical to Crewmates) using social deduction, while Impostors have the objective of killing the Crewmates. While the game was initially released in 2018 to little mainstream attention, it received a massive rise in popularity in 2020 due to many Twitch streamers and YouTubers playing it during the COVID-19 pandemic. It received favorable reviews from critics for fun and entertaining gameplay. The game and its stylized characters have been the subject of various internet memes. ## Gameplay Among Us is a multiplayer game for four to fifteen players. Up to three players are randomly and secretly chosen to be the Impostors each round. As of 2021, four playable maps are available: a spaceship called "The Skeld", an office building called "MIRA HQ", a planet base called "Polus", or "The Airship", a setting from Innersloth's Henry Stickmin series. The Crewmates can win the game one of two ways: either by completing all assigned tasks or by ejecting all Impostors. Impostors can likewise win in two ways: either by killing or ejecting all Crewmates, or by sabotaging a critical system on the map (provided the Crewmates do not resolve it in time). At the start of the game, Crewmates are assigned "tasks" to complete around the map in the form of minigames, minipuzzles, and simple toggles, mostly consisting of maintenance work on vital systems such as fixing wires and downloading data. Impostors cannot complete tasks but may pretend to perform "fake" tasks to feign appearance as legitimate Crewmates. Impostors, however, can perform sabotages, ranging from minor (such as disabling lights, limiting the Crewmates' vision) to critical (such as disabling oxygen generators), requiring immediate counteraction by Crewmates to prevent their deaths. Impostors may enter and traverse ventilation ducts (commonly known as "venting"), and kill nearby Crewmates. To help Crewmates identify Impostors, there are various surveillance systems on each map, such as security cameras on The Skeld, a door log system with sensors in MIRA HQ, and a vitals indicator in Polus that shows the living status of all players. In addition, certain "visual tasks" provide animated cues, such as scanning oneself in the Skeld's medbay. As Impostors cannot perform tasks, Crewmates can use visual tasks to confirm their identity to nearby Crewmates. Any living player may call a group meeting by reporting a dead body, or by pressing an Emergency Meeting button. During meetings, players discuss—via the in-game text chat or an external voice chat application such as Discord—who they believe to be Impostors based on available witness testimonies, with Impostors lying to hide their identity or falsely accusing other players. Impostors can be identified beyond reasonable doubt if they are seen venting or killing a Crewmate, but ultimately players must weigh the veracity or value of each other's statements. Players then vote for who they believe is an Impostor, if a plurality vote is obtained, the player who received the most votes is "ejected" from the game. Players who are killed or ejected become ghosts, which can still perform tasks (Crewmates) or sabotages (Impostors) but are otherwise unable to be seen by or interact with living players. Effectively, spectators and ghosts may see and pass through walls, follow players or other ghosts, and chat with other ghosts. A November 2021 update added additional specialized roles to the game: Crewmates can also be Engineers, Scientists, or Guardian Angels. Engineers can traverse vents like Impostors, albeit to a limited capacity. Scientists can check vitals at any time to see if any player has been killed recently. Ghosts of Crewmates can become Guardian Angels, which can temporarily protect living players from being killed. Impostors likewise can be Shapeshifters, allowing them to temporarily morph into other players and assume their color and appearance. An alternative 'Hide and Seek' game mode was added in December 2022. There are no meetings or ejections, and a single Impostor (whose identity is known to the Crewmates) attempts to kill all Crewmates within a fixed countdown timer. Crewmates must hide or flee from the Impostor and can complete tasks to roll down the timer, as well as enter vents for a brief time to hide from Impostors. Crewmates are also given a display showing their proximity to an Impostor as well as the number of remaining Crewmates. Before each game, various options can be adjusted to customize aspects of gameplay, such as player movement speed, the allowed number of emergency meetings, number of tasks and visual tasks, or whether or not an Impostor is revealed after being voted off, allowing participants to manually balance the game's settings to their desires. Players may modify their own appearances with cosmetics, including skins, hats, visors, and pets, some of which are purchasable as microtransactions. ## Development and release ### Early development Among Us was inspired by the live party game Mafia, and the science fiction horror film The Thing. The idea for the concept was originally given by Marcus Bromander, co-founder of Innersloth, who had played Mafia since he was a kid. In the original game, function cards were dealt and players wandered around a house, aimlessly, while another person secretly killed the players, drawing a finger around their neck. Most of its mechanics were still present in Among Us, but the team wanted to "alleviate the need to create an interesting home model and have someone wandering around in a boring environment". So, they decided that the game would be space-themed and also added tasks, which, according to Forest Willard, programmer at Innersloth, "changed several times during development". Development began in November 2017. The game was initially intended to be a mobile-only local multiplayer game with a single map. Bromander paused development on Innersloth's other game, The Henry Stickmin Collection, in order to build Among Us' first map, The Skeld. When they began developing the first map, they intended that the ship was always in crisis and that the Impostors could do tasks. However, they found this setup "stressful" and decided that it "[wouldn't leave] much time for detective work and informed meeting conversations". Willard described playtesting as painful and frustrating, as the game would break down during sessions forcing him to send playtesters new builds off of Google Play. The team tested the game with 8 of their friends and never tested the game with 9 or the maximum of 10 players. The game was developed using the Unity engine. The game was released in June 2018 to Android and iOS under the AppID "spacemafia". Shortly after release, Among Us had an average player count of 30 to 50 concurrent players. Bromander blamed the game's poor release on Innersloth being "really bad at marketing". The team nearly abandoned the project multiple times but continued work on it due to a "small but vocal player base", adding in online multiplayer, new tasks, and customization options. The game was released on Steam on November 16, 2018. Cross-platform play was supported upon release of the Steam version. Originally, the game had no audio to avoid revealing hidden information in a local setting, and Willard mixed sounds from numerous sound packs to compose the SFX during the game's Steam release. On August 8, 2019, Innersloth released a second map, MIRA HQ, a "tightly packed headquarters roughly the size of The Skeld." A third map, Polus, was added on November 12, 2019, and is set in a research station. The fourth map, the Airship, was released on March 31, 2021, and is based on a location in the Henry Stickmin universe. MIRA HQ and Polus originally cost players via in-app purchase. Their prices were reduced to on January 6, 2020, then made free on June 11, 2020. While the map packs are still available for purchase on all platforms, they now only provide the player the skins that were bundled with the maps. According to programmer Forest Willard, the team "stuck with [the game] a lot longer than we probably should have from a pure business standpoint", putting out regular updates to the game as often as once per week. This led to a steady increase in players, causing the game's player base to snowball. Bromander attributed this to the studio having enough savings to keep working on the game even while it was not selling particularly well. ### Canceled sequel and ongoing updates In August 2020, the team shifted focus onto a sequel, Among Us 2. During this time, Forest Willard and Amy Liu continued to update Among Us, increasing the maximum player base, adding four servers and three regions, and implementing longer multiplayer codes to support more concurrent games. On September 23, 2020, the team announced that they abandoned development of the sequel in favor of reworking the original game's codebase, which they described as "outdated and not built to support adding so much new content", so the team made plans to rework the game's core code to enable adding new features. The team subsequently announced their plans to fix the game's server issues and widespread cheating problem, as well as add a system for banning disruptive players. In October 2020, colorblind support for the "wires" task was added to the Among Us beta on Steam, as well as some previously unannounced lobby customization options. In mid-February 2021, the game added a feature called Quickchat, which replaces the standard chat interface with a series of preset phrases that players must pick from. Players under the age of 13 are required to use Quickchat, but those over 13 are also allowed to use Free Chat, which allows them to type text messages. First announced at The Game Awards 2020, the Airship map was released on March 31, 2021. The Airship features multiple floors, contraptions, tasks, and "more". In addition, Game Awards presenter Geoff Keighley's face was added as a skin. The map itself is based upon the Henry Stickmin series' Toppat Clan Airship. Innersloth also stated that the map would be free to all players. It also features a skin bundle that includes Henry Stickmin-themed cosmetic that can be bought on Steam. The accounts system was implemented along with the update, and it allows players to report players that are not following Innersloth's Code of Conduct in order to make the game a welcoming and respectful place. Punishment includes temporary to permanent bans. They also stated that reports would be viewed manually and not by bots, that account creations would be required if players want to use Free Chat or to customize their nicknames, and that people under the age of 13 would need their parents' permission to create an account. Implementing an account system also allowed Innersloth to add account linking and a friending system in future updates. Innersloth later revealed on the game's official Twitter account a new color to the game, Rose, which was included in the game's next update along with five other colors: Coral, Tan, Gray, Maroon, and Banana, which were revealed during Summer Game Fest on June 10, 2021, alongside other upcoming content, including a fifth map, new Hide & Seek game mode, and new roles. The new colors, along with 15 player lobby support, new meeting screen and revamp at the game's design, was released on June 15, 2021, during the game's third anniversary. On July 7, 2021, Innersloth released a minor update that adds a new task, "Clean Vent", which involves the Crewmate cleaning a specific vent, preventing Impostors (and as of the November 9 update, Engineers) from using it, as well as some icon changes. On November 9, 2021, a major update was released that introduced four new roles (Shapeshifter, Engineer, Scientist, and Guardian Angel), achievements, a level system, controller support, custom keybinds, visor cosmetics, cosmetic bundles called "Cosmicubes", various in-game currencies, and a major revamp to the in-game store, which also reveals the names of the costumes. On March 31, 2022, a friending system was added, which allows players to see who they recently played with, send and receive friend requests, send and receive lobby invites, as well as the ability to block people. On June 21, 2022, the game was patched to include colorblind text. At The Game Awards 2022 on December 8, 2022, it was announced that the Hide & Seek mode would be released the following day. ### Console releases Amid its popularity, Innersloth considered releasing the game to PlayStation 4 and Xbox One consoles, but encountered a problem in implementing player communication, since standard text-based or voice-based chat seemed unusable. They considered a system similar to the "quick comms" system from Rocket League, as well as the possibility of developing an entirely new communication system for the game. Versions of the game for Xbox consoles were later announced. Among Us was released for the Nintendo Switch on December 15, 2020, the same day it was announced during an Indie World showcase. The Switch version supports cross-platform play with the mobile and Windows versions. This port was published by PlayEveryWare. Upon release, the Switch version had an exploit to access The Airship prior to its official release in early 2021. The exploit was fixed two days after release in the Switch version's first update. Among Us was released digitally for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S consoles on December 14, 2021, along with its release on the Xbox Game Pass for console. These versions support cross-platform play with existing Windows, Switch, and mobile versions. Unique to the PlayStation ports are special customization options based on Ratchet & Clank. Physical releases for consoles were available in Europe the same day, while North American physical releases were released in January 2022. ### Among Us VR During The Game Awards 2021, a standalone VR version titled Among Us VR was announced. Co-developed by Schell Games, Innersloth, and Robot Teddy, the game was released on November 10, 2022 for the Meta Quest 2 and Windows via Steam, with a PlayStation 5 version via PlayStation VR2 planned for the future. Among Us VR features similar gameplay to the original game, but is played from a first-person perspective. Several of the original game's tasks were recreated, alongside new ones. At the time of release, the only level in the game is The Skeld 2; further content updates are planned, though no details have been announced. ## Popularity ### 2020 spike While Among Us was released in 2018, it was not until mid-2020 that it saw a surge of popularity, initially driven by content creators online in South Korea and Brazil. Bromander stated that the game is more popular in Mexico, Brazil, and South Korea than in the United States. According to Willard, Twitch streamer Sodapoppin first popularized the game on Twitch in July 2020. Many other Twitch streamers and YouTubers followed suit, including prominent content creators xQc, Pokimane, Shroud, Ninja, MrBeast, Disguised Toast and PewDiePie. The COVID-19 pandemic was frequently cited as a reason for the popularity of Among Us, as it allowed for socializing despite social distancing. Emma Kent of Eurogamer believed that the release of Innersloth's The Henry Stickmin Collection also contributed to awareness of Among Us, and PC Gamer's Wes Fenlon credited Twitch streamer SR_Kaif for "prim[ing] Among Us for its big moment." Fenlon also praised Among Us for improvements over other popular tabletop games that had been inspired by Mafia, such as Secret Hitler. He said other video game adaptations of Mafia such as Town of Salem and Werewolves Within were "just add[ing] an online interface for the basic Werewolf rules," whereas Among Us is as an entirely new take on the concept. Along with Fall Guys and the Jackbox Party Packs, Among Us provided a narrative-less experience that helped to avoid the "cultural trauma" of the pandemic, according to M.J. Lewis of Wired. The game's popularity continued into the following months. YouTube reported that videos about Among Us were viewed 4 billion times in September 2020, and TikTok videos related to Among Us had over 13 billion views in October 2020. YouTuber CG5 wrote a song based on the game in September 2020, titled "Show Yourself", and gained over 60 million views in four months. In September 2020, the game exceeded 100 million downloads and its player count rose to 1.5 million concurrent players (nearly 400 thousand of which were on Steam), then peaked at 3.8 million in late September. The sudden increase in players overloaded the game's server, which according to Willard was "a totally free Amazon server, and it was terrible." This forced him to work quickly, under crunch time, to resolve these issues. ### Memes and mods In August 2020, Innersloth opened an online store for Among Us themed merchandise. The game's popularity inspired many original songs, fan art and internet memes, Willard expressed that fan-created content "really is the best part" of making Among Us, and Bromander called it "my favorite thing to see". The game popularized the slang word "sus" (meaning "suspicious" or "suspect"), which had been used before the game's release. Other slang terms as well as internet memes popularized and inspired by Among Us include "sussy" and "sussy baka" (derived from "sus"), "when the imposter is sus" (an ironic meme based on Among Us, usually alongside an edited photo of Jerma985), and "amogus" (a satiric misspelling of "Among Us"). In addition, the meme "Among Us everywhere" is a phenomenon where unexpected objects resemble the crewmate character. In September 2022, "sus" was added to Merriam-Webster's dictionary. During its time of widespread popularity, Among Us was controversially played by the U.S. Navy Esports team, in which players on the stream used in-game names referencing the N-word ("Gamer Word") and the bombing of Nagasaki ("Japan 1945" and "Nagasaki"). The stream was deemed "offensive" and "intolerable" by some viewers. The sailor responsible for the stream was later kicked off the team. In October 2020, U.S. Representatives Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez and Ilhan Omar streamed the game alongside several other prominent streamers such as Pokimane and Hasan Piker as a way to encourage people to vote in the 2020 United States presidential election, drawing almost 700,000 concurrent viewers on Twitch. The game received several mods made by the community, which added roles, game modes, cosmetics, etc. Among Us was featured in Twitch Rivals 2020, an online gaming tournament which was held on December 4, 2020. During the event, players were able to receive an exclusive pet called "Glitch Pet", which is the Twitch logo. #### Chicken nugget auction In May 2021, an eBay user named Tav listed a Chicken McNugget from the 2021 BTS Meal by McDonald's for online auction. The nugget was listed because the seller felt it resembled a Crewmate, and was inspired by a 2017 auction for a Cheeto that looked similar to the gorilla Harambe, which sold for . Despite Tav only expecting the nugget to sell for around , a bidding war began two days later, and the nugget was sold to an anonymous buyer for . Tav decided to include Szechuan sauce after a comment on social media from Xbox. Several news outlets covered the auction, who largely cited it as an example of an absurd price caused by internet memes, and following the sale, multiple other listings selling nuggets of a similar shape were made in hopes of profiting from the popularity of the original listing. Several TikTokers and QAnon-adjacent conspiracy theorists promoted misinformation and rumors claiming that the high price of the listing was a front for child sex trafficking. In 2022, the listing was recognized by Guinness World Records as the "most expensive chicken nugget sold at online auction". That October, Chilean chicken brand Super Pollo partnered with Innersloth to launch a crewmate-shaped chicken nugget into the Earth's thermosphere. ### October 2020 and January 2021 hacks In mid-October 2020, a hacker known as "Eris Loris" began targeting mainly North American servers. Several players on the Among Us subreddit and Twitter reported this player hacking their lobbies and spamming in-game chat with promotions for his YouTube channel, links to his Discord server, and controversial political messages. Eris Loris threatened to personally hack players that refused to subscribe to his YouTube channel. The Discord server has been found to contain large amounts of offensive content, such as racist language, gore, pornography, and images depicting animal abuse. A Eurogamer report from October 23, 2020, features an interview with a person claiming to be Eris Loris, conducted via the Discord server from one of the links provided in the hacked games. In the interview, Loris claims he created the bot responsible for the hacks "in only six hours", and had enlisted up to 50 volunteers to form a botnet which boosted the strength of their attacks. Loris claimed that the hack impacted 4.9 million players in 1.5 million games. He added that the hacks were part of a publicity stunt to influence players to vote for Donald Trump in the 2020 United States presidential election. Innersloth added an in-game message warning players about the hacks on October 22, and released a statement on Twitter the next day. They said they were "super aware" of the hacking issue, and stated that an "emergency server update" would be pushed out to combat the hacks. They encouraged players to stick to private games and to avoid playing on public ones until the update was released. The team plans to address the hacking vulnerabilities as part of a planned overhaul for the game. At the end of January 2021, players reported on Twitter the return of Eris Loris' hack attack, who was distributing Among Us cheats. ## Reception Among Us was well received by critics. On the aggregator website Metacritic, the PC port received a 85 of 100 score based on 9 critic reviews, while the Nintendo Switch version received a 79 of 100 score based on 9 critic reviews, both them indicating "generally favorable reviews". It was also considered one of the "Best PC Games for 2018", being ranked 17th, and as the "#38 Best Discussed PC Game of 2018". Since December 2020, IGN considered it one of 2020's best reviewed games so far. Elliott Osange of Bonus Stage considered that the game is "silly fun", but felt that is more fun "to be an Impostor". Craig Pearson of Rock, Paper, Shotgun had the same opinion, found playing as an Impostor "a lot more fun" than playing as a Crewmate, which he called "exhausting". In reference to the game's popularity among streamers, Evelyn Lau of The National said: "Watching the reactions of people trying to guess who the imposter is (and sometimes getting it very wrong) or lying terribly about not being the imposter is all quite entertaining." Alice O'Conner of Rock, Paper, Shotgun described the game as "Mafia or Werewolf but with minigames". Andrew Penney of TheGamer said the game was "worth it for the price" and that "who you play with dictates how fun the game is." L'avis de Tiraxa of Jeuxvideo.com praised the game's Freeplay mode, which offers newer players "to browse the map alone to accommodate the places", as they would need to play several games in order to "perfect their strategies". Leana Hafer from IGN stated in her verdict on the game: "I don't have any sus that this will be the last game of its breed to make a splash, since we're already seeing its influence on even mega-games like Fortnite". As a negative point, she pointed out some technical problems, such as the difficulty of finding rooms that aren't already full or are a long way from getting there. She also lamented the lack of "mechanic to punish players who rage-quit when they don't get to play as impostor, or are caught dead to rights in the middle of a murder". Tiraxa of Jeuxvideo.com was more critical of the game, lamenting the lack of an inbuilt voice chat, server bugs which "[prevent] some from joining the party, in a totally unexplained way", public servers with strangers, which she considered "less entertaining" than private servers with friends, and the large development progress, stating that the game has a "bit of a way to go before it reaches its full potential". The mobile version of the game, although being free-to-play, was criticized. Osange of Bonus Stage called the presence of ads and in-app purchases of cosmetic changes that are mostly available for free on the PC version "nonsense". He also called the PC version "stable" but also stated that the Android version is "a device-by-device situation". The Nintendo Switch version received some criticism. William Antonelli of Insider said that the Switch controls give "many tasks a satisfying game response". However, he also stated that most of the tasks could be "done quickly with the Switch's touchscreen control", which can only be used when the console is in handheld mode. He noted that many of the game's tasks are difficult to complete using a gamepad, which is required when the console is connected to a larger screen, and considered this version "inferior" to the PC and mobile versions. He also stated that the communication system is "frustrating", as using the joystick to select letters is "slow", and said the fact that the game has support for multiplayer across multiple platforms gives Switch players "immediate disadvantage". PJ O'Reilly of Nintendo Life noted that the Switch lacked much of the additional content available on other platforms, such as skins, which he called a "shame". Among Us has been frequently compared to Fall Guys, as both became popular as party games during the COVID-19 pandemic; the developers of both games have positively acknowledged each other on Twitter. Comparisons have also been drawn between the two games' avatars, which have been said to look like jelly beans. Among Us has also been compared to The Thing, Town of Salem, Werewolves Within, and Secret Hitler. ### Sales As of September 2020, Steam Spy estimated that the game had more than 10 million owners on Steam. The Associated Press noted the game was the most downloaded app on the iOS App Store for both iPhones and iPads in October 2020. According to SuperData Research, the game had roughly 500 million players worldwide as of November 2020, with the free-to-play mobile version accounting for 97% of players and the buy-to-play PC version accounting for 3% of players, though it was the buy-to-play PC version that generated 64% of the game's gross revenue. Among Us became one of the best selling games of 2020 on Steam, being listed on the platinum category on "The Year's Top 100" list. The Nintendo Switch version's launch sold 3.2 million digital units in December 2020, making it the highest-earning version of the game for the month and one of the best-selling games on the Nintendo Switch. Among Us was offered as a free game on the Epic Games Store during one week in May 2021. Its average daily player count jumped from around 350,000 players in the weeks before to over 2 million players during the giveaway. On June 29, 2021, Innersloth reported on Twitter that during the game's free promotion on Epic Games Store, at least 15 million copies were claimed. ### Awards ## Legacy Among Us has done collaborations and cross-overs with other games and studios. The first game they collaborated with was Fall Guys, who added Among Us-themed skins to their game. Characters from Among Us have made cameos in the indie games Astroneer, Space Warlord Organ Trading Simulator, Cosmonious High, Samurai Gunn 2, and Fraymakers, and Among Us is referenced in several stickers in the game A Hat in Time. In a major update in collaboration with Innersloth, indie developer Triband added characters and 35 Among Us-themed levels to the game What The Golf? Several Among Us-themed cards are included in The Binding of Isaac: Four Souls Requiem. Themed skins and cosmetics from other games and properties have been added to Among Us as well: Innersloth and Riot Games crossed-over to bring Arcane themed cosmetics to Among Us. In addition to that, Innersloth has done crossovers with Halo, Ratchet & Clank, and the movie franchise Scream. Cosmetics themed after Benoit Blanc from Glass Onion: A Knives Out Mystery, were made available with the Hide 'N Seek update on December 9, 2022. Cosmetics and pets themed after the game Destiny 2 were added to coincide with Destiny's Lightfall expansion on February 28, 2023. Outside of the game itself Innersloth has collaborated with BT21, and Among Us-themed posters were used to advertise the movie Free Guy. The "ejected" animation was referenced in the season 2 trailer for the animated series Snoopy in Space, and the Emergency Meeting screen was used in In Space with Markiplier. In the manga series Komi Can't Communicate, one chapter is dedicated to the game, and sees the characters dressed up as crewmates. Among Us was also featured as a question on Jeopardy! Among Us is seen being played by characters in the 2022 film Glass Onion: A Knives Out Mystery. Epic Games featured a community-created game mode in Fortnite Creative in December 2020 called "The Spy Within", which had very similar mechanics to Among Us, in which among ten players, the others have to complete tasks to earn enough coins within a limited time while trying to deduce which two players are trying to sabotage that effort. Epic later added another (official and internally-developed) limited mode to Fortnite called "Impostors" in August 2021, which was recognized as even a closer take on Among Us, as the same basic mechanics as "The Spy Within" were used, but now taking place within an underground bunker with a layout similar to the Among Us map. Innersloth responded in frustration to this mode, which gave no credit to Innersloth. Innersloth's co-founder Marcus Bromander stated "Is it really that hard to put 10% more effort into putting your own spin on it though?", while studio representative Callum Underwood said that Innersloth was open to collaborations, "Just ask and if you follow some basic rules it's usually fine". In an October 2021 blog posting, Epic Games did credit Innersloth and Among Us as inspirations for the "Impostors" mode. On June 17, 2022, both Epic and Innersloth announced a collab between Fortnite and Among Us, with a "back bling" of a crewmate in interchangeable colors and the "Distraction Dance" from Innersloth's Henry Stickmin franchise available in the Fortnite item shop. ### Artificial intelligence research A simplified variation of Among Us called Hidden Agenda is used in the field of multi-agent reinforcement learning to show that artificial intelligence agents are able to learn a variety of social behaviors, including partnering and voting without need for communication in natural language. ## Adaptations On December 28, 2021, H2 Interactive, who publishes Among Us in Japan, announced that a one-shot manga based on the game will be published in Bessatsu CoroCoro's April issue on February 28, 2022. On June 27, 2023, it was confirmed that an animated series based on Among Us is being worked on by CBS Studios, from Infinity Train creator, Owen Dennis. ## See also - Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the video game industry
19,077,473	South African War Memorial (South Australia)	1,100,512,295	Equestrian war memorial in Adelaide, Australia	[ "Adelaide Park Lands", "Australian military memorials", "Buildings and structures in Adelaide", "Equestrian statues in Australia", "Monuments and memorials in South Australia", "Second Boer War memorials", "South Australian Heritage Register", "South Australian places listed on the defunct Register of the National Estate" ]	The South African War Memorial (also known as the Boer War Memorial or, prior to 1931, the National War Memorial) is an equestrian memorial dedicated to the South Australians who served in the Second Boer War of 11 October 1899 to 31 May 1902. It was the first war in which South Australians fought, and 1531 men were sent in nine contingents, with over 1500 horses to accompany them. Over 59 South Australians died in the war. The memorial is located in front of the main entrance to Government House, one of the most prominent buildings in Adelaide, on the corner of North Terrace and King William Road. It was constructed with a budget of £2,500 raised through public donations, and was designed by the London-based sculptor Adrian Jones. While the statue itself was not intended to represent any particular soldier, there is evidence suggesting that the head of the rider was based on that of George Henry Goodall. The statue was unveiled by the Governor of South Australia, George Le Hunte, on 6 June 1904. It has since become one of the focal points for the Anzac day marches, as well as being regarded as one of the most "eye-catching" and significant statues in the city. As such, it was added to the national heritage listing in 1990. ## Background In 1899, the Orange Free State and Transvaal declared war on Britain. South Australia, "fiercely" loyal to the British Empire and still "two years away from federation", joined the other Australian colonies in sending troops to support the Empire in the conflict. With the support of Adelaide's newspapers, nine contingents of South Australian troops were sent to the war during the three years of hostilities, totalling 1,531 men and 1,507 horses. Funding for the endeavour was garnered through the State and Imperial Governments in combination with funds raised through public subscriptions. In addition to the formal contingents, a number of Australians served as colonial troops, either having paid their way to Southern Africa after the conflict had begun or having already been present in the region prior to the outbreak of hostilities. By the time hostilities ended on 31 May 1902, at least 59 South Australians had been killed in the war. ## Design and construction A committee to build a memorial to those who served and died in the Second Boer War was formed shortly after the war was ended, spurred by a suggestion in July 1901 by J. Johnson to erect an equestrian statue. Chaired by George Brookman, the committee rapidly raised £2,500 from public donations. With the assistance of the Agent-General, Henry A. Grainger, a subcommittee consisting of members who were present in London at the time was engaged to find a sculptor who would be able to provide the statue that they desired. The original intent of the committee was to purchase a secondhand statue and to make alterations to suit. Nevertheless, the Agent-General recommended Captain Adrian Jones, a veterinarian, military officer and sculptor who had an "affinity for animals", and who had previously worked on equestrian projects. Jones made two offers to the committee: the first was to construct a replica of a work that he had entered into a South African competition, on the condition that it would be cast only if the original was accepted; while the second was to model a smaller work based on a sketch he had produced. The second option he priced at £1600, arguing that the reduced cost was acceptable as it would allow him to keep his staff in employment until the larger South African commission was finalized. The committee were quite taken by his sketch, agreeing to the second option and looking no further. Finding that he needed advice in regard to accoutrements and the attitude of Australian soldiers, Jones made inquiries about consulting with an Australian. George Henry Goodall, a South Australian veteran of the Second Boer War, was at the time serving as Regimental Quartermaster Sergeant with the Australian Corps engaged in London at the coronation ceremonies for King Edward VII. Goodall was "volunteered" to attend Jones in order to model and to provide advice. Goodall later described how Jones had requested that he pose while the sculptor created a clay model of his head, but Simon Cameron observed that Jones's memoirs "do not mention any sittings." Nevertheless, a 1940 memorandum, based on a conversation with Goodall, noted that "a comparison of a photograph of Mr Goodall, taken in 1902 with the statue itself certainly indicates a strong facial likeness". In the same memorandum it was noted that Goodall only posed for the head, and that he insisted that his selection to model for the statue was not based on any outstanding merit as a soldier. With the choice of statues settled, a competition was run in Adelaide in 1903 to find the design for the pedestal. A total of 12 entries were received, with the submission by Garlick, Sibley and Wooldridge (the firm consisting of only Henry Evan Sibley (1867–1917) and Charles W. Wooldridge at that point) being selected as the winner. The pedestal is 12 feet in height, and was constructed from granite quarried from the nearby town of Murray Bridge. The bronze plaques which are mounted on the sides of the pedestal list the names of 59 South Australians who died in the conflict, and were cast from gun plates by A. W. Dobbie and Company. (A. W. Dobbie and Company were later responsible for the bronze castings on the South Australian National War Memorial to those who served in World War I). A further 16 South Australians died in relation to the Boer War, while an additional four died either during training or upon their return. Also missing from the list is Harry "Breaker" Morant, who had served in the second contingent of troops to be sent from South Australia, and was executed by the British after being found guilty by court martial of the murder of unarmed Boer troops. There was no controversy at the time in regard to his omission, although the decision not to include his companion Peter Handcock (who was executed alongside Morant) on the Bathurst, New South Wales, memorial was more problematic, and was rescinded in 1964. The memorial is located in front of Government House on the corner of North Terrace and King William Road, one of the busiest corners in the city. ## Unveiling The memorial was unveiled on 6 June 1904. This date was significant both as the birthday of the then Prince of Wales, George V, and the third anniversary of the Battle of Graspan, (in which South Australian soldiers had served). A large crowd gathered to view the unveiling, and the speakers included the chair of the memorial committee, George Brookman, and George Le Hunte, the Governor of South Australia. The memorial itself was shrouded by canvas and the Union Jack, which fell away to reveal the statue underneath. At the time of the unveiling the memorial was referred to as the South Australian "National War Memorial", but the name was later changed to the South African War Memorial after the 1931 completion of a new memorial on the corner of Kintore Avenue and North Terrace, which was built to remember those who served in the First World War. When it was unveiled, the South African War Memorial was one of only two public equestrian sculptures in the country (the other being a depiction of Saint George and the Dragon at the National Gallery of Victoria), and the only commemorative equestrian work. ## Reception The memorial has been well received from the outset. When shown sketches the design, one of the Adelaide contingent described it as "spirited" – a word that was echoed by King Edward VII upon being shown a photograph of the model that was produced. When the completed statue arrived in Adelaide in 1904, the committee was reportedly delighted, and many in Australia viewed it as the best statue in the country. In more recent times, Ken Inglis has described the work as the "apotheosis" of the bushman soldier, representing the bushman and the horse at war (the "Australian centaur"), and noted that it was possible to view the memorial as commemorating "dead horses as well as dead men". Simon Cameron, in his work "Silent Witness: Adelaide's statues and monuments", described the memorial as the most eye-catching statue in Adelaide, a view that was echoed by Chris Brice in 1999. More generally, the memorial is regarded as one of "Adelaide's most significant statues". The statue received national heritage listing in 1990, having been described both as a "significant landmark" and an "important piece of public sculpture of its period." ## The memorial today After World War I the memorial became one of the centerpieces of the Adelaide Anzac Day march. The route for the march starts at the National War Memorial, heads west along North Terrace, and turns right down King William Road before culminating in a service at the Cross of Sacrifice (in the Adelaide Park Lands opposite the St Peter's Cathedral). As the marchers turn on to King William Road they salute the South African War Memorial. As part of the State of South Australia's sesqui-centenerary in 1986, referred to locally as "Jubilee 150", a "Jubilee 150 Walkway" was created along the north side of North Terrace, commencing at the memorial. A commemoration ceremony for the memorial was held on the 100th anniversary of its dedication, 6 June 2004, with the Governor Marjorie Jackson-Nelson in attendance. The memorial's location on a busy street corner has caused it to deteriorate, resulting in at least two recent clean-up and restoration projects. The first involved a clean-up of the granite base, while the second involved more extensive restoration, and was completed in April 2007 at a cost of \$90,000. In recent years there has been talk of building a replica of the memorial. On 31 May 2008 on Anzac Parade, Canberra, the formal dedication of a site in which will be placed a new national Boer War memorial was held. A National Boer War Memorial Committee was formed prior to that date, and they will be conducting a national competition to find a design for the new memorial. In the design brief for the memorial, the committee state that it is their desire to build a memorial along the same lines as Adelaide's: going so far as to say that they would be willing to accept a replica of the statue from the South Australian memorial if the original mould could be located or if a duplicate could otherwise be produced.
780,055	Sidney Crosby	1,172,595,087	Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1987)	[ "1987 births", "Art Ross Trophy winners", "Canadian expatriate ice hockey players in the United States", "Canadian ice hockey centres", "Canadian philanthropists", "Conn Smythe Trophy winners", "Hart Memorial Trophy winners", "Ice hockey people from Halifax, Nova Scotia", "Ice hockey people from Pittsburgh", "Ice hockey players at the 2010 Winter Olympics", "Ice hockey players at the 2014 Winter Olympics", "Lester B. Pearson Award winners", "Living people", "Lou Marsh Trophy winners", "Medalists at the 2010 Winter Olympics", "Medalists at the 2014 Winter Olympics", "Members of the Order of Nova Scotia", "National Hockey League All-Stars", "National Hockey League first-overall draft picks", "National Hockey League first-round draft picks", "Officers of the Order of Canada", "Olympic gold medalists for Canada", "Olympic ice hockey players for Canada", "Olympic medalists in ice hockey", "People from Cole Harbour, Nova Scotia", "People from Sewickley, Pennsylvania", "Pittsburgh Penguins draft picks", "Pittsburgh Penguins players", "Rimouski Océanic players", "Rocket Richard Trophy winners", "Sportspeople from Pittsburgh", "Stanley Cup champions", "Triple Gold Club" ]	Sidney Patrick Crosby OC ONS (born August 7, 1987) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre and captain of the Pittsburgh Penguins of the National Hockey League (NHL). Nicknamed "Sid the Kid" and dubbed "The Next One", he was selected first overall by the Penguins in the 2005 NHL Entry Draft. Born and raised in Halifax, Crosby was considered one of the most lauded prospects in ice hockey history and is widely regarded as one of the greatest ice hockey players of all time. During his two-year major junior career with the Rimouski Océanic, he earned many awards and led his club to the 2005 Memorial Cup final. Océanic and the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League retired Crosby's jersey number 87 in 2019. Crosby debuted in the NHL during the 2005–06 season, recording 102 points and finishing as runner-up for the Calder Memorial Trophy as the NHL Rookie of the Year. At 18 years and 253 days, he is the youngest player to date to reach 100 points in an NHL season. By his second season, he led the NHL with 120 points to capture the Art Ross Trophy, becoming the youngest player and the only teenager to win a scoring title in any major North American sports league. That same season, Crosby won the Hart Memorial Trophy as the league's most valuable player (MVP) and the Lester B. Pearson Award for most outstanding player as judged by his peers. He started the 2007–08 season with the team's captaincy and subsequently led them to the 2008 Stanley Cup Finals, where they were defeated by the Detroit Red Wings in six games. The Penguins returned to the Finals against Detroit the following year and won in seven games; Crosby became the youngest captain in NHL history to win the Stanley Cup. In 2009–10, he received the Mark Messier Leadership Award and scored 51 goals, winning the Maurice Richard Trophy as the NHL's leading goal scorer. In early 2011, Crosby sustained a concussion that left him sidelined for the rest of the season and for most of the 2011–12 campaign. In 2014, Crosby again won the Hart Memorial Trophy as well as his second Art Ross Trophy (104 points) and his third Ted Lindsay Award. Crosby led Pittsburgh to Stanley Cup championships in 2016 and 2017, becoming the third player to win the Conn Smythe Trophy (playoff MVP) in consecutive years. In 2017, he won his second Richard Trophy and was named one of the 100 Greatest NHL Players in history. Internationally, Crosby has represented Canada on numerous occasions. He won gold at the 2005 World Junior Championships, and was later named to Team Canada for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. Playing against the United States in the gold medal game, he scored the game-winning goal in overtime. Crosby captained Team Canada at the 2014 Winter Olympics, winning his second consecutive Olympic gold medal. A year later, he led his country to gold in the World Championship in Prague, thus becoming a member of the Triple Gold Club and the only player in the club to have captained all three winning teams. In 2016, Crosby captained Canada to gold in the World Cup of Hockey and was elected MVP by a unanimous vote. ## Early life Crosby was born in the Grace Maternity Hospital in Halifax, Nova Scotia on August 7, 1987 to Troy and Trina (née Forbes) Crosby. Crosby's jersey number (87) and 2007 contract signing (\$8.7 million per year) reflect his birthdate (8/7/87). Crosby grew up in nearby Cole Harbour and has a younger sister named Taylor. His father Troy was a goaltender who played for the Verdun Junior Canadiens in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL). He helped the team win the 1985 President's Cup which lead them to the 1985 Memorial Cup. Troy was drafted 240th overall by the Montreal Canadiens in 1984, but never played at the NHL level. Growing up, Crosby admired Steve Yzerman and, like his father, was a Canadiens fan. Crosby began playing hockey by himself in his basement at the age of two, shooting pucks in a net that had the family dryer behind it, leading to a longstanding misconception that he was actually practising with the dryer; he learned to skate at age three. From age 12 to 15, Crosby attended Astral Drive Junior High School. He was a straight-A student and, according to the vice-principal, "an amazing role model, who was really kind to students in the learning centre and to special needs kids". At age 15, Crosby transferred to Shattuck-Saint Mary's in Faribault, Minnesota to play with the school's hockey program. While playing for the Rimouski Océanic of the QMJHL, Crosby went to Harrison Trimble High School in Moncton, New Brunswick, where he graduated in 2005. ## Playing career ### Minor hockey Early in his minor hockey years, Crosby began attracting media attention for his play and gave his first newspaper interview at age seven. When Crosby was 13, Nova Scotia's Minor Hockey Council refused to allow him to play midget, a level of minor hockey designated for 15- to 17-year-olds. His family sued but lost. The following year, he entered the midget level with the triple-A Dartmouth Subways and went on to score a combined 217 regular season and playoff points, leading Dartmouth to a second-place finish at the 2002 Air Canada Cup. He was named the MVP and Top Scorer awards at the national tournament at the tournament banquet held after the preliminary round and he finished the tournament with 24 points (11 goals and 13 assists) in 7 games. Crosby was called up as a 14-year-old to play two games with the Maritime Junior A Hockey League's Truro Bearcats that season. Crosby had been drafted by the Bearcats in the 2001 MJAHL Draft as a 13-year-old. During his midget season, Crosby appeared on the CBC's Hockey Day in Canada telecast. He has recalled numerous instances in which opposing players intentionally attempted to injure him, as well as constant verbal abuse from parents on and off the ice. Parents taunted and threatened Crosby so harshly, he took to not wearing his jersey between tournament games while he waited to play so that he would not be recognized. Due to this treatment, he elected to play for the American hockey program at Shattuck-Saint Mary's Boarding School, Minnesota for the 2002–03 hockey season. In 57 games with the Sabres, he recorded 72 goals and 162 points, leading the team to a U18 AAA national championship. ### Junior career #### Rimouski Océanic (2003–2005) Crosby was selected first overall in the 2003 Midget Draft by the Rimouski Océanic of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL). In his first exhibition game, he scored eight points, leading his teammates to nickname him "Darryl" (in reference to Darryl Sittler's ten-point NHL game in 1976). In his first regular season game in the QMJHL, he scored one goal and added two assists. He was named QMJHL Player of the Week for two consecutive weeks at the start of the season and won the honour four more times as the season progressed. He was named QMJHL Player of the Month and Canadian Hockey League (CHL) Player of the Week three times each. Crosby finished his rookie QMJHL season with 54 goals and 81 assists over 59 games to capture the Jean Béliveau Trophy as the league's leading point-scorer. He was further recognized with the RDS/JVC Trophy (overall rookie of the year) and Michel Brière Memorial Trophy (most valuable player), becoming the first QMJHL player to win all three major awards at once. Rounding out Crosby's accolades for the 2003–04 regular season were QMJHL All-Rookie and first All-Star team honours, as well as Offensive Rookie, Offensive Player and Personality of the Year Awards. As a team, the Océanic led the Eastern Division with 34 wins and 76 points. After receiving a first-round bye in the 2003 QMJHL playoffs, they defeated the Shawinigan Cataractes in the quarterfinals, then were eliminated by the Moncton Wildcats in the semi-finals. Crosby recorded 16 points (7 goals and 9 assists) over 9 playoff games. During the off-season, the World Hockey Association, a major professional league proposed to rival the NHL, held an Entry Draft on July 17, 2004. Holding the first overall selection, Toronto chose Crosby. The following month, it was reported that Crosby turned down a US\$7.5 million contract over three years to play for Hamilton. Crosby told reporters that while "it took a lot to say no to that much money", he "work[ed] hard most of his life to play in the NHL". The contract would have paid him \$2.5 million annually and an additional \$2 million payout regardless of whether the WHA was realized as a legitimate league or not. However, it was not clarified how Hamilton could have signed Crosby, as Toronto held his WHA playing rights. Nevertheless, the WHA never materialized. Returning to the Océanic for the 2004–05 season, Crosby continued dominating the league, leading the league with 66 goals, 102 assists and 168 points over 62 games to capture his second consecutive Beliveau Trophy. Joining Crosby on Rimouski's top line were wingers Dany Roussin and Marc-Antoine Pouliot, who finished second and third in league-scoring with 116 and 114 points respectively. In addition to his scoring title, Crosby was once again awarded Most Valuable Player, Offensive Player and Personality of the Year, while repeating as a QMJHL First All-Star. The Océanic finished the regular season with the best record in the league, registering 45 wins and 98 points, including a league record-setting 28-game undefeated streak. They went on to capture the President's Cup as QMJHL playoff champions, defeating the Halifax Mooseheads in the finals. Crosby led the playoffs with 31 points (14 goals and 17 assists) over 13 games, earning him the Guy Lafleur Trophy as post-season MVP. With their QMJHL championship, the Océanic qualified for the 2005 Memorial Cup, Canada's national major junior tournament. Meeting the London Knights in the final, the Océanic were shut-out 4–0. Despite the loss, Crosby was named to the Tournament All-Star team and captured the Ed Chynoweth Trophy as the competition's leading scorer with 11 points (6 goals and 5 assists) over 5 games. Knights forward Corey Perry was awarded the Stafford Smythe Memorial Trophy as the MVP. Soon after, he attended the NHL prospect combine in preparation for the 2005 NHL Entry Draft. Rimouski Océanic retired jersey number 87 in Crosby's honor in 2019, and the QMJHL also retired the number for all of its teams. ### Pittsburgh Penguins (2005–present) #### Rise to superstardom (2005–2007) Entering the 2005 NHL Entry Draft, Crosby was listed first overall in the NHL Central Scouting Bureau and International Scouting Services' respective rankings of prospects. He also won the Mike Bossy Trophy as the QMJHL's best prospect. Crosby was selected first overall in the draft by the Pittsburgh Penguins on July 30, 2005. Due to the labour lockout that suspended the entire 2004–05 NHL season, positioning for the 2005 draft was conducted via a weighted lottery based on each team's playoff appearances and draft lottery victories in the last four years. This lottery system led to the draft being popularly referred to as the "Sidney Crosby Lottery" or the "Sidney Crosby Sweepstakes". "Sid the Kid", a nickname given to him by the media early in his career, made his NHL debut on October 5, 2005 against the New Jersey Devils, and registered an assist on the team's first goal of the season, scored by Mark Recchi in a 5–1 loss. He scored his first NHL goal in the Penguins' home opener on October 8 against goaltender Hannu Toivonen of the Boston Bruins. Despite having registered two assists for a three-point night, the Penguins were defeated 7–6 in overtime. Crosby began his rookie season playing alongside Hall of Famer Mario Lemieux. Unfortunately, Lemieux was forced to retire due to an irregular heartbeat after having played just 26 games of the season. Near the midway point of the season, Penguins head coach Ed Olczyk was fired and replaced by Michel Therrien on December 15, 2005. The following day, Therrien designated Crosby as an alternate captain for the Penguins. The move drew criticism from some hockey pundits, including Don Cherry, who claimed that Crosby did not have the experience for the position. Cherry said, "An 18-year-old kid says he's going to give us ideas. What, from the Quebec League, he's going to give them ideas? Come on. That's ridiculous." Although hopes were high in Pittsburgh for the club to succeed, largely in part to the beginning of Crosby's NHL career and bolstered by the acquisitions of Sergei Gonchar, Žigmund Pálffy, and Mark Recchi, the Penguins still finished with the worst record in the Eastern Conference. Nevertheless, Crosby's first NHL campaign was a personal success as he established franchise records in assists (63) and points (102) for a rookie, both of which were previously held by Mario Lemieux. He also became the youngest player in NHL history to score 100 points in a single season, and only the seventh rookie ever to hit the benchmark. Overall, Crosby finished sixth in the NHL scoring race and seventh in the NHL in assists. Among Canadian NHL players, he trailed only Joe Thornton and Dany Heatley. Throughout the season, Crosby had battled with Washington Capitals forward and 2004 first-overall pick Alexander Ovechkin for the rookie scoring lead. He finished second to Ovechkin's 106 points and also lost to the Capitals forward for the Calder Memorial Trophy as NHL rookie of the year. It marked the start of a rivalry that would help "define the league" for over a decade. Throughout his first season, Crosby was accused by opposing players and coaches of taking dives and complaining to officials, which was typically attributed to his youth. He became the first rookie to earn 100 penalty minutes and 100 points in the same season, which magnified his reputation for complaining to NHL officials. Hockey analyst Kelly Hrudey compared Crosby to Wayne Gretzky, who had a similar reputation as a "whiner" in his youth, and suggested that as Crosby matured, he would mellow out and his reputation would fade. In his second NHL season, Crosby built on his rookie success. On October 28, 2006, Crosby scored his first NHL hat-trick in an 8–2 victory over the Philadelphia Flyers. His success against the Flyers continued as just over six weeks later, on December 13, he recorded the first six-point game of his career (one goal and five assists). The multi-point effort vaulted Crosby into the NHL scoring lead, which he would retain for the remainder of the season. He finished the 2006–07 with 36 goals and 84 assists in 79 games to become the first teenager to lead the NHL in scoring since Wayne Gretzky in 1980. Being only 19 years old at the time, he became the youngest player in NHL history to win the Art Ross Trophy and the youngest scoring champion in any major North American professional sport. Crosby's second NHL season also saw significant improvements for the Penguins franchise as a whole, as the emergence of Calder Trophy-winner Evgeni Malkin and runner-up Jordan Staal complemented the club's offence. As a result, the Penguins jumped from last place in the Eastern Conference the previous season to fifth for the club's first playoff appearance since 2001. Playing the Ottawa Senators in the opening round, Crosby scored a goal in his Stanley Cup playoff debut in a 6–3 loss. He finished the series with five points in five games as the Penguins were ousted by the eventual Stanley Cup runner-up. Following the Penguins defeat, Crosby was named Pittsburgh's team captain on May 31, 2007, making him (at 19 years, 9 months, and 24 days) the youngest team captain in NHL history. During the season, the Penguins offered him the captaincy, but he turned it down. In the press conference naming him the team captain, he explained: > "I just thought it wasn't right for me. As a team, we were playing great and you don't want to disrupt things like that. Individually, I was not ready to accept that responsibility quite yet. Going through the playoffs and having that experience has probably given me more confidence. I understand there is going to be a lot more responsibility on my shoulders with this, but it's something I'm ready for, I feel very comfortable with it and I'm just excited to get things going." At the NHL's annual awards show later in June 2007, Crosby completed a rare off-season "hat-trick", winning the Hart Memorial Trophy and the Lester B. Pearson Award in addition to his previously-clinched Art Ross Trophy. He became the youngest player in NHL history to win the Lester B. Pearson, and only the second youngest player ever to win the Hart (after Gretzky). He became the youngest player ever to be named to the NHL's first All-Star team. #### Runner–up and first Stanley Cup title (2007–2009) With Crosby's initial three-year, entry-level contract set to expire at the end of the following season, the Penguins signed him to a five-year, \$43.5 million contract extension on July 10, 2007, ensuring his stay with the Penguins through the 2012–13 season. Midway through the subsequent season, Crosby recorded a Gordie Howe hat-trick on December 20, 2007 in a game against the Boston Bruins. His first assist came 55 seconds into the first period. At 8:26 of the same period, Crosby scored to give the Penguins a 2–0 lead. Then, five minutes and nine seconds into the second frame, Crosby fought ex-Penguin defenceman Andrew Ference to complete the hat-trick. This was Crosby's first NHL fight. In the NHL's first Winter Classic (with a record crowd of 71,217 fans in attendance), Crosby scored the shootout winner in heavy snowfall to defeat the Buffalo Sabres. However, two weeks later, on January 18, 2008, Crosby suffered a high ankle sprain crashing leg-first into the boards in a game against the Tampa Bay Lightning. As a result, he missed the 2008 All-Star Game, to which he was named a starter. After missing 21 games, he returned on March 4 against the Lightning and earned an assist. However, two games after his return, he felt his ankle was not up to shape and decided that he needed more time for it to heal. Crosby consequently sat out of the Penguins' next seven games and returned on March 27, 2008 to help the Penguins defeat the New York Islanders 3–1. Despite his injury-shortened campaign, Crosby still managed 72 points in just 53 games. Crosby's absence from the Penguins' line-up served as a stepping stone for teammate Evgeni Malkin, who, now in his second season, was developing into a superstar in his own right. Picking up the offensive slack, Malkin finished second in league scoring to Alexander Ovechkin and was also a Hart Memorial Trophy nominee as MVP honours also went to Ovechkin. In addition to Crosby's return to the line-up late in the regular season, the Penguins acquired star winger Marián Hossa from the Atlanta Thrashers at the trade deadline, placing the club in a strong position to make a deep playoff run. Pittsburgh finished the regular season as Atlantic Division champions and just two points shy of the first-seeded Montreal Canadiens. In a rematch of the previous year's opening round, the Penguins began the 2008 playoffs facing the Ottawa Senators, whom they quickly swept in four games. After then defeating the New York Rangers and archrival Philadelphia Flyers, each in five games, the Penguins reached the final round for the first time since 1992, to face the Detroit Red Wings. After being shut-out as a team for the first two games of the series, Crosby scored the first two goals of game three as the series shifted to Pittsburgh to fuel a 3–2 win. The Penguins lost the next game and despite staving off defeat in game five, they were overcome by the Red Wings in six games. Crosby finished the playoffs with 27 points (6 goals and 21 assists in 20 games), tying Conn Smythe-winner Henrik Zetterberg (13 goals and 14 assists in 22 games) for the playoff scoring lead. Early in the following season, on October 18, 2008, Crosby scored one goal and three assists to surpass benchmarks of 100 goals, 200 assists, and 300 points for his career. On the play in which Crosby scored, teammate Evgeni Malkin assisted to record his own 200th point. As a result, Crosby had a team trainer cut the puck in half so both players could commemorate the achievement. Minor injury troubles kept Crosby from five games early in the season as he was listed day-to-day, but he was, for the most part, able to bounce back from the previous injury-riddled season and stay healthy. He recorded 33 goals and 70 assists to finish third in league scoring, as Evgeni Malkin captured his first career Art Ross Trophy. Entering the 2009 playoffs as the defending Prince of Wales Trophy winners, the Penguins defeated the Philadelphia Flyers in the opening round before meeting the Washington Capitals for a highly publicized second-round matchup. The series was heavily followed as it pitted Ovechkin of the Capitals against both Crosby and Malkin, who together finished as the league's top three scorers that season. In the second game, Crosby and Ovechkin recorded matching three-goal efforts for their first career playoff hat tricks in a 4–3 Capitals victory. Despite being down 2–0 in the series, Crosby and the Penguins won the next three games and eventually defeated the Capitals in a seventh and deciding game, in which Crosby added another two goals. Following a sweep of the Carolina Hurricanes in the Eastern Conference Final, Crosby opted against recent NHL tradition and picked up the Prince of Wales Trophy, which he had left untouched the previous year. In explanation of the change of heart, Crosby said, "We didn't touch the trophy last year, and obviously we didn't have the result we wanted ... Although we haven't accomplished exactly what we want ... we can still enjoy it." The Penguins met the Detroit Red Wings for the second straight year in the Finals, and this time Crosby won his first Stanley Cup title in seven games. At 21 years, 10 months, and 5 days, Crosby became the youngest NHL captain to win the Stanley Cup since 1895. (The youngest captain to lead his team to the Stanley Cup in the history of the trophy is Mike Grant of the 1895 Montreal Victorias, who was 21 years and 2 months at the time.) In the deciding Game 7, Crosby was forced to watch all but 32 seconds of the third period from the bench after suffering a knee injury less than halfway through the second period due to a hit from Johan Franzén. Following the game, Crosby was criticized by Detroit forward Kris Draper for neglecting to shake hands with some of Detroit's players, most notably captain Nicklas Lidström. An irate Draper was quoted as saying, "Nick was waiting and waiting, and Crosby didn't come over to shake his hand. That's ridiculous, especially as their captain." Crosby replied afterward, saying, "I just won the Stanley Cup. I think I have the right to celebrate with my teammates. I know it's not easy waiting around... I understand if they don't feel like waiting around. But you know what? It's the easiest thing to do in the world, to shake hands after you win. I had no intentions of trying to skip guys and not shake their hands. I think that was a pretty unreasonable comment." #### Injury–plagued years, lockout, individual awards (2009–2015) In the 2009–10 NHL season, Crosby tied Tampa Bay Lightning centre Steven Stamkos for the lead in goals scored, with 51 goals, earning the Rocket Richard Trophy. He also garnered 58 assists for a total of 109 points, enough to tie with Alexander Ovechkin for second in league points, trailing only the Vancouver Canucks' Henrik Sedin's 112. Crosby was also named a finalist for the Hart Memorial Trophy and Ted Lindsay Award. Crosby won the Mark Messier Leadership Award, getting recognized as a "superior leader within the sport, setting a positive example through on-ice performance, motivation of team members and a dedication to the community". This was the second time he had received this honour, the other being in January 2007, during the award's first year when it was presented monthly. He was also included on NHL's all-decade second team of 2000s. Crosby's Penguins were defeated in the second round of the 2010 Stanley Cup playoffs, losing to the Montreal Canadiens in seven games. Crosby had 19 points in 13 games in the playoffs, though through seven games against the Canadiens, he had only one goal and four assists. Game 7 was also the last game to be played at Mellon Arena, the Penguins' home rink since the start of the franchise. On July 27, 2010, Crosby joined his mentor from 2005-06, his rookie year Mario Lemieux to be the first to skate on the new ice at the Consol Energy Center. The two skated for about five minutes before being joined on the ice by a group of young hockey fans all wearing Lemieux's 66 or Crosby's 87 jerseys. In the 2010–11 season, Crosby had a 25-game point streak, which began on November 5, 2010 against the Anaheim Ducks and ended on December 28, 2010 against the New York Islanders. During this streak, he had 27 goals (including three hat-tricks) and 24 assists for 51 points. This streak was tied for 11th-longest point streak in NHL history, and he was named First Star of the Month in both November and December. On January 3, 2011, Crosby was selected as a 2011 All-Star, along with teammates Evgeni Malkin, Marc-André Fleury and Kris Letang. However, neither Crosby nor Malkin were available to play in the All-Star Game due to injuries, and rookie Jeff Skinner (along with Paul Stastny) were named as replacements. In consecutive games – the 2011 NHL Winter Classic on January 1, 2011, against the Washington Capitals and then January 5 against the Tampa Bay Lightning – Crosby suffered hits to his head from Dave Steckel and Victor Hedman respectively. After experiencing several concussion symptoms, Crosby did not return for the rest of the regular season, and he missed the 2011 playoffs. The Penguins were further crippled when Evgeni Malkin suffered a torn ACL and MCL the following month, taking him out for the rest of the season and leaving the Penguins without their two highest-scoring players. Despite Crosby's injury and subsequent absence for the final 41 games of the season, he finished as the Penguins' leading scorer. His 66 points in 41 games were 16 points ahead of the second-highest team scorer, defenceman Kris Letang. In so doing, Crosby set an NHL record for fewest games played by an NHL team's points leader. Crosby missed the first 20 games of the 2011–12 season due to the lingering effects of his concussion or possibly multiple concussions. He returned on November 21, 2011 in a game against the New York Islanders, scoring two goals and two assists in a 5–0 shutout for the Penguins. However, after playing another seven games – scoring a total of 12 points in 8 games – Crosby's concussion-like symptoms returned in December 2011, possibly following an elbow hit by David Krejčí in his eighth game of the season. Despite passing a successful ImPACT test, Crosby decided not to return on the ice until he felt perfectly fine, stating that he also must "listen to [his] body". Crosby returned to action on March 15, 2012, scoring an assist in a 5–2 win against the New York Rangers. Despite only playing 22 games, Crosby recorded 29 assists to go with 8 goals for 37 points, including his 600th career point. He later credited neurologists at UPMC and chiropractic neurologist Ted Carrick with helping him return to hockey. Crosby's return in advance of the playoffs resulted in many experts predicting that the Penguins would win their second Stanley Cup title in four years, and though the Penguins were accordingly picked to oust the Philadelphia Flyers in their first-round series, it was acknowledged that it would be a tough series for both teams. The Flyers shocked the Penguins by winning the first three consecutive games, the third of which saw the teams combine for 158 penalty minutes. After the 8–4 loss in Game 3, Crosby was widely criticized for his conduct during the game, and for his testy post-game interview. When asked about an incident where Flyers forward Jakub Voráček had dropped his glove and Crosby swatted it away with his stick before Voráček could pick it up, Crosby replied, saying, "I don't like any guy on their team there, so his glove was near me, went to pick it up, and I pushed it, so yeah, that's... [...] I don't like them. Because I don't like them. I don't like... I don't like any guy on their team." When the interviewer suggested that he could have skated away, Crosby replied, "Skate away? Yeah, well, I didn't that time." The Penguins went on to win the next two games, but ultimately lost the series in Game 6. Crosby would finish with three goals and five assists in the six games. On June 28, 2012, the Penguins announced that Crosby agreed to a 12-year, \$104.4 million contract extension set to keep Crosby in Pittsburgh through to the end of the 2024–25 NHL season. The start of the 2012–13 was postponed until January 2013 due to the owners locking out the players as negotiations took place to solidify a new collective agreement for the players. During this time, Crosby was a regular attendee of meetings taking place between National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA) representatives and NHL owners. The lock-out began on September 15, 2012 and ended on January 6, 2013 with the NHL regular season beginning on January 19. During the 119-day lock-out, Crosby was often questioned about his future plans should the lockout persist, and said on more than one occasion that he was considering contract offers from various teams in European leagues (where many NHL players went so that they could continue playing in a professional capacity while waiting for the lock-out to end or for the NHL season to be officially cancelled). Crosby continued to practice and participated with other NHL players who did not go overseas in several exhibition games open to the public. With the season finally underway in mid January, Crosby set the pace for scoring, totalling 31 points (9 goals and 22 assists) through the first 21 games. He remained hot through March, scoring another 25 points (6 goals and 19 assists) in 15 games as the Penguins went unbeaten over this stretch. However, his regular season came to an abrupt end on March 30 in a home game against the New York Islanders. Crosby's teammate Brooks Orpik unleashed a slapshot which caught Crosby in the mouth, causing the centreman to lose several teeth. Crosby was down on the ice for several minutes before the medical staff was able to help him to the dressing room with Crosby holding a towel over his face. Initially, the prognosis was not severe, but it was discovered a short while later that Crosby had broken his jaw and would require several rounds of reconstructive dental surgery. He missed the final 12 games of the regular season and finished fourth in the scoring race, losing the title to Tampa Bay's Martin St. Louis by four points. Crosby returned to the ice May 5 for the Penguins' second game against their first-round playoff opponents, the New York Islanders, ironically, the team Pittsburgh had been playing when Crosby was injured. Despite two goals from Crosby, Pittsburgh lost the game 3–2, tying the series at one game apiece. The Penguins would ultimately prevail 4–2 in the series over the Isles with Crosby scoring nine points (three goals and six assists) in the five games in which he played. Crosby and the Penguins moved on to face the Ottawa Senators in the second round, with Crosby scoring a hat-trick in Game 2 of the series. Pittsburgh quickly defeated Ottawa four games to one in the series with a still-hot Crosby finishing the series with four goals and two assists. The Eastern Conference Finals came down to what many felt were the two best teams in the conference: Pittsburgh and Boston Bruins goaltender Tuukka Rask put on an outstanding performance, shutting down Pittsburgh's potent offence with the help of a stifling defensive effort from his teammates. The Penguins were held to just two goals in the series, with Rask stopping 134 of 136 shots on goal (.985%). Crosby, who was strong for the Penguins in the regular season and through the first two rounds of the playoffs was held off the score sheet entirely, finishing the series with no goals and no assists on 13 shots. The Bruins swept the Penguins in four-straight games, ending Crosby's bid for a second Stanley Cup championship. In the off-season, Crosby was awarded his second Ted Lindsay Award and finished as runner-up to the Hart Memorial Trophy and Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy. Crosby put together a healthy and productive campaign in 2013–14, playing 80 games for the first time since the 2009–10 season. Crosby finished the season with 36 goals and a league-leading 68 assists, marking the first time in his career that he led the league in assists. He also finished with a league-high 104 points, winning the Art Ross Trophy for the second time in his career. He also went on to win the Hart Memorial Trophy and the Ted Lindsay Award. Finishing first overall in the Metropolitan Division, the Penguins were matched-up with a new division rival, the Columbus Blue Jackets, in the first round of the 2014 playoffs. Despite a very back-and-forth series and not a single goal by Crosby, the Penguins defeated the Jackets in six games to advance to a second-round matchup with the New York Rangers. Going into their second-round series with the Rangers, Crosby looked to end a long playoff goal drought, which dated back to the 2013 Conference Finals against the Boston Bruins. After dropping Game 1 at home, Crosby broke his goal drought in Game 2 as the Pens tied the series at 1–1 heading back to Madison Square Garden. The Penguins would capitalize on their Game 2 win, taking the next two games and eliminating the Rangers home-ice advantage. However, the Rangers would quickly rebound, winning Game 5, 6 and 7, sending the Penguins home without a prize for the fifth straight season. The team's collapse prompted Penguins ownership to fire general manager Ray Shero, replacing him with Jim Rutherford, the former general manager of the Carolina Hurricanes. Rutherford's first action as GM was to fire Dan Bylsma as head coach, and on June 25, he announced that Mike Johnston was the new head coach. Crosby finished the 2014–15 season with the highest point-per-game average and a total of 84 points, trailing only John Tavares (86 points) and Art Ross winner Jamie Benn (87 points). On November 26, 2014, Crosby scored his 800th career point, becoming the sixth-fastest player in NHL history to reach that milestone. On January 4, 2015, in a game against Philadelphia, Crosby scored his 300th career NHL goal. Despite a strong start to the season, the injury-plagued Penguins entered the playoffs as the Eastern Conference's second wild card, beating the Boston Bruins by 2 points in the standings for the last playoff spot. Facing the New York Rangers, Crosby helped even the series with two goals in Game 2. Despite this, the Penguins were defeated by the Rangers in five games and was eliminated in the first round for the first time since the 2012 playoffs. #### Back-to-back Stanley Cup titles (2015–2017) Starting the 2015–16 season, the Penguins went through a major overhaul of their roster, adding a number of offensive players such as right winger Phil Kessel. Despite a line-up laced with some of the world's finest offensive talents, Crosby struggled to score points, as he and the team had for much of the Johnston era. By the time Johnston was fired on December 12, 2015, after posting a 15–10–3 record through 28 games, some media outlets began speculating that Crosby had aged out of his prime scoring years. On December 16, The Washington Post wrote, "Sidney Crosby has widely been regarded as the NHL's best player since he burst on the scene as a rookie in 2005 ... But Crosby just hasn't been himself this season, scoring just six goals in 29 games and sitting with a plus/minus of minus-seven. All players go through slumps, but it is clear that the Crosby we knew has been on the decline for some time." His slow start was capped off by not being selected as a starter for the 2016 NHL All-Star Game. However, under new head coach Mike Sullivan, the 28-year-old turned his season around, outscoring all NHL players from December 12 through the end of the season. On February 2, Crosby scored three-straight goals for his first natural hat-trick in more than five years. Four days later, Crosby scored his 900th, 901st and 902nd career NHL points to fuel a 3–2 overtime comeback victory over the Florida Panthers. He tallied at least 1 point in 15 of Pittsburgh's 16 games in March, including six multi-point efforts, and was subsequently named the NHL's First Star of the Month. On April 2, Crosby recorded his 600th NHL assist as the Penguins clinched their berth in the 2016 playoffs. Six days later, he scored in overtime against Washington Capitals to secure home-ice advantage in the first round of the playoffs. Crosby finished the season with 36 goals and 85 points in 80 games, including a career-high nine game-winning goals, and was voted team MVP for the sixth time in his career. His two-way game also received league-wide praise, with Hockey Hall of Fame coach Scotty Bowman stating that Crosby would be a good candidate for the Frank J. Selke Trophy as the league's best defensive forward. Crosby's comeback also impressed Wayne Gretzky, who said, "He had a tough start, but the sign of an elite athlete is a guy that battles through it. He didn't point any fingers, he just battled through it, and I don't think there is any question the last 40 or so games, he made a case for the MVP. He was that good. He went to another level." On May 7, Crosby was named a finalist for the Hart Memorial Trophy. He finished as the first runner-up with 800 points and 11 first-place votes. After losing to New York in the past two playoffs, the Penguins eliminated the Rangers in the first round, winning four games to one, after losing to the Rangers by the same series margin in the first round the previous year. Crosby led the team in scoring with three goals and eight points. The Penguins then eliminated the Presidents' Trophy-winning Washington Capitals in six games, without much offensive production from either Crosby (two assists) or Malkin (one goal and one assist). Advancing to their first Conference Final since 2013, Crosby scored the overtime winner against the Tampa Bay Lightning in Game 2. The goal was scored 40 seconds into overtime on Lightning goaltender Andrei Vasilevskiy for a 3–2 win, the fastest overtime goal in Penguins' playoff history, and the first of his career in the playoffs. In the following game, he scored the game-winning goal in a 4–2 victory. After dropping the next two games, Crosby scored his third game-winning goal of the series in Game 6, forcing a final game in Pittsburgh. Defeating the Tampa Bay Lightning 2–1 in Game 7, Crosby helped his team win the Eastern Conference championship, advancing to the Stanley Cup Finals against the San Jose Sharks and prevent the Lightning from clinching back to back Stanley Cup Finals appearances. In the series, the Penguins defeated the Sharks in six games to earn Crosby his second Stanley Cup title. He became the ninth player to win the Stanley Cup twice as well as two Olympic gold medals. Finishing the playoffs with 19 points (6 goals and 13 assists), including the primary helper on the Cup-winning goal scored by Kris Letang, Crosby was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy as the MVP of the playoffs. Crosby missed the first six games of the 2016–17 season after being diagnosed with a concussion just a few days before the season opener against the Washington Capitals. Upon his return, he scored 30 goals in his first 45 games, and on February 16, 2017, he registered an assist on a Chris Kunitz goal against the Winnipeg Jets to reach 1,000 NHL points, doing so in just his 757th game to become the 12th-fastest (and 11th-youngest) player to reach that milestone. He also participated in his first NHL All-Star Game since 2007, winning the shooting accuracy segment of the Skills Competition. He was named team MVP and finished the season as the runner up for the Art Ross Trophy with 44 goals and 89 points in 75 games. It marked the eighth time he finished a season in the top-three in NHL scoring, tying Mario Lemieux, Stan Mikita and Phil Esposito for the third-most instances in history behind only Wayne Gretzky (15 times) and Gordie Howe (12 times). With his 44 goals, Crosby captured the Rocket Richard Trophy for the second time in his career. Crosby was also named a finalist for the Hart Memorial Trophy and Ted Lindsay Award. Entering the 2017 playoffs as the defending Stanley Cup champions, the Penguins defeated the Columbus Blue Jackets in five games before meeting the back to back Presidents trophy winning Washington Capitals in the second round for the second consecutive year. After winning the first two games on the road, Crosby sustained a concussion after suffering an injury from a slash and cross-check from both Alexander Ovechkin and Matt Niskanen in Game 3. He missed Game 4 but returned to practice the next day and played in Game 5. The Penguins would eventually eliminate the Capitals in Game 7, with Crosby assisting on the series-winning goal. The Penguins then defeated the Ottawa Senators in a gruelling seven-game series to secure their second consecutive trip to the Stanley Cup Finals. Crosby had the primary assist on the series-clinching goal, scored by Chris Kunitz in double overtime. Facing the eighth seeded Nashville Predators in the Finals, Pittsburgh jumped out to a two-game lead, despite being outplayed for long stretches in both games. The Predators responded by tying up the series, winning Game 3 and 4 at home. In Game 5, the Penguins' captain delivered a dominant performance, adding three assists in a 6–0 win to pass Lemieux for most Stanley Cup Finals points (20) in franchise history. After defeating the Predators 2–0 in Game 6, the Penguins became the first team to repeat as Stanley Cup champions since the 1997–98 Detroit Red Wings, and the first to do so in the salary cap era. Crosby won his second consecutive Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the playoffs, only the third player to do so after Bernie Parent (1974, 1975) and Mario Lemieux (1991, 1992). He finished second in scoring behind Evgeni Malkin with 27 points (8 goals and 19 assists) in 24 games. #### Early playoff exits (2017–2022) In the 2017–18 season, Crosby appeared in all 82 of Pittsburgh's regular season games for the first time in his career, finishing with 29 goals and 60 assists for 89 points. On February 12, 2018, he scored his 400th NHL goal, becoming the 95th player to reach the milestone. On March 21, he recorded his 700th career NHL assist. The Penguins began their 2018 playoff campaign against the Philadelphia Flyers. In Game 1 of the Battle of Pennsylvania, Crosby recorded a natural hat-trick in a 7–0 win. On April 18, in Game 4, Crosby passed Mario Lemieux as the Penguins' all-time playoff points leader with 173. The Penguins ultimately defeated the Flyers in six games, with Crosby scoring 6 goals and 13 points. After the series, retired Hockey Hall of Fame centre Bryan Trottier said of Crosby, "Sid has a wonderful gift to maintain his composure and not get rattled. You like the emotion he shows, too. I think he fires his team up, and that's why he's wearing the 'C' [for captain]." The Penguins were eventually eliminated in Game 6 of the second round by the eventual Stanley Cup champion Washington Capitals, ending Penguins's bid for a three-peat. Crosby finished with 21 points (9 goals and 12 assists) in 12 games, pushing his career playoff total to 185, tied with Steve Yzerman for tenth-most all-time. On January 3, 2019, Crosby was selected to play in the NHL All-Star Game for the eighth time in his career. He scored four goals and four assists, helping the Metropolitan Division to victory; his efforts won him his first All-Star MVP award, making him the sixth in NHL history to have won that award after having won the Conn Smythe Trophy and Hart Memorial Trophy. During the 2018–19 season, Crosby passed Mario Lemieux to become the Penguins' all-time leader in games played (916), and moved into second place on the Pens' all-time scoring list with his 440th career goal in a 5–1 victory over the Montreal Canadiens on March 3, 2019. Two days later, he became the 48th player in NHL history to score at least 1,200 career points. He finished the season with 100 points (35 goals and 65 assists), the first time he has reached the 100-point mark since scoring 104 points in 2013–14. Crosby finished 4th in voting for the Selke Trophy and became a Hart Trophy finalist for the seventh time in his career. He was also elected team-MVP. Crosby was selected to the NHL All-Decade First Team in January 2020. The Penguins finished fifth in the Eastern Conference in the COVID-19-shortened 2019–20 season, facing the 12th-seeded Montreal Canadiens in the Eastern Conference qualifying round. The Canadiens upset the Penguins in four games, eliminating Pittsburgh on August 7, 2020, Crosby's 33rd birthday. In the pandemic shortened 2020–21 season, Crosby led the team in scoring with 62 points (24 goals and 38 assists), and was the recipient of the team's MVP Award and the Players' Player Award. He was also a finalist for the Ted Lindsay Award. On February 21, 2021, Crosby became the first player in Penguins history to play 1,000 games with the franchise. The team clinched a playoff berth for the 15th consecutive season under Crosby's captaincy, the longest active postseason streak among all teams in the North American professional sports leagues. However, the Penguins were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by the New York Islanders for the second time in three seasons. On February 15, 2022, Crosby scored his 500th career goal on a power play against the Philadelphia Flyers, becoming the 46th player to score that many goals in NHL history and the 18th to have scored them all for a single team. He was the second Penguin to score 500 goals, after Lemieux. Continuing to hit new milestones, in an April 10 game against the Nashville Predators he recorded a goal and an assist in regulation time, before scoring the overtime-winning goal, his 1400th point in the NHL. Crosby finished the season with 31 goals and 53 assists in 69 games played, while the Penguins were third in the Metropolitan Division. They advanced into the 2022 Stanley Cup playoffs to meet the New York Rangers. With both Evgeni Malkin and Kris Letang's contracts up in the summer, there was some question as to whether this would be the final outing for the core of the Penguins franchise in Crosby's era. In Game 3 of the series against the Rangers, Crosby recorded his 197th career playoff point, passing Paul Coffey for sixth place in all-time playoff point standings. Two days later, he managed a goal and two assists in the Penguins' 7–2 victory in Game 4, becoming the sixth player to record 200 career points in the playoffs. Midway through the second period of Game 5 in Madison Square Garden, with the Penguins up 2–0, Crosby took an elbow to the head from Rangers defenceman Jacob Trouba and exited the game. In his absence, the Rangers rallied to win 5–3 and stave off elimination, and Crosby's departure was widely cited as the game's turning point. Coach Mike Sullivan said that Crosby was being evaluated. After missing Game 6, Crosby returned for Game 7, alongside absent team goaltender Tristan Jarry and winger Rickard Rakell. However, the Penguins lost to the Rangers in overtime with Rangers forward Artemi Panarin scoring the winner for the Rangers and the Penguins were eliminated. #### Recent years (2022–present) In the 2022 offseason, it was reported that Crosby played a key role in facilitating a new deal between the Penguins and Malkin, after the latter had initially announced he would test free agency. Crosby began the 2022–23 season by registering 2 goals and 4 assists in his first two games, being named the first star of the first week while leading the league in scoring. After strong initial results, the team struggled with a lengthy losing streak, but Crosby recorded his 900th career assist on November 5, 2022 in a loss to the Seattle Kraken. He was the sixth-fastest player to this feat in NHL history. On April 8, Crosby registered his 1500th career point, the fifteenth NHL player to hit that milestone, and in the sixth-fewest games (1188). As the poor performance of the team continued into the spring, the Penguins' league-best 16-year playoff streak increasingly came into jeopardy, and by the final weeks of the season they were battling the Florida Panthers and the New York Islanders for the two Eastern Conference wildcard positions. A 5-2 loss to the Chicago Blackhawks, at that moment the team at the bottom of the standings, in the penultimate game of the season, combined with an Islanders victory the following day, sealed the Penguins' missing the playoffs for the first time since 2005-06, Crosby's rookie season. This happened despite Crosby playing all 82 games for only the second time in his career, and doing so alongside Evgeni Malkin for the first time. Much recrimination ensued among fans and commentators, with many calling for the sacking of Penguins general manager Ron Hextall for his perceived mistakes in constructing the team in the previous 2022 off-season. Hextall and team executive Brian Burke were both fired the day after the season ended, with owners Fenway Sports Group promising "the goal of contending for the Stanley Cup has not changed." ## International play ### Junior Crosby debuted internationally for Canada at the 2003 U-18 Junior World Cup in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. He was the youngest player on the under-18 team, having turned 16 shortly before the beginning of the tournament. After seven consecutive gold medals at the tournament, Team Canada lost in the bronze medal game to the Czech Republic 8–2. He scored four goals and six points over five tournament games. Crosby went on to compete in two World Junior Championships with Team Canada's under-20 team. When he was named to the team in December 2003, he became the fifth 16-year-old to represent Canada at the tournament, following Jay Bouwmeester, Jason Spezza, Eric Lindros and Wayne Gretzky. Competing in the 2004 World Junior Championships in Helsinki, he then became the youngest player to score a goal in the history of the tournament at 16 years, 4 months, and 21 days when he scored against Switzerland in a 7–2 win. This record would last until the 2012 World Juniors when Aleksander Barkov of Finland scored a goal aged 16 years, 4 months. Crosby finished the tournament with two goals and three assists in six games, helping Canada to a silver medal finish. The following year, he returned for Canada at the 2005 World Junior Championships in Grand Forks, North Dakota. He improved to six goals and three assists as Canada earned gold. Crosby stated the following year that his most memorable hockey moment was winning his World Junior gold medal. ### Men's After completing his rookie season with the Pittsburgh Penguins, Crosby competed in the 2006 IIHF World Championship as an alternate captain for Canada. Scoring a tournament-best eight goals and eight assists in nine games, he became the youngest player ever to win a World Championship scoring title. Despite his performance, Canada failed to medal, being shut-out by Finland 5–0 in the bronze medal game. Crosby was named the tournament's top forward and to the competition's all-star team. After being omitted from Canada's Olympic team in 2006, Crosby was named to the Canadian roster on December 30, 2009 as an alternate captain for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. He scored the game-winning shootout goal for Canada in the second game of the preliminary round against Switzerland. After going pointless in the quarter- and semi-final against Russia and Slovakia respectively, Crosby scored the winning goal 7 minutes and 40 seconds into overtime against the United States in the gold medal game. The goal has later become known as the "Golden Goal" due to it being scored in the gold medal game. It is also regarded by some as "Canada's most iconic sports moment". Following the Penguins' second-round elimination in the 2010 playoffs, Crosby declined an invitation to join Canada midway through the 2010 IIHF World Championship in Germany. Crosby was selected to represent Canada at the 2014 Winter Olympics and was later named team captain. Canada won gold, with Crosby contributing one goal and two assists in six games. He scored his only goal in the final against Sweden, further establishing his reputation as "a player who rises up in big games". In 2015, Crosby captained Canada to its first World Championship title since 2007, with the team winning all 10 games and scoring 66 goals. Crosby, scoring four goals and seven assists in nine games, became the 26th member of the Triple Gold Club. He is the first member of the club to captain all three championship teams, and the first member to be a first overall NHL draft pick. In 2016, Hockey Canada named Crosby captain for the 2016 World Cup of Hockey in Toronto. Crosby, who led the tournament in scoring with ten points, helped Team Canada win the championship, and was named the Most Valuable Player. He joined Bobby Orr and Wayne Gretzky as the only players to win the Conn Smythe, Hart Memorial Trophy and World Cup MVP. Team Canada head coach Mike Babcock described Crosby as a serial winner, saying, "He's that high-end competitor. He's a good leader because he tries to do it right all the time. He demands a lot out of himself. In doing so, he demands a lot out of his teammates." In 2020, he was named to the IIHF All-Time Canadian Team and the Men's All-Decade Team. On October 3, 2021, Crosby was one of the first three players named to the men's hockey roster for Canada's team for the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing, alongside Connor McDavid and Alex Pietrangelo. However, due to the NHL's subsequent decision not to attend the Beijing Games as a result of the Omicron variant's impacts on scheduling, Crosby was unable to compete. He said afterward that "I've been fortunate enough to be part of two. I definitely feel for the guys who have missed numerous opportunities." ## Player profile ### Style of play As captain and first-line centre for Canada, Crosby played with different line mates in almost every game as the coaching staff struggled to find players capable of keeping pace with the superstar centre at the 2010 Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver, and again at the 2014 Winter Olympic Games in Sochi. Crosby's fellow countryman and Olympic teammate, Rick Nash, was questioned by the media about this, at one point saying, "I think he's a tough guy to keep up with. He's so fast. The way he thinks about the game seems like it's far beyond everyone else's process. It's the same thing in the last Olympics, keep shuffling around until you found something that fit." Team Canada's assistant coach in Vancouver, Ken Hitchcock, recalled, "Sid thinks at a level, when the other team has the puck, that's above everyone else in the league [NHL]. His anticipation when the other team has the puck is so high, he knows where it's going ahead of time. He can pick off passes, make you make errors. And then he also knows where people are located on the ice, so he can turn that turnover into a scoring chance." Other professional NHL players have particularly noted Crosby for his backhand shot. For example, in his column for The Players' Tribune, Jonathan Quick of the Los Angeles Kings praised Crosby for having "the best backhand shot" in the NHL. "His blade is almost completely flat, which combined with his ridiculous forearm strength gives him the ability to go forehand to your five hole instantly or turn it over to the backhand and roof it (a lot of guys can't do this with a flat blade)." ### Reputation Noted for his on-ice vision, passing ability, leadership, work ethic and complete overall game, Crosby is considered to be one of the greatest players of all time. Bobby Orr named Crosby among the five best players in the history of NHL. Wayne Gretzky said of Crosby in September 2016, "He's proven over and over that he's the best player in the game today. And it seems like the more important the game, the more impact that he makes on a game." Gordie Howe was also impressed by Crosby, "I met him and I've seen him play. Unless you put two guys on him, he'll kill you in a game." In October 2016, Mario Lemieux praised his protégé for his ability to play both sides of the puck: "I think he's more of a complete player. Defensively, I think he's improved a lot over the last couple of years." In an article for The Washington Post, other players, teammates and coaches highlighted his work ethic and strive for greatness as a major factor to Crosby's lasting success. "While his natural ability – powerful skating, pistol-quick hands, uncommon feel – made him a phenom, his creative, distinct capacity for work has enabled him to stay atop the NHL." Current Pittsburgh head coach Mike Sullivan described Crosby as "best 200-foot player in the game" and the "heartbeat" of the Penguins. On January 27, 2017, in a ceremony during the All-Star Weekend in Los Angeles, Crosby was named one of the 100 Greatest NHL Players in history. In that same year, Fox Sports ranked Crosby 15th on their "21 greatest athletes of the 21st century (so far)" list, and TSN named him the eighth-best NHL player of all-time. Four months before the 2022 Winter Olympics, Rob Rossi of The Athletic called him "arguably North America's most dominant team-sport Winter Olympian." In a survey conducted by Sportsnet in June 2017, Crosby was voted by Canadians to be the greatest athlete of the 21st century. A poll conducted by the NHLPA in 2018 of more than 500 players resulted in Crosby being voted the "most difficult to play against, best role model, best team player, the player you'd want to win one game, and the player who would be a great coach upon retirement". In 2018, Crosby was chosen as Nova Scotia's "Best athlete ever" by the Nova Scotia Sport Hall of Fame. In 2019, an anonymous survey conducted by The Athletic showed that Crosby was regarded the best all-around NHL player by his peers. Considered a generational talent and a franchise player, drafting Crosby changed the fortunes of a struggling Pittsburgh Penguins. It helped secure funding for a new arena and ended speculation that the franchise would relocate to another city. In 2005–06, his presence helped Pittsburgh's attendance increase by 33%. Crosby's arrival also aided in reinvigorating and expanding the roots of hockey in the Pittsburgh area. Penguins CEO and president David Morehouse said, "We were in last place, we were last in revenues, we were last in attendance, our TV ratings were minimal and we were in the oldest building in the NHL... We were able to draw attention to us as a franchise because of the drafting of Sidney Crosby and the subsequent success we had." Crosby is well-known for welcoming new teammates with open arms. Former teammate and NHL veteran Matt Cullen has said that "[he watches] how he makes time to make a real effort to include guys and go out of his way to spend time with younger guys, and I know that goes a long way." Crosby often does research on new members of the organization, even players who have not yet made the roster, and makes sure to greet them. Some current players who grew up watching Crosby, such as Jack Hughes of the New Jersey Devils, have said that they tried to emulate other players as emerging youth hockey stars because "playing at his [Crosby's] level just wasn't realistic." ## Jerseys Crosby's number 87 Pittsburgh Penguins jersey was the top seller on the NHL's website from September 2005 to February 2008. It has continued to be among the top-selling jerseys since his rookie season. In January 2005, an Air Canada baggage handler in Montreal stole Crosby's red Canada jersey from the World Junior Hockey Championship. It was recovered later in a mailbox. His white jersey from the tournament was temporarily delisted from an auction while the red one was missing. It eventually sold for \$22,100, which went to youth hockey charities and 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake relief. Less than a year later, one of Crosby's game-worn sweaters disappeared. The jersey he wore in his first NHL game, played against the New Jersey Devils, disappeared from his father's luggage during a flight from Pittsburgh to Buffalo. The jersey was later found at the Pittsburgh International Airport between a piece of equipment and a stairwell. Crosby's jersey from his third NHL game was the highest-selling NHL jersey in an auction for Hurricane Katrina relief – it sold for \$21,010. During an online auction held by the NHL and the NHL Players Association to benefit Hockey Fights Cancer, Crosby's game-worn jersey from the first period of the 2007 All-Star Game earned the most money. Crosby's sold for \$47,520, more than eight times the next highest price—\$5,681 for the jersey worn by Brendan Shanahan of the New York Rangers. Following Crosby's Olympic gold medal victory with Canada in 2010, it was announced that his stick and glove were missing. It was initially suspected that they might have been stolen; Reebok Canada offered a reward of CAD\$10,000 for their return, "no questions asked". On March 10, the items were found: Crosby's stick had been placed in a shipment bound for the International Ice Hockey Federation Hall of Fame in Saint Petersburg, Russia, (the shipment was intercepted in Toronto) and his glove was found in a hockey bag belonging to Olympic teammate and Boston Bruins' centre Patrice Bergeron, whose stall was beside Crosby's in the locker room. ## Personal life Crosby rarely discusses his personal life and avoids social media. Andy O'Brien, Crosby's fitness trainer for over 15 years, has said: "He [Crosby] wants to be one of the guys and doesn't really seek to separate himself or get special treatment in any way... He takes a lot of enjoyment in the regular, simple things in life and having a normal, ordinary routine". Greg Powers described Crosby as essentially the brother of Lemieux's son Austin, as he lived with Lemieux's family in Sewickley, Pennsylvania from 2005 until 2010. In the spring of 2010, Crosby purchased his own home in the same area. In June 2006, he bought his first house on Grand Lake in Halifax, Nova Scotia. On May 29, 2010, it was announced that Crosby would sign the richest endorsement contract in NHL history with Reebok, expected to pay Crosby \$1.4 million per year for five to seven years. In 2015, he signed a six-year endorsement contract with Adidas. Crosby also has endorsement deals with Bell, Tim Hortons, and Gatorade. Regarded as one of Canada's "legendary goal-scorers and storied leaders", Crosby was featured in Canada Post's NHL Great Canadian Forwards stamp collection, alongside Phil Esposito, Guy Lafleur, Darryl Sittler, Mark Messier, and Steve Yzerman. In 2016, he won an Emmy Award for his role in There's No Place Like Home With Sidney Crosby. He also won for his participation in the Merci Sidney video that followed his return to Rimouski for his QMJHL jersey retirement ceremony. Crosby has a younger sister named Taylor who is a hockey goaltender. Like her brother, she went to high school at Shattuck-Saint Mary's in Faribault, Minnesota to play with the school's hockey program. In 2014, Taylor joined the Northeastern Huskies women's ice hockey team as a freshman at Northeastern University in Boston. In 2015, she transferred to Minnesota's St. Cloud State University and played with the St. Cloud State Huskies women's ice hockey team through to graduation at the end of the 2017–18 school year. Crosby continues to be active in the community in Cole Harbour, Nova Scotia. He created the Sidney Crosby Foundation in 2009, an organization committed to helping charities benefiting children. In 2015, he started a hockey school in Cole Harbour. His "Little Penguins Program" has provided free equipment and lessons to more than ten thousand local youngsters in Pittsburgh. On November 3, 2021, Crosby tested positive for COVID-19 with "mild symptoms". ## Career statistics . ### Regular season and playoffs Bold indicates led league - <sub>1999–2000 stats are from "Age-old question: Cole Harbour hockey association bars peewee player from bantam tourney". The Halifax Daily News. April 5, 2000.</sub> ### International ## Honours and achievements ## Records ### IIHF - Youngest player to win a World Championship scoring title ### Pittsburgh Penguins - Assists (63) and points (102) in a season by a rookie - Most regular-season OT goals (13) - Most games played - Most playoff points - Most playoff assists - Most playoff games - Most points in the Stanley Cup Finals (20) - Most playoff multi-point games ### NHL - First rookie to record 100 points and 100 penalty minutes in a season - Youngest player to record 100 points in a season (18 years, 253 days) - Youngest player to record 200 career points (19 years and 207 days) - Youngest player to record 2 consecutive 100-point seasons (19 years, 215 days). - Youngest player voted to the starting line-up in an All-Star Game - Youngest Art Ross Trophy and Lester B. Pearson Award winner - Youngest player to be named to the first All-Star team - Youngest player to lead NHL playoffs in scoring (20 years, 9 months, and 28 days) - Youngest NHL captain to win Stanley Cup (21 years, 10 months, and 5 days) - 6th player in NHL history to win multiple Conn Smythe Trophies. - Fewest games played by an NHL team's leading scorer (his 66 points in 41 games were the most of any player on the 2010–11 Penguins squad) ## See also - List of Pittsburgh Penguins players - List of NHL players with 50 goal seasons - List of NHL players with 100-point seasons - List of NHL players with 1,000 points - List of NHL players with 1,000 games played - List of NHL players with 500 goals
15,341,565	Everard Calthrop	1,154,004,627	British civil engineer	[ "1857 births", "1927 deaths", "2 ft 6 in gauge railways", "British railway civil engineers", "English civil engineers", "English inventors", "Railway officers in British India" ]	Everard Richard Calthrop (3 March 1857 – 30 March 1927) was a British railway engineer and inventor. Calthrop was a notable promoter and builder of narrow-gauge railways, especially of narrow gauge, and was especially prominent in India. His most notable achievement was the Barsi Light Railway, but he is best known in his home country for the Leek and Manifold Valley Light Railway. Calthrop has been described as a "railway genius". Later in life he took an interest in aviation, patenting some early designs for parachutes. ## Early life and career Calthrop was born on 3 March 1857, the eldest son of farmer Everard Calthrop. He had six brothers, one of whom was Sir Guy Calthrop, general manager of the London & North Western Railway. The family lived at Deeping Fen, Lincolnshire, where Calthrop was born, and later at Sutton in the Isle of Ely. Calthrop was educated at Uppingham School. Calthrop started work with Robert Stephenson & Co and then was apprenticed to the London & North Western Railway at Crewe in 1874. In 1879 he joined the Great Western Railway, where he rose to assistant manager of the Carriage and Wagon Works. In 1882 he went to India to join the Great Indian Peninsula Railway as a locomotive inspector. Once in India, Calthrop came to see narrow-gauge railways as a way to help develop the country. This led him to chairing a Government committee to investigate light railways throughout India. He then published a pamphlet entitled A System of Standard Details as applied to the Construction of Rolling Stock in India. As a result of this pamphlet, the Indian Government adopted systems of uniformity of gauge and equipment throughout the country, and eventually adopted gauge as the standard narrow gauge throughout the country. Calthrop requested leave in 1886 to investigate proposals for independent branch lines. He identified two schemes of particular interest, a 5-mile (8 km) tramway connecting the Hindu religious centre of Nasik with the railway, and a 21-mile (34 km) branch line to the town of Barsi. The Great Indian Peninsula Railway approved both schemes, and Calthrop undertook a survey of both lines. In 1887, he registered the Indian Railways Feeder Lines Company in London to promote the construction of feeders to the railway. The Great Indian Peninsula Railway suggested that he either return to his duties as a locomotive inspector or, with their support, resign to further promote branch lines. His health was failing, and so in 1889 Calthrop resigned from the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. Working as a consultant he then supervised the construction of the gauge horse-powered Nasik Tramway, using his previous survey. ## Move to Liverpool Returning to the United Kingdom in 1892, Calthrop established a railway engineering consulting practice in Liverpool, where three of his brothers had started a stockfeed company. Soon Calthrop had entered into a partnership with them and spent much of the next two years designing equipment for feed production. He took out a number of patents relating to the equipment and to refrigerated transport. While Calthrop was resident in Liverpool, the Chamber of Commerce was concerned future expansion was being limited by the railway companies that linked that city with Manchester, and invited proposals for alternative methods for moving goods. Calthrop proposed a system of narrow-gauge railways linking the two cities, running along streets directly serving factories. His proposal was highly commended, but the proposed street running precluded its adoption. Calthrop was also interested in road transport. He was a member of the Self-Propelled Traffic Association and in May 1898 was a judge at their trials for "motor vehicles for heavy traffic", held in Liverpool. The winner was a Thornycroft 4-ton steam wagon. Later he was a foundation member of the Royal Automobile Club. ## Development of narrow-gauge concepts and the Barsi Light Railway During his time in India Calthrop developed his ideas on the construction of narrow-gauge railways. He surmised that the axle load on the axles of all rolling stock, including locomotives, could be equal, allowing a maximum loading of goods wagons. He settled on a loading of 5 long tons (5.1 t; 5.6 short tons) per axle, which was light enough to allow railway lines to be built with 30 pounds per yard (14.9 kilograms per metre) rail. It also allowed the loading of one 20 long tons (20.3 t; 22.4 short tons) capacity 4-wheel standard-gauge wagon to be carried on a single bogie narrow-gauge wagon. Further, he argued that using a track gauge of gave the greatest capacity as a percentage of capital cost. He estimated a gauge railway could be built to four times the length of a standard-gauge railway for the same capital cost. Calthrop had been engaged in negotiations with the Indian government for concessions to build a railway from Barsi Road to Barsi since 1887. In 1895, negotiations reached a satisfactory conclusion, and Calthrop formed a new company to build the Barsi Light Railway, and employed himself as consulting engineer. The railway became a showcase for his ideas. Five 0-8-4T locomotives, with even distribution of axle load, were constructed to Calthrop's specification by Kitson & Co. The goods rolling stock was constructed on common 25 by 7 feet (7.6 m × 2.1 m) pressed steel underframes, reducing tare weight and maximising potential wagon loads. Calthrop recognised the importance of railways in warfare, and designed the rolling stock to facilitate the movement of troops and equipment. Rolling stock rode on pressed-steel Fox bogies, using the Timmis system of double coiled springs. The line was constructed with rail inclination, then a new idea, which involves tilting the rail a few degrees to make its surface more nearly parallel with that of the tyre. Inclination is now applied universally to railways. The rolling stock could accept 100-foot (30.48 m) radius curves. Prior to shipment of the rolling stock to India, Calthrop and the Leeds Forge Company, manufacturer of the rolling stock, conducted tests on a specially-built test track located at Newlay, near Leeds. The line was opened for inspection by railway officials and journalists, and a number of reports were published in the technical railway press. The Barsi Light Railway opened in 1897, and was extended on a number of occasions until it reached a total length of 202 miles (325 km) in 1927. The example of the Barsi Light Railway is regarded as having revolutionised the narrow-gauge railway system of Indian subcontinent, and the railway was immensely successful, establishing Calthrop as one of the leading figures in the field. Calthrop remained consulting engineer until he retired due to ill health two years prior to his death. The Barsi Light Railway continued to be operated as a privately owned railway until 1954 when it was purchased by the Indian government, and continued to operate as a narrow-gauge railway until conversion to broad gauge began in the late 1990s as part of Indian Railways conversion program for all metre- and narrow-gauge lines. ## Involvement in other railways With the success of the Barsi Light Railway, Calthrop was in demand as a consultant for other narrow-gauge railway projects. ### Barbados Railway The Barbados Railway opened in 1883 as a gauge railway from Bridgetown to St Andrew, Barbados. By 1897, the railway and its rolling stock was in very poor condition. Further, much of the railway had been constructed with rail too light for the locomotives. A new company was established in 1898 to rebuild and operate the railway, and Calthrop was engaged as consulting engineer. Calthrop arranged for the railway to be rebuilt in gauge, and had Baldwin Locomotive Works build four new locomotives, two 2-8-2T's, a 2-6-0T and an 0-6-0T. ### Welshpool and Llanfair Light Railway Calthrop appeared at the Light Railway Inquiry for the Welshpool and Llanfair Light Railway on 3–4 August 1897, and spoke particularly on the proposed open level crossings and the use of transporter wagons. Calthrop claimed it only took three minutes to transfer wagons, based on his experience on the Barsi Light Railway. However, the order was not made until 8 September 1899, and in early 1900, the proprietors reached agreement with the Cambrian Railways to build the line. Their engineer, Alfred J. Collins, took charge of the engineering requirements, with consequent conservative 4-wheel wagons and other provisions. ### Victorian Railways narrow-gauge lines In 1898 Calthrop corresponded with the government of the colony of Victoria, Australia, regarding proposals for the construction of narrow-gauge lines in that colony. Subsequently, on his advice, the gauge of the railways as built was changed from to . ### Fayoum Light Railway Calthrop was appointed to advise on engineering matters for this gauge Egyptian light railway, construction of which began in 1898. The railway comprised seven, mostly roadside, branch lines with a total length of 97 miles (156 km). The Fayoum Light Railway served an irrigation district south of Cairo, centred on the provincial capital of Medinet-el-Fayum. Calthrop used pictures of rolling stock from the railway to illustrate a chapter he wrote for the book Pioneer Irrigation and Light Railways. ### Serbian narrow-gauge railways Calthrop was one of several foreign concessionaires involved with the initial development of gauge railways in Serbia after 1898. ### Cleobury Mortimer and Ditton Priors Light Railway The Cleobury Mortimer and Ditton Priors Light Railway was a 12.3-mile (19.8 km) long standard-gauge branch line linking the Great Western Railway at Cleobury Mortimer in Shropshire with mineral deposits in the Clee Hills. Calthrop was appointed Consulting Engineer in 1900, responsible for surveying the route and preparing the construction plans. ### Leek and Manifold Valley Light Railway In the United Kingdom Calthrop is most associated with the Leek and Manifold Valley Light Railway. The line had been promoted under the Light Railways Act, and the initial plan was to build a railway of gauge to be powered by electricity. Under the influence of one of the Light Railway Commissioners the company directors commissioned a report on the proposed line from Calthrop in mid-1900. In early December the railway's engineer died, and on 19 December 1900 the Directors sat down to consider both a replacement and Calthrop's report. Calthrop proposed specifications for the line which would result in substantial savings in construction costs, and so he was offered the position of engineer, which he promptly accepted. Calthrop constructed the line for £35,944, £11,000 less than the original estimate. He had Kitson & Co construct two 2-6-4T locomotives, similar in outline but smaller than the Barsi Light Railway locomotives. Goods rolling stock included four coaches, two bogie open wagons and one bogie van, once again similar to Barsi stock. He also introduced four transporter wagons, designed to transport standard-gauge wagons. Each station on route had a short section of standard-gauge track where the wagons could be placed. The use of transporter wagons eliminated transshipment, and removed the need for large numbers of goods wagons. ### Matheran Light Railway The Matheran Light Railway is a mountain railway near Mumbai, India, and opened in 1905. Unusually for a railway for which Caltrhrop was consulting engineer, it was of gauge, with tight curves and 1 in 20 (5%) grades. Calthrop designed a 0-6-0T with Klein-Linder articulated coupled axles to provide a flexible wheelbase, and four were supplied by Orenstein & Koppel. Calthrop's firm also supplied the wagon stock and the points and crossings for the railway. ### Arakan Light Railway In 1910 Calthrop was engaged as consulting engineer by the promoters of a new railway between Buthidaung and Maungdaw in Burma, later known as the Arakan Light Railway. Calthrop had the proposed gauge changed from narrow gauge to narrow gauge. For this railway Calthrop had built two Garratt locomotives, to which he had attached plates reading "E.R.Calthrop's System of Narrow Gauge Mountain Railways". Calthrop was an early adopter of the Garratt type, this being the ninth order for Garratts taken by Beyer-Peacock, and the smallest Garratt design ever built by them. ## Patents for parachutes Calthrop was a close personal friend of Charles Rolls, of Rolls-Royce fame. Rolls was a pioneer aviator, being the first man to fly across the English Channel in both directions. On 12 July 1910 Calthrop accompanied him to the Bournemouth International Aviation Meeting, and was present when Rolls died after he lost control of his biplane and crashed. That and a similar, non-fatal, accident involving his son Tev, led Calthrop to believe that a parachute could be used to save pilots in similar circumstances. In 1913 he patented his first parachute. As World War I progressed he continued to develop his parachute. In 1915 he offered it to the Royal Flying Corps, and successful tests were completed at the time. An unofficial report offered the opinion that parachutes "might impair the fighting spirit of pilots" and the offer was rejected. Calthrop was encouraged to remain quiet about his invention, but faced with increasing losses of pilots he publicised the parachute in 1917. Despite a campaign by some pilots, the Royal Flying Corps declined to introduce parachutes during World War I, although air forces of most other nations did so. Calthrop's "Guardian Angel" parachute received much praise and was used during the war to drop agents behind enemy lines. In October 1918 an article on use of parachutes stated that the "Guardian Angel" was one of the best known and that "balloonists can take their perilous leap, when attacked by a Hun scout, with real confidence in a safe landing". By 1918 it was known that the Germans were fully aware of Calthrop's work, and supplied their pilots with a similar design. However, when the Royal Air Force finally adopted parachutes after the war, they chose an American design. In 1916 Calthrop also patented an ejector seat for aircraft using compressed air. ## Private life During his time in India, Calthrop made occasional trips back to Britain. On one such trip he married Isabel Mary Earle, the daughter of the Reverend Walter Earle, a friend of his parents. The wedding took place on 19 November 1890 at the Bilton Parish Church, Rugby. They had four children, Everard Earle (Tev, b. 1892), Keith de Suffield (b. 1894), Isabelle Iris (b. 1895), and Betty Marion (b. 1899). Tev joined the army and became a Colonel in the Royal Engineers, while Keith, after a stint in the Royal Engineers went on to become Assistant General Manager and Mechanical Engineer of the Barsi Light Railway, a post he held until 1932. Calthrop had a great interest in breeding Arabian horses. Following the long-term rental of a villa in Goldings Road, Loughton, Essex, he purchased a permanent home, Goldings, at Clays Lane in Loughton, with stables and 40 acres (160,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of grounds. It was here that he bred his horses and developed his theories of horse training. Calthrop rejected the cruel methods of breaking horses common in that era, and practiced gentle methods. Such was his concern for his horses that he had them humanely destroyed rather than have them commandeered by the British army at the start of the First World War. After the war he was able to return to his horses, and wrote an authoritative book, The Horse, as Comrade and Friend, published in 1920. Calthrop was a prominent member of the Arab Horse Society, and received commendations for his stallion, Fitz, at its first show in 1919. Developing and promoting his parachute had left Calthrop drained, both financially and physically. Failing health forced him to resign his position as consulting engineer for the Barsi Railway in 1925, although he remained a director. Calthrop died at his Paddington, London, home on 30 March 1927, in the company of his son, Tev. He was seventy years old. Calthrop is commemorated by a blue plaque on Goldings, unveiled in June 2008. ## Other narrow-gauge pioneers - Paul Decauville - Robert Fairlie - Abraham Fitzgibbon - Thomas Hall - Carl Abraham Pihl
35,512,379	Tonga at the 2012 Summer Olympics	997,774,958	null	[ "2012 in Tongan sport", "Nations at the 2012 Summer Olympics", "Tonga at the Summer Olympics by year" ]	Tonga participated in the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom, which were held from 27 July to 12 August 2012. The country's participation in London marked its eighth appearance in the Summer Olympics since its debut at the 1984 Summer Olympics. The delegation included three competitors: two in athletics, Joseph Andy Lui and ʻAna Poʻuhila, along with one short distance swimmer Amini Fonua. The latter entry was Tonga's first appearance in Olympic swimming competition. Lui and Fonua qualified through wildcard places while Po'uhila made the games by meeting qualification standards. Fonua was selected as the flag bearer for the opening ceremony while Lui held it at the closing ceremony. Lui and Fonua failed to progress farther than the preliminary round of their respective events while Po'uhila finished 29th in the heat stage of the women's shot put contest. ## Background Tonga participated in eight Summer Olympic Games between its debut at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, United States and the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, England. The country sent its largest delegation to an Olympic Games with seven to the 1984 Summer Olympics. No Tongan athlete has ever won a medal at the Olympic Games. Tonga participated in the London Summer Games between 27 July to 12 August 2012. The Tongan National Olympic Committee (NOC) selected two athletes through wildcard places. Usually, an NOC would be able to enter up to three qualified athletes in each individual event as long as each athlete met the "A" standard, or one athlete per event if they met the "B" standard. However, since Tonga had no athletes that met either standard, they were allowed to select two athletes, one of each gender, as wildcards. The three athletes that were selected by Tonga to compete at the London Games were Joseph Andy Lui in the men's 100 metres, ʻAna Poʻuhila in the women's shot put contest and Amini Fonua in the men's 100 metre breaststroke. The country's male Olympic football team failed to qualify after being defeated by New Zealand 10-0 in their last group stage match in the OFC Men's Olympic Qualifying Tournament. Along with the three athletes, the country's delegation was led by its chef de mission Ahongalu Fusimalohi. Fonwa was selected as the flag bearer for the opening ceremony while Lui held it at the closing ceremony. Fusimalochi said in June 2012 that the team hoped ten athletes would be qualified, but after that did not occur, he expected that the competitor's performance in London will inspire participants who wanted to compete at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. ## Athletics At the age of 20, Joseph Andy Lui was the youngest person to represent Tonga at the London Games. He had not taken part in any previous Olympic Games, Lui qualified for the Games by using a wildcard because his fastest time of 10.82 seconds, set at the 2011 Oceania Athletics Championships, was 0.58 seconds slower than the "B" qualifying standard for his event, the men's 100 metres. In preparation for the games he trained in his native Tonga and spent one month in Gold Coast, Queensland. Lui was drawn in the first heat of the preliminary round on 4 August, finishing fourth out of seven athletes, with a time of 11.17 seconds. He finished in front of Mohan Khan of Bangladesh (11.25 seconds) but behind Guinea-Bissau's Holder da Silva (10.69 seconds) in a heat led by Bruno Rojas from Bolivia (10.62 seconds). Overall Liu placed 65th out of 75 runners and did not advance into the first round because his time was 0.48 seconds slower than Da' Silva's time who progressed him into the later stages. After the Games he said to ABC Radio Australia that while he did not expect to run quickly, he expressed his desire to represent Tonga at the Rio Games. ʻAna Poʻuhila was the oldest person (and the sole female athlete) to take part for Tonga at the London Olympic Games at the age of 32. She had participated in the previous two Olympic Games in Athens and Beijing. Po'uhila gained entry into the Games by meeting qualification standards because her best throw of 16.40 metres, set at the 2011 Pacific Games, was 0.90 metres better than the "B" qualifying standard for the women's shot put competition. She spent time in Auckland preparing for the Games. During the qualifying heat of her event, which took place on 7 August, the Tongan field athlete was placed in the sixteen-person second heat. Po'uhila was given three attempts to put the shot as far as she could. During the first attempt, she lobbed the shot 15.80 metres, ranking 14th in her heat. Po'uhila was unable to best the ranking on her ranking when she lobbed it 15.75 metres, placing 11th amongst those who threw during the second try. Her third and final attempt, 15.11 metres, did not beat her first attempt. Using her best mark, 15.80 metres, Po'uhila placed 29th out of 30 athletes who completed the event. She finished ahead of Elena Smolyanova of Uzbekistan (14.42 metres) but behind Taiwan's Lin Chia-ying (17.43 metres) in a heat led by Yevgeniya Kolodko of Russia (19.31 metres). Of the 30 athletes who finished the event Po'uhila finished in 29th, and did not progress into the final. Key Men Women ## Swimming Competing at his first Olympics, Amini Fonua was the sole representative to compete in Swimming on Tonga's behalf. He qualified for the games by gaining a universality place from FINA because his time of one minute and 4.02 seconds did not reach the "A" (Olympic Qualifying Time) or "B" (FINA/Olympic Invititional Time) standard entry times for his event, the men's 100 metre breaststroke. Fonua's qualification meant Tonga made their first appearance in Olympic swimming competition. He spent time training in the United States in preparation for the Olympics. In an interview before the Games Fonua stated it was an honour to be his country's first Olympic swimmer and hoped he would not be the only such competitor. He was drawn in the contest's first heat on 28 July, finishing first out of four swimmers, with a time of one minute and 3.65 seconds. Fonua was ahead of the nearest-placed finisher Mubarak Al-Besher of the United Arab Emirates (one minute and 5.26 seconds). Overall he placed 41st out of 44 competitors and was unable to advance into the semi-final after finishing 3.07 seconds slower than the slowest athlete who made the next stage. Men ## See also - Tonga at the 2012 Summer Paralympics
35,243,744	Zou Bisou Bisou	1,170,538,095	null	[ "1960 songs", "2012 songs", "French-language songs", "Song recordings produced by George Martin" ]	"Zou Bisou Bisou" (also performed as "Zoo Be Zoo Be Zoo") is a song written by Bill Shepherd and Alan Tew, and Michel Rivgauche for the lyrics of the French version. The song's origins stem from the Yé-yé movement with which an early version of the song was associated. Its theme is variously described as an open declaration of love and the joy of kissing. "Zou Bisou Bisou" was Gillian Hills' first single in the summer of 1960. A French recording, titled "Zoo Be Zoo Be Zoo", was produced by George Martin and sung in English by Sophia Loren. Although most sources associate the origins of the song with Hills, New York claims that the songwriting credits make it more likely that Loren's version was the original. Slate's David Haglund notes that Hills' version is the best-known of the early recordings. It was performed by Jessica Paré as Megan Draper in the Mad Men episode "A Little Kiss". The morning after its on-air performance on AMC, the song was released as a music download and as a vinyl special edition. Paré's on-air performance of the song was lip synced to a prior recording. Swedish pop and soul singer Emilia Mitiku covered the song in 2013, on her album I Belong to You. ## Background and production Martin's production of "Zoo Be Zoo Be Zoo" was originally recorded by Sophia Loren as publicity associated with the film The Millionairess (1960) on the album Peter and Sophia. Several sources, including a posting at AMC's website, state that Hills did not produce her version, with Rivgauche's lyrics, until 1961, after Loren's October 1960 movie. Another version of the song, by Israeli-French performer Maya Casabianca, appeared on France's Billboard chart in September 1961. Additional cover versions have been produced by the Pennies and Kerstin Dahl. Lionsgate Television released a music download edition of Paré's version at the iTunes Store as well as two vinyl editions made available online. It will also be released in the future on Amazon.com and in stores. This version was produced by Matthew Weiner, Russell Ziecker, David Carbonara, and James T. Hill. Paré recorded her lyrics in a recording studio, working with Carbonara, and choreographed her routine with Marianne Ann Kellogg. The 7-inch vinyl version includes the B-side, "A Beautiful Mine" by RJD2, which is the theme music for the show. Weiner tracked down the song and had many objectives for Paré to achieve in the production of the song. Pare's version was used in Season 3 episode 2 of Emily in Paris. ## Charts ## Themes Roughly translated from French to English "Zou Bisou Bisou" means "Oh! Kiss Kiss" or "Oh You Kiss Kiss". After translating the song, Haglund claimed that the theme of the song is about ". . .openly declaring and displaying one's love, coming out from 'the bushes' where 'lovers glide stealthily' and feeling love 'everywhere'". The Huffington Post summarized the song more simply saying that it made the statement "about how kissing is fun". Slate noted that yé-yé singers were often "teenage girls who exuded a faux-innocent sexuality", which played on Megan Draper's "youthful sex appeal and the generation gap between Megan and Don". Paré stated that, "Megan, who is younger and more naïve than Don, was 'unknowingly putting their intimate connection on the line' in front of their friends and co-workers'. . .'The reason that it's so awkward isn't that she was doing anything wrong, but because it's private'. . ." ## Critical response to Mad Men scene Numerous critics from prominent media outlets such as The Wall Street Journal, Slate, USA Today, Rolling Stone, New York Daily News, Los Angeles Times, Chicago Sun-Times, CBS News, noted that the highlight of the 5th season premiere was Paré's performance of this song during Don Draper's surprise 40th birthday party, describing the performance and Paré as sexy, slinky, and sultry. Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone said that "Megan sings...for her husband, who can barely suppress his embarrassment and discomfort." Erin Carlson of The Hollywood Reporter described Paré's performance as "bizarre, come-hither burlesque", noting that she "stunned partygoers who openly ogled her while the ad exec (Jon Hamm) squirmed with polite embarrassment." The song's performance became a trending topic on Twitter. Since the song was trending the entire following day, The Roots performed a brief rendition of a verse of the song as interstitial music the following night on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. Despite the social media frenzy, the song did not crack the iTunes Top 100. On 14 April 2012, however, it did manage to reach the bottom position \#100 of the Canadian Hot 100.
24,433,927	Fortress (cancelled video game)	1,148,400,605	Cancelled video game	[ "Action role-playing video games", "Cancelled PlayStation 3 games", "Cancelled Windows games", "Cancelled Xbox 360 games", "Final Fantasy XII", "Final Fantasy spin-offs", "Grin (company) games", "Video games developed in Sweden" ]	Fortress is the code name of a cancelled action role-playing video game that was in development by Swedish game developer Grin. Director Ulf Andersson devised the concept for Fortress before preproduction began in the second half of 2008. During development, Square Enix approached the developer and proposed making the game a spin-off of Final Fantasy XII. Grin reconceived the game in the recurring Final Fantasy world of Ivalice, and included elements of XII, such as stylistic motifs and character designs; additional elements included chocobos and other recurring creatures from the Final Fantasy series. It was to be released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360. During development, Square Enix did not pay Grin over several months and disapproved of the game's Nordic art style. Grin worked to bring the game's art style closer to the Final Fantasy series, but after six months of development was told that no funding would ever come from Square Enix, and the developer filed for bankruptcy several days later. Word of the project leaked out through art portfolios of those who worked on the project and even a tech demo surfaced. In 2011, Fortress was thought to have been in development by an undisclosed studio, but this was also suspended, and the game was not released in any form. ## Premise According to scenario writer Ulf Andersson, the story was set several years after the events of Final Fantasy XII: Revenant Wings. The plot revolved a magical fortress designed to defend Ivalice from a being known as the Sea King Loemund, who rose every 10,000 years to attempt to conquer the land. During his last attempt, he was slain and his crown was lost in the fortress. Though the myth is mostly disregarded, the story is believed by Basch fon Ronsenburg, now serving the current Archadian Emperor Larsa Solidor under the name of "Judge Gabranth". Marching to the fortress' location, he and his forces would have needed to fend off the forces of Loemund, who seeks vengeance against his killer's descendant Queen Ashelia B'nargin Dalmasca. A central character plot was to be a romantic connection between Basch and Ashe that would fade as Larsa and Ashe grew closer and Basch became entrenched in his fight against Loemund. Other characters involved included the sky pirate Balthier, and earlier main protagonists Vaan and Penelo. A new character, a demigod named Laegd, would join Basch after being defeated in single combat. The main aim of the story was to bring the entire cast of Final Fantasy XII back together for a final fight to save Ivalice. ## Development Fortress started out as an original fantasy game concept designed by Ulf Andersson, Grin's co-founder. Preproduction began in the second half of 2008. Lead character artist Björn Albihn described Fortress as "a game with an epic scale both in story and production values". The project was developed on a game engine compatible with Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360. The development team, led by Andersson as a creative director, produced concept art and 3D assets under art director Anders De Geer and Albihn. The game design was led by technical artist Erik Lindqvist. The art style of the game was supposed to be realistic and similar to The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim according to Guillaumue Mraz, a level designer at Grin. The game was pitched to various publishers, and the Japanese gaming company Square Enix took an interest in the project. Square Enix president Yoichi Wada visited Grin several times, and liked the action role-playing game concept and its Nordic visual style. After getting the chance to see a boss fight from Bionic Commando, which at the time was being developed by Grin for the Japanese company Capcom, Wada said he had seen enough, and decided that Square Enix would publish Fortress as a Final Fantasy spin-off. Once it became a Final Fantasy title, the Grin founders wanted to come in and revolutionize Final Fantasy in new ways with their project. Fortress was to be set in the fictional world of Ivalice, specifically the version seen in Final Fantasy XII, only set some time in the future. In addition to many original characters and locations, concept art for the game included the character Ashe and a Judge from Final Fantasy XII, as well as chocobos and other recurring creatures of the Final Fantasy series. A portfolio video created by lead technical artist Anders Bodbacka revealed that Larsa Solidor and Basch fon Ronsenburg from Final Fantasy XII were also to be featured. The setting was to be different from a normal Final Fantasy game, with familiar characters exploring a "Nordic" version of Final Fantasy, and "primarily set in a massive fortress" according to Linda Dahlberg, a Grin associate producer. Other landscapes such as plains, forests, deserts and snowfields were also designed. Invaders from the sea were to be the main enemies of the game. They were visually based on the Vikings and wielded armor and weapons decorated with sea and sea monster imagery. Planned boss battles included fighting a gargantuan version of the Final Fantasy monster Malboro, where the player would use the seaweed on its back to climb on top of it and drop bombs on the creature's weak spots. According to a design document, the game was divided into at least seven chapters, starting at the gate of the Fortress and leading up to the top of the stronghold. Grin's music director Erik Thunberg was responsible for the game's score, including a track that features a rearrangement of the "Prelude" theme from the Final Fantasy series. ## Cancellation Square Enix was supposed to pay Grin for the production of Fortress in successive waves in accordance with the project's milestones. No payments were made during the first two months of development, but Grin's co-founder Bo Andersson was initially not worried as he considered delayed payments common and had faith in the project. However, several more months went by without payments, costing the studio 12 million kr a month. Grin closed all of their offices except for the main one in Stockholm, but still no money came. In 2009, Grin released Terminator Salvation, Wanted: Weapons of Fate, and Bionic Commando to negative reviews and poor sales, which caused further financial woes and seemed to make Square Enix nervous. The publisher wanted updates and asked that all of the game's assets, including the code, the music files, and even the game's developer language be faxed to them. This move was described as impossible and "almost a criminal behavior" by Andersson. Square Enix had changed its mind, and no longer liked the Nordic style of this spin-off game, so a last-minute style change was attempted. The game had been such a well-guarded secret, and had been through so many changes, that most employees did not know they had been working on a Final Fantasy game until very late in development. Grin attempted to change the art style to fit more with traditional Final Fantasy games, but still did not receive any positive feedback. In response, Grin sent Square Enix an image of one of the latter's own games, Final Fantasy XII, and were told that it does not look like a game in Final Fantasy's style. Following that exchange, Grin came to the conclusion that there was no longer any way to satisfy the publisher. In early August 2009, a call was received from Square Enix telling them that no payments were coming. Grin's founders considered suing, but had run out of money, leading them to stop production after six months of work. Furthermore, Grin ceased production on all of their other projects and declared bankruptcy due to Sweden's severe laws against operating businesses under a debt load. Magnus Ihrefors, one of the 3D artists who worked on the project, stated that he had only found out about the game's cancellation in August, but it was like a "punch in the belly" for their last chance to get on track again. The developer closed its offices on August 12, stating that delayed payments from "too many publishers" caused "an unbearable cashflow situation" and referred to Fortress in a farewell note as an "unreleased masterpiece that [they] weren't allowed to finish". According to the bankruptcy papers, Square Enix felt that the development goals for Fortress "had not been met in a satisfactory way", whereas Andersson claimed the contrary, arguing that the milestones initially set up with a producer from Square Enix had been met. Mraz stated that Grin seemed to have ignored Square Enix's requests for changes, and the Final Fantasy franchise was too important to overlook this behavior. The Anderssons later called the game's cancellation a "betrayal", and said they have never received any payment for the initial work done on the game. ## Aftermath After Grin's closure, the former existence of Fortress spread as mentions and concept art of the project appeared on former employees' resumes and portfolios. In January 2010, footage from an alleged tech demo of Fortress was leaked onto the Internet. The video description stated the game's events are "set some time after Final Fantasy XII: Revenant Wings" and mentioned Square Enix's subsidiary Eidos Montreal as a possible new home for the project. Replying to a fan question in May, David Hoffman, director of business development at the North American branch of Square Enix, mentioned Fortress without confirming its existence, also saying that he had no involvement in the rumored project. The Fortress project, still supported by Square Enix, was for a time being developed by a different, undisclosed studio, but this ended as well. At an interview at the 2011 Electronic Entertainment Expo, Motomu Toriyama of Square Enix said that Fortress was suspended, saying that the game "won't be released". In 2012, music director Erik Thunberg posted a music track intended for the game.
60,004,953	Change UK	1,170,152,966	British centrist political party in 2019	[ "2019 disestablishments in the United Kingdom", "2019 establishments in the United Kingdom", "Brexit", "Centrist political parties in the United Kingdom", "Conservative Party (UK) breakaway groups", "Defunct political parties in the United Kingdom", "February 2019 events in the United Kingdom", "Labour Party (UK) breakaway groups", "Political parties disestablished in 2019", "Political parties established in 2019", "Pro-European political parties in the United Kingdom" ]	The Independent Group for Change, also known as Change UK, was a British centrist, pro-European Union political party, founded in February 2019 and dissolved ten months later, after all its MPs lost their seats at the 2019 general election. Its principal aim was a second withdrawal referendum on European Union membership, in which it would campaign to remain in the EU. On economic issues it expressed a commitment to the social market economy. In February 2019, seven MPs resigned from the Labour Party to sit as The Independent Group. They were dissatisfied by Labour's leftward political direction under Jeremy Corbyn's leadership, its approach to Brexit and its handling of allegations of antisemitism within the party. They were soon joined by four more MPs, including three from the governing Conservative Party who disliked their party's approach to Brexit and its move rightward. The group registered as a political party under the name Change UK – The Independent Group and appointed former Conservative MP Heidi Allen as their leader before the 2019 European Parliament election. Following the party's failure to secure any seats in that election, six of its eleven MPs, including Allen, left the party and Anna Soubry took over as leader. Four of the six formed The Independents grouping and two defected to the Liberal Democrats. Later, three of The Independents also joined the Liberal Democrats. In June the party adopted the name The Independent Group for Change following a legal dispute with petition website Change.org. Three of the party's MPs stood for re-election in the 2019 general election. None were re-elected, each losing to candidates from their former parties. On 19 December 2019, Soubry announced the party's dissolution. ## History ### Formation The group was founded by MPs Luciana Berger, Ann Coffey, Mike Gapes, Chris Leslie, Gavin Shuker, Angela Smith and Chuka Umunna, who simultaneously announced their resignations from the Labour Party on 18 February 2019. Rather than forming a party, the group were a coalition of officially Independent MPs referring to themselves as The Independent Group. Leslie, Shuker and Smith had previously lost no-confidence motions brought by their Constituency Labour Parties. Berger had two no-confidence motions brought against her but both were withdrawn. Ian Murray planned to resign alongside the others but pulled out shortly before the launch. The media compared the group to the Gang of Four which split from the Labour Party in order to found the Social Democratic Party in 1981. Four of the seven founding members (Berger, Gapes, Shuker and Leslie) were Labour and Co-operative Party MPs; they left both parties. Announcing the resignations, Berger described Labour as having become "institutionally antisemitic", while Leslie said Labour had been "hijacked by the machine politics of the hard left" and Gapes said he was "furious that the Labour leadership is complicit in facilitating Brexit". On the day of the group's launch, founding member Angela Smith appeared on the BBC's Politics Live programme, where she said, in a discussion about racism, that: "The recent history of the party I've just left suggested it's not just about being black or a funny tin... you know, a different... from the BAME community". The offending phrase was partially uttered, but it was widely reported to be "funny tinge". Smith apologised shortly afterwards, saying, "I'm very upset that I misspoke so badly." Commentators noted an irony, given the fact that the group had been formed in response to perceived racism. On 19 February 2019, Joan Ryan announced her departure from the Labour Party, becoming the first MP to join after the group's formation. Ryan had previously lost a vote of no-confidence brought by her constituency party. On 20 February 2019, three Conservative MPs left their party to join the group: Sarah Wollaston, Heidi Allen and Anna Soubry, citing the handling of Brexit by the Prime Minister (including "red lines" which alienated most Remainers); the party's reliance on the European Research Group (a group supporting a no-deal Brexit) and the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) in passing Brexit-related legislation; what they saw as the takeover of the Conservative Party by "right wing, ... hard-line anti-EU" MPs; and lack of concern from the Conservative Party for the "most vulnerable in society", as reasons for their departure. Umunna rejected the notion of any merger with the Liberal Democrats, with Soubry calling on one-nation Conservatives and "like-minded Lib Dems" to join the group. A few former Conservative and Labour parliamentarians publicly declared a switch of allegiance to the new group, while in February some Labour local councillors in England left the Party with the intention of aligning with The Independent Group. ### Registration as a political party In March 2019, the group announced that it had applied to the Electoral Commission to register as a political party under the name "Change UK – The Independent Group", in order to be able to stand candidates if the UK participated in the May 2019 European elections. Heidi Allen was appointed interim leader, pending an inaugural party conference planned for September 2019. The registration was confirmed by the Electoral Commission on 15 April 2019. The party's proposed emblem, however, was rejected by the Commission, both for inclusion of the TIG acronym which they considered insufficiently well-known and for use of a hashtag. On 15 April 2019, the centrist Renew Party, which had formed in 2017 but failed to win seats, announced that it would be supporting Change UK – The Independent Group in the European Elections. Change UK welcomed the move and said it would accept applications from Renew-approved candidates to become Change UK candidates. ### European Parliament election On 16 April 2019, it was announced that MEPs Julie Girling and Richard Ashworth had joined Change UK. Both MEPs had been elected for the Conservative Party, but were suspended from the Conservatives after supporting a motion in the European Parliament saying sufficient progress had not been made in Brexit negotiations to allow trade talks to start. Both Ashworth and Girling were members of the centre-right European People's Party group in the European Parliament. However, on 10 May, Girling, who decided not to stand in the 2019 European Elections, encouraged Remain supporters in the South West to vote for the Liberal Democrats, saying they were "clearly the lead Remain party in the South West". Girling and Change UK later said that she had never been a member or one of their MEPs. The party announced on 23 April that it would stand a full slate of candidates in Great Britain for the European Parliament elections, including Ashworth, writer Rachel Johnson (sister of Conservative MPs Jo and Boris Johnson); former BBC journalist Gavin Esler; former Conservative MPs Stephen Dorrell and Neil Carmichael; former Labour MEP Carole Tongue; former Labour MPs Roger Casale and Jon Owen Jones; former Liberal Democrat MEP Diana Wallis; and the former deputy Prime Minister of Poland Jacek Rostowski. Within a day, controversial tweets, some of an alleged racist nature, by two candidates – including the top candidate for the Scottish constituency – were discovered, leading to their withdrawals. The Muslim Council of Great Britain and anti-racism charity Tell MAMA condemned the selection of a third candidate, Nora Mulready, who they said had conflated Islam with terrorism and legitimised the far right; this was dismissed by Mulready and by Change UK as a "smear campaign". Prominent LGBT journalists have condemned the selection of Rostowski for his anti-gay marriage stance, although he was believed to have since recanted homophobic remarks made in 2011 and 2013 about same-sex relationships. On 15 May, David MacDonald, who had earlier replaced Joseph Russo as the party's lead candidate in Scotland following controversy over the latter's tweets, defected from the party and encouraged supporters to vote for the Scottish Liberal Democrats. In an interview with The Times, the lead candidate in South West England, Rachel Johnson, described the party as a "sinking ship", criticised the leadership structure and said that Change UK was a "terrible" name. On 20 May 2019, interim leader Heidi Allen suggested that the party might not exist at the next general election and hinted at the formation of an alliance with the Liberal Democrats. On 22 May, she said that she and Wollaston wanted to advise Remain supporters to vote tactically for the Liberal Democrats in the European elections outside of London and South East England, but they were overruled by other party members. Allen said she threatened to resign as leader over the issue of whether to endorse the Liberal Democrats in some regions. She denied her party was in disarray. Between the European Parliament polling day and the count, with the Liberal Democrats expected to have done much better in the vote than Change UK, Umunna said that he thought a pact between Change UK and the Liberal Democrats at the next election "would be sensible". Allen then said she would go "one step further" and implied she wanted a merger with the Liberal Democrats. However, Soubry criticised Allen's tactical voting comments and the idea of any imminent alliance with the Liberal Democrats, describing talk of an alliance as being "a long way down the line". The party won no seats in the European elections, garnering 3.3% of the vote overall. Their highest vote was 5.3% in London. They were closest to winning a seat in the South East England constituency where they got 4.2% and were 3.1% away from a seat. An internal party report was supposedly critical of some of the MPs for supposedly talking down the party's prospects. ### Resignations After a meeting of the party's MPs on 4 June 2019, described as "amicable" by the Financial Times but "fraught" by the New Statesman, six of the party's MPs – Berger, Shuker, Smith, Umunna, Wollaston and interim party leader Allen – announced their resignation from the party. The other five MPs remained in the party, with Brexit and Justice spokeswoman Anna Soubry becoming leader. In an article shortly before the announcement of the resignations, Stephen Bush of the New Statesman described three viewpoints in the party: a group favouring merger with the Liberal Democrats, including Allen and Umunna; a group ideologically unsympathetic towards the Liberal Democrats, including Gapes, Leslie, Ryan and Soubry; and a group who supported reverting to being a loose collection of independents that could attract Labour and Conservatives defectors who would find it difficult to switch to a rival party – another New Statesman article identified Shuker as being in this group. The Financial Times described a longstanding split between Umunna and Leslie, both of whom had vied to be the leading force within the party, with the choice of Allen as interim leader having been made to defuse tensions. In an interview that evening, Soubry said that those leaving wanted Change UK to become a "movement" that did not field candidates. The New Statesman commented that most of the MPs with links to donors had left, and that the party's finances were not secure. Rumours continued that some, but not all, of those who left the party would eventually join the Liberal Democrats, with the New Statesman suggesting that Umunna, Wollaston and Allen were best placed to be able to win re-election as Liberal Democrats. Umunna joined the Liberal Democrats in June. On 10 July, Berger, Shuker, Smith and Allen along with John Woodcock formed a non-party group called The Independents. By the time of the election, Berger, Smith and Allen had left this grouping to join the Liberal Democrats. ### Naming dispute with Change.org and name change At the time of the party's registration, the petitions website Change.org announced that it would challenge the branding, which it regarded as having "hijacked" its identity. Shortly after announcing themselves as Change UK, Soubry accidentally called the party "Change.org" in parliament. Threats from the website to sue resulted in the party making an application to the Electoral Commission on 13 June 2019 to change its name to The Independent Group for Change, which was approved on 5 July. ### 2019 general election and deregistration Before the 2019 general election, the party announced that the only seats it would contest would be Broxtowe, Ilford South and Nottingham East, where Soubry, Gapes and Leslie, respectively, were seeking re-election. Coffey and Ryan did not stand for re-election. The Liberal Democrats announced that they would not stand against Soubry in Broxtowe. In the election on 12 December 2019, all three of the party's candidates lost their seats: Soubry and Gapes came third in their seats, while Leslie was fourth. Soubry had the highest vote share at 8.5%. Of its six former members, Allen did not stand in the election, Shuker stood as an independent candidate and the other four stood for the Liberal Democrats. All lost their seats, with Berger performing best, coming second with 31.9%, standing in a different constituency, Finchley and Golders Green. Soubry announced on 19 December 2019 that their management council had agreed to deregister with the Electoral Commission and begin the process of closing down the Independent Group for Change. The party tweeted: "It was right to shine a spotlight on Britain's broken politics. But having taken stock and with no voice now in parliament, we begin the process of winding up our party. Thanks to all who stood with us." The party was formally deregistered by the Electoral Commission on 5 July 2020. ## Reactions ### Labour Party On 19 February 2019, Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn responded that he was "disappointed" by the actions of the MPs leaving Labour. Labour Shadow Chancellor John McDonnell said that Independent Group MPs had a "responsibility" to resign and fight by-elections, as they had been elected as Labour MPs and should seek the approval of the electorate for their new platform. Other Labour Party figures stressed reflection, with deputy leader Tom Watson imploring his party to change in order to stave off further defections. Jon Lansman, the founder of Momentum, said he had "personal sympathy" for Berger because of the "hate and abuse" she had suffered. However, the six other former Labour MPs were, in his opinion, malcontents opposed to Corbyn's leadership. Labour MP Ruth George, who had been asked to respond to a Facebook comment suggesting the group's financial backers were "Israelis", replied that "Support from the State of Israel, which supports both Conservative and Labour Friends of Israel of which Luciana was chair is possible and I would not condemn those who suggest it, especially when the group's financial backers are not being revealed". After Jewish groups said that she was indulging an antisemitic conspiracy theory, she apologised and withdrew her comment. On 25 February, Labour announced that it would back moves for a second EU referendum in the coming weeks, a move interpreted as being, in part, in reaction to the threat of further defections to The Independent Group. On 19 March, MPs passed a motion put forward by Labour to remove Gapes, as well as non-TIG independent Ian Austin, from their seats on the Foreign Affairs Select Committee they held as part of the Labour Party's allocation. They were replaced by Labour MPs Conor McGinn and Catherine West. Gapes called the move "a sad day for the independence of Select Committees", while Labour said that it was right that the party filled its allocation of seats on the committees. ### Conservative Party On 20 February 2019, Prime Minister and Conservative leader Theresa May stated that she was "saddened" by the departure of Anna Soubry, Sarah Wollaston and Heidi Allen. Former Conservative Prime Minister David Cameron wrote in a statement on Twitter that he respected but disagreed with the three MPs' decision, as the party needs "strong voices at every level of the party calling for the modern, compassionate Conservatism that saw the Conservative Party return to office." ### Liberal Democrats On 18 February 2019, before the breakaway, Liberal Democrats leader Vince Cable said that his party would "work with them in some form" but that his party would not be "subsumed" by them. On 19 February, Cable later added that he has "offered a hand of friendship to the new Independent Group" and sees "the way forward as a collaborative arrangement, a confederation of groups who have a lot in common". On 20 February Cable also suggested that the Liberal Democrats might not put up candidates against members of the Independent Group at future elections. On 21 February, former Liberal Democrat leader Tim Farron said in a radio interview that it was "entirely possible" that the two groups could merge to form a new centrist political party. On 23 February, Cable contacted members of The Independent Group to seek support for his proposed parliamentary motion for a second Brexit referendum. The Liberal Democrats signalled support for the amendment, along with the Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru. In March 2019, it was reported by Business Insider that the Liberal Democrats and The Independent Group held discussions about the possibility of forming an electoral alliance where joint candidates would stand under the same "umbrella". Cable proposed standing joint candidates with the Greens and Change UK on a common policy of seeking a second referendum on Brexit at the European Parliament elections, but both other parties rejected the idea. On 24 April 2019, an unverified internal Change UK document memo leaked describing their plans to target Liberal Democrat donors and members in an attempt to supplant the Liberal Democrats. Part of the Change UK objectives specified in the memo were "No mergers, pacts or alliances." On 26 April, Cable said that Change UK had thrown away opportunities at the 2019 European Parliament election had they pooled their strength, but that the Lib Dems and Change UK had agreed a "non-aggression pact" to discourage "friendly fire". After the Liberal Democrats came second in the European elections and Change UK failed to win any seats, the Liberal Democrats suggested they would make it clear that they would welcome Change UK MPs joining their party (as Umunna, Wollaston, Berger, Smith and Allen subsequently did). ## Structure and aims The party was launched as a group of independent MPs with a convenor (initially Gavin Shuker) and spokesperson (initially Chuka Umunna). It was established without a formal policy platform. In March 2019, this structure was changed as the group applied for registration as a political party with Heidi Allen as its leader (on an interim basis until an annual conference could be held). The party's registration was confirmed in April 2019. In June 2019, Allen left the party and Anna Soubry replaced her as leader. By July 2019, the party employed one member of staff on a full-time basis, down from 11 staff employed during the European Parliament election campaign. Chris Leslie described the party as offering a home to those on the centre-left or in the "liberal" or "one nation" tradition. The party was expressly pro-European, supporting calls for a further referendum on the UK's membership of the European Union, and was considered to be centrist. The party's slogan was "Politics is broken. Let's change it", and it stated that it aimed to pursue evidence-led policies, rather than those led by ideology, with the group being tolerant of differing opinions. Specific stated values included a "diverse, mixed social market economy", freedom of the press, environmentalism, devolution, subsidiarity and opposition to Brexit. All of its MPs supported a second referendum on the EU. Although the party never published a manifesto, it listed eleven "values", including that the government must do "whatever it takes" to protect national security, as Britain is "a great country of which people are rightly proud." Shuker stated that "[we] back well-regulated business but in return we expect them to provide decent, secure and well-paid jobs" and Leslie stressed the group was pro-NATO. On 14 March 2019, Sarah Wollaston's amendment calling for a second EU referendum was called by the Speaker of the House of Commons, the first TIG amendment to be called. This was the first time that parliament had the opportunity to directly vote on a second referendum. However, after both the People's Vote and Best for Britain campaigns advised supporters not to vote for the amendment, and the Labour Party whipped its MPs to abstain, the amendment fell 85–334. ## Funding The group was supported in its aims by The Independent Group (TIG) Ltd (previously named Gemini A Ltd), a non-trading company started by Shuker and registered in England and Wales. Berger stated that the seven founders funded the launch themselves. The group claimed that thousands of donors gave small amounts within days of the launch. On 23 February 2019, David Garrard, previously a major donor to the Labour Party, was reported to have given financial support to the group; the amount as reported by The Sunday Telegraph was £1.5 million. A "significant" donation to the group was later made by crossbencher Lord Myners, the former City Minister under Labour Prime Minister Gordon Brown. The party was not entitled to the parliamentary financial assistance for opposition parties (Short Money) as this is not available to political parties established in the middle of a parliamentary term. A report by the party's auditors, published as part of the group's accounts filed with Companies House in May 2020, found that bank statements and records of donors had been "inappropriately destroyed" by staff members during the group's winding down and could not be satisfactorily reconstructed. The auditors stated that nothing had come to their attention to suggest there were any "material errors in the financial statements", but they were "unable to determine" whether any adjustments to financial statements "might have been found to be necessary had the scope of our work not been limited". In response, Soubry's partner, Neil Davidson, who had acted as the party's treasurer, stated that the party had "absolutely nothing to hide". ## Leadership At the time of the group's formation, Gavin Shuker was named as the group's convener and Chuka Umunna as the spokesperson. The group used a collective approach to leadership, with Umunna saying that "all the members of our group have... a responsibility to provide leadership". Registration as a party mandated having a formal leader. Allen was appointed interim leader when the party was officially formed on 29 March 2019, with the intention that a permanent leader would be elected at a party conference in September. When Allen left the party on 4 June, Anna Soubry took over the leadership role. ## Members of elected bodies The party was formed by eleven breakaway MPs – eight from Labour and three from the Conservatives – in 2019. Six of Change UK's eleven MPs left the party after it won no seats in the 2019 European Parliament election in May. Five of the six who quit Change UK went on to join the Liberal Democrats. None of the original eleven members of Change UK were elected in the 2019 general election in December. After failing to win any seats in the general election, the party, by then known as the Independent Group for Change, announced that it would disband. ### Members of Parliament #### MPs who remained in the party until dissolution #### MPs who left the party ### Frontbench team Heidi Allen announced a frontbench team after her appointment as interim leader in March 2019. ### Representation in other levels of government In February 2019, Labour councillors in over ten councils also left the party and intended to align with The Independent Group. Two former Labour councillors in Brighton and Hove Council left the party to form their own independent group on 25 February, aligning with the Parliamentary group. There were further resignations from the party by Labour councillors in Barnet, Bexley, Derby, Salford, Stafford, and Southwark and by Conservative councillors in South Bucks and Calderdale. It is unknown how many of these councillors supported Change UK, but many gave the same reasons as the Labour MPs who left the party: alleged antisemitism in Labour, Corbyn's leadership and Brexit. Richard Ashworth, an MEP who was elected as a Conservative in 2014, and had been a European People's Party-affiliated independent since 2018, joined Change UK on 16 April 2019. In the European Parliament election the following month, Ashworth was the first list candidate for Change UK in South East England but was not reelected, with the list gaining 4.2% of the votes. ## Electoral history ## See also - List of elected British politicians who have changed party affiliation - List of Labour Party (UK) breakaway parties
73,188,923	Enrichetta Chiaraviglio-Giolitti	1,172,329,293	Italian philanthropist and activist	[ "1871 births", "1959 deaths", "20th-century women philanthropists", "Children of prime ministers of Italy", "Italian diarists", "Italian emigrants to Argentina", "Italian pacifists", "Italian philanthropists", "Italian suffragists", "Italian women's rights activists", "Pacifist feminists", "People from Florence", "Women diarists", "Women's International League for Peace and Freedom people" ]	Enrichetta Chiaraviglio-Giolitti (1871 – 17 April 1959) was an Italian philanthropist, educational patron and activist. Born in Florence, she was the oldest daughter of five-time Prime Minister of Italy, Giovanni Giolitti. An astute and intellectual woman, she was his confidant and correspondent although they did not always agree on policy. Interested in improving children's education in Italy, she worked with several associations and on commissions to study and create curricula. She was a supporter of the Italian educator Maria Montessori and persuaded Margherita of Savoy, queen of Italy, to become a patron of her schools. After serving as temporary superintendent of the Scuola professionale femminile "Margherita di Savoia" ("Margherita di Savoia" Vocational School for Girls) in 1910, she founded the Istituto di San Gregorio al Celio (Institute of San Gregorio al Celio). The institute taught childcare to mothers and trained schoolteachers as in-home health visitors and inspectors. In 1912, concerned with the plight of street urchins, she put forward the idea of refitting a derelict ship as a floating school to Pasquali Leonardi Cattolica [it], Minister of the Navy. The floating school Caracciolo was launched in 1913 under the direction of Giulia Civita, who had been proposed by Chiaraviglio-Giolitti. To fund the project, she organized the Unione Navi-Asilo (Union of Naval Asylum). The floating kindergarten operated until 1928 when it was closed by the fascist regime. She also worked on reforms of teacher training, attempted to establish secondary schools for girls, and pressed the government to offer agricultural education. Other initiatives included work with malarial children and on child protection laws. As a women's rights activist, Chiaraviglio-Giolitti joined the Consiglio Nazionale delle Donne Italiane (National Council of Italian Women) and fought for women’s suffrage. In 1919, she was appointed to the national executive committee of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom. In 1927, she and her family fled to Argentina to escape Benito Mussolini's regime. They established a metal-working business and participated in anti-fascist organizations. She continued her activism for women, children, and education in Buenos Aires, where she died in 1959. Throughout her life Chiaraviglio-Giolitti maintained a diary and was a prolific letter writer. Her letters are valuable in understanding the political currents of Italy during her lifetime. ## Early life and family Enrichetta Giolitti was born in 1871 in Florence, Italy, to Rosa (née Sobrero) and Giovanni Giolitti. Rosa was the daughter of Lorenzo Sobrero, the procurator general of the Court of Cassation in Turin and niece of the chemist Ascanio Sobrero. At the time of her birth, Giolitti's father was working as secretary to the Minister of Finance, Quintino Sella. Giovanni continued to advance in his political career, serving five times as Prime Minister of Italy. Giolitti was the second child born to the couple but her older brother Giovenale died at birth. Her younger siblings were Lorenzo, Luisa, Federico, Maria and Giuseppe. The children were raised in a liberal environment and were encouraged to discuss personal and public affairs. He taught his children to be independent and to follow their own consciences, but emphasized loyalty to Italy and family. Thanks to her acute understanding of politics and human nature, she was her father's favorite child and his confident. Throughout their lives, the two often exchanged letters presenting their views on the political situation in Italy. Giolitti described her philosophy, explaining that she started "for the most part from the concept of what men should be, then from what a government should be, and when you see a government that does not respond to this ideal, you would like to bring it down". Her father, Giovanni, was more pragmatic than his daughter, recognizing that neither governments nor men could be perfect but should strive to be better. On 14 August 1894, in Cavour, Giolitti married Mario Chiaraviglio [wikidata]. Mario was an engineer, who had graduated the previous year from the University of Rome. After their marriage, the couple moved to Berlin, where Mario was employed with Siemens. Giovanni joined them for some months in 1895, during a period when he was facing arrest and his government had collapsed. They then moved to Leipzig, where their eldest son Curio was born on 25 June 1897. Three children followed, Tito (born 1902), Sergio, and Marcella. By 1906, the family had returned to Rome, where Mario was a railway engineer. He worked for the national railway department on the construction of the Genoa and Riviera tramways and was elected as a radical politician in 1909, serving through 1919. ## Activism (1909–1929) ### Educational reform Chiaraviglio-Giolitti was particularly keen on education for disadvantaged children. She was an ardent supporter of the Italian educator Maria Montessori. To assist Montessori in opening the Casa dei Bambini (Children's House) in 1907, she and other socially engaged and well-connected women promoted the advantages of Montessori's methods. They persuaded Queen Margherita to become a patron of the school. A wave of anti-Montessori critics emerged after the 1911 conference held to discuss which method of instruction should apply to kindergartens in Italy. The three methods most-widely utilized at that time were designed by the Agazzi sisters [it], Italian pedagogs; Friedrich Fröbel, German inventor of the kindergarten system; and Montessori. Both the Agazzi sisters and Froebel advocated learning through guided play, meaning that to meet specific learning objectives, adults directed the activities in which children engaged. Montessori argued that children should be allowed to learn through their normal daily activities, which would lead them to learn reading and writing out of curiosity. At issue was whether or not the nation should endorse early education that introduced reading and writing. in a 1912 interview with La Voce delle Maestre d'Asilo (The Voice of Kindergarten Teachers), Chiaraviglio-Giolitti supported Montessori. Luigi Credaro [it], the Minister of Education, announced that spring that Italian kindergartens would follow Froebelian methods. In 1910, Chiaraviglio-Giolitti was appointed as the temporary superintendent of the Scuola professionale femminile «Margherita di Savoia» (Margherita di Savoia Vocational School for Girls), when the director resigned. She founded the Istituto di San Gregorio al Celio (Institute of San Gregorio al Celio) that same year, which provided educational opportunities for mothers and children, as well as a nurse's training curricula. The school opened in 1911 with the help of politician Teobaldo Calissano [it] and others. As women at the time were usually not educated beyond secondary school, the curricula was designed to teach mothers how to care for their children and train school teachers to become in-home health visitors and assist school doctors as health inspectors. In 1912, she was elected vice president of the Associazione pro bambini malarici (Association for Malarial Children). The association was involved in national studies to improve the health of children through laboratory research, upgrading of facilities, and training for caregivers in the drive to limit infections of malaria and provide treatment. Chiaraviglio-Giolitti worked on creating an asylum for orphans, and assisted in the creation of the floating school Caracciolo in Naples, replicating projects on the ships Garaventa in Genoa and Scilla in Venice. The idea of the floating kindergarten was to take in homeless street urchins and provide them with the education and training they needed to become productive citizens. Chiaraviglio-Giolitti met with Pasquali Leonardi Cattolica [it], Minister of the Navy, and first proposed that an asylum ship should be created for this purpose. She also recommended that the school should be under the direction of Giulia Civita. The pyrocorvet Caracciolo was commissioned by the minister in 1912 and the school was inaugurated in April 1913. As a board member of the Unione italiana dell'educazione popolare (Italian Union of Popular Education) and representative of the Ministry of Education, Chiaraviglio-Giolitti was designated to serve as coordinator of patronage for the newly formed Unione Navi-Asilo (Union of Naval Asylum). Her duties included organizing local committees to promote and manage charitable donations for the Unione italiana dell'educazione popolare to benefit the school ships Caracciolo and Scilla and the Vittorio Emanuele II Orphanage in Porto d'Anzio, which served fishermen's orphaned children. Board members Chiaraviglio-Giolitti, Paolo Boselli, David Levi-Morenos [wikidata], and Luigi Luzzatti met regularly with the Ministry of the Navy and the Ministry of Education to coordinate the programs. The Caracciolo school operated under Civita's direction until it was terminated by the fascist regime in 1928. Among other projects, in 1913, Chiaraviglio-Giolitti served on the national commission to reform secondary and normal schools. The Daneo-Credaro Law of 1911 had set forth the need to study and reform teacher training, as there were insufficient and inadequately trained personnel to teach at elementary schools. On the commission chaired by Guido Fusinato were politicians, social activists, teachers, school inspectors, and representatives from the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce. Although it was proposed that a women's secondary school be established for girls who did not want to pursue teaching, the commission could not agree on its need. They proposed co-educational normal courses which trained students both in the practical skills for teaching and in pedagogical theory. Chiaraviglio-Giolitti presented a separate report, which although it supported the teaching program in general, recommended making it less didactic and more oriented towards a broader group of students including women, as well as middle- and working-class pupils. Ultimately none of the suggestions were implemented because of a change in the political regime and the onset of World War I. Faced with food shortages during the war, the women's section of the Società Agricoltori Italiani (Italian Farmer's Society) sent a delegation of women including Chiaraviglio-Giolitti, Margherita Armani, Agnese Celli, Ester Lombardo, Cornelia Polesso, and Emilia Santillana to meet with the Minister of Education in 1919. They pointed out that the approved curricula at that time barred agricultural training and argued that both normal and rural schools should provide such sources to prepare for meeting food requirements. Chiaraviglio-Giolitti expanded the idea to include garden cities, writing to Alfredo Frassati [it] in 1921, of the benefits of raising children in the countryside. She was one of the founders and a board member of the Unione Italiana di Assistenza all'Infanzia (Italian Union of Child Care) in 1923. The organization was designed to act as a network to provide assistance to mothers and children, giving them referrals to available aid from agencies, assisting them with basic child care supplies, providing education on child welfare through visiting nurses or health workers, and establishing connections to government to enact child protection laws and integrate those policies in hospitals, schools, and child care facilities. ### Women's rights Chiaraviglio-Giolitti was a committed women's rights activist, and a member of the Consiglio Nazionale delle Donne Italiane (CNDI, National Council of Italian Women). In 1907, she began working on an initiative to assist women and children who emigrated. She was elected as a vice president of the CNDI's Segretariato femminile per le donne e i fanciulli emigranti (Women's Secretariat for Women and Children Emigrants), along with Maria Lisa Danieli-Camozzi (president), Carolina Amari [it] (vice president), and Beatrice Berio (secretary). She participated in the 1908 first suffrage congress held in Rome, presenting a paper on emigration to Brazil. In 1914, Maria Pasolini-Ponte and Chiaraviglio-Giolitti, respectively president and vice president of the Società per la coltura della donna (Society for the Culture of Women), organized a series of lectures for women at the Roman College. The following year, Italian women formed two branches (Milan and Rome) of the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace, which would become the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF) in 1919. The national executive committee was made up of Chiaraviglio-Giolitti, Anita Dobelli Zampetti, Rosa Genoni, and Elisa Lollini-Agnini, each of whom immediately came under suspicion by authorities for subversive activities. From 1919, Chiaraviglio-Giolitti and Dobelli-Zampetti edited the WILPF column which appeared in the suffragist publication Il Cimento (The Trial). Women's suffrage had been granted to European women, except in France and Italy by the end of World War I and WILPF in Italy became one of the main organizations pressing for the vote. The rise of fascism in 1922 made Italian WILPF members and other anti-fascists targets of the regime. Their meetings and events had to be moved to various venues to avoid attacks from fascist gangs, making it difficult to keep the organization functional. ## Argentina (1929–1959) After the murder of the anti-fascist politician Giacomo Matteotti, in June 1924, Italian civil liberties were curtailed still further. With the declining health of her father, whose power had protected the family from the political upheaval, Chiaraviglio-Giolitti fled with twenty family members to Buenos Aires in 1927. In 1929, her husband and sons formed Chiaraviglio Hermano (Chiaraviglio Brothers), a company which initially imported Italian metal curtains and then began manufacturing them. In the 1930s, they transitioned to manufacturing valves for the sanitary infrastructure of Argentina and in the 1950s, changed the firm again, renaming it Moto Mecánica Argentina (Argentine Motorcycle Mechanics). Chiaraviglio-Giolitti continued her work in social and educational activism in Argentina. She and her children, including Marcella, who had married Gioacchino Dolci [fr], were involved in the organization Asociación Italia Libre de la República Argentina (Free Italy Association of the Argentine Republic) and opposed Benito Mussolini and his regime. ## Death and legacy Chiaraviglio-Giolitti died on 17 April 1959, in Martínez, Buenos Aires. During her lifetime, she was a prolific letter writer and diarist. Going back to at least 1893, her archive offers insight into her father's thinking and into some of the political events during his tenure as Prime Minister of Italy. Many topics were covered, including the Banca Romana scandal (1893), the issues which erupted during the Rudinì Ministry over the unauthorized release of treaty negotiations between Britain and Italy (1896), the planned assassination attempted on Giolitti by the Salandra regime (1915), and the military crisis resulting from the Battle of Caporetto (1917). Her correspondence was also used extensively by Luciana Frassati in creating the three-volume biography of Frassati's father, Alfredo Frassati in the History and Historiography of Modern Italy, who was a friend of Giovanni and correspondent with Chiaraviglio-Giolitti. Some of her correspondence is in the collection of papers of Giulio Cesare Ferrari at the Archivio storico della psicologia italiana (ASPI, Historical Archive of Italian Psychology) at the University of Milan-Bicocca. The Istituto di San Gregorio al Celio (Institute of San Gregorio al Celio), which she had founded was run by Italian physician Angelo Signorell and his partner, the journalist Olga Signorelli [it] in the 1920s and remained in operation through at least 1941.
35,707,112	1973 Preakness Stakes	1,172,135,696	98th running of the Preakness Stakes	[ "1973 in American sports", "1973 in horse racing", "1973 in sports in Maryland", "Horse races in Maryland", "Preakness Stakes races" ]	The 1973 Preakness Stakes was the 98th running of the Preakness Stakes at Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore, Maryland held on May 19, 1973. Six horses entered, and Secretariat won by 2+1⁄2 lengths ahead of Sham in front of a record crowd of 61,657 spectators. The race was viewed on television and broadcast over the radio. In the period leading up to the Preakness, Kentucky Derby winner Secretariat was pegged as the favorite to win the race. Aside from Secretariat, Sham was named as the only other horse that could win the race or even challenge Secretariat. Initially seven horses officially enrolled to race in the event, but the field reduced to six after an owner scratched his horse. The entrants in the Preakness featured three horses that did not compete in the Derby. At the start, Secretariat broke last, but then made a huge, last-to-first move on the first turn. After reaching the lead with 5+1⁄2 furlongs to go, he was never challenged, and won by 2+1⁄2 lengths, Sham finishing second and Our Native third. The victory led to the stallion being featured on several magazine covers. Secretariat would go on to win the Belmont Stakes in the succeeding weeks, becoming the ninth horse to complete the Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing and the first in 25 years. The timing of the race was questioned, as the official clock malfunctioned and the official timer recorded a result slower than that recorded by clockers for the Daily Racing Form, who maintained that Secretariat had set a record. The dispute was not resolved until 2012, when newer technology allowed for a forensic review of the videotapes and an accurate calculation of the actual time, which was formally recorded as 1:53, a record time for the race still standing as of 2022. ## Pre-race activity Between the Kentucky Derby and the Preakness, Mr. Prospector, Cup Bearer, Ecole Etage, Champagne Charlie, and Step Nicely, none of whom had run in the Derby, were all named as possible entrants. Three horses, Secretariat, Sham, and Our Native, all raced in the Kentucky Derby two weeks prior. On May 15, seven owners confirmed their intentions to enter their horses by paying a US\$1,000 deposit. The horses officially registered that day were Our Native, Secretariat, and Sham, along with new runners Deadly Dream, Ecole Etage, The Lark Twist, and Torsion. A day later, Deadly Dream's trainer stated that he was unsure about racing his colt because he felt the horse could not match Secretariat, Sham, or Our Native. In addition, The Lark Twist's owner Larry Boyce scratched his horse from the race because he received word that Our Native registered, dropping the total number of horses competing to six. However, on the 17th, Boyce attempted to re-enter The Lark Twist, but was denied under the Rules of Racing of Maryland which stated that the scratching of a horse was irreversible. An Associated Press article commented that the credentials of Secretariat and Sham could lead to the running being one of the smallest since 1964. Following his record-breaking victory at the Kentucky Derby, Secretariat was the favorite. In the days between the Derby and the Preakness, groom Eddie Sweat noted that it was strange not having any rumors circulating about Secretariat's health. Sham and Secretariat were ridden by the same jockeys as in the Derby, Laffit Pincay, Jr. and Ron Turcotte, respectively. Sham was believed to have the best chance of beating Secretariat. Aside from Sham and Secretariat, Our Native was selected by Joe Nichols, a writer for The New York Times, as an outside contender for victory. In pre-race interviews, Deadly Dream's trainer Bud Delp believed he could challenge for third place as he had no "illusions about beating Secretariat and Sham." Of the remaining contenders, Deadly Dream had won the fourth race of his three-year-old campaign at Penn National, previously winning the Allegheny Stakes and the Militia Handicap. In total, he won seven races out of the 25 he had started. Ecole Etage had won two races in the 1973 season, prior to the Preakness, the General George Stakes and the Preakness Prep. Torsion entered the race with a most recent finish of fifth place in the Preakness Prep and two wins in twelve career starts, one as a two-year-old and one as a three-year-old. ## Event details Post time for the race was 5:40 PM EDT. It was broadcast over television and radio through CBS. The television coverage lasted approximately an hour, while radio coverage ran twenty minutes. The horses entering the race all carried 126 pounds. The total purse for the Preakness was \$182,400, with the first through fourth-place finishers to receive \$129,900, \$30,000, \$15,000, and \$7,500, respectively. The weather during the race was clear and the course conditions were fast. The day at the Preakness was dubbed "Johnny Unitas Day" in honor of the quarterback's seventeen seasons with the Baltimore Colts, following being traded to San Diego by owner Joe Thomas before the start of the 1973 season. Members of the Johnny Unitas fan club gathered in the infield of Pimilico, the Unitas Corral. Race officials expected a record turnout in the days leading up to the Preakness, estimating over 50,000 people. They hoped that the possibility of Secretariat completing the Triple Crown and Sham attempting to foil Secretariat's run would lead to an increase in attendance. The official attendance for the event was reported at 61,657, which surpassed the previous record of 48,721 people set in 1972. The new record lasted until 1975 when 75,216 spectators were present at Pimlico. ## Race summary Out of the starting gate, Ecole Etage took the lead, ahead of Torsion, while race favorite Secretariat exited last. Sham and Deadly Dream made contact exiting the gate. While Sham was able to successfully gain stride, Deadly Dream began to run towards the railing and collided with it when entering the first turn. Going into the course's first turn, Secretariat passed two horses on the outside and passed the remainder as the horses entered the backstretch. Sham was the only horse that was able to stay with Secretariat's acceleration. Secretariat held the lead for the remainder of the race and crossed the finish line in first position, 2+1⁄2 lengths ahead of Sham. Our Native placed third, eight lengths behind Sham. This was the first time in the history of the Kentucky Derby and the Preakness Stakes that the top three horses in the Derby finished in the same positions at the Preakness. ## Result ### Payout schedule - \$3 Exacta: (3-1) \$4.50 ## Timing controversy Upon the finish of the race there was a dispute over the winning time of Secretariat. The electronic Visumatic timer on the field read 1:55, while Daily Racing Form clockers Gene Schwartz and Frank Robinson timed Secretariat at 1:53+2⁄5, which would have broken the track record. The official fractional times were 25, 48+4⁄5, 1:12, and 1:36+1⁄5, while the Daily Racing Forum timed the fractions at 24+2⁄5, 47, 1:10+2⁄5, and 1:35+3⁄5. The next day, Secretariat's trainer Lucien Laurin asked for the videotape to be reviewed because he felt that if Secretariat did run that fast, then "he deserves the record." On May 21, race officials adjusted Secretariat's winning time to 1:54+2⁄5, becoming the then second fastest time in race history. The time was changed to the time obtained by the official Pimilico timekeeper E.T. McLean per Rule 383 of the Maryland Rules of Racing, which stated the "official timer's time is official." McLean's stopwatch was faster than the Visumatic by three-fifths of a second at each fractional." That same day, a Visumatic official checked the timer and stated that the timer should have actually read 1:54+4⁄5, rather than 1:55. It was determined that the chart for the Preakness would display McLean's time as the winning time, with the Daily Racing Forum time written next to it, in parenthesis. Secretariat's owner Penny Chenery and Maryland Jockey Club president Thomas Chuckas asked the Maryland Racing Commission to review the 1973 Preakness. On June 19, 2012, the commission announced their findings. During a three-hour meeting, the tapes of Secretariat's run and the three new record-holding runs were overlaid by three separate companies from which a total of five analysts reviewed the footage. Following all five analysts obtaining the time of 1:53, the commission unanimously voted to change Secretariat's time from 1:542⁄5 to 1:53, which broke the then-course record of 1:532⁄5. Altering Secretariat's time allowed him to actively hold the course record for all three legs of the Triple Crown. The overlaying method used by the committee was reported to be accurate to 0.03 of a second. A representative of Chenery stated that they were "very pleased" with the decision. ## Analysis By winning the Preakness, Secretariat earned his fourth victory in five races as a three-year-old. This was the first victory for Lucien Laurin in his four attempts to win the Preakness. Jockey Ron Turcotte secured his second Preakness victory, having previously won with Tom Rolfe in 1965. It was Meadow Stables' second win at the Stakes as they were previously victorious with Hill Prince in 1950. Following the race, Laurin stated that "Now, we're going to try and win the Belmont." Torsion's jockey Ben Feliciano said, in regards to Secretariat, "He's the best." Betting on the races held that day at Pimlico Stakes totaled to \$3,792,076, which set the Maryland record for amount of money wagered for the day. Off-track betting on the Preakness Stakes reached \$922,989, which was included in the previous record total. Three weeks after the Preakness, the Belmont Stakes featured a five-horse field. Secretariat won by 31 lengths with a time of 2:24 for the mile and a half, both course records in their own right. Through his combined victories at the Belmont Stakes, Preakness Stakes, and Kentucky Derby, Secretariat became the ninth horse to complete the Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing, and the first horse since Citation in 1948, ending a 25-year period without a Triple Crown winner. After his time in the Preakness was reviewed and found to be a record, Secretariat's times in all three Triple Crown races were stakes records and stand to this day.
31,276,383	East Taunton station	1,171,414,590	Future railway station in Taunton, Massachusetts, US	[ "MBTA Commuter Rail stations in Bristol County, Massachusetts", "Railway stations scheduled to open in 2023", "Taunton, Massachusetts", "Under-construction MBTA Commuter Rail stations" ]	East Taunton station is an under-construction MBTA Commuter Rail station in East Taunton, Massachusetts adjacent to the interchange between the Route 24 expressway and County Street (Route 140). It is planned to open in late 2023 as part of the first phase of the South Coast Rail project. A former East Taunton station, located on a different line to the east, was served by the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad and several predecessors until 1927. In 2009, South Coast Rail planning identified Taunton Depot, just north of Middleborough Junction (Cotley Junction), as a preferred station site. A 2017 re-evaluation of the project recommended an interim route through Middleborough, with East Taunton station located just south of the junction. A construction contract was issued in 2020. ## Station design The station will be located in the southeast portion of Taunton along the New Bedford Secondary, slightly northwest of the Route 24 expressway. The station driveway (an extension of the existing Industrial Drive) will be reached from County Street (Route 140) just north of the Route 24/Route 140 interchange. East Taunton will have a single full-length high-level island platform, 800 feet (240 m) long and 26.5 feet (8.1 m) wide. It will serve the two passenger tracks, with a freight bypass track to the west. Two footbridges – one with stairs, the other with ramps – will connect the platform to the 363-space parking lot, which includes a turnout for Greater Attleboro Taunton Regional Transit Authority (GATRA) buses. ## History ### Former service The Taunton Branch Railroad was extended to as the New Bedford and Taunton Railroad in 1840. The Middleborough and Taunton Railroad opened from Middleborough to Cotley Junction (Middleborough Junction) – south of Taunton on the New Bedford and Taunton Railroad – in 1856. No station was located at the junction, which was in a relatively unpopulated area. East Taunton station on the Middleborough and Taunton was located 2 miles (3.2 km) east at Old Colony Avenue in East Taunton village. The Middleborough and Taunton was acquired by the Old Colony Railroad in 1874, followed by the former New Bedford and Taunton (after several ownership and name changes) in 1879. The Old Colony was in turn acquired by the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in 1893. Local passenger service between Middleborough and Taunton was operated as –Plymouth or –Plymouth trains; it was discontinued in 1927 when service on the Darby Branch ended. East Taunton station was closed; the line was used by New York–Cape Cod trains until 1964, and commuter rail service to New Bedford via Taunton lasted until 1958. Freight service continued on the Middleboro Secondary and New Bedford Subdivision; the state purchased the former line from Conrail in December 1982. ### South Coast Rail In September 2008, MassDOT released 18 potential station sites for the South Coast Rail project, including two potential East Taunton sites: one just west of Route 24 if trains were routed through Middleborough, and one to the north off Route 140 if trains were routed through Stoughton or Attleboro. The 2009 selection of the Stoughton route included Taunton Depot at the northern site. It was to have an island platform flanked by two passenger tracks, with a freight passing track on the western side. Potential transit-oriented development included new multi-family housing to the north, and eventual redevelopment of a nearby shopping center. Station plans released as part of the Final Environmental Impact Report in 2013 were nearly identical to those from 2009. On June 11, 2010, the state took ownership of the New Bedford Subdivision and several other CSX lines as part of a sale agreement. In 2017, the project was re-evaluated due to cost issues. The new proposal called for early service via Middleborough by 2022, followed by full service via Stoughton by 2030. The 2017 proposal attracted criticism from local officials across the route, including Taunton officials unhappy that the downtown Taunton station would be delayed until 2030. The January 2018 Draft Supplemental Environmental Impact Report considered several service patterns: serving Taunton Depot and/or Taunton stations with a reverse move on some or all trains, or a new East Taunton station near the previously proposed southern site. The latter option was chosen for lower costs and shorter travel times. Two sites just south of Cotley Junction, and one site at Old Colony Avenue (the former East Taunton station location) were considered. The previously-considered southern site (a former sports complex on Industrial Drive at 1141 County Street) was chosen. The site is adjacent to the interchange between the Route 24 expressway and County Street (Route 140). As with the former Taunton Depot plans, the station will have a single island platform with two passenger tracks and a freight passing track. The sports complex was demolished in 2020 to make room for the station and its parking lot. The MBTA awarded a \$403.5 million contract for the Middleborough Secondary and New Bedford Secondary portions of the project, including East Taunton station, on August 24, 2020. Construction was expected to begin later in 2020 and take 37 months, with a late 2023 opening. The contract was 18% complete by November 2021, with station construction underway, and 53% complete by August 2022. In December 2022, the city council approved a zoning change allowing transit oriented development near the station.
1,495,576	Cambridge Castle	1,144,410,467	Castile in Cambridge, England	[ "Buildings and structures completed in 1068", "Buildings and structures in Cambridge", "Castles in Cambridgeshire", "Former castles in England", "History of Cambridge", "Scheduled monuments in Cambridgeshire", "Tourist attractions in Cambridge" ]	Cambridge Castle, locally also known as Castle Mound, is located in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England. Originally built after the Norman conquest to control the strategically important route to the north of England, it played a role in the conflicts of the Anarchy, the First and Second Barons' Wars. Hugely expanded by Edward I, the castle then fell rapidly into disuse in the late medieval era, its stonework recycled for building purposes in the surrounding colleges. Cambridge Castle was refortified during the English Civil War but once again fell into disuse, used primarily as the county gaol. The castle gaol was finally demolished in 1842, with a new prison built in the castle bailey. This prison was demolished in 1932, replaced with the modern Shire Hall, and only the castle motte and limited earthworks still stand. The site is open to the public daily and offers views over the historic buildings of the city. ## History ### 11th century Cambridge Castle was one of three castles built across the east of England in late 1068 by William the Conqueror in the aftermath of his northern campaign to capture York. Cambridge, or Grantabridge as it was then known, was on the old Roman route from London to York and was both strategically significant and at risk of rebellion. The initial building work was conducted by Picot, the high sheriff, who later founded a priory beside the castle. The castle was built in a motte and bailey design, within the existing town, and 27 houses had to be destroyed to make space for it. ### 12th-13th centuries The castle was held by the Norman kings until the civil war of the Anarchy broke out in 1139. Castles played a key role in the conflict between the Empress Matilda and King Stephen, and in 1143 Geoffrey de Mandeville, a supporter of the Empress, attacked Cambridge; the town was raided and the castle temporarily captured. Stephen responded with a counter-attack, forcing Geoffrey to retreat into the Fens and retaking the castle. Cambridge Castle remained exposed, however, and Stephen decided to build a supporting fortification at Burwell to provide additional protection. Geoffrey died attacking Burwell Castle the following year, leaving Cambridge Castle secure. Under Henry II the castle was adequately maintained, but little additional work was undertaken to improve it. A castle-guard system was established, under which lands around Cambridge were granted to local lords on the condition that they provide guard forces for the castle, and the castle was primarily used to hold the sheriff's court and records. King John expanded the castle in the years before the First Barons' War of 1215 to 1217, but this work was concentrated on constructing a new hall and chamber, at the cost of £200. During the war, the rebel barons, supported by Prince Louis of France, captured much of eastern England; Cambridge Castle fell in 1216. The castle was returned to royal control after the war, but Henry III only conducted basic maintenance of the fortification. Cambridge was attacked again during the Second Barons' War in 1266. This time the town and castle held long enough to be relieved by Henry's forces, but the king reinforced the city defences with a large ditch, later known as King's Ditch. Cambridge Castle remained only a basic fortification until 1284 when Edward I decided to undertake major expansion works. Over the next 14 years the king spent at least £2,630 on rebuilding the castle in stone. Edward's castle was four-sided, with circular towers at each corner, guarded by a gatehouse and a barbican. A circular stone keep was built on the motte. The result was a "major fortress in the latest fashion", albeit never quite completed. Edward stayed at the castle for two nights in 1294. ### 14th-17th centuries During the 14th century the castle was allowed to fall into disrepair. From Edward III onwards, little money was spent on maintaining the property and by the 15th century the castle was in ruins. The castle hall and chamber were roofless by the 15th century, and Henry VI ordered these buildings to be destroyed and the stone reused for constructing King's College in 1441, with other parts of the castle being used to help build Trinity College's chapel. More stonework was given away by Mary I in the 16th century for building a mansion at nearby Sawston in the Fens, and other grants of stone given to Emmanuel and Magdalene colleges. By 1604 only the gatehouse, used as a gaol, and the keep remained intact, with the surrounding walls described by contemporaries as "rased and utterly ruinated". Civil war broke out in England in 1642 between the rival factions of the Royalists and Parliament. Cambridge Castle was occupied by Parliamentary forces in the first year of the war. Oliver Cromwell ordered emergency work to be conducted to repair the defences, resulting in two new earthwork bastions being added to the castle and a brick barracks constructed in the old bailey. The governor of Cambridge described in 1643 that "our town and castle are now very strongly fortified... with breastworks and bulwarks". The castle saw no further fighting during the war, and in 1647 parliament ordered the remaining fortifications to be slighted, damaged beyond further use. ### 18th-19th centuries The castle rapidly deteriorated after the slighting and the remaining walls and bastions were taken down in 1785, leaving only the gatehouse and the earth motte. The gatehouse remained in use as the county gaol into the 19th century, being run, like other similar prisons, as a private business – the keeper of the castle gaol was paid £200 a year by the county in 1807 (equivalent to £ in ). This came to an end when a new county prison was built in the grounds of the castle's former bailey. The new prison was built by G. Byfield between 1807 and 1811 with an innovative octagonal structure, influenced by the designs of the prison reformer John Howard; the castle gatehouse was destroyed to make way for a new county court building. By the end of the 19th century, the gaol was deemed to be surplus to requirements as Huntingdon Gaol was sufficient to hold prisoners from both Huntingdonshire and Cambridgeshire. By 1920 the building had become a branch repository of the Public Record Office and remained so until 1928 when it was acquired by Cambridgeshire County Council. The gaol was demolished in 1932 and the bricks used to build Shire Hall on the same site. ## Preservation The castle is a Scheduled Ancient Monument. Its only remains are the 10 m (33 ft) high motte (which stands on the highest point in the city) and some fragments of earthworks. It is open to the public daily with no admission fee, and offers views over the historic buildings of the city. The site of the castle bailey and the 19th-century prison is now occupied by Shire Hall, which was built in 1932 as the headquarters of Cambridgeshire County Council. ## See also - Castles in Great Britain and Ireland - List of castles in England
9,736	Empire State Building	1,173,454,341	Office skyscraper in Manhattan, New York	[ "1930s architecture in the United States", "1931 establishments in New York City", "34th Street (Manhattan)", "Art Deco architecture in Manhattan", "Art Deco skyscrapers", "Empire State Building", "Fifth Avenue", "Former world's tallest buildings", "Midtown Manhattan", "National Historic Landmarks in Manhattan", "New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan", "New York City interior landmarks", "New York State Register of Historic Places in New York County", "Office buildings completed in 1931", "Office buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan", "Radio masts and towers in the United States", "Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan", "Symbols of New York City", "Tourist attractions in Manhattan", "Towers completed in 1953" ]	The Empire State Building is a 102-story Art Deco skyscraper in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. The building was designed by Shreve, Lamb & Harmon and built from 1930 to 1931. Its name is derived from "Empire State", the nickname of the state of New York. The building has a roof height of 1,250 feet (380 m) and stands a total of 1,454 feet (443.2 m) tall, including its antenna. The Empire State Building was the world's tallest building until the first tower of the World Trade Center was topped out in 1970; following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Empire State Building was New York City's tallest building until it was surpassed in 2012 by One World Trade Center. As of 2022, the building is the seventh-tallest building in New York City, the ninth-tallest completed skyscraper in the United States, the 54th-tallest in the world, and the sixth-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas. The site of the Empire State Building, in Midtown South on the west side of Fifth Avenue between West 33rd and 34th Streets, was developed in 1893 as the Waldorf–Astoria Hotel. In 1929, Empire State Inc. acquired the site and devised plans for a skyscraper there. The design for the Empire State Building was changed fifteen times until it was ensured to be the world's tallest building. Construction started on March 17, 1930, and the building opened thirteen and a half months afterward on May 1, 1931. Despite favorable publicity related to the building's construction, because of the Great Depression and World War II, its owners did not make a profit until the early 1950s. The building's Art Deco architecture, height, and observation decks have made it a popular attraction. Around four million tourists from around the world annually visit the building's 86th- and 102nd-floor observatories; an additional indoor observatory on the 80th floor opened in 2019. The Empire State Building is an international cultural icon: it has been featured in more than 250 television series and films since the film King Kong was released in 1933. The building's size has become the global standard of reference to describe the height and length of other structures. A symbol of New York City, the building has been named as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers. It was ranked first on the American Institute of Architects' List of America's Favorite Architecture in 2007. Additionally, the Empire State Building and its ground-floor interior were designated city landmarks by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1980, and were added to the National Register of Historic Places as a National Historic Landmark in 1986. ## Site The Empire State Building is located on the west side of Fifth Avenue in Midtown Manhattan, between 33rd Street to the south and 34th Street to the north. Tenants enter the building through the Art Deco lobby located at 350 Fifth Avenue. Visitors to the observatories use an entrance at 20 West 34th Street; prior to August 2018, visitors entered through the Fifth Avenue lobby. Although physically located in South Midtown, a mixed residential and commercial area, the building is so large that it was assigned its own ZIP Code, 10118; as of 2012, it is one of 43 buildings in New York City that have their own ZIP codes. The areas surrounding the Empire State Building are home to other major points of interest, including Macy's at Herald Square on Sixth Avenue and 34th Street, and Koreatown on 32nd Street between Madison and Sixth Avenues. To the east of the Empire State Building is Murray Hill, a neighborhood with a mix of residential, commercial, and entertainment activity. The block directly to the northeast contains the B. Altman and Company Building, which houses the City University of New York's Graduate Center, while the Demarest Building is directly across Fifth Avenue to the east. The nearest New York City Subway stations are 34th Street–Herald Square, one block west, and 33rd Street at Park Avenue, two blocks east; there is also a PATH station at 33rd Street and Sixth Avenue. ## Architecture The Empire State Building was designed by Shreve, Lamb and Harmon in the Art Deco style. The Empire State Building is 1,250 ft (381 m) tall to its 102nd floor, or 1,453 feet 8+9⁄16 inches (443.092 m) including its 203-foot (61.9 m) pinnacle. It was the first building in the world to be more than 100 stories tall, though only the lowest 86 stories are usable. The first through 85th floors contain 2.158 million square feet (200,500 m<sup>2</sup>) of commercial and office space, while the 86th story contains an observatory. The remaining 16 stories are part of the spire, which is capped by an observatory on the 102nd floor; the spire does not contain any intermediate levels and is used mostly for mechanical purposes. Atop the 102nd story is the 203 ft (61.9 m) pinnacle, much of which is covered by broadcast antennas, and surmounted with a lightning rod. ### Form The Empire State Building has a symmetrical massing because of its large lot and relatively short base. Its articulation consists of three horizontal sections similar to the components of a column, namely a base, shaft, and capital. The five-story base occupies the entire lot, while the 81-story shaft above it is set back sharply from the base. The setback above the 5th story is 60 feet (18 m) deep on all sides. There are smaller setbacks on the upper stories, allowing sunlight to illuminate the interiors of the top floors while also positioning these floors away from the noisy streets below. The setbacks are located at the 21st, 25th, 30th, 72nd, 81st, and 85th stories. The setbacks correspond to the tops of elevator shafts, allowing interior spaces to be at most 28 feet (8.5 m) deep (see ). The setbacks were mandated by the 1916 Zoning Resolution, which was intended to allow sunlight to reach the streets as well. Normally, a building of the Empire State's dimensions would be permitted to build up to 12 stories on the Fifth Avenue side, and up to 17 stories on the 33rd/34th Streets side, before it would have to utilize setbacks. However, with the largest setback being located above the base, the tower stories could contain a uniform shape. According to architectural writer Robert A. M. Stern, the building's form contrasted with the nearly contemporary, similarly designed 500 Fifth Avenue eight blocks north, which had an asymmetrical massing on a smaller lot. ### Facade The Empire State Building's Art Deco design is typical of pre–World War II architecture in New York City. The facade is clad in Indiana limestone panels sourced from the Empire Mill in Sanders, Indiana, which give the building its signature blonde color. According to official fact sheets, the facade uses 200,000 cubic feet (5,700 m<sup>3</sup>) of limestone and granite, ten million bricks, and 730 short tons (650 long tons) of aluminum and stainless steel. The building also contains 6,514 windows. The decorative features on the facade are largely geometric, in contrast with earlier buildings, whose decorations often were intended to represent a specific narrative. The main entrance, composed of three sets of metal doors, is at the center of the facade's Fifth Avenue elevation, flanked by molded piers that are topped with eagles. Above the main entrance is a transom, a triple-height transom window with geometric patterns, and the golden letters "Empire State" above the fifth-floor windows. There are two entrances each on 33rd and 34th Streets, with modernistic, stainless steel canopies projecting from the entrances on 33rd and 34th Streets there. Above the secondary entrances are triple windows, less elaborate in design than those on Fifth Avenue. The storefronts on the first floor contain aluminum-framed doors and windows within a black granite cladding. The second through fourth stories consist of windows alternating with wide stone piers and narrower stone mullions. The fifth story contains windows alternating with wide and narrow mullions, and is topped by a horizontal stone sill. The facade of the tower stories is split into several vertical bays on each side, with windows projecting slightly from the limestone cladding. The bays are arranged into sets of one, two, or three windows on each floor. The bays are separated by alternating narrow and wide piers, the inclusion of which may have been influenced by the design of the contemporary Daily News Building. The windows in each bay are separated by vertical nickel-chrome steel mullions and connected by horizontal aluminum spandrels between each floor. The windows are placed within stainless-steel frames, which saved money by eliminating the need to apply a stone finish around the windows. In addition, the use of aluminum spandrels obviated the need for cross-bonding, which would have been required if stone had been used instead. ### Lights The building was originally equipped with white searchlights at the top. They were first used in November 1932 when they lit up to signal Roosevelt's victory over Hoover in the presidential election of that year. These were later swapped for four "Freedom Lights" in 1956. In February 1964, flood lights were added on the 72nd floor to illuminate the top of the building at night so that the building could be seen from the World Fair later that year. The lights were shut off from November 1973 to July 1974 because of the energy crisis at the time. In 1976, the businessman Douglas Leigh suggested that Wien and Helmsley install 204 metal-halide lights, which were four times as bright as the 1,000 incandescent lights they were to replace. New red, white, and blue metal-halide lights were installed in time for the country's bicentennial that July. After the bicentennial, Helmsley retained the new lights due to the reduced maintenance cost, about \$116 a year. Since October 12, 1977, the spire has been lit in colors chosen to match seasonal events and holidays. Organizations are allowed to make requests through the building's website. The building is also lit in the colors of New York-based sports teams on nights when they host games: for example, orange, blue, and white for the New York Knicks; red, white, and blue for the New York Rangers. The spire can also be lit to commemorate events including disasters, anniversaries, or deaths, as well as for celebrations such as Pride and Halloween. In 1998, the building was lit in blue after the death of singer Frank Sinatra, who was nicknamed "Ol' Blue Eyes". The structure was lit in red, white, and blue for several months after the collapse of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. On January 13, 2012, the building was lit in red, orange, and yellow to honor the 60th anniversary of NBC program The Today Show. After retired basketball player Kobe Bryant's January 2020 death, the building was lit in purple and gold, signifying the colors of his former team, the Los Angeles Lakers. In 2012, the building's four hundred metal halide lamps and floodlights were replaced with 1,200 LED fixtures, increasing the available colors from nine to over 16 million. The computer-controlled system allows the building to be illuminated in ways that were unable to be done previously with plastic gels. For instance, CNN used the top of the Empire State Building as a scoreboard during the 2012 United States presidential election, using red and blue lights to represent Republican and Democratic electoral votes respectively. Also, on November 26, 2012, the building had its first synchronized light show, using music from recording artist Alicia Keys. Artists such as Eminem and OneRepublic have been featured in later shows, including the building's annual Holiday Music-to-Lights Show. The building's owners adhere to strict standards in using the lights; for instance, they do not use the lights to play advertisements. ### Interior According to official fact sheets, the Empire State Building weighs 365,000 short tons (331,122 t) and has an internal volume of 37 million cubic feet (1,000,000 m<sup>3</sup>). The interior required 1,172 miles (1,886 km) of elevator cable and 2 million feet (609,600 m) of electrical wires. It has a total floor area of 2,768,591 sq ft (257,211 m<sup>2</sup>), and each of the floors in the base cover 2 acres (1 ha). This gives the building capacity for 20,000 tenants and 15,000 visitors. The riveted steel frame of the building was originally designed to handle all of the building's gravitational stresses and wind loads. The amount of material used in the building's construction resulted in a very stiff structure when compared to other skyscrapers, with a structural stiffness of 42 pounds per square foot (2.0 kPa) versus the Willis Tower's 33 pounds per square foot (1.6 kPa) and the John Hancock Center's 26 pounds per square foot (1.2 kPa). A December 1930 feature in Popular Mechanics estimated that a building with the Empire State's dimensions would still stand even if hit with an impact of 50 short tons (45 long tons). Utilities are grouped in a central shaft. On the 6th through 86th stories, the central shaft is surrounded by a main corridor on all four sides. Per the final specifications of the building, the corridor is surrounded in turn by office space 28 feet (8.5 m) deep, maximizing office space at a time before air conditioning became commonplace. Each of the floors has 210 structural columns that pass through it, which provide structural stability but limits the amount of open space on these floors. The relative dearth of stone in the Empire State Building allows for more space overall, with a 1:200 stone-to-building ratio compared to a 1:50 ratio in similar buildings. #### Lobby The original main lobby is accessed from Fifth Avenue, on the building's east side, and is the only place in the building where the design contains narrative motifs. It contains an entrance with one set of double doors between a pair of revolving doors. At the top of each doorway is a bronze motif depicting one of three "crafts or industries" used in the building's construction—Electricity, Masonry, and Heating. The three-story-high space runs parallel to 33rd and 34th Streets. The lobby contains two tiers of marble: a wainscoting of darker marble, topped by lighter marble. There is a pattern of zigzagging terrazzo tiles on the lobby floor, which leads from east to west. To the north and south are storefronts, which are flanked by tubes of dark rounded marble and topped by a vertical band of grooves set into the marble. Until the 1960s, there was a Longchamps restaurant next to the lobby, with six oval murals designed by Winold Reiss; these murals were placed in storage when the Longchamps closed. The western ends of the north and south walls include escalators to a mezzanine level. At the west end of the lobby, behind the security desk, is an aluminum relief of the skyscraper as it was originally built (without the antenna). The relief, which was intended to provide a welcoming effect, contains an embossed outline of the building, with rays radiating from the spire and the sun behind it. In the background is a state map of New York with the building's location marked by a "medallion" in the very southeast portion of the outline. A compass is depicted in the bottom right and a plaque to the building's major developers is on the bottom left. A scale model of the building was also placed south of the security desk. The plaque at the western end of the lobby is on the eastern interior wall of a one-story tall rectangular-shaped corridor that surrounds the banks of escalators, with a similar design to the lobby. The rectangular-shaped corridor actually consists of two long hallways on the northern and southern sides of the rectangle, as well as a shorter hallway on the eastern side and another long hallway on the western side. At both ends of the northern and southern corridors, there is a bank of four low-rise elevators in between the corridors. The western side of the rectangular elevator-bank corridor extends north to the 34th Street entrance and south to the 33rd Street entrance. It borders three large storefronts and leads to escalators (originally stairs), which go both to the second floor and to the basement. Going from west to east, there are secondary entrances to 34th and 33rd Streets from the northern and southern corridors, respectively. The side entrances from 33rd and 34th Street lead to two-story-high corridors around the elevator core, crossed by stainless steel and glass-enclosed bridges at the mezzanine floor. Until the 1960s, an Art Deco mural, inspired by both the sky and the Machine Age, was installed in the lobby ceilings. Subsequent damage to these murals, designed by artist Leif Neandross, resulted in reproductions being installed. Renovations to the lobby in 2009, such as replacing the clock over the information desk in the Fifth Avenue lobby with an anemometer and installing two chandeliers intended to be part of the building when it originally opened, revived much of its original grandeur. The north corridor contained eight illuminated panels created in 1963 by Roy Sparkia and Renée Nemorov, in time for the 1964 World's Fair, depicting the building as the Eighth Wonder of the World alongside the traditional seven. The building's owners installed a series of paintings by the New York artist Kysa Johnson in the concourse level. Johnson later filed a federal lawsuit, in January 2014, under the Visual Artists Rights Act alleging the negligent destruction of the paintings and damage to her reputation as an artist. As part of the building's 2010 renovation, Denise Amses commissioned a work consisting of 15,000 stars and 5,000 circles, superimposed on a 13-by-5-foot (4.0 by 1.5 m) etched-glass installation, in the lobby. #### Elevators The Empire State Building has 73 elevators in all, including service elevators. Its original 64 elevators, built by the Otis Elevator Company, in a central core and are of varying heights, with the longest of these elevators reaching from the lobby to the 80th floor. As originally built, there were four "express" elevators that connected the lobby, 80th floor, and several landings in between; the other 60 "local" elevators connected the landings with the floors above these intermediate landings. Of the 64 total elevators, 58 were for passenger use (comprising the four express elevators and 54 local elevators), and eight were for freight deliveries. The elevators were designed to move at 1,200 feet per minute (366 m/min). At the time of the skyscraper's construction, their practical speed was limited to 700 feet per minute (213 m/min) per city law, but this limit was removed shortly after the building opened. Additional elevators connect the 80th floor to the six floors above it, as the six extra floors were built after the original 80 stories were approved. The elevators were mechanically operated until 2011, when they were replaced with automatic elevators during the \$550 million renovation of the building. An additional elevator connects the 86th and 102nd floor observatories, which allows visitors access the 102nd floor observatory after having their tickets scanned. It also allows employees to access the mechanical floors located between the 87th and 101st floors. #### Observation decks The 80th, 86th, and 102nd floors contain observatories. The latter two observatories saw a combined average of four million visitors per year in 2010. Since opening, the observatories have been more popular than similar observatories at 30 Rockefeller Plaza, the Chrysler Building, the first One World Trade Center, or the Woolworth Building, despite being more expensive. There are variable charges to enter the observatories; one ticket allows visitors to go as high as the 86th floor, and there is an additional charge to visit the 102nd floor. Other ticket options for visitors include scheduled access to view the sunrise from the observatory, a "premium" guided tour with VIP access, and the "AM/PM" package which allows for two visits in the same day. The 86th floor observatory contains both an enclosed viewing gallery and an open-air outdoor viewing area, allowing for it to remain open 365 days a year regardless of the weather. The 102nd floor observatory is completely enclosed and much smaller in size. The 102nd floor observatory was closed to the public from the late 1990s to 2005 due to limited viewing capacity and long lines. The observation decks were redesigned in mid-1979. The 102nd floor was again redesigned in a project that was completed in 2019, allowing the windows to be extended from floor to ceiling and widening the space in the observatory overall. An observatory on the 80th floor, opened in 2019, includes various exhibits as well as a mural of the skyline drawn by British artist Stephen Wiltshire. According to a 2010 report by Concierge.com, the five lines to enter the observation decks are "as legendary as the building itself". Concierge.com stated that there were five lines: the sidewalk line, the lobby elevator line, the ticket purchase line, the second elevator line, and the line to get off the elevator and onto the observation deck. However, in 2016, New York City's official tourism website, NYCgo.com, made note of only three lines: the security check line, the ticket purchase line, and the second elevator line. Following renovations completed in 2019, designed to streamline queuing and reduce wait times, guests enter from a single entrance on 34th Street, where they make their way through 10,000-square-foot (930 m<sup>2</sup>) exhibits on their way up to the observatories. Guests were offered a variety of ticket packages, including a package that enables them to skip the lines throughout the duration of their stay. The Empire State Building garners significant revenue from ticket sales for its observation decks, making more money from ticket sales than it does from renting office space during some years. #### New York Skyride In early 1994, a motion simulator attraction was built on the 2nd floor, as a complement to the observation deck. The original cinematic presentation lasted approximately 25 minutes, while the simulation was about eight minutes. The ride had two incarnations. The original version, which ran from 1994 until around 2002, featured James Doohan, Star Trek's Scotty, as the airplane's pilot who humorously tried to keep the flight under control during a storm. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the ride was closed. An updated version debuted in mid-2002, featuring actor Kevin Bacon as the pilot, with the new flight also going haywire. This new version served a more informative goal, as opposed to the old version's main purpose of entertainment, and contained details about the 9/11 attacks. The simulator received mixed reviews, with assessments of the ride ranging from "great" to "satisfactory" to "corny". ### Spire #### Above the 102nd floor The final stage of the building was the installation of a hollow mast, a 158-foot (48 m) steel shaft fitted with elevators and utilities, above the 86th floor. At the top would be a conical roof and the 102nd-floor docking station. Inside, the elevators would ascend 167 feet (51 m) from the 86th floor ticket offices to a 33-foot-wide (10 m) 101st-floor waiting room. From there, stairs would lead to the 102nd floor, where passengers would enter the airships. The airships would have been moored to the spire at the equivalent of the building's 106th floor. As constructed, the mast contains four rectangular tiers topped by a cylindrical shaft with a conical pinnacle. On the 102nd floor (formerly the 101st floor), there is a door with stairs ascending to the 103rd floor (formerly the 102nd). This was built as a disembarkation floor for airships tethered to the building's spire, and has a circular balcony outside. It is now an access point to reach the spire for maintenance. The room now contains electrical equipment, but celebrities and dignitaries may also be given permission to take pictures there. Above the 103rd floor, there is a set of stairs and a ladder to reach the spire for maintenance work. The mast's 480 windows were all replaced in 2015. The mast serves as the base of the building's broadcasting antenna. #### Broadcast stations Broadcasting began at the Empire State Building on December 22, 1931, when NBC and RCA began transmitting experimental television broadcasts from a small antenna erected atop the mast, with two separate transmitters for the visual and audio data. They leased the 85th floor and built a laboratory there. In 1934, RCA was joined by Edwin Howard Armstrong in a cooperative venture to test his FM system from the building's antenna. This setup, which entailed the installation of the world's first FM transmitter, continued only until October of the next year due to disputes between RCA and Armstrong. Specifically, NBC wanted to install more TV equipment in the room where Armstrong's transmitter was located. After some time, the 85th floor became home to RCA's New York television operations initially as experimental station W2XBS channel 1 then, from 1941, as commercial station WNBT channel 1 (now WNBC channel 4). NBC's FM station, W2XDG, began transmitting from the antenna in 1940. NBC retained exclusive use of the top of the building until 1950 when the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) ordered the exclusive deal be terminated. The FCC directive was based on consumer complaints that a common location was necessary for the seven extant New York-area television stations to transmit from so that receiving antennas would not have to be constantly adjusted. Other television broadcasters would later join RCA at the building on the 81st through 83rd floors, often along with sister FM stations. Construction of a dedicated broadcast tower began on July 27, 1950, with TV, and FM, transmissions starting in 1951. The 200-foot (61 m) broadcast tower was completed in 1953. From 1951, six broadcasters agreed to pay a combined \$600,000 per year for the use of the antenna. In 1965, a separate set of FM antennae was constructed ringing the 103rd floor observation area to act as a master antenna. The placement of the stations in the Empire State Building became a major issue with the construction of the World Trade Center's Twin Towers in the late 1960s, and early 1970s. The greater height of the Twin Towers would reflect radio waves broadcast from the Empire State Building, eventually resulting in some broadcasters relocating to the newer towers instead of suing the developer, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Even though the nine stations who were broadcasting from the Empire State Building were leasing their broadcast space until 1984, most of these stations moved to the World Trade Center as soon as it was completed in 1971. The broadcasters obtained a court order stipulating that the Port Authority had to build a mast and transmission equipment in the North Tower, as well as pay the broadcasters' leases in the Empire State Building until 1984. Only a few broadcasters renewed their leases in the Empire State Building. The September 11 attacks destroyed the World Trade Center and the broadcast centers atop it, leaving most of the city's stations without a transmitter for ten days until the Armstrong Tower in Alpine, New Jersey was re-activated temporarily. By October 2001, nearly all of the city's commercial broadcast stations (both television and FM radio) were again transmitting from the top of the Empire State Building. In a report that Congress commissioned about the transition from analog television to digital television, it was stated that the placement of broadcast stations in the Empire State Building was considered "problematic" due to interference from nearby buildings. In comparison, the congressional report stated that the former Twin Towers had very few buildings of comparable height nearby thus signals suffered little interference. In 2003, a few FM stations were relocated to the nearby Condé Nast Building to reduce the number of broadcast stations using the Empire State Building. Eleven television stations and twenty-two FM stations had signed 15-year leases in the building by May 2003. It was expected that a taller broadcast tower in Bayonne, New Jersey, or Governors Island, would be built in the meantime with the Empire State Building being used as a "backup" since signal transmissions from the building were generally of poorer quality. Following the construction of One World Trade Center in the late 2000s and early 2010s, some TV stations began moving their transmitting facilities there. As of 2021, the Empire State Building is home to the following stations: - Television: WABC-7, WPIX-11, WXTV-41 Paterson, and WFUT-68 Newark - FM: WINS-92.3, WPAT-93.1 Paterson, WNYC-93.9, WPLJ-95.5, WXNY-96.3, WQHT-97.1, WSKQ-97.9, WEPN-98.7, WHTZ-100.3 Newark, WCBS-101.1, WFAN-101.9, WNEW-FM-102.7, WKTU-103.5 Lake Success, WAXQ-104.3, WWPR-105.1, WQXR-105.9 Newark, WLTW-106.7, and WBLS-107.5 - NOAA Weather Radio station KWO35 broadcasts at a frequency of 162.550 MHz from the National Weather Service in Upton, New York. ## History The site was previously owned by John Jacob Astor of the prominent Astor family, who had owned the site since the mid-1820s. In 1893, John Jacob Astor Sr.'s grandson William Waldorf Astor opened the Waldorf Hotel on the site. Four years later, his cousin, John Jacob Astor IV, opened the 16-story Astoria Hotel on an adjacent site. The two portions of the Waldorf–Astoria hotel had 1,300 bedrooms, making it the largest hotel in the world at the time. After the death of its founding proprietor, George Boldt, in early 1918, the hotel lease was purchased by Thomas Coleman du Pont. By the 1920s, the old Waldorf–Astoria was becoming dated and the elegant social life of New York had moved much farther north. Additionally, many stores had opened on Fifth Avenue north of 34th Street. The Astor family decided to build a replacement hotel on Park Avenue and sold the hotel to Bethlehem Engineering Corporation in 1928 for \$14–16 million. The hotel closed shortly thereafter on May 3, 1929. ### Planning #### Early plans Bethlehem Engineering Corporation originally intended to build a 25-story office building on the Waldorf–Astoria site. The company's president, Floyd De L. Brown, paid \$100,000 of the \$1 million down payment required to start construction on the building, with the promise that the difference would be paid later. Brown borrowed \$900,000 from a bank but defaulted on the loan. After Brown was unable to secure additional funding, the land was resold to Empire State Inc., a group of wealthy investors that included Louis G. Kaufman, Ellis P. Earle, John J. Raskob, Coleman du Pont, and Pierre S. du Pont. The name came from the state nickname for New York. Alfred E. Smith, a former Governor of New York and U.S. presidential candidate whose 1928 campaign had been managed by Raskob, was appointed head of the company. The group also purchased nearby land so they would have the 2 acres (1 ha) needed for the base, with the combined plot measuring 425 feet (130 m) wide by 200 feet (61 m) long. The Empire State Inc. consortium was announced to the public in August 1929. Concurrently, Smith announced the construction of an 80-story building on the site, to be taller than any other buildings in existence. Empire State Inc. contracted William F. Lamb, of architectural firm Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, to create the building design. Lamb produced the building drawings in just two weeks using the firm's earlier designs for the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem, North Carolina as the basis. He had also been inspired by Raymond Hood's design for the Daily News Building, which was being constructed at the same time. Concurrently, Lamb's partner Richmond Shreve created "bug diagrams" of the project requirements. The 1916 Zoning Act forced Lamb to design a structure that incorporated setbacks resulting in the lower floors being larger than the upper floors. Consequently, the building was designed from the top down, giving it a pencil-like shape. The plans were devised within a budget of \$50 million and a stipulation that the building be ready for occupancy within 18 months of the start of construction. #### Design changes The original plan of the building was 50 stories, but was later increased to 60 and then 80 stories. Height restrictions were placed on nearby buildings to ensure that the top fifty floors of the planned 80-story, 1,000-foot-tall (300 m) building would have unobstructed views of the city. The New York Times lauded the site's proximity to mass transit, with the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit's 34th Street station and the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad's 33rd Street terminal one block away, as well as Penn Station two blocks away and Grand Central Terminal nine blocks away at its closest. It also praised the 3,000,000 square feet (280,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of proposed floor space near "one of the busiest sections in the world". The Empire State Building was to be a typical office building, but Raskob intended to build it "better and in a bigger way", according to architectural writer Donald J. Reynolds. While plans for the Empire State Building were being finalized, an intense competition in New York for the title of "world's tallest building" was underway. 40 Wall Street (then the Bank of Manhattan Building) and the Chrysler Building in Manhattan both vied for this distinction and were already under construction when work began on the Empire State Building. The "Race into the Sky", as popular media called it at the time, was representative of the country's optimism in the 1920s, fueled by the building boom in major cities. The race was defined by at least five other proposals, although only the Empire State Building would survive the Wall Street Crash of 1929. The 40 Wall Street tower was revised, in April 1929, from 840 feet (260 m) to 925 feet (282 m) making it the world's tallest. The Chrysler Building added its 185-foot (56 m) steel tip to its roof in October 1929, thus bringing it to a height of 1,046 feet (319 m) and greatly exceeding the height of 40 Wall Street. The Chrysler Building's developer, Walter Chrysler, realized that his tower's height would exceed the Empire State Building's as well, having instructed his architect, William Van Alen, to change the Chrysler's original roof from a stubby Romanesque dome to a narrow steel spire. Raskob, wishing to have the Empire State Building be the world's tallest, reviewed the plans and had five floors added as well as a spire; however, the new floors would need to be set back because of projected wind pressure on the extension. On November 18, 1929, Smith acquired a lot at 27–31 West 33rd Street, adding 75 feet (23 m) to the width of the proposed office building's site. Two days later, Smith announced the updated plans for the skyscraper. The plans included an observation deck on the 86th-floor roof at a height of 1,050 feet (320 m), higher than the Chrysler's 71st-floor observation deck. The 1,050-foot Empire State Building would only be 4 feet (1.2 m) taller than the Chrysler Building, and Raskob was afraid that Chrysler might try to "pull a trick like hiding a rod in the spire and then sticking it up at the last minute." The plans were revised one last time in December 1929, to include a 16-story, 200-foot (61 m) metal "crown" and an additional 222-foot (68 m) mooring mast intended for dirigibles. The roof height was now 1,250 feet (380 m), making it the tallest building in the world by far, even without the antenna. The addition of the dirigible station meant that another floor, the now-enclosed 86th floor, would have to be built below the crown; however, unlike the Chrysler's spire, the Empire State's mast would serve a practical purpose. A revised plan was announced to the public in late December 1929, just before the start of construction. The final plan was sketched within two hours, the night before the plan was supposed to be presented to the site's owners in January 1930. The New York Times reported that the spire was facing some "technical problems", but they were "no greater than might be expected under such a novel plan." By this time the blueprints for the building had gone through up to fifteen versions before they were approved. Lamb described the other specifications he was given for the final, approved plan: > The program was short enough—a fixed budget, no space more than 28 feet from window to corridor, as many stories of such space as possible, an exterior of limestone, and completion date of [May 1], 1931, which meant a year and six months from the beginning of sketches. ### Construction The contractors were Starrett Brothers and Eken, which were composed of Paul and William A. Starrett and Andrew J. Eken. The project was financed primarily by Raskob and Pierre du Pont, while James Farley's General Builders Supply Corporation supplied the building materials. John W. Bowser was the construction superintendent of the project, and the structural engineer of the building was Homer G. Balcom. The tight completion schedule necessitated the commencement of construction even though the design had yet to be finalized. #### Hotel demolition Demolition of the old Waldorf–Astoria began on October 1, 1929. Stripping the building down was an arduous process, as the hotel had been constructed using more rigid material than earlier buildings had been. Furthermore, the old hotel's granite, wood chips, and "'precious' metals such as lead, brass, and zinc" were not in high demand, resulting in issues with disposal. Most of the wood was deposited into a woodpile on nearby 30th Street or was burned in a swamp elsewhere. Much of the other materials that made up the old hotel, including the granite and bronze, were dumped into the Atlantic Ocean near Sandy Hook, New Jersey. By the time the hotel's demolition started, Raskob had secured the required funding for the construction of the building. The plan was to start construction later that year but, on October 24, the New York Stock Exchange experienced the major and sudden Wall Street Crash, marking the beginning of the decade-long Great Depression. Despite the economic downturn, Raskob refused to cancel the project because of the progress that had been made up to that point. Neither Raskob, who had ceased speculation in the stock market the previous year, nor Smith, who had no stock investments, suffered financially in the crash. However, most of the investors were affected and as a result, in December 1929, Empire State Inc. obtained a \$27.5 million loan from Metropolitan Life Insurance Company so construction could begin. The stock market crash resulted in no demand for new office space; Raskob and Smith nonetheless started construction, as canceling the project would have resulted in greater losses for the investors. #### Steel structure A structural steel contract was awarded on January 12, 1930, with excavation of the site beginning ten days later on January 22, before the old hotel had been completely demolished. Two twelve-hour shifts, consisting of 300 men each, worked continuously to dig the 55-foot (17 m) deep foundation. Small pier holes were sunk into the ground to house the concrete footings that would support the steelwork. Excavation was nearly complete by early March, and construction on the building itself started on March 17, with the builders placing the first steel columns on the completed footings before the rest of the footings had been finished. Around this time, Lamb held a press conference on the building plans. He described the reflective steel panels parallel to the windows, the large-block Indiana Limestone facade that was slightly more expensive than smaller bricks, and the building's vertical lines. Four colossal columns, intended for installation in the center of the building site, were delivered; they would support a combined 10,000,000 pounds (4,500,000 kg) when the building was finished. The structural steel was pre-ordered and pre-fabricated in anticipation of a revision to the city's building code that would have allowed the Empire State Building's structural steel to carry 18,000 pounds per square inch (120,000 kPa), up from 16,000 pounds per square inch (110,000 kPa), thus reducing the amount of steel needed for the building. Although the 18,000-psi regulation had been safely enacted in other cities, Mayor Jimmy Walker did not sign the new codes into law until March 26, 1930, just before construction was due to commence. The first steel framework was installed on April 1, 1930. From there, construction proceeded at a rapid pace; during one stretch of 10 working days, the builders erected fourteen floors. This was made possible through precise coordination of the building's planning, as well as the mass production of common materials such as windows and spandrels. On one occasion, when a supplier could not provide timely delivery of dark Hauteville marble, Starrett switched to using Rose Famosa marble from a German quarry that was purchased specifically to provide the project with sufficient marble. The scale of the project was massive, with trucks carrying "16,000 partition tiles, 5,000 bags of cement, 450 cubic yards [340 m<sup>3</sup>] of sand and 300 bags of lime" arriving at the construction site every day. There were also cafes and concession stands on five of the incomplete floors so workers did not have to descend to the ground level to eat lunch. Temporary water taps were also built so workers did not waste time buying water bottles from the ground level. Additionally, carts running on a small railway system transported materials from the basement storage to elevators that brought the carts to the desired floors where they would then be distributed throughout that level using another set of tracks. The 57,480 short tons (51,320 long tons) of steel ordered for the project was the largest-ever single order of steel at the time, comprising more steel than was ordered for the Chrysler Building and 40 Wall Street combined. According to historian John Tauranac, building materials were sourced from numerous, and distant, sources with "limestone from Indiana, steel girders from Pittsburgh, cement and mortar from upper New York State, marble from Italy, France, and England, wood from northern and Pacific Coast forests, [and] hardware from New England." The facade, too, used a variety of material, most prominently Indiana limestone but also Swedish black granite, terracotta, and brick. By June 20, the skyscraper's supporting steel structure had risen to the 26th floor, and by July 27, half of the steel structure had been completed. Starrett Bros. and Eken endeavored to build one floor a day in order to speed up construction, achieving a pace of 4+1⁄2 stories per week; prior to this, the fastest pace of construction for a building of similar height had been 3+1⁄2 stories per week. While construction progressed, the final designs for the floors were being designed from the ground up (as opposed to the general design, which had been from the roof down). Some of the levels were still undergoing final approval, with several orders placed within an hour of a plan being finalized. On September 10, as steelwork was nearing completion, Smith laid the building's cornerstone during a ceremony attended by thousands. The stone contained a box with contemporary artifacts including the previous day's New York Times, a U.S. currency set containing all denominations of notes and coins minted in 1930, a history of the site and building, and photographs of the people involved in construction. The steel structure was topped out at 1,048 feet (319 m) on September 19, twelve days ahead of schedule and 23 weeks after the start of construction. Workers raised a flag atop the 86th floor to signify this milestone. #### Completion and scale Work on the building's interior and crowning mast commenced after the topping out. The mooring mast topped out on November 21, two months after the steelwork had been completed. Meanwhile, work on the walls and interior was progressing at a quick pace, with exterior walls built up to the 75th floor by the time steelwork had been built to the 95th floor. The majority of the facade was already finished by the middle of November. Because of the building's height, it was deemed infeasible to have many elevators or large elevator cabins, so the builders contracted with the Otis Elevator Company to make 66 cars that could speed at 1,200 feet per minute (366 m/min), which represented the largest-ever elevator order at the time. In addition to the time constraint builders had, there were also space limitations because construction materials had to be delivered quickly, and trucks needed to drop off these materials without congesting traffic. This was solved by creating a temporary driveway for the trucks between 33rd and 34th Streets, and then storing the materials in the building's first floor and basements. Concrete mixers, brick hoppers, and stone hoists inside the building ensured that materials would be able to ascend quickly and without endangering or inconveniencing the public. At one point, over 200 trucks made material deliveries at the building site every day. A series of relay and erection derricks, placed on platforms erected near the building, lifted the steel from the trucks below and installed the beams at the appropriate locations. The Empire State Building was structurally completed on April 11, 1931, twelve days ahead of schedule and 410 days after construction commenced. Al Smith shot the final rivet, which was made of solid gold. The project involved more than 3,500 workers at its peak, including 3,439 on a single day, August 14, 1930. Many of the workers were Irish and Italian immigrants, with a sizable minority of Mohawk ironworkers from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal. According to official accounts, five workers died during the construction, although the New York Daily News gave reports of 14 deaths and a headline in the socialist magazine The New Masses spread unfounded rumors of up to 42 deaths. The Empire State Building cost \$40,948,900 to build (equivalent to \$ in ), including demolition of the Waldorf–Astoria. This was lower than the \$60 million budgeted for construction. Lewis Hine captured many photographs of the construction, documenting not only the work itself but also providing insight into the daily life of workers in that era. Hine's images were used extensively by the media to publish daily press releases. According to the writer Jim Rasenberger, Hine "climbed out onto the steel with the ironworkers and dangled from a derrick cable hundreds of feet above the city to capture, as no one ever had before (or has since), the dizzy work of building skyscrapers". In Rasenberger's words, Hine turned what might have been an assignment of "corporate flak" into "exhilarating art". These images were later organized into their own collection. Onlookers were enraptured by the sheer height at which the steelworkers operated. New York magazine wrote of the steelworkers: "Like little spiders they toiled, spinning a fabric of steel against the sky". ### Opening and early years The Empire State Building officially opened on May 1, 1931, forty-five days ahead of its projected opening date, and eighteen months from the start of construction. The opening was marked with an event featuring United States President Herbert Hoover, who turned on the building's lights with the ceremonial button push from Washington, D.C. Over 350 guests attended the opening ceremony, and following luncheon, at the 86th floor including Jimmy Walker, Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Al Smith. An account from that day stated that the view from the luncheon was obscured by a fog, with other landmarks such as the Statue of Liberty being "lost in the mist" enveloping New York City. The Empire State Building officially opened the next day. Advertisements for the building's observatories were placed in local newspapers, while nearby hotels also capitalized on the events by releasing advertisements that lauded their proximity to the newly opened building. According to The New York Times, builders and real estate speculators predicted that the 1,250-foot-tall (380 m) Empire State Building would be the world's tallest building "for many years", thus ending the great New York City skyscraper rivalry. At the time, most engineers agreed that it would be difficult to build a building taller than 1,200 feet (370 m), even with the hardy Manhattan bedrock as a foundation. Technically, it was believed possible to build a tower of up to 2,000 feet (610 m), but it was deemed uneconomical to do so, especially during the Great Depression. As the tallest building in the world, at that time, and the first one to exceed 100 floors, the Empire State Building became an icon of the city and, ultimately, of the nation. In 1932, the Fifth Avenue Association gave the building its 1931 "gold medal" for architectural excellence, signifying that the Empire State had been the best-designed building on Fifth Avenue to open in 1931. A year later, on March 2, 1933, the movie King Kong was released. The movie, which depicted a large stop motion ape named Kong climbing the Empire State Building, made the still-new building into a cinematic icon. #### Tenants and tourism At the beginning of 1931, Fifth Avenue was experiencing high demand for storefront space, with only 12 of 224 stores being unoccupied. The Empire State Building, along with 500 Fifth Avenue and 608 Fifth Avenue, were expected to add a combined 11 stores. The office space was less successful, as the Empire State Building's opening had coincided with the Great Depression in the United States. In the first year, only 23 percent of the available space was rented, as compared to the early 1920s, where the average building would be 52 percent occupied upon opening and 90 percent occupied within five years. The lack of renters led New Yorkers to deride the building as the "Empty State Building" or "Smith's Folly". The earliest tenants in the Empire State Building were large companies, banks, and garment industries. Jack Brod, one of the building's longest resident tenants, co-established the Empire Diamond Corporation with his father in the building in mid-1931 and rented space in the building until he died in 2008. Brod recalled that there were only about 20 tenants at the time of opening, including him, and that Al Smith was the only real tenant in the space above his seventh-floor offices. Generally, during the early 1930s, it was rare for more than a single office space to be rented in the building, despite Smith's and Raskob's aggressive marketing efforts in the newspapers and to anyone they knew. The building's lights were continuously left on, even in the unrented spaces, to give the impression of occupancy. This was exacerbated by competition from Rockefeller Center as well as from buildings on 42nd Street, which, when combined with the Empire State Building, resulted in surplus of office space in a slow market during the 1930s. Aggressive marketing efforts served to reinforce the Empire State Building's status as the world's tallest. The observatory was advertised in local newspapers as well as on railroad tickets. The building became a popular tourist attraction, with one million people each paying one dollar to ride elevators to the observation decks in 1931. In its first year of operation, the observation deck made approximately \$2 million in revenue, as much as its owners made in rent that year. By 1936, the observation deck was crowded on a daily basis, with food and drink available for purchase at the top, and by 1944 the building had received its five-millionth visitor. In 1931, NBC took up tenancy, leasing space on the 85th floor for radio broadcasts. From the outset the building was in debt, losing \$1 million per year by 1935. Real estate developer Seymour Durst recalled that the building was so underused in 1936 that there was no elevator service above the 45th floor, as the building above the 41st floor was empty except for the NBC offices and the Raskob/Du Pont offices on the 81st floor. #### Other events Per the original plans, the Empire State Building's spire was intended to be an airship docking station. Raskob and Smith had proposed dirigible ticketing offices and passenger waiting rooms on the 86th floor, while the airships themselves would be tied to the spire at the equivalent of the building's 106th floor. An elevator would ferry passengers from the 86th to the 101st floor after they had checked in on the 86th floor, after which passengers would have climbed steep ladders to board the airship. The idea, however, was impractical and dangerous due to powerful updrafts caused by the building itself, the wind currents across Manhattan, and the spires of nearby skyscrapers. Furthermore, even if the airship were to successfully navigate all these obstacles, its crew would have to jettison some ballast by releasing water onto the streets below in order to maintain stability, and then tie the craft's nose to the spire with no mooring lines securing the tail end of the craft. On September 15, 1931, a small commercial United States Navy airship circled 25 times in 45-mile-per-hour (72 km/h) winds. The airship then attempted to dock at the mast, but its ballast spilled and the craft was rocked by unpredictable eddies. The near-disaster scuttled plans to turn the building's spire into an airship terminal, although one blimp did manage to make a single newspaper delivery afterward. On July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building, between the 79th and 80th floors. One engine completely penetrated the building and landed in a neighboring block, while the other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft. Fourteen people were killed in the incident, but the building escaped severe damage and was reopened two days later. ### Profitability By the 1940s, the Empire State Building was 98 percent occupied. The structure broke even for the first time in the 1950s. At the time, mass transit options in the building's vicinity were limited compared to the present day. Despite this challenge, the Empire State Building began to attract renters due to its reputation. A 222-foot (68 m) radio antenna was erected on top of the towers starting in 1950, allowing the area's television stations to be broadcast from the building. Despite the turnaround in the building's fortunes, Raskob listed it for sale in 1951, with a minimum asking price of \$50 million. The property was purchased by business partners Roger L. Stevens, Henry Crown, Alfred R. Glancy and Ben Tobin. The sale was brokered by the Charles F. Noyes Company, a prominent real estate firm in upper Manhattan, for \$51 million, the highest price paid for a single structure at the time. By this time, the Empire State had been fully leased for several years with a waiting list of parties looking to lease space in the building, according to the Cortland Standard. That same year, six news companies formed a partnership to pay a combined annual fee of \$600,000 to use the building's antenna, which was completed in 1953. Crown bought out his partners' ownership stakes in 1954, becoming the sole owner. The following year, the American Society of Civil Engineers named the building one of the "Seven Modern Civil Engineering Wonders". In 1961, Lawrence A. Wien signed a contract to purchase the Empire State Building for \$65 million, with Harry B. Helmsley acting as partners in the building's operating lease. This became the new highest price for a single structure. Over 3,000 people paid \$10,000 for one share each in a company called Empire State Building Associates. The company in turn subleased the building to another company headed by Helmsley and Wien, raising \$33 million of the funds needed to pay the purchase price. In a separate transaction, the land underneath the building was sold to Prudential Insurance for \$29 million. Helmsley, Wien, and Peter Malkin quickly started a program of minor improvement projects, including the first-ever full-building facade refurbishment and window-washing in 1962, the installation of new flood lights on the 72nd floor in 1964, and replacement of the manually operated elevators with automatic units in 1966. The little-used western end of the second floor was used as a storage space until 1964, at which point it received escalators to the first floor as part of its conversion into a highly sought retail area. ### Loss of "tallest building" title In 1961, the same year that Helmsley, Wien, and Malkin had purchased the Empire State Building, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey formally backed plans for a new World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan. The plan originally included 66-story twin towers with column-free open spaces. The Empire State's owners and real estate speculators were worried that the twin towers' 7.6 million square feet (710,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of office space would create a glut of rentable space in Manhattan as well as take away the Empire State Building's profits from lessees. A revision in the World Trade Center's plan brought the twin towers to 1,370 feet (420 m) each or 110 stories, taller than the Empire State. Opponents of the new project included prominent real-estate developer Robert Tishman, as well as Wien's Committee for a Reasonable World Trade Center. In response to Wien's opposition, Port Authority executive director Austin J. Tobin said that Wien was only opposing the project because it would overshadow his Empire State Building as the world's tallest building. The World Trade Center's twin towers started construction in 1966. The following year, the Ostankino Tower succeeded the Empire State Building as the tallest freestanding structure in the world. In 1970, the Empire State surrendered its position as the world's tallest building, when the World Trade Center's still-under-construction North Tower surpassed it, on October 19; the North Tower was topped out on December 23, 1970. In December 1975, the observation deck was opened on the 110th floor of the Twin Towers, significantly higher than the 86th floor observatory on the Empire State Building. The latter was also losing revenue during this period, particularly as a number of broadcast stations had moved to the World Trade Center in 1971; although the Port Authority continued to pay the broadcasting leases for the Empire State until 1984. The Empire State Building was still seen as prestigious, having seen its forty-millionth visitor in March 1971. ### 1980s and 1990s By 1980, there were nearly two million annual visitors, although a building official had previously estimated between 1.5 million and 1.75 million annual visitors. The building received its own ZIP code in May 1980 in a roll out of 63 new postal codes in Manhattan. At the time, its tenants collectively received 35,000 pieces of mail daily. The Empire State Building celebrated its 50th anniversary on May 1, 1981, with a much-publicized, but poorly received, laser light show, as well as an "Empire State Building Week" that ran through to May 8. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) voted to designate the building and its lobby as city landmarks on May 19, 1981, Capital improvements were made to the Empire State Building during the early to mid-1990s at a cost of \$55 million. Because all of the building's windows were being replaced at the same time, the LPC mandated a paint-color test for the windows; the test revealed that the Empire State Building's original windows were actually red. The improvements also entailed replacing alarm systems, elevators, windows, and air conditioning; making the observation deck compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA); and refurbishing the limestone facade. The observation deck renovation was added after disability rights groups and the United States Department of Justice filed a lawsuit against the building in 1992, in what was the first lawsuit filed by an organization under the new law. A settlement was reached in 1994, in which Empire State Building Associates agreed to add ADA-compliant elements, such as new elevators, ramps, and automatic doors, during the renovation. Prudential sold the land under the building in 1991 for \$42 million to a buyer representing hotelier Hideki Yokoi [ja], who was imprisoned at the time in connection with the deadly Hotel New Japan Fire [ja] at the Hotel New Japan [ja] in Tokyo. In 1994, Donald Trump entered into a joint-venture agreement with Yokoi, with a shared goal of breaking the Empire State Building's lease on the land in an effort to gain total ownership of the building so that, if successful, the two could reap the potential profits of merging the ownership of the building with the land beneath it. Having secured a half-ownership of the land, Trump devised plans to take ownership of the building itself so he could renovate it, even though Helmsley and Malkin had already started their refurbishment project. He sued Empire State Building Associates in February 1995, claiming that the latter had caused the building to become a "high-rise slum" and a "second-rate, rodent-infested" office tower. Trump had intended to have Empire State Building Associates evicted for violating the terms of their lease, but was denied. This led to Helmsley's companies countersuing Trump in May. This sparked a series of lawsuits and countersuits that lasted several years, partly arising from Trump's desire to obtain the building's master lease by taking it from Empire State Building Associates. Upon Harry Helmsley's death in 1997, the Malkins sued Helmsley's widow, Leona Helmsley, for control of the building. ### 21st century #### 2000s Following the destruction of the World Trade Center during the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City, but was only the second-tallest building in the Americas after the Sears (later Willis) Tower in Chicago. As a result of the attacks, transmissions from nearly all of the city's commercial television and FM radio stations were again broadcast from the Empire State Building. The attacks also led to an increase in security due to persistent terror threats against prominent sites in New York City. In 2002, Trump and Yokoi sold their land claim to the Empire State Building Associates, now headed by Malkin, in a \$57.5 million sale. This action merged the building's title and lease for the first time in half a century. Despite the lingering threat posed by the 9/11 attacks, the Empire State Building remained popular with 3.5 million visitors to the observatories in 2004, compared to about 2.8 million in 2003. Even though she maintained her ownership stake in the building until the post-consolidation IPO in October 2013, Leona Helmsley handed over day-to-day operations of the building in 2006 to Peter Malkin's company. In 2008, the building was temporarily "stolen" by the New York Daily News to show how easy it was to transfer the deed on a property, since city clerks were not required to validate the submitted information, as well as to help demonstrate how fraudulent deeds could be used to obtain large mortgages and then have individuals disappear with the money. The paperwork submitted to the city included the names of Fay Wray, the famous star of King Kong, and Willie Sutton, a notorious New York bank robber. The newspaper then transferred the deed back over to the legitimate owners, who at that time were Empire State Land Associates. #### 2010s to present Starting in 2009, the building's public areas received a \$550 million renovation, with improvements to the air conditioning and waterproofing, renovations to the observation deck and main lobby, and relocation of the gift shop to the 80th floor. About \$120 million was spent on improving the energy efficiency of the building, with the goal of reducing energy emissions by 38% within five years. For example, all of the windows were refurbished onsite into film-coated "superwindows" which block heat but pass light. Air conditioning operating costs on hot days were reduced, saving \$17 million of the project's capital cost immediately and partially funding some of the other retrofits. The Empire State Building won the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Gold for Existing Buildings rating in September 2011, as well as the World Federation of Great Towers' Excellence in Environment Award for 2010. For the LEED Gold certification, the building's energy reduction was considered, as was a large purchase of carbon offsets. Other factors included low-flow bathroom fixtures, green cleaning supplies, and use of recycled paper products. On April 30, 2012, One World Trade Center topped out, taking the Empire State Building's record of tallest in the city. By 2014, the building was owned by the Empire State Realty Trust (ESRT), with Anthony Malkin as chairman, CEO, and president. The ESRT was a public company, having begun trading publicly on the New York Stock Exchange the previous year. In August 2016, the Qatar Investment Authority (QIA) was issued new fully diluted shares equivalent to 9.9% of the trust; this investment gave them partial ownership of the entirety of the ESRT's portfolio, and as a result, partial ownership of the Empire State Building. The trust's president John Kessler called it an "endorsement of the company's irreplaceable assets". The investment has been described by the real-estate magazine The Real Deal as "an unusual move for a sovereign wealth fund", as these funds typically buy direct stakes in buildings rather than real estate companies. Other foreign entities that have a stake in the ESRT include investors from Norway, Japan, and Australia. A renovation of the Empire State Building was commenced in the 2010s to further improve energy efficiency, public areas, and amenities. In August 2018, to improve the flow of visitor traffic, the main visitor's entrance was shifted to 20 West 34th Street as part of a major renovation of the observatory lobby. The new lobby includes several technological features, including large LED panels, digital ticket kiosks in nine languages, and a two-story architectural model of the building surrounded by two metal staircases. The first phase of the renovation, completed in 2019, features an updated exterior lighting system and digital hosts. The new lobby also features free Wi-Fi provided for those waiting. A 10,000-square-foot (930 m<sup>2</sup>) exhibit with nine galleries opened in July 2019. The 102nd floor observatory, the third phase of the redesign, reopened to the public on October 12, 2019. That portion of the project included outfitting the space with floor-to-ceiling glass windows and a brand-new glass elevator. The final portion of the renovations to be completed was a new observatory on the 80th floor, which opened on December 2, 2019. In total, the renovation had cost \$165 million and taken four years to finish. A comprehensive restoration of the building's mooring and antenna masts also began in June 2019. Antennas on the mooring mast were removed or relocated to the upper mast, while the aluminum panels were cleaned and coated with silver paint. To minimize disruption to the observation decks, the restoration work took place at night. The project was completed by late 2020. ## Height records The longest world record held by the Empire State Building was for the tallest skyscraper (to structural height), which it held for 42 years until it was surpassed by the North Tower of the World Trade Center in October 1970. The Empire State Building was also the tallest human-made structure in the world before it was surpassed by the Griffin Television Tower Oklahoma (KWTV Mast) in 1954, and the tallest freestanding structure in the world until the completion of the Ostankino Tower in 1967. An early-1970s proposal to dismantle the spire and replace it with an additional 11 floors, which would have brought the building's height to 1,494 feet (455 m) and made it once again the world's tallest at the time, was considered but ultimately rejected. With the destruction of the World Trade Center in the September 11 attacks, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City, and the second-tallest building in the Americas, surpassed only by the Willis Tower in Chicago. The Empire State Building remained the tallest building in New York until the new One World Trade Center reached a greater height in April 2012. As of 2022, it is the seventh-tallest building in New York City and the tenth-tallest in the United States. The Empire State Building is the 49th-tallest in the world as of February 2021. It is also the eleventh-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas behind the tallest U.S. buildings and the CN Tower. ## Notable tenants As of 2013, the building houses around 1,000 businesses. Current tenants include: Former tenants include: - The National Catholic Welfare Council (now Catholic Relief Services, located in Baltimore) - The King's College (now located at 56 Broadway) - China National Tourist Office (now located at 370 Lexington Avenue) - National Film Board of Canada (now located at 1123 Broadway) - Nathaniel Branden Institute - Schenley Industries - YWCA of the USA (relocated to Washington, DC) ## Incidents ### 1945 plane crash At 9:40 am on July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber, piloted in thick fog by Lieutenant Colonel William Franklin Smith Jr., crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building between the 79th and 80th floors (then the offices of the National Catholic Welfare Council). One engine completely penetrated the building, landing on the roof of a nearby building where it started a fire that destroyed a penthouse. The other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft, causing a fire that was extinguished in 40 minutes. Fourteen people were killed in the incident. Elevator operator Betty Lou Oliver fell 75 stories and survived, which still holds the Guinness World Record for the longest survived elevator fall recorded. Despite the damage and loss of life, many floors were open two days later. The crash helped spur the passage of the long-pending Federal Tort Claims Act of 1946, as well as the insertion of retroactive provisions into the law, allowing people to sue the government for the incident. Also as a result of the crash, the Civil Aeronautics Administration enacted strict regulations regarding flying over New York City, setting a minimum flying altitude of 2,500 feet (760 m) above sea level regardless of the weather conditions. A year later, on July 24, 1946, another airplane narrowly missed striking the building. The unidentified twin-engine plane scraped past the observation deck, frightening the tourists there. ### 2000 elevator plunge On January 24, 2000, an elevator in the building suddenly descended 40 stories after a cable that controlled the cabin's maximum speed was severed. The elevator fell from the 44th floor to the fourth floor, where a narrowed elevator shaft provided a second safety system. Despite the 40-floor fall, both of the passengers in the cabin at the time were only slightly injured. After the fall, building inspectors reviewed all of the building's elevators. ### Suicide attempts Because of the building's iconic status, it and other Midtown landmarks are popular locations for suicide attempts. More than 30 people have attempted suicide over the years by jumping from the upper parts of the building, with most attempts being successful. The first suicide from the building occurred on April 7, 1931, before it was even completed, when a carpenter who had been laid-off went to the 58th floor and jumped. The first suicide after the building's opening occurred from the 86th floor observatory in February 1935, when Irma P. Eberhardt fell 1,029 feet (314 m) onto a marquee sign. On December 16, 1943, William Lloyd Rambo jumped to his death from the 86th floor, landing amidst Christmas shoppers on the street below. In the early morning of September 27, 1946, shell-shocked Marine Douglas W. Brashear Jr. jumped from the 76th-floor window of the Grant Advertising Agency; police found his shoes 50 feet (15 m) from his body. On May 1, 1947, Evelyn McHale leapt to her death from the 86th floor observation deck and landed on a limousine parked at the curb. Photography student Robert Wiles took a photo of McHale's oddly intact corpse a few minutes after her death. The police found a suicide note among possessions that she left on the observation deck: "He is much better off without me.... I wouldn't make a good wife for anybody". The photo ran in the May 12, 1947 edition of Life magazine and is often referred to as "The Most Beautiful Suicide". It was later used by visual artist Andy Warhol in one of his prints entitled Suicide (Fallen Body). A 7-foot (2.1 m) mesh fence was put up around the 86th floor terrace in December 1947 after five people tried to jump during a three-week span in October and November of that year. By then, sixteen people had died from suicide jumps. Only one person has jumped from the upper observatory. Frederick Eckert of Astoria ran past a guard in the enclosed 102nd-floor gallery on November 3, 1932, and jumped a gate leading to an outdoor catwalk intended for dirigible passengers. He landed and died on the roof of the 86th floor observation promenade. Two people have survived falls by not falling more than a floor. On December 2, 1979, Elvita Adams jumped from the 86th floor, only to be blown back onto a ledge on the 85th floor by a gust of wind and left with a broken hip. On April 25, 2013, a man fell from the 86th floor observation deck, but he landed alive with minor injuries on an 85th-floor ledge where security guards brought him inside and paramedics transferred him to a hospital for a psychiatric evaluation. ### Shootings Two fatal shootings have occurred in the direct vicinity of the Empire State Building. Abu Kamal, a 69-year-old Palestinian teacher, shot seven people on the 86th floor observation deck during the afternoon of February 23, 1997. He killed one person and wounded six others before committing suicide. Kamal reportedly committed the shooting in response to events happening in Palestine and Israel. On the morning of August 24, 2012, 58-year-old Jeffrey T. Johnson shot and killed a former co-worker on the building's Fifth Avenue sidewalk. He had been laid off from his job in 2011. Two police officers confronted the gunman, and he aimed his firearm at them. They responded by firing 16 shots, killing him but also wounding nine bystanders. Most of the injured were hit by bullet fragments, although three took direct hits from bullets. ## Impact As the tallest building in the world and the first one to exceed 100 floors, the Empire State Building immediately became an icon of the city and of the nation. In 2013, Time magazine noted that the Empire State Building "seems to completely embody the city it has become synonymous with". The historian John Tauranac called it "'the' twentieth-century New York building", despite the existence of taller and more modernist buildings. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission voted to designate the building and its lobby as city landmarks on May 19, 1981, citing the historic nature of the first and second floors, as well as "the fixtures and interior components" of the upper floors. The New York City Planning Commission endorsed the landmark status. The building became a National Historic Landmark in 1986 in close alignment with the New York City Landmarks report. The Empire State Building was added to the National Register of Historic Places the following year due to its architectural significance. ### Contemporary reception Early architectural critics also focused on the Empire State Building's exterior ornamentation. Architectural critic Talbot Hamlin wrote in 1931, "That it is the world's tallest building is purely incidental." George Shepard Chappell, writing in The New Yorker under the pseudonym "T-Square", wrote the same year that the Empire State Building had a "palpably enormous" appeal to the general public, and that "its difference and distinction [lay] in the extreme sensitiveness of its entire design". Edmund Wilson of The New Republic wrote that the building's neutral color palette made it "New York's handsomest skyscraper". Architectural critics also wrote negatively of the mast, especially in light of its failure to become a real air terminal. Chappell called the mast "a silly gesture", and Lewis Mumford called it "a public comfort station for migratory birds". Nevertheless, architecture critic Douglas Haskell said the Empire State Building's appeal came from the fact that it was "caught at the exact moment of transition—caught between metal and stone, between the idea of 'monumental mass' and that of airy volume, between handicraft and machine design, and in the swing from what was essentially handicraft to what will be essentially industrial methods of fabrication." ### As icon Early in the building's history, travel companies such as Short Line Motor Coach Service and New York Central Railroad used the building as an icon to symbolize the city. In a 1932 survey of 50 American architects, fourteen ranked the Empire State Building as the United States' best building; the Empire State Building received more votes than any building except the Lincoln Memorial. After the construction of the first World Trade Center, architect Paul Goldberger noted that the Empire State Building "is famous for being tall, but it is good enough to be famous for being good." As an icon of the United States, it is also very popular among Americans. In a 2007 survey, the American Institute of Architects found that the Empire State Building was "America's favorite building". The building was originally a symbol of hope in a country devastated by the Depression, as well as a work of accomplishment by newer immigrants. The writer Benjamin Flowers states that the Empire State was "a building intended to celebrate a new America, built by men (both clients and construction workers) who were themselves new Americans." The architectural critic Jonathan Glancey refers to the building as an "icon of American design". Additionally, in 2007, the Empire State Building was first on the AIA's List of America's Favorite Architecture. The Empire State Building has been hailed as an example of a "wonder of the world" due to the massive effort expended during construction. The Washington Star listed it as part of one of the "seven wonders of the modern world" in 1931, while Holiday magazine wrote in 1958 that the Empire State's height would be taller than the combined heights of the Eiffel Tower and the Great Pyramid of Giza. The American Society of Civil Engineers also declared the building "A Modern Civil Engineering Wonder of the United States" in 1958 and one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World in 1994. Ron Miller, in a 2010 book, also described the Empire State Building as one of the "seven wonders of engineering". It has often been called the Eighth Wonder of the World as well, an appellation that it has held since shortly after opening. The panels installed in the lobby in 1963 reflected this, showing the seven original wonders alongside the Empire State Building. The Empire State Building also became the standard of reference to describe the height and length of other structures globally, both natural and human-made. The building has also inspired replicas. The New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Paradise, Nevada, contains the "Empire Tower", a 47-story replica of the Empire State Building.In addition, the New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Paradise, Nevada, contains the "Chrysler Tower", a replica of the Chrysler Building measuring 35 or 40 stories tall. A portion of the hotel's interior was also designed to resemble the Empire State Building's interior. ### In media As an icon of New York City, the Empire State Building has been featured in various films, books, TV shows, and video games. According to the building's official website, more than 250 movies contain depictions of the Empire State Building. In his book about the building, John Tauranac writes that its first documented appearance in popular culture was Swiss Family Manhattan, a 1932 children's story by Christopher Morley. A year later, the film King Kong depicted Kong, a giant stop motion ape that climbs the Empire State Building during the film's climax, bringing the building into the popular imagination. Later movies such as An Affair to Remember (1957), Sleepless in Seattle (1993), and Independence Day (1996) also prominently featured the building. The building has also been featured in other works, such as "Daleks in Manhattan", a 2007 episode of the TV series Doctor Who; and Empire, an eight-hour black-and-white silent film by Andy Warhol, which was later added to the Library of Congress's National Film Registry. ### Empire State Building Run-Up The Empire State Building Run-Up, a foot race from ground level to the 86th-floor observation deck, has been held annually since 1978. It is organized by NYCRUNS. Its participants are referred to both as runners and as climbers, and are often tower running enthusiasts. The race covers a vertical distance of 1,050 ft (320 m) and takes in 1,576 steps. The record time is 9 minutes and 33 seconds, achieved by Australian professional cyclist Paul Crake in 2003, at a climbing rate of 6,593 ft (2,010 m) per hour. ## See also - Early skyscrapers - NTT Docomo Yoyogi Building - List of buildings with 100 floors or more - List of National Historic Landmarks in New York City - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets - List of tallest buildings by U.S. state - List of tallest freestanding steel structures - National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
889,510	100th Infantry Division (United States)	1,162,477,823	US Army formation	[ "1918 establishments in Texas", "History of Louisville, Kentucky", "Infantry divisions of the United States Army", "Infantry divisions of the United States Army in World War II", "Military units and formations established in 1918", "Training divisions of the United States Army", "United States Army divisions during World War II", "United States Army divisions of World War I" ]	The 100th Training Division (Leader Development) (formerly the 100th Infantry Division) is a division of the United States Army headquartered at Fort Knox, Kentucky. It currently serves as a major training command of the United States Army Reserve. It has been known as the "Century Division" owing to its "100th" designation. Throughout its long history, the division has taken on numerous roles. Serving as the 100th Infantry Division until the 1950s, the division then briefly became the 100th Airborne Division before becoming the 100th Division (Training). Since this transformation, the division has primarily taken on numerous training roles for other Army units. It was originally activated in mid-1918, too late to join the fighting in World War I. The division is best known for its exploits during World War II as the 100th Infantry Division. Fighting in the European Theater, the division advanced through France and Germany through the end of the war, fending off heavy German counterattacks along the way. World War II would be the only war the division would see active combat in before taking on its role as a training unit. ## History ### World War I The 100th Division was constituted on 12 July 1918 in the National Army. It was organized in October of that year at Camp Bowie, Texas. It was assigned the 199th Infantry Brigade commanding the 397th Infantry Regiment, the 398th Infantry Regiment and the 200th Infantry Brigade, commanding the 399th Infantry Regiment and the 400th Infantry Regiment. Each brigade commanded around 8,000 soldiers. The division then began preparations to deploy to Europe and join the American Expeditionary Force in combating the Central Powers. Before the division could deploy, though, World War I ended on 11 November 1918, Armistice Day. The 100th Division then began demobilizing as part of the post-war drawdown of the U.S. Army. It would remain on the U.S. Army's rolls until 26 July 1919, when the last units demobilized at Camp Zachary Taylor, Kentucky. ### Interwar period Only two years later, on 24 June 1921, the division was reconstituted in the Organized Reserve, allotted to the Fifth Corps Area, and assigned to the XV Corps. The states of West Virginia and Kentucky were allotted as the division's home area, with its headquarters organized in Wheeling, West Virginia, on 27 September 1921. On 29 May 1923, the division received its shoulder sleeve insignia. Most of the division's assigned Reserve officers were Reserve Officers' Training Corps graduates from West Virginia University, the University of Kentucky, or Western Kentucky State Teachers' College. As with most other Reserve divisions, the 100th saw little service in major maneuvers in the interwar period because of shortages of personnel and equipment, only conducting routine training and administering the Citizens' Military Training Camps in its home area. The headquarters location was changed in 1924 to Huntington, West Virginia and was changed again in 1937 to Charleston, West Virginia. ## World War II ### Mobilization On 23 February 1942, the 199th and 200th Infantry Brigade headquarters were disbanded, and the division was placed in command of the 397th, 398th, and 399th Infantry Regiments directly; the 400th Infantry Regiment was inactivated by relief of Reserve personnel. The 100th Infantry Division was ordered into active military service on 15 November 1942 at Fort Jackson, South Carolina. The enlisted and officer cadre came from the 76th Infantry Division. The commander of the 100th was Major General Withers A. Burress, one of only eleven generals who commanded their divisions from mobilization until the end of the war. From late 1943 to early 1944, the division trained in the mountains of Tennessee and was subsequently sent to Fort Bragg, North Carolina, for further training. While at Fort Bragg, Technical Sergeant Walter L. Bull earned the first Expert Infantryman's Badge. ### Order of battle - Headquarters, 100th Infantry Division - 397th Infantry Regiment - 398th Infantry Regiment - 399th Infantry Regiment - Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 100th Infantry Division Artillery - 373rd Field Artillery Battalion (155 mm) - 374th Field Artillery Battalion (105 mm) - 375th Field Artillery Battalion (105 mm) - 925th Field Artillery Battalion (105 mm) - 325th Engineer Combat Battalion - 325th Medical Battalion - 100th Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop (Mechanized) - Headquarters, Special Troops, 100th Infantry Division - Headquarters Company, 100th Infantry Division - 800th Ordnance Light Maintenance Company - 100th Quartermaster Company - 100th Signal Company - Military Police Platoon - Band - 100th Counterintelligence Corps Detachment The division sailed to Europe on 6 October of that year. The division arrived at Marseille, France, on 20 October. It was made part of VI Corps of the Seventh United States Army, Sixth United States Army Group. ### European Theater As soon as the division was prepared for combat, it began moving into the Meurthe-et-Moselle region, and sent its first elements into combat at St. Remy in the Vosges Mountains on 1 November 1944. The division as a whole began the relief of the 45th Infantry Division at Baccarat on 5 November, and assumed control of the sector on 9 November. The attack jumped off on 12 November, and the division drove against the German Winter Line in the Vosges Mountains. The 100th took Bertrichamps and Clairupt, pierced the German line, and seized Raon-l'Étape and Saint-Blaise-Moyenmoutier between 16 and 26 November. Later in November the division moved into the Vosges region, elements assisted in holding the Saverne Gap bridgehead while the bulk of the division went into reserve. The unit was relieved from assignment to VI Corps and transferred to the US XV Corps on 27 November 1944. It then moved into the Moselle region. In December 1944, the division went on the offensive in the vicinity of Bitche, France. The division occupied the nearby areas of Wingen and Lemberg after fierce fighting on 6–10 December. The division then advanced to Reyersviller, which fell after fighting on 11–13 December. On 14 December, regiments from the 100th started their assault on a minor fortification Freundenburg and Fort Schiesseck, a major defensive work in the region. Fort Freundenburg was captured on 17 December by the 100th division's 398th Infantry Regiment. Fort Schiesseck capitulated after three more days of heavy assault by the 100th on 20 December. The division was ordered to halt its attack and to hold defensive positions south of Bitche as part of the Seventh Army during the Battle of the Bulge. Thanks to a stout defense, the men of the 100th later became known as the "Sons of Bitche". The German counterattacks of 1 and 8–10 January 1945 were repulsed, after heavy fighting at Bitche. After further attacks stalled and the Germans began to withdraw, the sector was generally quiet and the division prepared to resume its offensive east. On 15 March 1945, the attack jumped off and on 16 March, Bitche fell to the 100th Infantry Division. The unit was then relieved from assignment to XV Corps, and transferred to XXI Corps on 22 March 1945. Taking Neustadt and Ludwigshafen, the division reached the Rhine River on 24 March. On 25 March 1945, the unit was returned from XXI Corps back to VI Corps. On 31 March 1945, the 100th Infantry Division crossed the Rhine and moved south in the wake of the 10th Armored Division and then east across the Neckar River, establishing and enlarging a bridgehead from 4 to 11 April. Heilbronn fell after nine days of house-to-house combat on 12 April and the division resumed its rapid pursuit of the enemy, reaching Stuttgart by 21 April. The 100th was mopping up along the Neckar, southeast of Stuttgart on 23 April, when it was removed from VI Corps and assigned directly to the Seventh United States Army as an Echelon Above Corps Asset. The division was then assigned primarily to patrolling the sector east of Stuttgart. Shifting to Göppingen on 30 April, the Division engaged in occupational duties as the war in Europe came to an end on V-E Day. The division had spent 163 days in combat. The division took 13,351 enemy prisoners of war on its own. Members of the division won three Medals of Honor, seven Distinguished Service Crosses, five Legions of Merit, 492 Silver Star Medals, 23 Soldier's Medals, 5,156 Bronze Star Medals, and 90 Air Medals. The division itself was awarded three campaign streamers for participation in the campaign. 100th Infantry Division returned to the United States via the Hampton Roads Port of Embarkation on 10 January 1946, and was released from active duty at Camp Patrick Henry, Virginia that day. The division then began the process of demobilization, before inactivating on 26 January. ### Casualties - Total battle casualties: 5,038 - Killed in action: 883 - Wounded in action: 3,539 - Missing in action: 483 - Prisoner of war: 491 ## Post War ### Cold War In fall of 1946, the division was reactivated in the U.S. Army Reserve as the 100th Airborne Division in Louisville, Kentucky. This distinction as one of the few airborne divisions within the U.S. Army was brief; in 1952 the division was once again redesignated the 100th Infantry Division. It would change names again in 1955, this time to 100th Division (Replacement Training). It would once again be reorganized in 1959 to its present designation as 100th Division (Institutional Training). Its mission became to teach basic, advanced, and common training skills to soldiers from the Army's active, reserve, and National Guard components. In 1961, some 1,500 soldiers from the 100th were activated and sent to Fort Chaffee, Arkansas, in order to provide support during the Berlin Crisis. During their time on active duty, the 100th successfully trained some 32,000 soldiers after thoroughly rebuilding and fixing the old Army base. The unit was returned to reserve status again in August 1962. In 1968, the division received its distinctive unit insignia, which alluded to its history in World War II and as a Kentucky-based unit. With the Reorganization Objective Army Division plan in 1968, the division ceased to be centered on regiments and instead was reorganized with brigades. However, with the 199th Infantry Brigade active as a separate brigade, the division's new brigades were activated from units that had been under its command in World War II. The division's headquarters element (which had since been replaced by a Headquarters and Headquarters Company) was redesignated the 1st Brigade, 100th Division responsible for basic armor school training. The 928th Field Artillery Battalion became the 2nd Brigade, 100th Division responsible for armored cavalry unit training. The 325th Engineer Battalion became the 3rd Brigade, 100th Division responsible for combat support training, and the 800th Ordnance Battalion became the 4th Brigade, 100th Division, responsible for combat service support training. In 1978, the 100th became the first Army Reserve formation to be equipped with its own squadrons of M1 Abrams tanks. With the arrival of the M3 Bradley infantry fighting vehicles, the division's mission profile changed from individual combat training to armor and armor reconnaissance training. By 1986, it was the largest reserve unit within the state of Kentucky, commanding fifty-eight percent of instate reservists. ### Gulf War and beyond At the outbreak of Operation Desert Storm in 1991, the 100th was assigned to armor training at Fort Knox, Kentucky for deploying armor units. Armor training was a responsibility that the division continued after the war. In 1995 the division was reorganized to include Army Reserve schools, taking over the responsibilities for new programs. In 1996 the 100th Division's 1st Brigade worked with Readiness Group Knox to pioneer the national training experiment to reserve combat units at crew and platoon levels. Later that year, the division added three additional divisional brigades; the 5th Brigade, 100th Division in Memphis, Tennessee for health services training, the 6th Brigade, 100th Division in Louisville, Kentucky for professional development training, and the 7th Brigade, 100th Division at Fort Knox, formed from the 100th Training Command and responsible for training exercises. The 5th Brigade moved to Millington, Tennessee in 1997, and the 7th Brigade inactivated in 2000. The 8th Brigade, 100th Division was also activated as a unit overseeing ROTC training. During 1997, the division was tasked with partial responsibility for Operation Future Challenge at Fort Knox, a six-week Reserve Officer's Training Corps Basic Camp during each summer. By 2000, the 100th has assumed full responsibility for running the camp. Later that same year, the 100th began inactivating many of its M1A1 Abrams tanks as part of a reduction in military expenditures. After the September 11 attacks, the 100th Division began taking on the job of preparing Army National Guard units from Ohio and Kentucky as they began to prepare for deployment in support of the War on Terrorism. By 2006, the division had moved its headquarters from Louisville to Fort Knox, easing distance strains in administration and training. In line with Army Reserve transformations, the 100th Division restructured, eliminating all but four of its brigades. The division shifted its focus from initial entry training to providing military occupational specialty and non-commissioned officer training for four army career fields across the United States. The 100th Division (Operational Support) teaches soldiers subjects from military intelligence, signal corps, civil affairs/psychological operations and health services. On 1 October 2018 the 100th Training Division was redesignated as the 100th Training Division (Leader Development). The 100th Training Division (Leader Development) establishes and implements the Army Reserve Leader Development Strategy to provide a continuum of career education, training, and experience for leaders in the Army Reserve. During this reorganization, the 83rd USARRTC and the 97th (CGSOC) Brigade were placed under the 100th Training Division. ## Subordinate units As of 2018 the following units are subordinated to the 100th Training Division (Leader Development): - Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 100th Training Division, Ft Knox, KY - 83rd United States Army Reserve Readiness Training Command, Ft. Knox, KY - Readiness Training Academy, Ft. Knox, KY - NCO Academy – Parks, Parks Reserve Forces Training Area, Dublin, CA - NCO Academy – McCoy, Fort McCoy, WI - NCO Academy – ASA Fort Dix, Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, NJ - 97th Brigade (Command and General Staff Officer Course), Fort Sheridan, IL - 11th Battalion, 95th Regiment (CGSOC), Kansas City, MO - 10th Battalion, 80th Regiment (CGSOC), Owings Mills, MD - 11th Battalion, 108th Regiment (CGSOC), Concord, NC ## Honors ### Unit decorations During the Second World War many units within the division were awarded Distinguished Unit Citations, as well as Meritorious Unit Citations. ### Campaign streamers ## Legacy The division's legacy in World War II has been honored several times. The Cross Island Parkway in Queens, New York was renamed the "100th Infantry Division Parkway" in 2005 in honor of 2,300 soldiers from New York that served with the division during the war. Three soldiers earned the Medal of Honor serving with the division in World War II. They were Edward A. Silk, Mike Colalillo, and Charles F. Carey Jr.
675,789	Parental Advisory	1,172,456,126	Warning label	[ "Censorship in the United Kingdom", "Censorship in the United States", "Censorship of music", "Media content ratings systems", "Recording Industry Association of America", "Self-censorship", "Stickers", "Symbols introduced in 1985" ]	Parental Advisory (abbreviated as PAL or PA) is a warning label placed on audio recordings in recognition of inappropriate references, such as sexual content or profanity, with the intention of alerting parents of material potentially unsuitable for children. It was introduced by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 1987 and adopted by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) in 2011. The label was first affixed on physical 33 1/3 rpm records, compact discs and cassette tapes, and it has been included on digital listings offered by online music stores. In PAL-region territories, some video games featuring licensed music were affixed with the label in the late 1990's and early 2000's. Recordings with the Parental Advisory label are often released alongside a censored version that reduces or eliminates the objectionable material. Several retailers will distribute both versions of the product, occasionally with an increased price for the censored version, while some sellers offer the amended pressing as their main options and choose not to distribute the explicit counterpart. The label has been widely criticised as ineffective in limiting the inappropriate material to which young audiences are exposed. ## Background Shortly after their formation in April 1985, the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC) assembled a list of fifteen songs with deemed unsuitable content. Particular criticism was placed on "Darling Nikki" by Prince, after PMRC co-founder Mary "Tipper" Gore heard her 11-year-old daughter Karenna sing the lyrics, which included an explicit mention of masturbation. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) responded by introducing an early version of their content warning label, although the PMRC was displeased and proposed that a music rating system structured like the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system be enacted. The RIAA alternatively suggested using a warning label reading "Parental Guidance: Explicit Lyrics", and after continued conflict between the organizations, the matter was discussed on September 19 during a hearing with the United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. Notable musicians Frank Zappa, Dee Snider, and John Denver each testified at this hearing with strong opposition to PMRC's warning label system, and censorship in general. Approximately two months after the hearing, the organizations agreed on a settlement in which audio recordings were to either be affixed with a warning label reading "Explicit Lyrics: Parental Advisory" or have its lyrics attached on the backside of its packaging. In 1990, the now standard black-and-white warning label design reading "Parental Advisory: Explicit Lyrics" was introduced and was to be placed on the bottom right-hand section of a given product. The first album to bear the "black and white" Parental Advisory label was the 1990 release of Banned in the U.S.A. by the rap group 2 Live Crew. By May 1992, approximately 225 records had been marked with the warning. In response to later hearings in the following years, it was reworded as "Parental Advisory: Explicit Content" in 1996. The system went unchanged until 2002, when record labels affiliated with Bertelsmann began including specific areas of concern including "strong language", "violent content", or "sexual content" on compact discs alongside the generic Parental Advisory label. The Parental Advisory label was first used on music streaming services and online music stores in 2011. That year, the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) revised its own music censorship policies to incorporate more prominent usage of the warning label. ## Application The "Parental Advisory Label Program" in the United States and the "Parental Advisory Scheme" in the United Kingdom lack agreed-upon standards for using the warning label, although they provide guidelines for its recommended inclusion. Although a voluntary practice that is ultimately left to the discretion of record labels, the RIAA suggests that material with "strong language or depictions of violence, sex, or substance abuse to such an extent as to merit parental notification" be affixed with the Parental Advisory label. The BPI additionally requests that "racist, homophobic, misogynistic or other discriminatory language or behavior" be taken under consideration when determining the appropriateness of a record. Physical copies of albums which have the label generally have it as a permanent part of the artwork, being printed with the rest of the cover. In some cases, the label is affixed as a sticker to the front of the case, which can be removed by putting the artwork in a different case. Audio recordings that include Parental Advisory labels in their original formats are generally released in censored versions that reduces or completely eliminates the questionable material. They are recognized as "clean" editions by the RIAA, and are left unlabeled in their revised formats. Target has sold both versions of a given record. Walmart and their affiliated properties are well known for only carrying censored versions of records; in one instance, the retailer refused to distribute Green Day's 2009 album 21st Century Breakdown because they were not given the "clean" copies that they requested. Online music stores, including the iTunes Store, generally have the Parental Advisory logo embedded into digital files. Digital retailers and streaming services such as iTunes, Spotify, and Amazon Music flag tracks as 'Explicit' if they have been identified as such. ## Impact Since its introduction, the effectiveness of the Parental Advisory label has frequently been called into question. Jon Wiederhorn from MTV News suggested that artists benefited from the label and noted that younger customers interested in explicit content could more easily find it with a label attached. On behalf of Westword, Andy Thomas said that the label was purposeless on the grounds that a young customer "would get a copy of the album sooner or later from a friend or another lethargic record store clerk" like the cashier that sold him a labeled pressing of La Sexorcisto: Devil Music, Vol. 1 (1992) by White Zombie in his childhood. He noted that its intended reaction in parents was varied; his lax mother was indifferent towards the warning, while the stricter mother of his companion did not allow her child to listen to the record. Danny Goldberg from Gold Village Entertainment opined that the Parental Advisory label offered minimal value other than "being a way for certain retailers like Wal-Mart to brand themselves as 'family friendly'"; he felt that children were successful in getting content they desired "even before the Internet", and believed that the label had little impact on sales figures. In contrast, the RIAA maintains that "it's not a PAL Notice that kids look for, it's the music". They stated that research they had gathered revealed that "kids put limited weight on lyrics in deciding which music they like, caring more about rhythm and melody" and implied that the label is not a deciding factor for a given purchase. Tom Cole from NPR commented that the Parental Advisory label has become "a fact of music-buying life", which made it difficult for current consumers to understand the widespread controversy that came about from its introduction. Greg Beato of Reason observed that by the 1990s, "A hip-hop album that didn't warrant a Tipper sticker was artistically suspect." The label has become well known enough to be parodied. Guns N' Roses's 1991 albums Use Your Illusion I and Use Your Illusion II included a similarly-styled sticker saying "This album contains language which some listeners may find objectionable. They can F?!\* off and buy something from the New Age section." ## Edited counterparts It is fairly common for an album which received the Parental Advisory seal to be sold alongside an "edited" version which removes objectionable content, usually to the same level as a radio edit. The RIAA Guidelines however state "an Edited Version need not remove all potentially objectionable content from the sound recording." These albums are packaged nearly-identically to their explicit counterparts, usually with the only indicator being the lack of Parental Advisory seal, although if the artwork is deemed 'explicit' too, it will normally be censored. In the case of some albums, a black box reading "EDITED VERSION" is placed where the Parental Advisory seal would be. This was part of new guidelines introduced on April 1, 2002, which also included a label that featured "Edited Version Also Available" next to the Parental Advisory seal. ## See also - Parents Music Resource Center - Recording Industry Association of America - MPAA film rating system (movie audience suitability: G/PG/PG-13/R/NC-17)
43,832,861	The Boat Race 1971	1,099,276,822	null	[ "1971 in English sport", "1971 in rowing", "1971 sports events in London", "March 1971 sports events in the United Kingdom", "The Boat Race" ]	The 117th Boat Race took place on 27 March 1971. Held annually, it is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. It was won by Cambridge who passed the finishing post ten lengths ahead of Oxford, securing Cambridge's fourth consecutive victory. The winning time was, at that point, the second fastest in the history of the event. In the reserve race, Goldie beat Isis, and in the Women's Boat Race, Cambridge were victorious. ## Background The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). The race was first held in 1829, and since 1845 has taken place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities, followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide. Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions, having beaten Oxford by 3+1⁄2 lengths in the previous year's race, and held the overall lead, with 64 victories to Oxford's 51 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877). The first Women's Boat Race took place in 1927, but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s. Until 2014, the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races, but as of the 2015 race, it is held on the River Thames, on the same day as the men's main and reserve races. The reserve race, contested between Oxford's Isis boat and Cambridge's Goldie boat has been held since 1965. It usually takes place on the Tideway, prior to the main Boat Race. Cambridge coach Lou Barry was aiming to lead the Light Blues to victory for the fourth consecutive time under his guidance, while Oxford were coached by their former Blue, Ronnie Howard, who represented the university in the 1957 and 1959 races. The race was umpired by the former Oxford and Olympic rower Christopher Davidge who had represented the Dark Blues in the 1949, 1951 and 1952 races. ## Crews The Oxford crew weighed an average of 13 st 8 lb (86.0 kg), 2 pounds (0.9 kg) per rower more than their opponents. Cambridge saw the return of four former Blues in Chris Baillieu, James Hervey-Bathurst, Christopher Rodrigues and N. G. Hughes, all of whom had made their Boat Race debut in the 1970 race. Oxford welcomed back A. J. Hall, J. Hawksley and F. J. L. Dale, the latter rowing in his third Boat Race for the Dark Blues. Cambridge's American number seven, Somerset Waters III, was the only non-British rower recorded in the race. ## Race Cambridge were pre-race favourites, according to Jim Railton writing in The Times, they were "the strongest favourites for many years". They won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station, consigning Oxford to Middlesex, from which the losers of the last ten consecutive races had commenced. After a good start, and despite a "desperate attack" from the Dark Blues, Cambridge were three seconds ahead at the Mile Post. The Light Blues were clear soon after and by the time the crews shot Hammersmith Bridge, they held a three length, ten-second lead over Oxford. By Chiswick Steps, the lead had extended out to 18 seconds; Oxford trailed by 26 seconds at Barnes Bridge and could make no ground on Cambridge as they passed the finishing post ten lengths clear. The winning time of 17 minutes 58 seconds was the second fastest in the history of the event, behind that of the Cambridge crew of the 1948 race who recorded a time eight seconds faster. In the reserve race, Cambridge's Goldie beat Oxford's Isis by fifteen lengths, their fifth consecutive victory. In the 26th running of the Women's Boat Race, Cambridge triumphed, their ninth consecutive victory.
50,290,341	Bank Markazi v. Peterson	1,166,962,441	null	[ "2016 in United States case law", "Foreign Sovereign Immunity Act case law", "Iran–United States relations", "United States Constitution Article Three case law", "United States Supreme Court cases", "United States Supreme Court cases of the Roberts Court", "United States foreign relations case law" ]	Bank Markazi v. Peterson, 578 U.S. \_\_\_ (2016), was a United States Supreme Court case that found that a law which only applied to a specific case, identified by docket number, and eliminated all of the defenses one party had raised does not violate the separation of powers in the United States Constitution between the legislative (Congress) and judicial branches of government. The plaintiffs, in the case had initially obtained judgments against Iran for its role in supporting state-sponsored terrorism, particularly the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings and 1996 Khobar Towers bombing, and sought execution against a bank account in New York held, through European intermediaries, on behalf of Bank Markazi, the Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The plaintiffs obtained court orders preventing the transfer of funds from the account in 2008 and initiated their lawsuit in 2010. Bank Markazi raised several defenses, including that the account was not an asset of the bank, but rather an asset of its European intermediary, under both New York state property law and §201(a) of the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act. In response to concerns that existing laws were insufficient for the account to be used to settle the judgments, Congress added an amendment to a 2012 bill, codified after enactment as 22 U.S.C. § 8772, that identified the pending lawsuit by docket number, applied only to the assets in the identified case, and effectively abrogated every legal basis available to Bank Markazi to prevent the plaintiffs from executing their claims against the account. Bank Markazi then argued that § 8772 was an unconstitutional breach of the separation of power between the legislative and judicial branches of government, because it effectively directed a particular result in a single case without changing the generally applicable law. The United States District Court for the Southern District of New York and, on appeal, the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit both upheld the constitutionality of § 8772 and cleared the way for the plaintiffs to execute their judgments against the account, which held about \$1.75 billion in cash. The United States Supreme Court granted certiorari and heard oral arguments in the case in January 2016, releasing their opinion in April 2016. A 6–2 majority found that § 8772 was not unconstitutional, because it "changed the law by establishing new substantive standards"—essentially, that if Iran owns the assets, they would be available for execution against judgments against Iran—for the district court to apply to the case. Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, writing for the majority, explained that the federal judiciary has long upheld laws that affect one or a very small number of subjects as a valid exercise of Congress' legislative power and that the Supreme Court had previously upheld a statute that applied to cases identified by docket number in Robertson v. Seattle Audubon Society (1992). The majority also upheld § 8772 as a valid exercise of Congress' authority over foreign affairs. Prior to the enactment of the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA) in 1976, Congress and the Executive branch had authority to determine the immunity of foreign states from lawsuits. Despite transferring the authority to determine immunity to the courts through the FSIA, the majority contended that "it remains Congress' prerogative to alter a foreign state's immunity." Chief Justice John Roberts, joined by Justice Sonia Sotomayor, dissented and harshly criticized the majority's holding. After providing historical context for the separation of powers between the legislature and judiciary found in Article III of the United States Constitution, the Roberts argued that § 8772 was an unconstitutional breach of the separation of powers between Congress and the judiciary "whereby Congress assumes the role of judge and decides a particular case in the first instance." In his view, § 8772 is not different from a hypothetical law applying to a case Smith v. Jones in which the legislature says simply "Smith wins". Roberts contended that Congress and the Executive branch have sufficient authority that they do not need to "seize" the judiciary's power to "make a political decision look like a judicial one." Quoting James Madison in Federalist No. 48, he lamented that this case "will indeed become a blueprint for extensive expansion of the legislative power at the judiciary's expense, feeding Congress's tendency to 'extend[] the sphere of its activity and draw[] all power into its impetuous vortex.'" The decision came as Iran was seeking access to the world financial market just three months after many sanctions were lifted as a result of Iran's compliance with an agreement for curtailing development of its nuclear enrichment program. Various Iranian officials denounced the decision as "theft", "a ridicule of law and justice", and "open hostility by the United States against the Iranian people." Iran announced that they would file suit against the United States in the International Court of Justice (ICJ) for reparations if the U.S. courts begin to "plunder" assets from the Citibank account to give to the winning plaintiffs, although it is not clear if the ICJ would have jurisdiction to entertain the case. ## Background ### State immunity Foreign states generally enjoy immunity from lawsuits in the United States under the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA). The FSIA is the exclusive basis for U.S. courts to exercise jurisdiction over a foreign government. Prior to enactment of the FSIA in 1976, the executive branch was responsible for determining the immunity of foreign states on a case-by-case basis. By enacting the FSIA, Congress codified the guidelines for the immunity of foreign states and transferred responsibility for determining a foreign state's immunity from the executive branch to the judiciary. The FSIA contains an exception to the immunity of foreign states for victims of state-sponsored terrorism. Prior to 2002, if a judgment was awarded against a foreign government, only assets of the foreign government that were located in the U.S. and "used for commercial activity" could have been seized to satisfy the judgment. To make judgments easier to enforce, Congress enacted the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act of 2002 (TRIA) which allows judgments to be executed against "the blocked assets of [a] terrorist party." Blocked assets include assets that may be seized by the President pursuant to his authority granted by Congress. ### Litigation before § 8772 was enacted The suit involved more than 1,300 individuals who had won several separate judgments against Iran for its supportive role in the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings, the 1996 Khobar Towers bombing, several other bombings, an assassination, and a kidnapping. After winning judgments by default, based on a clear evidentiary basis for Iran's liability, they sought writs of execution against a Citibank account in New York connected with Iran's central bank. The suits for execution against the Citibank account were consolidated into one case through various procedural mechanisms. The named plaintiff in the case, Deborah Peterson, is the sister of a victim of the Beirut barracks bombings; joined by victims and other relatives of victims, she had won a default judgment in 2003 against Iran for its role in the bombings. Because of the large number of plaintiffs in the case—almost 1,000—the judge appointed special masters to determine each plaintiff's right to collect damages and appropriate amount of damages; in 2007, the judge entered a default judgment against Iran for \$2,656,944,877 in damages. In 2008, the plaintiffs first learned of the interests of the Central Bank of Iran (Bank Markazi) in a Citibank bank account in New York and obtained orders restraining the transfer of funds from the account. The account consisted of bonds and belonged to a Luxembourg-based bank, Clearstream Banking, S.A., which held the account on behalf of Bank Markazi and deposited interest from the bonds into Bank Markazi's Clearstream account. At some point in 2008, an account for Bank Markazi was opened with Italian bank Banca UBAE to place the interest payments from the Clearstream account, placing a second intermediary between Bank Markazi and the Citibank account. By the time of the Supreme Court hearing, the Citibank account held about \$1.75 billion in cash, as the last of the bonds had matured in April 2012. In 2010, the plaintiffs initiated their lawsuit against Bank Markazi, Clearstream, Banca UBAE, and Citibank, jointly, seeking to execute against the Citibank account their judgments for damages against Iran, based on §201(a) of the TRIA, which provides that when "a person has obtained a judgment against a terrorist party ... the blocked assets of that terrorist party (including the blocked assets of any agency or instrumentality of that terrorist party) shall be subject to execution or attachment." In February 2012, President Obama froze all assets of the Iranian government in the U.S., which included the Citibank account alleged to be controlled by Bank Markazi. However, there were concerns that existing laws were insufficient for the account to be used to settle the judgments. Bank Markazi claimed that the account was not an asset of Bank Markazi, but its intermediary, Clearstream, in relation to both TRIA and New York state property law. ### Section 8772 Due to the issues raised in the case, Congress included a section within the Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act, codified as 22 U.S.C. § 8772, that preempted any state law and provided that: > a financial asset that is— > > > $A$ held in the United States for a foreign securities intermediary doing business in the United States; > > $B$ a blocked asset (whether or not subsequently unblocked) that is property described in subsection (b); and > > $C$ equal in value to a financial asset of Iran, including an asset of the central bank or monetary authority of the Government of Iran or any agency or instrumentality of that Government, that such foreign securities intermediary or a related intermediary holds abroad > > shall be subject to execution or attachment in aid of execution in order to satisfy any judgment to the extent of any compensatory damages awarded against Iran for damages for personal injury or death caused by an act of torture, extrajudicial killing, aircraft sabotage, or hostage-taking, or the provision of material support or resources for such an act. In response to concerns the banking industry had to early drafts of the legislation, § 8772 specified the assets that the section pertains to as: > The financial assets described in this section are the financial assets that are identified in and the subject of proceedings in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York in Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al., Case No. 10 Civ. 4518 (BSJ) (GWG), that were restrained by restraining notices and levies secured by the plaintiffs in those proceedings, as modified by court order dated June 27, 2008, and extended by court orders dated June 23, 2009, May 10, 2010, and June 11, 2010, so long as such assets remain restrained by court order. Section 8772 also specified that the courts needed to identify "whether Iran holds equitable title to, or the beneficial interest in, the assets ...and that no other person possesses a constitutionally protected interest in the assets ...under the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States." If another person held a constitutionally protected interest in the assets, their interest in the assets would not be infringed by the law. ### After § 8772 was enacted Section 8772 eliminated all of Bank Markazi's defenses to the seizure of the account's assets, valued at approximately \$1.75 billion. Bank Markazi conceded that they held "equitable title to, or beneficial interest in, the assets", per §8772(a)(2)(A), but then claimed that § 8772 violated the separation of powers in the United States Constitution between the legislative (Congress) and judicial branches of government. The United States District Court for the Southern District of New York and, on appeal, the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit both upheld the constitutionality of § 8772 and awarded the assets to the plaintiffs. ## Appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States On December 29, 2014, Bank Markazi filed a petition for certiorari with the Supreme Court of the United States, requesting the Court to consider the question: Does § 8772 violate the separation of powers by purporting to change the law for, and directing a particular result in, a single pending case? The certiorari petition was circulated to the Justices for their conference on April 3, 2015, after a brief by the respondents (Peterson) opposing certiorari and a reply brief from the petitioner (Bank Markazi) were filed in March. Following the April 3rd conference, the Court called for the Solicitor General to file a brief expressing the views of the federal government, which was filed on August 19. In May and June, the Supreme Court meets only to issue orders and opinions and does not hear oral arguments until the next term begins. The Court granted certiorari following its conference on September 28. Oral arguments were held on January 13, 2016, with appearances by Jeffrey Lamken for the petitioner, Theodore Olson for the respondents, and Deputy Solicitor General Edwin Kneedler for the United States as amicus curiae. Justice Antonin Scalia was present during oral arguments. He died in February, voiding his vote in the initial vote on the case's outcome and precluding any draft opinion he may have written from being published by the Court. The Court's 6-2 opinion was delivered on April 20, 2016. ## Oral argument On January 13, 2016, during oral argument with Theodore Olson, Chief Justice John Roberts said: > And just so you understand what I'm concerned about. You know, there are places in the world where courts function just the way our courts do, except every now and then, when there's a case that the -- the strong man who runs the country is interested in because a crony is one of the parties or whatever, and he picks up the phone and he tells the court, You decide this case this way. > > And I don't care what you thought the law was, decide it this way. His dissenting opinion is discussed in detail below. ## Opinion of the Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg wrote the majority opinion, which held that § 8772 does not infringe on the separation of powers between the legislative and judicial branches of government, considering also that the law is an exercise of congressional authority regarding foreign affairs. Justice Anthony Kennedy, Justice Clarence Thomas, Justice Stephen Breyer, Justice Samuel Alito, and Justice Elena Kagan joined the majority opinion (however, Justice Thomas did not join as to Part II-C of the opinion). The majority began by explaining that judiciary's authority under Article III of the United States Constitution is to "'say what the law is'", quoting Marbury v. Madison (1803). "Congress, no doubt, may not usurp a court's power to interpret and apply the law to the circumstances before it" by, for example, saying in a hypothetical case Smith v. Jones that Smith wins or compelling the courts to reexamine a case after final judgment has been issued. Bank Markazi relied on United States v. Klein (1871) for much of its argument. In Klein, the Court questioned whether "'the legislature may prescribe rules of decision to the Judicial Department ... in cases pending before it.'" The majority found that "[o]ne cannot take this language from Klein at face value" because the power of Congress to make retroactive laws applicable to pending cases has long been recognized. The majority explained that the contemporary significance of Klein is that "Congress may not exercise its authority, including its power to regulate federal jurisdiction, in a way that requires [federal courts]...to become active participants in violating the Constitution." The unfairness of any retroactive legislation is "'not a sufficient reason for a court to fail to give that law its intended scope.'" The Constitution contains only limited constraints on the enactment of retroactive legislation: > The Ex Post Facto Clause flatly prohibits retroactive application of penal legislation. Article I, §10, cl. 1, prohibits States from passing ... laws 'impairing the Obligation of Contracts.' The Fifth Amendment's Takings Clause prevents the Legislature (and other government actors) from depriving private persons of vested property rights except for a 'public use' and upon payment of 'just compensation.' The prohibitions of 'Bills of Attainder' in Art. I, §§9–10, prohibit legislatures from singling out summary punishment for past conduct. The Due Process Clause also protects the interests in fair notice and repose that may be compromised by retroactive legislation; a justification sufficient to validate a statute's prospective application under the Clause 'may not suffice' to warrant its retroactive application. The majority affirmed that "Congress may indeed direct courts to apply newly enacted, outcome-altering legislation in pending civil cases," citing its previous decisions in Plaut v. Spendthrift Farm, Inc. (1995), Robertson v. Seattle Audubon Society (1992), and Landgraf v. USI Film Products (1994). Accordingly, the majority found that § 8772 "changed the law by establishing new substantive standards"—essentially, that if Iran owns the assets, they would be available for execution against judgments against Iran—for the district court to apply to the case. Section 8772 left several issues for the District Court to adjudicate: it did not define its key terms "beneficial interest" and "equitable title"; whether any other party had a constitutionally protected interest in the account; and whether the assets were "held in the United States" (Clearstream argued the assets were located in Luxembourg, not New York). The fact that the law only applied to one case does not change its validity, although the majority conceded that a narrowly crafted law affecting just one person or a limited number of people may violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment "if arbitrary or inadequately justified." The federal judiciary has long upheld laws that affect one or a very small number of subjects as a valid exercise of Congress' legislative power, and the Supreme Court upheld a statute that applied to cases identified by docket number in Robertson v. Seattle Audubon Society (1992). The final portion of the majority's opinion, in which Justice Thomas did not join, upheld § 8772 as a valid exercise of Congress' authority to regulate foreign affairs. Citing Dames & Moore v. Regan (1981), a case which also involved the availability of Iranian assets for execution of judgments against Iran, the majority points out that regulating foreign-state assets—e.g. by blocking them or regulating their availability for execution against judgments—has never been found to violate the judiciary's authority. Prior to the enactment of the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA), the Executive branch routinely made case-specific determinations of the scope of immunity for foreign states. Those decisions were not rejected as infringements on the judiciary's authority. Although the enactment of the FSIA in 1976 transferred authority to the courts to determine foreign-state immunity, the majority held that "it remains Congress' prerogative to alter a foreign state's immunity." When Congress enacted § 8772, it "acted comfortably within the political branches' authority over foreign sovereign immunity and foreign-state assets." ### Chief Justice Roberts' dissenting opinion Chief Justice John Roberts, joined by Justice Sonia Sotomayor, dissented from the majority's ruling. It was the first time that Roberts and Sotomayor were the only two dissenters in a case; they had been on the court together since 2009. Roberts began his argument with an analogy: > Imagine your neighbor sues you, claiming that your fence is on his property. His evidence is a letter from the previous owner of your home, accepting your neighbor's version of the facts. Your defense is an official county map, which under state law establishes the boundaries of your land. The map shows the fence on your side of the property line. You also argue that your neighbor's claim is six months outside the statute of limitations. > > Now imagine that while the lawsuit is pending, your neighbor persuades the legislature to enact a new statute. The new statute provides that for your case, and your case alone, a letter from one neighbor to another is conclusive of property boundaries, and the statute of limitations is one year longer. Your neighbor wins. Who would you say decided your case: the legislature, which targeted your specific case and eliminated your specific defenses so as to ensure your neighbor's victory, or the court, which presided over the fait accompli? > > That question lies at the root of the case the Court confronts today. In the Chief Justice's view, § 8772 violates the separation of powers in Article III "[n]o less than if [Congress] had passed a law saying 'respondents win.'" The majority responded that a more appropriate analogy to the case is if a legislature enacts a law specifying that a 2000 map supersedes a 1990 map in an ongoing property dispute in which the parties are contesting whether an ambiguous statute makes a 1990 or 2000 county map the authoritative source for establishing property boundaries. The Chief Justice proceeded to detail the origin, purpose, and case law history of the separation of powers. Article Three of the United States Constitution establishes an independent judiciary with "distinct and inviolable authority." Such separation of powers "safeguards individual freedom." As Alexander Hamilton wrote in Federalist No. 78, quoting Montesquieu, "'there is no liberty if the power of judging be not separated from the legislative and executive powers.'" The separation of powers between the judiciary and legislative branches was examined in detail in Plaut v. Spendthrift Farm, Inc. (1995), in which the Supreme Court found unconstitutional a statute that reopened a case after a final judgment. At the time of the framing of the Constitution, judicial and legislative powers were often intermingled. The colonial legislatures often performed many of the functions of the judiciary, such as functioning as the court of last resort, granting new trials, and providing original review, appellate review, stays of judgments, and providing other types of relief "in an effort to do what is agreeable to Right and Justice." The colonial charters of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island gave the legislatures the authority of court of last resort. In New Hampshire, judicial appeals were directed to the governor and his council, but routinely referred to the legislature for discussion. And for over half a century, the colonial assembly of Virginia could review court judgments. The involvement of legislatures in judicial matters "intensified during the American Revolution," which "soon prompted a sense of a sharp necessity to separate the legislative from the judicial power." The interference of the legislatures in judicial matters "figur[ed] prominently in the Framers' decision to devise a system for securing liberty through the division of power." This resulted in Article Three of the United States Constitution, which forms the "central pillar of judicial independence" and places "'[t]he judicial Power of the United States' ... in 'one supreme Court', and in such 'inferior Courts'" as Congress may establish. This judicial power extends "to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority." The Chief Justice explained that there are three types of unconstitutional restrictions on the power of the judiciary. "'Congress cannot vest review of the decisions of Article III courts in officials of the Executive Branch'", or "'retroactively command the federal courts to reopen final judgments.'" In the Chief Justice's view, this case is a third type of unconstitutional interference with the judiciary's authority, "whereby Congress assumes the role of judge and decides a particular case in the first instance," which he believes is precisely what § 8772 does. Section 8772 foreclosed Bank Markazi's defenses that it was immune from prosecution under the FSIA, a separate juridical entity under both U.S. federal common law and international law and thus not liable for Iran's debts, and that New York state law did not permit execution of the plaintiff's judgments against its assets. "And lest there be any doubt that Congress' sole concern was deciding this particular case ... § 8772 provided that nothing in the statute 'shall be construed ... to affect the availability, or lack thereof, of a right to satisfy a judgment in any other action against a terrorist party in any proceedings other than' [this case]." In the hypothetical case of Smith v. Jones in which Congress enacted a statute that says "Smith wins", the majority would find it unconstitutional because it "would create no new substantive law." In the Chief Justice's view, it would: before the passage of the hypothetical statute, the law did not provide that Smith wins; after passage of the hypothetical statute, it does. For the Chief Justice, "the question is whether its action constitutes an exercise of judicial power." Both the hypothetical "Smith wins" statute and § 8772 both have the same effect, which is essentially the legislature's "'policy judgment'" that one side in the case wins. He compared the majority's opinion, which found that § 8772 left plenty of issues for the District Court to adjudicate, to "a constitutional Maginot Line, easily circumvented by the simplest maneuver of taking away every defense against Smith's victory, without saying 'Smith wins.'" Section 8772 only required the courts to make two decisions—that Bank Markazi had an equitable interest in the assets and no one else did—that were both already clear before § 8772 was enacted. By the majority's view of "plenty", the Chief Justice contended that, in the hypothetical case Smith v. Jones, the majority would uphold a judgment for Smith if the court finds that Jones was served notice of the lawsuit and the case was within the statute of limitations. Strongly criticizing the majority, the Chief Justice, quoting Federalist No. 48, concluded that the majority's "failure to enforce [the boundary between the judicial and legislative branches] in a case as clear as this reduces Article III to a mere 'parchment barrier against the encroaching spirit' of legislative power." Finally, the Chief Justice distinguished this case from Dames & Moore. The actions of the president that Dames & Moore upheld did not dictate the outcome of the case, but merely specified that the claims be handled by a different tribunal. The court's decision in Dames & Moore was based on the "longstanding practice of settling the claims of U.S. nationals against foreign countries by treaty or executive agreement." In contrast with the majority's interpretation of Dames & Moore, "those dispositions, crucially, were not exercises of judicial power." The Chief Justice critiqued the majority's position on Dames & Moore by contending that the political branches of the government—Congress and the executive branch—have sufficient power of their own to address the issues in this case and do not need to "commandeer[] the courts to make a political decision look like a judicial one." The Chief Justice concluded with a strong criticism of the majority's decision: > At issue here is a basic principle, not a technical rule. Section 8772 decides this case no less certainly than if Congress had directed entry of judgment for respondents. As a result, the potential of the decision today 'to effect important change in the equilibrium of power' is 'immediately evident.' Morrison v. Olson, 487 U.S. 654, 699 (1988) (Scalia, J., dissenting) Hereafter, with this Court's seal of approval, Congress can unabashedly pick the winners and losers in particular pending cases. Today's decision will indeed become a 'blueprint for extensive expansion of the legislative power' at the Judiciary's expense, Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority v. Citizens for Abatement of Aircraft Noise, Inc., 501 U.S. 252, 277 (1991), feeding Congress's tendency to 'extend[] the sphere of its activity and draw[] all power into its impetuous vortex,' The Federalist No. 48 ... (J. Madison) ## Subsequent developments ### Payout to plaintiff-respondents The ruling clears the way for the plaintiff-respondents to collect from the roughly \$1.75 billion bank account, which will be enough to satisfy about 70% of their collective \$2.5 billion in judgments. They will not be eligible to collect from a \$1 billion fund—the Victims of State Sponsored Terrorism Fund—established by Congress in 2015 to pay victims of state-sponsored terrorism. That fund pays 30% of judgments until all applicants have received that amount; remaining funds will not be distributed until all claimants have received 30% of their judgment. ### Legal community reactions Attorney and law professor Alan Morrison, writing for The George Washington Law Review, remarked that: > To a non-lawyer trying to decide who should win just on the equity, the Bank's chances did not look very good, and on April 20, 2016, the Supreme Court ... upheld the constitutionality of § 8772, thereby removing a major barrier to the victims collecting at least some of their judgments. Those were the atmospherics, but on the legal issues, there was substantial agreement between the two opinions, although in their conclusions they were very far apart. All of the Justices agreed that Congress could pass laws changing the existing law and make those changes generally applicable to pending cases, provided it did so clearly. They also agreed that Congress could not pass a law in a pending case that said something along the lines of, "The Court is directed to enter judgment for the plaintiff," or that "The plaintiff wins and defendant loses." To do so would usurp the judicial role and improperly expand that of Congress. Nor could Congress change the law in a way that re-opened a case in which there was a final judgment not subject to further appeal. There was also agreement that Congress could write laws that applied to a limited category of cases, at least in those cases in which only the Government was adversely affected by the change in the law. The issue here was where § 8772 fell on that spectrum. Morrison expressed "concern ... that what happened here will repeat itself in other circumstances in which the equities [are] quite different". Although Morrison suggested that an individual aggrieved by such a law could bring a claim for relief under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, he argued that such a claim is unlikely to be successful because the law will likely be upheld when reviewed under the rational basis test. The rational basis test asks "there is some rational relationship between disparity of treatment and some legitimate governmental purpose." Law professor Evan Zoldan, writing in the Yale Law & Policy Review Inter Alia, noted that the ruling allowed Congress to pick a winner in a particular pending case. He wrote that "By permitting Congress to direct judgment in favor of victims of terrorism, the Bank Markazi Court helped compensate hundreds of people who suffered great tragedies. But, perhaps inadvertently, the Court also conferred on Congress the expansive, and dangerous, power to target an individual for special treatment that is not applied to the population in general." According to Stuart Newberger, an attorney who represents terror victims, the ruling could hinder foreign governments from using the judiciary to override determinations by Congress and the President regarding the availability of their assets to satisfy judgments against them. Newberger praised the ruling as "a message for any country that if Congress and the president take steps to freeze assets, make assets available to victims, that the courts are going to defer." ### U.S. reactions The decision was praised in the U.S. by the litigants, their counsel, and politicians. Theodore Olson, counsel for the respondents, praised the ruling, saying it "will bring long-overdue relief to ... victims of Iranian terrorism and their families, many of whom have waited decades for redress." Praising the court's decision, lead plaintiff Deborah Peterson found solace that "in the eyes of the law, we know who is responsible, and those who are responsible have been brought to the justice that we are capable of bringing them to here on earth." Law professor Jimmy Gurulé said the decision "sends a powerful message to rogue states and state sponsors of terrorism that if you, directly or indirectly, provide material support for terrorism, you will be held accountable"—sentiment echoed by Mark Dubowitz, director of the Foundation for Defense of Democracies—and that "hopefully, it's also going to have a deterrent effect, or least cause Iran to think twice about supporting terrorist activity going forward." The decision was also praised by Senator Bob Menendez, who authored § 8772, and Speaker of the House Paul Ryan. ### Iranian reactions A spokesman for Iran's Ministry of Foreign Affairs condemned the ruling as "theft", "incompatible with international law", "a ridicule of justice and law" and stated that Iran "totally reject[s]" the ruling. The Iranian Foreign Ministry summoned the Swiss ambassador to Iran, who represents U.S. interests in Iran, to receive diplomatic notes, to be forwarded to the US, protesting the ruling. A week after the decision was announced, Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif wrote a letter to Secretary-General of the United Nations Ban Ki-moon urging him to use his good offices to intervene in securing the release of frozen funds and to stop interfering with Iran's international financial transactions. A U.S. State Department spokesman rejected Iran's claims, stating that the State Department "believe[s] the U.S. laws and the application of those laws by the courts of the United States comport with international law." Iran announced that they would file suit against the United States in the International Court of Justice (ICJ) for reparations if the U.S. courts begin to "plunder" assets from the Citibank account to give to the winning plaintiffs. However, the ICJ may not be able to hear the case. The U.S. withdrew its general recognition of the ICJ's jurisdiction in response to the ICJ's ruling in Nicaragua v. United States, but a 1955 friendship treaty between Iran and the U.S. gives the ICJ jurisdiction to rule on disputes arising from provisions of the treaty. A working group has been established in the Iranian Cabinet to investigate the ruling and determine ways of reestablishing Iran's rights to the account. Less than a month after the Supreme Court decision, Iran's parliament overwhelmingly approved—181 votes for, 6 votes against, 8 abstentions—an "emergency bill" requiring the government to seek compensation from the U.S. for actions the U.S. has taken against Iran, including the 1953 Iranian coup d'état, which the U.S. helped restore the monarch; the Nojeh coup plot in 1980; United States support for Iraq during the Iran–Iraq war, including compensation for over 800,000 Iranians who died or were injured during the conflict; U.S. espionage in Iran; U.S. support of Israel; the alleged death of 17,000 Iranians at the hands of U.S.-supported terrorist groups; and the confiscation of Iranian assets. The bill requires the government to take "appropriate legal action" for the violation of Iranian state immunity, including the pursuit of U.S. assets in third countries, and to provide regular updates to parliament on its actions against the US. Some Iranian officials, including the chief of the Central Bank of Iran (CBI), have placed some blame for the Citibank account's seizure on the previous administration of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, who was president of Iran from 2005 to 2013. The Foreign Ministry's director for political and security affairs, Hamid Baidinejad, said it was "reckless" for the previous administration to have invested in U.S. securities. In a post on the CBI's website, its chief pointed out that: "Although CBI experts and senior officials had warned against investing in dollar denominated securities, the government of president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad went ahead and purchased it, thus paving the way for the damage done to our assets." Hamid Baeidinejad, a senior Foreign Ministry official, criticized the former head of the CBI for investing in a "hostile country". ### Impact on US-Iran relations The decision came at a delicate time for relations between Iran and Western nations, which were removing sanctions on Iran after its compliance with an agreement for curtailing development of its nuclear enrichment program. The agreement stipulated that once Iranian compliance with the terms of the agreement was verified, most sanctions against Iran would be lifted, including all sanctions imposed by the United Nations Security Council as well as nuclear-related European Union and U.S. sanctions; U.S. sanctions against Iran for terrorism, human rights abuses, and ballistic missiles would not be affected. In mid-January 2016, most sanctions were lifted. In March, the District Court for the Southern District of New York found, by default, that Iran had provided support to certain terrorist groups and individuals responsible for the September 11 attacks and awarded \$10.5 billion in damages to the plaintiffs, which consisted of \$3 billion to reimburse insurance companies for paid claims and \$7.5 billion for victims and their families (\$2 million for pain and suffering and \$6.88 million in punitive damages per victim). The same judge ruled just six months earlier that there was insufficient evidence linking Saudi Arabia—which has sour relations with Iran—to the 9/11 attacks to overcome, under the terrorism exemption, Saudi Arabia's immunity under the FSIA. The Supreme Court's decision was announced while Iran's Foreign Minister, Mohammad Javad Zarif, was visiting the United States. The week before the decision was announced, the head of the Central Bank of Iran had visited Washington, during the spring meetings of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund, to discuss with U.S. and foreign officials problems that remained with Iranian access to international banking, despite the lifting of sanctions. Javad Zarif criticized the Bank Markazi decision and the "even more absurd" 9/11 decision by the New York as "the height of absurdity". Iranian President Hassan Rouhani called the decisions "open hostility by the United States against the Iranian people." Under the nuclear agreement, an important policy objective was to ensure that the Iranian economy benefits from suspending its nuclear weapons program. In the view of commentators Ali Omidi, a professor of international relations at the University of Isfahan, and Saam Borhani, an attorney and commentator on US-Iran relations and sanctions law, the Bank Markazi decision and the 9/11 case threaten to undermine the nuclear deal and American credibility in negotiations with Iran. The head of the Nuclear Committee in Iran's parliament, Ibrahim Karkhaneh, decried the rulings as "cooperation between the American Congress, the government and courts to steal Iranian property." ## See also - In re Terrorist Attacks on September 11, 2001 – litigation against Iran for its alleged role in the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks - Iran–United States relations - University of Chicago Persian antiquities crisis - Certain Iranian Assets – ICJ case filed by Iran against the US as a result of this case
41,908,321	Illinois v. Hemi Group LLC	1,123,431,483	2010 personal jurisdiction case	[ "2010 in United States case law", "United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit cases", "United States Internet case law", "United States taxation and revenue case law", "United States tobacco case law" ]	Illinois v. Hemi Group, LLC, 622 F.3d 754 (7th Cir. 2010), was a personal jurisdiction case in which the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit affirmed the United States District Court for the Central District of Illinois' ruling finding personal jurisdiction based on Internet transactions. In the initial filing, the state of Illinois sued Hemi Group LLC (Hemi) for selling cigarettes to Illinois residents over the Internet in violation of state law and for failing to report those sales in violation of federal law. Hemi moved to dismiss the suit for lack of personal jurisdiction, but the district court found that the Internet transactions provided a basis for Hemi to be sued in Illinois. ## Facts Hemi, based out of New Mexico and without any ties to Illinois, sold discount cigarettes through several websites. Customers could place orders online or through fax, mail, or telephone. Illinois alleged that Hemi sold cigarettes to Illinois residents via its websites, though the only sale Illinois identified in its complaint was instigated by a special agent of the Illinois Department of Revenue. On several of its websites, Hemi stated that it would not sell cigarettes to New York residents due to ongoing litigation there, but no exception was made to Illinois residents. Hemi's website directed customers to check with their respective states to determine the amount, if any, of state taxes associated with their order. Specifically, Illinois sued Hemi in Illinois state court for: - Failing to comply with the Jenkins Act by not providing monthly reports of sales to Illinois residents; - Violating the Prevention Act by shipping cigarettes to Illinois residents that were not licensed distributors or export warehouse operators; and - Violating the Enforcement Act and the Consumer Fraud Act by selling brands of cigarettes to Illinois residents that were not in the Illinois Directory. ## Procedural history Hemi removed the suit from Illinois state court to federal district court and moved to dismiss the case for lack of personal jurisdiction. The district court found that Illinois could not exercise general jurisdiction over Hemi because Hemi lacked the "continuous and systematic general business contacts" to satisfy general jurisdiction. However, the district court held that Hemi could be amenable to specific jurisdiction, finding that Hemi purposefully availed itself of the opportunity of doing business with Illinois residents and that exercising personal jurisdiction over Hemi would not offend due process. For a more in-depth discussion of the concept of personal jurisdiction and its sub-concepts of general and specific jurisdiction, see personal jurisdiction and International Shoe doctrine ### Issue on appeal The question on appeal before the Seventh Circuit was whether the Illinois district court could properly exercise personal jurisdiction over Hemi. ## Holding The Seventh Circuit affirmed the district court's denial of Hemi's motion to dismiss for lack of personal jurisdiction, finding that Internet transactions of cigarettes sufficed to establish personal jurisdiction over Hemi in Illinois. ## Analysis ### Federal vs. Illinois due process standards Hemi argued that a line of Illinois appellate opinions demonstrated that Illinois law required more than federal law with regard to satisfying due process standards for personal jurisdiction. The Seventh Circuit rejected this argument, finding that none of the cases cited by Hemi even suggested a meaningful difference between the federal and Illinois due process standards, and that at least one of the cases cited by Hemi only discussed the distinction in the theoretical context. Though the Seventh Circuit noted that the district court may only exercise jurisdiction only if both federal and state constitutional elements are satisfied, it also stated that it was unaware of cases where personal jurisdiction could be satisfied under the U.S. Constitution, but not under the Illinois Constitution. Hence, the Seventh Circuit limited its analysis as to whether exercising personal jurisdiction over Hemi would comport with the federal guarantee of due process. ### Minimum contacts and traditional notions of fair play and substantial justice Drawing from International Shoe Co. v. Washington, the Seventh Circuit began by noting that personal jurisdiction may be proper where a defendant has certain minimum contacts that do not violate "traditional notions of fair play and substantial justice." Relevant to this analysis are the following factors: - Contacts with the forum state should not be "fortuitous"; the defendant must have purposefully established minimum contacts; and - The defendant should "reasonably anticipate" being brought to court in the forum state because the defendant purposefully availed itself of the privilege of conducting activities there. ### Application #### Minimum contacts Here, the Seventh Circuit found that Hemi's contacts with Illinois were sufficient to satisfy due process. The court noted that Hemi maintained "commercial websites" that customers could use to create accounts, purchase cigarettes, and calculate shipping charges based on their ZIP codes. The Seventh Circuit rejected Hemi's argument that it did not purposefully avail itself of doing business in Illinois. Hemi stated on its website that it would ship to any state except New York. The court observed that Hemi's reluctance to ship to New York was important for two reasons: 1. It indicated that Hemi was "ready and willing" to do business with Illinois residents; and 2. It demonstrated that Hemi knew that conducting business with residents of a particular state could subject it to jurisdiction there, and that Hemi therefore knew how to protect itself from being subject to personal jurisdiction to specific states. Hence, the court reasoned that Hemi's decision not to do business with New York indicated that it should have foreseen being brought to court in Illinois for selling cigarettes to Illinois residents. The Seventh Circuit also rejected Hemi's argument that its sales to Illinois customers were due to the unilateral actions by customers. The court found that Hemi, via its several commercial and interactive websites, reached out to Illinois residents to sell cigarettes, and therefore minimum contacts was satisfied. ("It is Hemi reaching out to residents of Illinois, and not the residents reaching back, that creates the sufficient minimum contacts with Illinois that justify exercising personal jurisdiction over Hemi in Illinois.") ### Zippo sliding scale test rejected In Zippo Manufacturing Co. v. Zippo Dot Com, Inc., 952 F. Supp. 1119 (W.D. Pa. 1997), the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania laid out a "sliding scale" test for determining specific personal jurisdiction based on the level of Internet interactivity. The Zippo court noted that websites can fall under three general categories: 1. Passive. Defendants maintaining passive websites would generally not be subject to personal jurisdiction because such websites only provide information; 2. Interactive. In this so-called "middle ground," exercise of jurisdiction in the "interactive" context is determined by examining the level of interactivity and the commercial nature of the site; or 3. Integral. At this end of spectrum, defendants maintaining websites "integral" to their business (i.e., processing orders to sell goods) would subject them to personal jurisdiction. The Seventh Circuit noted that, though sister circuits have adopted the Zippo sliding scale test, the Seventh Circuit had expressly declined to do so. Citing Tamburo v. Dworkin, 601 F.3d 693, 703 (7th. Cir. 2010), the court stated that it was reluctant "to fashion a special jurisdictional test for Internet-based cases." The Hemi Court reasoned that "the traditional due process inquiry . . . is not so difficult to apply to cases involving Internet contacts that courts need some sort of easier-to-apply categorical test." ### Relatedness The Seventh Circuit further found that specific jurisdiction over Hemi was proper because Illinoi's claims arose out of Hemi's contacts with Illinois. The Court explained that Hemi sold and shipped cigarettes to Illinois residents, thus "trigger[ing] Illinois's claims against it." Though the cigarette sales technically occurred in New Mexico, the Court reasoned that Illinois's suit was based on allegations that Hemi violated Illinois state law and federal law by failing to report its sales, not whether there was a contract between Hemi and its Illinois customers. ### Fairness The Seventh Circuit further observed that jurisdiction over Hemi would be proper only if, as noted in International Shoe Co. v. Washington, exercising jurisdiction "does not offend traditional notions of fair play and substantial justice." Factors relevant to the fair play and substantial justice analysis include: 1. The burden on the defendant; 2. The forum state's interest in adjudicating the dispute; 3. The plaintiff's interest in obtaining convenient and effective relief; 4. The interstate judicial system's interest in obtaining the most efficient resolution of the underlying dispute; and 5. The shared interest of the several states in furthering fundamental substantive social policies. In evaluating the above factors, the Seventh Circuit explained that it applies a sliding scale test: "the weaker the defendant's contacts with the forum state are, the less likely it is that exercising jurisdiction over that defendant is appropriate." Applying those factors to this case, the Seventh Circuit found that exercising jurisdiction over Hemi in Illinois would be fair because: - Hemi maintained a "sophisticated" and "expansive" online venture; - Hemi "held itself out to conduct business nationwide"; - Hemi was "apparently successful in reaching customers across the country"; - Hemi limited its exposure to lawsuits by refusing to make sales to certain states (namely, New York). Though defending the suit in Illinois might be burdensome on Hemi, the Seventh Circuit reasoned that Illinois courts had a strong interest in resolving a dispute that involved the state as a party. Moreover, because Illinois law would be applied, the Court also observed that it would be most convenient for Illinois to have the suit adjudicated in an Illinois court. The Court also noted that "Hemi wants to have its cake and eat it, too: it wants the benefit of a nationwide business model with none of the exposure. There is nothing constitutionally unfair about allowing Illinois, a state with which Hemi has had sufficient minimum contacts, to exercise personal jurisdiction over Hemi." ## Reaction After Hemi, several law firms warned businesses that selling products on the Internet could potentially make them liable for suit anywhere in the United States. For instance, several law firms cautioned clients that, although Hemi "involved a cigarettes retailer, its rationale could be applied to all Internet retailers." Other commentators observed that the Seventh Circuit's decision in Hemi reflected a "trend away from relying on interactivity of a website as a sole determinant of personal jurisdiction, looking instead toward the more relevant concept of targeting." Moreover, following the Hemi decision, several lawyers began advising clients to include a forum selection clause in their websites' user agreements to at least have the possibility of transferring a lawsuit to their home state. ## See also ### General information - Personal jurisdiction in internet cases in the United States - Minimum contacts - Legal aspects of computing - Cyberlaw - Personal jurisdiction - Civil procedure ### Cases - Zippo Manufacturing Co. v. Zippo Dot Com, Inc. - International Shoe Co. v. Washington - Hemi Group LLC v. City of New York \*Note: This is the litigation Hemi referenced as the reasoning behind explicitly denying business with New York residents. In this case, on January 25, 2010 the US Supreme Court held that New York City cannot use the RICO Act to collect damages from non-New York internet vendors who fail to pay New York City cigarette taxes. ### Law journal articles - Piercing Pennoyer with the Sword of a Thousand Truths: Jurisdictional Issues in the Virtual World by Andrew Cabasso, Intellectual Property, Media & Entertainment Law Journal, Fordham University School of Law - The Future of Cybertravel: Legal Implications of the Evasion of Geolocation by Marketa Trimble, Intellectual Property, Media & Entertainment Law Journal, Fordham University School of Law - How Technologically Savvy Do You Have to Be to Apply Zippo ?: An Approach to Internet Personal Jurisdiction After Fancaster and Edvisors by Joshua Beldner, Boston University Journal of Science & Technology Law - Personal Jurisdiction and Choice of Law by Stewart E. Sterk, Iowa Law Review
414,694	Light Years (Kylie Minogue album)	1,172,595,861	2000 studio album by Kylie Minogue	[ "2000 albums", "ARIA Award-winning albums", "Albums produced by Guy Chambers", "Albums produced by Mark Taylor (music producer)", "Albums produced by Richard Stannard (songwriter)", "Kylie Minogue albums", "Parlophone albums" ]	Light Years is the seventh studio album by Australian singer Kylie Minogue. Mushroom Records released it on 22 September 2000 in Australia; Parlophone released it on 25 September 2000 in the United Kingdom. Following the commercial failure of Impossible Princess (1997), Minogue left Deconstruction Records and took a hiatus from recording music. She signed with Parlophone in June 1999 and decided to return to her pop roots. She worked with various writers and producers, including Steve Anderson, Johnny Douglas, Robbie Williams, Guy Chambers, and Mark Picchiotti. Light Years is a dance-pop, disco, and Europop album that refers to music from the 1970s. Lyrically, the album touches upon themes of women's empowerment, celebration, and sex, in a cheeky and campy approach. Music critics provided positive reviews, complimenting Minogue's return to pop despite them being ambivalent towards the lyrical content. Retrospectively, Light Years has been recognized as one of Minogue's strongest releases. The album won the ARIA Award for Best Female Artist and Best Pop Release at the 2001 ceremonies. Light Years peaked in the top position on the Australian Albums Chart, Minogue's first number-one album in her native Australia. It reached the top 10 in Russia, Scotland, New Zealand, and on the UK Albums Chart. Five singles were released from Light Years, including "Spinning Around" and "On a Night Like This", which both reached number one in Australia, as well as the top 20 entries "Kids" and "Please Stay". All peaked inside the top 10 in the UK. The final single, "Your Disco Needs You" was only released in Australia and Germany. Light Years was further promoted with the On a Night Like This Tour, which visited Europe and Australia from March to May 2001. At the time, it was the highest grossing tour by a solo artist in Australia, with ticket sales of approximately US\$5 million. The album was re-issued in Europe in 2018 and returned to the UK Albums Chart and the Scottish Albums Chart. ## Background In 1997, Kylie Minogue released her sixth studio album, Impossible Princess. The album represented a drastic change in the singer's musical direction, incorporating elements of electronica and alternative music. The British public was unimpressed with her new musical direction, viewing it as a trend-chasing attempt, and failed to identify with her new intimate image as "IndieKylie". The backlash resulted in Impossible Princess having little impact on British record charts—it initially peaked at number 10 on the UK Albums Chart and sold only 18,000 copies in the first two weeks of release. After embarking on a successful promotional tour, Minogue left Deconstruction Records and BMG in November 1998, ending their six-year relationship. Following the split, Minogue took a break from recording music to focus on her acting career. She spent several months in Barbados performing Miranda in Toby Gough's production of The Tempest during an annual operatic festival. She also starred in the Australian films Cut and Sample People, both released in 2000. She gave several live performances in Australia, including the 1998 Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras, the opening ceremonies of Melbourne's Crown Casino and Sydney's Fox Studios in 1999. Minogue performed Duran Duran's 1984 single "The Reflex" on the tribute complication Undone: The Songs of Duran Duran (1999), and collaborated with the Pet Shop Boys on a duet, titled "In Denial", on their 1999 studio album Nightlife. Following "In Denial", Parlophone—a British record label the Pet Shop Boys had been with since 1985—decided to sign Minogue in June 1999. She announced she would start working on a new album, saying: "I took my time in choosing a new label [...] there is much I hope to achieve with my next album and I believe that anything is possible with this new partnership." Parlophone A&R executive Miles Leonard commented: "I believed that [Minogue] was still very strong vocally, and still definitely a star... I believed in her as an artist and I knew that with the right project, the right songwriters, the right producers, the right team, she would still have a fanbase out there." ## Development and recording In an early meeting with Parlophone to discuss which direction Minogue intended to pursue, the singer decided to return to her pop roots, saying "I should do what I do best... [Pop music] is the kind of music that people want from me." Minogue believed the album was a new beginning, as she started singing pop music again. Minogue was inspired by the music of the 1970s, which she discovered when she was a child via her parents' record collection, including the soundtrack from Grease (1978), Donna Summer's "Bad Girls" and "Dim All the Lights" (both in 1979). The label did not want to make another Pete Waterman Limited (PWL) record, but quality pop music with the help of great contributions and collaborations. Her team approached PWL owner Pete Waterman, who had worked with Minogue earlier in her career, during the production. However, the collaboration did not happen. Minogue enjoyed making Light Years; she got a chance to work with people who were certain how they wanted her to sound. She felt that working with different producers would help the album have a diverse feeling. She wanted the album to be song-driven and explained the musical styles to the producers with three keywords: "poolside", "disco", and "cocktails". Minogue worked on Light Years in Sydney, London, and Los Angeles, where she put the final touches on the album. Before signing with Parlophone, Minogue spent a week with her frequent collaborator Steve Anderson at Real World Studios in Box, Wiltshire, where most of the production of Impossible Princess was done. Three tracks were chosen from the session: "So Now Goodbye", "Butterfly", and "Bittersweet Goodbye". Minogue picked "Bittersweet Goodbye" when she was deep in the production process, saying it made her feel calm. A string arrangement by Wil Malone was added to the track, while Anderson kept Minogue's vocals from the original demo. Chicago-based DJ Mark Picchiotti flew to Los Angeles to record Minogue's vocals for "Butterfly", and then produced the track in his hometown. Former Take That member Robbie Williams contributed three songs with his songwriting partner Guy Chambers: "Loveboat", "Your Disco Needs You", and "Kids". Minogue shared the songwriting credit on the first two. She found in Williams her ideal male counterpart based on their similar musical output; she felt the work between Williams and Chamber was extraordinary. Chamber co-wrote another track with Minogue titled "I'm So High". They were among the earliest collaborations, which Minogue felt were a good foundation for the album. Minogue wrote the lyrics to "Light Years" with Biffco's songwriters Richard Stannard and Julian Gallagher in 10 minutes. The demo, originally titled "Light Relief", was unexpectedly favoured by the label and was picked up for the final tracklist. The songwriters also collaborated on "Please Stay". Minogue made several demos with a set of writers and producers arranged by Brian Rawling, including Steve Torch, Graham Stack, and Mark Taylor. She ended up recording "On a Night Like This", a song written originally for the Swedish recording artist Pandora for her 1999 album No Regrets. In New York, A&R executive Jamie Nelson pitched a demo of "Spinning Around" to Minogue and she agreed to record it. The track—written by Ira Shickman, Osborne Bingham, Kara DioGuardi, and Paula Abdul—was originally intended to be featured on Abdul's studio album, but it was given to Minogue after the album failed to materialise. Minogue recorded "Under the Influence of Love", a song written by Paul Politi and Barry White that Love Unlimited covered in 1974. The track reminded Minogue of her previous songs, despite having not heard it before the production of Light Years. Johnny Douglas wrote and produced "Password", "Disco Down", and "Koocachoo"; he also produced "So Now Goodbye", a track that Minogue wrote with Anderson. ## Musical styles Music critics have characterised Light Years as a dance-pop, disco, and Europop album. The album marked a return to her signature pop style, following the experimental record Impossible Princess. A reviewer from Sputnikmusic and Nick Levine of Digital Spy emphasise elements of disco, the 1970s and early 2000s music. AllMusic's Chris True noted the album reflects the late 1990s teen pop movement. Yahoo! Music's Gary Crossing referred to the album as a "largely undemanding collection of disco, Hi-NRG, Ibizan trance, funk, 60s film and TV themes and Latin-flavoured tunes". Elements of house, electronica, psychedelic pop, Eurodisco, and French Touch were highlighted by Nick Smith of musicOMH and Ian Gormely of Exclaim!. Described the album as being filled with "crisp rhythm sections, melodic orchestral passages and vivid grooves", Albumism's Quentin Harrison also noted influences from 1970s artists Cheryl Lynn, Tina Charles, and The Hues Corporation. The opening track, "Spinning Around", is a string-laden dance-pop song with prominent influences from disco music. The Guardian's Betty Clarke opined that the track sets the tone for Light Years and compared it to Minogue's "Hand on Your Heart" (1989). "So Now Goodbye"—a track that blends house, disco, and electronica elements—draws inspiration from Gloria Gaynor's "I Will Survive" (1978), Madonna's "Lucky Star" (1983) and the work of American band Earth, Wind & Fire. The bittersweet "Disco Down" was compared to the work of Giorgio Moroder and featured Christmassy church bells during the chorus. Michael Dwyer of The Age found Minogue goes "hardcore Mardi Gras" on the contemporary house and electronic dance track "Butterfly". "On a Night Like This" has a darker, more Europop edge, which was compared to Spiller's "Groovejet (If This Ain't Love)" (2000). Backing vocals and the arrangement of strings and fluttering flutes drive the fifth track, "Loveboat". The song features funky light guitar and faux-French effects. "Loveboat" was compared to the work of Barry Manilow, Minogue's "I Don't Need Anyone" (1997), and Williams's "Millennium" (1998). "Koocachoo" has elements of jazz and the 1960s music, and built around a chirping synth and horn arrangement. The track contains a groovy bass riff, retro guitar tone, sitar, keyboard sound effects, and "ba baba ba" harmonies in the chorus. English bassist Paul Turner contributed bass and guitars to the track. "Your Disco Needs You" is a disco track that is heavily influenced by Village People's "Go West" (1979). Minogue sings in a serious tone, accompanied by a brass section, regal horns, a male chorus, and high soprano back-up vocals. Cameron Adams from the Herald Sun felt that the song is a hybrid between Village People's "Y.M.C.A." (1978) and Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody" (1975), while Chris Charles of the BBC News described it as "ABBA and the Pet Shop Boys getting down at the hottest gay club in town". The samba-infused "Password" was used as a pregap hidden introductory track. "Please Stay" features Latin pop, soft acoustic, and flamenco elements. Crossing found "Bittersweet Goodbye", the album's only sentimental ballad, to be a "strange concoction" of Olivia Newton-John, Kate Bush and Cocteau Twins. It is followed by Minogue's cover of "Under the Influence of Love" (1967), in which her vocals are double-tracked for the bridge. Smith referred to the track as "Saint Etienne meets the best of the Nolans". The guitar-driven pop track "I'm So High" contains a subtle and slowly building melody. Dwyer wrote songs like "I'm So High" help Minogue "leave the club floor for car radio with equally enjoyable results". The penultimate track is "Kids", a joyous pop duet with Williams. It has funky groove rhythms and a distorted, guitar-driven euphoric chorus with soft guitars, synths, and vocal crescendos. English musicians Chris Sharrock and Neil Taylor played percussion and guitars on "Kids", respectively. The Village Voice's Emma Pearse felt that the song helps Minogue transport her energy "into Prince and Beck territory". The post-disco title track is an homage to Summer's "I Feel Love" (1977), featuring harmonies and electronic touches. The track reminds Clarke of Brotherhood of Man's "Angelo" (1977). ## Themes Minogue called Light Years an uplifting and vibrant record, with mostly happy songs that reflect her easy nature when she was making the album. She said listening to it felt like being on a summer holiday. Lyrically, Minogue said that she was "really going for it... [without] holding back", with several songs containing cheekiness, showgirl images, or camp elements. The songs were written from her imagination, rather than the autobiographical style of songwriting that she had experimented with on her previous record Impossible Princess. Minogue recalled writing each song as if it was a scene from a film or a video and trying to interpret and convert the idea into a song. Harrison highlighted Minogue's ability to focus on themes of flirtation, fun, and romance "without undercutting her previous growth as an artist" on Impossible Princess. Betty Clarke of The Guardian identified the theme of women's empowerment and celebration. She called Light Years "an album that celebrates being a girl", and commented that "not since the Spice Girls has the capacity to fill a dress been so celebrated". "Spinning Around" declares Minogue has changed and learned from her past mistakes. True and Smith interpreted it as Minogue's move away from her more experimental work on Impossible Princess. Pam Avoledo of Blogcritics found the amorous song depicted a woman who is expressing herself and taking control of her life. Clarke viewed "On a Night Like This" and "So Now Goodbye" as the up-tempo disco antics that successfully depict the notions of "grabbing the best looking man in the club, then ditching him when you feel like it". "Butterfly" discusses the spiritual freedom and joy of life, while "Bittersweet Goodbye" is a stripped-back ode to love. Smith viewed the track as a tribute to her former lover Michael Hutchence, who died in November 1997. Writing for The Sydney Morning Herald, Catherine Keenan wrote the album is "full of gay club anthems and not short on sex". Minogue calls for the listener to join her on the dance floor on "Your Disco Needs You". At one point, she delivers a military-like spoken interlude in French: "Vous êtes jamais seuls / Vous savez ce qu'il faut faire / Ne laissez pas tomber votre nation / La disco a besoin de vous!" ("You are never alone / You know what to do / Don't let your nation down / The disco needs you!") "Loveboat" is an homage to the 1970s television series of the same name, while referencing martinis, bikinis and James Bond in its lyrics. It contains several French phrases and cheeky lines such as "Rub on some lotion / The places I can't reach." Levine referred to the lyrics of "Loveboat" as a sensual couplet. Smith felt that the track is a mixture of kitsch and tropicana, and Minogue sounds ebullient. The penultimate track is "Kids", a joyous pop duet with Williams. The track references to the careers of both Minogue and Williams, with Minogue singing the line: "I've been dropping beats since Back in Black." On the title track, Minogue plays an air hostess on a fictional KM-Air flight. Adams found Minogue devoted to the erotic track. ## Packaging and release German fashion photographer Vincent Peters shot the artwork for Light Years, while Mark Farrow was selected to design the cover. The shoot took place in Ibiza, a place that Minogue felt "has a magical quality" to it. On the cover, wearing a blue chiffon swimsuit, Minogue stares into the distance. The cover has a backdrop of the sky and the sea, with a glimpse of a golden sunset filtering through. Parlophone dropped Minogue's surname on the cover, brand it as a "Kylie" album. Minogue wanted the cover to capture the music's essence: sunshine, beach, fun, and glamour. She thought the photoshoot was extraordinary, and the "lightness of the chiffon matched [her] mood and desire". Another picture from the photoshoot saw a head-to-knees Minogue wearing nothing but a towel. Peters felt Minogue has a strong sense of self, which sets her apart from other celebrities he had worked with. William Baker, who helped through the album process, said that he wanted a cover that was "a visual statement about [Minogue] reclaiming the throne of the Princess of Pop" and the result shows she has "returned to her rightful place!" Crossing found the glossy sleeve artwork "leaves very little to the imagination" and that Minogue is "unashamedly playing [her] 'never mind the book, have a gander at the cover' card". Clarke wrote Light Years was packaged "with male hormones in mind". Charles found it tacky, while John Earls of Classic Pop noted its commercialized nature, commenting that the artwork is better suited for a Ministry of Sound compilation and the cover is the only dull aspect of Light Years. From the same publication, Christian Guiltenane wrote Minogue created "a stunning fantasy figure" with the sunset's glow behind her. Writing for Idolator, Mike Wass commented that the "camp, fun and flirty" cover successfully captured the music of Light Years. Minogue titled the album Light Years describing her career journey, which she believes will continue as she has just begun to discover herself. She said: "I feel like I've come a long way... I think some other forces know where I'm going, but I'm not meant to know–that would've ruined it." Clarke felt the title was Minogue's response to Ray of Light, a similarly named 1998 album by Madonna. The album includes "Password", a hidden introductory track in the pregap portion of the CD. The listener can only hear the track by rewinding the opening song "Spinning Around". Robbie Williams, who usually has hidden tracks at the end of his albums, inspired this. Minogue said that although she was making a grown-up album, she wanted to keep a sense of enjoyment. She admitted the method is "a bit odd and silly, but that's the fun of it". Smith felt the track was hard to find, while Earls commented the decision was made at "the peak of the CD boom" and "Password" is a worthy reward. Mushroom Records first released the album in Australia on 22 September 2000. Parlophone released it on 25 September 2000 in the UK. On the German, Spanish and Japanese versions of the album, the original French spoken interlude of "Your Disco Needs You" was translated into their respective languages. EMI released the album in Canada on 26 September 2000 and distributed the album in North America. A special tour edition package was released in the UK on 5 March 2001, containing a second disc featuring various remixes. For the Australian tour edition, additional remixes were included as well as Minogue's cover of Olivia Newton-John's "Physical" (1981), which she performed during the tour. The album was re-issued by Parlophone in Japan in 2003, 2007, 2009, and 2011. In 2018, Light Years was re-released by BMG as a blue vinyl exclusively through Sainsbury's supermarket chain in Europe, limited to 2500 copies. ## Promotion Shortly after signing with Parlophone, Minogue and Baker released an elaborate art book titled Kylie. The photography-only book celebrates fan memorabilia, commentary, and Minogue's life. The book contains a nude sketch of Minogue, and several celebrities such as Elle MacPherson, fashion designer Vivienne Westwood, actor Barry Humphries, and singer Boy George. Minogue appeared on the controversial cover of the June issue of GQ shot by Terry Richardson, wearing a white tennis dress showing her naked bottom with the banner "Kylie: At Your Service". Minogue did an extensive promotion campaign for the album, appearing on various television programs and at music festivals. On 17 June 2000, before the album's release, Minogue appeared specially at London's G-A-Y nightclub where she performed several songs, including "Spinning Around", "Better the Devil You Know" and "Step Back in Time". In July, she performed at Party in the Park in Hyde Park and Mardi Gras London in Finsbury Park. Wearing a pink showgirl costume, she performed ABBA's "Dancing Queen" (1976) and "On a Night Like This" to an audience of 100,000 people at the 2000 Sydney Olympics closing ceremony in October. Later that month, she sang "Waltzing Matilda", "Celebration" (1992), and "Spinning Around" at the 2000 Summer Paralympics opening ceremony. Minogue promoted the album with her sixth concert tour, called On a Night Like This Tour. She performed in Europe in March 2001, before visiting Australia in April and May. Broadway shows and the musicals of the 1930s inspired the tour's style. In the United Kingdom, the tour sold 140,000 tickets in one weekend. In Australia, Minogue played a record-breaking nine concerts at the Sydney Entertainment Centre, beating the previous record held by AC/DC for the most dates performed at the venue in a single tour. It was the biggest tour by a solo artist in the country, grossing U.S. \$5 million from sales of 200,000 tickets. Minogue's concert on 11 May 2001 was filmed and released on home video under the title Live in Sydney. ### Singles "Spinning Around" was released as the lead single from Light Years in June 2000. Two previously unreleased tracks, the alternative dance "Cover Me With Kisses" and acoustic track "Paper Dolls", were included on the single's B-side. Liz Collins shot the single's artwork, which captured Minogue dressed in pastel pink clutching a hula hoop. Directed by Dawn Shadforth, the music video features Minogue in revealing gold hotpants. The song entered the Australian Singles Chart at number one, becoming the singer's first chart-topper since "Confide in Me" (1994). The song debuted at number one in the United Kingdom, making her only the second artist to have a number-one single in three consecutive decades (after Madonna). It was her fifth number-one single in the UK and her first in a decade, following "Tears on My Pillow" (1990). The second single, "On a Night Like This", was released in September, with the ballad "Ocean Blue" as the B-side track. It debuted at number one in Australia, making it her sixth number-one in that region; it also gave her the record for having the most singles debuting at number one with five entries. On the UK Singles Chart, the single debuted at number two. An accompanying music video, directed by Douglas Avery, was filmed in Monte Carlo in July. The plot is loosely based on Martin Scorsese's 1995 crime drama movie Casino, with Minogue portraying a trophy wife; Dutch actor Rutger Hauer served as her on-screen husband. An accompanying cover sleeve was taken from the booklet of Light Years, featuring Minogue lying on a marble surface before a sea front. "Kids" was released as the third single from Light Years and as the second from Williams' album Sing When You're Winning in October. Four original tracks by Williams appeared as B-side tracks: "John's Gay", "Often", "Karaoke Star", and "Kill Me or Cure Me". The music video, directed by Simon Hilton, contains choreography taken from Grease and references to Busby Berkley. The single peaked at number fourteen in Australia and at number two in the United Kingdom. Released on December, the fourth single "Please Stay" peaked at number 10 on the UK Singles Chart, her 20th top 10 entry, and number 15 on the Australian Singles Chart. It was the final release from Light Years in the UK, and was backed by two B-side tracks: a cover of "Santa Baby" and the previously unreleased track "Good Life". The music video saw Minogue sliding down a fireman's pole and dancing on top of a pool table. "Your Disco Needs You" was chosen as the final single, released only in Australia and Germany. It includes specially commissioned mixes of the track and "Password". Hugely popular as an album track, it was never released as a single in the UK because the content was considered "too gay" and "too camp". The decision sparked protests and petitions from fans lobbying for its release. A music video featuring scenes of Minogue dancing in formation accompanied the single's release in Germany. The track peaked at number 20 in Australia and number 31 in Germany. "Butterfly", a track that was in the running to be the fourth single, was remixed and issued in the US as a promotional single by Pichotti's Blue Plate Records in November 2001. It peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart. ## Critical reception Light Years received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics. The Guardian assigned a normalized rating out of 10 to reviews from UK mainstream critics—the album has an average score of 5.8 based on 6 reviews. NME wrote "Light Years is all you need to know about Kylie in less than an hour: fun, perfectly-formed, not too taxing and occasionally annoying". Dorian Lynskey of Select called it "an unrelenting hoot" that is filled with potential singles and fearlessly derivative. Clarke praised Minogue's newfound confidence, noting she has "her tongue firmly in her cheek for this camp slice of epic disco". Dwyer praised the "breezy disco hedonism" nature of Light Years, while Pearse wrote the album is among "some decidedly classy classic pop creations". Several reviewers only paid attention to the album’s lighter mood, but not its finer production qualities. Andrew Lynch of entertainment.ie viewed the album as inconsequential and uneven, although he considered it "a much better record [as a whole] than most critics would like to admit". Crossing found the album well-produced, but was critical of the songwriting effort and its cheeky content. Charles thought that Minogue "has become a parody of herself" with an album filled with catchy, throwaway pop songs. Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald wrote Williams and Chambers' contributions keep Light Years from being completely disposable. In their negative reviews, T'Cha Dunlevy of The Gazette and Sandra Sperounes of Edmonton Journal dismissed the record as lightweight and unimaginative, and said that Minogue "is still doing her best Madonna's impression." Retrospectively, Light Years is generally considered to be one of Minogue's strongest releases. It was one of three of Minogue's studio albums to receive a four-star rating from British writer Colin Larkin in the Encyclopedia of Popular Music (2011) with Rhythm of Love (1990) and Fever (2001). He classified it as "high standard". Smith praised Minogue's confidence, calling the album a game-changer and her most accessible work since Rhythm of Love. Levine commented that "as far as fruity little party records go, Light Years is an absolute peach". In 2018, Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine ranked Light Years as Minogue fourth-best studio album for its outstanding production. Harrison praised Minogue's spirited vocal performance, and concluded that besides its carefree appeal, Light Years has an "unrecognized compositional breadth and vitality that affirms Minogue's ongoing commitment to music excellence". ## Commercial performance Upon its release, Light Years debuted in second position on the ARIA Charts the week of 8 October 2000, denied the top position by The Games of the XXVII Olympiad: Official Music from the Opening Ceremony, the official album of the 2000 Summer Olympics opening ceremony. In its third charting week, it rose to number one, becoming Minogue's first number-one album in her home country, 12 years after her debut album was released. The album remained within the top 20 for over 30 consecutive weeks, from October 2000 to June 2001. It fell off the chart for the first time in July 2001, before re-entering at number 40 in October when Fever was released. In total, Light Years spent 43 weeks on the top 50 chart, beating Impossible Princess as Minogue's longest-charting album at the time. Within the year 2000, the album was certified quadruple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for sales exceeding 280,000 copies. It appeared on the ARIA year-end album charts for 2000 and 2001 at number seventeen on both, and the decade-end chart at number 69. In New Zealand, the album debuted and peaked at number eight the week of 22 October; Light Years remained on the chart for a total of five weeks. The album debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart during the week of 7 October 2000, behind Madonna's Music. On 9 February 2001, it was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments of more than 300,000 units. It was Minogue's most successful album sales-wise since Enjoy Yourself (1989). When Fever was released in October 2001, Light Years had remained in the top 100 for 27 non-consecutive weeks. From January to May 2002, the album re-entered the chart, staying for 11 weeks. In 2018, the reissue of Light Years peaked at number 36 on the UK Albums Chart on 7 June; it was the third best-selling vinyl album of the week. That same week, the reissue also appeared on the Scottish Albums Chart, reaching number 21—Light Years had previously peaked at number 3 there after its original release in 2000. In Ireland, the album spent five weeks on the chart and peaked at number 13. Light Years had sold 498,337 copies in the UK by October 2020. According to Music & Media, Light Years peaked at number 10 on the European Top 100 Albums chart. The album peaked within the top 40 in several European countries, including Belgium, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Sweden, and Switzerland. Light Years also reached number 50 in France, and number 71 in Netherlands. In South Africa, the album peaked at number 11 and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry of South Africa for shipments of 100,000 copies. ## Accolades and impact "Spinning Around" earned nominations for Best Female Artist and Best Pop Release at the 2000 ARIA Music Awards show, winning the latter. In the following ceremony, Light Years garnered four nominations, winning Minogue's first Best Female Artist and the second-consecutive Best Pop Release, while losing both Highest Selling Album and Album of the Year to Powderfinger's Odyssey Number Five (2000). That same year, "On a Night Like This" was also nominated for Highest Selling Single and Single of the Year. Phonographic Performance Company of Australia recognized Minogue as the seventh-most broadcast artist of 2001, while three tracks from Light Years appeared on the top 100 Most Broadcast Recordings of 2001: "Spinning Around" (number 12), "On a Night Like This" (number 15), and "Kids" (number 163). Music critics recognized Light Years for reviving Minogue's career and reestablishing her to the public. The music video for "Spinning Around" led to her bottom and the revealing hotpants gaining extensive coverage in the media, referring to it as one of her trademark looks. Jaelani Turner-Williams of Stereogum and Clarke credited the album for introducing a more sophisticated side of disco-pop for the new century. Minogue went on to make six more studio albums with Parlophone until 2016, her longest label residency after Mushroom Records. Critics also highlighted Light Years' impact on the music scene. Cinquemani stated house tracks "On a Night Like This" and "Butterfly" predicted the rise of EDM music and created the template for Minogue's releases over the next 15 years. True commented Minogue is finally comfortable with who she is and praised the album as one of the best disco records since the 1970s. A reviewer from Sputnikmusic credited the album for bringing nu-disco to the public, predicting the direction for her later releases, and influencing pop projects for two decades—namely Madonna's Confessions on a Dance Floor (2005), Arcade Fire's Reflektor (2013), and Carly Rae Jepsen's "Julien" (2019). In a 2010 article, Karina Halle of Consequence noted Minogue's flamboyant musical style has been passed down to contemporary pop artists like Lady Gaga. ## Track listing Notes - signifies an additional producer - signifies an additional vocal producer ## Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Light Years. ### Recording locations - Metropolis Studios, London (tracks 5, 7, 12) - Angel, London (tracks 5, 7) - Blah St., Hampshire, England (tracks 5, 12) - Studio 2, Dublin (tracks 8, 11, 14) - Olympic, London (track 9) - Real World, Box, England (track 9) - Therapy, London (track 9) - Master Rock, London (track 13) - Sarm Hook End, London (track 13) ### Musicians - Kylie Minogue – lead vocals (all tracks); backing vocals (tracks 4–7, 12) - Big G. – additional guitar (track 1) - Johnny Douglas – beats (tracks 3, 4, 6); keyboards, guitar (tracks 4, 6); backing vocals (track 6) - Dave Clews – keyboards (tracks 3, 4, 6); programming (tracks 3, 4) - Alan Ross – guitar (track 3) - Simon Hale – strings, horn arrangement (tracks 3, 4); keyboards, string arrangements, conducting (track 11) - Andy Caine – backing vocals (track 4); male choir (tracks 5, 7) - Miriam Stockley – backing vocals (track 4) - Gavyn Wright – orchestra leader (tracks 4, 9) - Steve McNichol – programming (tracks 5, 7, 12) - Andy Duncan – drum programming (tracks 5, 7, 12, 13); percussion (track 5) - Tracy Ackerman – backing vocals (tracks 5, 7, 12) - Phil Spalding – bass guitar (tracks 5, 7, 12); fuzz bass (track 13) electric rhythm guitar and wah-wah (track 5) - Guy Chambers – keyboards (tracks 5, 7, 12, 13); (track 5); piano (track 7); electric guitar, acoustic guitar, electric sitar (track 12); arrangement (track 13) - Lance Ellington – male choir (tracks 5, 7) - Rick Driscoll – male choir (tracks 5, 7) - Clive Griffith – male choir (tracks 5, 7) - Pete Howarth – male choir (tracks 5, 7) - Mick Mullins – male choir (tracks 5, 7) - Dan Russell – male choir (tracks 5, 7) - Jon Savannah – male choir (tracks 5, 7) - Tony Walthers – male choir (tracks 5, 7) - Carl Wayne – male choir (tracks 5, 7) - Paul Turner – bass, guitars (track 6) - Robert Williams – backing vocals (track 7) - Sharon Murphy – backing vocals (tracks 8, 11, 14) - John Themis – guitars (track 8) - Wil Malone – orchestra arrangement, conducting (track 9) - London Session Orchestra – orchestra (track 9) - Craig J. Snider – additional keyboards (track 10) - Dem Girlz – backing vocals (track 10) - Natural – guitars, additional arrangements (track 10) - Kraig McCreary – guitars (track 10) - Resin Rubbers – strings (track 10) - Paul Mertens – flute (track 10) - Dave Sears – additional arrangements (track 10) - Steve Lewinson – bass (track 11) - Steve Power – additional keyboards (track 12) - Robbie Williams – vocals (track 13) - Winston Blissett – bass guitar (track 13) - Neil Taylor – guitars (track 13) - Chris Sharrock – percussion (track 13) - Gary Nuttall – backing vocals (track 13) - Katie Kissoon – backing vocals (track 13) - Sylvia Mason-James – backing vocals (track 13) - Tessa Niles – backing vocals (track 13) - Paul "Tubbs" Williams – backing vocals (track 13) - Claire Worrall – backing vocals (track 13) - Biff – backing vocals (track 14) ### Technical - Mike Spencer – production (track 1) - 7th District – additional production, mix (track 1) - Big G. – additional vocal production, engineering, mixing, mastering (track 1) - Graham Stack – production, mixing (track 2) - Mark Taylor – production, mixing (track 2) - Johnny Douglas – production (tracks 3, 4, 6) - Ren Swan – engineering, mixing (tracks 3, 4, 6) - Tom Hannen – engineering assistance, mixing assistance (tracks 3, 4, 6) - Guy Chambers – production (tracks 5, 7, 12, 13) - Steve Power – production, mixing (tracks 5, 7, 12, 13); engineering (tracks 5, 7, 12) - Tony Cousins – mastering (tracks 5, 13) - Richard "Biff" Stannard – production (tracks 8, 11, 14) - Julian Gallagher – production (tracks 8, 11, 14) - Ash Howes – recording, mixing (tracks 8, 11, 14) - Alvin Sweeney – recording assistance, mixing assistance (tracks 8, 11, 14) - Dave McCracken – Pro Tools (tracks 8, 14) - Steve Anderson – production (track 9) - Adam Brown – recording, mixing (track 9) - Mark Picchiotti – production, mixing (track 10) - Tom Carlisle – mix engineering (track 10) - Pete Davis – Pro Tools (track 11) - Richard Woodcraft – additional engineering (track 13) - Savvas Iossifidis – additional engineering (track 13) - Dave Naughton – mix engineering assistance (track 13) - Richard Flack – Pro Tools (track 13) - Jim Brumby – Pro Tools (track 13) ### Artwork - Vincent Peters – photography - Farrow Design – design ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### Decade-end charts ## Certifications and sales ## Release history ## See also - List of number-one albums of 2000 (Australia) - List of UK top-ten albums in 2000 - List of top 25 albums for 2000 in Australia - List of top 25 albums for 2001 in Australia - List of best-selling albums of the 2000s in Australia - List of albums with tracks hidden in the pregap
23,846,262	Sacrament (Millennium)	1,167,593,595	null	[ "1997 American television episodes", "Millennium (season 1) episodes", "Television episodes written by Frank Spotnitz" ]	"'Sacrament" is the fifteenth episode of the first season of the American crime-thriller television series Millennium. It premiered on the Fox network on February 21, 1997. The episode was written by Frank Spotnitz, and directed by Michael W. Watkins. "Sacrament" featured guest appearances by Philip Anglim, Dylan Haggerty and Brian Markinson. Millennium Group consultant Frank Black (Lance Henriksen) faces difficulty when his sister-in-law is abducted after her son's baptism. Meanwhile, Black's daughter Jordan begins to show signs of experiencing the same seemingly-psychic visions that have plagued him. Spotnitz's script for "Sacrament", which he has called his favourite of those written for Millennium, draws inspiration from real life serial killers John Wayne Gacy and Dennis Nilsen. The episode has received mostly positive reviews from critics, and was viewed by approximately 6.81 million households during its original broadcast. ## Plot Millennium Group member Frank Black (Lance Henriksen) joins his brother Tom (Philip Anglim) and sister-in-law Helen (Liz Bryson) for their newborn son's christening. After the child is baptized, Black joins his daughter Jordan (Brittany Tiplady), finding her in hysterics. She claims to have seen a man hurting Helen; when Black and his brother rush outside, they find the baby in the back of Tom's car, but Helen is gone. Black's contact in the Seattle Police Department, Bob Bletcher (Bill Smitrovich), insists that Black should not get involved in the case as he is too close to the victims. However, Black insists he can be of assistance, and reviews security footage of a stranger investigating Tom's luggage after their flight. Bletcher reports that a stolen car has been found abandoned, with Helen's blood inside. Fellow Millennium Group member Peter Watts (Terry O'Quinn) helps Black identify the kidnapper from a set pictures of sex offenders in the Seattle area—Black recognizes Richard Green (Dylan Haggerty) as the man from the airport footage. Tom later searches Black's office, stealing his gun and finding Green's name and address. Tom confronts Green at his home, demanding to know where his wife is. The police, who have been watching Green's house, intervene and take Tom home before anyone is harmed. Black apologizes for keeping information from Tom, but warns him that his outburst is exactly why he did so. Watts has meanwhile tracked forensic evidence from the abandoned car to a cabin in the woods; blood found there matches both Green and Helen, and a ring is discovered which is identified as Helen's wedding ring. Meanwhile, a mysteriously ill Jordan continues to ask about Helen's whereabouts, and her remarks about Helen's conditions lead Black to believe she is starting to experience the seemingly-psychic visions he is capable of seeing, which allow him to see the evil people are capable of. Elsewhere, Green is arrested. His property is searched but Helen is nowhere to be found—although another corpse is dug up in the garden, evidently killed nine years before. Black deduces that Green could not have killed Helen at the cabin as his house was already being watched by the police. He sees a set of tools in Green's home which he realizes were not used for murder or torture, but to immure Helen in the basement. Black and the police dismantle a newly finished plaster wall, finding Helen injured but alive; it is at this point that Black realizes Green was simply a pawn, used by his father to lure victims to the house. ## Production "Sacrament" was written by Frank Spotnitz and directed by Michael W. Watkins. Spotnitz had previously written "Weeds" earlier in the first season, as well as penning "TEOTWAWKI", "Antipas" and "Seven and One" in the series' third season. Spotnitz was a prolific writer for Millennium's sister show The X-Files, receiving his first writing credit for that series for the episode "End Game". Spotnitz has described "Sacrament" as his favourite script for the series, finding the character of Richard Green to be "creepy" and believing that "the solution to the mystery [was] sufficiently unexpected". "Sacrament" is the only episode of Millennium to have been directed by Watkins. Watkins' work on the episode led to him becoming a director and executive producer for The X-Files when that series moved production to Los Angeles. The episode features the last appearance in the series by Brian Markinson as Seattle police officer Teeple; Markinson had previously portrayed the character in the earlier first season episodes "The Judge" and "Blood Relatives". The treatment of the two victims seen in "Sacrament"—the immurement of Helen Black and the burial in the garden of the unidentified second victim—appear to have been based on the methods used by real life serial killers John Wayne Gacy, Dennis Nilsen and Dorothea Puente to dispose of their victims. Both Gacy and Nilsen habitually murdered men they had taken home as lovers, with Gacy storing bodies in the crawl space of his home, and Nilsen keeping corpses in wardrobes and under the floorboards. Puente would kill her tenants for their money and bury their bodies in the gardens of the properties they were renting. ## Broadcast and reception "Sacrament" was first broadcast on the Fox Network on February 21, 1997. The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6.4 during its original broadcast, meaning that 6.4 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode. This represented approximately 6.81 million households, and left the episode the seventy-seventh most-viewed broadcast that week. The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics. The A.V. Club's Zack Handlen rated the episode an A−, noting that it "subvert[s] our expectations" when dealing with the fallibility of a protagonist. Handlen felt that the episode's plot was somewhat inevitable following the introduction of Black's family, but that it was handled well; he also felt positively about the episode's symbolism of the vulnerability of innocence. Bill Gibron, writing for DVD Talk, rated the episode 5 out of 5, calling it "Millennium at its best". Gibron felt that "Sacrament" was "a taut, well-executed thriller" whose events "unfold with logic and authenticity". Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated "Sacrament" three stars out of five. Shearman felt that the plot was "a bit humdrum", finding that some emotional development was simply treated as "padding"; however, he praised guest star Philip Anglim for his performance.
236,757	Life Is Peachy	1,170,853,766	null	[ "1996 albums", "Albums produced by Ross Robinson", "Epic Records albums", "Immortal Records albums", "Korn albums" ]	Life Is Peachy is the second studio album by American nu metal band Korn. It was released on October 15, 1996, through both Immortal Records and Epic Records. After the release of Korn's 1994 self-titled debut album, the band reunited with Ross Robinson to produce and went back to Indigo Ranch Studios to record. Life Is Peachy features such themes as drugs, social encounters, sex, betrayal, and revenge. The album has fourteen tracks, excluding the hidden track after "Kill You". Martin Riedl photographed its cover art, and its title is credited to Korn's bassist Reginald "Fieldy" Arvizu. Life Is Peachy was Korn's first significant breakthrough, which came from constant touring after the debut album's release and building a fan base, thus fueling great expectations. Critical reception for the album was mainly mixed, but its songwriting and sound quality were praised. Authors and music journalists deemed Life Is Peachy innovative, and some lauded Jonathan Davis' for his vocal techniques and embodied singing. His vocal performance on "Good God" was viewed as encapsulating the album's essence, becoming one of the decisive elements in the development of what would later be called nu metal, which Korn pioneered. During its promotional period, newspapers and magazines defined it sonically as a metal album with hip-hop beats, presenting a unique sound. Life Is Peachy debuted and peaked at number three on the Billboard 200 and peaked at number one in New Zealand. The album sold 106,000 copies in the US in its first week of release. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in January 1997 and platinum in December of that same year. Life Is Peachy was RIAA-certified double platinum in the US in November 1999. As of 2019, the album has sold over 6 million copies worldwide. Korn released three singles from Life Is Peachy: "No Place to Hide", "A.D.I.D.A.S.", and "Good God". All three singles went on the UK Singles Chart. Shortly before the album's release, Korn launched the Life Is Peachy Tour in the US with Limp Bizkit as the opening act. After its release, the band toured in support of Metallica in the US. Korn then embarked on its headlining tour throughout the UK, Europe, North America, and Australia, with often sold-out shows. The band also took part in the 1997 Lollapalooza summer tour, where the Life Is Peachy Tour ended abruptly due to guitarist James "Munky" Shaffer being diagnosed with viral meningitis. Life Is Peachy earned Korn a 1997 Kerrang! Award for Best Album. "No Place to Hide" received a nomination for Best Metal Performance at the 40th Annual Grammy Awards. ## Background Korn had played between 200 and 250 shows in the year following the release of their 1994 self-titled debut album. As a result, Korn topped the Billboard's Heatseekers Albums chart in the week ending September 30, 1995. In early October 1995, it began moving up on the Billboard 200 chart and reached sales of 154,000 units. Both chart performances were considered uncommon successes at that time as Korn was one of the first new non-mainstream bands to enter the top half of the Billboard 200 over the last two years. Korn was also the only debut album displaying such aggressiveness to have achieved this distinction on the Billboard 200 in the previous few years. Korn's debut album's weekly sales stood at 17,000 and 27,000 in the first half of January 1996, as the band's recognition increased. The album was certified gold by the RIAA for 500,000 copies sold on January 29, 1996. In February 1996, Korn and Deftones were the opening acts for Ozzy Osbourne's US arena tour. After fourteen months of touring to promote the debut album, Korn took a month off and began writing material for the next studio effort, Life Is Peachy. At this point, Korn's members had difficulty projecting themselves into the future because they had spent their last few years under the influence of drugs and alcohol, being only sober when performing. As they had to begin writing new songs, the musicians were in "a serious state of disarray" but would not stop their partying habits. Meanwhile, "the buzz" on Korn "was huge". ## Writing and recording Lead singer Jonathan Davis said regarding the writing of the second album, "Right after we got done touring with Ozzy Osbourne, Ross [Robinson] hooked up with us. We went into a rehearsal studio and started writing." Knowing that they had tight deadlines to meet, the pattern that followed would be "faster and thrashier". However, Davis had begun writing part of the song "Mr. Rogers" while on tour in the fall of 1995. Guitarist James "Munky" Shaffer described the writing process as, "We didn't write nothin' for two years then we had creativity build up, like blue balls of creativity." Korn entered pre-production and wrote the first songs of the album, "No Place to Hide" and "A.D.I.D.A.S.", at their rehearsal space, Underground Chicken Sound in Huntington Beach. Drummer David Silveria said, "somebody will start playing something and the rest of us will work around it and see where it goes", mentioning the songs "Twist" and "Good God" whose beats came first. In this location, they developed an approach to songwriting whereby they would elaborate on the elements that had previously established them, such as Davis when he was "freaking out"; thus, the song "Twist" emerged. This contrasted with the production process of Korn, as some songs and guitar riffs had been prepared years before they actually began. Furthermore, the steady touring and the crowd's responses generated the band's punk rock "feel and attitude", resulting in dissonant guitar playing on Life Is Peachy; "We wanted to create a really angry album", said Shaffer. Davis then added his vocals to the jams. While working on the album, they consumed "mass quantities" of alcoholic beverages and were often so "high" that most nights, one of the band members passed out and therefore could not play his instrument, especially guitarist Brian "Head" Welch. Korn's productive sessions were often interrupted due to their debaucherous lifestyle, and Robinson struggled to get them to stop drinking to focus instead on songwriting and rehearsing. The band members mixed alcohol and drugs and also fought frequently. Davis recalled engaging in aggressive behaviors toward his bandmates, often biting them, due to alcohol abuse. After playing at a few gigs with Deftones in California, Korn returned to the studio to start tracking Life Is Peachy in April 1996. Korn and Robinson reunited to produce and begin recording at Indigo Ranch Studios in Malibu, California. It was mainly because their first album had been recorded there and was a success. Bassist Reginald "Fieldy" Arvizu said, "We wanted that same energy and inspiration we found up in the Malibu Hills." Davis said working with Robinson was essential as he was connected to the band since his involvement on the first album; he also knew how to capture their live energy and motivate them to focus in the recording studio. "Fortunately, he's here to kick our asses. Otherwise, we wouldn't be very... motivated!", said Davis. After engineering Korn's debut album, Richard Kaplan, co-founder and owner of Indigo Ranch Studios, returned to work on Life Is Peachy. Initially, Kaplan's assistant, Chuck Johnson, was hired by Robinson to be his "house engineer". The album was primarily written in the studio as the band was less inspired on the road, although work had begun when returning to rehearsals. Back at Indigo Ranch Studios, Korn used methamphetamine as they did when recording their 1994 debut album. The band launched their first-ever internet webcast, called Korn Mangling the Web, through a partnership with QuickTime, allowing viewers to watch Life Is Peachy's development at Indigo Ranch Studios. In an early 1997 interview for Bass Player, Arvizu shed light on the components that contributed to his approach to the instrument: "I try to cross hip-hop's beats and bass lines with sickness." Welch and Shaffer wanted diversity, desiring to become more melodic and approaching their guitars "more like a keyboard" by removing the attack to bring a more atmospheric sound while keeping their heavy trademark sound. Both moved in a more experimental direction with volume swells and different effects pedals. Although the two guitarists bought US\$2,000 worth of pedals for the album, Arvizu, on the other hand, had not used any bass effects. The whole band contributed to the songwriting process, but Arvizu had a distinct influence on musical decisions. Arvizu came up with his parts, then Shaffer and Welch adapted their work so as not to "run all over" the bass, or otherwise, the guitar parts were done first, and he conceived his bass lines to go over them. The two guitarists appreciated this method because, according to Arvizu, "it doesn't make our sound so typically metal". Arvizu felt he was not gaining the upper hand over his fellow musicians as the guitar work was still audible in the sounds, but explained that it "adds a different dimension for the bass". Adopting a different approach to the debut album, Silveria explained that for Life Is Peachy, "we went in really fresh, and we wanted to get it done quickly to capture that energy". Sixty percent of what he would play was planned, and forty percent was more a matter of creative spontaneity. Silveria felt that he would not have conveyed the same "energy" if the entirety of his drum parts had been written beforehand. The music was created first, and then each piece was identified by untypical titles, such as "Dick Nose", after which Davis began to write the lyrics. Apart from the cover versions of "Lowrider" and "Wicked", the album's lyrics were entirely written by Davis, who found inspiration in a place called Magic Room in Los Angeles. Davis often felt drained and exhausted from his writing sessions. "Ass Itch" was the last song Davis wrote, and finally, the songs were renamed after he had finished his work. Author Doug Small wrote that "the band's songwriting method—a sort of collective building process wherein four instrumentalists, with the input of Jonathan, develop each other's ideas until they've created a monster—is truly a group effort." For the recording, Arvizu had set up one of his Mesa/Boogie "heads" (separate bass amplifiers) along with a single 4x10" bass speaker cabinet with the "horn miked". The bass sound heard on Life Is Peachy was "my miked amp", said Arvizu, adding that the "direct signal was all the way off". Arvizu used an Ibanez SR1305 Soundgear 5-string bass to record the entire album, as on 1994's Korn. An experienced slap bass player, he used tones and mastered various techniques, such as pulling up on four strings, unlike most bassists, to make his bass stand out. Arvizu invariably preferred to play his bass while looking through the isolation booth's glass facing his fellow musicians. Silveria achieved the high-pitched sound by using a 20" kick drum and a 3 1/2" piccolo snare. He finished tracking drums in five days. Davis' vocals were recorded in a slightly different configuration than on the debut album; thus, he was never alone, or the other band members were facing him. To achieve an unequivocal result when recording vocals in the isolation booth, Robinson urged Davis to put himself back in the context that inspired his lyrics or used physical force. Sixty to seventy percent of Davis' vocals on the album were captured on the first take. Welch recalled the spontaneity of Davis: "Once [Jonathan] did 'Twist,' it was, like, 'What in the hell was that?' ... And we were like, 'Let's open the record with that. And people will be like, 'What? What is this?' No one ever has done that.' ... We looked at [Jonathan after he had recorded his vocals]. We were like, 'Who are you?'" Welch got to sing on "Lowrider" as a birthday present. Kaplan said he mixed the album himself as Johnson never showed up but would eventually reappear at the end of the sessions. Robinson mixed the song "K@#Ø%!". Life Is Peachy was mixed at Indigo Ranch Studios and mastered by Eddy Schreyer at Oasis Mastering in Studio City. In the end, a fifteenth song, "Proud", would not appear on the final tracklist that would make up the album. It was completed in July 1996. The album cost \$150,000 to make. Small insisted Life Is Peachy was rushed when it was put together but praised its "unique" sound. ### Later developments Excerpts from the album's recording sessions at Indigo Ranch Studios appeared in Korn's 1997 biographical video Who Then Now?, which was entirely filmed by the band's crew member and archivist Danny "Ham Cam" Hamilton. In 2002, Arvizu said he enjoyed the album much more than in the past. "A good pissed-off record", he said. Welch would later say that he did not really like the direction the band was taking artistically, but not on Life Is Peachy. In 2015, Davis said even though Life Is Peachy was a "killer" record, it was not among his favorite Korn albums due to its rushed production, mentioning that the only reason was the pressure of constant touring. He further said, "But yeah, very rushed, very raw, it's still a cool-ass record." ## Album art and booklet Arvizu came up with the title Life Is Peachy. The name came from Arvizu's Pee Chee folder. He often wrote the words "Life Is" in front of the brand name, which he found amusing. Arvizu said, "I used to doodle all over it [the file folder]. I drew long hair on the character and put guitars in their hands. I used to sketch stuff all the time. I eventually knew my scribbles might someday pay off. I thought that visual would make a really cool album cover." Korn contacted the Pee Chee file folder company and asked for permission to use the file folder's image for an album cover, offering twenty thousand dollars (\$20,000), resulting in the company turning the offer down. The name Life Is Peachy was agreed by band members to be a "great" name for the album, and kept the name but didn't add Fieldy's file folder cover. Due to the album's dark lyrical content, its title would be interpreted as ironic. The booklet, much like the booklets to all Korn albums, does not disclose any of the songs' lyrics. Korn members have explained that the reason behind omitting the lyrics is due to the belief that including printed lyrics limits the listener's musical experience. Davis told MTV's Serena Altschul, "I think music is something that every individual has their own meaning to the song. They can come up with whatever the hell I'm saying and that's the beauty of it and that's what I wanna keep there." Life Is Peachy's black and white front cover depicts a little boy with neatly combed blond hair straightening his tie in a gilt mirror while a taller, shadowy presence looms behind him. The photo was taken by Martin Riedl. The design and concept were by Scott Leberecht. Small said that it "continued the threatened child theme as depicted on Korn's artwork." Other photos in the booklet were taken by Stephen Stickler. Life Is Peachy is, to date, the only album by Korn to feature their name spelled in a different font. Two quotations are printed on the inside face of the card under the CD tray. The first is taken from Homer Joy's "Streets of Bakersfield" (1973) and reads as follows: "You don't know me but you don't like me, You say you care less how I feel. How many of you that sit and judge me. Ever walked the streets of Bakersfield?" The second quotation reads: Who Then now, Bitches?'—Korn", which would later be the title of their biographical video. ## Release and promotion Korn resumed intensive touring immediately after recording sessions for Life Is Peachy ended, performing notably at the UK Monsters of Rock festival in Donington on August 17, 1996, where they headlined the second stage and played songs from the upcoming album. At the festival, the band was interviewed by MTV's Vanessa Warwick for Headbangers Ball. As a pre-Life Is Peachy Tour, Korn performed at several European festivals. The band had only cost the Swiss Rock Oz'Arènes festival \$3,000 to get them to perform in mid-1996. In September 1996, Korn was selling 6,000 copies per week; "It was a completely grass-roots campaign", said Epic Records' Al Masocco. However, Davis stressed his desire for Korn to stay underground. Korn was selling well due to word of mouth and extended touring, earning them a "loyal" fanbase. Just days before the release of Life Is Peachy, NME wrote that the "rise of Korn over the past two years has been nothing short of meteoric". Life Is Peachy was released worldwide on October 15, 1996. It was released by Immortal and distributed through Sony's Epic Records. The CD album version included a bonus multimedia section that featured live video footage of "Good God" recorded live at London Astoria in the summer of 1996. ### Life Is Peachy Tour The band toured throughout the US from October 1996 onward, with Limp Bizkit as the opening act. Korn supported Metallica on their US tour, which began in mid-December 1996. According to Shaffer, the tour with Metallica ended in mid-January 1997. Korn toured solo in 1997 and headlined at often sold-out shows. The band released a promotional disc in 1997 called Life Is Peachy Tour Sampler, with Incubus and the Urge, as both bands supported Korn on their UK and European headlining tour. The album featured three live tracks: "Chi" by Korn (US Tour Fall 1996), "All Washed Up" by the Urge, and "Hilikus" by Incubus. The tour encompassed twenty-six shows and began on January 21, 1997, in Germany, visiting Denmark, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, and Sweden, and ended in London on February 24. On February 20, 1997, Korn made a television appearance as the musical guest of the day on Nulle Part Ailleurs (NPA), performing "No Place to Hide" (live broadcast) in prime time on Canal+ in Paris. Helmet and Limp Bizkit also toured with them to promote Life Is Peachy; both bands were the opening acts for Korn's North American tour. After ten days of rest, Korn kicked off their North American headlining tour on March 6 in Arizona, performing to "a packed" Mesa Amphitheater, and ended on March 27 in Maine, with a total of sixteen shows. It included performances in Chicago, Kansas City, Pensacola, Tampa, and Toronto, among other cities. They then went on an Australia tour. In May 1997, the band returned for a short second leg of the UK and Europe headline tour, including a few dates in France; Limb Bizkit and Helmet were the opening acts. They have also performed at European festivals, including the Dynamo Open Air in Eindhoven. Korn became a "must-see" band through the Life Is Peachy Tour and garnered media attention in the UK and Europe. Korn was a co-headliner on the main stage at the Lollapalooza summer tour 7, along with Jane's Addiction, the Prodigy, Snoop Dogg, Tool, and Tricky, among others, which began on June 25, 1997. The band secured the Lollapalooza slot at the beginning of the year. During the prior year's Lollapalooza, there was controversy over the inclusion of marquee, big-name artists such as Metallica and Soundgarden, which founder Perry Farrell considered a "bastardization" of Lollapalooza, leading him to walk out on the tour. Davis said, "Last year... wasn't like a real Lollapalooza vibe. ... Because it seems to me that Lollapalooza's been about cutting-edge bands, ones on the underground, and that's what I think [Perry Farrell] based that whole thing on and last year really just wasn't all about that. And this year, now that he's back on, you can tell, there's so many different, diverse music groups here." Korn's popularity in the US increased significantly during the Lollapalooza tour, where they developed a growing fan base. On July 18, not even a month into the tour, Korn was forced to cancel the remainder of their Lollapalooza appearances due to Shaffer's recent diagnosis with viral meningitis. Davis released a written statement concerning Shaffer's illness: "We love our fans. This is the last thing we want to do, but it's the only decision to make at this time. It just doesn't feel right without [Shaffer]." The statement also acknowledged fans that "there is no suitable replacement for [Shaffer] during his recuperation." The July 18, 1997, date at Cleveland's Blossom Music Center as part of the Lollapalooza marked the final show of the Life Is Peachy Tour. Korn would envision reuniting after Shaffer's recovery to begin writing the third album. By then, fan rumors circulated on the Internet about Shaffer's supposed death. ### Concert synopsis Writers Katia Kulawick of Rock Sound and Manuel Rabasse of Hard 'N' Heavy magazine reviewed a Life Is Peachy Tour's show at Seattle's Mercer Arena on November 30, 1996. Before the show, Kulawick asked Korn about their "mental state"; Shaffer responded, "Aggressive. And there, right away, exhausted." The Life Is Peachy Tour featured live performances of Davis wearing customized sequined Adidas tracksuits. The show started with a video projected on a screen onstage, which was a nonsensical animated cartoon with "grimacing characters", then Davis, dressed in a purple sequined tracksuit, "belched out" "Twist" under a dim spotlight, the opening song, followed by "Blind" from the 1994 debut album with the full stage lighting. Rabasse praised the performance, describing it as "Powerful, of rare cohesion, of infallible precision." Kulawick wrote that the animated cartoon, supplemented by dismembered dolls scattered behind and hung on two large grids above the band members, gave a "tragic dimension". Davis' sequined tracksuit contrasted strikingly with the stage setting and Life Is Peachy's music and lyrics. The onstage lighting configuration consisted of vertical spotlights in pink, red, and purple colors, illuminating the musicians above and below. The show also featured green-colored spotlights, most commonly used in death metal shows at that time, and strobe lights of fast flashing frequencies. The "ominous" shadows of the musicians were sometimes displayed on the screen, which only had that type of function during the show. The pit was mostly made up of fans wearing "oversized and misshapen" clothes and pants and often having the same hairstyle as Welch. The sound system in the venue amplifying Davis' voice was "questionable", but it improved on "Good God". Throughout the show, Davis was constantly "hanging on to his mic stand", gesticulating over the heavy rhythms propelled by Arvizu's percussive bass sound paired with the TR-8080's sound integrated into Silveria's drum kit. The dominant instrument was the bass, and the live sound was described as "a mini-earthquake" at each Silveria's kick drum hit. Of the guitar playing, Rabasse wrote, "Dirtiness, approximation, confusion are inherent elements of the sound" of Shaffer and Welch, "at the head of a panoply of pedals, all more tinkered the ones than the others". Rabasse described the show's final songs as "a voodoo trance mixed with psychotherapy" and called it "apocalyptic". Some other songs from Life Is Peachy played that night were "A.D.I.D.A.S.", "Lowrider", "No Place to Hide", and "Kill You". Kulawick described the Korn performance that night as "extremely grueling" and the crowd as "hysterical". The show lasted just over an hour; without an encore. Korn's 1996 and 1997 headlining shows lasted 70 to 75 minutes. The show in Glasgow at Barrowland Ballroom on January 24, 1997, included "Proud" in the 15-song setlist and had no encore. Korn's stage presence earned them critical acclaim from Clare Dowse of Kerrang!, who rated the show 5 out of 5. During the 1997 tour, Limp Bizkit's Fred Durst began to appear as a guest vocalist on "Wicked" and did the rapped vocals segments of the song, taking the role of Deftones' Chino Moreno. Toward the end of the 1997 tour, they regularly merged the end of "No Place to Hide" with an extract of Deftones' "Engine No. 9". ### Singles Three singles were released from Life Is Peachy. The album's first single, "No Place to Hide", was issued to heavy metal radio stations in mid-September 1996 and subsequently to alternative radio, and its physical release followed on October 7. The single features "Sean Olson" and "Proud", two songs that would be included on the soundtracks for The Crow: City of Angels (1996) and I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997), respectively. Other releases include the original album song and remixed versions of 1994's "Shoots and Ladders" by producers the Dust Brothers. "A.D.I.D.A.S." was released as a single in early 1997. "Good God" was the album's third and final single. Various CD single versions include both original and remixed versions of "Good God" as well as remixes of "A.D.I.D.A.S." and "Wicked". ### Music videos Korn did not make a music video for "No Place to Hide", as Davis said it was a "waste of time and money" and mentioned the band's "integrity". They chose instead to include a live video of "Good God" on the enhanced CD. The music video for "A.D.I.D.A.S." was directed by Joseph Kahn in Los Angeles in January 1997. Arvizu recalled: "It was one of the hardest videos we ever made because we all had to lie still on cold metal slabs for hours, pretending to be dead. We wore dirty blue contacts in our eyes that made us partially blind while they were in." It received a nomination at the 1997 Billboard Music Video Awards in the hard rock category. ## Music and lyrical themes Life Is Peachy opens with the approximately one-minute prelude "Twist", which is made up of improvised guttural scat singing and contains the word "twist" as the sole lyric, performed by Davis. Small described the vocal style as "spitting out the twisted rantings of a madman" and said that it was fit for the album's introduction. Revolver wrote that the album opens with a "surreal vocal freakout", while Kerrang! felt it features "nonsensical vocal noises". Kerrang! wrote that "Twist" conveys the underlying message that the opener of the "much-anticipated" second album won't be a single but rather a "great big 'Fuck you'". An a cappella version of "Twist" is included as a hidden track after "Kill You". "Chi" is named after former Deftones bassist Chi Cheng. It was named after Cheng because he liked reggae music and thought "Chi" was actually a reggae song. Davis said "Chi" is "about a lot of alcohol and drug abuse". He stated that his vocal style on "Twist" and "Chi" and the latter's lyrics remain "a mystery" to him. The meaning of "Lost" is the loss of his best friend when the latter settled down with his girlfriend. "Swallow" is about drug-induced paranoia. The instrumental "Porno Creep" was noted for its jazz-funk style, with Silveria's "deft, jazzy touches behind the drums kit" described by Kerrang! as "setting the band apart from any other group on the metal scene". Davis explained the background behind "Good God": > It's about a guy I knew in school who I thought was my friend, but who fucked me. He came into my life with nothing, hung out at my house, lived off me, and made me do shit I didn't really wanna do. I was into new romantic music and he was a mod, and he'd tell me if I didn't dress like a mod he wouldn't be my friend anymore. Whenever I had plans to go on a date with a chick he'd sabotage it, because he didn't have a date or nothing. He was a gutless fucking nothing. I haven't talked to him for years. "Mr. Rogers" is about Fred Rogers. Davis said: "As a kid, he told me to be polite, and all it did was get me picked on. I fucking hate that man. Thanks for making me polite and trusting everyone, and easy to take advantage of." "K@#Ø%!" is about women who have hurt Davis. The song is noted for its heavy use of vulgarisms throughout all the lyrics; because of this, Shaffer said that band had intended to jokingly submit it to rock radio stations because they "knew they wouldn't play it, then follow up about a week later with the real thing". The grawlix "K@#Ø%!" stands for "Kunts!". The lyrical theme of "No Place to Hide" is the impossibility of escaping from oneself, facing the same problems and obsessions in everyday life and beyond, year after year. "A.D.I.D.A.S." is an acronym for "All Day I Dream About Sex". "A.D.I.D.A.S." is also about sexual frustration and refers to the parties where a boy chases a girl but returns home alone; Davis added, " ... and you lie in bed and all you have to do is jerk off". The cover song "Lowrider" is characterized by Davis playing his bagpipes and the band's style of humor. "Ass Itch" is about Davis' difficulty with songwriting. "Kill You" is about Davis' ex-stepmother. It narrates a complicated relationship Davis had with her, who did not fully accept her stepson, and his resentment of this inextricable deadlock. Davis explained: > It's about a relative I first met when I was 12. I fucking hate that bitch. She's the most evil, fucked up person I've met in my whole life. She hated my guts. She did everything she could to make my life hell. Like, when I was sick she'd feed me tea with tabasco, which is really hot pepper oil. She'd make me drink it and say, 'You have to burn that cold out, boy'. Fucked up shit like that. So every night when I'd go to sleep, I'd dream of killing that bitch. In some sick way I had a sexual fantasy about her, and I don't know what that stems from or why, but I always dreamt about fucking her and killing her. According to Davis, while the debut album centered on his childhood themes, Life Is Peachy reflected more on his past eighteen months within the band, except for a few songs. In 1996, Kerrang! summarized Life Is Peachy's themes: "Hate, pain, hate, sex, hate." They later stated that Korn channeled an "atmosphere of pure dementia" into the record, which showcased "more tales of child abuse, insecurity, betrayal of trust and general hatred for the world". The album's overall tone has been described by terms such as "big ball of anger", "contained rage", and "frustration". It instills a feeling of belligerence. Life Is Peachy features a more prominent hip hop influence than the band's self-titled debut, with Shaffer recalling, "We were listening to a lot of hip hop! I was probably listening to a lot of Mr. Bungle, hip hop like early Outkast and the Pharcyde, Sepultura records, and Rage Against the Machine, just to name a few." Characteristics that define the album's sound include the elements that appeared on the debut album, such as Arvizu's "clanking bass sound" and Welch and Shaffer's dissonant 7-string guitars, which are more disharmonic and noisy than previously, such as the loops on "Swallow", contrasting with Davis who had added more vocal melodies as exemplified on "No Place to Hide". The "clicky" and percussive bass sound can often be mistaken for the kick drum, for example, on "Ass Itch". Arvizu proudly described Life Is Peachy as having a rhythmically aggressive style, while MTV's Kyle Anderson expressed a converging opinion, saying the album "really belongs" to the bassist. The rhythms and "howling" vocals have been compared to those of the black metal subgenre. On the album, Davis' vocal style varies from whispering to clean singing, harsh vocals, and guttural scatting. His voice shifts going from one extreme to the other have been described as the "products of a beautiful voice". Screamings and sounds comparable to "borborygms" and onomatopoeias spontaneously punctuate his vocal parts. The vocal style on "Twist" was also described as a "cacophony of borborygms" or "borborygms delivered in a scat-like manner". Author and music journalist Jean-Charles Desgroux wrote that Davis displayed all his "organic versatility" on Life Is Peachy and achieved "heights of rage that are difficult to bear". In the context of Life Is Peachy's promotional period, magazines and newspapers had vaguely defined the album's genre, although all had converged on the description of a metal sound. In early October 1996, announcing its imminent release, Kerrang! deemed "Good God" as "brutal" and wrote that they "sound like nothing that's gone before". On October 25, 1996, Entertainment Weekly's David Grad described the album's sound as a "fusion of heavy riffs and tight hip-hop beats". In October 1996, writer Manuel Rabasse commented that with Life Is Peachy, Korn "continues to depave the marked pathways of current metal". On November 5, 1996, The New York Times critic Jon Pareles wrote that throughout Life Is Peachy, "the band applies hip-hop's noise esthetics to a hard-rock lineup". In January 1997, Rock Sound's Katia Kulawick called Korn the "metal's mutants". In an interview during the Life Is Peachy Tour in March 1997, France's heavy metal magazine Hard Force described Korn as the "most revered new generation's metal band of this time". In May 1997, Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune called Korn a "testosterone-juiced metal act". Life Is Peachy was a "moment" that represented the apogee of a new musical style (later branded "nu metal") which "sounded fresh and interesting and vital". Life Is Peachy was subsequently labeled nu metal. ## Critical reception Life Is Peachy received mainly mixed reviews from critics. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote: "Korn add enough elements of alternative rock song structure to make the music accessible to the masses, and their songwriting has continued to improve." Mörat of Kerrang! rated the album four out of five stars. He wrote that Davis' vocals are "filled with rage and hatred and bile", and he opined that what "makes the band" is the "bare emotion" in his voice. He highlighted the darkness and heaviness of the music, which occasionally showcased a "weird funky vibe". Dominic Hilton of Guitarist wrote, "Life Is Peachy shows no let-up in the psychotic style, and is safely tipped to establish Korn as the new standard" in metal. Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote: "Korn has learned more than a few tricks from Nine Inch Nails, and it's not above using invective for simple shock value. But the chip on its shoulder sounds genuine." Adrian Bromley of Chronicles of Chaos wrote that he was "impressed with the strength and sound quality" Korn "has been able to magnify with Life Is Peachy". Los Angeles Times critic Mike Boehm called the album a "gloomy hard-rock record". Ian Winwood of Metal Hammer found the album "so noisy and heavy that it is impossible to pose to" and stated, "Korn sound like nothing that has preceded them". He concluded his review with: "Classic". Hard Force magazine rated the album 3 out of 5. They wrote that although Korn retains its trademark elements showcased in the 1994 debut album, the band "radicalizes its discourse" on Life Is Peachy, making it harder to pin down. Entertainment Weekly said the album was a "primal scream" and left the "impression that frontman Jonathan Davis is turning his well-publicized childhood traumas into a cheap marketing device". They gave it a C- and said that it "may be of interest to mental-health professionals." ### Retrospective reviews In a 2002 critical reappraisal, Ashley Bird of Kerrang! wrote that Life Is Peachy was a "difficult, angular, sinister record". He wrote that many have divergent opinions of the album; for some, it was "disjointed", and for others, it was regarded as "the finest hour" of the band. Elaborating further, he stated: "In Faith No More terms, this was Angel Dust, in Nirvana terms it was In Utero. In anyone's terms, it's one hell of a ride". Praising Davis' vocal performance on "Good God", Bird said its powerful chorus would be a pivotal moment on the album, thus becoming an important influence for "legions of down-tuned wannabes" who "ripped off" this singing style. But, he added, "never has a metal mantra been delivered with more tortured passion" than Davis. Bird regarded "Good God" as the "pinnacle" of Life Is Peachy. He dismissed "K@#Ø%!", which he included in "a couple of slips", although that was not enough to impair "an album of such diverse charms". Q magazine's Danny Scott said the album is "Harsher and harder than their groundbreaking debut." Stephen Thompson of the A.V. Club panned Life Is Peachy, calling the album "nothing but plain old, ham-fisted, butt-stupid heavy metal". The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Rock History author Bob Gulla described Davis as a "Virulent singer" on the album. Gulla gave a laudatory assessment, writing that he "seethed his way through the recording in helping to define himself as one of the most compelling and troubled voices in all of rock", and praised the creative partnership, stating that "the manic guitars and rhythm surrounding him only enhanced the final product". Anderson stated the album was a sort of "de-evolution" for the band due to its abrasive production that contrasted with the 1994 debut album. "Much of Life Is Peachy is ugly", he said, whereas a notion of "playfulness" was showcased on the 1998 follow-up album. He further stated that Life Is Peachy was "pure Korn id—nothing but anger and violence". Anderson wrote, '[t]hat's not to say it's a bad album", but that it was actually "one of the more fascinating (if inconsistent) entries in the nu metal canon". In a 2021 retrospective review, Metal Hammer noted that Life Is Peachy was "occasionally wacky" but also "far more" experimental than the debut album, further stating that songs such as "Chi", "Mr. Rogers", "No Place to Hide", and "Wicked" are "moments of genuine brilliance", and added, "But they're all topped by the savage 'Good God', which can lay a claim to being the best song Korn have ever written." The magazine felt that the triviality of "Porno Creep", "K@#¿%!", and "Lowrider", tended to downgrade the album. ## Accolades In 1998, the single "No Place to Hide" earned the band a second Grammy Award nomination in the Best Metal Performance category. ## Commercial performance Life Is Peachy peaked at number one on the New Zealand Top 40 Album chart. The album debuted and peaked at number three on the Billboard 200 chart. It sold 106,000 copies in the US in its opening week, marking the band's first significant breakthrough. The album also peaked at number 32 on the UK Albums Chart. Life Is Peachy was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on January 8, 1997. On December 9, 1997, the album was certified platinum by the RIAA. It was certified double platinum by the RIAA on November 10, 1999. Life Is Peachy has sold over 6 million copies worldwide as of 2019. "No Place to Hide" peaked at number 26 on the UK Singles Chart. The album's second single, "A.D.I.D.A.S.", peaked at number 22 on the UK Singles Chart, while also making an appearance at number 45 in Australia. In April 1997, "A.D.I.D.A.S." went to number 13 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart. "Good God" peaked at number 25 on the UK Singles Chart and number 81 on the Australian ARIA Charts. ## Legacy Korn is regarded as "the one band that jumpstarted the nü-metal trend", Life Is Peachy thus picking up where Korn left off with their self-titled debut album. Life Is Peachy was considered "innovative" by authors and music journalists Malcolm Dome and Mick Wall. In 2000, Life Is Peachy was voted number 869 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums. The album was selected by Rolling Stone staff for their list of "20 Rock Albums Turning 20 in 2016". In 2021, Alternative Press included Life Is Peachy in its list of the "20 Albums from 1996 that mark some of the best of the decade". In 2021, Metal Hammer included the album in its list of the "Top 20 best metal albums of 1996" (in alphabetical order). In 2022, Life Is Peachy was ranked number 13 on Metal Hammer's list of the "50 best nu metal albums of all time" and was on MetalSucks' list of "14 Metal Albums That Epitomize the Sound of the '90s." In 2022, Jon Wiederhorn of Loudwire wrote that Life Is Peachy "is considered by many to be one of Korn's best records". ## Track listing Notes - Kunts! is censored on most releases as "K@#ø%!" also written as "K@#¿%!" on the cover of the disc. - The song "Kill You" ends at 5:04. After two minutes and 30 seconds of silence [5:04 – 7:34] a brief reprisal of "Twist" in a cappella form called "Twist A Capella", starts. ## Personnel Credits taken from the CD liner notes. Korn - Jonathan Davis – lead vocals, bagpipes, additional guitars on "Kill You" and "Mr. Rogers" - Head – guitars, vocals on "Lowrider" - Munky – guitars - Fieldy – bass guitar - David Silveria – drums Additional musicians - Chino Moreno – vocals on "Wicked" - Nathan Davis – additional vocals on "A.D.I.D.A.S." - Sugar and Earl – additional guest appearance on "Swallow" - Chuck Johnson – cowbell in "Lowrider" Technical - Ross Robinson – producer, engineer, mixing - Chuck Johnson – engineer, mixing - Richard Kaplan – mixing, additional engineering - Rob Agnello – assistant - Jamie Leavitt – assistant - Eddy Schreyer – mastering ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### Singles ## Certifications
959,492	Kenji Ito	1,173,087,710	Japanese music composer (born 1968)	[ "1968 births", "Freelance musicians", "Japanese composers", "Japanese male composers", "Japanese male musicians", "Living people", "Musicians from Tokyo", "Square Enix people", "Video game composers" ]	Kenji Ito (伊藤賢治, Itō Kenji, born July 5, 1968), also known by the nickname Itoken (イトケン), is a Japanese video game composer and musician. He is best known for his work on the Mana and SaGa series, though he has worked on over 30 video games throughout his career as well as composed or arranged music for over 15 other albums, concerts, and plays. He learned to play several instruments at a young age, and joined Square directly out of college as a composer in 1990 at the advice of a professor. He worked there for over a decade, composing many of his best-known scores. In 2001, he left Square to become a freelance composer, but has since continued to collaborate with the company. Since leaving Square, Ito has composed soundtracks to over a dozen games, and has branched out into composition and production of music for plays and albums for other performers. Ito's work has been performed in a concert dedicated to his pieces as well as general video game music events, and he has played the piano in additional concerts. Pieces of his from the SaGa and Mana series have been arranged as piano solos and published in sheet music books. ## Biography ### Early life Born in Tokyo, Japan, on July 5, 1968, Ito became interested in music at the age of four. He began to learn to play the piano, becoming interested in it after hearing piano music coming from a classroom he passed by daily with his mother. He was also interested in Electone music, but was discouraged from learning it by a piano teacher. By the time he began composing at the age of ten, he had learned to play alto saxophone, clarinet, and piano, and was interested in becoming a singer/songwriter. When he was close to graduating from college, he decided to pursue a career in composing music; when he asked a professor for advice, the professor recommended becoming a video game music composer, given the recent success in Japan of Dragon Quest III. During March 1990, after applying to several video game companies including HAL Laboratory, Ito began working at Square. ### Career His first project was a co-effort that same year between himself and Nobuo Uematsu for the Game Boy title Final Fantasy Legend II (SaGa 2). It led the following year to the first album release of his music, All Sounds of SaGa, which was a combination album of The Final Fantasy Legend, Final Fantasy Legend II, and Final Fantasy Legend III; all of Ito's work on Legend II appeared on the album. Shortly after in 1991, he composed his first solo work, the soundtrack for Final Fantasy Adventure (Seiken Densetsu), another Game Boy title. He then returned to the SaGa series for the next few years, composing the soundtracks to the Super Famicom's Romancing SaGa, Romancing SaGa 2, and Romancing SaGa 3. These soundtracks sparked Ito's first arranged albums; the first game was arranged in a French musical style by Masaaki Mizuguchi, while the other two were arranged by Ryou Fukui and Taro Iwashiro, respectively, into orchestral pieces. Ito was originally scheduled to continue on with the Mana series and compose the soundtrack to Seiken Densetsu 2 (Secret of Mana), but was forced to hand the project off to Hiroki Kikuta as his first score due to the demand on his time for scoring Romancing SaGa. 1995 marked the first time since he started composing that he worked on a title outside the Mana or SaGa series; he composed the music for Koi wa Balance and was a member of an eight-person team for Tobal No. 1. He returned to the SaGa series in 1997 with SaGa Frontier, and finished out the decade with Chocobo Racing and Chocobo's Dungeon 2; for Chocobo Racing he only arranged previous works from the Chocobo and Final Fantasy series, and contributed only a few tracks to Chocobo's Dungeon 2. He left Square in 2001 to become a freelance composer. He has said that this move was in order to give him the flexibility to work on more than just video game music. The first work that Ito composed after leaving Square was the soundtrack to Culdcept II, which he regards as his best work. He attributes this feeling both to the fact that it was his first freelance piece and that he handled all aspects of the music production, from composition through arrangement and sound production. From there he returned to working with Square and the Mana series with the remake of his second soundtrack, Final Fantasy Adventure, into the soundtrack of Sword of Mana. It was an act he would repeat two years later for Square, now Square Enix, with the remake of Romancing SaGa, Romancing SaGa: Minstrel Song. He has since returned to the Mana series twice, with the soundtracks to Children of Mana and Dawn of Mana. All of the video game soundtracks that he has composed since the third expansion pack for Cross Gate in 2004 have been with the assistance of other composers except for 2007's Hero Must Die, though during those years he has branched out from video games into composing and producing albums and singles for performers as well as composing music for plays and concerts. He has also released an album of piano pieces that he has composed; only two of the eight tracks are from his video game works. ## Legacy Ito performed piano live during September 22, 2006 Press Start 2006 -Symphony of Games- live concert, at which several of his pieces were performed by an orchestra. This concert followed an concert of August 26, 2006 Manami Kiyota x Kenji Ito Collaboration Live in which he played the piano for songs composed by him for the event and sung by Manami Kiyota; he has also played the piano at concerts given by The Black Mages, a band composed of current or former Square musicians, before they expanded to include a full-time pianist. Music composed by Ito has also been performed at the Extra -Hyper Game Music Event 2007 and Christmas Live 2008 "gentleecho -prelude-" concerts. Music composed by Ito was performed at a concert devoted to his music on February 21, 2009 titled "gentle echo meeting" at the Uchisaiwaicho Hall in Chiyoda, Tokyo. A group of five musicians performed eight of his songs, interspersed with performances by Ito and discussions about his music between himself and Masahiro Sakurai. The event began as a concert due to Ito's wish to host one based on his music, but after the space the organizing company, Harmonics International, rented turned out to be run by a high school classmate of Ito, at the classmate's insistence the discussions of Ito's music were added to the program. Music from the original soundtracks of Dawn of Mana and Sword of Mana has been arranged for the piano and published by DOREMI Music Publishing. Two compilation books of music from the series as a whole have also been published as Seiken Densetsu Best Collection Piano Solo Sheet Music first and second editions, with the first edition including tracks by Ito from Final Fantasy Adventure while the second added tracks he composed from Dawn of Mana. All songs in each book have been rewritten by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate level piano solos, though they are meant to sound as much like the originals as possible. Additionally, KMP Music Publishing has published a book of the piano music included in the Sword of Mana soundtrack album, which Ito arranged from his original compositions. DOREMI Music Publishing also published music from the original soundtracks of some of the SaGa games that Ito composed as piano sheet music book; music from Romancing SaGa 3, Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song, and SaGa Frontier were written by Asako Niwa for piano solos of beginning to intermediate difficulty. ## Musical style and influences Ito's music is mainly inspired by images from the game rather than outside influences; however, he never played the games themselves. The only video games that he plays are sports games; he has only seen up to the introductory movie for most of the role-playing games that he has written music for. While many of his pieces are orchestral, he enjoys working in a recording studio and enjoys composing "normal songs" as much as his orchestral works. His favorite video game music from other composers include the music from Star Fox, Dragon Quest, Final Fantasy, Wizardry and Nobunaga's Ambition. Non-video game music that has inspired him includes Japanese popular music and soundtracks to anime works, as well as easy listening music such as Paul Mauriat or Richard Clayderman, especially string music. These influences have led him to wish to create music "that you can listen to while you relax". He also wishes to expand his compositions outside video game music and into ballads. ## Works ### Video games ### Other Composition - Kokoro no Takarabako (1999) – single by Hiromi Ōta - Seishun no Fu / Midarete Atsuki Wagami niwa (2002) – concert - \~Canaria\~ (2002) – single by Muneyuki Satoh - Touson Dairoku Shishu (2002) – album by Ikuyo Ueda - Muneyuki Sato All Songs Collection (2003) – album by Muneyuki Satoh - Hajimari no Daichi (2006) – album by Manami Kiyota - Our Endless Night -The spring time of life (2006) – concert by Manami Kiyota; with many others - Manami Kiyota x Kenji Ito Collaboration Live (2006) – concert by Manami Kiyota - Maou Kourin 'Live SIDE & Evil SIDE' (2006) – play with many others - Kenji Ito Piano Works Collection \~Everlasting Melodies\~ (2006) – includes one piece from Romancing SaGa 2, and one from Chocobo Racing - Kono Aozora ni Yakusoku o (2007) – anime - Boku wa Tomodachi ga Sukunai (2011) – anime ep 5 - The Girl in Twilight (2018) – anime; main theme - Braverthday (2018) – album by Nobuhiko Okamoto; "Tsugi wa Kimi ga Shuyaku no Ban da" - Arad Senki: The Wheel of Reversal (2020) – anime Arrangement - "Ai no Sumika"\~"Hyouhaku no Toki /Komoro Nikki -Touson no Fuyuko" Stage Music Collection\~ (1999) – album by Kyoko Fujimoto - Hyouhaku no Toki/ Touson to Fuyuko (2001) – concert - Katakoi (2002) – single by Muneyuki Satoh - Soredemo Kisetsu wa (2002) – single by Muneyuki Satoh - Tougenkyo -Masashi Sada Chromatic Harmonica Music Collection- (2002) – album by Etsuko Kitani - Mirai (2003) – album by Yusuke Matsumoto ## See also - Music of the Mana series - Music of the SaGa series - Music of the Chocobo series
46,748,102	Deep-fried butter	1,171,262,608	Snack food made of butter	[ "American snack foods", "Butter", "Deep fried foods" ]	Deep-fried butter is a snack food made of butter coated with a batter or breading and then deep-fried. The dish has often been served at fairs in the US; among them, the State Fair of Texas in Dallas, Texas, the South Carolina State Fair, the Iowa State Fair in Des Moines, Iowa, and County Fairs across Ohio. Roast butter is a similar dish, for which recipes exist dating to the 17th century. ## History ### United States Abel Gonzales Jr., also known as "Fried Jesus", of Dallas, Texas, invented deep-fried butter, serving it at the 2009 State Fair of Texas in Dallas, Texas. Prepared using frozen, battered butter, it was awarded the "Most Creative food prize" at that time. A version of deep-fried butter on a stick debuted at the Iowa State Fair 2011, which was prepared using frozen butter that is dipped in a honey- and cinnamon- flavored batter, deep-fried until browned, and then topped with a confectioner's sugar glaze. This concoction on a stick was invented by Larry Fyfe, an entrepreneur and concessionaire at the fair. Deep-fried butter has also been served on a stick at the State Fair of Texas. In 2011 at the Orange County Fair in Costa Mesa, California, deep-fried butter was paired with chocolate-covered bacon and dubbed the "coronary combo." ABC News made a comparison regarding the pricing of this food pairing, stating, "the \$10.50 price rivaled some health plans' co-payments for a visit to a cardiologist." This dish has also been served at other events and venues, such as the State Fair of Virginia and the Musikfest music festival in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. ### Canada The debut of deep-fried butter in 2010 at the Canadian National Exhibition in Toronto, Canada may have led to a rise in attendance at the event. During the 18-day event in 2010, the concession stand purveying the dish sold 9,000 orders, which equated to 36,000 individual deep-fried butter balls using 800 pounds of butter. The dish was served in portions of four balls at the event, which totaled 315 calories. ### United Kingdom In 2011 in Edinburgh, Scotland, a pub named The Fiddler's Elbow served a dessert dish named "Braveheart Butter Bombs" that consists of deep-fried butter served with ice cream infused with Irn-Bru and coulis. Some critics in Edinburgh have referred to deep-fried butter as a "coronary on a plate", but chefs at the pub have stated that when consumed in moderation it "should be all right". The pub also planned on offering a variation using whisky in place of Irn-Bru. ## Characteristics Deep-fried butter's flavor was compared to that of French toast, and described as tasting like "the most buttery bread you've ever had". ABC News called it an "artery-clogging snack." Celebrity chef Paula Deen published a recipe for fried butter balls, which uses a blend of cream cheese and butter that is frozen, coated, frozen again, and then deep-fried. The cooking time in this recipe is short, for only ten to fifteen seconds, whereupon the product attains a "light golden" color. ## Roast butter Roast butter is a similar dish, for which recipes exist dating to the 17th century. The first known recipe for roast butter dates to 1615. Roast butter was documented in the cookbook The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy in 1747. The recipe entailed soaking butter in salted water for a few hours, placing it on a rotisserie ("spit it"), covering it with breadcrumbs and nutmeg, and roasting it under a low fire while continuously covering it with egg yolks and additional bread crumbs. Oysters were recommended to accompany the dish. ## See also - Fried Coke – introduced by inventor Abel Gonzales, Jr. at the 2006 State Fair of Texas - List of deep fried foods
67,588,075	Little Island at Pier 55	1,153,772,441	Park in Manhattan, New York	[ "2020s in Manhattan", "2021 establishments in New York City", "Artificial islands of New York (state)", "Chelsea, Manhattan", "Elevated parks", "Hudson River Park", "Islands of Manhattan", "Parks in Manhattan", "Piers in New York City", "West Side Highway" ]	Little Island at Pier 55 (stylized as Little Island @Pier55) is an artificial island park in the Hudson River west of Manhattan in New York City, adjoining Hudson River Park. Designed by Heatherwick Studio, it is near the intersection of West Street and West 13th Street in the Meatpacking District and Chelsea neighborhoods of Manhattan. It is located slightly west of the Manhattan shoreline atop Hudson River Pier 55, connected to Hudson River Park in Manhattan by footbridges at 13th and 14th Streets. Little Island has three concession stands, a small stage, and a 687-seat amphitheater. Little Island covers 2.4 acres (0.97 ha) and is supported by 132 pot-shaped structures (called "tulips") suspended above the water, which in turn stand on 280 concrete pilings extending into the riverbed. The tops of the pots range from 15 to 62 ft (4.6 to 18.9 m) above the mean waterline. Engineer Arup Group oversaw the installation of the pots manufactured in Upstate New York by the Fort Miller Company. The park has various lawns, paths, and plants, which were arranged by landscape architect Signe Nielsen. The plantings and soil were engineered to reduce erosion and were also arranged aesthetically. Plans arose in November 2014 for a new park, known as Pier 55, designed by Heatherwick Studio and largely funded by Barry Diller and Diane von Fürstenberg, with some funding from the New York City and state governments. Originally, construction was to begin in 2015 and the park would have been completed in 2018 or 2019. However, the park's construction was delayed by lawsuits from the City Club of New York. Plans for the park were scrapped in September 2017 due to lawsuits and cost overruns. The next month, the proposal was revived when New York Governor Andrew Cuomo agreed to provide funding for the park. Construction of the structure began in April 2018 and a symbolic cornerstone was laid in December 2018. The project was renamed Little Island in 2019 and opened on May 21, 2021. ## Description Little Island adjoins Hudson River Park near the intersection of West Street and West 13th Street in Manhattan. The park is in the Meatpacking District and Chelsea neighborhoods of Manhattan. Commissioned by businessman Barry Diller and designed by Thomas Heatherwick's company Heatherwick Studio, the park covers 2.4 acres (0.97 ha). It is accessible from two passageways extending across the water from Hudson River Park: a southern esplanade at Little West 12th Street and a northern esplanade at West 14th Street. The park can fit 1,000 people simultaneously. As of 2021, the park is open from 6 a.m. to 1 a.m. daily, but visitors are required to book reservations if they visit after noon. ### Structural design Arup Group oversaw the structural design of the park. Little Island is supported by 132 pot-shaped structures suspended above the water. These "tulip pots" vary in height and are between 15 and 62 ft (4.6 and 18.9 m) above the mean waterline. This was meant to protect the park from a 500-year flood, in which the water level in the river rises as much as 11 ft (3.4 m). The heights of the pots was intended to give the appearance of a floating leaf or a wave. Numerous other firms were involved in the structural design, including precast cement contractor Fort Miller Company, marine consultant Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineers, and marine contractor Weeks Marine. Each pot has four to six lightweight concrete sections, referred to as "petals", which are designed to reduce the load on the pilings. The precast concrete is also meant to be resistant to erosion and corrosion. The concrete pots were manufactured by the Fort Miller Company at their factory in Easton in Upstate New York. The Fort Miller Company hired a partner to create foam molds for the pieces of the pots using a laser cutter, then cleared out a 600-foot-long building for these foam pieces. Thirty-nine types of molds were fabricated. According to the company's president, "A full one-third of our annual production capacity was displaced by this project." After the petals were manufactured, they were driven to the Port of Coeymans, a port on the Hudson River south of Albany, New York. At the Port of Coeymans, Weeks Marine assembled the individual petals and used a crane to load them onto barges. The barges typically traveled from the Port of Coeymans to Manhattan in 14 hours. Once in Manhattan, the pots were installed on their supports using a 350-ton crane. The largest support is 30 ft (9.1 m) tall and weighs 90 short tons (80 long tons; 82 t). The pots stand on 267 or 280 concrete pilings, which extend at most 200 ft (61 m) into the bottom of the Hudson River. Each piling measures 3 ft (0.91 m) in diameter and can handle loads of 250 to 350 short tons (220 to 310 long tons; 230 to 320 t). The pilings were hollowed at their cores, with metal guide rails to allow the pots to be installed without the pilings tipping over. The edges of the pots are placed 9 ± 3 in (229 ± 76 mm) apart. ### Landscape Signe Nielsen of Mathews Nielsen Landscape Architects was the landscape architect for the park, while BrightView Landscape Development was the landscape contractor. Nielsen "wanted New Yorkers to feel delight and excitement around every turn from the moment they set foot here." To accomplish this, the plantings were arranged in specific color patterns. For instance, a portion of the park was planted with yellow, gold, lavender, and purple plants contrasting with each other. The landscape includes 35 tree species and 65 shrub species. In addition, there are 270 species of perennials and grasses. At the park's opening in 2021, the landscape contained sixty-six thousand bulbs and 114 trees. The original trees are up to 35 ft (11 m) tall with trunk diameters of 12 in (300 mm). The trees are planted in 4 ft (1.2 m) of soil, which is stabilized by geofibers and fed by a large irrigation system. The composition of the soil was engineered to reduce erosion, and evergreens and other plantings were used to shield the park from strong winds from the Hudson River. The park's four corners are designed with different topologies. There are three lawns, as well as a "secret garden" planted exclusively with white flora. One of the lawns, the Main Lawn, is in the center of the park. Alongside the landscapes, the park contains scenic observation areas as well as plazas and performance spaces. There are overlooks at the northwest, southwest, and southeast corners of the park. Walkways lead up to the highest portions of Little Island, in a layout similar to the southern portion of Governors Island. ### Concessions and programming A portion of the park contains a small stage and concession stands. According to Diller, the park's management had interviewed Danny Meyer's company for the concessionaire position before selecting a smaller firm, Savory Hospitality. Savory operates three concession stalls for food and drinks around a plaza called "The Play Ground". The drinks served at the concession stalls include cocktails that are custom-made for park visitors. The southern portion of the park contains "The Glade", an arts and crafts area for families and children. There is also a 687-seat amphitheater nicknamed "The Amph", which is in the western end of Little Island. The Amph is on the north side of the park's tallest hill, where there is a flat pier with public restrooms and actors' changing rooms. The utilities had to be placed on top of the flat pier. At the park's opening in 2021, most events at the Amph were free but, for ticketed shows, thirty percent of tickets were to be sold online. The ticketed shows are largely free or have low admission fees, and educational programming and performances are scheduled for six days a week. The free or low admission fees were a term of Diller's lease agreement from the Hudson River Park Trust, which operates Hudson River Park. Under the terms of the agreement, at least 51 percent of tickets must be under 30 dollars, including tickets sold for free. ## History ### Planning and construction #### Initial proposal By 2011, Hudson River Pier 55 was deteriorating, a situation that was worsened by Hurricane Sandy in New York the next year. At a 2011 party for donors of the High Line park, Diana Taylor of the Hudson River Park Trust approached Diller to determine his interest in rebuilding the pier. Diller supported the idea of rebuilding the pier but said he would like to be "ambitious" about the space. His initial concept called for a \$35 million amoeba-shaped structure "with a few trees". In November 2014, it was announced that a new park would be designed by Heatherwick Studio on the site of the former Pier 55 along the Hudson River. Estimates of the 2.3-acre (0.93 ha) park ranged from between \$130 million and \$160 million. Diller's foundation, headed jointly by his wife Diane von Fürstenberg, contributed \$100 million and made plans to donate another \$30 million. The city and state promised to give \$17 million and \$18 million, respectively. At the time, construction was to begin in 2015 and end in 2018 or 2019. The project was provisionally known as Pier 55 and was to be built between the sites of Pier 54 and 56. The park was to float completely above the water, resting on 300 concrete pillars. By 2015, the Hudson River Park Trust had approved plans to construct a park at 13th Street that extended 186 ft (57 m) west into the Hudson River. Manhattan Community Board 2 also supported plans for the park. Diller had cold-called Heatherwick to design a park at the site. According to Diller, the first plan was "completely unbuildable" and resembled "Noah's Ark in stainless steel". Heatherwick's subsequent plan for the raised concrete pots was designed over a year and a half, while it took Nielsen a year to engineer the individual pots to hold dirt. Von Fürstenberg had tried to convince Diller not to build the park, saying it was vulnerable to rising sea levels, but Diller said the plans were safe from a thousand-year flood. The project was nicknamed Diller Island because of Diller's close association with the project. According to von Fürstenberg, the park plans were all "Barry's dream". #### Legal issues The City Club of New York filed a lawsuit to stop the park's construction in 2015, alleging that the plans had not undergone a proper environmental review and that the project was instead using an old review conducted on the demolition of the adjacent Pier 54. According to the City Club, the trust had concluded there were no adverse environmental effects in installing 547 deep pilings for the park. The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) and the United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) had yet to approve plans for the park. The DEC approved the plans in March 2016. The next month, a judge for the New York Supreme Court dismissed the case. The City Club filed an appeal, and a hearing was scheduled for September 2016. In the meantime, an appellate court placed an injunction in June 2016, temporarily stopping any further work from proceeding. Less than a month later, the injunction was partially lifted, allowing work on nine pilings to proceed. At the appellate hearing, representatives of Pier 55's developers argued that the trust had performed a proper environmental review. The court rejected the City Club's appeal. The suit was escalated to the New York Court of Appeals, which also rejected the appeal. During the appeal process of the City Club's lawsuit, Diller claimed that developer Douglas Durst was financing the lawsuit against Pier 55. Durst, once a supporter of Hudson River Park, had given up his chairmanship with the Hudson River Park Trust over various disagreements. Early in 2017, Durst confirmed that he had funded the City Club's suit against the project, though he said he had not been involved with the lawsuits for half a year. In an interview with The Villager newspaper, Durst said that he did not want to personalize the dispute over Pier 55. Durst claimed, "I have nothing against Diller—except he said he wishes I had been killed by my brother", businessman Robert Durst. At the time, Robert Durst had been accused of killing acquaintances, and Diller subsequently apologized for the comments. The project still faced legal issues from the DEC, over a disputed environmental permit, and from the USACE, over allegations that the plans violated the Clean Water Act. The USACE had approved a permit by March 2017, when a United States District Court judge ruled that the permit was invalid because it had failed to consider the proposed park's impact on a nearby wildlife sanctuary. The project's costs had reached \$200 million by then, and the work had to be halted. In June 2017, the USACE issued a permit for the park's construction after plans were slightly modified. The continuing dispute between the City Club and Pier 55 developers led New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio to request that Durst stop funding the lawsuits against the park. ### Cancellation and revival Plans for the park were scrapped in September 2017 due to continuing legal disputes. The park also experienced cost overruns as its budget had exceeded \$200 million by then. According to Diller, he had already invested \$45 million of his foundation's money. On the day the project was canceled, he was scheduled to order \$80 million in cement. After his lawyers advised him that the City Club's lawyers may request an injunction on the project, von Fürstenberg and the couple's children advised Diller to stop the project and "go where you're wanted". The City Club's lawyers expressed excitement over the park's cancellation. Among the disappointed supporters of the project were the Hudson River Park Trust, de Blasio, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo, and U.S. Senator Chuck Schumer. The cancellation of the park lasted only forty-three days. On October 25, 2017, Cuomo arranged an agreement in which Pier 55 would be completed. Cuomo agreed to complete the remaining 30 percent of the incomplete Hudson River Park, provided that he won the 2018 New York gubernatorial election. Cuomo also promised the ecology of the Hudson River estuary would not be adversely affected by the construction of Pier 55. In exchange, the City Club's lawyers dropped their lawsuits against Pier 55. Cuomo provided \$50 million for the park in April 2018, but with the condition that the city raise a matching amount. Construction of the structure began the same month, with the construction of walkways from the Hudson River Park esplanade to the future park site. The new estimate for the project was \$250 million. By that August, the pilings were being installed. A symbolic cornerstone was laid in December 2018. At this time, the first of the park's pots was delivered from upstate New York and installed at Pier 55. The park itself was planned to be significantly completed in 2020 and open to the public in early 2021. The pots were manufactured and delivered by the Fort Miller Company starting in 2018. The pilings upon which the pots were to be installed, could only be driven from May to November of each year. As a result, 164 piles were driven in 2018 and the remaining 103 piles were driven from May to July 2019. The subsequent construction of the landscape, concession, and programming areas required coordination between the different contractors due to limited space for staging areas. Several cranes were used, including one on a barge, and materials were delivered by barge.By October 2019, much of the park's perimeter had been installed. That month, the project was renamed Little Island. The first trees at Little Island were installed in March 2020. According to photos taken the next month, all the piles and pots had been installed, and the layers of soil supporting the vegetation were being planted. Despite the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City during 2020, the park's construction was allowed to proceed even as most other projects were forced to stop. Work was temporarily halted for three weeks to disinfect the worksite, but the park was otherwise classified as an "essential project". Since most of the work was conducted outdoors, Little Island's construction site was considered a less likely place for COVID-19 to spread compared to indoor projects. The park's construction was nearly completed by early 2021. ### Opening The idea of performances in the park was created midway through the park's development. Among the artistic advisors Diller hired were film director Stephen Daldry, playwright George Wolfe, and theater film producer Scott Rudin. In early 2021, Little Island's developers announced that the park would have a program of artists in residence. The first artists in residence are choreographer Ayodele Casel, and thespians Tina Landau, Michael McElroy, and the PigPen Theatre Company. The residencies had been planned before the COVID-19 pandemic, but because of restrictions that prevented indoor performances, Little Island's executive director Trish Santini said the artists' work was more important. The artists in residence were to work with the park's production team over a period of three years. Rudin continued to serve as an artistic advisor to Little Island even after allegations of abuse against him arose in early 2021. The park officially opened on May 21, 2021. It ultimately cost \$260 million to construct. Visitors were asked to book reservations if they wished to visit during the midday. The opening of the park coincided with the loosening of pandemic restrictions in New York City, and the resulting heavy traffic led the park's ticket website to crash. At the opening of the park, architecture critic Michael Kimmelman wrote for The New York Times that the design concept "is in the theatrical vein of 18th century English garden follies". The Diller family foundation has agreed to fund the upkeep of the park, including programming, for twenty years. According to Barry Diller, the foundation's total contribution to the park reaches an estimated figure of \$380 million, of which the upkeep costs comprise \$120 million. Acts scheduled for the Amph's opening season included the American Ballet Theatre. During its 2022 season, Little Island hosted a three-week performing-arts festival called The Big Mix. ## See also - Hudson River Park#Pier 51, another pier-turned-park south of Little Island
27,124,225	Arado E.381	1,166,451,061	German WWII aircraft	[ "Abandoned military aircraft projects of Germany", "Arado aircraft", "Mid-wing aircraft", "Parasite aircraft", "Rocket-powered aircraft" ]	The Arado E.381 (Kleinstjäger – "smallest fighter") was a proposed parasite fighter aircraft. Conceived by Arado Flugzeugwerke in December 1944 for Germany's Luftwaffe during World War II, the E.381 was to have been carried aloft by and launched from an Arado Ar 234 "mother" aircraft. It would then have activated its rocket engine, which would have propelled it to attack Allied (mainly American and British) bombers. Development was cancelled due to lack of funds and official support. There were three proposed variants; each had fuel capacity for only two target runs, after which the pilot would have been required to glide without power to a landing on underbelly skids. To survive close pursuits, the E.381 was designed with the narrowest frontal cross-section possible to increase its chances of surviving shots from the front. This also forced the pilot to lie in a prone position. The cross-section was 0.45 square meters (4.8 sq ft), or approximately a quarter of the cross-section of the Messerschmitt Bf 109. ## Development Near the end of World War II, in December 1944, the German aircraft manufacturers Arado, BMW, Gotha, Heinkel, Henschel, and Zeppelin submitted design proposals for small rocket- or jet-powered aircraft intended for pursuit or ground-attack duties. All these proposals exploited the Luftwaffe's concept of "gaining a tactical advantage by placing excessive stress on the man in the cockpit (the German pilot)". The g-forces envisioned in these proposals were feasible for aircraft structures but exceeded human capabilities in a normal sitting position. The designers attempted to alleviate this constraint by placing the pilot in the prone position, which increased the sustainable g-force limit. This also allowed a reduction in fuselage size, weight, and drag. A smaller cross-section also decreased the likelihood of being hit by enemy gunners, and Arado exploited this opportunity to the fullest. According to their "specific design philosophy", the fighter was designed to fly close to bomber formations and open fire from its MK 108 cannon at point-blank range. The E.381 began in a proposal from Arado Flugzeugwerke to the Air Ministry for a parasite fighter, carried underneath another aircraft, to destroy Allied bombers. Three variants of the E.381, named Mark I, II and III, were designed. Each version was essentially an armored tube provided with armament and a Walter HWK 109-509 rocket engine for power. The aircraft would have carried enough fuel for two approaches to the target as well as only sixty (some say forty-five) 30 mm (1.2 in) rounds. After using all his fuel during an attack it was intended that the pilot would glide the fighter to the ground, deploy its drogue parachute, and land the aircraft on a primitive skid landing gear. None of the designs were ever completed due to its cancellation, though some wooden airframes and a single mockup were constructed in 1944 to provide prone-position training for pilots. The E.381 was cancelled due to a lack of funds and interest by the Ministry of Aviation, along with a scarcity of mother Ar 234 aircraft — the Arado Ar 234C four-BMW 003 jet engined aircraft intended for this purpose was never flight tested before the war's end. ## Variants ### Arado E.381/I The first design, the Mark I, had a fuselage with a circular cross-section and a small round window in the nose for pilot vision. A 5-millimeter (0.20 in) armored shell protected most of the fuselage. The pilot would have been in a prone position in the very cramped cockpit (the cross-section was 0.45 square meters (4.8 sq ft), or approximately a quarter of the cross-section of the Messerschmitt Bf 109.) behind a removable 140-millimeter (5.5 in) bullet-resistant glass screen mounted in front of the pilot. Two small bulges were located on the sides of the fuselage for the pilot's elbows. Three C-Stoff tanks surrounded the pilot, with the T-Stoff oxidizer tank in the center section between the pilot and the engine. The aircraft had straight wings, mounted at the top of the aircraft. In the dorsal area (at the wing mounts), the fuselage humped to accommodate a blister for a single MK 108 30 mm (1.2 in) cannon and 60 (other writers say 45) rounds. The Walter HWK 109-509A single-chamber rocket engine was mounted beneath the aft fuselage, which also carried a twin-fin empennage and the drogue parachute housing. Landing the aircraft required the extension of the retractable landing skid and the deployment of a braking drogue parachute. As pilots could access the plane only from a hatch above the cockpit, the pilot would have to enter the E.381 before it could be attached to the carrier Ar 234C and had no way to escape in case of an emergency, while attached to the carrier. ### Arado E.381/II The second design, the Mark II, was very similar to the Mark I, aside from being larger and having smaller fins The variant was planned to have a deeper and shorter 5 m (16 ft 5 in) fuselage and a high mid-wing layout. It was to be powered by a Walter HWK 109-509 A-2 engine. The unit was rated at 1,700 kg (3,700 lb) of thrust. About a quarter of the way back from the nose, the fuselage deepened in the form of a hump which extended to the tail. This hump housed a single MK 108 cannon with 45 rounds. ### Arado E.381/III The third design, the Mark III, was also similar to the Mark I, aside from being larger than any of the preceding variants. The circular cross-section of the previous variants became more triangular and the 30-millimeter (1.2 in) MK 108 cannon was replaced with six rockets of an unspecified type. Although the landing procedure was unchanged, a hatch was added on the side to provide for simpler pilot entry and exit. ## Specifications (E.381/I) ## See also - Emergency Fighter Program - List of rocket aircraft - Sombold So 344
2,598,701	Thomas Palaiologos	1,164,409,763	Despot of the Morea from 1428 to 1460	[ "1409 births", "1465 deaths", "15th-century Byzantine emperors", "15th-century Despots of the Morea", "Burials at St. Peter's Basilica", "Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars", "Byzantine pretenders after 1453", "Converts to Roman Catholicism from Eastern Orthodoxy", "Despots of the Morea", "Former Greek Orthodox Christians", "Greek Roman Catholics", "Palaiologos dynasty", "Porphyrogennetoi", "Sons of Byzantine emperors" ]	Thomas Palaiologos or Palaeologus (Greek: Θωμᾶς Παλαιολόγος; 1409 – 12 May 1465) was Despot of the Morea from 1428 until the fall of the despotate in 1460, although he continued to claim the title until his death five years later. He was the younger brother of Constantine XI Palaiologos, the final Byzantine emperor. Thomas was appointed as Despot of the Morea by his oldest brother, Emperor John VIII Palaiologos, in 1428, joining his two brothers and other despots Theodore and Constantine, already governing the Morea. Though Theodore proved reluctant to cooperate with his brothers, Thomas and Constantine successfully worked to strengthen the despotate and expand its borders. In 1432, Thomas brought the remaining territories of the Latin Principality of Achaea, established during the Fourth Crusade more than two hundred years earlier, into Byzantine hands by marrying Catherine Zaccaria, daughter and heir to the principality. In 1449, Thomas supported the ascension of his brother Constantine, who then became Emperor Constantine XI, to the throne despite the machinations of his other brother, Demetrios, who himself desired the throne. After Constantine's rise to the throne, Demetrios was then assigned by Constantine to govern the Morea with Thomas but the two brothers found it difficult to cooperate, often quarreling with each other. In the aftermath of the Fall of Constantinople and end of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II allowed Thomas and Demetrios to continue to rule as Ottoman vassals in the Morea. Thomas hoped to turn the small despotate into a rallying point of a campaign to restore the empire, hoping to gain support from the Papacy and Western Europe. Constant quarreling with Demetrios, who supported the Ottomans instead, eventually led Mehmed to invade and conquer the Morea in 1460. Thomas and his family, including his wife Catherine and his three younger children Zoe, Andreas and Manuel, escaped into exile to the Venetian-held city of Methoni and then to Corfu, where Catherine and the children stayed. In the hopes of raising support for a crusade to restore his lands in the Morea, and possibly the Byzantine Empire itself, Thomas travelled to Rome, where he was received and provided for by Pope Pius II. His hopes of retaking the Morea never materialized and he died in Rome on 12 May 1465. After his death, his claims were inherited by his oldest son Andreas, who also attempted to rally support for a campaign to restore the fallen despotate and the Byzantine Empire. ## Biography ### Early life and appointment as despot As the Byzantine Empire fell apart and fragmented over the course of the 14th century, the emperors of the Palaiologan dynasty came to feel that the only sure way to keep their remaining holdings intact was to grant them to their sons, receiving the title of despot, as appanages to defend and govern. Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos (r. 1391–1425) had a total of six sons who survived infancy. Manuel's eldest surviving son, John, was raised to co-emperor and designated to succeed Manuel as sole emperor upon his death. The second eldest son, Theodore was designated as Despot of the Morea and the third eldest, Andronikos, was made Despot of Thessaloniki in 1408 at just eight years old. Manuel's younger sons, Constantine, Demetrios, and Thomas (the youngest, born in 1409), were kept in Constantinople as there was not sufficient land left to grant them. The younger children; Theodore, Andronikos, Constantine, Demetrios and Thomas were frequently described as having the distinction of Porphyrogennetos ("born in the purple"; born in the imperial palace during the reign of their father), a distinction that does not appear to have been shared by the emperor-to-be John. Relations between the Palaiologos brothers were not always good. Though the young John and Constantine appears to have got on well with each other, relations between Constantine and the younger Demetrios and Thomas were not as friendly. The complex relationships between the sons of Manuel II were put to the test when John, now Emperor John VIII, appointed Constantine as Despot of the Morea in 1428. Since his brother Theodore refused to step down from his role as despot, the despotate became governed by two members of the imperial family for the first time since its creation in 1349. Soon thereafter, the younger Thomas (aged 19) was also appointed as Despot of the Morea, meaning that the nominally undivided despotate had effectively disintegrated into three smaller principalities. Theodore did not make way for Constantine or Thomas in the despotate's capital, Mystras. Instead, Theodore granted Constantine lands throughout the Morea, including the northern harbor town of Aigio, fortresses and towns in Laconia (in the south), and Kalamata and Messenia in the west. Constantine made his capital as despot the town Glarentza. Meanwhile, Thomas was given lands in the north and based himself in the castle of Kalavryta. ### Despot under the Byzantine Empire #### Strengthening the Morea Shortly after being appointed as despots, Constantine and Thomas, together with Theodore, decided to join forces in an attempt to seize the flourishing and strategic port of Patras in the north-west of the Morea, then under the rule of its Catholic Archbishop. The campaign, which was unsuccessful, possibly due to Theodore's reluctance to partake, was Thomas's first experience of war. Constantine later captured Patras on his own, ending 225 years of foreign ownership. Thomas's early tenure as Despot of the Morea was not without acquisitions either. For years, Thomas and Constantine had been eating away at the last remnants of the Principality of Achaea, a crusader state established during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 which had once governed almost the entire peninsula. It was Thomas who finally brought an end to the principality by marrying Catherine Zaccaria, daughter and heir of the final prince, Centurione II Zaccaria. With Centurione's death in 1432, Thomas could claim control over all of his remaining territories. By the 1430s, Thomas and Constantine had ensured that nearly the entire Peloponnese was once more in Byzantine hands for the first time since 1204, the only exception being the few port towns and cities held by the Republic of Venice. Murad II, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, which occupied most of the Byzantine Empire's former territory and had relegated the empire and the despotate as effectively vassal states, felt uneasy about the recent string of Byzantine successes in the Morea. In 1431, Turahan Bey, a Turkish general who governed Thessaly, sent his troops south to demolish the Morea's primary defensive fortifications, the Hexamilion wall, in an effort to remind the despots that they were the Sultan's vassals. In March 1432, Constantine, possibly desiring to be closer to Mystras, made a new territorial agreement, presumably approved by Theodore and John VIII, with Thomas. Thomas agreed to cede his fortress Kalavryta to Constantine, who made it his new capital, in exchange for Elis, which Thomas made his new capital. Though relations between the three despots thus appears to have been good in 1432, they soon soured. John VIII had no sons to succeed him and it was thus assumed that his successor would be one of his four surviving brothers (Andronikos having died some time before). John VIII's preferred successor was Constantine and though this choice was accepted by Thomas, who had developed good relations with his older brother, it was resented by the still older Theodore. When Constantine was summoned to the capital in 1435, Theodore believed this was to appoint Constantine as co-emperor and designated heir, which was not actually the case, and he too travelled to Constantinople to raise his objections. The quarrel between Constantine and Theodore was not resolved until the end of 1436, when the future Patriarch Gregory Mammas was sent to reconcile them and prevent civil war. When Constantine was summoned to act as regent in Constantinople while John VIII was away at the Council of Florence from 1437 to 1440, Theodore and Thomas stayed in the Morea. In November 1443, Constantine gave over control of Selymbria, which he had received after helping to deal with the rebellion of their younger brother Demetrios, to Theodore, who in turn abandoned his position as Despot of the Morea, making Constantine and Thomas the sole Despots of the Morea. Though this brought Theodore closer to Constantinople, it also made Constantine the ruler of the capital of the Morea and one of the most powerful men in the small empire. With Theodore and Demetrios out of their way, Constantine and Thomas hoped to strengthen the Morea, by now the cultural center of the Byzantine world, and make it a safe and nearly self-sufficient principality. The philosopher Gemistus Pletho advocated that while Constantinople was the New Rome, Mystras and the Morea could become the "New Sparta", a centralized and strong Hellenic kingdom in its own right. #### Turkish attacks and the accession of Constantine XI Among the actions taken during the brothers' project of strengthening the despotate was to reconstruct the Hexamilion wall, destroyed by the Turks in 1431. Together, they completely restored the wall, which was finished in March 1444. The wall was destroyed by the Turks again in 1446 after Constantine had attempted to expand his control northwards and had refused the sultan's demands of dismantling the wall. Constantine and Thomas were determined to hold the wall and had brought all their available forces, amounting to perhaps as many as twenty thousand men, to defend it. Despite this, the battle by the wall in 1446 was an overwhelming Turkish victory, with Constantine and Thomas barely escaping with their lives. Turahan Bey was sent south to take Mystras and devastate Constantine's lands while Sultan Murad II led his forces in the north of the Peloponnese. Although Turahan failed to take Mystras, this was of little consequence as Murad did not wish to conquer the Morea at the time, merely to instill terror, and the Turks soon left the peninsula, devastated and depopulated. Constantine and Thomas were in no position to ask for a truce and were forced to accept Murad as their lord and pay him tribute, promising to never again restore the Hexamilion wall. Their former co-despot Theodore died in June 1448, and on 31 October of the same year, Emperor John VIII passed away. The potential successors to the throne were Constantine, Demetrios and Thomas. John had not formally designated an heir, though everyone knew he favored Constantine and ultimately, the will of their mother, Helena Dragaš (who also preferred Constantine), prevailed. Both Thomas, who had no intention of claiming the throne, and Demetrios, who most certainly did, hurried to Constantinople and reached the capital before Constantine. Though Demetrios was favored by many due to his anti-unionist sentiment, Helena reserved her right to act as regent until her eldest son, Constantine arrived, stalling Demetrios's attempt at seizing the throne. Thomas accepted Constantine's appointment and Demetrios, who soon thereafter joined in proclaiming Constantine as his new emperor, was overruled. Byzantine historian and Palaiologos loyalist George Sphrantzes then informed Sultan Murad II, who also accepted the ascension of Constantine, now Emperor Constantine XI. In order to remove Demetrios from the capital and its vicinity, Constantine made Demetrios Despot of the Morea, to rule the despotate together with Thomas. Demetrios was granted Mystras and primarily ruled the southern and eastern parts of the despotate, with Thomas ruling Corinthia and the north-west, variously using Patras or Leontari as his capital. In 1451, Sultan Murad II, by then old and tired and having let go of all intentions of conquering Constantinople, died and was succeeded as sultan by his young and vigorous son Mehmed II, who was determined above all else to take the city. In 1452, during the preparation stages of the Ottoman siege of Constantinople, Constantine XI sent an urgent message to the Morea, requesting that one of his brothers bring their forces to help him defend the city. To prevent aid coming from the Morea, Mehmed II sent Turahan Bey to devastate the peninsula once more. The Turkish attack was repelled by an army commanded by Matthaios Asan, brother-in-law of Demetrios, but this victory came too late to offer any aid to Constantinople. ### Continued rule in the Morea #### Initial tenure under Ottoman rule Constantinople ultimately fell on 29 May 1453, Constantine XI dying in its defense, ending the Byzantine Empire. In the aftermath of Constantinople's fall, and Constantine XI's death in defense of it, one of the most pressing threats to the new Ottoman regime was the possibility that one of Constantine XI's surviving relatives would find a following and return to reclaim the empire. Luckily for Mehmed II, the two despots in the Morea represented scarcely more than a nuisance and were allowed to keep their titles and lands. When emissaries of Thomas and Demetrios visited the Sultan at Adrianople some months after Constantinople's fall, the Sultan demanded no surrender of territory, only that the despots were to pay an annual tribute of 10,000 ducats. Because the Morea was allowed to continue to exist, many Byzantine refugees fled to the despotate, which made it somewhat of a Byzantine government-in-exile. Some of these influential refugees and courtiers even raised the idea of proclaiming Demetrios, the elder brother, as the Emperor of the Romans and the legitimate successor of Constantine XI. Both Thomas and Demetrios might have considered making their small despotate the rallying point of a campaign to restore the empire, with considerable fertile and wealthy territory under the despotate's control, there did seem for a moment to be a possibility that the empire could live on in the Morea. However, Thomas and Demetrios were never able to cooperate and spent most of their resources fighting each other rather than preparing for a struggle against the Turks. Since Thomas had spent most of his life in the Morea, and Demetrios most of his life elsewhere, the two brothers hardly knew each other. Shortly after Constantinople fell, a revolt broke out against the despots in the Morea, prompted by the many Albanian immigrants to the region being unhappy with the actions of the local Greek landowners. The Albanians had respected earlier despots, such as Constantine and Theodore, but despised the two current despots and without central authority from Constantinople, they saw their opportunity to gain control of the despotate for themselves. In Thomas's part of the despotate, the rebels chose to proclaim John Asen Zaccaria, bastard son of the last Prince of Achaea, as their leader and in Demetrios's part of the despotate, the leader of the revolt was Manuel Kantakouzenos, grandson of Demetrios I Kantakouzenos (who had served as despot until 1384) and great-great-grandson of Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos (r. 1347–1354). With no hope of defeating the Albanians on their own, the despots appealed to the only power near enough and strong enough to aid them; the Ottomans. Mehmed II did not wish to see the despotate pass into the hands of Albanians, and out of his control, and sent an army to quell the rebellion in December 1453. The rebellion was not fully crushed until October 1454, when Turahan Bey arrived to aid the despots in firmly establishing their authority in the region. In return for the aid, Mehmed demanded a heavier tribute from Thomas and Demetrios, amounting to 12,000 ducats annually rather than the previous 10,000. #### The possibility of Western aid Neither brother could raise the sum demanded by the Sultan and they were divided in their policies. While Demetrios, probably the more realistic of the two, had more or less given up hope of Christian aid from the west and thought it might be best to placate the Turks, Thomas retained hope that the Papacy might yet call for a crusade to restore the Byzantine Empire. Thomas's hopes were not ridiculous; the Fall of Constantinople had been received with as much horror in Western Europe as it had been in the few remaining Byzantine territories in the East. In September 1453, Pope Nicholas V issued the crusading bull Etsi ecclesia Christi, which called on Christians throughout the west to take the cross and embark on a crusade to recover Constantinople. The response was enthusiastic; some of Europe's most powerful and influential rulers came forward to take the cross, including Philip the Good of Burgundy in February 1454 and Alfonso the Magnanimous of Aragon and Naples in November 1455. Alfonso promised to personally lead a host of 50,000 men and 400 ships against the Ottomans. At Frankfurt, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III assembled a council of German princes and proposed that 40,000 men be sent to Hungary, where the Ottomans had suffered a crushing defeat at Belgrade in 1456. If the combined forces of Hungary, Aragon, Burgundy and the Holy Roman Empire had been unleashed to exploit the victory at Belgrade, Ottoman control of the Balkans would have been seriously threatened. Despite the Ottomans having secured the position of the two despots in the recent Albanian uprising, the possibility of Western aid to restore Byzantine territory proved too enticing to resist. In 1456, Thomas sent John Argyropoulos as an envoy to the West to discuss the possibility of aid for the Morea. Argyropolous had been a carefully thought-out choice since he had been an ardent supporter of the Council of Florence, which meant that he was well received by Pope Nicholas V's successor, Pope Callixtus III, in Rome. From Rome, Argyropoulos also moved on to Milan, England and France and further envoys were sent to Aragon (because of Alfonso's involvement in the crusading plans) and Venice (since Thomas were hoping that he could secure refuge in Venetian territory in the event of an Ottoman attack on the Morea). A crusade seemed so imminent that even the decidedly anti-Western Demetrios softened his anti-Latin stance and sent envoys of his own. Argyropoulos probably arrived in Rome at around the same time as Demetrios's envoy, Frankoulios Servopoulos, and the two envoys travelled through Europe, visiting the same courts, independently of each other. Thomas and Demetrios proved to be incapable of working together even with foreign diplomacy. #### Moreot civil war and the fall of the Morea In the end, no crusade ever set out to combat the Ottomans. Due to their conviction that help would arrive, and being unable to pay, the two despots had not paid their annual tribute to the Ottomans for three years. With no money coming from the Morea, and the looming threat of Western aid, Mehmed eventually lost his patience with the Palaiologoi. The Ottoman army marched from Adrianople in May 1458 and entered the Morea, where the only real resistance was faced at Corinth, within the domain governed by Demetrios. Leaving his artillery to bombard and besiege that city, Mehmed left with most of his army to devastate and conquer the northern parts of the despotate, under Thomas's jurisdiction. Corinth at last gave up in August, after several cities in the north had already surrendered, and Mehmed imposed a heavy retribution on the Morea. The territory under the two brothers was drastically reduced, Corinth, Patras and much of the north-west of the peninsula were annexed into the Ottoman Empire and provided with Turkish governors, with the Palaiologoi only being allowed to keep the south, including the despotate's nominal capital, Mystras, on the condition that they paid their annual tribute to the sultan. Almost as soon as Mehmed had left the Morea, the two brothers began quarreling with each other again. Mehmed's victory had only increased the antagonism between Thomas and Demetrios. Demetrios had shifted to becoming even more pro-Ottoman after Mehmed had promised the despot that he would marry his daughter Helena, whereas Thomas increasingly hoped for western aid as the regions of the Morea annexed by Mehmed had been almost the entire area ruled by Thomas, including his capital of Patras. In January 1459, Thomas rebelled against Demetrios and the Ottomans, joining with a number of Albanian lords. They seized the fortress of Kalavryta and much of the land in the central Morea and besieged Kalamata and Mantineia, fortresses held by Demetrios. Demetrios responded by seizing Leontari and called for aid from the Turkish governors in the northern Morea. There were many attempts made to broker peace between the two brothers, such as Mehmed ordering the Bishop of Lacedaemon to make the two swear to keep the peace, but any truce lasted only briefly. Many of the Byzantine nobles in the Morea could only look on in horror as the civil war raged on. George Sphrantzes summed up the conflict with the following words: > Both brothers fought against each other with all their resources. Lord Demetrios rested his hopes on the friendship and help of the sultan, and on his claim that his subjects and castles had been wronged, while Lord Thomas relied on the fact that his opponent had committed perjury and that he was waging war against the impious. Although Demetrios had more soldiers and resources, Thomas and the Albanians were able to appeal to the West for aid. After a successful skirmish against the Ottomans, Thomas sent 16 captured Turkish soldiers, alongside some of his armed guards, to Rome to convince the Pope that he was engaging in a holy war against the Muslims. The scheme worked and the Pope sent 300 Italian soldiers under the Milanese condottieri Gianone da Cremona to aid Thomas. With these reinforcements, Thomas gained the upper hand and it looked as if Demetrios was about to be defeated, having retreated to the town of Monemvasia and having sent Matthaios Asan to Adrianople to beg Mehmed for aid. Thomas's pleas to the west represented a real threat to the Ottomans, a threat made even greater through the support of the plan by the vocal Cardinal Bessarion, a Byzantine refugee who had escaped the empire years earlier. Pope Pius II convened a council in 1459 in Mantua and sent Bessarion and some others to preach for a crusade against the Ottomans throughout Europe. Determined to subjugate Greece, Mehmed decided that the destruction of the despotate and its full annexation directly into his empire was the only possible solution. The sultan assembled his army once more in April 1460 and led it in person first to Corinth and then on to Mystras. Although Demetrios had ostensibly been on the sultan's side, Mehmed invaded Demetrios's territory first. Demetrios surrendered to the Ottomans without a fight, fearing retribution and already having sent his family to safety in Monemvasia. Mystras thus fell into Ottoman hands on 29 May 1460, exactly seven years after Constantinople's fall. The few places in the Morea that dared resist the sultan's army were devastated as per Islamic law, the men being massacred and the women and children being taken away. As large numbers of Greek refugees escaped to Venetian-held territories such as Methoni and Koroni, the Morea was slowly subdued, the last resistance being led by Constantine Graitzas Palaiologos, a relative of Thomas and Demetrios, at Salmenikon in July 1461. ### Life in exile When Thomas had first heard of Mehmed's invasion, he had initially taken refuge at Mantineia to wait and see how the invasion unfolded. Once it became clear that the Ottomans were marching towards Leontari and would soon arrive outside Mantineia, Thomas, his entourage (including other Greek nobles, such as George Sphrantzes), his wife Catherine and his children Andreas, Manuel and Zoe fled to Methoni. Thomas and his companions fled to the island of Corfu on ships provided by Venice, arriving there on 22 July 1460. Although Catherine and the children stayed on Corfu, the island was only a temporary refuge for Thomas, and the local government was unwilling to allow him to stay for too long in fear of antagonizing the Ottomans. Thomas was unsure of where to travel to next, he attempted to travel to Ragusa, but the city's senate firmly rejected his arrival. Around the same time, Mehmed II sent messengers to Thomas to implore him to enter into a "treaty of friendship", promising him lands in return for his return to Greece. Unsure of what to do, Thomas sent emissaries to both Mehmed and the Papacy (to tell the Pope of his predicament). The envoy to Mehmed found the sultan at Veria and was, despite the sultan's words, immediately arrested and put in chains along with his entourage. A few days later the envoy was set free and returned to Thomas at Corfu with a message; either Thomas was to come to Mehmed in person, or he was to send some of his children. In light of this, Thomas decided that he had no choice; the West was his only option. On 16 November 1460, he left his wife and children behind on Corfu and set sail for Italy, landing in Ancona. In March 1461, Thomas arrived in Rome, where he hoped to convince Pope Pius II to call for a crusade. As the brother of the final Byzantine emperor, Thomas was the highest profile ruler in exile out of all the many Christians who escaped the Balkans over the course of the Ottoman conquest. Upon arriving in Rome, Thomas met with Pius II, who bestowed him with the Golden Rose, lodging in the Ospedale di Santo Spirito in Sassia and a pension of 300 ducats each month (for a total of 3600 annually). In addition to the papal pension, Thomas also received an additional 200 ducats a month from the cardinals and 500 ducats from the Republic of Venice, which also begged him not to return to Corfu as to not affect Venice's already tenuous relations with the Ottomans. Thomas's many followers considered the money provided to him to be barely enough to support the despot, and certainly nowhere near enough to also support themselves. The Papacy recognized Thomas as the rightful Despot of the Morea and the true heir to the Byzantine Empire, though Thomas never claimed the imperial title. During his stay in Rome, Thomas, on account of his "tall and handsome appearance", served as the model of the statue of Saint Paul which to this day stands in front of the St. Peter's Basilica. On 12 April 1462, Thomas gave the supposed skull of Saint Andrew the Apostle, a precious relic which had been in Byzantine hands for centuries, to Pius II. Pius received the skull from Cardinal Bessarion at the Ponte Milvio. The ceremony, which was hailed as a return of Andrew to his relatives, the Romans (as symbolic descendants of Saint Peter) is depicted on Pius II's grave. In the 1460s, plans for a crusade against the Ottomans were once more underway. Pius II had made the recovery of Constantinople one of the primary goals of his pontificate and his 1459 council at Mantua had secured the promise of an army amounting to a total of 80,000 men from various of the great powers in Western Europe. Naval support for the plans was secured in 1463, when Venice formally declared war on the Ottomans as a result of Turkish incursions into their territories in Greece. In October 1463, Pius II formally declared war on the Ottoman Empire after Mehmed had refused his suggestion of converting to Christianity. While many of the Balkan exiles in the West were happy to live out their lives in obscurity, Thomas hoped to eventually restore control over Byzantine territory. As such, he staunchly supported the crusading plans. In early 1462, Thomas left to Rome to tour Italy and drum up support for a crusade, carrying with him papal letters of indulgence. Thomas brought with him letters by Pius II who described him as "a prince who was born to the illustrious and ancient family of the Palaiologoi ... a man who is now an immigrant, naked, robbed of everything except his lineage". Like his father Manuel II and his brother John VIII before him, Thomas's possessed a certain royal charisma and good looks, which ensured that his appeals did not fall on deaf ears. The Mantuan ambassador to Rome described him as "a handsome man with a fine, serious look about him and a noble and quite lordly bearing" and Milanese ambassadors who encountered him in Venice wrote that Thomas was "as dignified as any man on Earth can be". Of the many courts Thomas visited, serious objections to his appeal was made only by Venice, where the local senate made it clear that they wanted nothing to do with him. Not only did they make Thomas leave the city, but they sent ambassadors to Rome to request that he not accompany the expedition because his presence would "produce terrible and incongrous scandals". The reason for Venice's wrath against Thomas might be his advances on Venetian territories during his time as despot, or the fact that his quarreling with his brother Demetrios effectively doomed the Morean despotate. Despite Thomas' hopes, no expedition set out for Greece. When the army was ready to set sail in 1464, Pius II travelled to Ancona to join the crusade, but died there on 15 August. Without Pius II's leadership, the crusade disbanded almost immediately, with all the ships returning home one by one. Upon the death of his wife in August 1462, Thomas summoned his children (who still remained at Corfu) to Rome, but they only arrived in the city after Thomas had died on 12 May 1465. Though Thomas had been largely bypassed and forgotten by the Roman elite after Pius II's death in 1464, he was buried with honor in the St. Peter's Basilica, where his grave would survive the destruction and removal of the tombs of the Palaiologan emperors in Constantinople during the early years of Ottoman rule. Modern efforts to locate his grave within the Basilica have so far proven fruitless. ## Children and descendants It is generally accepted that Thomas had four children with Catherine Zaccaria, due to George Sphrantzes giving this number. These four children were: - Helena Palaiologina (1431 – 7 November 1473), the older of the couple's two daughters, Helena was married to Lazar Branković, a son of Đurađ Branković, Despot of Serbia. By the time of the Morea's fall, Helena had long since moved to Smederevo with her husband (who eventually became the Despot of Serbia in 1456). Lazar died in 1458 and Helena was left to care for the couple's three daughters. In 1459, Mehmed II invaded Serbia and put an end to the despotate, but Helena was allowed to leave the country. After spending some time in Ragusa, she moved to Corfu and lived there with her mother and siblings. After that, Helena became a nun and lived on the island of Lefkada, where she died in November 1473. Though Helena had many descendants through her three daughters Jelena, Milica and Jerina Brankovic, none of them carried on the Palaiologos name. - Zoe Palaiologina (c. 1449 – 7 April 1503), the younger daughter of Thomas and Catherine, Zoe was married off to Ivan III, Grand Prince of Moscow, by Pope Sixtus IV in 1472, in the hope of converting the Russians to Roman Catholicism. The Russians did not convert, with the marriage being celebrated according to Eastern Orthodox tradition. Zoe was called "Sophia" in Russia and her marriage to Ivan III served to strengthen Moscow's claim to be the "third Rome", the ideological and spiritual successor to the Byzantine Empire. Zoe and Ivan III had several children, who in turn had numerous descendants and though none carried the Palaiologos name, many of them used the double-headed eagle iconography of Byzantium. Ivan the Terrible, Russia's first crowned tsar, was Sophia's grandson. - Andreas Palaiologos (17 January 1453 – June 1502), the older of the couple's two sons and the third child overall, Andreas lived most of his life in Rome, surviving on a gradually declining papal pension. After Thomas's death, Andreas was recognized by the Papacy and others in Italy as the rightful heir to the Despotate of the Morea and he would later go on to claim the title Imperator Constantinopolitanus ("Emperor of Constantinople") as well, hoping to one day restore the fallen Byzantine Empire. He attempted to organize an expedition to restore the empire in 1481, but his plans failed and he later ceded the rights to the imperial title to Charles VIII of France, hoping to use him as a champion against the Turks. Andreas died poor in Rome, whether or not he had any children is uncertain. His will specified that his titles were to be granted to the Catholic Monarchs in Spain (though they never used them). - Manuel Palaiologos (2 January 1455 – before 1512), the youngest of the four children, Manuel lived in Rome and lived off Papal money, much the same as his brother. As the pension deteriorated and Manuel (as second-in-line) did not have any titles to sell, he instead travelled Europe in search of someone to hire him in a military capacity. Failing to find satisfactory offers, Manuel surprised everyone else involved by travelling to Constantinople in 1476 and throwing himself on the mercy of Sultan Mehmed II, who graciously received him. He married an unknown woman and stayed in Constantinople for the rest of his life. Manuel had two sons, one of which died young and another which converted to Islam and whose eventual fate is uncertain. Sphrantzes may not have been well acquainted with Thomas's family. He gives the age of Thomas's wife at time of her death as 70, which means that she would have given birth to Manuel at the unlikely age of 65. It is known that Thomas had at least one child who is not mentioned by Sphrantzes; a daughter (whose name is unknown) who died in infancy, recorded in a funeral oration. Later sources other than the work of Sphrantzes differ considerably in the number of children ascribed to Thomas. Whereas some, such as Charles du Fresne (1680), give the same four children mentioned by Sphrantzes, others, such as Antonio Albizzi (1627) give only two children (the sons Andreas and Manuel). Leo Allatius (1648) gives three sons (John, Andreas and Manuel). This means that even a relatively short time after Thomas's death, the number of children he had was unclear. Genealogist Peter Mallat concluded in 1985 that this uncertainty, as well as the fact that Thomas's eldest known child, Helena, was born almost twenty years before his second eldest known child, Zoe, as meaning that it is possible that Thomas had more children than the generally accepted four. Some later Italian genealogies dating to the 17th century and onwards give Thomas two more sons; a bastard son named Rogerio and a fourth legitimate son, also named Thomas. The existence of Rogerio and Thomas the Younger is overwhelmingly dismissed as fantasy in modern scholarship. There is some scant evidence of the existence of a second Thomas Palaiologos in the 15th century as a "Thomas Palaiologos, Despot of the Morea" is recorded as having married a sister of Queen Isabella of Clermont in 1444 (something Thomas could not have done as he was married at the time and ruling in the Morea). Rogerio's existence is based on a handful of unauthenticated documents and the oral tradition of his supposed descendants, the "Paleologo Mastrogiovanni". Though the individual documents themselves have little questionable content, they are contradictory when examined as a whole and do not necessarily corroborate Thomas having a son by the name Rogerio.' Sphrantzes wrote on the birth of Andreas Palaiologos on 17 January 1453 that the boy was "a continuator and heir" of the Palaiologan lineage, a phrase which makes little sense if Andreas was not Thomas's first-born son (if they would have existed, both Rogerio and Thomas the Younger would have been older than Andreas).' In the late 16th century, a family with the last name Paleologus, living in Pesaro in Italy, claimed descent from Thomas through a supposed third son, called John. This family later mainly lived in Cornwall and contained figures such as Theodore Paleologus, who worked as a soldier and hired assassin, and Ferdinand Paleologus, who retired in Barbados in the late 17th century. The existence of a son of Thomas called John cannot be proven with any certainty as no mention is made of a son by that name in contemporary records. It is possible that John was a real historical figure, possibly an illegitimate son of Thomas, or perhaps his grandson through of either of his known sons, Andreas or Manuel. John's existence could be corroborated by the mention of a son by this name by Allatius in 1648 (though this is too late to act as an independent source)' and contemporary documents in Pesaro discussing a Leone Palaiologos (the names Leone and John are similar in their Latin forms; Leonis and Ioannes) as living there.' ## See also - Succession to the Byzantine Empire
42,071,450	Community of Royalist People's Party	1,094,859,184	null	[ "2014 establishments in Cambodia", "2015 disestablishments in Cambodia", "Defunct political parties in Cambodia", "Monarchist parties in Cambodia", "Political parties disestablished in 2015", "Political parties established in 2014" ]	The Community of Royalist People's Party (Khmer: គណបក្សសង្គមរាស្រ្តរាជាធិបតេយ្យ; CRPP) was a Cambodian political party that lasted from March 2014 until January 2015. It was founded and led by Norodom Ranariddh, who had been ousted from FUNCINPEC back in 2006. Ideologically a royalist party, the CRPP drew its inspiration from the political legacy of the former King of Cambodia, Norodom Sihanouk, and competed for its voter base with both FUNCINPEC and the Cambodia National Rescue Party (CNRP). In January 2015, the CRPP was dissolved when Ranariddh returned to FUNCINPEC. ## History On 25 February 2014, former First Prime Minister of Cambodia Norodom Ranariddh, who was ousted from FUNCINPEC in 2006, announced plans to return to politics and lead the formation the Community of Royalist People's Party. The Cambodian Interior Ministry reportedly received a request from the party to be formally registered as a political party. In March 2014, Ranariddh hosted the party's official launching ceremony at the Phnom Penh Sunway Hotel, where he revealed the party logo and signed registration papers for the party. In April 2014, the CRPP's registration was officially approved by the Interior Ministry. A month later, CRPP appointed a new chief-of-cabinet Nop Sothearith, and the party also made an in-advance registration with the Interior Ministry to run for general elections scheduled to be held in 2018. In June 2014, the CRPP held a party to mark its official launch, and opened its headquarters at the Russey Keo District in Phnom Penh. In October 2014, a public spate arose between Ranariddh and his personal secretary, Noranarith Anandayath. Ranariddh accused Noranarith of badmouthing him, which prompted the latter to resign from the CRPP. Two months later, in December 2014, the Phnom Penh Post reported that several high-ranking FUNCINPEC officials defected to the CRPP, which included a former secretary of state, former provincial governor and former deputy national police chief. On 2 January 2015, Ranariddh announced his plan to return to FUNCINPEC, after being ousted from the party in 2006. The announcement was made after a private meeting with Prime Minister Hun Sen who had urged Ranariddh to rejoin his former party. The CRPP was subsequently dissolved when Ranariddh returned to FUNCINPEC later in the latter part of January 2015. ## Ideology and political positions The CRPP was a royalist party, and Ranariddh stated in February 2015 that the party aligns itself to the political legacy of Norodom Sihanouk. The CRPP also stated that it directly competed for the voter base from the CNRP and FUNCINPEC, but not with the Cambodian People's Party (CPP). At the party's launching ceremony in March 2014, Ranariddh added that the CRPP would not seek to align itself with the CPP or CNRP. Ranariddh also expressed interest to resolve socioeconomic problems such as poverty, low wages and corruption, which he claimed were worsened by the effects of the political protests as a result of political differences between the CPP and CNRP. In June 2014, Ranariddh outlined several reform proposals at a party meeting for youths, such as reviewing 99-year land leases to identify illegal land concessions and helping more youths to seek employment locally. The CRPP maintained frosty relations with FUNCINPEC, which had earlier ousted Ranariddh as its president in 2006. When Ranariddh announced plans to form the party in February 2014, several FUNCINPEC leaders including Nhek Bun Chhay, Keo Puth Rasmey and Sisowath Sirirath questioned Ranariddh's leadership abilities and past political track record. Ranariddh was particularly critical of the CNRP and in March 2014, he denied accusations by CNRP leader Sam Rainsy that the CRPP was formed with the aim of splitting the opposition voter base. Ranariddh also charged that the Rainsy would end Cambodia's status as a constitutional monarchy if they were elected to power. In May 2014, Ranariddh called on the CPP and CNRP to form a unity government and proposed that the CRPP was keen to act as a mediator between the two parties. ## Logo The CRPP's party logo had a circular design, and bears Ranariddh's initials in the Khmer language. The logo also includes the number "9", which represents power according to brahmin tradition. Around the logo were three circles; one was yellow, representing the monarchy, another was white, representing peace, and the third was green, representing water. On Ranariddh's return to the party in January 2015, FUNCINPEC adopted a new logo that was inspired by that of the defunct CRPP's party logo.
5,912,176	Nerodia clarkii	1,169,014,410	Species of North American snake	[ "Nerodia", "Reptiles described in 1853", "Reptiles of Cuba", "Reptiles of the United States", "Snakes of North America", "Taxa named by Charles Frédéric Girard", "Taxa named by Spencer Fullerton Baird" ]	Nerodia clarkii, commonly known as the salt marsh snake, is a species of semi-aquatic, nonvenomous, colubrid snake found in the southeastern United States. Their range extends along the brackish salt marshes of the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Coast from Texas to Florida, with an additional population in northern Cuba. Different subspecies of this snake are primarily identified via color patterns on each snake's belly, or anterior. ## Etymology The specific name, clarkii, is in honor of American surveyor and naturalist John Henry Clark (1830–1885). ## Description and subspecies ### General description Salt marsh snakes grow to a total length (including tail) of 15–30 inches (38–76 cm). They are also highly variable in both pattern and coloration. Found most commonly in salt marshes, this snake inhabits brackish and saltwater habitats; it is also found hiding in crab burrows. Though salt marsh snakes are common throughout the territory they inhabit, they have a tendency to be wary and secretive, so they are rarely seen. All members of this species reproduce via live birth, and all are semi-aquatic. Furthermore, all forms of this species may be distinguished as having either 21 or 23 rows of scales. The seawater they inhabit exerts a continual draw on their tissue's electrolyte balance, due to osmosis. Its scaly reptilian skin acts as a barrier against external dehydration, but, if ingested, seawater draws the less-salty fluid from blood and tissues into the stomach. N. clarkii is the only species to establish itself in this saline niche, drinking only rainwater when it is available, and at other times swallowing nothing but prey animals with the same diluted body fluids as their own. All water species of snake (including N. clarkii) are typically considered to be non-venomous, though they do employ a complex series of enzymes in their saliva, resulting in some inflammation and edema to those who have been bitten. ### Subspecies The salt marsh snake has three distinct subspecies, all of which were first discovered and classified in the mid to late 1800s. They are as follows: #### Gulf salt marsh snake (N. c. clarkii) This is perhaps the most prominent of the three races of N. clarkii, and is certainly the one with the furthest range. Populations of the Gulf salt marsh snake natively range from the vicinity of Corpus Christi, Texas, to the Gulf Hammock region of Florida. They are characterized by their prominent stripes; members of this race can be gray, tan or yellow, but all exhibit four brown to black longitudinal stripes which run from the back of their neck to their tail. The belly is reversed in color from the dorsum, and is reddish with a central light line of cream-colored oval blotches, often flanked by a row of pale spots. The scales are in either 21 or 23 rows, and the anal plate is divided. There is little ontogenetic difference between juvenile to fully adult snakes. Individuals subsist on a diet of primarily fish, and especially shallows-living species such as killifish and small mullet, as well as crayfish and shrimp. Members of this race are primarily nocturnal during hot summer nights, but may be found basking and foraging during daylight hours in cool weather. Sexual maturity is reached at three years. #### Mangrove salt marsh snake (N. c. compressicauda) The Mangrove salt marsh snake's native range of populations is in Florida, from Tampa Bay south to Miami and northward along the Atlantic coast to the vicinity of Cape Canaveral. Within this range, N. c. compressicauda primarily inhabits inundated estuary forests of buttonwood and red mangroves, so as to minimize competition with Florida's numerous freshwater natricines. A study found sheepshead minnows to be the most common of the small estuarine fish preyed upon by this subspecies; it also described this subspecies as a very sedentary predator that remained motionless until ripples in the water close to their bodies triggered predatory behavior. The study also found a tendency toward minimal foraging. This subspecies exhibits many colors and patterns and can be gray, green, or tan with darker banding or may even be solid reddish orange or straw yellow. It is also known to intergrade with all other types of salt marsh snake, complicating the identification process. There are two primary forms: a gray-green color morph, and an orange variant. The gray-green variant has a dark crossbanded olive gray dorsum (some individuals that exhibit this color scheme have partial lateral striping on the forebody) with a clouded, gray-green venter. Adults of the orange phase, on the other hand, have an unmarked orangish back and sides; juveniles of this phase are orange with dark dorsal crossbands. All orange snakes in this subspecies exhibit a pale yellow venter, regardless of age. This race is nocturnal. #### Atlantic salt marsh snake (N. c. taeniata) A third subspecies, the Atlantic salt marsh snake (N. c. taeniata), in its pure form is restricted to a small stretch of coastline in Volusia and Indian River Counties, Florida. However, intergrades between it and the mangrove salt marsh snake extend a county or two southward of Volusia county. Much of its habitat has been lost due to commercial development of the area's ocean coastline, such as excessive filling and development in salt marshes. In fact, habitat loss is so severe for this subspecies that it has been listed as a Threatened Species by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, having received this designation in 1977. Members of this race have a tendency to be smaller than the other two races, with a record size of only 24 inches (61 cm). Atlantic salt marsh snakes have a color pattern of four dark stripes on the neck. which are replaced by a series of dark blotches or bands on the posterior portion of the snake's body. They are striped anteriorly, and banded or blotched posteriorly. The dorsal ground color of this species is gray to olive, and the anterior stripes may be darker than the ground color. It exhibits reddish belly scutes, with each bearing a yellowish midventral spot. The diet of this species is the same as the Gulf salt marsh snake, consisting of fish and crustaceans. As with the Gulf salt marsh snake, this subspecies is diurnal during cool weather, and nocturnal during the hot summer nights. ## Taxonomy Some sources consider the three races of N. clarkii to be subspecies of the southern water snake, Nerodia fasciata. Others consider not only the three races of N. clarkii, but also the species N. fasciata itself, all to be subspecies of N. sipedon. ### Subspecies The following three subspecies of N. clarkii are recognized as being valid, including the nominotypical subspecies. - Nerodia clarkii clarkii (Baird & Girard, 1853) – Gulf salt marsh snake - Nerodia clarkii compressicauda (Kennicott, 1860) – mangrove salt marsh snake - Nerodia clarkii taeniata (Cope, 1895) – Atlantic salt marsh snake
17,984,733	Sheep Meadow	1,148,844,343	Meadow in New York City's Central Park	[ "Central Park", "Meadows in the United States", "Upper West Side" ]	Sheep Meadow is a 15-acre (61,000 m<sup>2</sup>) meadow near the southwestern section of Central Park, between West 66th and 69th Streets in Manhattan, New York City. It is adjacent to Central Park Mall to the east, The Ramble and Lake to the north, West Drive to the west, and Heckscher Playground and Ballfields to the south. Sheep Meadow was originally designed as a parade ground and incorporated into the Greensward Plan, the original plan for Central Park developed in the 1850s. However, Central Park's designers Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux opposed the use of the meadow for military purposes, so it was instead converted to a pasture with sheep. Housed in a nearby sheepfold that now contains the Tavern on the Green restaurant, the sheep were removed in 1934. Sheep Meadow has a long history as a gathering place for large-scale demonstrations and political movements. These have included festivals, rallies, concerts, and protests such as the be-ins of the 1960s. Though sports and gatherings were gradually allowed through the late 19th century, Sheep Meadow saw significant deterioration because of overuse. A regulation prohibiting sports was enacted following a 1980 renovation, and the meadow was restored again in 2000. ## History ### Construction In 1857 a design competition was held for Central Park. The applications were required to contain extremely detailed specifications, including at least four east-west transverse roads through the park, a parade ground of 20 to 40 acres (8.1 to 16.2 ha), and at least three playgrounds of between 3 and 10 acres (1.2 and 4.0 ha). The winning design was Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux's Greensward Plan, whose name referenced a nineteenth-century term for broad open lawns. The plan offered a reduced parade ground on the western side of the proposed park. When the location of Sheep Meadow was decided, some small communities of poorer New Yorkers were uprooted, including Irish, Germans and African-Americans. Sheep Meadow was to be located in a relatively flat 10-acre (40,000 m<sup>2</sup>) patch of land within the park site. To produce the almost 15 acres (61,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of "level or but slightly undulating ground" in the specifications, the ten acres of poorly-draining ground was filled to a depth of 2 feet (0.61 m) with fill from New Jersey. Additionally, large boulders and a rocky ridge that stood 16 feet (4.9 m) out of the finished grade were blasted out, and the reshaped landscape was covered with topsoil. Sheep Meadow was the most expensive project within the park. It was the largest meadow in Central Park until the old Croton Aqueduct collecting reservoir was emptied and made into the Great Lawn in 1937. Despite Central Park's growing popularity, the park commissioners were loath to allow large events, especially military practices and picnics. The committee instituted a ban on military parades in the Parade Ground in 1865. In its place, Olmsted and Vaux believed that the introduction of sheep enhanced the romantic English quality of the park and to re-enforce the quiet nature of the "Greensward", 200 sheep were added in 1864. The flock of pedigree Southdown sheep were joined later by Dorset sheep. The sheep were housed in a fanciful Victorian-style sheepfold created in 1870 by Jacob Wrey Mould under the direction of Calvert Vaux. The animals also trimmed the grass and fertilized the lawn. A sheep crossing was built across the drive, and twice a day a shepherd would stop traffic as the sheep traveled between the sheepfold and meadow. The Central Park commissioners would often sell wool and once a year would also auction off some sheep. ### Conversion to open space In its earliest years, Sheep Meadow was also known as "the Commons" or "the Green". For the first few decades of Central Park's existence, it was forbidden to play most sports in Central Park, because Olmsted and Vaux believed that the park should be used for scenic enjoyment rather than recreation. As such, in the park's earliest years, Sheep Meadow was only available to the public during certain times such as on Saturdays, as indicated on signs posted on the meadow's perimeter. By the 1870s, the park's patronage increasingly came to include the middle and working class, and strict regulations were gradually eased, such as those against public gatherings. Though certain sports such as lacrosse, tennis, American football, and roller skating were allowed during the 1880s, the commissioners were still reluctant to repeal the "keep off the grass" rules. However, by the 1890s, the regulations against walking on the grass had also been repealed. Tennis nets were installed in Sheep Meadow in 1915 due to the large number of tennis permits distributed by the city that year. There were efforts to demolish the sheepfold as early as 1912, when it was suggested that the Lenox Library be relocated there. A subsequent proposal in 1921 called for a police garage to be built on the site. These efforts were not successful. By the 1920s, Central Park was undergoing minor renovations, and in 1928, part of Sheep Meadow was set aside for a plant nursery to store plants and trees that would be installed during these renovations. At the same time, the successive generations of sheep in the meadow were supposedly inbreeding, leading to alleged deformities in later generations. In 1934, to make way for a restaurant in the sheepfold, park commissioner Robert Moses evicted the sheep from Sheep Meadow. The sheep were moved to Prospect Park in Brooklyn and soon thereafter moved to a farm near Otisville, New York, in the Catskill Mountains. After the sheep were removed, the sheepfold was converted into what later became the Tavern on the Green restaurant. The restaurant opened in October 1934. ### Restorations The large events and the lack of maintenance of the 1960s and 1970s severely eroded the lawn, and it was one of the first parts of Central Park to be restored by the Central Park Conservancy. This led New York state government to give \$310,000 toward replacing Sheep Meadow's sod in 1979. With the help of James Taylor, who held a free benefit concert that July, the city renovated the meadow and installed a sprinkler system beginning in September 1979. The renovation was supposed to be completed within six or seven months, but because of discrepancies during construction, the grass began turning brown before the renovation was complete, and the reopening date was delayed. Sheep Meadow was reopened in September 1980. Once the lawn was reopened, team sports were banned and had to use the Great Lawn instead. In 1985, Sheep Meadow and four city beaches were designated as "quiet zones" where loud radio-playing was prohibited. In 1992, a consortium of cheese producers brought a flock of sheep to graze on the meadow as a promotional stunt. They also pledged to finance the meadow's maintenance through 1993. In November 2000, the Central Park Conservancy began the installation of a new irrigation system. The project, funded from a grant by the Marc Haas Foundation, was completed in five months, and Sheep Meadow reopened in April 2001. ## Features Sheep Meadow is on the western side of Central Park just north of the 65th Street transverse road. Adjacent features include The Dairy and Central Park Carousel to the southeast, Central Park Mall to the east, The Ramble and Lake to the north, Strawberry Fields memorial to the northwest, West Drive to the west, and Heckscher Playground and Ballfields to the south. ### Mineral Springs In 1865, Vaux and Mould designed the Moorish-style Mineral Springs Pavilion at the northwestern edge of Sheep Meadow. The Mineral Springs Pavilion had cusped arches supported on slender colonnettes, and flaring, complex roofs, reminiscent of Saracenic architecture. In 1957, park commissioner Moses demolished the structure. The Mineral Springs Cafe was built on the site of the pavilion in the 1960s. In 2009, it became a cafe operated by Le Pain Quotidien. ### Statues There are two monuments and statues near Sheep Meadow. Giuseppe Mazzini (1878), a bronze bust by Giovanni Turini, overlooks the Meadow on a high pedestal. It honors Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian patriot and revolutionary. The pedestal contains two Italian phrases, translated to "thought and action" and "God and the people". Indian Hunter (1869), created by American sculptor John Quincy Adams Ward, is on the east side of Sheep Meadow near the Mall. It was the first statue in Central Park created by an American artist. ## Notable uses Sheep Meadow has held many large-scale events, and people have gathered for many uses. However, managerial neglect took a toll on the park's condition, and by the 1970s, the frequent festivals and concerts in Central Park were later identified as part of the cause for the park's subsequent deterioration. After the 1970s renovation, the open space of Sheep Meadow was surrounded by a chain link fence. The perimeter contains signs saying that team sports, ballplaying, bike riding, skating, glass bottles and dogs are prohibited. Sheep Meadow opens at 11 a.m. each day between April and October each year. The meadow is closed during winters to allow the sod to grow back. The Conservancy internally classifies Sheep Meadow as one of seven "A Lawns", indicating that it has the highest level of use out of the park's four classes of lawns. Sheep Meadow is heavily used: in 2009, it was utilized by 30,000 people each day. A survey conducted in 2010 found that the meadow saw three million people that year. ### Past events #### Early and mid-20th century In the early 20th century, the flock of sheep started sharing space with a variety of festivals and children's pageants, though political protests were not yet permissible. In 1912, an event called Around the World in Search of Fairyland featured children in brightly colored costumes. Children's competitions were also held in Sheep Meadow, such as playground contests and model airplane races. Starting in 1935, troupes of schoolgirls from the city's five boroughs competed at an annual concert attended by thousands of spectators. This practice continued even through World War II. Another popular festival was a Works Progress Administration sponsored event in 1936, attended by 25,000 people. During World War I, Sheep Meadow was the site of patriotic wartime celebrations. In 1916, the 107th Infantry, the 7th Regiment Reserves, marched daily from their Park Avenue Armory to Sheep Meadow for maneuvers and drill, before being deployed that August. They are memorialized by the 107th Infantry Memorial, 600 yd (550 m) east of the Meadow at 5th Avenue and 67th Street. In 1917, 20,000 liberty war bond marchers participated in a "Liberty Day Parade" that ended in Sheep Meadow. The following year, there was a proposal to install trenches in Sheep Meadow as part of a wartime exhibition, the reason being that Sheep Meadow was in worse shape than North Meadow, the other large meadow in the park at the time. However, this was controversial because it was seen as detrimental to the naturalistic character of the park. The meadow was also used for patriotic gatherings during World War II. On October 27, 1945, Harry S. Truman spoke to 50,000 people at Sheep Meadow on Navy Day. #### 1960s and 1970s: be-ins Starting in the 1960s, Sheep Meadow was used for events of unprecedented scale. Concerts, Vietnam War protests, and hippie "love-ins" and "be-ins" were attended by hundreds of thousands of people. The demonstrations included a "be-in style" peace demonstration attended by 10,000 people in March 1967, and an anti-Vietnam War rally attended by 400,000 people in April of that year. In Easter 1968, mayor John Lindsay, an opponent of the Vietnam War, met with protesters and marchers in an event attended by 90,000 people who assembled at Sheep Meadow. On June 28, 1970, there was a massive gay march and "be-in" that traveled from Stonewall Inn to Sheep Meadow to commemorate the first anniversary of the Stonewall riots. Another large Vietnam War protest march, which occurred in 1971 and included 20,000 protesters, marched up Sixth Avenue and ended at Sheep Meadow. These be-ins stopped by the 1970s as attitudes toward large protests in Central Park changed. Other large gatherings included an event in 1969 when large crowds gathered to watch Apollo 11, the first crewed mission to land on the Moon. That same year, a group of 15,000 to 20,000 people assembled in Sheep Meadow for a bonfire event. This period was also marked by performances, such as a 1967 event where Barbra Streisand performed in front of 135,000 people, as well as summertime concerts in Sheep Meadow that each drew tens of thousands of people. Additionally, James Taylor's free benefit concert for the restoration of Sheep Meadow, hosted in July 1979, drew 250,000 people. #### 1980s to present In 1995, Disney paid the city government \$1 million to show the New York City premiere of the film Pocahontas. Then in 1998, Disney rented the park area for a \$105,000 fee, to have 1,300 children stand in formation, spelling out the name of the newly opened Disney's Animal Kingdom theme park. The scene was filmed from helicopters and from ground-level cameras set up outside Sheep Meadow. For sixteen days in 2005, Central Park was the setting for Christo and Jeanne-Claude's installation The Gates. The opening ceremony for the installation was officiated by mayor Michael Bloomberg, who raised a long metal pole to release fabric from the top of a gate in Sheep Meadow. Although the project was the subject of mixed reactions, it was nevertheless a major attraction for the park while it was open, drawing over a million people. ### Recurring events The AIDS Walk New York, an annual event that draws up to 40,000 people, begins and ends in the Meadow. It started in 1986 and has since grown into one of the largest AIDS fundraising events ever, raising \$139 million by 2015. After Sheep Meadow experienced extensive damage from the opening ceremonies for the AIDS Walk, NYC Parks determined that after the 2003 event this gathering could no longer take place in Sheep Meadow and would instead be held on the paved surfaces near the Bandshell in the Central Park Mall. Since 1995, the NYC Urban Starfest has convened in Sheep Meadow on an ongoing annual basis. Sheep Meadow is reportedly one of the only open areas of Central Park "free of glare from local lighting and where almost the entire sky can be seen". ### Emergency and other uses At times the Meadow has been used for emergency helicopter air operations: - On June 8, 1968, U.S. president Lyndon B. Johnson flew in and out of New York in a helicopter to attend Robert F. Kennedy's funeral at St. Patrick's Cathedral. - In 1986, emergency services met a helicopter carrying a heart patient from Smithtown, Long Island, in Sheep Meadow, The patient was destined for the New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center in the Upper East Side. - Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, Black Hawk helicopters used Sheep Meadow as a base of operations. At one point, a portable air traffic control tower was assembled there. At least one child is said to have been born in Sheep Meadow. Isidore Block, known locally as a street poet, has stated that he was born in Sheep Meadow in 1920. ## Use in media Film and television production is allowed on Sheep Meadow only with an official permit and when it is open. The meadow is open for production in dry weather from May through October, from 11 a.m. to dusk. Beginning with Romeo and Juliet in 1908, films such as It Could Happen To You (1994), The Fisher King (1991), Wall Street (1987), Ghostbusters (1984), Enchanted (2007), and The Manchurian Candidate (1962) have used Sheep Meadow as a setting. The meadow has been used for scenes depicting romantic moments, large dance numbers, and car chases. The director Mark Levin wanted to fill Sheep Meadow with sheep for a scene in his 2005 romance Little Manhattan. After NYC Parks refused this request, the filmmakers placed temporary sod along the path surrounding the meadow, then filmed the sheep atop the temporary sod.
45,645,094	World Trade Center (1973–2001)	1,173,734,918	Former skyscraper complex in Manhattan, New York	[ "1973 establishments in New York City", "2001 disestablishments in New York (state)", "American Airlines Flight 11", "Articles containing video clips", "Buildings and structures demolished in 2001", "Buildings and structures destroyed in the September 11 attacks", "Demolished buildings and structures in Manhattan", "Financial District, Manhattan", "Former skyscrapers", "Former world's tallest buildings", "Historic American Buildings Survey in New York City", "History of New York City", "Minoru Yamasaki buildings", "Modernist architecture in New York City", "Office buildings completed in 1973", "Port Authority of New York and New Jersey", "Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan", "Twin towers", "United Airlines Flight 175", "World Trade Center", "World Trade Centers" ]	The original World Trade Center (WTC) was a large complex of seven buildings in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. It opened on April 4, 1973, and was destroyed during the September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001. At the time of their completion, the Twin Towers—the original 1 World Trade Center (the North Tower) at 1,368 feet (417 m); and 2 World Trade Center (the South Tower) at 1,362 feet (415.1 m)—were the tallest buildings in the world. Other buildings in the complex included the Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC), 4 WTC, 5 WTC, 6 WTC, and 7 WTC. The complex contained 13,400,000 square feet (1,240,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of office space and, prior to its completion, was projected to accommodate an estimated 130,000 people. The core complex was built between 1966 and 1975, at a cost of \$400 million (equivalent to \$3.56 billion in 2022). The idea was suggested by David Rockefeller to help stimulate urban renewal in Lower Manhattan, and his brother Nelson, then New York's 49th governor, signed the legislation to build it. The buildings at the complex were designed by Minoru Yamasaki. In 1998, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey decided to privatize it by leasing the buildings to a private company to manage. It awarded the lease to Silverstein Properties in July 2001. During its existence, the World Trade Center symbolized globalization and the economic power of America. Although its design was initially criticized by New York citizens and professional critics—"they put up the boxes instead of the buildings"—the Twin Towers became an icon of New York City. It had a major role in popular culture, and according to one estimate was depicted in 472 films. The Twin Towers were also used in Philippe Petit's tightrope-walking performance on August 7, 1974. Following the September 11 attacks, mentions of the complex in various media were altered or deleted, and several dozen "memorial films" were created. The World Trade Center experienced several major crime and terrorist incidents, including a fire on February 13, 1975; a bombing on February 26, 1993; and a bank robbery on January 14, 1998. During the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda-affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets, one into each of the Twin Towers; between 16,400 and 18,000 people were in the Twin Towers when they were struck. The fires from the impacts were intensified by the planes' burning jet fuel, which, along with the initial damage to the buildings' structural columns, ultimately caused both towers to collapse. The attacks killed 2,606 people in and around the towers, as well as all 157 on board the two aircraft. Falling debris from the towers, combined with fires in several surrounding buildings that were initiated by falling debris, led to the partial or complete collapse of all the WTC complex's buildings, including 7 World Trade Center, and caused catastrophic damage to 10 other large structures in the surrounding area. The cleanup and recovery process at the World Trade Center site took eight months, during which the remains of the other buildings were demolished. On May 30, 2002, the last piece of WTC steel was ceremonially removed. A new World Trade Center complex is being built with six new skyscrapers and several other buildings, many of which are complete. A memorial and museum to those killed in the attacks, a new rapid transit hub, and an elevated park have opened. The memorial features two square reflecting pools in the center marking where the Twin Towers stood. One World Trade Center, the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere at 1,776 feet (541 m) and the lead building for the new complex, topped out in May 2013 and opened in November 2014. ## Before the World Trade Center ### Site The western portion of the World Trade Center site was originally under the Hudson River. The shoreline was in the vicinity of Greenwich Street, which is closer to the site's eastern border. It was on this shoreline, close to the intersection of Greenwich and the former Dey Street, that Dutch explorer Adriaen Block's ship, Tyger, burned to the waterline in November 1613, stranding him and his crew and forcing them to overwinter on the island. They built the first European settlement in Manhattan. The remains of the ship were buried under landfill when the shoreline was extended beginning in 1797 and was discovered during excavation work in 1916. The remains of a second eighteenth-century ship were discovered in 2010 during excavation work at the site. The ship, believed to be a Hudson River sloop, was found just south of where the Twin Towers stood, about 20 feet (6.1 m) below the surface. Later, the area became New York City's Radio Row, which existed from 1921 to 1966. The neighborhood was a warehouse district in what is now Tribeca and the Financial District. Harry Schneck opened City Radio on Cortlandt Street in 1921, and eventually, the area held several blocks of electronics stores, with Cortlandt Street as its central axis. The used radios, war surplus electronics (e.g., AN/ARC-5 radios), junk, and parts were often piled so high they would spill out onto the street, attracting collectors and scroungers. According to a business writer, it also was the origin of the electronic component distribution business. ### Establishment of the World Trade Center The idea of establishing a World Trade Center in New York City was first proposed in 1943. The New York State Legislature passed a bill authorizing New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey to begin developing plans for the project, but the plans were put on hold in 1949. During the late 1940s and 1950s, economic growth in New York City was concentrated in Midtown Manhattan. To help stimulate urban renewal in Lower Manhattan, David Rockefeller suggested that the Port Authority build a World Trade Center there. Plans for the use of eminent domain to remove the shops in Radio Row bounded by Vesey, Church, Liberty, and West Streets began in 1961 when the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was deciding to build the world's first world trade center. They had two choices: the east side of Lower Manhattan, near the South Street Seaport; or the west side, near the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad (H&M) station, Hudson Terminal. Initial plans, made public in 1961, identified a site along the East River for the World Trade Center. As a bi-state agency, the Port Authority required approval for new projects from the governors of both New York and New Jersey. New Jersey Governor Robert B. Meyner objected to New York getting a \$335 million project. Toward the end of 1961, negotiations with outgoing New Jersey Governor Meyner reached a stalemate. At the time, ridership on New Jersey's H&M Railroad had declined substantially—from a high of 113 million riders in 1927, to 26 million in 1958—after new automobile tunnels and bridges had opened across the Hudson River. In a December 1961 meeting between Port Authority director Austin J. Tobin and newly elected New Jersey Governor Richard J. Hughes, the Port Authority offered to take over the H&M Railroad. They also decided to move the World Trade Center project to the Hudson Terminal building site on the west side of Lower Manhattan, a more convenient location for New Jersey commuters arriving via PATH. With the new location and the Port Authority's acquisition of the H&M Railroad, New Jersey agreed to support the World Trade Center project. As part of the deal, the Port Authority renamed the H&M "Port Authority Trans-Hudson", or PATH for short. To compensate Radio Row business owners for their displacement, the Port Authority gave each business \$3,000 without regard to how long the business had been there or how prosperous it was. The Port Authority began purchasing properties in the area for the World Trade Center by March 1965, and demolition of Radio Row began in March 1966. It was completely demolished by the end of the year. Approval was also needed from New York City Mayor John Lindsay and the New York City Council. Disagreements with the city centered on tax issues. On August 3, 1966, an agreement was reached whereby the Port Authority would make annual payments to the City in lieu of taxes for the portion of the World Trade Center leased to private tenants. In subsequent years, the payments would rise as the real estate tax rate increased. ## Development ### Design On September 20, 1962, the Port Authority announced the selection of Minoru Yamasaki as lead architect and Emery Roth & Sons as associate architects. Yamasaki devised the plan to incorporate twin towers. His original plan called for the towers to be 80 stories tall, but to meet the Port Authority's requirement for 10,000,000 square feet (930,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of office space, the buildings would each have to be 110 stories tall. Yamasaki's design for the World Trade Center, unveiled to the public on January 18, 1964, called for a square plan approximately 208 feet (63 m) in dimension on each side. The buildings were designed with narrow office windows 18 inches (46 cm) wide, which reflected Yamasaki's fear of heights as well as his desire to make building occupants feel secure. His design included building facades clad in aluminum-alloy. The World Trade Center was one of the most striking American implementations of the architectural ethic of Le Corbusier and was the seminal expression of Yamasaki's gothic modernist tendencies. He was also inspired by Islamic architecture, elements of which he incorporated in the building's design, having previously designed Saudi Arabia's Dhahran International Airport with the Saudi Binladin Group. A major limiting factor in building height is the issue of elevators; the taller the building, the more elevators are needed to service it, requiring more space-consuming elevator banks. Yamasaki and the engineers decided to use a new system with two "sky lobbies"—floors where people could switch from a large-capacity express elevator to a local elevator that goes to each floor in a section. This system, inspired by the local-express train operation used in New York City's subway system, allowed the design to stack local elevators within the same elevator shaft. Located on the 44th and 78th floors of each tower, the sky lobbies enabled the elevators to be used efficiently. This increased the amount of usable space on each floor from 62 to 75 percent by reducing the number of elevator shafts. Altogether, the World Trade Center had 95 express and local elevators. The structural engineering firm Worthington, Skilling, Helle & Jackson worked to implement Yamasaki's design, developing the framed-tube structural system used in the twin towers. The Port Authority's Engineering Department served as foundation engineers, Joseph R. Loring & Associates as electrical engineers, and Jaros, Baum & Bolles (JB&B) as mechanical engineers. Tishman Realty & Construction Company was the general contractor on the World Trade Center project. Guy F. Tozzoli, director of the World Trade Department at the Port Authority, and Rino M. Monti, the Port Authority's Chief Engineer, oversaw the project. As an interstate agency, the Port Authority was not subject to the local laws and regulations of the City of New York, including building codes. Nonetheless, the World Trade Center's structural engineers ended up following draft versions of New York City's new 1968 building codes. The framed-tube design, introduced in the 1960s by Bangladeshi-American structural engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan, was a new approach that allowed more open floor plans than the traditional design that distributed columns throughout the interior to support building loads. Each of the World Trade Center towers had 236 high-strength, load-bearing perimeter steel columns which acted as Vierendeel trusses. The perimeter columns were spaced closely together to form a strong, rigid wall structure, supporting virtually all lateral loads such as wind loads, and sharing the gravity load with the core columns. The perimeter structure containing 59 columns per side was constructed with extensive use of prefabricated modular pieces, each consisting of three columns, three stories tall, connected by spandrel plates. The spandrel plates were welded to the columns to create the modular pieces off-site at the fabrication shop. Adjacent modules were bolted together with the splices occurring at mid-span of the columns and spandrels. The spandrel plates were located at each floor, transmitting shear stress between columns, allowing them to work together in resisting lateral loads. The joints between modules were staggered vertically so that the column splices between adjacent modules were not on the same floor. Below the 7th floor to the foundation, there were fewer, wider-spaced perimeter columns to accommodate doorways. The core of the towers housed the elevator and utility shafts, restrooms, three stairwells, and other support spaces. The core of each tower was a rectangular area 87 by 135 feet (27 by 41 m) and contained 47 steel columns running from the bedrock to the top of the tower. The large, column-free space between the perimeter and core was bridged by prefabricated floor trusses. The floors supported their own weight as well as live loads, providing lateral stability to the exterior walls and distributing wind loads among the exterior walls. The floors consisted of 4-inch (10 cm) thick lightweight concrete slabs laid on a fluted steel deck. A grid of lightweight bridging trusses and main trusses supported the floors. The trusses connected to the perimeter at alternate columns and were on 6 foot 8 inch (2.03 m) centers. The top chords of the trusses were bolted to seats welded to the spandrels on the exterior side and a channel welded to the core columns on the interior side. The floors were connected to the perimeter spandrel plates with viscoelastic dampers that helped reduce the amount of sway felt by building occupants. Hat trusses (or "outrigger trusses") located from the 107th floor to the top of the buildings were designed to support a tall communication antenna on top of each building. Only 1 WTC (North Tower) actually had a spire antenna fitted, which was added in May 1979. The truss system consisted of six trusses along the long axis of the core and four along the short axis. This truss system allowed some load redistribution between the perimeter and core columns and supported the transmission tower. The framed-tube design, using steel core and perimeter columns protected with sprayed-on fire-resistant material, created a relatively lightweight structure that would sway more in response to the wind compared to traditional structures, such as the Empire State Building that has thick, heavy masonry for fireproofing of steel structural elements. During the design process, wind tunnel tests were done to establish design wind pressures that the World Trade Center towers could be subjected to and structural response to those forces. Experiments also were done to evaluate how much sway occupants could comfortably tolerate; however, many subjects experienced dizziness and other ill effects. One of the chief engineers Leslie Robertson worked with Canadian engineer Alan G. Davenport to develop viscoelastic dampers to absorb some of the sways. These viscoelastic dampers, used throughout the structures at the joints between floor trusses and perimeter columns along with some other structural modifications, reduced the building sway to an acceptable level. #### Gallery ### Construction In March 1965, the Port Authority began acquiring property at the World Trade Center site. Demolition work began on March 21, 1966, to clear thirteen square blocks of low rise buildings in Radio Row for its construction. Groundbreaking for the construction of the World Trade Center took place on August 5, 1966. The site of the World Trade Center was located on filled land with the bedrock located 65 feet (20 m) below. To construct the World Trade Center, it was necessary to build a "bathtub" with a slurry wall around the West Street side of the site, to keep water from the Hudson River out. The slurry method selected by the Port Authority's chief engineer, John M. Kyle, Jr., involved digging a trench, and as excavation proceeded, filling the space with a slurry consisting of a mixture of bentonite and water, which plugged holes and kept groundwater out. When the trench was dug out, a steel cage was inserted and concrete was poured in, forcing the slurry out. It took fourteen months for the slurry wall to be completed. It was necessary before the excavation of material from the interior of the site could begin. The 1,200,000 cubic yards (920,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of excavated material were used (along with other fill and dredge material) to expand the Manhattan shoreline across West Street to form Battery Park City. In January 1967, the Port Authority awarded \$74 million in contracts to various steel suppliers. Construction work began on the North Tower in August 1968, and construction on the South Tower was under way by January 1969. The original Hudson Tubes, which carried PATH trains into Hudson Terminal, remained in service during the construction process until 1971, when a new station opened. The topping out ceremony of 1 WTC (North Tower) took place on December 23, 1970, while 2 WTC's ceremony (South Tower) occurred on July 19, 1971. Extensive use of prefabricated components helped to speed up the construction process, and the first tenants moved into the North Tower in December 15, 1970, while it was still under construction, while the South Tower began accepting tenants in January 1972. When the World Trade Center twin towers were completed, the total costs to the Port Authority had reached \$900 million. The ribbon cutting ceremony took place on April 4, 1973. In addition to the twin towers, the plan for the World Trade Center complex included four other low-rise buildings, which were built in the early 1970s. The 47-story 7 World Trade Center building was added in the 1980s, to the north of the main complex. Altogether, the main World Trade Center complex occupied a 16-acre (65,000 m<sup>2</sup>) superblock. ### Criticism Plans to build the World Trade Center were controversial. Its site was the location of Radio Row, home to hundreds of commercial and industrial tenants, property owners, small businesses, and approximately 100 residents, many of whom fiercely resisted forced relocation. A group of affected small businesses sought an injunction challenging the Port Authority's power of an eminent domain. The case made its way through the court system to the United States Supreme Court; it refused to hear the case. Private real-estate developers and members of the Real Estate Board of New York, led by Empire State Building owner Lawrence A. Wien, expressed concerns about this much "subsidized" office space going on the open market, competing with the private sector, when there was already a glut of vacancies. The World Trade Center itself was not rented out completely until after 1979 and then only because the complex's subsidy by the Port Authority made rents charged for its office space cheaper than those for comparable space in other buildings. Others questioned whether the Port Authority should have taken on a project described by some as a "mistaken social priority". The World Trade Center's design aesthetics attracted criticism from the American Institute of Architects and other groups. Lewis Mumford, author of The City in History and other works on urban planning, criticized the project, describing it and other new skyscrapers as "just glass-and-metal filing cabinets". The Twin Towers were described as looking similar to "the boxes that the Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building came in". Many disliked the twin towers' narrow office windows, which were only 18 inches (46 cm) wide and framed by pillars that restricted views on each side to narrow slots. Activist and sociologist Jane Jacobs argued the waterfront should be kept open for New Yorkers to enjoy. Some critics regarded the trade center's "superblock", replacing a more traditional, dense neighborhood, as an inhospitable environment that disrupted the complicated traffic network typical of Manhattan. For example, in his book The Pentagon of Power, Lewis Mumford denounced the center as an "example of the purposeless giantism and technological exhibitionism that are now eviscerating the living tissue of every great city". ## Complex The World Trade Center complex housed more than 430 companies that were engaged in various commercial activities. The complex hosted 13,400,000 square feet (1,240,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of office space, which according to a 1970 account was supposed to accommodate 130,000 people. On a typical weekday, an estimated 50,000 people worked in the complex and another 140,000 passed through as visitors. The World Trade Center was so large that it had its own zip code: 10048. The towers offered expansive views from the observation deck atop the South Tower and the Windows on the World restaurant on top of the North Tower. The Twin Towers became known worldwide, appearing in numerous movies and television shows as well as on postcards and other merchandise. It became a New York icon, in the same league as the Empire State Building, the Chrysler Building, and the Statue of Liberty. The World Trade Center was compared to Rockefeller Center, which David Rockefeller's brother Nelson Rockefeller had developed in midtown Manhattan. ### North and South Towers One World Trade Center and Two World Trade Center, commonly referred to as the Twin Towers, were designed by architect Minoru Yamasaki as framed tube structures, which provided tenants with open floor plans, uninterrupted by columns or walls. They were the main buildings of the World Trade Center. Construction of the North Tower at One World Trade Center began in 1966 with the South Tower at Two World Trade Center. When completed in 1972, 1 World Trade Center became the tallest building in the world for two years, surpassing the Empire State Building after its 40-year reign. The North Tower stood 1,368 feet (417 m) tall and featured a 362 foot (110 m) telecommunications antenna or mast that was built on the roof in 1979 (upgraded in 1999 to accommodate DTV broadcasts). With this addition, the highest point of the North Tower reached 1,730 feet (530 m). Chicago's Willis Tower, then called Sears Tower which was finished in May 1973, reached 1,450 feet (440 m) at the rooftop. When completed in 1973, the South Tower became the second tallest building in the world at 1,362 feet (415 m). Its rooftop observation deck was 1,362 ft (415 m) high and its indoor observation deck was 1,310 ft (400 m) high. Each tower stood over 1,350 feet (410 m) high, and occupied about 1 acre (4,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of the total 16 acres (65,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of the site's land. During a press conference in 1973, Yamasaki was asked, "Why two 110-story buildings? Why not one 220-story building?" His tongue-in-cheek response was: "I didn't want to lose the human scale." Architectural critic Ada Louise Huxtable criticized the design of the twin towers when they were first announced, saying: "Here we have the world's daintiest architecture for the world's biggest buildings." The twin towers had more floors (at 110) than any other building before the completion of the Sears Tower in 1973. Their floor counts were not matched until the construction of the Sears Tower, and they were not surpassed until the construction of the Burj Khalifa, which opened in 2010. Each tower had a total mass of around 500,000 tons. ### Austin J. Tobin Plaza The original World Trade Center had a five-acre (two-hectare) plaza around which all of the buildings in the complex, including the twin towers, were centered. World Trade Center officials had wanted the plaza to be a "contemplative space" or a Zen garden. In 1982, the plaza was renamed after Port Authority's late chairman, Austin J. Tobin, who authorized the construction of the original World Trade Center. During the summer, the Port Authority installed a portable stage, typically backed up against the North Tower within Tobin Plaza for musicians and performers. These series of concerts and events were called "CenterStage at the World Trade Center". At the center of the plaza stood The Sphere, a sculpture surrounded by a fountain. The site had other sculptures such as Ideogram, Cloud Fortress, and the 1993 World Trade Center bombing memorial fountain. The plaza was pervaded by Muzak background music that came from installed loudspeakers. For many years, the Plaza was often beset by brisk winds at ground level owing to the Venturi effect between the two towers. Some gusts were so strong that pedestrians' travel had to be aided by ropes. In 1997 Tony May opened an Italian restaurant in the plaza next to 4 World Trade Center called "Gemelli". The following year, he opened another restaurant in an adjacent place called "Pasta Break". On June 9, 1999, the outdoor plaza reopened after undergoing \$12 million in renovations. This involved replacing marble pavers with over 40,000 gray and pink granite stones, as well as adding benches, planters, food kiosks, and outdoor dining areas. ### Top of the World observation deck Although most of the space in the World Trade Center complex was off-limits to the public, the South Tower featured a public glass-enclosed observation deck on the 107th floor called Top of the World and an open-air deck with the height of 110 stories. The observation deck was operative since December 1975 and the opening times were from 9:30 a.m. to 11:30 p.m. (June - August) and from 9:30 a.m. - 9:30 p.m. (September - May). After paying an entrance fee in the second floor, visitors were required to pass through security checks added after the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. They were then sent to the 107th-floor indoor observatory at a height of 1,310 feet (400 m) by a dedicated express elevator. The exterior columns were narrowed to allow 28 inches of window width between them. In 1995, the Port Authority leased operation of the observatory to Ogden Entertainment, which decided to renovate it. On April 30, 1997, the Top of the World tour reopened after renovations were finished. Attractions added to the observation deck included 24 video monitors, which provided descriptions of 44 points of interest in six languages; a theater showing a film of a simulated helicopter tour around the city called "Manhattan Magic"; a model of Manhattan with 750 buildings; a Kodak photo booth and two gift shops. The 107th-floor also featured a subway-themed food court that featured Sbarro Street Station and Nathan's Famous Hot Dogs with a dining area that simulated Central Park. Weather permitting, visitors could ride two short escalators up from the 107th-floor viewing area to an outdoor platform at a height of 1,377 ft (420 m). On a clear day, visitors could see up to 50 miles (80 km). An anti-suicide fence was placed on the roof itself, with the viewing platform set back and elevated above it, requiring only an ordinary railing. This left the view unobstructed, unlike the observation deck of the Empire State Building. ### Windows on the World Restaurant Windows on the World, the restaurant on the North Tower's 106th and 107th floors, opened in April 1976. It was developed by restaurateur Joe Baum at a cost of more than \$17 million. As well as the main restaurant, two offshoots were located at the top of the North Tower: Hors d'Oeuvrerie (offered a Danish smorgasbord during the day and sushi in the evening) and Cellar in the Sky (a small wine bar). Windows on the World also had a wine school program run by Kevin Zraly, who published a book on the course. Windows on the World was forced to close following the 1993 World Trade Center bombing as the explosion damaged receiving areas, storage and parking spots used by the restaurant complex. On May 12, 1994, the Joseph Baum & Michael Whiteman Company won the contract to run the restaurants after Windows's former operator, Inhilco, gave up its lease. After its reopening on June 26, 1996, the Greatest Bar on Earth and Cellar in the Sky (reopened after Labor Day) replaced the original restaurant offshoots. In 1999, Cellar in the Sky was changed into an American steakhouse and renamed as Wild Blue. In 2000 (its last full year of operation), Windows on the World reported revenues of \$37 million, making it the highest-grossing restaurant in the United States. The Skydive Restaurant, which was a 180-seat cafeteria on the 44th floor of 1 WTC conceived for office workers, was also operated by Windows on the World. In its last iteration, Windows on the World received mixed reviews. Ruth Reichl, a New York Times food critic, said in December 1996 that "nobody will ever go to Windows on the World just to eat, but even the fussiest food person can now be content dining at one of New York's favorite tourist destinations". She gave the restaurant two out of four stars, signifying a "very good" quality. In his 2009 book Appetite, William Grimes wrote that, "At Windows, New York was the main course". In 2014, Ryan Sutton of Eater.com compared the now-destroyed restaurant's cuisine to that of its replacement, One World Observatory. He said, "Windows helped usher in a new era of captive audience dining in that the restaurant was a destination in itself, rather than a lazy by-product of the vital institution it resided in." ### Other buildings Five smaller buildings stood on the 16-acre (65,000 m<sup>2</sup>) block. One was the 22-floor hotel, which opened at the southwest corner of the site in 1981 as the Vista Hotel; in 1995, it became the Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC). Three low-rise buildings (4 WTC, 5 WTC, and 6 WTC), which were steel-framed office buildings, also stood around the plaza. 6 World Trade Center, at the northwest corner, housed the United States Customs Service. 5 World Trade Center was located at the northeast corner above the PATH station, and 4 World Trade Center, located at the southeast corner, housed the U.S. Commodities Exchange. In 1987, construction was completed on a 47-floor office building, 7 World Trade Center, located to the north of the superblock. Beneath the World Trade Center complex was an underground shopping mall. It had connections to various mass transit facilities, including the New York City Subway system and the Port Authority's PATH trains. One of the world's largest gold depositories was located underneath the World Trade Center, owned by a group of commercial banks. The 1993 bombing detonated close to the vault. Seven weeks after the September 11 attacks, \$230 million in precious metals was removed from basement vaults of 4 WTC. This included 3,800 100-Troy-ounce 24 carat gold bars and 30,000 1,000-ounce silver bars. ## Major events ### February 13, 1975 fire On February 13, 1975, a three-alarm fire broke out on the North Tower's 11th floor. It spread to the 9th and 14th floors after igniting telephone cable insulation in a utility shaft that ran vertically between floors. Areas at the furthest extent of the fire were extinguished almost immediately; the original fire was put out in a few hours. Most of the damage was concentrated on the 11th floor, fueled by cabinets filled with paper, alcohol-based fluid for office machines, and other office equipment. Fireproofing protected the steel and there was no structural damage to the tower. In addition to fire damage on the 9th through the 14th floors, the water used to extinguish the fire damaged a few of the floors below. At that time, the World Trade Center had no fire sprinkler systems. On March 12, 1981, the Port Authority announced a \$45 million plan to install sprinklers throughout the World Trade Center. ### February 26, 1993 bombing The first terrorist attack on the World Trade Center occurred on February 26, 1993, at 12:17 p.m. A Ryder truck filled with 1,500 pounds (680 kg) of explosives (planted by Ramzi Yousef) detonated in the North Tower's underground garage. The blast opened a 100 ft (30 m) hole through five sublevels with the greatest damage occurring on levels B1 and B2 and significant structural damage on level B3. Six people were killed and 1,042 others were injured in the attacks, some from smoke inhalation. Sheikh Omar Abdel Rahman and four other individuals were later convicted for their involvement in the bombing, while Yousef and Eyad Ismoil were convicted for carrying out the bombing. According to a presiding judge, the conspirators' chief aim at the time of the attack was to destabilize the North Tower and send it crashing into the South Tower, toppling both skyscrapers. Following the bombing, floors that were blown out needed to be repaired to restore the structural support they provided to columns. The slurry wall was in peril following the bombing and the loss of the floor slabs that provided lateral support against pressure from Hudson River water on the other side. The refrigeration plant on sublevel B5, which provided air conditioning to the entire World Trade Center complex, was heavily damaged. After the bombing, the Port Authority installed photoluminescent pathway markings in the stairwells. The fire alarm system for the entire complex needed to be replaced because critical wiring and signaling in the original system were destroyed. A memorial to the victims of the bombing, a reflecting pool, was installed with the names of those who were killed in the blast. It was later destroyed following the September 11 attacks. The names of the victims of the 1993 bombing are included in the National September 11 Memorial & Museum. ### January 14, 1998 robbery In January 1998, Mafia member Ralph Guarino gained maintenance access to the World Trade Center. He arranged a three-man crew for a heist that netted over \$2 million from a Brinks delivery to the North Tower's 11th floor. ### Other events On the morning of August 7, 1974, Philippe Petit performed a high-wire walk between the North and South Towers of the World Trade Center. For his unauthorized feat 1,312 feet (400 m) above the ground, he rigged a 440-pound (200 kg) cable and used a custom-made 30-foot-long (9.1 m), 55-pound (25 kg) balancing pole. He performed for 45 minutes, making eight passes along the wire. Though Petit was charged with criminal trespass and disorderly conduct, he was later freed in exchange for performing for children in Central Park. On February 20, 1981, an Aerolíneas Argentinas airliner was guided away by air traffic controllers after radar signals indicated it was on a collision course with the North Tower (1 WTC). The aircraft, which departed from José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport in Guayaquil, Ecuador, and was scheduled to land at nearby JFK Airport, was flying at a much lower altitude than regulations recommended. The 1995 PCA world chess championship was played on the 107th floor of the South Tower. ### Proposed lease Slow leasing was a hallmark of the old World Trade Center complex. The Twin Towers suffered high vacancy rates for decades. The complex achieved 95% occupancy only in mid-2001. Following the Port Authority's approved plans to privatize the World Trade Center in the late 1990s, they sought to lease it to a private entity in 2001. Bids for the lease came from Vornado Realty Trust; a joint bid between Brookfield Properties Corporation and Boston Properties; and a joint bid by Silverstein Properties and The Westfield Group. Privatizing the World Trade Center would add it to the city's tax rolls and provide funds for other Port Authority projects. On February 15, 2001, the Port Authority announced that Vornado Realty Trust had won the World Trade Center lease, paying \$3.25 billion for the 99-year lease. Vornado outbid Silverstein by \$600 million though Silverstein upped his offer to \$3.22 billion. However, Vornado insisted on last minute changes to the deal, including a shorter 39-year lease, which the Port Authority considered nonnegotiable. Vornado later withdrew and Silverstein's bid for the lease to the World Trade Center was accepted on April 26, 2001, and closed on July 24, 2001. ## Destruction On September 11, 2001, Islamist terrorists hijacked American Airlines Flight 11 and crashed it into the northern façade of the North Tower at 8:46:40 a.m.; the aircraft struck between the 93rd and 99th floors. Seventeen minutes later, at 9:03:11 a.m., a second group crashed the similarly hijacked United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern façade of the South Tower, striking it between the 77th and 85th floors. The terrorist organization al-Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden, carried out the attacks in retaliation for certain aspects of American foreign policy, particularly U.S. support of Israel and the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia. The damage caused to the North Tower by Flight 11 destroyed any means of escape from above the impact zone, trapping 1,344 people. Flight 175 had a much more off-centered impact compared to Flight 11, and a single stairwell was left intact; however, only a few people managed to descend successfully before the tower collapsed. Although the South Tower was struck lower than the North Tower, thus affecting more floors, a smaller number (fewer than 700) were killed instantly or trapped. At 9:59 a.m., the South Tower collapsed after burning for approximately 56 minutes. The fire caused steel structural elements, already weakened from the plane's impact, to fail. The North Tower collapsed at 10:28 a.m., after burning for approximately 102 minutes. At 5:20 p.m. on September 11, 2001, 7 World Trade Center began to collapse with the crumbling of the east penthouse and collapsed completely at 5:21 p.m. due to uncontrolled fires causing structural failure. The Marriott World Trade Center hotel was destroyed during the two towers' collapse. The three remaining buildings in the WTC plaza were extensively damaged by debris and later demolished. The cleanup and recovery process at the World Trade Center site took eight months. The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned because of the uninhabitable toxic conditions inside; it was deconstructed, with work completed in early 2011. The Borough of Manhattan Community College's Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was also condemned due to extensive damage, and it was demolished and completely rebuilt. In the immediate aftermath of the attacks, media reports suggested that tens of thousands might have been killed in the attacks, as over 50,000 people could have been inside the World Trade Center. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) estimated approximately 17,400 individuals were in the towers at the time of the attacks. Ultimately, 2,753 death certificates (excluding those for hijackers) were filed relating to the 9/11 attacks. There were 2,192 civilians who died in and around the World Trade Center, including 658 employees of Cantor Fitzgerald L.P. (an investment bank on the 101st to 105th floors of One World Trade Center), 295 employees of Marsh & McLennan Companies (located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93 to 101, the location of Flight 11's impact), and 175 employees of Aon Corporation. In addition to the civilian deaths, 414 sworn personnel were also killed: 343 New York City Fire Department (FDNY) firefighters, including 2 FDNY paramedics and 1 FDNY chaplain, and 71 law enforcement officers, including 37 members of the Port Authority Police Department (PAPD) and 23 members of the New York City Police Department (NYPD). Eight EMS personnel from private agencies also died in the attacks. Ten years after the attacks, the remains of only 1,629 victims had been identified. Of all the people who were still in the towers when they collapsed, only 20 were pulled out alive. ## New World Trade Center Over the following years, plans were created for the reconstruction of the World Trade Center. The Lower Manhattan Development Corporation (LMDC), established in November 2001 to oversee the rebuilding process, organized competitions to select a site plan and memorial design. Memory Foundations, designed by Daniel Libeskind, was selected as the master plan; however, substantial changes were made to the design. The first new building at the site was 7 WTC, which opened on May 23, 2006. The memorial section of the National September 11 Memorial & Museum opened on September 11, 2011, and the museum opened on May 21, 2014. 1 WTC opened on November 3, 2014; 4 WTC opened on November 13, 2013; and 3 WTC opened on June 11, 2018. In November 2013, according to an agreement made with Silverstein Properties Inc., the new 2 WTC would not be built to its full height until sufficient space was leased to make the building financially viable. Above-ground construction of 5 WTC was also suspended due to a lack of tenants as well as disputes between the Port Authority and the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation. In mid-2015, Silverstein Properties revealed plans for a redesigned 2 WTC, to be designed by Bjarke Ingels and completed by 2020 with News Corp as anchor tenant. Four years later, with no anchor tenant for 2 WTC, Silverstein expressed his intent to resume work on the tower regardless of whether a tenant had signed. ## Legacy ### On the surrounding community The original World Trade Center created a superblock that cut through the area's street grid, isolating the complex from the rest of the community. The Port Authority had demolished several streets to make way for the towers within the World Trade Center. The project involved combining the 12-block area bounded by Vesey, Church, Liberty, and West Streets on the north, east, south, and west, respectively. 7 World Trade Center was built on the superblock's north side in the late 1980s over another block of Greenwich Street. The building acted as a physical barrier separating Tribeca to the north and the Financial District to the south. The underground mall at the World Trade Center also drew shoppers away from surrounding streets. The project was seen as being monolithic and overambitious, with the design having had no public input. By contrast, the rebuilding plans had significant public input. The public supported rebuilding a street grid through the World Trade Center site. One of the rebuilding proposals included building an enclosed shopping street along the path of Cortlandt Street, one of the streets demolished to make room for the original World Trade Center. However, the Port Authority ultimately decided to rebuild Cortlandt, Fulton, and Greenwich Streets, which were destroyed during the original World Trade Center's construction. ### As popular culture icon Before its destruction, the World Trade Center was a New York City icon, and the Twin Towers were the centerpiece that represented the entire complex. They were used in film and TV projects as "establishing shots", standing for New York City as a whole. In 1999, one writer noted: "Nearly every guidebook in New York City lists the Twin Towers among the city's top ten attractions." Among the films that used the complex as a filming location was Sidney Lumet's The Wiz (1978), where the World Trade Center was used to represent Emerald City. There were several high-profile events that occurred at the World Trade Center. The most notable was held at the original WTC in 1974. French high wire acrobatic performer Philippe Petit walked between the two towers on a tightrope, as shown in the documentary film Man on Wire (2008) and depicted in the feature film The Walk (2015). Petit walked between the towers eight times on a steel cable. In 1975, Owen J. Quinn base-jumped from the roof of the North Tower and safely landed on the plaza between the buildings. Quinn claimed that he was trying to publicize the plight of the poor. On May 26, 1977, Brooklyn toymaker George Willig scaled the exterior of the South Tower. He later said, "It looked unscalable; I thought I'd like to try it." Six years later, high-rise firefighting and rescue advocate Dan Goodwin successfully climbed the outside of the North Tower to call attention to the inability to rescue people potentially trapped in the upper floors of skyscrapers. The complex was featured in numerous works of popular culture; in 2006, it was estimated that the World Trade Center had appeared in some form in 472 films. Several iconic meanings were attributed to the World Trade Center. Film critic David Sterritt, who lived near the complex, said that the World Trade Center's appearance in the 1978 film Superman "summarized a certain kind of American grandeur [...] the grandeur, I would say, of sheer American powerfulness". Remarking on the towers' destruction in the 1996 film Independence Day, Sterritt said: "The Twin Towers have been destroyed in various disaster movies that were made before 9/11. That became something that you couldn't do even retroactively after 9/11." Other motifs included romance, depicted in the 1988 film Working Girl, and corporate avarice, depicted in Wall Street (1987) and The Bonfire of the Vanities (1990). Comic books, animated cartoons, television shows, video games, and music videos also used the complex as a setting. #### After the September 11 attacks After the September 11 attacks, some movies and TV shows deleted scenes or episodes set within the World Trade Center. For example, The Simpsons episode "The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson", which first aired in 1997, was removed from syndication after the attacks because a scene showed the World Trade Center. Songs that mentioned the World Trade Center were no longer aired on radio, and the release dates of some films, such as the 2001–2002 films Sidewalks of New York; People I Know; and Spider-Man were delayed so producers could remove film and poster scenes that included the World Trade Center. The 2001 film Kissing Jessica Stein, which was shown at the Toronto International Film Festival the day before the attacks, had to be modified before its general public release so the filmmakers could delete scenes that depicted the World Trade Center. Other episodes and films mentioned the attacks directly or depicted the World Trade Center in alternate contexts. The production of some family-oriented films was also sped up due to a large demand for the genre after the attacks. Demand for horror and action films decreased, but within a short time demand returned to normal. By the attacks' first anniversary, over sixty "memorial films" had been created. Filmmakers were criticized for removing scenes related to the World Trade Center. Rita Kempley of The Washington Post said "if we erase the towers from our art, we erase it [sic] from our memories". Author Donald Langmead compared the phenomenon to the 1949 novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, where historic mentions of events are retroactively "rectified". Other filmmakers such as Michael Bay, who directed the 1998 film Armageddon, opposed retroactively removing references to the World Trade Center based on post-9/11 attitudes. Oliver Stone's film World Trade Center—the first movie that specifically examined the attacks' effects on the World Trade Center as contrasted with the effects elsewhere—was released in 2006. Several years after the attacks, works such as "The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson" were placed back in syndication. The National September 11 Museum has preserved many of the works that feature depictions of the original World Trade Center. ## Logo The World Trade Center used two different logos over its lifetime. The first logo, used from 1973 to 1993, consisted of two open rectangles with one upside down. Following the complex's reopening after the 1993 bombing, a new logo was unveiled, consisting of the towers encircled by a globe. This logo was found throughout the complex and was printed on commemorative mugs given out to tenants with the caption "Welcome back to the World Trade Center". ## Gallery ## See also - Artwork damaged or destroyed in the September 11 attacks - List of tallest freestanding steel structures - List of tallest freestanding structures
18,079	Leonardo da Vinci	1,173,177,690	Italian Renaissance polymath (1452–1519)	[ "1452 births", "1519 deaths", "15th-century Italian mathematicians", "15th-century Italian painters", "15th-century Italian scientists", "15th-century Italian sculptors", "15th-century people of the Republic of Florence", "16th-century Italian inventors", "16th-century Italian mathematicians", "16th-century Italian painters", "16th-century Italian scientists", "16th-century Italian sculptors", "16th-century people of the Republic of Florence", "Ambassadors of the Republic of Florence", "Ballistics experts", "Botanical illustrators", "Burials in France", "Fabulists", "Fluid dynamicists", "History of anatomy", "Italian Renaissance humanists", "Italian Renaissance painters", "Italian Renaissance sculptors", "Italian Roman Catholics", "Italian anatomists", "Italian caricaturists", "Italian civil engineers", "Italian male painters", "Italian male sculptors", "Italian military engineers", "Italian physiologists", "Leonardo da Vinci", "Mathematical artists", "Painters by city", "Painters from Florence", "Painters from Tuscany", "People prosecuted under anti-homosexuality laws", "Philosophical theists", "Physiognomists", "Renaissance architects", "Renaissance painters", "Renaissance scientists", "Writers who illustrated their own writing" ]	Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 14522 May 1519) was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially rested on his achievements as a painter, he also became known for his notebooks, in which he made drawings and notes on a variety of subjects, including anatomy, astronomy, botany, cartography, painting, and paleontology. Leonardo is widely regarded to have been a genius who epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal, and his collective works comprise a contribution to later generations of artists matched only by that of his younger contemporary, Michelangelo. Born out of wedlock to a successful notary and a lower-class woman in, or near, Vinci, he was educated in Florence by the Italian painter and sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio. He began his career in the city, but then spent much time in the service of Ludovico Sforza in Milan. Later, he worked in Florence and Milan again, as well as briefly in Rome, all while attracting a large following of imitators and students. Upon the invitation of Francis I, he spent his last three years in France, where he died in 1519. Since his death, there has not been a time where his achievements, diverse interests, personal life, and empirical thinking have failed to incite interest and admiration, making him a frequent namesake and subject in culture. Leonardo is identified as one of the greatest painters in the history of art and is often credited as the founder of the High Renaissance. Despite having many lost works and fewer than 25 attributed major works—including numerous unfinished works—he created some of the most influential paintings in Western art. His magnum opus, the Mona Lisa, is his best known work and often regarded as the world's most famous painting. The Last Supper is the most reproduced religious painting of all time and his Vitruvian Man drawing is also regarded as a cultural icon. In 2017, Salvator Mundi, attributed in whole or part to Leonardo, was sold at auction for US\$450.3 million, setting a new record for the most expensive painting ever sold at public auction. Revered for his technological ingenuity, he conceptualized flying machines, a type of armored fighting vehicle, concentrated solar power, a ratio machine that could be used in an adding machine, and the double hull. Relatively few of his designs were constructed or were even feasible during his lifetime, as the modern scientific approaches to metallurgy and engineering were only in their infancy during the Renaissance. Some of his smaller inventions, however, entered the world of manufacturing unheralded, such as an automated bobbin winder and a machine for testing the tensile strength of wire. He made substantial discoveries in anatomy, civil engineering, hydrodynamics, geology, optics, and tribology, but he did not publish his findings and they had little to no direct influence on subsequent science. ## Biography ### Early life (1452–1472) #### Birth and background Leonardo da Vinci, properly named Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (Leonardo, son of ser Piero from Vinci), was born on 15 April 1452 in, or close to, the Tuscan hill town of Vinci, 20 miles from Florence. He was born out of wedlock to Piero da Vinci (Ser Piero da Vinci d'Antonio di ser Piero di ser Guido; 1426–1504), a Florentine legal notary, and Caterina di Meo Lippi (c. 1434 – 1494), from the lower-class. It remains uncertain where Leonardo was born; the traditional account, from a local oral tradition recorded by the historian Emanuele Repetti, is that he was born in Anchiano, a country hamlet that would have offered sufficient privacy for the illegitimate birth, though it is still possible he was born in a house in Florence that Ser Piero almost certainly had. Leonardo's parents both married separately the year after his birth. Caterina—who later appears in Leonardo's notes as only "Caterina" or "Catelina"—is usually identified as the Caterina Buti del Vacca who married the local artisan Antonio di Piero Buti del Vacca, nicknamed "L'Accattabriga", '"the quarrelsome one"'. Ser Piero married Albiera Amadori—having been betrothed to her the previous year—and after her death in 1464, went on to have three subsequent marriages. From all the marriages, Leonardo eventually had 16 half-siblings (of whom 11 survived infancy) who were much younger than he (the last was born when Leonardo was 46 years old) and with whom he had very little contact. Very little is known about Leonardo's childhood and much is shrouded in myth, partially because of his biography in the frequently apocryphal Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects (1550) by the 16th-century art historian Giorgio Vasari. Tax records indicate that by at least 1457 he lived in the household of his paternal grandfather, Antonio da Vinci, but it is possible that he spent the years before then in the care of his mother in Vinci, either Anchiano or Campo Zeppi in the parish of San Pantaleone. He is thought to have been close to his uncle, Francesco da Vinci, but his father was probably in Florence most of the time. Ser Piero, who was the descendant of a long line of notaries, established an official residence in Florence by at least 1469 and had a successful career. Despite his family history, Leonardo only received a basic and informal education in (vernacular) writing, reading and mathematics, possibly because his artistic talents were recognised early, so his family decided to focus their attention there. Later in life, Leonardo recorded his earliest memory, now in the Codex Atlanticus. While writing on the flight of birds, he recalled as an infant when a kite came to his cradle and opened his mouth with its tail; commentators still debate whether the anecdote was an actual memory or a fantasy. #### Verrocchio's workshop In the mid-1460s, Leonardo's family moved to Florence, which at the time was the centre of Christian Humanist thought and culture. Around the age of 14, he became a garzone (studio boy) in the workshop of Andrea del Verrocchio, who was the leading Florentine painter and sculptor of his time. This was about the time of the death of Verrocchio's master, the great sculptor Donatello. Leonardo became an apprentice by the age of 17 and remained in training for seven years. Other famous painters apprenticed in the workshop or associated with it include Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli, and Lorenzo di Credi. Leonardo was exposed to both theoretical training and a wide range of technical skills, including drafting, chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, plaster casting, leather working, mechanics, and woodwork, as well as the artistic skills of drawing, painting, sculpting, and modelling. Leonardo was a contemporary of Botticelli, Ghirlandaio and Perugino, who were all slightly older than he was. He would have met them at the workshop of Verrocchio or at the Platonic Academy of the Medici. Florence was ornamented by the works of artists such as Donatello's contemporaries Masaccio, whose figurative frescoes were imbued with realism and emotion, and Ghiberti, whose Gates of Paradise, gleaming with gold leaf, displayed the art of combining complex figure compositions with detailed architectural backgrounds. Piero della Francesca had made a detailed study of perspective, and was the first painter to make a scientific study of light. These studies and Leon Battista Alberti's treatise De pictura were to have a profound effect on younger artists and in particular on Leonardo's own observations and artworks. Much of the painting in Verrocchio's workshop was done by his assistants. According to Vasari, Leonardo collaborated with Verrocchio on his The Baptism of Christ, painting the young angel holding Jesus' robe in a manner that was so far superior to his master's that Verrocchio put down his brush and never painted again, although this is believed to be an apocryphal story. Close examination reveals areas of the work that have been painted or touched-up over the tempera, using the new technique of oil paint, including the landscape, the rocks seen through the brown mountain stream, and much of the figure of Jesus, bearing witness to the hand of Leonardo. Leonardo may have been the model for two works by Verrocchio: the bronze statue of David in the Bargello, and the Archangel Raphael in Tobias and the Angel. Vasari tells a story of Leonardo as a very young man: a local peasant made himself a round shield and requested that Ser Piero have it painted for him. Leonardo, inspired by the story of Medusa, responded with a painting of a monster spitting fire that was so terrifying that his father bought a different shield to give to the peasant and sold Leonardo's to a Florentine art dealer for 100 ducats, who in turn sold it to the Duke of Milan. ### First Florentine period (1472–c. 1482) By 1472, at the age of 20, Leonardo qualified as a master in the Guild of Saint Luke, the guild of artists and doctors of medicine, but even after his father set him up in his own workshop, his attachment to Verrocchio was such that he continued to collaborate and live with him. Leonardo's earliest known dated work is a 1473 pen-and-ink drawing of the Arno valley (see below). According to Vasari, the young Leonardo was the first to suggest making the Arno river a navigable channel between Florence and Pisa. In January 1478, Leonardo received an independent commission to paint an altarpiece for the Chapel of Saint Bernard in the Palazzo Vecchio, an indication of his independence from Verrocchio's studio. An anonymous early biographer, known as Anonimo Gaddiano, claims that in 1480 Leonardo was living with the Medici and often worked in the garden of the Piazza San Marco, Florence, where a Neoplatonic academy of artists, poets and philosophers organized by the Medici met. In March 1481, he received a commission from the monks of San Donato in Scopeto for The Adoration of the Magi. Neither of these initial commissions were completed, being abandoned when Leonardo went to offer his services to Duke of Milan Ludovico Sforza. Leonardo wrote Sforza a letter which described the diverse things that he could achieve in the fields of engineering and weapon design, and mentioned that he could paint. He brought with him a silver string instrument—either a lute or lyre—in the form of a horse's head. With Alberti, Leonardo visited the home of the Medici and through them came to know the older Humanist philosophers of whom Marsiglio Ficino, proponent of Neoplatonism; Cristoforo Landino, writer of commentaries on Classical writings, and John Argyropoulos, teacher of Greek and translator of Aristotle were the foremost. Also associated with the Platonic Academy of the Medici was Leonardo's contemporary, the brilliant young poet and philosopher Pico della Mirandola. In 1482, Leonardo was sent as an ambassador by Lorenzo de' Medici to Ludovico il Moro, who ruled Milan between 1479 and 1499. ### First Milanese period (c. 1482–1499) Leonardo worked in Milan from 1482 until 1499. He was commissioned to paint the Virgin of the Rocks for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception and The Last Supper for the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie. In the spring of 1485, Leonardo travelled to Hungary (on behalf of Sforza) to meet king Matthias Corvinus, and was commissioned by him to paint a Madonna. In 1490 he was called as a consultant, together with Francesco di Giorgio Martini, for the building site of the cathedral of Pavia and was struck by the equestrian statue of Regisole, of which he left a sketch. Leonardo was employed on many other projects for Sforza, such as preparation of floats and pageants for special occasions; a drawing of, and wooden model for, a competition to design the cupola for Milan Cathedral; and a model for a huge equestrian monument to Ludovico's predecessor Francesco Sforza. This would have surpassed in size the only two large equestrian statues of the Renaissance, Donatello's Gattamelata in Padua and Verrocchio's Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice, and became known as the Gran Cavallo. Leonardo completed a model for the horse and made detailed plans for its casting, but in November 1494, Ludovico gave the metal to his brother-in-law to be used for a cannon to defend the city from Charles VIII of France. Contemporary correspondence records that Leonardo and his assistants were commissioned by the Duke of Milan to paint the Sala delle Asse in the Sforza Castle, c. 1498. The project became a trompe-l'œil decoration that made the great hall appear to be a pergola created by the interwoven limbs of sixteen mulberry trees, whose canopy included an intricate labyrinth of leaves and knots on the ceiling. ### Second Florentine period (1500–1508) When Ludovico Sforza was overthrown by France in 1500, Leonardo fled Milan for Venice, accompanied by his assistant Salaì and friend, the mathematician Luca Pacioli. In Venice, Leonardo was employed as a military architect and engineer, devising methods to defend the city from naval attack. On his return to Florence in 1500, he and his household were guests of the Servite monks at the monastery of Santissima Annunziata and were provided with a workshop where, according to Vasari, Leonardo created the cartoon of The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne and Saint John the Baptist, a work that won such admiration that "men [and] women, young and old" flocked to see it "as if they were going to a solemn festival." In Cesena in 1502, Leonardo entered the service of Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, acting as a military architect and engineer and travelling throughout Italy with his patron. Leonardo created a map of Cesare Borgia's stronghold, a town plan of Imola in order to win his patronage. Upon seeing it, Cesare hired Leonardo as his chief military engineer and architect. Later in the year, Leonardo produced another map for his patron, one of Chiana Valley, Tuscany, so as to give his patron a better overlay of the land and greater strategic position. He created this map in conjunction with his other project of constructing a dam from the sea to Florence, in order to allow a supply of water to sustain the canal during all seasons. Leonardo had left Borgia's service and returned to Florence by early 1503, where he rejoined the Guild of Saint Luke on 18 October of that year. By this same month, Leonardo had begun working on a portrait of Lisa del Giocondo, the model for the Mona Lisa, which he would continue working on until his twilight years. In January 1504, he was part of a committee formed to recommend where Michelangelo's statue of David should be placed. He then spent two years in Florence designing and painting a mural of The Battle of Anghiari for the Signoria, with Michelangelo designing its companion piece, The Battle of Cascina. In 1506, Leonardo was summoned to Milan by Charles II d'Amboise, the acting French governor of the city. There, Leonardo took on another pupil, Count Francesco Melzi, the son of a Lombard aristocrat, who is considered to have been his favourite student. The Council of Florence wished Leonardo to return promptly to finish The Battle of Anghiari, but he was given leave at the behest of Louis XII, who considered commissioning the artist to make some portraits. Leonardo may have commenced a project for an equestrian figure of d'Amboise; a wax model survives and, if genuine, is the only extant example of Leonardo's sculpture. Leonardo was otherwise free to pursue his scientific interests. Many of Leonardo's most prominent pupils either knew or worked with him in Milan, including Bernardino Luini, Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio, and Marco d'Oggiono. In 1507, Leonardo was in Florence sorting out a dispute with his brothers over the estate of his father, who had died in 1504. ### Second Milanese period (1508–1513) By 1508, Leonardo was back in Milan, living in his own house in Porta Orientale in the parish of Santa Babila. In 1512, Leonardo was working on plans for an equestrian monument for Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, but this was prevented by an invasion of a confederation of Swiss, Spanish and Venetian forces, which drove the French from Milan. Leonardo stayed in the city, spending several months in 1513 at the Medici's Vaprio d'Adda villa. ### Rome and France (1513–1519) In March 1513, Lorenzo de' Medici's son Giovanni assumed the papacy (as Leo X); Leonardo went to Rome that September, where he was received by the pope's brother Giuliano. From September 1513 to 1516, Leonardo spent much of his time living in the Belvedere Courtyard in the Apostolic Palace, where Michelangelo and Raphael were both active. Leonardo was given an allowance of 33 ducats a month, and according to Vasari, decorated a lizard with scales dipped in quicksilver. The pope gave him a painting commission of unknown subject matter, but cancelled it when the artist set about developing a new kind of varnish. Leonardo became ill, in what may have been the first of multiple strokes leading to his death. He practiced botany in the Gardens of Vatican City, and was commissioned to make plans for the pope's proposed draining of the Pontine Marshes. He also dissected cadavers, making notes for a treatise on vocal cords; these he gave to an official in hopes of regaining the pope's favor, but was unsuccessful. In October 1515, King Francis I of France recaptured Milan. Leonardo was present at the 19 December meeting of Francis I and Leo X, which took place in Bologna. In 1516, Leonardo entered Francis' service, being given the use of the manor house Clos Lucé, near the king's residence at the royal Château d'Amboise. Being frequently visited by Francis, he drew plans for an immense castle town the king intended to erect at Romorantin, and made a mechanical lion, which during a pageant walked toward the king and—upon being struck by a wand—opened its chest to reveal a cluster of lilies. Leonardo was accompanied during this time by his friend and apprentice Francesco Melzi, and supported by a pension totalling 10,000 scudi. At some point, Melzi drew a portrait of Leonardo; the only others known from his lifetime were a sketch by an unknown assistant on the back of one of Leonardo's studies (c. 1517) and a drawing by Giovanni Ambrogio Figino depicting an elderly Leonardo with his right arm wrapped in clothing. The latter, in addition to the record of an October 1517 visit by Louis d'Aragon, confirms an account of Leonardo's right hand being paralytic when he was 65, which may indicate why he left works such as the Mona Lisa unfinished. He continued to work at some capacity until eventually becoming ill and bedridden for several months. #### Death Leonardo died at Clos Lucé on 2 May 1519 at the age of 67, possibly of a stroke. Francis I had become a close friend. Vasari describes Leonardo as lamenting on his deathbed, full of repentance, that "he had offended against God and men by failing to practice his art as he should have done." Vasari states that in his last days, Leonardo sent for a priest to make his confession and to receive the Holy Sacrament. Vasari also records that the king held Leonardo's head in his arms as he died, although this story may be legend rather than fact. In accordance with his will, sixty beggars carrying tapers followed Leonardo's casket. Melzi was the principal heir and executor, receiving, as well as money, Leonardo's paintings, tools, library and personal effects. Leonardo's other long-time pupil and companion, Salaì, and his servant Baptista de Vilanis, each received half of Leonardo's vineyards. His brothers received land, and his serving woman received a fur-lined cloak. On 12 August 1519, Leonardo's remains were interred in the Collegiate Church of Saint Florentin at the Château d'Amboise. Salaì, or Il Salaino ("The Little Unclean One", i.e., the devil), entered Leonardo's household in 1490 as an assistant. After only a year, Leonardo made a list of his misdemeanours, calling him "a thief, a liar, stubborn, and a glutton," after he had made off with money and valuables on at least five occasions and spent a fortune on clothes. Nevertheless, Leonardo treated him with great indulgence, and he remained in Leonardo's household for the next thirty years. Salaì executed a number of paintings under the name of Andrea Salaì, but although Vasari claims that Leonardo "taught him many things about painting," his work is generally considered to be of less artistic merit than others among Leonardo's pupils, such as Marco d'Oggiono and Boltraffio. Salaì owned the Mona Lisa at the time of Leonardo's death in 1524, and in his will it was assessed at 505 lire, an exceptionally high valuation for a small panel portrait. Some 20 years after Leonardo's death, Francis was reported by the goldsmith and sculptor Benvenuto Cellini as saying: "There had never been another man born in the world who knew as much as Leonardo, not so much about painting, sculpture and architecture, as that he was a very great philosopher." ## Personal life Despite the thousands of pages Leonardo left in notebooks and manuscripts, he scarcely made reference to his personal life. Within Leonardo's lifetime, his extraordinary powers of invention, his "great physical beauty" and "infinite grace," as described by Vasari, as well as all other aspects of his life, attracted the curiosity of others. One such aspect was his love for animals, likely including vegetarianism and according to Vasari, a habit of purchasing caged birds and releasing them. Leonardo had many friends who are now notable either in their fields or for their historical significance, including mathematician Luca Pacioli, with whom he collaborated on the book Divina proportione in the 1490s. Leonardo appears to have had no close relationships with women except for his friendship with Cecilia Gallerani and the two Este sisters, Beatrice and Isabella. While on a journey that took him through Mantua, he drew a portrait of Isabella that appears to have been used to create a painted portrait, now lost. Beyond friendship, Leonardo kept his private life secret. His sexuality has been the subject of satire, analysis, and speculation. This trend began in the mid-16th century and was revived in the 19th and 20th centuries, most notably by Sigmund Freud in his Leonardo da Vinci, A Memory of His Childhood. Leonardo's most intimate relationships were perhaps with his pupils Salaì and Melzi. Melzi, writing to inform Leonardo's brothers of his death, described Leonardo's feelings for his pupils as both loving and passionate. It has been claimed since the 16th century that these relationships were of a sexual or erotic nature. Court records of 1476, when he was aged twenty-four, show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy in an incident involving a well-known male prostitute. The charges were dismissed for lack of evidence, and there is speculation that since one of the accused, Lionardo de Tornabuoni, was related to Lorenzo de' Medici, the family exerted its influence to secure the dismissal. Since that date much has been written about his presumed homosexuality and its role in his art, particularly in the androgyny and eroticism manifested in Saint John the Baptist and Bacchus and more explicitly in a number of erotic drawings. ## Paintings Despite the recent awareness and admiration of Leonardo as a scientist and inventor, for the better part of four hundred years his fame rested on his achievements as a painter. A handful of works that are either authenticated or attributed to him have been regarded as among the great masterpieces. These paintings are famous for a variety of qualities that have been much imitated by students and discussed at great length by connoisseurs and critics. By the 1490s Leonardo had already been described as a "Divine" painter. Among the qualities that make Leonardo's work unique are his innovative techniques for laying on the paint; his detailed knowledge of anatomy, light, botany and geology; his interest in physiognomy and the way humans register emotion in expression and gesture; his innovative use of the human form in figurative composition; and his use of subtle gradation of tone. All these qualities come together in his most famous painted works, the Mona Lisa, the Last Supper, and the Virgin of the Rocks. ### Early works Leonardo first gained attention for his work on the Baptism of Christ, painted in conjunction with Verrocchio. Two other paintings appear to date from his time at Verrocchio's workshop, both of which are Annunciations. One is small, 59 centimetres (23 in) long and 14 cm (5.5 in) high. It is a "predella" to go at the base of a larger composition, a painting by Lorenzo di Credi from which it has become separated. The other is a much larger work, 217 cm (85 in) long. In both Annunciations, Leonardo used a formal arrangement, like two well-known pictures by Fra Angelico of the same subject, of the Virgin Mary sitting or kneeling to the right of the picture, approached from the left by an angel in profile, with a rich flowing garment, raised wings and bearing a lily. Although previously attributed to Ghirlandaio, the larger work is now generally attributed to Leonardo. In the smaller painting, Mary averts her eyes and folds her hands in a gesture that symbolised submission to God's will. Mary is not submissive, however, in the larger piece. The girl, interrupted in her reading by this unexpected messenger, puts a finger in her bible to mark the place and raises her hand in a formal gesture of greeting or surprise. This calm young woman appears to accept her role as the Mother of God, not with resignation but with confidence. In this painting, the young Leonardo presents the humanist face of the Virgin Mary, recognising humanity's role in God's incarnation. ### Paintings of the 1480s In the 1480s, Leonardo received two very important commissions and commenced another work that was of ground-breaking importance in terms of composition. Two of the three were never finished, and the third took so long that it was subject to lengthy negotiations over completion and payment. One of these paintings was Saint Jerome in the Wilderness, which Bortolon associates with a difficult period of Leonardo's life, as evidenced in his diary: "I thought I was learning to live; I was only learning to die." Although the painting is barely begun, the composition can be seen and is very unusual. Jerome, as a penitent, occupies the middle of the picture, set on a slight diagonal and viewed somewhat from above. His kneeling form takes on a trapezoid shape, with one arm stretched to the outer edge of the painting and his gaze looking in the opposite direction. J. Wasserman points out the link between this painting and Leonardo's anatomical studies. Across the foreground sprawls his symbol, a great lion whose body and tail make a double spiral across the base of the picture space. The other remarkable feature is the sketchy landscape of craggy rocks against which the figure is silhouetted. The daring display of figure composition, the landscape elements and personal drama also appear in the great unfinished masterpiece, the Adoration of the Magi, a commission from the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto. It is a complex composition, of about 250 x 250 centimetres. Leonardo did numerous drawings and preparatory studies, including a detailed one in linear perspective of the ruined classical architecture that forms part of the background. In 1482 Leonardo went to Milan at the behest of Lorenzo de' Medici in order to win favour with Ludovico il Moro, and the painting was abandoned. The third important work of this period is the Virgin of the Rocks, commissioned in Milan for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception. The painting, to be done with the assistance of the de Predis brothers, was to fill a large complex altarpiece. Leonardo chose to paint an apocryphal moment of the infancy of Christ when the infant John the Baptist, in protection of an angel, met the Holy Family on the road to Egypt. The painting demonstrates an eerie beauty as the graceful figures kneel in adoration around the infant Christ in a wild landscape of tumbling rock and whirling water. While the painting is quite large, about 200×120 centimetres, it is not nearly as complex as the painting ordered by the monks of San Donato, having only four figures rather than about fifty and a rocky landscape rather than architectural details. The painting was eventually finished; in fact, two versions of the painting were finished: one remained at the chapel of the Confraternity, while Leonardo took the other to France. The Brothers did not get their painting, however, nor the de Predis their payment, until the next century. Leonardo's most remarkable portrait of this period is the Lady with an Ermine, presumed to be Cecilia Gallerani (c. 1483–1490), lover of Ludovico Sforza. The painting is characterised by the pose of the figure with the head turned at a very different angle to the torso, unusual at a date when many portraits were still rigidly in profile. The ermine plainly carries symbolic meaning, relating either to the sitter, or to Ludovico who belonged to the prestigious Order of the Ermine. ### Paintings of the 1490s Leonardo's most famous painting of the 1490s is The Last Supper, commissioned for the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan. It represents the last meal shared by Jesus with his disciples before his capture and death, and shows the moment when Jesus has just said "one of you will betray me", and the consternation that this statement caused. The writer Matteo Bandello observed Leonardo at work and wrote that some days he would paint from dawn till dusk without stopping to eat and then not paint for three or four days at a time. This was beyond the comprehension of the prior of the convent, who hounded him until Leonardo asked Ludovico to intervene. Vasari describes how Leonardo, troubled over his ability to adequately depict the faces of Christ and the traitor Judas, told the duke that he might be obliged to use the prior as his model. The painting was acclaimed as a masterpiece of design and characterization, but it deteriorated rapidly, so that within a hundred years it was described by one viewer as "completely ruined." Leonardo, instead of using the reliable technique of fresco, had used tempera over a ground that was mainly gesso, resulting in a surface subject to mould and to flaking. Despite this, the painting remains one of the most reproduced works of art; countless copies have been made in various mediums. Toward the end of this period, in 1498 Leonardo's trompe-l'œil decoration of the Sala delle Asse was painted for the Duke of Milan in the Castello Sforzesco. ### Paintings of the 1500s In 1505, Leonardo was commissioned to paint The Battle of Anghiari in the Salone dei Cinquecento (Hall of the Five Hundred) in the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. Leonardo devised a dynamic composition depicting four men riding raging war horses engaged in a battle for possession of a standard, at the Battle of Anghiari in 1440. Michelangelo was assigned the opposite wall to depict the Battle of Cascina. Leonardo's painting deteriorated rapidly and is now known from a copy by Rubens. Among the works created by Leonardo in the 16th century is the small portrait known as the Mona Lisa or La Gioconda, the laughing one. In the present era, it is arguably the most famous painting in the world. Its fame rests, in particular, on the elusive smile on the woman's face, its mysterious quality perhaps due to the subtly shadowed corners of the mouth and eyes such that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined. The shadowy quality for which the work is renowned came to be called "sfumato", or Leonardo's smoke. Vasari wrote that the smile was "so pleasing that it seems more divine than human, and it was considered a wondrous thing that it was as lively as the smile of the living original." Other characteristics of the painting are the unadorned dress, in which the eyes and hands have no competition from other details; the dramatic landscape background, in which the world seems to be in a state of flux; the subdued colouring; and the extremely smooth nature of the painterly technique, employing oils laid on much like tempera, and blended on the surface so that the brushstrokes are indistinguishable. Vasari expressed that the painting's quality would make even "the most confident master ... despair and lose heart." The perfect state of preservation and the fact that there is no sign of repair or overpainting is rare in a panel painting of this date. In the painting Virgin and Child with Saint Anne, the composition again picks up the theme of figures in a landscape, which Wasserman describes as "breathtakingly beautiful" and harkens back to the Saint Jerome with the figure set at an oblique angle. What makes this painting unusual is that there are two obliquely set figures superimposed. Mary is seated on the knee of her mother, Saint Anne. She leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as he plays roughly with a lamb, the sign of his own impending sacrifice. This painting, which was copied many times, influenced Michelangelo, Raphael, and Andrea del Sarto, and through them Pontormo and Correggio. The trends in composition were adopted in particular by the Venetian painters Tintoretto and Veronese. ## Drawings Leonardo was a prolific draughtsman, keeping journals full of small sketches and detailed drawings recording all manner of things that took his attention. As well as the journals there exist many studies for paintings, some of which can be identified as preparatory to particular works such as The Adoration of the Magi, The Virgin of the Rocks and The Last Supper. His earliest dated drawing is a Landscape of the Arno Valley, 1473, which shows the river, the mountains, Montelupo Castle and the farmlands beyond it in great detail. Among his famous drawings are the Vitruvian Man, a study of the proportions of the human body; the Head of an Angel, for The Virgin of the Rocks in the Louvre; a botanical study of Star of Bethlehem; and a large drawing (160×100 cm) in black chalk on coloured paper of The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne and Saint John the Baptist in the National Gallery, London. This drawing employs the subtle sfumato technique of shading, in the manner of the Mona Lisa. It is thought that Leonardo never made a painting from it, the closest similarity being to The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne in the Louvre. Other drawings of interest include numerous studies generally referred to as "caricatures" because, although exaggerated, they appear to be based upon observation of live models. Vasari relates that Leonardo would look for interesting faces in public to use as models for some of his work. There are numerous studies of beautiful young men, often associated with Salaì, with the rare and much admired facial feature, the so-called "Grecian profile". These faces are often contrasted with that of a warrior. Salaì is often depicted in fancy-dress costume. Leonardo is known to have designed sets for pageants with which these may be associated. Other, often meticulous, drawings show studies of drapery. A marked development in Leonardo's ability to draw drapery occurred in his early works. Another often-reproduced drawing is a macabre sketch that was done by Leonardo in Florence in 1479 showing the body of Bernardo Baroncelli, hanged in connection with the murder of Giuliano, brother of Lorenzo de' Medici, in the Pazzi conspiracy. In his notes, Leonardo recorded the colours of the robes that Baroncelli was wearing when he died. Like the two contemporary architects Donato Bramante (who designed the Belvedere Courtyard) and Antonio da Sangallo the Elder, Leonardo experimented with designs for centrally planned churches, a number of which appear in his journals, as both plans and views, although none was ever realised. ## Journals and notes Renaissance humanism recognised no mutually exclusive polarities between the sciences and the arts, and Leonardo's studies in science and engineering are sometimes considered as impressive and innovative as his artistic work. These studies were recorded in 13,000 pages of notes and drawings, which fuse art and natural philosophy (the forerunner of modern science). They were made and maintained daily throughout Leonardo's life and travels, as he made continual observations of the world around him. Leonardo's notes and drawings display an enormous range of interests and preoccupations, some as mundane as lists of groceries and people who owed him money and some as intriguing as designs for wings and shoes for walking on water. There are compositions for paintings, studies of details and drapery, studies of faces and emotions, of animals, babies, dissections, plant studies, rock formations, whirlpools, war machines, flying machines and architecture. These notebooks—originally loose papers of different types and sizes—were largely entrusted to Leonardo's pupil and heir Francesco Melzi after the master's death. These were to be published, a task of overwhelming difficulty because of its scope and Leonardo's idiosyncratic writing. Some of Leonardo's drawings were copied by an anonymous Milanese artist for a planned treatise on art c. 1570. After Melzi's death in 1570, the collection passed to his son, the lawyer Orazio, who initially took little interest in the journals. In 1587, a Melzi household tutor named Lelio Gavardi took 13 of the manuscripts to Pisa; there, the architect Giovanni Magenta reproached Gavardi for having taken the manuscripts illicitly and returned them to Orazio. Having many more such works in his possession, Orazio gifted the volumes to Magenta. News spread of these lost works of Leonardo's, and Orazio retrieved seven of the 13 manuscripts, which he then gave to Pompeo Leoni for publication in two volumes; one of these was the Codex Atlanticus. The other six works had been distributed to a few others. After Orazio's death, his heirs sold the rest of Leonardo's possessions, and thus began their dispersal. Some works have found their way into major collections such as the Royal Library at Windsor Castle, the Louvre, the Biblioteca Nacional de España, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, which holds the 12-volume Codex Atlanticus, and the British Library in London, which has put a selection from the Codex Arundel (BL Arundel MS 263) online. Works have also been at Holkham Hall, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and in the private hands of John Nicholas Brown I and Robert Lehman. The Codex Leicester is the only privately owned major scientific work of Leonardo; it is owned by Bill Gates and displayed once a year in different cities around the world. Most of Leonardo's writings are in mirror-image cursive. Since Leonardo wrote with his left hand, it was probably easier for him to write from right to left. Leonardo used a variety of shorthand and symbols, and states in his notes that he intended to prepare them for publication. In many cases a single topic is covered in detail in both words and pictures on a single sheet, together conveying information that would not be lost if the pages were published out of order. Why they were not published during Leonardo's lifetime is unknown. ## Science and inventions Leonardo's approach to science was observational: he tried to understand a phenomenon by describing and depicting it in utmost detail and did not emphasise experiments or theoretical explanation. Since he lacked formal education in Latin and mathematics, contemporary scholars mostly ignored Leonardo the scientist, although he did teach himself Latin. His keen observations in many areas were noted, such as when he wrote "Il sole non si move." ("The Sun does not move.") In the 1490s he studied mathematics under Luca Pacioli and prepared a series of drawings of regular solids in a skeletal form to be engraved as plates for Pacioli's book Divina proportione, published in 1509. While living in Milan, he studied light from the summit of Monte Rosa. Scientific writings in his notebook on fossils have been considered as influential on early palaeontology. The content of his journals suggest that he was planning a series of treatises on a variety of subjects. A coherent treatise on anatomy is said to have been observed during a visit by Cardinal Louis d'Aragon's secretary in 1517. Aspects of his work on the studies of anatomy, light and the landscape were assembled for publication by Melzi and eventually published as A Treatise on Painting in France and Italy in 1651 and Germany in 1724, with engravings based upon drawings by the Classical painter Nicolas Poussin. According to Arasse, the treatise, which in France went into 62 editions in fifty years, caused Leonardo to be seen as "the precursor of French academic thought on art." While Leonardo's experimentation followed scientific methods, a recent and exhaustive analysis of Leonardo as a scientist by Fritjof Capra argues that Leonardo was a fundamentally different kind of scientist from Galileo, Newton and other scientists who followed him in that, as a "Renaissance Man", his theorising and hypothesising integrated the arts and particularly painting. ### Anatomy and physiology Leonardo started his study in the anatomy of the human body under the apprenticeship of Verrocchio, who demanded that his students develop a deep knowledge of the subject. As an artist, he quickly became master of topographic anatomy, drawing many studies of muscles, tendons and other visible anatomical features. As a successful artist, Leonardo was given permission to dissect human corpses at the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence and later at hospitals in Milan and Rome. From 1510 to 1511 he collaborated in his studies with the doctor Marcantonio della Torre, professor of Anatomy at the University of Pavia. Leonardo made over 240 detailed drawings and wrote about 13,000 words toward a treatise on anatomy. Only a small amount of the material on anatomy was published in Leonardo's Treatise on painting. During the time that Melzi was ordering the material into chapters for publication, they were examined by a number of anatomists and artists, including Vasari, Cellini and Albrecht Dürer, who made a number of drawings from them. Leonardo's anatomical drawings include many studies of the human skeleton and its parts, and of muscles and sinews. He studied the mechanical functions of the skeleton and the muscular forces that are applied to it in a manner that prefigured the modern science of biomechanics. He drew the heart and vascular system, the sex organs and other internal organs, making one of the first scientific drawings of a fetus in utero. The drawings and notation are far ahead of their time, and if published would undoubtedly have made a major contribution to medical science. Leonardo also closely observed and recorded the effects of age and of human emotion on the physiology, studying in particular the effects of rage. He drew many figures who had significant facial deformities or signs of illness. Leonardo also studied and drew the anatomy of many animals, dissecting cows, birds, monkeys, bears, and frogs, and comparing in his drawings their anatomical structure with that of humans. He also made a number of studies of horses. Leonardo's dissections and documentation of muscles, nerves, and vessels helped to describe the physiology and mechanics of movement. He attempted to identify the source of 'emotions' and their expression. He found it difficult to incorporate the prevailing system and theories of bodily humours, but eventually he abandoned these physiological explanations of bodily functions. He made the observations that humours were not located in cerebral spaces or ventricles. He documented that the humours were not contained in the heart or the liver, and that it was the heart that defined the circulatory system. He was the first to define atherosclerosis and liver cirrhosis. He created models of the cerebral ventricles with the use of melted wax and constructed a glass aorta to observe the circulation of blood through the aortic valve by using water and grass seed to watch flow patterns. ### Engineering and inventions During his lifetime, Leonardo was also valued as an engineer. With the same rational and analytical approach that moved him to represent the human body and to investigate anatomy, Leonardo studied and designed many machines and devices. He drew their "anatomy" with unparalleled mastery, producing the first form of the modern technical drawing, including a perfected "exploded view" technique, to represent internal components. Those studies and projects collected in his codices fill more than 5,000 pages. In a letter of 1482 to the lord of Milan Ludovico il Moro, he wrote that he could create all sorts of machines both for the protection of a city and for siege. When he fled from Milan to Venice in 1499, he found employment as an engineer and devised a system of moveable barricades to protect the city from attack. In 1502, he created a scheme for diverting the flow of the Arno river, a project on which Niccolò Machiavelli also worked. He continued to contemplate the canalization of Lombardy's plains while in Louis XII's company and of the Loire and its tributaries in the company of Francis I. Leonardo's journals include a vast number of inventions, both practical and impractical. They include musical instruments, a mechanical knight, hydraulic pumps, reversible crank mechanisms, finned mortar shells, and a steam cannon. Leonardo was fascinated by the phenomenon of flight for much of his life, producing many studies, including Codex on the Flight of Birds (c. 1505), as well as plans for several flying machines, such as a flapping ornithopter and a machine with a helical rotor. In a 2003 documentary by British television station Channel Four, titled Leonardo's Dream Machines, various designs by Leonardo, such as a parachute and a giant crossbow, were interpreted and constructed. Some of those designs proved successful, whilst others fared less well when tested. Similarly, a team of engineers built ten machines designed by Leonardo in the 2009 American television series Doing DaVinci, including a fighting vehicle and a self-propelled cart. Research performed by Marc van den Broek revealed older prototypes for more than 100 inventions that are ascribed to Leonardo. Similarities between Leonardo's illustrations and drawings from the Middle Ages and from Ancient Greece and Rome, the Chinese and Persian Empires, and Egypt suggest that a large portion of Leonardo's inventions had been conceived before his lifetime. Leonardo's innovation was to combine different functions from existing drafts and set them into scenes that illustrated their utility. By reconstituting technical inventions he created something new. In his notebooks, Leonardo first stated the 'laws' of sliding friction in 1493. His inspiration for investigating friction came about in part from his study of perpetual motion, which he correctly concluded was not possible. His results were never published and the friction laws were not rediscovered until 1699 by Guillaume Amontons, with whose name they are now usually associated. For this contribution, Leonardo was named as the first of the 23 "Men of Tribology" by Duncan Dowson. ## Legacy Although he had no formal academic training, many historians and scholars regard Leonardo as the prime exemplar of the "Universal Genius" or "Renaissance Man", an individual of "unquenchable curiosity" and "feverishly inventive imagination." He is widely considered one of the most diversely talented individuals ever to have lived. According to art historian Helen Gardner, the scope and depth of his interests were without precedent in recorded history, and "his mind and personality seem to us superhuman, while the man himself mysterious and remote." Scholars interpret his view of the world as being based in logic, though the empirical methods he used were unorthodox for his time. Leonardo's fame within his own lifetime was such that the King of France carried him away like a trophy, and was claimed to have supported him in his old age and held him in his arms as he died. Interest in Leonardo and his work has never diminished. Crowds still queue to see his best-known artworks, T-shirts still bear his most famous drawing, and writers continue to hail him as a genius while speculating about his private life, as well as about what one so intelligent actually believed in. The continued admiration that Leonardo commanded from painters, critics and historians is reflected in many other written tributes. Baldassare Castiglione, author of Il Cortegiano (The Courtier), wrote in 1528: "...Another of the greatest painters in this world looks down on this art in which he is unequalled..." while the biographer known as "Anonimo Gaddiano" wrote, c. 1540: "His genius was so rare and universal that it can be said that nature worked a miracle on his behalf..." Vasari, in his Lives of the Artists (1568), opens his chapter on Leonardo: > In the normal course of events many men and women are born with remarkable talents; but occasionally, in a way that transcends nature, a single person is marvellously endowed by Heaven with beauty, grace and talent in such abundance that he leaves other men far behind, all his actions seem inspired and indeed everything he does clearly comes from God rather than from human skill. Everyone acknowledged that this was true of Leonardo da Vinci, an artist of outstanding physical beauty, who displayed infinite grace in everything that he did and who cultivated his genius so brilliantly that all problems he studied he solved with ease. The 19th century brought a particular admiration for Leonardo's genius, causing Henry Fuseli to write in 1801: "Such was the dawn of modern art, when Leonardo da Vinci broke forth with a splendour that distanced former excellence: made up of all the elements that constitute the essence of genius..." This is echoed by A.E. Rio who wrote in 1861: "He towered above all other artists through the strength and the nobility of his talents." By the 19th century, the scope of Leonardo's notebooks was known, as well as his paintings. Hippolyte Taine wrote in 1866: "There may not be in the world an example of another genius so universal, so incapable of fulfilment, so full of yearning for the infinite, so naturally refined, so far ahead of his own century and the following centuries." Art historian Bernard Berenson wrote in 1896: > Leonardo is the one artist of whom it may be said with perfect literalness: Nothing that he touched but turned into a thing of eternal beauty. Whether it be the cross section of a skull, the structure of a weed, or a study of muscles, he, with his feeling for line and for light and shade, forever transmuted it into life-communicating values. The interest in Leonardo's genius has continued unabated; experts study and translate his writings, analyse his paintings using scientific techniques, argue over attributions and search for works which have been recorded but never found. Liana Bortolon, writing in 1967, said: > Because of the multiplicity of interests that spurred him to pursue every field of knowledge...Leonardo can be considered, quite rightly, to have been the universal genius par excellence, and with all the disquieting overtones inherent in that term. Man is as uncomfortable today, faced with a genius, as he was in the 16th century. Five centuries have passed, yet we still view Leonardo with awe. The Elmer Belt Library of Vinciana is a special collection at the University of California, Los Angeles. Twenty-first-century author Walter Isaacson based much of his biography of Leonardo on thousands of notebook entries, studying the personal notes, sketches, budget notations, and musings of the man whom he considers the greatest of innovators. Isaacson was surprised to discover a "fun, joyous" side of Leonardo in addition to his limitless curiosity and creative genius. On the 500th anniversary of Leonardo's death, the Louvre in Paris arranged for the largest ever single exhibit of his work, called Leonardo, between November 2019 and February 2020. The exhibit includes over 100 paintings, drawings and notebooks. Eleven of the paintings that Leonardo completed in his lifetime were included. Five of these are owned by the Louvre, but the Mona Lisa was not included because it is in such great demand among general visitors to the Louvre; it remains on display in its gallery. Vitruvian Man, however, is on display following a legal battle with its owner, the Gallerie dell'Accademia in Venice. Salvator Mundi was also not included because its Saudi owner did not agree to lease the work. The Mona Lisa, considered Leonardo's magnum opus, is often regarded as the most famous portrait ever made. The Last Supper is the most reproduced religious painting of all time, and Leonardo's Vitruvian Man drawing is also considered a cultural icon. More than a decade of analysis of Leonardo's genetic genealogy, conducted by Alessandro Vezzosi and Agnese Sabato, came to a conclusion in mid-2021. It was determined that the artist has 14 living male relatives. The work could also help determine the authenticity of remains thought to belong to Leonardo. ## Location of remains While Leonardo was certainly buried in the collegiate church of Saint Florentin at the Château d'Amboise in 12 August 1519, the current location of his remains is unclear. Much of Château d'Amboise was damaged during the French Revolution, leading to the church's demolition in 1802. Some of the graves were destroyed in the process, scattering the bones interred there and thereby leaving the whereabouts of Leonardo's remains subject to dispute; a gardener may have even buried some in the corner of the courtyard. In 1863, fine-arts inspector general Arsène Houssaye received an imperial commission to excavate the site and discovered a partially complete skeleton with a bronze ring on one finger, white hair, and stone fragments bearing the inscriptions "EO", "AR", "DUS", and "VINC"—interpreted as forming "Leonardus Vinci". The skull's eight teeth corresponds to someone with approximately the same age and a silver shield found near the bones depicts a beardless Francis I, corresponding to the king's appearance during Leonardo's time in France. Houssaye postulated that the unusually large skull was an indicator of Leonardo's intelligence; author Charles Nicholl describes this as a "dubious phrenological deduction". At the same time, Houssaye noted some issues with his observations, including that the feet were turned toward the high altar, a practice generally reserved for laymen, and that the skeleton of 1.73 metres (5.7 ft) seemed too short. Art historian Mary Margaret Heaton wrote in 1874 that the height would be appropriate for Leonardo. The skull was allegedly presented to Napoleon III before being returned to the Château d'Amboise, where they were re-interred in the chapel of Saint Hubert in 1874. A plaque above the tomb states that its contents are only presumed to be those of Leonardo. It has since been theorized that the folding of the skeleton's right arm over the head may correspond to the paralysis of Leonardo's right hand. In 2016, it was announced that DNA tests would be conducted to determine whether the attribution is correct. The DNA of the remains will be compared to that of samples collected from Leonardo's work and his half-brother Domenico's descendants; it may also be sequenced. In 2019, documents were published revealing that Houssaye had kept the ring and a lock of hair. In 1925, his great-grandson sold these to an American collector. Sixty years later, another American acquired them, leading to their being displayed at the Leonardo Museum in Vinci beginning on 2 May 2019, the 500th anniversary of the artist's death.
160,604	Thingol	1,168,586,530	null	[ "Characters in The Children of Húrin", "Characters in The Silmarillion", "Fiction about regicide", "Fictional kings", "Grey Elves", "High Elves (Middle-earth)", "Literary characters introduced in 1977", "Middle-earth rulers", "Teleri" ]	Elu Thingol or Elwë Singollo is a fictional character in J.R.R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium. He appears in The Silmarillion, The Lays of Beleriand and The Children of Húrin and in numerous stories in The History of Middle-earth. The King of Doriath, King of the Sindar Elves, High-king and Lord of Beleriand, he is a major character in the First Age of Middle-earth and an essential part of the ancestral backgrounding of the romance between Aragorn and Arwen in The Lord of the Rings. Alone among the Elves, he married an angelic Maia, Melian. Scholars have written that Thingol turns away from the light, so that when he receives a Silmaril, he is unable to appreciate it. They have stated, too, that he fails to take advantage of his marriage to Melian, instead ignoring her advice about the Silmaril, leading to the downfall of his kingdom. ## Fictional history In The Silmarillion, Thingol is introduced as Elwë, one of the three chieftains (with Finwë and Ingwë) of the Elves who depart from Cuiviénen, the place where the Elves awaken, with the Vala Oromë as ambassadors to Valinor, and who later become Kings. Upon his return, he persuades many of his people to follow him west to Valinor. This host becomes known as the Teleri. Some of the Teleri go to Valinor. Thingol meanwhile meets Melian the Maia, an angelic immortal, and falls in love with her; they create an enchantment which keeps his people from finding him. Others of the Teleri reach the northwestern region of Beleriand, but choose to remain there to look for Thingol, who had disappeared there. They later inhabit the forest realm of Doriath, when Thingol reappears and sets up his Kingdom of Doriath and his city of Menegroth; they are among the Sindar or Grey Elves of Beleriand. Alone of his people, he is an Elf of the Light as he has seen the light of the Two Trees of Valinor. Thingol and Melian have a daughter, Lúthien, who in turn falls in love with the mortal Man Beren. Disapproving of their relationship, Thingol sets numerous quests that he thinks impossible for Beren, so as to prevent him from marrying Lúthien. One of these quests is to recover one of the priceless star-jewels, the Silmarils which Fëanor had created, and the Dark Lord Morgoth had stolen and set in his crown; but even that quest succeeds. Thingol fights several wars with Morgoth. He is suspicious of the Noldor Elves when they arrive in Beleriand, and refuses to assist them when they fight Morgoth. The hero of Men, Húrin, comes to Menegroth in his old age, lamenting the death of his son Túrin. In bitter rage he hurls the treasured necklace of the fallen Noldor city of Nargothrond, the Nauglamír, at Thingol's feet. Melian sees Húrin's thought, and deals with him gently; Húrin is sorry, and gives Thingol the Nauglamír. Thingol gets some Dwarves to set his Silmaril in the necklace. The Dwarves do so, but come to covet the unequalled work, and ask Thingol if they may keep it as payment. Thingol angrily refuses; offended, the Dwarves kill him and sack Menegroth. The Sons of Fëanor, who had sworn a terrible oath to recover the Silmarils on behalf of their father, later destroy Doriath to recover the Silmaril; they kill Dior, Thingol's grandson, the second and last King of Doriath. ## Analysis In Tolkien's constructed languages, Thingol is Sindarin for "grey cloak", "greymantle", while the Quenya form of his name, Singollo, has the same meaning. The medievalist and Tolkien scholar Verlyn Flieger writes that while the name Elwë ("the star") indicates light, this is dimmed by the character's second name, the light being "cloaked or mantled over". Further, Flieger comments that the softening of "Singollo" to "Thingol" can also be taken as a diminishment, reflecting the "sound shifts that occur as light-infused Quenya modifies to twilight Sindarin". Flieger states that Thingol's actions may seem unjustified thematically, but they make sense in terms of his politics and dynastic needs. She contrasts him with Beren, who though a Man is constantly drawn towards the light. With the return of the Noldor to Middle-earth, perhaps threatening his kingdom, Thingol's mood darkens. After he learns of the Elf-on-Elf Kinslaying at Alqualondë perpetrated by the Noldor on the Teleri, Thingol (Teleri himself) bans the use of their language Quenya in his lands, and Sindarin becomes the most prevalent Elven tongue in Middle-earth. He takes successively darker actions, moving further and further from the light, so that even when he receives the Silmaril from Beren, he knows neither how to appreciate it nor how to use it. Robley Evans, writing in Mythlore, draws a parallel between Thingol and Fëanor: like him, he turns away from the Light, and chooses to remain in Middle-earth with Melian, who could stop time and its changes. Evans states that Thingol's marriage with Melian seems to "promise a model union of diverse created beings" on first impression. He comments that Thingol is however the "complementary opposite of Fëanor in Tolkien's structural counterpoint" in that he is ultimately destroyed by his own version of Fëanor's oath; the act of claiming the Silmaril recovered by Beren places his kingdom under the Doom of Mandos. This warned that the Elves would come to harm if they continued their rebellion against the Valar. The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey writes that Thingol forms part of the tightly-woven plot of The Silmarillion, each part leading ultimately to tragedy. There are three Hidden Elvish Kingdoms, including Doriath, founded by Thingol and his relatives, and they are each betrayed and destroyed. The Kingdoms are each penetrated by a mortal Man, in Doriath's case Beren; and the sense of Doom, which Shippey glosses as "future disaster", hangs heavy over all of them in the tale. The medievalist Marjorie Burns states that Thingol gains "great power" through his marriage to Melian, writing that she resembles Rider Haggard's infinitely desirable Arthurian muse, Ayesha of his 1887 novel She: A History of Adventure. The scholar of religion Lisa Coutras compares Melanie Rawls's account of Thingol and Melian to Lisa Hopkins's analysis of Tuor and Idril. Rawls presents Thingol as a prideful king who rarely listens to his wife's counsel, even though she has immense foresight and wisdom; this helps to bring about the downfall of his kingdom. Hopkins discusses the hero Tuor, who is all the wiser for listening to his wife Idril. ## The House of Thingol
64,260,079	Stray (video game)	1,173,874,081	2022 video game	[ "2022 video games", "Adventure games", "Annapurna Interactive games", "Cyberpunk video games", "Game Developers Choice Award winners", "Golden Joystick Award winners", "Indie games", "PlayStation 4 games", "PlayStation 5 games", "Post-apocalyptic video games", "Puzzle video games", "Science fiction video games", "Simulation video games", "Single-player video games", "The Game Awards winners", "Unreal Engine games", "Video games about artificial intelligence", "Video games about cats", "Video games about robots", "Video games developed in France", "Windows games", "Xbox One games", "Xbox Series X and Series S games", "macOS games" ]	Stray is a 2022 adventure game developed by BlueTwelve Studio and published by Annapurna Interactive. The story follows a stray cat who falls into a walled city populated by robots, machines, and mutant bacteria, and sets out to return to the surface with the help of a drone companion, B-12. The game is presented through a third-person perspective. The player traverses the game world by leaping across platforms and climbing up obstacles, and can interact with the environment to open new paths. Using B-12, they can store items found throughout the world and hack into technology to solve puzzles. Throughout the game, the player must evade the antagonistic Zurks and Sentinels, which attempt to kill them. The development began in 2015, led by BlueTwelve Studio founders Koola and Viv, who wanted to pursue an independent project after working at Ubisoft Montpellier. They partnered with Annapurna Interactive to publish the game. Stray's aesthetics were influenced by Kowloon Walled City, which the developers felt could be appropriately explored by a cat. The gameplay was inspired by the developers' cats, Murtaugh and Riggs, and the team studied images and videos of cats for research. They found playing as a cat led to interesting level design opportunities, though they encountered challenges in balancing design and gameplay. The decision to populate the world with robot characters further influenced the narrative and backstory. Stray was announced in 2020 and became highly anticipated. It was released for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, and Windows in July 2022, and for Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S in August 2023; a macOS version is in development. The game received generally positive reviews, with praise for its artistic design, cat gameplay, narrative, original score, and platforming elements, though critics were divided on the combat and stealth sequences. The game received accolades at The Game Awards, Game Developers Choice Awards, and Golden Joystick Awards, and appeared on multiple publications' year-end lists. ## Gameplay Stray is a third-person adventure game. The player controls a stray cat, leaping across platforms and climbing up obstacles, and can open new paths by interacting with the environment, such as climbing in buckets, overturning paint cans, operating a vending machine, and clawing at objects. They solve puzzles to progress the narrative, often involving moving obstacles. Optional activities include sleeping, meowing, and nuzzling up to non-player characters, most of which elicit a response. Some levels have open-world elements, allowing the player to roam at their freedom. The player is accompanied by a drone companion, B-12, who assists by translating the language of other characters, storing items found throughout the world, providing light, and hacking into various technologies to open paths and solve puzzles. Throughout the game, the player finds several of B-12's memories, providing more context for the story. Most of these memories are optional, but some are unlocked through story progression. The player can collect badges, including several optional throughout the world, which are displayed on the cat's backpack. The world is populated by robots, who often employ the player to locate objects that reveal more information and progress the narrative. Some robots provide optional tasks, such as Morusque, who plays songs upon being provided with music sheets found around the slums. The player can interact with most robots in the world. Stray features two types of enemies who can kill the player: Zurks, a large, mutated bacteria that can swarm and devour the cat; and Sentinels, security drones who will attempt to shoot the player upon spotting them. For a portion of the game, the player can attach a Defluxor to B-12 to destroy the Zurks, though it can only be used for a limited time before B-12 overheats and requires a brief period to cool down. The player can evade Sentinels by avoiding their sight lines, indicated by glowing lights. ## Plot While a group of four stray cats trek through the ruins of an abandoned facility, one becomes separated from the others after falling into a chasm leading to an unpopulated underground city. The cat finds a lab where it helps download an artificial intelligence into the body of a small drone, which calls itself B-12. It explains it previously helped a scientist but much of its memory was corrupted and needs time to recover. B-12 promises to help the cat return to the surface and accompanies it further into the city. As they travel farther, the pair discover that, while the city is completely devoid of human life, their robotic servants, Companions, remain. With humans absent, the Companions have grown self-aware and have built their own society among the ruins of the city, but they likewise are trapped underground. The ruins are infested with Zurks, mutant bacteria that have evolved to devour both organic life and robots. The pair meet Momo, a member of the Outsiders, a group of Companions dedicated to finding a way to the surface. With the Outsiders's help, the cat and B-12 proceed to the Midtown sector of the city. There, they locate Clementine, another Outsider who plans to steal an atomic battery to power a subway train leading to the surface. The trio are caught and arrested by the Sentinels, but the cat helps them all escape prison. Clementine stays behind to mislead the Sentinels while the cat and B-12 escape on the subway, which takes them to the city control center. B-12 finally recovers all of its memories. It reveals that it was originally a human scientist who attempted to upload their own consciousness into a robot body, but the process went awry until the cat arrived. B-12 remembers that the city, Walled City 99, was built to shelter humanity from a catastrophe on the surface, but a plague eventually wiped out the entire human population. Realising humanity's legacy now lies with the Companions and the cat, B-12 sacrifices itself to open the blast doors over the city, exposing it to sunlight which kills the Zurks and deactivates the Sentinels. With the main exit unsealed, the cat leaves the city and reaches the surface. As the cat leaves, a screen near the exit flickers and activates. ## Development BlueTwelve Studio founders Koola and Viv began working on Stray in 2015 as they wanted to pursue an independent project after working at Ubisoft Montpellier. They maintained a development blog for the game, then known as HK Project. After they shared some footage on Twitter, Annapurna Interactive reached out in April 2016 to publish the project; Koola and Viv had only developed some early scenes, but had a strong direction for the final project. Annapurna, which had not published any games by the time the deal was formed, assisted in building the company over the years, providing occasional feedback but largely leaving creative freedom to the developers. Funding for the studio was confirmed in April 2017, and the development team grew to five by the end of 2017. From early in development, Koola and Viv knew they wanted to maintain a small team of developers, as they prefer working with direct communication. The small team meant the game's scope reduced over time, with focus directed towards elements the developers considered important. After revealing the game, the team wanted to focus on production and only begin marketing when development was nearing completion; they found the reception to the reveal added to the pressure of delivering a polished experience. The game uses Unreal Engine 4. Stray was heavily influenced aesthetically by Kowloon Walled City; Koola and Viv liked the city's organic construction, and found it interesting to approach as artists. They designed some graphical tests of the environments and buildings, and found the city was the "perfect playground for a cat" due to the various paths and views. The development team found gameplay as a cat led to interesting level design opportunities, particularly regarding platforming and puzzle elements. They encountered artistic and technical challenges in balancing interesting game design with the open world, as typically decorative items—such as pipes and air conditioning units—are explorable paths in Stray. The in-game location Antvillage allowed the team to experiment with vertical game design and provide several path options for the player. The team decided to avoid standard platforming challenges early in development, after watching players consistently miss jumps, which they thought "didn't feel cat-like". According to producer Swann Martin-Raget, the movements of a cat feel smoother, which led the team to create its guided movement system while still allowing for freedom of choice. The team found the DualSense controller's sounds and vibrations added to the physicality and interactivity of playing as a cat, and the low camera angle led to deeper observation of the environment than a human protagonist. Contrasting elements were important to the developers, such as the "small, organic, and lively" cat contrasted against the "angular and bold" robots. Viv initially created some human non-player characters, but was unsatisfied with the result and realised the high visual quality required would be too time-consuming with a smaller team. After experimenting with robots, they found them easier to place within scenes, and enjoyed the contrast with the cat. The inclusion of robots inspired more of the story, and the team found it fitting because of their fascination with films like Blade Runner (1982). The robots' language printed throughout the world was added to make players feel as though they were in a foreign location; its inclusion led to the development of the world's backstory. B-12 was added as the cat's companion to add additional abilities for the player, such as interacting with technology. Both B-12 and the cat's backpack were conceived early in development, when the game was still known as HK Project. The gameplay experience was specifically inspired by the founders' cats, Murtaugh and Riggs, and the studio's in-house cats, Oscar and Jun. Murtaugh, a former stray cat found under a car in Montpellier, was the primary inspiration for the protagonist, while Oscar, a furless Sphynx, provided effective reference for animation. The cat animator, Miko, studied several images and videos of cats for research, and worked with cat programmer Rémi Bismuth to find a balance between smooth animations and enjoyable gameplay. Most of the team own cats, providing consistent inspiration and reference material. When the office cats began reacting to and interacting with the in-game cat, the team figured their choices had been successful. While the game is a "love letter" to the team's cats, they intentionally avoided making a simulator game, opting for interesting gameplay over complete realism. The action sequences were added to provide some stress to the player, and the team wanted to build a rhythm to maintain the story's progression. The sequence in which the player can kill the Zurks was seen as revenge by Koola and Viv for a bedbug infestation they underwent. The user interface was kept minimal, with directions integrated in the game world to guide the player. ## Release Stray was announced on 11 June 2020, at PlayStation's Future of Gaming event, in development for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, and Windows. In a January 2021 Consumer Electronics Show trailer, the release window was printed as October 2021, which was later removed. In July 2021, an early 2022 release window was revealed in a new gameplay trailer, but the game was delayed to a mid-year release in April 2022. During PlayStation's State of Play presentation in June, the release date was announced as 19 July 2022. At launch, it became available for PlayStation Plus's Extra, Deluxe, and Premium tier members. Stray achieved the highest number of players on PlayStation Plus in the twelve months following the service's June 2022 rebranding; it is set to be removed from the service in July 2023. Highly anticipated following its announcement, the game topped Steam's wishlist charts before release, broke Annapurna Interactive's record for concurrent Steam players upon release, with over 62,000 players, and became the highest user-rated game of the year on the platform. In July, it was the most-downloaded PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 game in North America, and the second-most PlayStation 5 and third-most PlayStation 4 in Europe; in August, it was the fifth-most PlayStation 5 and sixth-most PlayStation 4 game in North America, and the fifth-most on both platforms in Europe; and in September, it ranked 19th on PlayStation 5 in Europe. Videos of cats watching footage of Stray went viral after the release, with the dedicated Twitter account @CatsWatchStray garnering over 32,000 followers. For the release, Annapurna Interactive partnered with several charities to raise money for homeless cats by providing giveaways as incentives for donations. Two physical versions were released by iam8bit and Skybound Games: the retail version for PlayStation 5 on 20 September, featuring six art cards; and the Exclusive Edition for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 on 12 December, with an additional poster and embroidered patch. A vinyl record of the soundtrack was released in May 2023 by iam8bit, with album art by Fernando Correa. In June 2023, Annapurna announced the game was in development for macOS, compatible with Apple M series devices, and for Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S, which was released on 10 August 2023. ## Reception ### Critical response Stray received "generally favorable reviews" according to review aggregator Metacritic, based on 99 reviews for PlayStation 5, 42 reviews for Windows, and seven reviews for Xbox Series X/S. Chris Scullion of Video Games Chronicle considered it one of Annapurna Interactive's best releases, and Andrew Webster of The Verge named it among the best games of the year to date. VG247's Kelsey Raynor described it as "a touching tale of loss, loneliness, environmental destruction", and Ars Technica's Sam Machkovech declared it a blend of the "eerie, atmospheric exploration" of Half-Life (1998) and the "childlike whimsy of a classic Studio Ghibli film". Critics praised the graphical quality and art design, and several particularly lauded its use of lighting. Alyse Stanley of The Washington Post described Stray as "a master class in environmental story telling and level design", lauding the subtle directions provided to the player. Bill Lavoy of Shacknews found the world to be among the most beautifully-designed, praising the attention to detail in each environment, though criticising the lack of graphical settings. Kotaku's Ari Notis likened the cinematic cutscenes to games by prestigious studios like Naughty Dog. Sam Loveridge of GamesRadar+ found the atmosphere unique among recent releases, describing the world as "a stunning place to just exist in". Blake Hester of Game Informer similarly praised the enjoyability of exploring the world. Push Square's Stephen Tailby wrote the game conveys an atmosphere of melancholy and hope. NME's Jordan Oloman considered the worldbuilding the strongest element, though noted it failed to reach levels of intelligence or subtlety like Nier: Automata (2017). VentureBeat's Rachel Kaser found the Zurk-infested levels among the worst visually, and some reviewers noted minor glitches. William Hughes of The A.V. Club felt the concept of the underground city populated by robots felt like a "Lego stack of ready-made video game tropes". Kotaku's Sisi Jang found Stray a troubling example of techno-orientalism. Katharine Castle of Rock, Paper, Shotgun determined assuming control of a cat "is at least 50% of the appeal here". The realistic recreation of cat behaviour in the gameplay received widespread praise; critics lauded the animation and easy controls, and the immersion of the movement and navigation, though some noted occasionally awkward controls and camera angles while navigating. VG247's Raynor was prepared for a repetitive gameplay system, but ultimately found it maintained consistent enjoyment. Keza MacDonald of The Guardian considered Stray "an excellent example of how a change of perspective can enliven a fictional setting to which we've become habituated". Scullion of Video Games Chronicle found the platforming simple but effective, and Alessandro Barbosa of GameSpot commended the balanced pacing between the gameplay sequences. Pauline Leclercq of Jeuxvideo.com felt the puzzles generally lacked difficulty, but improved in the second half, while Hughes of The A.V. Club found it repetitive over time. PCMag's Gabriel Zamora noted disappointment at the lack of choice while platforming, and Electronic Gaming Monthly's Josh Harmon wrote the core gameplay loop of objectives and puzzles "feels distinctly uncatlike". Hardcore Gamer's Kyle LeClair felt Stray has "a terrific story with profound themes to uncover and great emotional beats along the way". Several reviewers were surprised by the narrative themes, considering the basic gameplay concept: Stanley of The Washington Post found them memorable, and Game Informer's Hester considered them simple but effective. The Verge's Webster recognised "themes ranging from wealth inequality to environmental disaster" and found the ending to be tragic and beautiful. GameSpot's Barbosa similarly found the ending satisfying, noting it allowed reflection on the character relationships. Polygon's Alexis Ong identified themes related to the ongoing democratic development in Hong Kong, particularly regarding police brutality and the 2019–2020 protests, citing the working title HK Project. Reviewers lauded the robot characters in the game world, described by PCGamesN's Nat Smith as "whimsical and strikingly human". Loveridge of GamesRadar+ felt the interactions directed the narrative, which itself touched on themes of hardship and friendship. Raynor of VG247 similarly found the friendships effective and emotional. VentureBeat's Kaser and PC Gamer's Jon Bailes both shared strong feelings towards the protagonist, a sentiment echoed by Rock, Paper, Shotgun's Castle towards both the cat and B-12. The original score received praise, and was described as among the year's best by Ars Technica's Machkovech, who compared it favourably to Half-Life. Scullion of Video Games Chronicle wrote the score "knows exactly when to evoke awe, when to creep the player out, and when to pluck at our pesky human heartstrings". Kotaku's Notis called it "deliciously jazzy", and Jeuxvideo.com's Leclercq found it appropriate within the game world. Hardcore Gamer's LeClair and Shacknews's Lavoy appreciated the environmental melodies, including those played by the robot Morusque, and some on the in-game radio. Smith of PCGamesN described the music as "gently optimistic and abruptly unsettling", lauding the seamless switching between tracks dependent on the gameplay. The combat sequences polarised critics; some found them tense and exciting, while others found them tiresome and less interesting than its other elements. The gameplay sequences involving Zurks—compared by several critics to the headcrabs from the Half-Life series—were positively described as "more authentically cat" by Electronic Gaming Monthly's Harmon, while GamesRadar+'s Loveridge found they added balance to the calmer moments. The Escapist's Damien Lawardorn found the sequences an effective example of body horror, and among the most compelling and effective chapters. Webster of The Verge similarly felt they added necessary tension, likening them to the swarms of A Plague Tale: Innocence (2019), but wrote they could become frustrating. This sentiment was echoed by IGN's Tom Marks and PC Gamer's Bailes, the latter of whom described a confrontation as "repeated backpedalling and shooting". NME's Oloman considered the sequences a vast difference from the rest of the game, and Game Informer's Hester found them monotonous, though appreciated their rarity. The stealth mechanics received similarly polarised responses: PC Gamer's Bailes found them entertaining, while they were described by PCMag's Zamora as sufficient but simplistic, and by Vice's Renata Price as ranging "from fine to frustrating". ### Accolades Stray won PlayStation Game of the Year at the 40th Golden Joystick Awards and Most Innovative Gameplay at the Steam Awards. It was nominated for six awards at The Game Awards 2022, including Game of the Year and Best Game Direction; it won Best Independent Game and Best Debut Indie Game. From PlayStation Blog, Stray won Best Independent Game of the Year and ranked fourth for Best Art Direction, Best Use of DualSense, PS4 Game of the Year, and PS5 Game of the Year, while the cat was runner-up for Best New Character. It was nominated for Game of the Year, Adventure Game of the Year, and Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction at the 26th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards. Stray won Best Sound Design for an Indie Game at the 21st Annual Game Audio Network Guild Awards, and the Gayming Magazine Readers' Award at the Gayming Awards 2023. It led the nominees of the 23rd Game Developers Choice Awards with six nominations (tied with Elden Ring), including Game of the Year, and won Best Debut. It had nine nominations at the 19th British Academy Games Awards, including Best Game, and was nominated for Best Game Writing at the 58th Annual Nebula Awards. The game appeared on multiple publications' year-end lists of 2022, including PCGamesN (2nd), GamesRadar+ (3rd), The Guardian (4th), Time (5th), Empire (7th), Vulture (7th), Digital Trends (8th), GQ (10th), Den of Geek (11th), and The Washington Post.
2,211,455	Someday (I Will Understand)	1,158,603,685	2005 single by Britney Spears	[ "2000s ballads", "2005 singles", "Black-and-white music videos", "Britney Spears songs", "Jive Records singles", "Music videos directed by Michael Haussman", "Pop ballads", "Song recordings produced by Guy Sigsworth", "Songs written by Britney Spears" ]	"Someday (I Will Understand)" is a song by American singer Britney Spears. It was written by Spears and produced by Guy Sigsworth. The song was released on August 18, 2005, by Jive Records as the sole single from Spears' first extended play, Britney & Kevin: Chaotic (2005), outside the United States. In July 2004, Spears announced her engagement to American dancer Kevin Federline, later revealing she would be taking another career break to start a family. Spears wrote the song two weeks before knowing she was pregnant with her first child, Sean Preston Federline. A pop ballad, its lyrics refer to a feeling of empowerment as a pregnant woman. A remixed version of the song was included on the 2005 remix compilation, B in the Mix: The Remixes. "Someday (I Will Understand)" has received mixed to positive reviews from music critics. The song reached the top ten in Denmark, Sweden and Switzerland and also charted in a number of European countries. An accompanying music video, directed by Michael Haussman, premiered on the finale of Spears' reality show Britney and Kevin: Chaotic (2005). Entirely shot in black-and-white, the music video features Spears as a pregnant woman and follows her reflecting along with the songs lyrics in a large empty house. ## Background In July 2004, Spears announced her engagement to American dancer Kevin Federline, whom she had met three months before. The romance received intense attention from the media, since Federline had recently broken up with actress Shar Jackson, who was still pregnant with their second child at the time. The initial stages of their relationship were chronicled in Spears's first reality show Britney and Kevin: Chaotic. They held a wedding ceremony on September 18, 2004, but were not legally married until three weeks later on October 6 due to a delay finalizing the couple's prenuptial agreement. In October 2004, the singer announced she would be taking another career break to start a family. Spears gave birth to her first child, Sean Preston Federline, on September 14, 2005. "Someday (I Will Understand)" was composed by Spears on the piano at her house, two weeks before she learned of her pregnancy with Sean Preston. She explained the song came "like a prophecy... when you're pregnant, you're empowered". It was produced by Guy Sigsworth, who previously worked with the singer on "Everytime" (2004). Spears recorded her vocals for the song at Conway Studios in Los Angeles, California, and at Frou Frou Central in London. The piano was played by Spears herself, while all other instruments (including the drums) and mixing were done by Sigsworth. Background vocals for the song were provided by Kate Havnevik. ## Critical response "Someday (I Will Understand)" initially received mixed reviews from music critics. While reviewing Britney & Kevin: Chaotic, Mike McGuirk of Rhapsody noted, "Britney now sings about either the husband or the kid." Gil Kaufman of MTV called the song a "horrible Britney ballad with the black-and-white video that began her descent into madness." Leo Ebersole of the Chicago Tribune considered it "a fictional piece", while another reviewer from the same newspaper noted that "as a matter of fact, the song is more or less a lesson in Britney history." Becky Bain of Idolator praised the track, stating that "Britney goes genuine for this ode to her unborn baby." Kurt Kirton of About.com said that "And Then We Kiss" and other remixes of songs like "Toxic" and "Someday (I Will Understand)" on the remix album B in the Mix: The Remixes "hold their own". IGN writer Spence D. noted the Hi-Bias Signature Radio Remix "reverberates with all the clichés that often stifle the music that rustles through the late night/early morning club scenes around the world." Rolling Stone contributor Barry Walters gave the song's remix a negative review, saying that "nothing can rescue Spears' freakishly sappy flop single "Someday (I Will Understand)". Bradley Stern also of MTV, however, praised the Leama & Moor Remix, saying it "transforms the tearjerker of a ballad into a full-on trance anthem. Big beats, stuttering vocals – it's heartbreak on the dance floor." Over the years following its release, attitude toward the song began to change for the positive. Ten years after its release, a reviewer for AXS called the song "serene" and the "most sincere single of her career." A writer for MuuMuse said that while the song was not career-defining, it was "interesting, and certainly personal." ## Commercial performance On September 1, 2005, "Someday (I Will Understand)" debuted at number 46 on the Swedish Singles Chart. It peaked at number 10 the following week. In Switzerland, the song debuted at number eight on the week of September 4, 2005. On September 9, 2005, the song debuted in the Danish Singles Chart at number 11. The following week, it peaked at the eight position. "Someday (I Will Understand)" also reached the top 20 in Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia), Finland and Norway and charted in Austria and the Netherlands. "Someday (I Will Understand)" has sold 60,000 paid digital downloads in the United States, according to Nielsen SoundScan. ## Music video The music video for "Someday (I Will Understand)" was directed by Michael Haussman. Spears commented that he "[did] a great job capturing the song, the essence and the emotion" and added that the video had "a different feeling" from any of her previous videos. It was shot entirely in black-and-white. Spears asserted that her life had "come full circle" and implied that in the process she underwent changes in her soul and body, as shown in the video. It premiered on June 14, 2005, during the fifth and last episode of Spears's reality show Britney and Kevin: Chaotic, titled "Veil of Secrecy". The music video features a pregnant Spears lying in bed and walking around a house while singing to her unborn child. She also gazes through the window at the Roman sculptures in the garden. Hayley Butler of Jam! said "the video is a far cry from the snake handling, sweating and skimpy Britney videos of the past. Dressed in a classy silk dress, she runs through gardens, lies in bed and walks through the grass, all with a burgeoning belly." John Mitchell of MTV included the video on the list "Beyonce, Britney And Madonna: What To Expect When You're Expecting — Music Video Edition" in 2011. Despite praising the track, Idolator blogger Becky Bain stated that "at this point she still looks like a teenager herself, so it's a little disconcerting seeing her with that huge belly, singing about motherhood." ## Track listings - European CD single 1. "Someday (I Will Understand)" – 3:37 2. "Someday (I Will Understand)" (Hi-Bias Signature Radio Remix) – 3:46 - European limited edition maxi single 1. "Someday (I Will Understand)" – 3:37 2. "Someday (I Will Understand)" (Instrumental) – 3:37 3. "Someday (I Will Understand)" (Hi-Bias Signature Radio Remix) – 3:46 4. "Someday (I Will Understand)" (Leama and Andy Moor Remix) – 9:18 - Japanese maxi single 1. "Someday (I Will Understand)" – 3:37 2. "Chaotic" – 3:33 3. "Mona Lisa" – 3:25 4. "Over to You Now" – 3:42 5. "Someday (I Will Understand)" (Hi-Bias Remix) – 3:46 ## Credits and personnel Credits are adapted from the Britney & Kevin: Chaotic DVD liner notes. - Britney Spears – lead vocals, songwriting, piano - Guy Sigsworth – production - Sean McGhee – mixing, engineering, programming - Tom Coyne – mastering - Kate Havnevik – background vocals ## Charts ## Release history
68,168,696	Mallard II	1,150,649,309	Salt pond levee dredger built in 1936	[ "1936 ships", "Cargill", "Dredgers", "Salt production", "San Francisco Bay" ]	Mallard II is a wooden-hulled clamshell dredger used to maintain levees on the San Francisco Bay Salt Ponds. Mallard II was constructed in 1936, and is "probably the oldest operating dredge in California"; she is owned and operated by Cargill Salt. ## History Mallard II was built by the Leslie Salt Company (now Cargill) in 1936, and has maintained the levees of the salt ponds ever since, except for a brief period during World War II during which she was used to retrieve artillery shells from the floor of the Bay near Mare Island and the Port Chicago Naval Magazine. Over time, she received extensive upgrades (including a modern engine, steel A-frame and boom). The steel frame was installed by Bethelehem Pacific's San Francisco shipyard in 1954, at which point she maintained levees on over 30,000 acres (12,000 ha) of ponds in the South Bay as well as Napa County. She has been described as a "floating wood-and-metal dinosaur", with a 2 cu yd (1.5 m<sup>3</sup>) bucket capable of moving as much as 2,000 cu yd (1,500 m<sup>3</sup>) of mud per day. While dredging, she is anchored by "spikes", and moves from place to place by "grabbing hold of the sea floor". Mallard II was used to construct such watercourses as North Creek; in 1972 she was briefly idled while the Leslie Salt Company sought dredging permits from the United States Army Corps of Engineers. Salt ponds on which Mallard II is used must be kept at a higher water level than they otherwise would be, owing to her draft. In 2002, she was used for the Eden Landing wetland restoration project, for which Cargill donated the use of the dredger and 400 man-hours of labor. As of 2007, she was the only wooden-hulled clamshell dredger operating in San Francisco Bay, as well as "probably the oldest operating dredge in California", responsible for maintaining 200 miles (320 km) of levees between Hayward, Redwood City and San Jose. She repairs and maintains approximately ten miles (16 km) of levee per year. Mallard II can operate for more than two months without being refueled. As of December 2020, she was still operational. ## Levees The levees surrounding the San Francisco Bay Salt Ponds date to the late 1800s, and were mostly constructed to reclaim land for agricultural purposes; the area enclosed by them was later used for salt production. In addition to their role in operating the salt ponds, the levees protect Bay Area cities like San Jose from being flooded by high tides. Due to factors such as erosion and subsidence, the levees require regular maintenance. Dredging material to increase the levees' height, the "least expensive technique available", consists of moving Mallard II into a salt pond through a set of locks and using her clamshell bucket to remove material from a borrow pit; this material is then deposited atop the levee. When Mallard II is present in a salt pond, waterfowl hunting is not permitted. A December 2020 permit for a wetlands project issued by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife provided for maintenance of salt ponds to be carried out by the still-operational Mallard II, using the existing system of dredge locks, referred to as "the most technologically and economically feasible method for solar salt production in south San Francisco Bay". While it would be possible to reduce some of the adverse impacts of levee maintenance (mostly caused by the existence of the dredge lock system) by using a "transportable dredge", it was found that such a dredge would require more frequent refueling (every two weeks, as opposed to every two months with Mallard II), as well as the use of large trucks and cranes to reposition it; Mallard II, therefore, was found to be the "most feasible alternative". A 2005 estimate of expenses for levee maintenance in the area put the cost of using Mallard II at approximately \$50,000 per month.
18,379,088	Fight Like Apes	1,168,409,171	Irish alternative rock band	[ "Alcopop! Records artists", "Irish alternative rock groups", "Musical groups established in 2006", "Musical groups from Dublin (city)" ]	Fight Like Apes (also referred to as FLApes or FLA) were an Irish alternative rock band formed in Dublin in 2006. Their final lineup consisted of Mary-Kate "MayKay" Geraghty (vocals and synth), Jamie "Pockets" Fox (keyboard and vocals), Conor Garry (bass), Peter O'Shea (drums) and Frog Cullen. Original members Adrian Mullan (drums) and Tom Ryan (bass) left the band in 2010. They are known for their elongated record titles, usually inspired by B movies. They have released three EPs, How Am I Supposed to Kill You If You Have All the Guns? (2007), David Carradine is a Bounty Hunter Whos Robotic Arm Hates Your Crotch (2007) and Whigfield Sextape (2014), and two albums, Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion (2008) and The Body of Christ and the Legs of Tina Turner (2010). In 2009, they released an EP for the American market titled You Filled His Head with Fluffy Clouds and Jolly Ranchers, What Did You Think Was Going to Happen?. Fight Like Apes have toured the UK with The Von Bondies, The Ting Tings, New Found Glory, The Prodigy and Kasabian and have played several Irish and European festivals throughout their career. They have appeared on several television shows in Ireland, including Tubridy Tonight, WeTV, The View, Other Voices and The Cafe. They have also had some success in Asia, where they have been signed up by Sony Music Entertainment Japan for an album release on that continent in April 2009. The band have been nominated for five Meteor Music Awards, Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion was nominated for the Choice Music Prize and was named 31st best album of the decade by Phantom FM at the end of 2009. Fight Like Apes were named the fourth best Irish musical act of their generation by The Irish Times in 2009. Lacking financial stability to continue from their records, label, or merchandise sales, the band split up on 2 November 2016. ## History ### Formation Fight Like Apes formed late 2006 following the breakup of the band Soft Cuddly Toys by Mary-Kate Geraghty (known as "MayKay"), Jamie Fox (known as "Pockets"), Adrian Mullan and Tom Ryan. MayKay and Pockets first met as teenagers on holiday in Spain where they realised they both went to nearby schools and shared the same "extremely optimistically cynical outlook on life". When MayKay told Pockets she loved singing he had her sign a contract on a piece of tissue in a bar. Pockets's parents were unhappy with their son's "disgusting" taste in music. He dropped out of his final year of study at Dublin City University and a potential career in journalism to pursue his musical career. MayKay had been studying medicinal chemistry, and later a philosophy course at Trinity College Dublin. They habitually met from early morning and spent their days eating together before deciding to form a band. Their chosen name was inspired by Caesar's battle cry of “Now fight like apes” in what they describe as the "notoriously bad" Battle for the Planet of the Apes. ### Early EPs (2007) Their debut EP, How Am I Supposed to Kill You If You Have All the Guns?, Recorded by Lee Boylan and released by Irish indie label FIFA Records in early 2007, sold out and generated a significant amount of interest in the media and in the Irish blogging community in the process. In May 2007, Fight Like Apes won Phantom FM's Topman Unsigned Band Search; their prize was to be a support act of The Holloways at show in Dublin. Fight Like Apes played both Electric Picnic (their first major Irish festival) and Hard Working Class Heroes in 2007 and also performed at the CMJ Music Marathon in New York City. They were also chosen to play the Futureshock stage at EXIT in Serbia after sending a demo of their songs to the organisers. On 13 October 2007, Fight Like Apes performed "Jake Summers" on television chat show, Tubridy Tonight. The title of their second EP, David Carradine is a Bounty Hunter Whos Robotic Arm Hates Your Crotch, released on 2 November 2007(produced by Lee Boylan), was inspired by the film Future Force starring David Carradine, which the band found on the internet. The EP's lead track, "Do You Karate?", was a minor hit on the Irish independent music scene. The band set off on their first UK tour after the EP's release and their "Jake Summers" single was released there through the label, Cool For Cats (sister of Fierce Panda). In February 2008, the band toured Ireland and the UK as a support act of The Von Bondies. Von Bondies member Jason Stollsteimer has described Fight Like Apes as “candy wrapped in barbed wire”. Fight Like Apes were invited to participate in the sixth series of RTÉ's annual Other Voices music show, performing on 19 March 2008. They also appeared on RTÉ Two's WeTV television show. Fight Like Apes performed at the South by Southwest festival in Austin, Texas, in 2008. Upon their return from South by Southwest in March/April 2008, they went on a national tour of Ireland. Later that year, Fight Like Apes appeared at several music festivals in Ireland and the UK, including an appearance on the Futures Stage at T in the Park, and two appearances at the 2008 Glastonbury Festival, as well as Oxegen 2008 and Indie-pendence in Ireland. The single "Lend Me Your Face/Lightsabre Cock-sucking Blues" was released in the UK on 21–28 July 2008. ### Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion (2008) The band spent a month in Seattle, Washington, in early 2008, recording tracks for their debut album, produced by John Goodmanson. The album, titled Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion, was released on 26 September 2008 on Model Citizen Records, selling continually well in Ireland and the UK. It was preceded by the release of the single "Something Global" on 11 July 2008. They played a sold-out launch show at Whelan's in Dublin, which was broadcast live on Phantom FM on the day of release. The Irish Times described the album as an "astonishing debut that encompasses melancholy and whimsy (both lyrically and musically)". The Irish Independent, on the other hand, "strongly urge[d] all not to waste their money" on "the woeful debut" of a band with "lots of blogger and media friends, all aurally challenged". RTÉ also gave the album a lukewarm response. MayKay has said she is unbothered by any criticism as long as the album is simply being reviewed. Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion reached the top five of the Irish Albums Chart, meaning the band became the first alternative act from Ireland to achieve this for several years, and "Jake Summers" and "Lend Me Your Face" became regularly played at indie clubs throughout Ireland. They went on to support The Ting Tings on a sell-out UK tour, receiving kung fu lessons from their security guard Preston and a champagne bottle on the final night. They appeared on The Cafe on 16 October 2008. The Prodigy personally invited the band to support them on their sold-out arena tour of the UK; all of the members are fans of Fight Like Apes and Liam Howlett entered their dressing room to give his regards. Sony Music Entertainment Japan signed the band for the Asian release of Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion. They headlined the Levi's One to Watch Tour in November 2008. In December 2008, a video of students of the Tisch School of the Arts in New York, featuring several females miming to "Digifuckers", was released. ### Eurosonic, UK, US and Japan (2009) Fight Like Apes represented Ireland in the Eurosonic Festival in Groningen, the Netherlands, in January 2009, This appearance led to the band qualifying for admission into the European Talent Exchange Programme, allowing the band to be booked for music festivals across Europe, including Glastonbury and T in the Park. Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion was released in the UK on 26 January 2009. The band played a studio session for Steve Lamacq of BBC Radio 1 around this time, with Maykay also encountering Jonathan Ross, a fan of the band who has played their music on his show. They released a video for a new single, "Tie Me Up with Jackets", later that month and performed the song on The View on 10 March 2009. Also In March 2009, came the release of the EP You Filled His Head with Fluffy Clouds and Jolly Ranchers, What Did You Think Was Going to Happen? for the US market as well as a return to South by Southwest. Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion was released in Japan in April 2009, with Fight Like Apes filming a music video for the international release of their "Something Global" single in Whelan's, Dublin. On 3 April 2009, The Irish Times named Fight Like Apes the fourth best contemporary Irish musical act, above Lisa Hannigan and below Cathy Davey, Jape and David Holmes. The newspaper claimed that "Ireland has, quite simply, never seen a band like Fight Like Apes", reasoning that this was due to them "acting as a palette-cleansing antidote to the dour “woolly jumper brigade” that dragged Irish music into the depths of despair not a decade ago". They played at the 2009 Trinity Ball in May, an event likened to "a mini-Oxegen without the mud". The band's 2009 summer tour consisted of both domestic and European festival dates, and an appearance in Wales. Their performance at Festival Internacional de Benicàssim in Spain was cancelled due to a fire and extreme winds. Their performance at Oxegen 2009 was their second at the festival, with band members banging chairs during their performance and The Irish Times tipping them to appear on the Main Stage in 2010. At the end of 2009, Fight Like Apes performed a show in The Academy inside a specially constructed wrestling ring. Their music was also being used to promote television series such as Making the Band and Valemont in the United States. The first album was named 31st best album of the decade by Phantom FM at the end of 2009. They will appear at Electric Picnic 2010. ### Second studio album, Adrian's departure (2010 - 2013) The Body of Christ and the Legs of Tina Turner, the second album by Fight Like Apes, was released in Ireland on August 27, 2010, through Model Citizen Records. The first single was released as a download only in Ireland on August 20, 2010, with the lead single being "Hoo Ha Henry". The band began promoting the album in Ireland on July 30, with live performances in Meath, Cork, Galway and at Electric Picnic in County Laois. The band appeared on Beat 102 103 to promote their new album on August 8, 2010. Adrian Mullan left the band in 2010 due to "creative differences" and was replaced by Lee Boylan. On Friday September 3, 2010, The Body of Christ and the Legs of Tina Turner entered the Irish charts at number 3. On 1 November, they announced an extension to their end-of-year national tour. In March 2011, they announced an Irish nationwide tour and released the single "Jenny Kelly". The band performed at The Trinity Ball 2011 with new bassist Conor Garry as Tom Ryan had gone back to college to study. ### Whigfield Sextape EP and Fight Like Apes Third Album On April 9, 2013, Fight Like Apes launched its Fund It campaign to help facilitate the making of their third album. The band received €20,000 in donations to cover the cost of PR, album artwork, equipment, mastering among other things. Donations ranged from €10 which would get the donor a signed version of the album up to €5,000 where the donor would receive VIP tickets to regular gigs and festivals. The band aimed to receive all donations within 34 days, and they were successful within a few days. In the run-up to the launch of this new album, the band performed at two dates one in Dublin and another in Cork in December 2013. The band played a number of new tracks at both live venues. Fans who funded the new album were to receive a special EP. On May 12, 2015, Fight Like Apes released the Whigfield Sextape EP. In early 2015, the band played a number of dates in Japan and Ireland. They released their self-titled third studio album on May 15, 2015. ### Breakup On 2 November 2016, Fight Like Apes announced that their upcoming three shows would be their last, posting the following on their Facebook wall: > Stick a fork in us, we’re done. > > We’ve been quiet for a while now. We’ve had a lot of thinking and talking to do. > > We’d be here all year if we started listing the people we wanted to thank, so we’ll just do that in our own time. > > You’ll see us all again under different musical guises but, these 3 shows will be Fight Like Apes’ last. We want to call it a day while we’re all still pals and are proud of what we’ve done. > > And we are very, very proud. > > It’s a deadly time in so many ways to be in a band; you can have so much control over your work if you’re clever; you can release it how and when you like and in our opinion, right now, Ireland is the healthiest it’s ever been in terms of talent and diversity. > > But, there are massive challenges for a lot of bands, mostly financial, that make this a tough job and sadly, those obstacles have become too big for us. I think we all know that we're going to hear announcements like this more often. A lot of people don’t seem to understand that we can’t keep producing records if you keep not paying for them. Bands are having to sell beautiful albums for €2.99, labels can’t give you as much support since they’re losing income too and our alternative radio stations\* are practically non existent now, meaning so many wonderful bands will not get a chance to get played on radio as they’ll be competing with huge pop acts. > > Please buy your music in independent record stores or directly from the band. > > Don’t fool yourself in to thinking that your £10 subscription to Deezer and Spotify helps us at all. It does not. Look how many bands are on there and do the maths. > > Please go to gigs. Please buy merch. > > Thanks to all you entirely crazy, wonderful people who have supported us and danced and screamed with us over the past 10 years. We could never thank you enough. > > I still can’t believe some of the amazing things we’ve done together and how far we came. ## Style and influences BBC Radio 1's Steve Lamacq has described Fight Like Apes as a "great Misfit band" inhabiting "a lonely place out on the periphery of the indie rock world". At one show in June 2008, he witnessed them "thrash about on their guitars and keyboards and wotnot [sic] like it's some kind of pop exorcism" and saw them "rolling around the empty dancefloor playflighting [sic]". Today FM presenter Alison Curtis has described them as "really talented... kind of rocky and metallic and their front girl is extremely watchable, almost going into Debbie Harry territory". The band's influences include B movies, computer games, kung-fu and wrestling. "Do You Karate?", "a thumping bass driven flourish of a song", displays the band's "trademark twin-synth attack" and the Pixies-style "Canhead" has been described as "a concise ode to fish and chips". Musically they are fond of My Bloody Valentine, Mclusky and Tom Waits, Grand Pocket Orchestra, Adebisi Shank, Jape and Giveamanakick. They dislike guitars and have been known to perform with kitchen implements such as pots and pans when on stage; MayKay and Pockets even play keyboards with their heads. They purposefully construct lengthy record titles to "piss off" journalists and radio presenters and their self-defined "karate rock" genre was directed at the NME after the British magazine tried to place them in the same category as two other female-fronted bands. Vocalist MayKay has been described as one of Ireland's "most mesmerising front women" in recent history, with her long black hair and banshee wail. She is known for lyrics such as "you're like Kentucky Fried Chicken but without the taste" and "you're a fucking disappointment to the human race", taken from the song "Jake Summers", a song inspired by former teen idol of California Dreams fame. Pockets writes most of the band's songs, plays the keyboard and provides vocals for some of the band's songs. Adrian and Tom tend to remain in the background, choosing not to be photographed. The band claim to have never written anything fictional and their lyrics have been described by Nadine O'Regan in The Sunday Business Post as "occasionally literally gynaecological in their detail and regularly relatively shocking in their honesty". MayKay and Pockets claim that most of their lyrics are shaped by one person who has broken each of their hearts. ## Discography ### Studio albums - Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion (2008) - The Body of Christ and the Legs of Tina Turner (2010) - Fight Like Apes (2015) ## Awards ### Choice Music Prize The band's debut album, Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion, was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in January 2009. The award was won by Jape for the album Ritual on 4 March 2009. The Body of Christ and the Legs of Tina Turner was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in 2011. \\|- \\| 2009 \\|\\| Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion \\|\\| Irish Album of the Year 2008 \\|\\| \\|- \\| 2011 \\|\\| The Body of Christ and the Legs of Tina Turner \\|\\| Irish Album of the Year 2010 \\|\\| \\|- ### Meteor Music Awards Fight Like Apes were nominated for two Meteor Awards in 2008, one for Best Irish Live Performance for their November 2007 show at Whelan's in Dublin and the other for Best Irish Band. In 2009, they were nominated for three Meteor Music Awards, for Best Irish Band, Best Irish Live Performance and Best Irish Album. \\|- \\| 2008 \\|\\| Fight Like Apes \\|\\| Best Irish Band \\|\\| \\|- \\| 2008 \\|\\| Whelan's \\|\\| Best Irish Live Performance \\|\\| \\|- \\| 2009 \\|\\| Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion \\|\\| Best Irish Album \\|\\| \\|- \\| 2009 \\|\\| Fight Like Apes \\|\\| Best Irish Band \\|\\| \\|- \\| 2009 \\|\\| Whelan's \\|\\| Best Irish Live Performance \\|\\| \\|- ### UK Festival Awards In September 2009, Fight Like Apes were nominated in the Best Breakthrough Artists category at the UK Festival Awards, competing against three British and one American acts—Florence and The Machine, Little Boots, Passion Pit and Friendly Fires. \\|- \\| 2009 \\|\\| Fight Like Apes \\|\\| Best Breakthrough Artists \\|\\| \\|- ### IMTV Music Video Awards 2009 "Something Global" won the award for Most Original Concept at the 2009 Irish Music Television Awards. The video was directed by Eoghan Kidney. \\|- \\| 2009 \\|\\| "Something Global" video \\|\\| 2009 Irish Music Television Video Music Awards \\|\\| \\|-
1,536,806	Lisa's First Word	1,173,048,388	null	[ "1992 American television episodes", "Fiction set in 1983", "Fiction set in 1984", "Fiction with unreliable narrators", "Television episodes set in the 1980s", "The Simpsons (season 4) episodes" ]	"Lisa's First Word" is the tenth episode of the fourth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on December 3, 1992. In the episode, as the Simpson family gathers around Maggie and tries to encourage her to say her first word, Marge reminisces and tells the story of Lisa's first word. Elizabeth Taylor appeared for the voicing of Maggie's first word. The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland and written by Jeff Martin. After its initial airing on Fox, the episode was later released as part of a 1999 video collection: The Simpsons: Greatest Hits, and released again on the 2003 DVD edition of the same collection. The episode features cultural references to two chains of fast food restaurants, Wendy's and McDonald's, a reference to the 1981 arcade video game Ms. Pac-Man, and to Olympic gymnast Shun Fujimoto's performance in the 1976 Summer Olympics in spite of a serious injury. "Lisa's First Word" received positive reception from television critics, and acquired a Nielsen rating of 16.6. ## Plot The Simpsons are trying unsuccessfully to get Maggie to speak, inspiring Marge to share the story of Lisa's first word. The story flashes back to 1983 when Homer, Marge and Bart, aged two, lived in an apartment on the Lower East Side of Springfield. Marge became pregnant again, and she and Homer realized that they would probably need a bigger place. After viewing several unsuitable properties, they bought a house on Evergreen Terrace with a \$15,000 down payment from the sale of Grampa's house. In 1984, the Simpsons move there and meet their neighbors, Ned Flanders and his family. Meanwhile, Krusty the Clown began a promotion for the 1984 Summer Olympic Games with his Krusty Burger chain. The promotion is a "scratch-and-win" game where customers could win free Krusty Burgers if America won a gold medal, but the game cards were rigged to feature events that athletes from Communist countries were most likely to win. But then, Krusty received word of the Soviet boycott of the Olympics, which caused him to lose \$44 million from all the burgers he had to give away. Bart was forced to give up his crib for the new baby. Realizing Bart was fond of clowns, Homer built him a clown-themed bed, but because of his poor carpentering skills he made it look like an evil clown, which terrifies Bart. Soon, Lisa was born, and Bart took an immediate dislike to her when she received more attention than him. After several failed attempts to retaliate against her, he decided to run away. Then Lisa said her first word, "Bart". He was thrilled, and Marge explained that Lisa adored him. Bart and Lisa hugged each other and bonded over how funny it was that they both called Homer by his name, rather than "Daddy" as he wished. In the present day, as Bart and Lisa argue Homer puts Maggie to bed telling her that when kids learn to talk they quickly learn to talk back, and he is happy for her to never say a word; as soon as he turns off the light and closes the door, Maggie takes her pacifier out of her mouth and, unheard by anyone else, says "Daddy". ## Production "Lisa's First Word" was written by Jeff Martin, and directed by Mark Kirkland. The Simpsons writers Mike Reiss and Al Jean were discussing having an episode where Maggie would say her first word, and Reiss thought it would be cute to have her say "daddy" when no one could hear her. Jeff Martin was assigned to write the episode because he had done another flashback episode in the past, "I Married Marge". Martin was excited to do another flashback episode because he thought it was fun to check out old newspapers and go back and see what was in the news back in 1983 and 1984. Martin felt it was a good way of finding a new set of things to make jokes about. The extended couch gag was added since the episode was about thirty seconds too short to air. In the episode, Homer builds a scary clown-shaped bed for Bart. The scene was inspired by Mike Reiss, whose dad had built him a clown-shaped bed when he was younger, and just like Bart, Reiss was scared of sleeping in it. As the flashback begins in 1983, a young Homer strolls down the street, singing Cyndi Lauper's song "Girls Just Want to Have Fun", which was released the same year. The idea for this sequence came from animation director Chuck Sheetz, who suggested it because the length of the final version of the episode was too short. The Fox censors wrote a note concerning Homer's line, "Bart can kiss my hairy, yellow butt!" after Marge tells Homer that Bart might be jealous of baby Lisa, citing that the line is considered "coarse", due to the fact that Bart was two during the flashback. Maggie's first word was provided by the Academy Award-winning actress Elizabeth Taylor, who also voiced herself in the season four finale, "Krusty Gets Kancelled". While promoting the episode, the producers initially did not reveal who the voice of Maggie would be, prompting speculation as to the identity of the actress. Although it was only one word, the voice came out "too sexy" and Taylor had to record the part numerous times before the producers were satisfied and thought it sounded like a baby. Several sources, including John Ortved's The Simpsons history article "Simpsons Family Values" in Vanity Fair, have reported that after Taylor had been made to repeatedly record the line, she said "fuck you" to series creator Matt Groening and stormed out of the studio. Groening recounted this event on a 1994 appearance on Late Night with Conan O'Brien, and was also quoted by the New York Daily News in 2007 as saying "We did 24 takes, but they were always too sexual. Finally, Liz said, 'F— you,' and walked out." However, Groening later denied the story in the DVD commentary for the episode "Gump Roast", while Jean stated in a piece after Taylor's death in 2011 that Taylor had said "fuck you" in jest and in Maggie's voice and did not storm out. Yeardley Smith supports the latter as well, tweeting she "didn't storm out but she did take exception to being asked to say 'Daddy' 20 times & she let us know by saying 'fuck you' when she was done." Nancy Cartwright also mentions the incident in her book My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy, but states Taylor jokingly ad-libbed "fuck you Daddy" as an initial sound check for Sam Simon. ## Cultural references The Springfield Shopper headline from the day Lisa was born ("Mondale to Hart: Where's the beef?") uses the then-current advertising slogan for Wendy's. Mondale, a candidate in the 1984 presidential election, used the "Where's the beef?" phrase at an election rally in 1984 while mocking one of his opponents. Marge sets the scene for her story of Lisa's first word with references to the 1981 arcade video game Ms. Pac-Man and the American actor Joe Piscopo. The group of boys hanging around the apartment building is a reference to the popular 1930s boys group The Dead End Kids. When Lisa is born, Homer says he has already started saving for her college fund in Lincoln Savings and Loan, which suffered a scandalous financial collapse in the late 1980s causing thousands of investors to lose their life savings. The episode features an Itchy & Scratchy cartoon called "100-Yard Gash", which uses the music from the 1981 film Chariots of Fire. The Olympic promotion by Krusty Burger is based on the 1984 Olympics promotion by McDonald's, in which McDonald's visitors could win a Big Mac, french fries, a drink, or even a cash prize up to \$10,000 if Team USA won a medal in the visitor's listed event. McDonald's lost millions on the promotion due to the 1984 Summer Olympics boycott by the Soviet Union, as happened to Krusty. At one point in the episode, Dr. Hibbert refers to Olympic gymnastic medalist Mary Lou Retton. ## Reception ### Critical reception Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, the authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, said the episode is a "convincing portrait of young marriage and hardship in the days of Reaganomics—and the biggest name to guest voice gets the littlest, but the most significant, to say". When asked to pick his favorite season out of The Simpsons seasons one through twenty, Paul Lane of the Niagara Gazette picked season four and highlighted "the sweetly funny" "Lisa's First Word". David Johnson at DVD Verdict named it "one of the greatest flashback episodes". Dave Manley at DVDActive said in a review of The Simpsons: Greatest Hits DVD that it is "one of the better episodes and probably my personal favourite on the disc, although most Simpsons connoisseurs would probably go for the previous episode [on the DVD]", and added that there are "some great parodies in the episode too". The Orlando Sentinel's Gregory Hardy named it the fourteenth best episode of the show with a sports theme (the Olympics in this case). Elizabeth Taylor's performance as Maggie was praised by critics. She was named the 13th greatest guest spot in the history of the show by IGN. Taylor also appeared on AOL's list of their favorite 25 Simpsons guest stars. Todd Everett at Variety called the last scene in the episode, where Maggie speaks her first word, "quite a heart-melter". He added that "it is probably no surprise that the casting of Elizabeth Taylor as the voice for baby Maggie Simpson's first word was a publicity stunt [...] No mind, the episode in question delivered well-rounded view of series' multiple attractions." Total Film's Nathan Ditum ranked her performance as the best guest appearance in the show's history. Fox rebroadcast the episode on April 3, 2011, in memory of Taylor, following her death on March 23. ### Ratings In its original American broadcast, "Lisa's First Word" was watched by 28.6 million viewers, the most-watched episode of the season. It finished thirteenth in the ratings for the week of November 30 to December 6, 1992, with a Nielsen rating of 16.6. The episode was the highest-rated show on Fox that week. It acquired the highest national Nielsen rating of the show since the season two episode "Bart Gets an 'F' aired on October 11, 1990. ## Legacy ### "Can't sleep, clown will eat me" Inspired by an event in The Simpsons writer Mike Reiss' childhood, young Bart does not want to give up sleeping in the crib to make way for his newborn sister. Noticing Bart's affection for Krusty the Clown but unable to afford a professionally built Krusty-themed bed, Homer decides to build a clown-themed bed himself to please his son. However, because of Homer's poor handicraft skills, the bed takes on an ominous appearance and frightens Bart, especially in his darkened bedroom. In his first night in the new bed, far from "laughing himself to sleep", Bart imagines that the face on the headboard of the bed comes to life, intoning with evil glee, "if you should die before you wake...", before bursting into evil cackling. The next morning, Bart is curled up into the fetal position on the floor next to the sofa downstairs, repeatedly uttering the phrase "can't sleep, clown will eat me..." The catchphrase inspired the Alice Cooper song "Can't Sleep, Clowns Will Eat Me" from the 2001 album Dragontown. The phrase has since found its way into popular use. When Homer and Marge must leave for the hospital for Lisa's birth, they leave Bart in the care of Ned Flanders. Bart finds himself bored at the Flanders' house and wants to go home, but quickly changes his mind when he sees the clown bed in his bedroom window. When Bart attempts to run away, the bed appears in his bedroom again. The bed appears again in the episode "The Kids Are All Fight", where it eventually falls apart. ## Merchandise "Lisa's First Word" originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 3, 1992. The episode was selected for release in a 1999 video collection of selected episodes titled: The Simpsons: Greatest Hits. Other episodes included in the collection set were "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire", "Sweet Seymour Skinner's Baadasssss Song", "Trash of the Titans", and "Bart Gets an 'F'. It was included in The Simpsons season 4 DVD set, which was released on June 15, 2004, as The Simpsons — The Complete Fourth Season. The episode was again included in the 2003 DVD release of the "Greatest Hits" set, but this time the set did not include "Trash of the Titans".
3,832,955	Pickawillany	1,150,619,684	null	[ "Archaeological sites in Ohio", "Cannibalism in North America", "Captives of Native Americans", "Former Native American populated places in the United States", "Former populated places in Ohio", "French and Indian War", "Geography of Miami County, Ohio", "Miami tribe", "Native American history of Ohio", "Native American populated places", "Populated places disestablished in 1752", "Populated places established in 1747" ]	Pickawillany (also spelled Pickawillamy, Pickawillani, or Picqualinni) was an 18th-century Miami Indian village located on the Great Miami River in North America's Ohio Valley near the modern city of Piqua, Ohio. In 1749 an English trading post was established alongside the Miami village, selling goods to neighboring tribes at the site. In 1750, a stockade (Fort Pickawillany) was constructed to protect the post. French and English colonists were competing for control of the fur trade in the Ohio Country as part of their overall struggle for dominance in North America. In less than five years, Pickawillany grew to be one of the largest Native American communities in eastern North America. The French decided to punish Miami chief Memeskia (also known as La Demoiselle or Old Briton), for rejecting the French alliance and dealing with the English traders, which threatened what had previously been a French monopoly over local commerce. On 21 June 1752, the village and trading post were destroyed in the raid on Pickawillany, also known as the Battle of Pickawillany, when French-allied Indians attacked the village, killing Memeskia and at least one English trader and burning the English stockade and the trading post. Following the attack, the village of Pickawillany was relocated about a mile to the southeast. The city of Piqua, Ohio, was established later near this site. Pickawillany's destruction directly encouraged greater British fortification and military presence at other outposts in the Ohio Valley, and has been seen as a precursor to the wider British-French conflict that would become the French and Indian War. ## Etymology The English term Pickawillany derives from pkiiwileni, the Shawnee word for the Miami people – literally, "foreigner". The Miami name for the village (Pinkwaawileniaki) is a direct translation of the Shawnee pekowiiøa or "ash people." ## Establishment and early history In the two decades preceding the French and Indian War, France struggled to maintain military and economic control of the Ohio Country, which was strategically crucial to lines of supply and communication between Canada and Louisiana. French dominance largely depended on the continued favorable relations between the government of New France and the Native American tribes living in the region, primarily the Miamis (Twightwees), the Wyandots (Hurons), and the Shawnees. English traders from Pennsylvania were able to supply cheaper goods in larger quantities than the French traders could, attracting a greater share of the fur trade and influencing many Ohio tribes to shift their alliance to the English. In 1739 the Huron leader Orontony relocated his community from Detroit to Junundat and became openly hostile towards the French. In 1747 a combined force of Huron and Miami Indians attacked French outposts including Fort St. Philippe (Fort Miami), which was destroyed. The French forced the Wyandots to abandon Junundat in that year, but they were then faced with the growing influence of the newly-founded Miami community of Pickawillany, under the leadership of Memeskia, a Piankeshaw war chief. Memeskia had gained influence over many in the Miami tribe by encouraging a stronger trade relationship with the English rather than the French. The Miami elder Cold Foot had maintained loyalty to the French for many years, but English goods were cheaper and more readily available than those of the French, leading many tribes to settle closer to English trading posts. In late 1747 Memeskia led a group of Miami Indians about 100 miles (160 km) to the southeast from their community at Kekionga on the Maumee River, to settle Pickawillany on the west bank of the Great Miami River, opposite the mouth of what was later named Loramie Creek. The village was at the convergence of several trading trails in western Ohio, giving it unusual influence over trade in the region. In addition, it was the southern terminus of three key portages (overland carrying places between rivers) that provided access between the Ohio/Great Miami River systems and Lake Erie and other points to the north and west. Traveling by water from the east and the headwaters of the Ohio River toward the western Great Lakes, it would have been almost a necessity to pass through Pickawillany to get from one region to the other. Pickawillany was near enough to the Potawatomi, Kickapoo, Illinois, and other tribes for trade, and accessible to the English traders of Pennsylvania and Virginia. Its location was a threat to the French, as it was easily accessible by many tribes allied to the French, and brought English traders far into territory the French considered theirs. However, it was also deep in Ohio Country, too far from English colonial territory to expect military assistance if attacked. William Trent states that > the Miamis had a village on the west side of the Great Miami river, at the mouth of what afterward became known as Loramies creek. That point was visited by the coureurs des bois at an early day, and had become a place of note long previous to the alliance of the Miamis with the English. From the latter it received the name of "Tawixtwi town", until the building of a stockade, when it was called Pickawillany, although in some accounts we find the name "Picktown" applied to it. In July 1748, fifty-five representatives of the Six Nations, Delawares, Shawnees, Nanticokes, and Twightwees met at the courthouse in Lancaster, Pennsylvania and signed a peace treaty with the Pennsylvania Provincial Council. This treaty guaranteed commercial access to tribes across the Ohio Valley as far west as the Wabash River, an unprecedented diplomatic achievement for the English. The Indian leaders promised to try to persuade other Ohio communities to leave the French and join a pro-English alliance. ## Visit by Céloron de Blainville, 1749 In response to these new English alliances, the Governor of New France, Charles de la Boische, Marquis de Beauharnois decided to send a military force down the Ohio River to persuade and intimidate the main Native American communities to remain loyal to France. In mid-1749 Pierre Joseph Céloron de Blainville, leading a force of eight officers, six cadets, an armorer, 20 soldiers, 180 Canadians, 30 Iroquois and 25 Abenakis, moved down the Ohio River on a flotilla of 23 large boats and birch-bark canoes, on his "lead plate expedition," burying lead plates at six locations where major tributaries entered the Ohio. The plates were inscribed to claim the area for France. Céloron also sought out English traders and warned them to leave this territory which belonged to France. After visiting Kittanning, Logstown and Lower Shawneetown and receiving a cool response, Céloron's party traveled up the Great Miami River (which Bonnecamps referred to as the "rocky river", Rivière a la Roche) to Pickawillany, arriving there on 13 September. Céloron immediately found two "English soldiers" living in Pickawillany and sent them away. Of the Miami living in Pickawillany, Father Bonnecamps remarks, "This band is not numerous; it consists at most of 40 or 50 men." Céloron's party spent a week camped outside the town. He wanted to persuade Memeskia to lead his people back to Kekionga, and some of the Miamis said they "had not much objection". At one point he proposed that the Miamis accompany his party north to Detroit, emphasizing that the English could not be trusted. Céloron dispensed the last of his trade goods to the Miamis, with promises of much more if the Miamis would declare loyalty to the French and return to Kekionga. Memeskia promised to return the following spring, "for the season is too far advanced." After this, Memeskia refused to meet with him again, and instead Céloron met with other Miami leaders who then sent messages to Memeskia. On 20 September, Céloron gave up, burned his canoes and set off with his party overland to Detroit. On the way, he stopped at Kekionga and met with Chief Cold Foot, telling him that Memeskia had made a vague promise to return to the French. Cold Foot told Céloron that "La Demoiselle is a liar. It is the source of all my grief to be the only one who loves you, and to see all the nations of the south let loose against the French." Céloron later remarked, speaking in general about his journey, that "the nations of these localities are very badly disposed towards the French, and are entirely devoted to the English." ## Fort and trading post, 1749-1750 In November 1749, George Croghan, an Irish trader and Pennsylvania Indian agent, established a trading post alongside the village. According to a letter from Governor Robert Dinwiddie, when the French learned that Croghan had established a trading post at Pickawillany, they offered a price for Croghan's capture or for his scalp: > Two Prisoners who had been taken by the French, and had made their Escape from the French Officer at Lake Erie ... brought News that the French offered a large sum of Money to any person who would bring them the said Croghan and Andrew Montour the Interpreter alive, or if dead their scalps. In late 1750, the Pennsylvania Provincial Council sent gifts to the people of Pickawillany and requested permission to build a "strong house", a fortified enclosure designed to withstand attack, but technically not a fortress, as the pacifist Philadelphia Quakers felt that they could not ethically finance any military structures. Nonetheless, this building was referred to by everyone else as "Fort Pickawillany." William Trent describes the fort's construction in 1750: > Having obtained permission from the Indians, the English, in the fall of 1750, began the erection of a stockade, as a place of protection, in case of sudden attack, both for their persons and property. When the main building was completed, it was surrounded with a high wall of split logs, having three gateways. Within the inclosure the traders dug a well, which furnished an abundant supply of fresh water during the fall, winter, and spring, but failed in summer. At this time Pickawillany contained four hundred Indian families, and was the residence of the principal chief of the Miami Confederacy. With the security of a stockade fort, traders began building storehouses to contain their trade goods and to store the skins and furs they received in trade from the Indians. Trent describes these storehouses as > ordinary log cabins, the trading being carried on below, while an "upper storey" or "loft" was used as a place to store away skins and combustible material ... The articles of traffic on the part of the whites were firearms, gunpowder, lead, ball, knives, rings, rum, medals, hatchets, flints, blades, cooking utensils, shirts and other articles of wearing apparel, tobacco pipes, paint, etc .... Some of the traders would run regular "caravans" of fifteen or twenty horses, making several trips during the year. The presence of a fort and a trading post attracted many English traders to the village seeking a new source of skins and furs. Hunters from many nearby communities began visiting Pickawillany regularly to trade, and the accumulation of European trade goods gave Memeskia increased influence over neighboring tribes, as he could strengthen alliances through gift-giving, a standard Native American practice. The French became increasingly concerned that the Miamis were considering "a general revolt against the French in pursuance of their plan of making themselves masters of all the upcountry." ## Visit by John Patten, 1750 In November 1750 John Patten, a Pennsylvania trader, stopped at Pickawillany on his way to trade with Native communities on the St. Marys River. While trading with the Indians, Patten was invited to Fort St. Philippe, where he was arrested and his goods confiscated. He was later taken to Quebec and examined by Governor La Jonquiere and his Council at Château Vaudreuil in Montreal on 19 June 1751. Patten stated that at Pickawillany he "found upwards of fifty Traders, including servants, lodging in cabins belonging to the Miamis Indians; that the name of their chief was La Demoiselle; that those cabins were in a fort." Patten was then sent to France, and in 1752 was released through the help of friends, whereupon he returned to Pennsylvania. In his deposition to the Pennsylvania Assembly on 17 October 1752, Patten referred to Pickawillany as "the Twightwee Town, which lies near the head of that Western branch of the Ohio called by the English, Miamis River." He reported that "this Miami Town was computed to have about 200 fighting men, all of the Twightwee Nation, settled therein, and are some of those who left the French seven or eight years ago [from 1752], in order to trade with the English." ## Visit by Christopher Gist, 1751 Christopher Gist visited the town in February 1751, and reported: > This Town is situate on the NW Side of the Big Miamee River and about 100 M from the mouth thereof; it consists of about 400 Families and daily increasing it is one of the strongest Towns upon this part of the Continent ... The Land on the Great Miamee River is very rich level and well timbered, some of the finest Meadows that can be .... The Grass here grows to a great Height in the clear fields, of which there are a great number, & the Bottoms are full of white Clover, wild Rye and Blue Grass. While he was there, four Ottawa Indians sent as emissaries by the French arrived, and a council was held with Memeskia. The Ottawas presented gifts and requested that Memeskia reconsider his alliance with the English. Croghan and Gist were present at the council, at which both the French and English flags were displayed. After hearing the French message, the speaker of the Miamis replied, > Brothers of the Ottaways, You are always differing with the French Yourselves, and yet you listen to what They say, but we will let you know by these four Strings of Wampum that We will not hear anything they Say to Us, nor do anything they Bid Us .... As You threaten Us with War in the Spring We tell You that if You are angry we are ready to receive You, and resolve to die here before We will go to You. The next day the French flag was removed and the Ottawas were sent home. Gist and Croghan finalized a treaty of friendship with Memeskia: "We had Drawn Articles of Peace and Alliance between the English and the Wawaughtanneys and Pyankashees; the Indentures were signed and selad [sealed] and delivered on both sides." Leaders of Pickawillany were invited to attend a conference at Logstown in May 1751, where Croghan distributed gifts and further cemented the relationship between the English and the Ohio Valley Indian communities. On 1 March, as Gist was preparing to leave Pickawillany, the speaker of the Miamis sent a message to Governor Dinwiddie, which began: "Brothers our Hearts are glad that you have taken notice of Us, and surely Brothers we hope that you will Order a Smith to settle here to mend our Guns and Hatchets." By mid-1752 a gunsmith (Thomas Burney) and a blacksmith were working at Pickawillany, employed by Croghan. Burney had previously established a forge at the Wyandot community of Muskingum, where Gist had met him in December 1750. ## French plans to attack Pickawillany `Céloron de Blainville's failed attempt to persuade Memeskia to return to French loyalty led to the French decision to attack the village, as a punishment and a warning to other Native communities defecting to the English. Soon after Céloron's return, reports of French military movements began to alarm English colonial authorities. In July 1751, reports reached New York governor George Clinton that a French force of "twelve Hundred French & Two Hundred of Orondacks passed by Oswego about a fortnight ago with a design to cut off (as I understand) some of the Nations of Indians to the Westward, who are Strongly attached to the British Interest, also to Stop the Philadelphians building at, or near Ohio." Benjamin Stoddert reported to Sir William Johnson that "two hundred Orondack Indians under the command of Monsieur Belletre and Chevalier Longville ... design against a village of the Twightwees where the English are building a trading-house." Two escaped English prisoners, Morris Turner and Ralph Kilgore, reported to Governor Dinwiddie "that in the Spring an army of five hundred Frenchmen would march to Ohio, and either bring back the Shawnees and Owendats (Wyandots) or kill them." In fact, French troops and Ottawa warriors under the command of Céloron de Blainville assembled at Detroit, but the Indians complained that the force did not have sufficient strength to attack Pickawillany and refused to proceed.` In late 1751, François-Marie Picoté de Belestre led a raiding party of seventeen warriors to Pickawillany, but found the town nearly deserted, as most of the population was away hunting. They captured two English traders and killed a Miami man and a woman. In response, Memeskia had three captured French soldiers killed, cut off the ears of a fourth prisoner, and sent him back to Canada as a warning to the Governor of New France. The Governor General of New France, Jacques-Pierre de Taffanel de la Jonquière, immediately began preparing another attack on Pickawillany, but plans were incomplete when he died on 17 March 1752. His successor, Charles III Le Moyne, Baron de Longueuil, worked unsuccessfully to put together a force of French troops and Indian warriors to attack the town again. The French were unable to persuade Ottawa leaders to launch an attack on Pickawillany, even though spies reported on the numbers of fighting men and defenses of the town: "They are 140 men, the others eighty, and have but two English among them without cannon or artillery." On 23 May 1752, Lieutenant John Mills wrote to Pennsylvania Governor James Hamilton to inform him "By some foreign Indians, just arrived, I am told that ... [Monsieur St. Orr, a French officer] is gone back to Canada to conduct an Army back, to be employed against them [the Twightwees]." Hamilton was skeptical, but in any case did not have the power to send assistance to the Miami Indians at Pickawillany without the approval of the Pennsylvania Provincial Council, and no action was taken. ## Raid on Pickawillany, 1752 In the winter of 1751–1752, Charles Michel de Langlade, a 23-year-old Métis coureur de bois seeking to advance his military career, began assembling a war party of French-allied Ottawa, Potawatomi, and Ojibwe warriors, traveling as far as Saginaw Bay to enlist the support of Ottawa there. Langlade knew that the Governor of New France had been trying to implement a plan to attack and destroy the village, but that he had been unable to recruit Indian warriors. Langlade was well-connected to the Ottawa (his maternal grandfather was Nissowaquet, an Ottawa war chief), and spoke the Odawa dialect fluently. He was able to persuade Ottawa warriors to attack Pickawillany by characterizing the raid as a gesture of friendship towards Onontio, the French governor. Langlade's plan to attack Pickawillany was carried out without the knowledge of the Canadian government. At the time of the raid he was only a cadet in the colonial regulars, and held no official rank. On 7 June, Langlade and a force of 272 Ottawa reached Detroit, where about 30 of the Indians deserted, having heard that there was a smallpox epidemic among the Miamis. The Miamis later alleged that thirty French soldiers accompanied the Indians but did not take part in the raid. Early on the morning of 21 June 1752, Langlade arrived at the village with 240 Indians and one other unidentified Frenchman. They lay in wait until most of the village's population was outside the fort or working in the cornfields. Launching their attack at about 9 a.m., the warriors killed 13 Miami men and captured four women. About twenty men and boys, including five English traders, took refuge in the fort, but three traders locked themselves in a cabin, and although they had guns and ammunition, were too frightened to open fire, and were eventually captured. The attackers negotiated terms of surrender with those inside the fort, presenting wampum belts as a token of good faith and promising that if they gave up the traders, the attackers would return the four captured Miami women, take the traders and leave. As they were heavily outnumbered and had no water, the fort's well having gone dry, the Miamis decided to hand over three of the five English traders, one of whom (a blacksmith) was badly injured from a gunshot wound to his abdomen. The Ottawas killed this man, cut out his heart and ate it in front of the Miami men, to atone for the death of Ottawa warriors killed in the attack. Among Algonquian and Iroquoian peoples, the hearts of the victims were often devoured to add the power of the deceased to whoever consumed them. Two other traders, gunsmith Thomas Burney and Andrew McBryer, "whom the Indians hid," escaped with the help of the Miamis, fled "during the night" and made their way to Lower Shawneetown. Langlade's men then seized the Miami chief Memeskia, and he was killed, boiled and eaten "within a hundred yards of the fort" in front of his Miami men. This act represented a symbolic re-incorporation of Memeskia into the French alliance. One source reports that they killed two more of the English traders. Afterward the Ottawa released the Miami women, as well as Memeskia's wife and son, burned the English stockade and the trading post and left for Detroit with the captured Englishmen and £3000 worth of trade goods (more than \$300,000 worth in today's dollars). The trader William Ives passed by the town the next night and reported later to William Trent that "the white men's houses were all on fire, and that he heard no noise in the Fort," although there was one gunshot and someone calling out. Trent met Thomas Burney and Andrew McBrey at Lower Shawneetown on 6 July and questioned them about the raid. At Lower Shawneetown on 29 July, Trent met "the young Pianguisha king, Musheguanockque, or the Turtle, two more men, Old Britain's wife and son, with about a dozen women and their children." Trent refers to Memeskia's son as Ellonagoa Pyangeacha. ### Contemporary accounts of the raid Various contemporary sources report widely differing numbers of casualties and prisoners, in addition to other details. Thomas Burney is the principal source for the English accounts; William Trent based his statements on what he learned when he spoke to Burney and Andrew McBrey in Lower Shawneetown (it is not known how much McBrey contributed to the narrative). Newspaper articles published in late 1752 are based on statements by Burney or Trent, as are letters from Governor Dinwiddie and other Pennsylvania leaders. A brief statement made by five English traders who were captured (some accounts list only four) was made in a deposition on 2 February 1753. French accounts are probably based heavily on Langlade's reports, together with some information from Indians who accompanied him. Langlade sent his journal, in which he described the raid, to the Marquis Duquesne, however it has been lost. Interestingly, Langlade's memoir, published in 1876 and based on recollections of Langlade's grandson, does not mention the raid. ### English accounts William Trent, in his journal, makes no mention of Langlade, but instead states that the attack was led by a "Monsieur St. Orr, afterward distinguished in the French and Indian war." St. Orr had been selected to lead the raid but was unable to persuade the Ottawa and Ojibwe Indians to accompany him. Thomas Burney, one of the two English survivors, reported on the raid to Captain Robert Callender in Carlisle, Pennsylvania on 29 August, who in turn wrote to Governor Dinwiddie with the following statement: > Last night, Thomas Burney, who lately resided at the Twightwees' town in Allegheny, came here and gives the following account of the unhappy affair that was lately transacted there: On the twenty-first day of June last, early in the morning, two Frenchmen and about two hundred and forty Indians came to the Twightwees' town, and in a hostile manner attacked the people there residing. In the skirmish there was one white man and fourteen Indians killed, and five white men taken prisoners. Burney later presented a letter to Governor Dinwiddie, supposedly from the Miamis but probably written by Burney himself, describing the raid: > The French and French Indians ... engaged our Fort at a time when all our Warriors and briskest Men were out a hunting. They had two hundred and forty fighting Men, appeared suddenly, and took us on Surprize, when they had sent us Wampum and a fine French Coat in Token of Peace and good Will, just to deceive and draw our People out, and then fall on us, as a more weak and defenceless Part; being only twenty Men able to bear Arms, and nine of them were our Brothers, the English, who helped us much. But their Stores and Houses being on the outside of our Fort, our enemies plundered them, and took six of our Brothers', the English's, Goods, and, to our great Loss, their Powder and Lead; and killed one of them English, & scalped him. They kill'd our great Pianckosha King, whom we called Old Britain, for his great Love to his Brothers, the English ... There were but two French men appear'd among the Indians in Time of Battle, altho' we understand there were thirty men within two Miles of us, all the Time of Action, who were ready to receive their share of the Plunder. The four existing newspaper articles (all from November, 1752) focus heavily on the "acts of barbarity" of the murder of captives, the mutilation of corpses, and the cannibalizing of an English trader and of Chief Memeskia. In one article, William Trent reported that the fingers of the dead British trader were cut off and kept by Langlade's warriors. The papers emphasize that counterattacks were in preparation by the Native American tribes allied with the English. The New York Gazette says that the "Six Nations have not yet declared war, but have called in all their warriors, and are making preparations." Mobilization of European troops would have been controversial and was not being contemplated. Newspapers reported that the Six Nations and allied Indians in the Ohio Country had taken a "solemn oath to eat every Frenchman they can lay their hands on, and not to leave a man, woman, or child of the Tawaw [Ottawa] Nation alive." The five English traders captured at Pickawillany made the following statement in Philadelphia on 2 February 1753: > They were trading ... with the Five Indian Nations on the River Ohio ... when they were met, on the 22nd of June 1752, by a party of 170 Canada-French and some Indians, having a French officer at their head named Langlade who took these Declarants Prisoners. There were two other men of Philadelphia in Company with these Declarants, vizt. Andrew Browne and Alexander MacDonald, both whom the Indians of the French party kill'd by the Officer's order and cut off their Scalps. The French party seiz'd all the goods belonging to these Declarants ... Besides which the French kill'd 30 horses belonging to all five of them ... And these Declarants themselves were carried Prisoners to ... Quebec ... and were there thrown into a dark dungeon with only straw to lay upon. ### French accounts A letter from The Baron de Longueuil on 18 August 1752, reports: > A party of about 210 savages of Missilimakinac attacked the Fort of La Demoiselle, who is dead; and they destroyed about 26; and the others asked for pardon ... I will add, My Lord, that among the number of savages who are reported to be killed there, were six English Traders, whose magazines were destroyed by our savages. On 2 September 1752, Commandant Jean-Jacques de Macarty-Mactigue wrote to Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial, describing the raid: > After the Ottawa attacked the Great Miami Village, the ... Ottawa, having captured four Miami women, proposed to give them up in exchange for the English. This the Miami did, giving up seven English, one of whom was wounded. These the Ottawa killed and pillaged. The Miami promised not to return and attack the Chippewa, saying, "I do not know how our father will act. We have lost many people and he is the cause. We do not say that we will not return. François-Marie Le Marchand de Lignery wrote about the raid to Vaudreuil on 3 October 1752: > Toward the end of May, the Chippewa and Ottawa of Mackinac, to the number of two hundred men, attacked the Miami of Great Miami River. This blow was not of great account as they killed only five or six men. But what was better was their killing of three English and taking six prisoners after seizing their merchandise. Of the six, the Miami gave up four to them after the action, to get back four of their women who had been taken. One of these English was eaten by the Chippewa who had lost men ... But I would not venture to certify this last news, which I heard only from the Indians. ## Aftermath Memeskia's wife and son were released by Langlade, and went to Lower Shawneetown, where Trent saw them on 29 July. The Pennsylvania Council later sent them gifts in condolence of the death of Memeskia. Langlade garnered significant fame and praise following the raid, and in 1755 was promoted to ensign and given a full military pension. He participated in (by his own account) 99 different military engagements during his lengthy career. Michel-Ange Duquesne de Menneville wrote of Langlade: "He is acknowledged here to be very brave, to have much influence on the minds of the Indians, and to be very zealous when ordered to do anything." A month after the raid, William Trent visited the abandoned town, accompanied by Thomas Burney and 20 Indians, arriving on 20 July. They found French flags flying over the deserted fort, which they replaced with British flags, and Trent recovered a few trade goods that had been abandoned by the attackers. Following the attack, the Miami and English abandoned the site. The village of Pickawillany was relocated about two miles to the southwest. The city of Piqua, Ohio developed later near the Miami's second site of this village. The five English traders who were captured (Joseph Stevens, George Henry, John Evans, James Devoy, and Owen Nicholson) later stated that Langlade took them "to Quebec, and from thence sent them to La Rochelle, in Old France, where they were released by the English ambassador, and by him sent to London, from whence they got a passage to this place." Andrew McBryer, the second English survivor of the raid, was reported by one source to have been captured by French soldiers and Indians in late 1752. A second source says he was captured at Christopher Gist's settlement near Winchester, Virginia in 1754. In 1756 George Croghan, facing bankruptcy after the destruction of his trading posts at Pickawillany in 1752 and Lower Shawneetown in 1754, made an account of his losses, stating that at Pickawillany he lost goods amounting to 331 pounds and 15 shillings, which were "in the hands of Thomas Burney and Andrew McBryar." By June 1753, Thomas Burney was operating a blacksmith's forge at Logstown. On 28 March 1754, he enlisted as a private in George Washington's regiment in the Virginia Militia and was employed briefly as a messenger. He served under Captain Andrew Lewis at the Battle of Fort Necessity in July 1754 and in November he applied for an officer's commission, which was denied. In a letter of 13 November 1754, from Governor Robert Dinwiddie to Maryland Governor Horatio Sharpe, Dinwiddie mentions that "The bearer hereof, Thos. Burney, lived some years among the Twightees [Miami], as a blacksmith." Burney was killed at the Battle of the Monongahela on 9 July 1755. ## Later history The remains of Pickawillany may have been the site of a 1763 battle during the French and Indian War, described by Black Hoof to Colonel John Johnston: > In the French War ... a bloody battle was fought on the present farm of Colonel Johnston at Upper Piqua ... The Miamis, Wyandots, Ottawas and other northern tribes adhered to the French, made a stand here and fortified, the Canadian traders and French assisting. The Delawares, Shawanese, Munseys, part of the Senecas residing in Pennsylvania, Cherokees, Catawbas, etc., adhering to the English interest with the English traders, attacked the French and Indians. The siege continued for more than a week; the fort stood out and could not be taken. Many were slain, the assailants suffering most severely. The besieged lost a number, and all their exposed property was burnt and destroyed. The Shawnese chief, Black Hoof, one of the besiegers, informed Colonel Johnston that the ground around was strewn with bullets, so that basketfuls could have been gathered. Soon after this contest the Miamis and their allies left this part of the country ... and never returned. A few years later, the French commander of the fort at Vincennes, Indiana, sent traders to establish a trading post on the site of Pickawillany. At the same time, the French made efforts to establish an alliance with the Miami Indians living in nearby Piqua, "lavishing upon them a very large amount of money and a great variety of costly presents." The post did not profit much, however, until 1769, when Pierre-Louis de Lorimier established a store there. Eventually a small community grew up around the store, known as "Loramie's Station". A branch of the Great Miami River on which the community stood was known as Loramie Creek. During the Illinois Campaign, in 1782, George Rogers Clark destroyed Loramie's Station as well as Piqua and several other Miami communities. General Anthony Wayne built a small fort at the site of Pickawillany in the fall of 1794, but it was abandoned a year later after the signing of the Treaty of Greenville. Settlers moving west after the American Revolutionary War arrived in the area in 1798 and established a town called Washington. The name was changed to Piqua in 1823. In August 1795, Chief Little Turtle (Michikinikwa), at Greeneville, Ohio, reportedly said, "You discovered on the Great Miami traces of an old fort. It was not a French fort, brother, it was a fort built by me." Historians believe this is an error in translation, and that he said "a fort built by Mishikinakwa (The Turtle)," the name of an early Miami leader (also written Musheguanockque) known to have been at Pickawillany, who escaped to Lower Shawneetown after the raid. ## Archeological investigations Between 2002 and 2011, extensive work was done on a 37.5 acres (152,000 m<sup>2</sup>) tract purchased by the State of Ohio in 1999, to be included in the Piqua Historical Area State Memorial and overseen by the Ohio Historical Society. The site has been actively farmed since the mid-19th century and no visible traces of Pickawillany remain. Using remote sensing, magnetometer, electrical resistance and ground penetrating radar surveys, over 1500 artifacts have been recovered, including musket balls, lead scrap, small brass ornamental items called tinkler cones, brass arrow points, gunflints, and iron tools. Remote sensing data has located several sub-surface anomalies that may represent parts of building foundations, buried cellars and a well. The ongoing project is intended to identify the locations of important structures and activity areas. Between 2009 and 2011 work centered on a number of large anomalies located within about 25 metres (82 ft) from one another that were identified during previous magnetometer surveys. These are all within an area where the data suggests that the English traders were active. Artifacts recovered in 2009 included a brass finger ring set with a faceted green glass stone, French style gunflints, brass arrow points (including a very rare stemmed type), a brass and iron hook about 40 inches (100 cm) long, a stone tobacco pipe, a number of glass and ceramic beads, and two butt plates from French muskets dated to between 1699 and 1745. Of particular interest was the discovery of a blacksmith's hammer in 2011. Thomas Burney, one of the two English survivors of the raid, was a gunsmith, and the English trader whose heart was eaten by Ojibwe Indians was a blacksmith. Other ironmongery found at the site may have come from a trash pit near the blacksmith's shop. Three iron axes stamped with the letter "B" have been found in the Upper Piqua area or in the vicinity of the Pickawillany site, turned up during farming activities over the years. The "B" stamp is unique to that local area since no other sources have been found which mention this particular mark. The fact that Thomas Burney practiced blacksmithing in the area and the unique presence of the stamp would suggest that Burney himself manufactured these axes. ## See also - Charles Michel de Langlade - Memeskia - Miami people - William Trent
42,534,241	Bad Timing (Adventure Time)	1,151,200,744	null	[ "2014 American television episodes", "Adventure Time (season 5) episodes" ]	"Bad Timing" is the forty-ninth episode from the fifth season of Adventure Time, an animated television series. It was written by Pendleton Ward, who created the show, and Kent Osborne, its head of story from a story they developed along with Jack Pendarvis and the current showrunner, Adam Muto. In the episode, Lumpy Space Princess falls in love with a former mate (Mark Proksch) from secondary school. When she suspects she has lost her date to Princess Bubblegum, she attempts to wield time travel to win back his affections. Visually unique to this episode, it comprises two frames: a circular inner frame holds the main story, while the outer margins carry small creatures. The writers likened the story to revisiting a former high school peer who was, at the time, unnoticeable. Originally aired on March 3, 2014, this broadcast was seen by more than one million viewers. Writers of entertainment-related publications praised the episode for its depth of mood and visuals. The New Yorker critic Emily Nussbaum, in particular, saw it as establishing Lumpy's intricacy as a character, and Eric Kohn in IndieWire called the episode the pièce de résistance of the show. ## Background Adventure Time follows the adventures of principal characters Finn the Human, aged 16, and Jake the Dog. Recurring characters featured in "Bad Timing" include Princess Bubblegum and Lumpy Space Princess. As she governs her kingdom of candy people, Bubblegum works as a scientist on varying experiments. Meanwhile, Lumpy (Pendleton Ward), portrayed as a valley girl, is the source of drama due to her arrogant personality and shallow relationships with others. ## Plot Princess Bubblegum demonstrates to company a device capable of time travel. Lumpy Space Princess comes in and demands Bubblegum transport Lumpy back to when she and her ex were still in love. Bubblegum explains that the machine is only capable of logging molecules of a given entity. Lumpy attacks her, and Bubblegum forces her to leave. Lamenting at a bar, she meets Johnnie (Mark Proksch), a former mate at their secondary school. Johnnie confesses his anxiety regarding a scheduled interview with Bubblegum for a business venture. Lumpy advises that he fix his posture as to appear more confident. Johnnie thanks Lumpy for her advice and invites her to his complex. Looking through Johnnie's record collection, Lumpy Space Princess finds a copy of Frank Zappa's album Apostrophe (') and plays a joke by putting the album cover (displaying Zappa's face) in front of her own face. As a result of their pleasant evening, the two fall in love and share good nights. When Johnnie finds Lumpy absent in the morning, he suspects that she has abandoned him. Much to his relief, he finds her waiting for breakfast in his kitchen. When he returns from the interview, he reveals he has been invited to a separate meeting with Bubblegum at her castle. Lumpy asks that she appear with him, but Johnnie says the meeting is private. Supposing Bubblegum has stolen his heart, Lumpy leaves in a fit of rage. Delivering a monologue on the passion necessary for love, Lumpy hurls a Molotov cocktail and hot-wiring a gas truck into the castle. Bubblegum considers its impact an attack on her kingdom and tells Johnnie to hide at the foot of their desk. When Lumpy finds Johnnie, she uses the device on him, attempting to revert him to when he loved her. Johnnie disappears; when Bubblegum figures out what has happened, she informs Lumpy that by failing to log his molecules, he no longer exists as part of their universe. To avoid having to grieve, Lumpy asks Bubblegum to use the device, properly, on her. Erased of her memory past her attacking Bubblegum, Lumpy storms out. Bubblegum pours herself a drink. ## Production This episode is the forty-ninth from the fifth season of Adventure Time. Visually, the episode is framed having the important events of the story occur in its center, bordered circularly. Small polygonal creatures appear in the margins of the outer frame. Film and television critic Eric Kohn, in IndieWire, dubbed the inner frame a time bubble, absorbing the creatures Bubblegum experiments on with the time travel device. Following Lumpy having her memory erased in the episode, Johnnie appears in the outer frame. "Bad Timing" was storyboarded by Pendleton Ward and Kent Osborne; the episode's plotline was developed by Ward, Osborne, Jack Pendarvis, and Adam Muto. The creator of Adventure Time, Ward resigned from his occupation as its runner during production of the season. Osborne is the head of story. Alluding to the episode, for Hulu, Muto and Osborne summarized it as Lumpy confounding the concept of time travel. The writers related the episode to "one of those situations where you run into someone from high school and you're like, 'Woah, why didn't I ever notice you before? Alluded to in this episode, the one it precedes involves time travel as well. ## Release and reception Cartoon Network originally aired "Bad Timing" on March 3, 2014. Over a million and a half people saw the episode live on broadcast. Television critic Emily Nussbaum gave this episode praise in The New Yorker, comparing it to a fairy tale characterized by laughter and sorrow. Kohn called its mood happy yet miserable the same, evoking more emotions as a whole than even the preceding episode. The A.V. Club writer Oliver Sava gave it an A grade, finding it, like Kohn, emotionally intense. Kohn praised the episode for supplying Lumpy, a usually arrogant character, with a tragic circumstance. Sava saw the character as more explored that way. Nussbaum, who considered the episode proof of her intricacy as a character, wrote that Lumpy appropriately shows pathos. Sava specifically lauded the monologue delivered by Lumpy for showing her consistent strength that makes her so admirable. He further praised how the episode was capable of condensing mature topics for children the show is aimed at in a humorous way. Kohn opined the episode helms the "waters of eroticism" responsibly. In the Adventure Time–dedicated podcast Conversation Parade, hosted by John Moe and Open Mike Eagle, Moe found Johnnie written so "incredibly complicated, whimsy, and sad" that he performed – with the direction of guest Osborne – some of his lines on the podcast. Kohn regarded its visuals as the pinnacle of the show. Sava wrote that the notion of time being a flat circle could have inspired the circular shape of the inner frame. He noted the use of color beyond the circle as a way to convey the many emotions evoked for the whole of the episode. Ignoring this device, Sava saw its use as humorous diversions while it contributed to the splendor. Nussbaum described the creatures appearing in the outer frame as annotative and a mute chorus, suggesting they live in a parallel universe of both connection and isolation. The episode was later released on DVD twice, first in the year of that broadcast, as part of the Princess Day box set, and later in 2015, as part of a box set for the complete fifth season. Home video critic Justin Remer called "Bad Timing" "surprisingly devastating" in DVD Talk. Kohn summed up the episode's climax as the pièce de résistance of Adventure Time. ## Explanatory notes
9,920,200	Ontario Highway 98	1,159,923,067	Former Ontario provincial highway	[ "County roads in Essex County, Ontario", "Former Ontario provincial highways" ]	King's Highway 98, commonly referred to as Highway 98, was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario, designated as part of the provincial highway system between 1939 and 1971. The route travelled through the northern part of Essex County and through south-central Chatham-Kent, extending 96.3 kilometres (59.8 mi) from Windsor to Blenheim. Since 1998, it has been known as Essex County Road 46 between Windsor and Tilbury, and Chatham-Kent Road 8 between Tilbury and Blenheim. Between Windsor and Tilbury, Highway 98 followed what was the original route of Highway 2, and later Highway 2A. After being assigned a unique route number in 1939, it was extended east to Blenheim in 1941. The purpose of Highway 98 within the provincial highway network was superseded by Highway 401, which was opened in sections between Windsor and London from 1957 to 1964. Consequently, it was transferred to Essex and Kent counties in 1970 and 1971. ## Route description Highway 98 travelled from Windsor to Blenheim via Maidstone, Tilbury, Merlin and Charing Cross. The former route of Highway 98 is entirely urbanised to approximately 2 km (1.2 mi) east of the Highway 401 interchange. East of that point, the highway is almost exclusively surrounded by flat farmland outside of the communities that dot its length. Two conservation areas are located along the highway, both of which are maintained by the Essex Region Conservation Authority: Maidstone Conservation Area and Big O Conservation Area. It is known by various names, including Howard Avenue, Provincial Road, Middle Road and Middle Line; as well as by various designations: Essex County Road 46 and Chatham-Kent Road 8. Prior to 1966, the route began in downtown Windsor at the intersection of Ouellette Avenue and Riverside Drive. That intersection also served as the terminus for Highway 3B, Highway 18, and Highway 39; Highway 2 continued through the intersection to meet Highway 3 at the Detroit–Windsor tunnel. Highway 2, Highway 3B, Highway 39 and Highway 98 travelled southeast concurrently along Ouellette Avenue to Tecumseh Road, at which point Highway 3B branched west along that road while the others turned east. At Howard Avenue, Highway 39 continued east while Highway 2 and Highway 98 turned south. They then travelled concurrently to Cabana Road / Division Road, where Highway 2 split onto Division Road and Highway 98 onto Provincial Road. Highway 98 left Windsor as it encountered an interchange with Highway 401 (Exit 14). It travelled southeast, parallel to and north of Highway 3, to Maidstone. There, the highway curved and became Middle Road. It followed this road east, travelling through the communities of Pleasant Park, North Woodslee and Ruscom Station before curving northeast and through Comber. It curved east briefly before turning back northeast and skirting the southern edge of Tilbury. At the intersection of Queen Street South and Wheatley Road it left Essex County and entered what is now the municipality of Chatham-Kent. Continuing east, now as Middle Line, the route encountered the communities of Valetta, Stewart and Merlin before curving northeast. It bisected South Buxton before encountering Charing Cross and turning east. It continued for a short distance into Blenheim, where it ended at Highway 3 (Talbot Street). ## History ### Predecessor Highway 98 was first assigned in 1939 out of a route renumbering scheme. However, the route it would follow was already maintained by the Department of Public Highway (DPHO), predecessor to the modern Ministry of Transportation of Ontario, as early as 1920. Although the rest of the route which later became Highway 2, from London to the Quebec boundary, was easily decided upon, the section west of London became a contentious local issue. Cities including Sarnia, St. Thomas, Leamington, Chatham, Tilbury, Windsor, and even London itself, as well as numerous road and business associations, lobbied the provincial government to take over certain roads that provided the greatest benefit to them. London and St. Thomas in particular insisted that "the Provincial Highway" follow the Longwood Road or the Talbot Road, respectively. In the end, the province chose to utilise both the Longwood and Talbot roads, creating an entire network of highways in the process. In April 1920, the DPHO assumed control of several roads connecting Windsor with London via Maidstone, Tilbury and Chatham as part of "the Provincial Highway". The Provincial Highway was assigned a number — Highway 2 — during the summer of 1925. It travelled concurrently with the International Highway — Highway 3 — from the former ferry docks at Riverside Drive and Ouellette Avenue. It then followed Ouellette Avenue south to Tecumseh Road, where it jogged west and turned south onto Dougall Avenue, then onto Howard Avenue, and east along Talbot Road. At Maidstone, the concurrency ended, with Highway 2 branching northeast along Malden Road and east on Middle Road. This arrangement remained in place until the opening of the Ambassador Bridge on November 15, 1929, which resulted in several modifications to the highway network within Essex County. ### Renumberings In anticipation of the opening of the Ambassador Bridge, as well as the nearby Detroit–Windsor tunnel, Windsor and the surrounding townships sought road improvements between Windsor and Maidstone to alleviate traffic along Talbot Road and bypass or separate several level crossings of the Michigan Central Railway (MCR) beginning in early 1929. The province chose to designate a new right-of-way adjacent to and north of the MCR in July of that year, and spent the next several months constructing the cut-off (now known as Provincial Road) from Howard Avenue to north of Maidstone. By 1930, Highway 2 had been rerouted to begin at the ferry docks, following Ouellette Avenue to Tecumseh Road, then east to and south along Howard Avenue; the short segment near Maidstone became Highway 2A. Meanwhile, the province set out to build a third highway into Windsor. Essex County had designated County Road 19 along Cabana Road (now Division Road) and Baseline Road to Tilbury on April 19, 1928, and soon thereafter the DPHO promised to take over the route as a new provincial highway. Highway 18 was officially designated on June 11, 1930 along the route, while construction was already underway on a gentle curve between Provincial Road and the new highway, which was completed on July 14, 1931. Between then and early 1932, several more changes were made to the highway system. Since the route of Highway 18 was shorter than the route of Highway 2 between Windsor and Tilbury, the newly renamed Department of Highways (DHO) renumbered Highway 18 as Highway 2 in February 1932, while the old route of Highway 2 became Highway 2A. In 1939, the province instituted a change to its "numbering" policy in which lettered suffixes would only be used for short feeder routes and not for long distance routes. Consequently, Highway 2A became Highway 98 effective March 18, 1939. Taking inspiration from a program first carried out in Welland County in the summer of 1931 by the Rose Highway Association, the Essex County Tourist Association and Essex County Automobile Club began providing rose bushes to property owners along the route at reduced costs, gaining Highway 98 the nickname "The Rose Trail". ### Extension, improvements and replacement Highway 98 was extended east through Kent County to Blenheim along Kent County Road 8 on April 30, 1941, increasing its length by 39.0 km (24.2 mi). The short section of Highway 98 along Queen Street through Tilbury was redesignated as Highway 98B, but was never signed as such. Initially, the new section of Highway 98 was paved through the village of Merlin as well as between Charing Cross and Blenheim, while the remainder was gravel-surfaced. Paving operations resumed following World War II, with the section between Merlin and Charing Cross being paved in 1946. The last remaining gravel section, between Tilbury and Merlin, was paved in 1950. Construction of Highway 401 in the Essex county began in the early 1950s, with the new "superhighway" opening in segments as it was completed. While the section from Highway 98 to west of Tilbury was opened on August 15, 1957, steel shortages would delay the completion of the entrances into Windsor until June 9, 1958. A bypass around Tilbury opened November 20, 1961. East of Tilbury, the highway was opened one carriageway at a time; the westbound lanes opened to Highway 21 on September 20, 1963, while the eastbound lanes opened as far east as Bloomfield Road south of Chatham on September 17, 1964, and several months later to the Kent County boundary on December 7. Following the completion of Highway 401, the DHO commissioned the Southwestern Ontario Highway Planning Study, which was completed in July 1966. It examined traffic patterns and determined ideal travel lines and redundant routes. The new freeway had shifted the majority of long-distance traffic onto it, and severely reduced volume on parallel routes (Highways 2, 3, 39, 18, and 98). Accordingly, the DHO sought to divest itself of the costs of maintaining these roads. The portion of Highway 98 east of Tilbury was transferred to Kent County on May 21, 1970, in exchange for the DHO assuming Highway 40 between Chatham and Blenheim. The portion between Windsor and Tilbury was supposed to be transferred to Essex County on June 1, 1970, but was delayed until April 1, 1971. This removed Highway 98 from the provincial highway system entirely. The former highway has since been known as Essex County Road 46 west of Tilbury, and Kent County Road 8 or Chatham-Kent Municipal Road 8 east of Tilbury. ## Major intersections ## See also - List of Essex County Roads
43,655,965	Logan (film)	1,173,330,285	2017 film directed by James Mangold	[ "2010s American films", "2010s English-language films", "2010s action adventure films", "2010s psychological drama films", "2010s superhero films", "2017 drama films", "2017 films", "2017 science fiction action films", "2017 science fiction films", "20th Century Fox films", "American action adventure films", "American chase films", "American drama road movies", "American dystopian films", "American films about Alzheimer's disease", "American psychological drama films", "American science fiction adventure films", "American sequel films", "American superhero films", "American survival films", "Contemporary Western films", "Fiction about familicide", "Film spin-offs", "Films about cloning", "Films about death", "Films about father–daughter relationships", "Films about old age", "Films about orphans", "Films about telekinesis", "Films based on works by Mark Millar", "Films directed by James Mangold", "Films produced by Lauren Shuler Donner", "Films produced by Simon Kinberg", "Films scored by Marco Beltrami", "Films set in 2029", "Films set in El Paso, Texas", "Films set in Mexico", "Films set in North Dakota", "Films set in Oklahoma", "Films set in Texas", "Films set in the United States", "Films set in the future", "Films shot in Louisiana", "Films shot in Mississippi", "Films shot in New Mexico", "Films shot in New Orleans", "Films with screenplays by James Mangold", "Films with screenplays by Michael Green (writer)", "Films with screenplays by Scott Frank", "Human experimentation in fiction", "IMAX films", "Live-action films based on Marvel Comics", "Metafictional works", "Superhero drama films", "TSG Entertainment films", "Wolverine (film series) films" ]	Logan is a 2017 American superhero film starring Hugh Jackman as the titular character. It is the tenth film in the X-Men film series and the third and final installment in the Wolverine trilogy following X-Men Origins: Wolverine (2009) and The Wolverine (2013). The film, which takes inspiration from the "Old Man Logan" comics storyline by Mark Millar and Steve McNiven, follows an aged Wolverine and an extremely ill Charles Xavier who must defend a young mutant named Laura from the Reavers led by Donald Pierce and Zander Rice. The film is produced by 20th Century Fox, Marvel Entertainment, TSG Entertainment and The Donners' Company, and distributed by 20th Century Fox. It is directed by James Mangold, who co-wrote the screenplay with Michael Green and Scott Frank, from a story by Mangold. In addition to Jackman, the film also stars Patrick Stewart, Richard E. Grant, Boyd Holbrook, Stephen Merchant, and introducing Dafne Keen in her film debut as Laura. Logan was designed to look like the near-future, with slight updates to technology and the social environment and was written with a dark and violent tone closer to the western genre than the traditional superhero genre. Principal photography began in Louisiana on May 2, 2016, and wrapped on August 13, 2016, in New Mexico. The locations used for Logan were mainly in Louisiana, New Mexico, and Mississippi. The film was given the false title of Juarez to lower visibility during production. Logan premiered at the 67th Berlin International Film Festival on February 17, 2017, and was theatrically released in the United States on March 3, 2017. The film received critical acclaim, with strong praise for its emotional depth, Mangold's direction, action sequences, screenplay, uncompromising tone, thematic profundity, and the performances of Jackman, Keen and Stewart. It became the best-reviewed film in the X-Men franchise, with many critics calling it one of the greatest superhero films ever made, and it was selected by the National Board of Review as one of the top ten films of 2017. It was nominated for Best Adapted Screenplay at the 90th Academy Awards, becoming the first live-action superhero film to be nominated for screenwriting. It grossed \$619.2 million worldwide and became the third-highest-grossing R-rated film at the time of its release. ## Plot In 2029, no mutants have been born in 25 years, and an aging Logan suffers as his healing ability is failing. Working as a limousine driver in El Paso, Texas, he and mutant tracker Caliban take care of 97-year-old Charles Xavier, founder of the X-Men, in an abandoned smelting plant in northern Mexico. Xavier suffers from dementia that causes him to have destructive telepathic seizures, one of which injured 600 people and killed several X-Men the year prior. Logan reluctantly agrees to escort Gabriela López, a former nurse for biotechnology corporation Alkali-Transigen, and a young girl named Laura to Eden, a supposed refuge near the American-Canadian border. After finding Gabriela dead, Logan is confronted by her killer Donald Pierce, who is Transigen's cyborg chief of security. Pierce is looking for Laura, who has stowed away in Logan's limo and has powers similar to his. She, Logan, and Xavier escape from Pierce and his Reavers, but Caliban is captured. Pierce tortures Caliban into tracking Laura. Xavier and Logan watch a video on Gabriela's phone, revealing that Transigen created Laura and other children from mutant DNA to become weapons. The children proved challenging to control and were to be executed, but Gabriela and other nurses helped some escape. Xavier reveals to Logan that Laura was created from Logan's DNA and calls her Logan's daughter. In Oklahoma City, Logan discovers that Eden appears in Laura's X-Men comic and tells her it is fictional. The Reavers arrive, but Xavier has a seizure that incapacitates everyone except Logan and Laura, who kill the attackers and inject Xavier with his medication. As they flee, Dr. Zander Rice, the head of Transigen, arrives to help Pierce. Logan, Laura, and Xavier help farmer Will Munson and his family after a traffic incident, accepting an offer of dinner at their home, where Logan drives off enforcers from a corporate farm. Rice unleashes X-24, a mindless clone of Logan in his prime created as Transigen's ultimate weapon. X-24 murders Will's family and Xavier before capturing Laura. Caliban sets off grenades, killing himself and several Reavers but only injuring Pierce. Logan is outmatched by X-24, but Will pins X-24 with his truck before dying from his injuries. Logan and Laura escape with Xavier's body. After burying Xavier, Logan passes out. Laura takes him to a doctor and persuades him to prove that the site in North Dakota is not Eden. There, they find Rictor and other Transigen children preparing to cross into Canada. Laura finds an adamantium bullet that Logan has kept since he escaped from the Weapon X facility, which he once considered using to commit suicide. Logan decides not to accompany them to Laura's dismay. When the Reavers ambush the children, Logan takes an overdose of a serum given to him by Rictor that temporarily enhances his healing abilities and boosts his strength. With Laura's help, he slaughters most of the Reavers before the serum wears off. As Pierce holds Rictor at gunpoint, Rice tells Logan, who killed Rice's father years ago at the Weapon X facility, that no new mutants have been born due to genetically engineered crops created by Transigen and distributed through the world's food supply. Logan, having found a gun, shoots Rice dead and injures Pierce. X-24 fights Logan as the children combine their powers to kill Pierce and the remaining Reavers. Rictor uses his powers to flip a truck onto X-24, but X-24 frees himself and impales Logan on a large tree branch. Laura loads Logan's revolver with the adamantium bullet and shoots X-24 in the head, killing him. Near death, Logan tells Laura not to become the weapon that she was made to be, and after she tearfully acknowledges him as her father, Logan dies peacefully in Laura's arms. She and the children bury Logan, and before they depart, Laura tilts the cross on his grave marker to create an X, honoring him as the last of the X-Men. ## Cast - Hugh Jackman as James Howlett / Logan / Wolverine: The X-Man and a physically enhanced mutant with accelerated healing. Charles Xavier's former pupil and Laura's biological father, dealing with his age and ailment. He is one of Charles Xavier's caregivers, alongside Caliban. Mangold spoke of Logan's age influencing his regenerative capabilities, which he stated may no longer produce soft skin, "so we imagined he heals quickly, still, but it leaves a scar. The simple idea was that his body would start to get a little more ravaged with a kind of tattooing of past battles, lacerations that remain of previous conflicts." On the second page of the screenplay, Mangold spoke of Logan as "... he's older now and it's clear his abilities aren't what they once were. He's fading on the inside and his diminished healing factor keeps him in a constant state of chronic pain—hence booze as a painkiller." In 2015, Jackman requested fan input for the direction Wolverine's story should go in the next film while seeming to confirm that the project would serve as his farewell to Logan. To prepare for his role, Jackman ate a minimum of six meals per day when working with trainer Mike Ryan. Ryan stated that an average workout session for Jackman lasts up to three hours, beginning at 4:00 a.m. Jackman stated, "It's going to be very different. Very different in tone and hopefully different to anything we've done." Regarding the more personal tone, Jackman noted, "That's always been really his dilemma, coming to terms with who he is". Jackman has also explained that comedian Jerry Seinfeld was indirectly responsible for his decision to stop playing Logan after 17 years, with Jackman stating, "I was having a chat with [Seinfeld] about a year ago ... he was talking about why he finished Seinfeld ... He said he'd always had this feeling and belief that you never know when either your energy or the audience's energy is going to dip over into people [saying] 'Oh, please go.'" Jackman accepted a pay reduction to ensure that the film would be produced to receive an R-rating. Additionally, Jackman portrays Logan's clone, X-24. - Patrick Stewart as Charles Xavier / Professor X: A mutant who is the world's most powerful telepath, who is founder and former leader of the now-defunct X-Men and formerly known as Professor X. Charles's telepathic abilities have become unstable due to age (over 90 years) and an unknown brain disease, and at times, he does not recognize Logan. During the events of Logan, Xavier is cared for by Logan and Caliban. Regarding Xavier and the themes of aging and loneliness, Mangold said, "We've seen these characters in action, saving the universe. But what happens when you're in retirement and that career is over? ... The really interesting thing to me, or a place to dig that hadn't been dug, was the idea of mutants when they're no longer useful to the world, or even sure if they can do what they used to do. Their powers are diminished like all of ours are by age ... Our Charles is a very sweet character in this film. I think he's always been an incredibly sweet character. With the addition of his own physical fragility in this movie, he becomes an incredibly powerful paternal figure in the movie. Logan is more of a reluctant one, I think you can easily guess." Stewart remarked that "... this is probably the end of this franchise for me. But the thing about science fiction and fantasy is that you can never, ever say it's the end, it's over." - Richard E. Grant as Dr. Zander Rice: The surgical head of Transigen, whose father was killed by Logan during his escape from Weapon X Headquarters at Alkali Lake. On the character of Rice, Mangold stated, "He's the puppet master behind Pierce and the Reavers, and has a much larger role in the sense that he's actually the kind of brilliant mind that is trying to grow mutants." - Boyd Holbrook as Pierce: Transigen's relentless, calculating, and intense head of security and leader of the militant Reavers, who is sent to retrieve Laura, which brings him into conflict with Wolverine. Holbrook said of the character, "He's an innovative engineer and he's a big fan of Wolverine. He just wants to hang out with him ... There's a lot of surprising stuff in it." Mangold praised Holbrook's performance, saying that "[he] is just a fabulous actor. I wanted this film to feel intimate and real and truthfully acted, and I wanted very much to break away from the kind of bloated feeling I've gotten from a lot of comic-book movies." - Stephen Merchant as Caliban: An albino mutant who can sense and track other mutants, who is helping Logan take care of Xavier. On Merchant taking the role, Mangold mentioned, "I'm always interested to find the thing that looks most interesting on the actors. Stephen is a huge man. One of the things that is so wonderful filming with him for a character like this is that he's a good six inches taller than Logan, and huge over Patrick. The little kid in the movie would come up to basically his knee. So there's a wonderful sense of scale—but he has heart too." Mangold concluded by stating, "... So that was a wonderful energy to enter the movie, and someone who instead of turning things into their own energy kind of joined ours." A younger Caliban was previously portrayed by Tómas Lemarquis in X-Men: Apocalypse. - Dafne Keen as Laura / X-23: A mysterious young girl, who is "very much" like Logan as well as Logan's biological daughter. She is also subject "X-23". On Keen's portrayal of Laura, Mangold mentioned, "If anyone could steal a movie from [Jackman], it would be Dafne. She carries, all the time, a slight strangeness." In an interview with Digital Spy, Mangold stated, "... [Keen] was 11 years old when we were shooting. She's a remarkable kid. Her parents are actors, and she's kind of a very modern kid. Very physically capable. Incredibly gifted as an actress. I mean, it was a huge risk for Fox to allow me to make a movie where the third point of the triangle was built upon someone so young." Mangold stated that the worldwide search for an actress to portray Laura was one in which he was seeking "someone who was bilingual because I wanted a Latina kid—one who was between 10 and 12, and was a credible child." He later stated of Laura that: "She's an 11-year-old girl equipped with all the volatility, instability, mood swings, shadows and potential violence of our hero." Co-writer Scott Frank pushed for the character to speak as little as possible when he joined the project to avoid making her into a typical kid sidekick, explaining, "I read a few other drafts of the script that Jim worked on, and in all those drafts she was talking from the beginning and had an attitude. I thought that was a giant mistake." 11 year old Nayah Murphy served as Dafne's stunt double. Millie Bobby Brown auditioned for the role before Keen was cast. Logan was Keen's film debut. Eriq La Salle, Elise Neal, and Elizabeth Rodriguez appear as Will Munson, Kathryn Munson, and Gabriela, respectively. Doris Morgado, David Kallaway, Han Soto, Jason Genao, Krzysztof Soszynski, and Alison Fernandez appear as Maria, Rhodes, Valet, Rictor, Mohawk, and Delilah, respectively. In the commentary to X-Men: Apocalypse, director Bryan Singer had stated that his film's post-credits scene would directly connect with the on-screen debut of X-Men antagonist Mister Sinister in Logan. In January 2017, Mangold stated that the character would not appear in this film. However, the DNA from several mutants, including Logan, in that film was used to create the clones that are seen in this film. ## Production ### Development In November 2013, 20th Century Fox initiated discussions over another solo film starring Wolverine, with James Mangold in negotiations to write the treatment for the film and Lauren Shuler Donner returning to produce under The Donners' Company. At the time, Hugh Jackman neither confirmed nor denied his reprisal of Logan in a new film. Jackman clarified that his lapsing contract with Fox, which reportedly would need to be renegotiated after X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014), did not mean he was leaving the franchise, as he had been working movie-by-movie since X2 (2003). He also stated, "I do want to do it with Jim and with [producer] Lauren Shuler-Donner because we had such a great experience. I'm really proud of The Wolverine (2013)." Later in the month, Mangold announced that the pre-production aspect of the film had not yet begun, nor the writing process, though he furthered this by stating, "... I would say I'm not there yet. But I have taken finger to key. Let's say that. There's been typing. And ideas. And talking amongst all the principles." Shortly after the release of The Wolverine, Mangold spoke of a potential sequel with the aim of not converting it into a "Will the world survive?" film, while also stressing his need "... not to make the same picture again." In December 2013, Jackman spoke of nearing the end of his tenure as the character, while stating that the film was in the very early stages of development. Jackman also revealed that Mangold and he had begun speaking of potential ideas, adding, "... Jim Mangold and I were literally on the phone last night talking about ideas but there is no script and no writer yet so it's a way off." Mangold would later reveal that Jackman was very involved in developing the story, saying, "Hugh and I have been friends for almost twenty years now, and he was there every step of the way. For Hugh and I, the first goal was to construct something more intimate. Hugh often brought up The Wrestler and Unforgiven as examples. I used those references as well as others. I pitched to both Hugh and the studio that I had an idea for an extremely bloody, existential Little Miss Sunshine." By March 2014, a decision was made to begin shooting after Bryan Singer's X-Men: Apocalypse (2016), with the tentative plan to shoot the films back-to-back, with producer Hutch Parker stating, "... the goal will be X-Men: Apocalypse for 2016, which means at the latest [filming begins] in summer 2015, and then the same thing with Wolverine, either before or after, but based on the script." Also in March, 20th Century Fox set a release date of March 3, 2017, Mangold boarded the project as director, Jackman signed on to reprise his role, and David James Kelly was hired to pen the screenplay. In April 2014, Jackman spoke about his ambitious feelings for the character of Logan while mentioning that they can go further than what they achieved in The Wolverine. Jackman also expressed his feelings of finality with portraying the character of Logan, while in terms of storyline, he explained that nothing had been decided as of yet. Jackman concluded by highlighting that the success of the script development would determine whether Jackman would return at all: "I haven't signed on. I'm genuinely at that point where unless it's better than the last one I'm not going to do it. I think it has to be better. I can still see where we can improve on the last one. I love the intimacy of that story, I liked the small stuff, I liked that it was a little unexpected." In February 2015, Patrick Stewart spoke of discussions about the third Wolverine film, centering around a team-up between Jackman's Wolverine and himself as Charles Xavier, with Stewart stating to Marc Mohan that "... we have been talking about a Wolverine movie, which would team Hugh Jackman and myself together ... That would be a very different sort of X-Men from the four movies that I've already done." By April 2015, Michael Green had taken over screenwriting duties, with Mangold still actively overseeing the script development process. In September 2015, Jackman spoke of the writers being halfway through the script, and that the story would delve into the relationship between Wolverine and Professor X, to which he added, "I think it's a really important relationship but I want to see signs of that quasi-father/son sort of relationship that has not been seen before, and sides of particularly Professor X that have not been seen before." Jackman spoke of Mangold's plan to start filming the next year, though he expressed uncertainty as to filming locations. Also in September, Mark Millar, creative consultant for Fox, confirmed that Mangold's film would be a loose adaptation of the "Old Man Logan" story he had written in 2008, something that was hinted at earlier by Jackman. In October 2016, the title of the film was announced as Logan. In January 2016, Jackman confirmed that Mangold had a full screenplay, albeit not complete. The following month, Liev Schreiber expressed interest in returning to portray Victor Creed / Sabretooth, with Jackman himself mentioning Mangold's vision to Schreiber. After the film's release, it was revealed by Jackman that originally the script had the character play a role in the film, but that Sabretooth was excluded from the final screenplay. By April 2016, Mangold had chosen Boyd Holbrook to portray the main antagonist of the movie, the chief of security for a global corporation that is pursuing Wolverine. Also by April, Richard E. Grant was cast as a villainous mad scientist, and Stephen Merchant had also been cast. In May, Eriq Lasalle and Elise Neal were cast supporting roles, and Elizabeth Rodriguez entered negotiations for a small but key role. Also in May, producer Simon Kinberg revealed that filming had already begun, and confirmed that the movie would be R-rated; regarding the setting and tonality, he stated, "It takes place in the future, and as you and others have reported, it is an R-rated movie. It's violent, it's kind of like a western in its tone. It's just a very cool, different film." The film included some vintage X-Men comic books, used both to advance the plot and as a metafictional reference. The director clarified that Marvel Comics allowed this on the condition that they could use actual characters and designs, but not use any real comic book issues. As a result, the comic book covers and pages seen in the film were made specifically for it, by writer Joe Quesada and artist Dan Panosian. Mangold commented that "The reality was that, like in Unforgiven, when [Clint] Eastwood runs into Richard Harris, who's writing these fictional accounts of the great Western heroes, or Pat Garrett in Billy the Kid, where you've got these aging heroes who kind of are twilight versions of their own legends — I think that idea, of being a kind of celebrity, or like a sports star long past your heyday, was really interesting for me to investigate with this kind of world." Panosian made 10 fake comic book covers, and interior arts were unused. He pointed that the arts had to resemble the style used in the Bronze Age of Comic Books, and pointed out that they also served to contrast their campy style with the darker tone of the live-action film itself. He said that "The colors and art itself juxtaposed against the raw and savage world in the film capture just how much innocence has been lost over time". ### Filming On March 5, 2015, James Mangold anticipated that filming would begin "early next year." Prior to filming, the film was given the false title of Juarez to lower the visibility of production, but the local media eventually uncovered the ruse. On March 1, 2016, The Times-Picayune had confirmed that Mangold's film was preparing to shoot in New Orleans, Louisiana, with a starting schedule of May. Producers Kinberg, Shuler Donner and Parker chose to film in Louisiana because of its popularity in filmmaking locations, as well as its filming incentive, which includes a 40% tax credit for movie productions, though it requires a minimum expenditure of US\$300,000. Principal photography was confirmed to have begun in New Orleans, with an original shooting schedule occurring from April 25 to August 13, 2016, albeit shooting was altered to start on May 2, 2016. On May 23, 2016, filming took place at the NASA Michoud Plant in New Orleans East, with Jackman being spotted, not far from Slidell, shooting a fight scene outdoors on the property. On May 26, 2016, the intersection of LA 16 at US 51 was closed for a time due to filming, with local store fronts donning faux signage to transform Amite City, and east of Amite near Bell Road. It was revealed that scenes were filmed prior in Husser on May 25, 2016, with a scheduled daytime shoot to occur at the Greenlawn Cemetery in Hammond on May 27, 2016. Filming took place from June 9, 2016, until June 10, 2016, in New Orleans and Metairie, respectively. On June 1, 2016, it was confirmed that 20th Century Fox had applied to film exterior scenes for Juarez on Louisiana Highway 15 between Ferriday and Clayton from June 12, 2016, up until June 16, 2016, at the Ferriday Plaza Shopping Center, while a portion of U.S. Route 425 between Ferriday and Clayton would be closed for a five-day period in connection with Fox's production. On June 1, 2016, The Concordia Sentinel revealed that Sicily Island High School and a house in Sicily Island would be used in the production, while a crash scene would be shot on U.S. Route 425 just outside of Ferriday. Producers Kinberg, Shuler Donner and Parker chose to film in Ferriday, Louisiana, because of Concordia Parish's beautiful countryside and green cornfields. On June 16, 2016, Juarez was originally scheduled to move on toward Sicily Island, however, additional periods of shooting were added. Natchez, Mississippi, had been chosen by producers of Juarez as the next filming location, for an upcoming scene which required the casting truck drivers, that would be filmed between June 14 up until June 28, 2016. On July 12, 2016, the Albuquerque Journal confirmed that Juarez would move on to its third major filming location—New Mexico, which ran through August in Albuquerque, Rio Rancho, Abiquiú, Tierra Amarilla and Chama. The New Mexico Film Office revealed that the production employed about 130 New Mexican crew members and two New Mexican cast members, as well as 600 extras throughout the production, the film office stated. On July 17, 2016, it was reported that the production of Juarez was in the process of casting to work on a scene filmed on July 22, 2016, in Albuquerque, New Mexico. On July 25, 2016, it was reported that filming had begun in the Northern Meadows neighborhood of Rio Rancho, while a few miles further down King Boulevard there was an elaborate set built with a toppled water tower, that would be used for exterior shots until June 27, 2016. On August 11, 2016, it was reported that the production of Juarez were in the process of seeking worn out cars to work on an upcoming scene filmed on August 12, 2016, in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Principal photography was confirmed to have ended in New Mexico on August 13, 2016, with an altered shooting schedule occurring from May 2 to August 13, 2016. Post-production began subsequent to filming closure on August 23, 2016. ### Post-production Film editor Michael McCusker was finishing work on Mangold's Logan, during the period of October 7, 2016, wherein he spoke of going through the dailies and breaking them down, and figuring out the structure of one scene which he described as a "complicated, multi-component scene". McCusker spoke of the task being rather time-consuming, on the front end, albeit stating, "I am looking at the back end experience with [Mangold] as the more important experience. I don't want to be searching for stuff for him, I want to be working towards getting the cut right." McCusker concluded by stating that another editor on Logan has use for post-production. Chas Jarrett was the overall visual effects supervisor and visual effects company Image Engine worked on most of the visual effects on Logan. ## Music In July 2016, Cliff Martinez was announced as the composer of Logan's musical score. In December 2016, Mangold announced that Marco Beltrami, who had previously collaborated with Mangold on 3:10 to Yuma (2007) and The Wolverine (2013), would take over from Martinez and score Logan instead. Beltrami's musical score received critical acclaim, praising the composition and the minimalistic approach. Jonathan Broxton, in his critical review, wrote "there will be a significant disconnect between it and those who grew up listening to Michael Kamen, John Ottman, and John Powell's X-Men scores, because Beltrami's Logan is just so different from anything we have heard in a super-hero movie before. On the one hand, this is commendable; bucking expectations and taking an entirely new approach to a well-defined musical genre is not an easy thing to do, but that's exactly what Beltrami has done here. On the other hand, listeners will still need to be comfortable with music that shifts between being dissonant, ambient, and jazzy, and which has more in common with the work of Ennio Morricone, Jerry Fielding, Elliot Goldenthal, and Bernard Herrmann, than anyone who has scored a super-hero movie before. If you're cool with that, then Logan will find a way to at least entertain you and allow you to experience its unusual tonal palette. If not, then you may find yourself recoiling in horror like Caliban from the sun, or experiencing a psychic attack of your own." ## Influences The film takes visual, tonal and thematic inspiration from classic western and noir cinema, with director James Mangold having stated that Logan's influences included "visual reference points" of cinema, citing Shane (1953), The Cowboys (1972), Paper Moon (1973), The Gauntlet (1977), Unforgiven (1992), Little Miss Sunshine (2006), and The Wrestler (2008). Mangold was also inspired by The Dark Knight trilogy, saying "It seemed to me that the only films of this ilk that did interest me, that I did admire, or to use Chris Nolan's movies as an example, the ones that have really moved me beyond just the spectacle. There was a very clear decision to apply a film genre to the material, if that makes any sense."" The film also takes tropes and themes of the cyberpunk, with focus put on automation affecting the world of a near future. Mangold spoke of visual framing, while noting that he does not necessarily think about the "comic-book" related sort, instead highlighting the variety of stylistic influences that went into Logan. These influences include film noir framings and classic Hollywood filmmaking styles, as well as the Germanic expressionist filmmaking style of the early twentieth century, which Mangold stated has a commonality with comic-book art. Mangold highlighted "Strong foregrounds, playing things in depth: you have to make an image say more within that one image." Using the image of Logan at a funeral as an example of his stylistic logic, Mangold concluded by mentioning the aspects within modern filmmaking, primarily everything in close-up format. For Logan, his aim was to set frames that are descriptive, and evocative of comic-book panels and classical filmmaking. ## Release ### Theatrical Logan premiered at the 67th Berlin International Film Festival on February 17, 2017, in Berlin, Germany, where it was selected to be screened out of competition alongside The Bar, Final Portrait, The Midwife, T2 Trainspotting, and Viceroy's House, before screening in the United States, where it was given a wide release on March 3, 2017. In October 2015, Fox confirmed that Logan would be released in the IMAX format. In the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom, the film was preceded by a short film, Deadpool: No Good Deed. In it, Deadpool notices a man getting robbed, and springs into action—but first has to change into his costume in a phone booth. As he is finishing up, the man is shot; the short film ends with Deadpool commenting on the strangeness of the phone booth's presence, and eating the man's ice cream. The teaser met with positive reviews. Ryan Reynolds posted an extended version of the teaser via his YouTube channel the day after the film's release. ### One Last Time promotion and future Prior to the confirmation that the then-untitled Logan would be his final appearance in the X-Men film franchise, Jackman initially denied such rumors. Jackman stated that he was inspired by Michael Keaton's performance in Birdman, and wished to portray the character of Wolverine until his death. In July 2015, Jackman posted an image of Logan giving the middle finger with a claw to his Twitter. The image, coupled with the hashtag "#OneLastTime", signified that the film would be his last appearance as Logan and officially announced his decision to stop playing the character he had been portraying for the past 17 years. Eventually it earned Jackman Guinness World Record of the 'longest career as a live-action Marvel superhero'. During an appearance on The Dr. Oz Show in May 2015, Jackman clarified the confusion over the conflicting sentiments by stating bluntly that the film would be his final portrayal of the character. In an interview with Willem Dafoe on Variety Studio: Actors on Actors Jackman revealed that Jerry Seinfeld helped convince him to quit the role during a dinner after Jackman asked him why he had decided to end the show Seinfeld. Seinfeld replied "I've always believed, you should never spend everything creatively because it's almost herculean to start up again. You should always have something in the tank," with Jackman summarising his point with "Leave the party before it gets too late kind of theory." In December 2016, Ryan Reynolds revealed that he had been trying to convince Jackman to return for a crossover Deadpool film, urging fans to "convince Hugh" and campaign online. In January 2017, Reynolds and Jackman spoke about the proposed project; Jackman stated, "I'm hesitating, because I could totally see how that's the perfect fit. But the timing may be wrong." Jackman later stated that he would not reprise the role for a team-up film, specifying that he "knew two-and-a-half years ago that [Logan] was the last one". Jackman expressed interest in continuing to play Wolverine had the character been brought into the Marvel Cinematic Universe, saying that the prospect "certainly would have made [him] pause" and citing a desire to see the character interact with the Hulk and Iron Man. Amid rumors of Disney's prospective acquisition of 20th Century Fox's film division, it was revealed such a deal would indeed allow the X-Men related characters to appear in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. During press for The Greatest Showman in December 2017, Jackman denied that he would reprise the role if the acquisition occurred. He stated that while he noted the irony and felt some initial disappointment upon learning the news, he planned on standing by his decision and wanted to see another actor portray the character in future films. In spite of his adamancy, Reynolds confirmed that Jackman would reprise his role as Logan in the third Deadpool film on September 27, 2022. Slated for release on November 8, 2024, the film will see the characters integrated into the MCU. The following month, Jackman elaborated that he wanted to return to the role after watching Deadpool, but since Logan was already being promoted as his final time portraying the character, he felt he had to honor that sentiment and "straight-up lied" to journalists about his plans. He contacted Reynolds about reprising the role in August 2016, shortly before Reynolds met with Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige to discuss a third Deadpool film. Shortly after the announcement, Reynolds and Jackman clarified that the film is set before Logan and would not retroactively contradict Wolverine's death. As for the other principals and their prospective futures; although Patrick Stewart had stated that Logan would be the final time he played the role of Professor X, he later said that he would be willing to return to the role in Deadpool 2 or Legion. Though Legion's producers considered casting Stewart, they ultimately chose to utilize a younger version of the character portrayed by actor Harry Lloyd. Nonetheless, Stewart would go on to portray the character again in the MCU film Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness, where he played a variant of Charles Xavier who was the leader of the Illuminati before being killed by Wanda Maximoff. ### Marketing In April 2016, Fox decided not to showcase its upcoming movie releases, including Logan, at Hall H at San Diego Comic-Con, as the studio felt it could not prevent the piracy of custom trailers and exclusive footage routinely screened for fans in attendance. On October 20, 2016, 20th Century Fox released a 90-second teaser trailer to promote Logan, following a six-second sneak peek the prior day. Later that day, 20th Century Fox released an international red band version of the trailer, featuring slightly more graphic violence than the original. Empire Magazine chose the trailer as the best trailer of the year. The Hollywood Reporter's Aaron Couch praised the trailer, and stated, "If Logan delivers on the promise of this trailer, it will be a true rarity in modern superhero movie making." James Dyer of Empire heralded the trailer and its director, James Mangold, by stating: "We've had a veritable feast of great trailers ... from John Wick to Rogue One, Assassin's Creed and A Cure for Wellness. But none ..., no matter how impressive, have been quite so artfully constructed as this glorious first look at [Mangold]'s Logan." Forrest Wickman of Slate called the trailer "surprisingly mournful". ### Home media Logan was released on Blu-ray, DVD, and 4K on May 23, 2017, and was released on Digital HD on May 16, 2017. The film became available to stream on Disney+ on July 22, 2022, alongside Deadpool and Deadpool 2. ### Logan Noir On April 29, 2017, James Mangold announced via Twitter that a black-and-white version of the film entitled Logan Noir would have a limited theatrical run in U.S. theaters, an event set to begin on May 16, 2017. Mangold stated that Logan was shot as a color film with the awareness that it would play well as a black and white film. The film was re-graded and timed shot by shot for the Noir edition. This version of the film is included on the Digital HD release and also included in the DVD and Blu-ray Combo Pack. ## Reception ### Box office Logan grossed \$226.3 million in the United States and Canada and \$392.7 million in other countries for a worldwide gross of \$619.2 million, against a production budget of \$97 million. Worldwide, the film had a global debut of \$247.4 million from 82 markets, as well as the second-biggest R-rated IMAX debut, with \$20.6 million from 1,068 screens. The film grossed \$440.9 million in its first 13 days of release, surpassing the entire theatrical gross of The Wolverine (\$414.8 million). #### United States and Canada Predictions for its opening in the US and Canada were revised upwards from \$55 million to \$80 million or even higher. Fox, however, predicted an opening in the mid-\$60 million range. Some critics said the film's R rating—the second such for a X-Men film—might hinder the film's mass appeal. Two days before the film's release, ticket selling site Fandango reported that the film was outpacing all previous X-Men movies (except Deadpool) at the same point in their sales cycle. Logan was released in 4,071 theaters, the widest release for an R-rated film (breaking American Sniper's 3,888). Five hundred and eighty theatres were premium large-format screens, including 381 IMAX theaters, setting the IMAX record for an R-rated film. Logan earned \$9.5 million from Thursday night previews, which began at 7 p.m. This marked the second-biggest previews in the X-Men franchise, behind Deadpool's \$12.7 million. On its opening day, the film scored the biggest R-rated March opening, with \$33.1 million (breaking 300'''s record), as well as the third-biggest R-rated debut after Deadpool (\$47.3 million) and The Matrix Reloaded (\$37.5 million). Earning a total of \$88.4 million during its opening weekend, the film scored the biggest Wolverine movie opening, the biggest R-rated March opening, the fourth-biggest March opening, the fifth-largest X-Men opening, and the fifth-biggest R-rated opening overall (ninth in terms of inflation adjusted). It is also the biggest R-rated opening weekend that did not take place on a holiday. Additionally, Logan achieved the fifth-highest opening weekend for any 20th Century Fox film, trailing Deadpool (\$132.4 million), Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (\$108.4 million), X-Men: The Last Stand (\$102.7 million) and X-Men: Days of Future Past (\$90.8 million). About 8.2% of the total ticket sales were in Canada, with premium large formats comprising \$12.3 million (15%) from 558 screens, and IMAX comprising \$10 million (12%) of the film's total opening weekend. The opening-weekend audience was 63% males and 83% people between 18 and 44 years old. In an opening-weekend poll conducted by Fandango, 71% of responders said that more superhero films should be rated R, while 86% were interested in seeing a more violent, adult X-Men film that weekend. Furthermore, 96% said they were excited to see Hugh Jackman, 94% were intrigued to see Patrick Stewart reprise his role as Professor X, and 76% were interested in watching newcomer Dafne Keen. In its second weekend, the film dropped 56.9%, grossing \$38.1 million and finishing second at the box office behind newcomer Kong: Skull Island (\$61 million). In its third weekend, it made \$17.8 million, finishing in third behind Beauty and the Beast (\$174.8 million) and Kong: Skull Island (\$27.8 million). In its fourth weekend, it made \$10.1 million, dropping 43.1% from the previous week and finishing 5th at the box office. #### Other countries Logan was projected to open as high as \$105 million. However, US forecasters believed that it could post an even higher opening if it were to overperform in major markets—most notably China. It opened day-and-date in almost every major market except Japan, where Doraemon the Movie 2017 was released. Fox ultimately decided to postpone the film's release there in order to avoid competition. Through Sunday, the film exceeded expectations and posted a five-day opening worth \$159 million from 81 markets. This is Fox International's third-biggest launch of all time, behind X-Men: Days of Future Past (\$172 million) and Avatar (\$164 million). It debuted at No. 1 in 80 markets, surpassing Fifty Shades of Grey (\$156 million) to have the highest international opening weekend for an R-rated film. It broke the record for the biggest R-rated IMAX release ever and the biggest 2D IMAX opening, with \$10.6 million on 687 screens. China is the movie's best-grossing market outside America, contributing \$106 million in box office. The film was the first to feature an age-restriction warning in its marketing material, as required by a Film Promotion Law that took effect on March 1, 2017. Nevertheless, the film is still trimmed by 14 minutes, totaling 123 minutes. It is very likely that the move was due to usual censorship by the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television, because of the violence depicted. Despite such restrictions, the film managed to debut with a better-than-expected \$48.9 million, including previews, according to data from Ent Group (Fox reported \$46.3 million). This marked the second-biggest X-Men opening in the country, trailing behind only Apocalypse. Tracking showed that the film opened with 85,000 screenings on Friday, which increased to about 95,000 on Saturday and Sunday, from a 9.98 million attendance. Included within that total was \$4.4 million from 388 IMAX screens. In Brazil, it recorded the biggest opening for Fox, and the seventh-biggest opening overall, with \$8.2 million. The top openings were in China (\$46.3 million), the U.K. (\$11.4 million), Korea (\$8.2 million), and Russia (\$7.1 million). In India, the film debuted with an estimated 17 crore (\$2.5 million) net, equating to a gross of \$3.4 million, on 1,400 screens. According to Fox, that was the highest debut for any X-Men title in the territory, marginally ahead of X-Men: Apocalypse. While the debut was not enough to break any significant records, it ranked as the second-biggest opening weekend for a Hollywood release in the January–March quarter, behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. ### Critical response On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, Logan holds an approval rating of 94% based on 429 reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Hugh Jackman makes the most of his final outing as Wolverine with a gritty, nuanced performance in a violent but surprisingly thoughtful superhero action film that defies genre conventions." Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned a weighted average score of 77 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak-surveyed audiences gave the film a rare five out of five. Some reviewers noted Logan as one of the greatest superhero films. The film received critical acclaim, with strong praise for its emotional depth, Mangold's direction, action sequences, screenplay, uncompromising tone, thematic profundity, and the performances of Jackman, Keen and Stewart. Scott Collura of IGN gave Logan a score of 9.7/10, and called it, "an emotional, heavy picture, but it's also an uplifting one that reminds us that it's okay to fight for something more, something better", and "perhaps the best X-Men movie yet." A. A. Dowd of The A.V. Club gave an 'A−' and said that "[the film] manages to deliver the visceral goods, all the hardcore Wolverine action its fans could desire, while still functioning as a surprisingly thoughtful, even poignant drama—a terrific movie, no 'comic-book' qualifier required". Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave it a 'B−', and called it "both the most violent film in the series and the most sentimental one. When it's not showering you in blood, it's trying to make you spill tears." Sheri Linden of The Hollywood Reporter reacted positively, saying: "Seamlessly melding Marvel mythology with Western mythology, [director] James Mangold has crafted an affectingly stripped-down standalone feature, one that draws its strength from Hugh Jackman's nuanced turn as a reluctant, all but dissipated hero." Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave it 4/5, stating "It is more like a survivalist thriller than a superhero film, and signals its wintry quality with the title itself" and compared Wolverine's hitting of his truck during the film to Basil Fawlty from Fawlty Towers. James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave it 3.5/4 and said, "In terms of tone and content, Logan is Deadpool's polar opposite but both productions refuse to play by traditional superhero movie rules ... With his glimpse into what superhero movies can be, James Mangold has given us something sadly lacking in recent genre entries: hope." Kyle Smith of the New York Post also gave 3.5/4 and said "the film recognizes that superhero movies such as last year's forgettable X-Men: Apocalypse have become meaningless spectacle ... I'd rank it beside X-Men: Days of Future Past among the best X-Men entries." Brian Tallerico of RogerEbert.com stated, "Logan has stakes that feel real, and fight choreography that's fluid and gorgeous instead of just computer-generated effects. Most importantly, Logan has characters with which you identify and about whom you care. It's not just 'great for a superhero movie', it's a great movie for any genre." Brian Truitt of USA Today said, "Easily the best Wolverine outing, Logan is [the] Dark Knight of the mutant-filled X-franchise, a gripping film that transcends the comic-book genre by saying something important." Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave 3.5/4, and called it "a hard-ass, R-rated rager that explodes with action". Amy Nicholson of MTV called it "a phenomenal, throat-slashing, gut-stabbing superhero movie". Germain Lussier of io9 said, "Logan is beautiful, sophisticated, and still a kick-ass superhero film". Debbie Holloway of Crosswalk gave the film a rating of 4/5, praising how the "script also has several powerful themes, and is truly deft in its handling of them." Michael Roffman of Consequence of Sound called the film "A game-changing masterpiece". Matt Donato of We Got This Covered said, "It's not just one of the best superhero movies ever, it's a damn-fine cinematic representation of the human condition in all its agonizing forms." Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal said, "It's the best superhero film to come out of the comic-book world, and I'm not forgetting Christopher Nolan's 'The Dark Knight'." Jackman's acting as Wolverine has been praised, and his performance topped The Hollywood Reporter's Greatest Superhero Movie Performances of All Time list. Anthony Lane of The New Yorker was underwhelmed, commenting on the film's parallel with Shane, "These quiet images (from Shane) brand themselves on the mind, and the gunshots come as an overwhelming release, whereas when Logan and Laura unleash their furious scythes nothing feels settled or satisfied." Mara Reinstein of Us Weekly gave the movie 2.5/4 and specified, in a lukewarm review, that "[t]he film loses its way during the 20-minutes-too-long journey. For all the breathless talk about how Logan transcends the superhero genre, there's nothing groundbreaking about a road trip movie in which adults try to elude the bad guys to protect a super-special child." Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave it 2/4 and said, "Logan is deadly serious, and while its gamer-style killing sprees are meant to be excitingly brutal, I found them numbing and, in the climax, borderline offensive." Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine said, "The grim side of human nature is all over James Mangold's Logan. But that doesn't necessarily make it a good movie." ### Accolades ## Canceled spin-off In October 2017, it was reported that director James Mangold had begun writing a sequel to Logan, tentatively titled Laura, focusing on Laura and the continuation of her story, with Logan being represented with archive footage of Jackman. After Disney's acquisition of Fox was finalized in 2019, all X-Men films in development were stalled, leaving the future of Laura'' uncertain. In November 2019, Mangold said he did not think the project would be happening, and that he believed the studio would be trying to figure out where to go in the future with the characters, particularly with Wolverine.
28,810,829	Mi PC	1,152,189,495	null	[ "1998 singles", "1998 songs", "Juan Luis Guerra songs", "Karen Records singles", "Songs written by Juan Luis Guerra", "Spanish-language songs" ]	"Mi PC" (transl. "My PC") is a song by Dominican Republic singer-songwriter Juan Luis Guerra and his band 4-40 from his eighth studio album, Ni Es lo Mismo Ni Es Igual (1998). The song was released as the lead single from the album in November 1998 by Karen Records. The song was written and produced by Guerra. It is a pop merengue track in which Guerra uses computer terminology to narrate a love story. "Mi PC" was met with positive reactions from music critics who found the lyrics to be clever and its music catchy. Commercially, it topped both the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Tropical Airplay charts in the United States. Guerra performed the track live at the Altos de Chavón amphitheater in the Dominican Republic in 1999 and the 2000 Viña del Mar Festival in Chile. The song was a recipient of a Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) Latin Award in 2001. ## Background and composition In 1994, Juan Luis Guerra released his seventh studio album, Fogaraté, a record consisting of soukous-influenced merengue and merengue típico. Following its release, he took a three year hiatus from recording, citing the need to take a break. "If artists lack something, it is peace. I needed to rest to find it and I found it in the figure of Jesus Christ. I called him through prayer and received his answer", Guerra states. During the singer's hiatus, Guerra launched his own business as a director in the Dominican Republic for Mango TV and Viva FM station. On 29 October 1997, an editor for La Opinión reported that the artist had started working on a new album in Miami. "I'm making a decent album, that people like. I know the wait has been a bit long, but I'm almost sure that when the public has my new production in their hands, they will better understand why I've lasted that long without recording." On February the following year, the singer gave an update on the progress, stating the disc would have 10 to 12 tracks including merengues, bachata, ballads, and a salsa, and that would be released in middle of the year. However in June 1998, Guerra was not satisfied with the material he recorded and decided to further record. Five months later, Bienvenido Rodríguez, president of Guerra's label, Karen Records, revealed that the singer had wrapped up the album's productions and that it would still contain the aforementioned musical genres. The record's name, Ni Es Lo Mismo, Ni Es Igual, was announced on 14 November 1998, and released on 15 December of the same year. Guerra wrote and produced all the tracks in the album including the opening song "Mi PC". "Mi PC" is a pop merengue song in which Guerra "harmonizes the modern language of computers with the language of feelings." Lyrically, the singer utilizes the "jargon of computers and cybernetics to narrate a beautiful love story." According to Guerra, he had to learn about computer terminologies from his nephews. ## Reception and promotionn "Mi PC" was released as the lead single from Ni Es lo Mismo Ni Es Igual by Karen Records on November 1998. AllMusic reviewer Evan C. Gutierrez found it to be one of the album's "humorous and rollicking merengues". Billboard's John Lannert described it as a "cute, chart-topping pop/merengue hit". Cary Darling of the Orange County Register regarded the track to be a "likable merengue fluff" with an "ode to the modern computer age". The Hispanic magazine contributor Mark Holston lauded "Mi PC" as a "merengue elevated above its dance track pretensions by coy lyrics based on computer-dominated contemporary life." Ramiro Burr of the San Antonio Express-News praised the track as a "feverish merengue about an Internet romance." In a mixed review of Ni Es lo Mismo Ni Es, El Norte's Deborah Davis cited "Mi PC" as one of songs from the album that is "moving and intelligent". Jacob Edgar of The Beat magazine called the single a "Juan Luis Guerra classic" and felt it "rivals" "A Pedir Su Mano" from Bachata Rosa (1990). The Knight Ridder critic Fernando Gonzalez admired the track as a "catchy merengue that plays on the imagery and language of our computer-enchanced lives". Commercially, "Mi PC" topped the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Tropical Airplay charts in the United States; the single spent five weeks at this position on the latter chart. It was acknowledged as an award-winning song at the 2001 BMI Latin Awards. Guerra performed the song live at the Altos de Chavón amphitheater in La Romana, Dominican Republic on 18 December 1999, and at the 2000 Viña del Mar Festival. ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## See also - List of number-one Billboard Hot Latin Tracks of 1998 - List of number-one Billboard Hot Latin Tracks of 1999 - List of Billboard Tropical Airplay number ones of 1998 - List of Billboard Tropical Airplay number ones of 1999
3,533,322	Evangelos Zappas	1,172,084,689	Greek philanthropist and businessman	[ "1800 births", "1865 deaths", "Aromanian people of the Greek War of Independence", "Aromanians from the Ottoman Empire", "Founders of the modern Olympic Games", "Greek businesspeople", "Greek emigrants to Romania", "Greek people of Aromanian descent", "Greek people of the Greek War of Independence", "Greek philanthropists", "Greek revolutionaries", "Members of the Filiki Eteria", "People from Gjirokastër", "People from the Ottoman Empire of Greek descent", "Romanian people of Aromanian descent", "Romanian people of Greek descent" ]	Evangelos or Evangelis Zappas (Greek: Ευάγγελος or Ευαγγέλης Ζάππας; Romanian: Evanghelie Zappa; 23 August 1800 – 19 June 1865) was a Greek patriot, philanthropist and businessman who spent most of his life in Romania. He is recognized today as one of the founders of the modern Olympic Games, which were held in 1859, 1870, 1875, and 1888 and preceded the Olympic Games that came under the auspices of the International Olympic Committee. These Games, known at the time simply as Olympics (Greek: Ολύμπια), came before the founding of the International Olympic Committee itself. The legacy of Zappas, as well as the legacy of his cousin Konstantinos, was also used to fund the Olympic Games of 1896. During his youth, Zappas joined the Greek War of Independence (1821–1832), achieving the rank of Major and fighting in several significant battles. Following Greek independence, he moved to Wallachia where he had a successful career as a businessman, becoming one of the richest men of that time in Eastern Europe. Aside from being the only major sponsor of the Olympic revival at that time, Zappas's philanthropy also included contributions toward the foundation of several Greek institutions and schools as well as sports and exhibition facilities. ## Biography ### Early life, military career, and later career in Wallachia Evangelis Zappas was one of three children born to Vasileios Zappas and Sotira Meksi, of Greek or Aromanian ancestry, on 23 August 1800 in the village of Labovo located near Tepelenë (modern Gjirokastër County, Albania) when the region was still under Ottoman rule. Zappas did not receive any education during his childhood. He left his village at the age of 13 and enrolled as a mercenary in the Ottoman militia of the local ruler Ali Pasha. Zappas became a member of the Greek patriotic organization Filiki Eteria and joined his compatriots when the Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821. During this period, Zappas reached the rank of Major in the revolutionary army and became a personal friend of the Souliot captain, Markos Botsaris. After Botsaris's death in 1823, Zappas served under various military commanders of the independence struggle, such as Dimitrios Panourgias, Kitsos Tzavelas, and Michail Spyromilios. He participated in several major conflicts, such as the siege of Souli, the first siege of Missolonghi and the Battle of Peta. In his later correspondence with a Greek official, he claimed that he was wounded five times during the war. In 1831, Zappas emigrated to Wallachia and made a fortune in land and agriculture. In the 1850s, Zappas was considered one of the wealthiest entrepreneurs in Eastern Europe. At the time of his death in 1865, his total wealth was estimated at six million gold drachmas. ### Revival of the Olympic Games The idea of reviving the ancient Olympic Games had been raised from time to time during the early and mid 19th century, inspired to a certain degree by romanticism and patriotism. In 1833, the romantic poet Panagiotis Soutsos, in his work Dialogue of the Dead, proposed the revival of the Games in the newly formed Greek state, as part of the revival of ancient Greek tradition. In 1852, archaeologist Ernst Curtius stated during a lecture that the Olympic events would be revived. Zappas was notably inspired by Panagiotis Soutsos and resolved to revive this ancient tradition through his own efforts and resources. In early 1856, he sent a letter through diplomatic channels to King Otto of Greece, offering to fund the revival of the Olympic Games, and to provide cash prizes to the victors. However, this initiative was not without opposition. There was wide belief among some Greek politicians that athletic games were a throwback to ancient times, unsuited to the modern era. Alexandros Rizos Rangavis, the Greek foreign minister and head of the conservative anti-athletics lobby in Athens, suggested an industrial and agricultural exposition instead of an athletics event. For months there was no official answer from the Greek state. In July 1856, an article in the Greek press by Panagiotis Soutsos made Zappas's proposal widely known to the public and triggered a series of events. King Otto agreed to the organization of athletics competitions at four-year intervals, with Zappa's full sponsorship, to coincide with industrial and agricultural expositions. As a result, Zappas provided the Greek government with the necessary financial resources to establish an Olympic Trust Fund. On 15 November 1859, the first Olympic Games was held in a city square in central Athens. These athletic contests were the first Olympic Games of modern times with the provenance of ancient Greek roots and the intention of using an, as yet unready, ancient Greek stadium. That stadium, the Panathenaic Stadium, was first used for a modern Olympic Games in 1870 and for the first time since the ancient Panathenaic and Olympic Games. The athletes competed in a variety of disciplines, similar to that of the ancient Olympic Games: running, discus, javelin throwing, wrestling, jumping, and pole climbing. Zappas left a fortune for the funding of future Olympiads to be held at the Panathenian stadium. He died in 1865. His immense fortune was used for the construction of permanent sporting facilities in Athens, as well as for the continuation of the Olympiad. He also instructed on the building of the Zappeion exhibition and conference center, which is named in his honour and that of his cousin Konstantinos Zappas. ## Legacy ### Re-establishment of the Olympic Games in modern times After Zappas's death, and wholly due to the Greek government ignoring Zappas's instructions to refurbish the stadium in marble, it was necessary to refurbish the Panathenian stadium a second time, replacing wood for marble, in readiness for the Athens 1896 Olympic Games. After a period of litigation over Zappas's bequests, his cousin Konstantinos Zappas continued and expanded his endowment of the Games and maintained efforts for the continuation of the Olympic concept. In 1870, the new stadium, with a spectator capacity of 30,000, was ready to host the second Olympiad. The Olympic Games of 1870, apart from being the first modern international Olympic Games to be hosted in a stadium, were better attended and hosted more events and athletes, and were much better organized in general. Additionally, the first modern Olympic building was built to support the contests (and hosted the fencing events of 1896), as well as an industrial exhibition that anti-athletic members of the Greek government had forced upon the concept of the Games. This building, located near the city's National Garden, was entirely funded by Zappas's legacy and was named Zappeion after him. The Zappeion officially opened on 20 October 1888. Dr. William Penny Brookes, from the United Kingdom, further developed his Olympian Class sports events held in Much Wenlock in the 1850s, by adopting some events from the 1859 Athens Olympic Games into the programme of future Wenlock Olympian Games. Baron Pierre de Coubertin from Paris, France, was, in part, inspired by Dr. Brookes, and went on to found the International Olympic Committee in 1894. Professor David C. Young, of the University of Florida (Gainesville), noted: > "Had it not been for Zappas, the Athens Games of 1896 surely would not have taken place. Zappas's actions, his will and the previous tradition of Zappas Olympic Games had made [Crown Prince] Constantine [of Greece] an advocate of Olympic Games before the formation of the IOC in 1894." ### Philanthropy Through his philanthropic activity, Zappas contributed to the national awakening of the Greeks, Romanians and Albanians. Apart from his efforts to revive the Olympics, Evangelos Zappas made several philanthropic donations towards the foundation of schools, libraries and other similar institutions all over the Ottoman-occupied world, and notably their birthplace, Epirus. Greek schools were founded and expanded in several Greek-populated villages and towns, such as Labovo, Lekli, Nivani, Dhroviani, Filiates, Delvina, Përmet. In Constantinople, education facilities were also founded that included nurseries, primary and secondary schools, which were collectively known as the Zappeion Institute. Moreover, a large amount of money was deposited in the National Bank of Greece to provide scholarships for Greek agricultural students in order to conduct postgraduate studies in Western Europe. During the anti-Greek Istanbul Pogrom in 1955, the facilities of the Zappeion female college in the Turkish capital were vandalized by the fanatical mob and a statue of him was broken into pieces. In addition to donations to the Greek state, Zappas was also a financier of the Romanian Academy where he has a statue there today. Zappas was an ardent Greek nationalist influenced by the writings of Panagiotis Soutsos, a 19th-century Greek poet. Among academic projects funded by him were a new synthesis on the history of the Romanians and a Romanian dictionary. He also funded a newspaper and books in the Albanian language in Romania. In this context, Zappas adopted multiple identities related to his birthplace (Albania), ethnic origin (Greek), and his adopted country (Romania). ### Personality and resting place Evangelis Zappas was often described as a solitary and eccentric personality, who had no children. On the other hand, he was a man of vision, determination and a patriot, who was well aware of the magnitude of his acts. His cousin, Konstantinos Zappas, was the executor of his will and he continued Evangelis Zappas philanthropic works through his legacy. Zappas's wish was to be initially buried in Romania, where he lived most of his life. But after four years his bones were exhumed and reinterred at the school's courtyard in Labovo where he was born, and his skull was enshrined beneath his memorial statue outside the Zappeion in Athens, Greece. A ceremony for the interment was held at 10am on 20 October 1888 at the Zappeion. Baron Pierre de Coubertin made a similar gesture by having his heart buried at Olympia. In the virtually unpopulated Labovo, there is an old, yet legible, tombstone that states in Albanian: "Here lie the bones of the philanthropist Evangelis Zappas". ## See also - Manthos and Georgios Rizaris - Georgios Sinas - Petros Zappas - Simon Sinas - Zosimades
4,542,352	Folk Singer (album)	1,156,679,205	null	[ "1964 albums", "Albums produced by Ralph Bass", "Albums produced by Willie Dixon", "Chess Records albums", "MCA Records albums", "Muddy Waters albums" ]	Folk Singer is the fourth studio album by Muddy Waters, released in January 1964 by Chess Records. The album features Waters on acoustic guitar, backed by Willie Dixon on string bass, Clifton James on drums, and Buddy Guy on acoustic guitar. It is Waters's only all-acoustic album. Numerous reissues of Folk Singer include bonus tracks from two subsequent sessions, in April 1964 and October 1964. Despite not charting in any country, Folk Singer received critical acclaim; most reviewers praised its high-quality sound, especially on remastered versions, as well as the instrumentation. In 2003, the album was ranked number 280 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. ## Background After his successful performance at Newport Jazz Festival and tours through America, Chess Records encouraged Waters to record songs for a new studio album. Before the recording, several musicians had left Waters's band, and others had joined Waters. Andrew Stephens, who played at Newport, was replaced in the following years with numerous bassists. The drummer Francis Clay was replaced by Willie "Big Eyes" Smith, who played in the Muddy Waters Junior Band. Pat Hare was sentenced to life in prison for the murder of his wife (while in jail, he formed the band Sounds Incarcerated). Hare was replaced by a succession of guitarists, including James "Pee Wee" Madison, who played a right-handed guitar left-handed. Madison played guitar on some of the reissue bonus tracks, as did Sammy Lawhorn. Lawhorn allegedly suffered from narcolepsy (Elvin Bishop denied this, believing that Lawhorn's sleepiness was due to alcoholism). The electric guitarist Buddy Guy, who had recorded with Waters on Blues from Big Bill's Copacabana, released by Chess in 1963, was hired. Guy had been discovered by Waters shortly after Guy arrived in Chicago from Louisiana. ## Recording Folk Singer is an "unplugged" recording and differs from his earlier albums, which featured an electric blues sound. The title of the album was chosen by Chess Records because it was recorded during the time when folk music was popular. In order to appeal to fans of folk music, Chess recorded a more acoustic album with two acoustic guitarists. Buddy Guy was hired as the second guitarist. Other guitarists played on bonus tracks. Guy played on all original songs, except the last song, "Feel Like Going Home", together with Waters. The recording took place at the Ter Mar Recording Studios, in Chicago, in September 1963, and was produced by Willie Dixon. The original vinyl release includes nine songs, most of which are performed at a slower tempo, with the exception of the uptempo "Good Morning Little Schoolgirl". During recording, Waters emphasized his singing with hums and sighs. ## Releases and tour The original album was released as an LP January 30, 1964 by Chess Records. Since then, numerous record labels have released different versions on CD, with different bonus tracks from Waters's 1964 sessions. One of the first CD versions was released in 1993 by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab, containing two bonus tracks, "You Can't Lose What You Never Had" and "The Same Thing." The 1999 remastered version contains five bonus tracks, "The Same Thing", "You Can't Lose What You Never Had", "My John the Conqueror Root", "Short Dress Woman" and "Put Me In Your Lay Away". The supporting tour through Europe, the second American Folk Blues Festival, began one month after the recording of Folk Singer. The first gig out of seventeen took place in London; other performances were in Belgium, Germany, France and Denmark. In London, Waters began with the unreleased "My Captain", followed by "Rollin' Stone". In keeping with the folk theme, quiet versions of "Five Long Years", "Blow Wind Blow", "Trouble No More", "My Home Is in the Delta" and "Got My Mojo Working" were performed. ## Critical reception Reviewing the original LP in 1964, Down Beat magazine found Waters's singing "forced and artificial", and said Folk Singer suffers from a major flaw: "He only begins to come close to the power and unforced intensity of the original numbers and style from time to time, as on 'You Gonna Need My Help' and 'My Home Is in the Delta'". In a retrospective review, Cub Koda, writing for AllMusic was more enthusiastic, deeming the record's sound fresh and vital. Reviewing its 1993 CD reissue, Rolling Stone wrote, "...There aren't too many blues albums that qualify as audiophile recordings, but Muddy Waters Folk Singer surely does. A wonderfully intimate session, it delivers Waters' voice in all its power and subtlety, while rendering his guitar work...with such vivid realism, you would think you were sitting in the studio...." Village Voice critic Robert Christgau found the remaster "luxurious and intimate", and the reissue in general "worthy addenda" to Waters' discography. In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked Folk Singer number 280 on its list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time", writing that the "unplugged" playing was pioneering and has since been "beloved by blues and folk fans alike". The ranking was updated to 282 in a 2012 revised list. ## Track listing ## Personnel Credits are adapted from AllMusic. ### Musicians - Muddy Waters – guitar, vocals - Buddy Guy – guitar - Sammy Lawhorn – guitar - James Madison – guitar - Otis Spann – harmonica, piano - Francis Clay – drums - Clifton James – drums - S.P. Leary – drums - Willie Dixon – bass - Milton Rector – bass - J.T. Brown – clarinet, tenor saxophone ### Production - Willie Dixon – producer - Ralph Bass – producer - Ron Malo – engineer - Vartan – art direction, reissue art director - Bob Schnieders – coordinator, liner notes - Mary Katherine Aldin – liner notes - Don Bronstein – cover design, photography - Jim Marshall – photography - Beth Stempel – reissue producer, reissue production coordination (remastered version) - Andy McKaie – reissue producer (remastered version) - Erick Labson – digital remastering, mastering, mixing (remastered version) - Johnny Lee – reissue design (remastered version) - Meire Murakami – reissue design (remastered version)
153,216	Kuching	1,173,609,548	City and state capital in Sarawak, Malaysia	[ "1827 establishments in Asia", "Kuching", "Populated places established in 1827", "Populated places in Sarawak" ]	Kuching (/ˈkuːtʃɪŋ/), officially the City of Kuching, is the capital and the most populous city in the state of Sarawak in Malaysia. It is also the capital of Kuching Division. The city is on the Sarawak River at the southwest tip of the state of Sarawak on the island of Borneo and covers an area of 431 km<sup>2</sup> (166 sq mi) with a population about 165,642 in the Kuching North administrative region and 159,490 in the Kuching South administrative region—a total of 325,132 people. Kuching was the third capital of Sarawak in 1827 during the administration of the Bruneian Empire. In 1841, Kuching became the capital of the Kingdom of Sarawak after the territory in the area was ceded to James Brooke for helping the Bruneian empire in crushing a rebellion particularly by the interior Borneo dwelling Land Dayak people who later became his loyal followers after most of them were pardoned by him and joined his side. The town continued to receive attention and development during the rule of Charles Brooke such as the construction of a sanitation system, hospital, prison, fort, and a bazaar. In 1941, the Brooke administration had a Centenary Celebration in Kuching. During World War II, Kuching was occupied by Japanese forces from 1942 to 1945. The Japanese government set up a Batu Lintang camp near Kuching to hold prisoners of war and civilian internees. After the war, the town survived intact. However, the last Rajah of Sarawak, Sir Charles Vyner Brooke decided to cede Sarawak as part of British Crown Colony in 1946. Kuching remained as capital during the Crown Colony period. After the formation of Malaysia in 1963, Kuching retained its status as state capital and was granted city status in 1988. Since then, the Kuching city is divided into two administrative regions managed by two separate local authorities. The administrative centre of Sarawak state government is located at Wisma Bapa Malaysia, Kuching. Kuching is a major food destination and is a member of UNESCO’s Creative Cities Network under the field of gastronomy. Kuching is also the main gateway for travellers visiting Sarawak and Borneo. Kuching Wetlands National Park is located about 30 km (19 mi) from the city and there are many other tourist attractions in and around Kuching such as Bako National Park, Semenggoh Wildlife Centre, Rainforest World Music Festival (RWMF), state assembly building, The Astana, Fort Margherita, Kuching Cat Museum, and Sarawak State Museum. The city has become one of the major industrial and commercial centres in East Malaysia. ## Etymology The name "Kuching" was already in use for the city by the time Brooke arrived in 1839. There are many theories as to the derivation of the name "Kuching". It was perhaps derived from the Malay word for cat, "kucing" or from Cochin, an Indian trading port on the Malabar Coast and a generic term in China and British India for trading harbour. Some Hindu artefacts can be seen today at the Sarawak State Museum. However, another source reported that the Kuching city was previously known as "Sarawak" before Brooke arrived. The settlement was renamed to "Sarawak proper" during the kingdom expansion. It was only in 1872 that Charles Brooke renamed the settlement to "Kuching". There was one unlikely theory based on a story on miscommunication. According to the story, James Brooke arrived in Kuching on his yacht Royalist. He then asked his local guide about the name of the town. The local guide mistakenly thought that Brooke was pointing towards a cat, and so had said the word "Kuching". However, ethnic Malays in Sarawak have always used the term "pusak" for cats (cognate with Filipino pusa), instead of the standard Malay word "kucing" (cognate with Filipino kuting which refers to kittens). Despite this etymological discrepancy, Sarawakians have adopted the animal as a symbol of their city, and it features in statues as well as the municipal council's coat of arms - an example of heraldic canting. Some source also stated that it was derived from a fruit called "mata kucing" (Euphoria malaiense), a fruit that grows widely in Malaysia and Indonesia. There was also a hill in the city that was named after the fruit, which is called Bukit Mata Kuching. Harriette McDougall writing to her son in the 19th century, stated that the name was derived from a stream of the same name, called "Sungai Kuching" or Cat River in English. On page 64 of Bampfylde and Baring-Gould's 1909 'A History of Sarawak under its Two White Rajahs', it says: "Kuching, the capital of Sarawak, is so called from a small stream that runs through the town into the main river...." The stream was situated at the foot of Bukit Mata Kuching and in front of the Tua Pek Kong Temple. In the 1950s, the river became very shallow because of silt deposits in the river. The river was later filled to make way for roads. There is another theory that Kuching actually means "Ku" (古)- Old and "Ching"(井) - Well or "old well" (古井) in Chinese. During the Brooke administration, there was no water supply and water-borne diseases were common. In 1888, an epidemic broke out which later was known as "Great Cholera Epidemic". A well situated in the present day China Street in Main Bazaar helped to combat the disease by providing clean water supply. Due to increased demand for a water supply, the role of the well was later replaced by water treatment plant on the Bau Road. ## History Sarawak was part of the Bruneian Empire since the reign of first Brunei sultanate, Sultan Muhammad Shah. Kuching was the third capital of Sarawak, founded in 1827 by the representative of the Sultan of Brunei, Pengiran Indera Mahkota. Prior to the founding of Kuching, the two past capitals of Sarawak were Santubong, founded by Sultan Pengiran Tengah in 1599, and Lidah Tanah, founded by Datu Patinggi Ali in the early 1820s. Pengiran Raja Muda Hashimit later ceded the territory to a British adventurer, James Brooke as a reward for helping him to counter a rebellion. The rebellion was crushed in November 1840, and on 24 September 1841, Brooke was appointed as the Governor of Sarawak with the title of Rajah. It was not announced until 18 August 1842, following Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II's ratifying the governorship, and requiring Brooke to pay an annual sum of \$2,500 to the Sultan. Since that time, Kuching became the seat of the Brooke government. The administration was later continued by his nephew, Charles Brooke. As an administrative capital, it became the centre of attention and development. Improvements included a sanitation system. By 1874, the city had completed several developments, including construction of a hospital, prison, Fort Margherita, and many other buildings. Charles Brooke's wife, in her memoir (My Life in Sarawak), included this description of Kuching: > The little town looked so neat and fresh and prosperous under the careful jurisdiction of the Rajah and his officers, that it reminded me of a box of painted toys kept scrupulously clean by a child. The Bazaar runs for some distance along the banks of river, and this quarter of the town is inhabited almost entirely by Chinese traders, with the exception of one or two Hindoo shops....Groceries of exotic kinds are laid out on tables near the pavement, from which the purchasers make their choice. At the Hindoo shops you can buy silks from India, sarongs from Java, tea from China and tiles and porcelain from all parts of the world, laid out in picturesque confusion, and overflowing into the street. The Astana (Palace), which is now the official residence of the governor of Sarawak, was constructed next to Brooke's first residence. He had it built in 1869 as a wedding gift to his wife. Kuching continued to prosper under Charles Vyner Brooke, who succeeded his father as the Third Rajah of Sarawak. In 1941, Kuching was the site of the Brooke Government Centenary Celebration. A few months later, the Brooke administration came to a close when the Japanese occupied Sarawak. During the Second World War, six platoons of infantry from 2/15 Punjab Regiment were stationed at Kuching in April 1941. The Regiment defended Kuching and Bukit Stabar airfield from being the destroyed by the Japanese. Defence was mainly concentrated on Kuching and Miri. However, on 24 December 1941, Kuching was conquered by the Japanese forces. Sarawak was ruled as part of the Japanese Empire for three years and eight months, until the official Japanese surrender on 11 September 1945. The official surrender was signed on HMAS Kapunda at Kuching. From March 1942, the Japanese operated the Batu Lintang camp, for POWs and civilian internees, 5 km (3.1 mi) outside Kuching. After the end of World War II, the town survived and was wholly undamaged. The third and last Rajah, Sir Charles Vyner Brooke later ceded Sarawak to the British Crown on 1 July 1946. During the Crown Colony period, the government worked to develop and improve the infrastructure on Sarawak. Kuching was revitalised as the capital of Sarawak under the British colonial government. When Sarawak, together with North Borneo, Singapore and the Federation of Malaya, formed the Federation of Malaysia in 1963, Kuching kept its status as the state capital and was granted a city status on 1 August 1988. Kuching experienced further development throughout the years as the state capital. On 29 July 2015, Kuching was declared as "City of Unity" by One Malaysia Foundation for racial harmony that existed in the city because of cross-racial marriages, multi-racial schools, fair scholarship distributions, and balanced workforce patterns. ## Governance As a capital of Sarawak, Kuching plays an important role in the political and economic welfare of the population of the entire state as it became the seat of the state government where almost all of their ministries and agencies are based. The Sarawak State Legislative Assembly is located in a suburb, Petra Jaya. There are 5 Members of Parliament (MPs) representing the five parliamentary constituencies and twelve state legislative assemblymen in the state legislature representing twelve state constituencies in Kuching district. ### Local authority and city definition Kuching is the only city in Malaysia to be administered by two mayors; the city is divided into Kuching North and Kuching South. Each of these is administered by a mayor for Kuching South and commissioner for Kuching North. The current commissioner for Kuching North is Datu Junaidi Reduan, who took over from Datuk Haji Abang Abdul Wahab Abang Julai on 31 August 2019 while Datuk Wee Hong Seng became the new Mayor for the Kuching South in 2019, succeeding Dato' James Chan Khay Syn. The city obtained a city status on 1 August 1988, and since that it was administered by Kuching North City Hall (DBKU) and Kuching South City Council (MBKS). The city is defined within the borders of what is the Kuching District. With an area of 1,868.83 square kilometres, it is the most populous district in Sarawak. The area then subdivided into two sub-districts, namely Kuching Proper and Padawan. Kuching Proper included the city area and northern part of Padawan municipality (e.g. Batu Kawah, Matang Jaya), while Padawan sub-district (southern part of Padawan municipality) included Kota Padawan, Teng Bukap and Borneo Highlands (Mambong). The combined area of Kuching North City Hall, Kuching South City Council, Padawan Municipal Council, and the Kota Samarahan Municipal Council is known as Greater Kuching. ## Geography Kuching is located on the banks of the Sarawak River in the northwestern part of the island of Borneo. The limits of the City of Kuching include all that area in Kuching District containing an area approximately 431.01 km<sup>2</sup> (166.41 sq mi) bounded from Gunung Lasak (Mount Lasak) in Muara Tebas to Batu Buaya (Crocodile Rock) in the Santubong peninsula following a series of survey marks as stated in the First Schedule of the City of Kuching Ordinance, 1988. As a simplification of the legal statute, the Kuching city limits extend from the Kuching International Airport in the south to the northern coast of the Santubong and Bako peninsulas; from the Kuching Wetlands National Park in the west to the Kuap River estuary in the east. The Sarawak River generally splits the city into North and South. The highest point in the city is Mount Santubong on the Santubong peninsula, which is at 810.2 m (2,658 ft) above sea level, located 35 km north of the city centre. Rapid urbanisation has occurred in Greater Kuching and the urban sprawl extends to Penrissen, Kota Sentosa, Kota Padawan, Batu Kawah, Matang, Samariang, Siburan, Tarat, Kota Samarahan, Asajaya as well as Serian which is located about 65 km from Kuching. ### Climate Kuching has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification Af), moderately hot but very humid at times and receives substantial rainfall. The average annual rainfall is approximately 4,200 mm (170 in). Kuching is the wettest populated area (on average) in Malaysia with an average of 247 rainy days per year. Kuching receives only 5 hours of sunshine per day on average and an average of only 3.7 hours of sunshine per day in the month of January (wettest month of the year). The wettest times are during the North-East Monsoon months of November to February and the city's driest months are June through August. The temperature in Kuching ranges from 19 °C (66 °F) to 36 °C (97 °F) but the average temperature is around 23 °C (73 °F) in the early hours of the morning and rises to around 33 °C (91 °F) during mid afternoon. This temperature stays almost constant throughout the year if it is not affected by the heavy rain and strong winds during the early hours of the morning which can bring the temperature down to 19 °C (66 °F), but this is very rare. ## Demography The terms "Kuchingite" have been used to describe the people of Kuching, although it is not official. However, the simplest way to call the people of Kuching is only by "orang Kuching", which means "people of Kuching" in English. ### Ethnicity In early 2022, Department of Statistics Malaysia (DoSM) reports that Kuching has a total population of 402,738. The city population (North Kuching, South Kuching, and Padawan) consists of Malays (146,067), Chinese (138,620), Iban (82,743), Bidayuh (20,065), Non-Malaysian citizens (5,048), other Sarawak Bumiputras (Orang Ulu) (4,076), Melanau (1,840), Indian (3,257) and others (1,022). The Chinese are made up of Hokkien in the city areas and Hakka in the suburbs mainly. Other Chinese subgroups consist of Foochow, Hainanese, Teochew, Cantonese, and Henghua. The Iban, Bidayuh, Dayak and Orang Ulu are mainly Christians, with some practising Animism, while the Chinese practise either Buddhism, Taoism or Christianity while the most of the Malays and Melanau are Muslim. A number of Hindus, Sikhs and a small number of secularists also exist around the city. There is a sizeable number of non-citizens, who mostly come from the bordering Indonesian region of Kalimantan, most of whom are migrant workers. Since the British period, a small population of South Asian especially Pakistanis have exist around the city by running their business mainly in selling clothes and spices. Other migrants who came during the time included Bugis from the Dutch East Indies and other races from the neighbour Dutch Borneo. Interracial marriages among those of different ethnic backgrounds are common in Kuching, and the city itself is a home to 30 different ethnic groups. ### Languages Beside being the capital city of Sarawak, Kuching became a business and cultural centre for the Malays of Sarawak. The dialect of Malay spoken in Kuching is known as Bahasa Sarawak (Sarawakian Malay Language), which is a subset of the Malay language. The dialect used in Kuching is a little different from the dialect used in Miri. Since the second largest population in the city is made up of Han Chinese, the Chinese language is also commonly used, particularly Hokkien, Hakka, and Mandarin Chinese. Almost all residents are able to speak English. A number of special private schools that teach English for expatriate children can be found through the city. ## Economy Kuching is one of the main industrial and commercial centres for Sarawak. Many state-level, national-level, and international commercial banks, as well as some insurance companies establish their headquarters and branches here. The economy is dominated by the primary sector and currently by the tertiary-based industry as the state government wants to aim Sarawak to be transformed into a developed state by 2020. There are 3 industrial areas in Kuching, namely Pending Industrial Estate (Mixed and Light Industries), Demak Laut Industrial Park (Mixed, Light, and Medium Industries), and Sama Jaya Free Industrial Zone (Hi-Tech and electronics industry). This is intended to boost the city's commercial and industrial activity to making it a major growth centre in East Malaysia, as well for the BIMP-EAGA (Brunei-Indonesia-Malaysia-Philippines East ASEAN Growth Area). Kuching hosted numerous national, regional and international conferences, congress, and trade fairs, such as the Malaysia Global Business Forum, Tomorrow's Leaders Summit, International Hydropower Association (IHA) World Congress, ASEAN Tourism Forum, and Routes Asia Conference. Besides, Kuching was chosen as a permanent host for the biennial Asean International Film Festival and Awards (AIFFA). These events are normally held at the Borneo Convention Centre. Kuching Port Authority (KPA), established in 1961, started its operation at Tanah Puteh Port (Sim Kheng Hong Port) in 1975 with annual capacity of 350,000 tonnes. Its operations has since been shifted to Pending and Senari terminals with annual capacity of 2.9 million tonnes and 7 million tonnes respectively. KPA also controls Biawak Oil Jetty that handles petroleum products. Historically, the Chinese have contributed to the city economy since their migration during the Brunei Sultanate period after the discovery of antimony ore and also during the Charles Vyner Brooke administration who encouraged the migration of the overseas Chinese to planting black pepper. ## Transport ### Land `Roads in the city are under the jurisdiction and maintenance of either the two local councils, i.e. DBKU (Dewan Bandaraya Kuching Utara) and MBKS (Majlis Bandaraya Kuching Selatan), or the state's Public Works Department. Roads of the latter category are either state roads or federal roads.` Most major internal roads are dual-carriageways and the city is linked by roads to other towns in Sarawak. These roads are mainly federal roads maintained by the national Public Works Department. The city also famous for a number of roundabouts including the oldest and largest one, known as Datuk Abang Kipali Bin Abang Akip Roundabout. The roundabout are usually landscaped and were efficient to handling traffic congestion. However, traffic lights are more commonly used now as the city traffic continues to rise. As the city is located near the equator, potholes have the tendency to develop on the roads during the monsoon season, usually at the end of the year due to coinciding with winter in the Northern Hemisphere. Roads leading outside of the city to the interior are of a slightly lower quality but are now being upgraded. Highway routes from Kuching include: - Kuching–Serian Highway - Kuching Bypass - Kuching–Kota Samarahan Expressway - Tun Salahuddin Bridge - Matang Highway #### Public transport ##### Taxis There are two types of taxi operating in the city, the main taxi is the red and yellow while the larger is painted in blue, which is more comfortable but expensive known as the "executive taxis". In 2014, a smartphone taxi booking application named "GrabTaxi" was launched and making the city as the fifth area after Klang Valley, Cyberjaya, Putrajaya, and Johor Bahru that have the applications. ##### Buses ###### Bus Express ###### Local Bus ###### Local Bus or Bus Express remain unclear The main bus terminal is the Kuching Sentral, which just launched in 2012. It is located in the south of the city, about 5 minutes away from the Kuching International Airport and 20 minutes from the city centre. The terminal serves a long-distance destination to Brunei, Sabah, and West Kalimantan in Indonesia. Another bus terminal is the Old Kuching Bus Terminal, it is still operating as some of the bus companies that supposed to use the new terminal are unwilling to use the facilities due to some ongoing disagreement. Other minibuses or vans services also available in the city. ### Water Kuching, like most towns in Sarawak, has connections to other urban centres and settlements by water transport. Between the banks of the Sarawak River, near the city centre, many 'tambang' (traditional roofed wooden sampan) can be seen carrying passengers from one riverbank to another. For those staying along the river banks, it is a short way to getting to the city-proper. The wharf for express boats servicing transport to further areas such as Sibu and Bintulu, is located in the east of the city at the Sim Kheng Hong Port (formerly known as the Tanah Puteh Port) in Pending. ### Air Kuching International Airport (KCH) (ICAO Code : WBGG) is the main gateway for air passengers. The airport's history dates back to the 1940s and today the airport has undergoing many major redevelopment. The airport terminal is listed as the fourth busiest airport in Malaysia according to total passenger movements in 2013. Since 2009, the airport has grown rapidly with an increasing number of passengers and aircraft movement. It is the secondary hub for Malaysia Airlines and AirAsia while became the third hub for MASWings, which serves flights to smaller towns and rural areas in East Malaysia. ## Other utilities ### Courts of law and legal enforcement The current court complex is located in Petra Jaya. It contains the High Court, Sessions Court, and the Magistrate Court. Another courts of Syariah and native were also located in the city. The Sarawak Police Contingent Headquarters is located in Badruddin Street. There is only one district headquarters in the city, which is the Kuching District police headquarters located in Simpang Tiga Road. Kuching Prison Complex is located in Puncak Borneo Street. Temporary lock-ups or prison cells are found in most police stations around the city. ### Healthcare There are many types of health services in the city, such as the main public hospitals, public health clinics, other type of health clinics, mobile clinic, flying doctor service, village clinics, and 1Malaysia clinic. The main hospital is the Sarawak General Hospital which is the oldest hospital since 1923. Another hospital is Rajah Charles Brooke Memorial Hospital. Hospital Sentosa (Sentosa Mental Hospital), opened in 1958, provides psychiatric services for the entire state and known as the second oldest hospital in Sarawak after the main hospital. Normah Medical Specialist Centre in Petra Jaya is the largest private hospital with (130 beds) in Sarawak. In addition, three other large private health facilities are Borneo Medical Centre with (120 beds), Timberland Medical Centre with (100 beds), and KPJ Healthcare with (75 beds). Kuching Specialist Hospital located in BDC was scheduled to open its operation to the public in 2020, with a 70-bed capacity. ### Education In the city, all schools under the National Education System (government education institution category), are managed by the Kuching Combined Education Office (Pejabat Pelajaran Gabungan Kuching). There are many government or state schools in and around the city. Like other Malaysian schools, schools in the city are divided into four levels of education — pre-school, primary, secondary (lower and upper) and post-secondary (excluding tertiary). Among the well-established and prestigious boarding schools in the city is Sekolah Menengah Sains Kuching, which is located at Batu Kawa and Sekolah Menengah Sains Kuching Utara, which is located at Matang Jaya. Other government secondary schools including some of the oldest and well known are SMK St. Joseph, SMK St. Thomas, SMK St. Teresa and SMK St. Mary as well as others like SMK Greenroad, Kolej Datu Patinggi Abang Haji Abdillah, SMK Tun Abang Haji Openg, SMK Batu Lintang, and SMK Padungan. Kuching has 4 out of 14 Chinese independent schools in Sarawak. These are Chung Hua Middle School No. 1 (古晋中华第一中学), Chung Hua Middle School No. 3 (古晋中华第三中学), Chung Hua Middle School No. 4 (古晋中华第四中学) and Batu Kawa Min Lit secondary school (石角民立中学). There are also two international schools in Kuching namely Tunku Putra International School and Lodge International School. Other private schools in Kuching are Sunny Hill School and St Joseph Private Schools. There are currently no public university campuses in Kuching, apart from the Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences building situated next to the Sarawak General Hospital. The Sarawak state government moved the last remaining public university campus (Universiti Teknologi MARA) from Kuching to Kota Samarahan in 1997 in a long-term initiative to transform Kota Samarahan into an education hub. Kuching is home to three private universities: the Swinburne University of Technology Sarawak Campus, the only branch campus of Swinburne University of Technology outside Australia; Executive College; and UCSI University, Sarawak Campus which houses the Faculty of Hospitality and Management. A polytechnic and community college, both known as Politeknik Kuching Sarawak and Kolej Komuniti Kuching are also located in the city. Other private colleges can be found through the city with most of the colleges are subsidiaries from universities and university colleges established in West Malaysia, such as SEGi College, Sarawak, Sunway College Kuching, Limkokwing Borneo, PTPL Sarawak, Wawasan Open University, Open University Malaysia, and Twintech College Sarawak. There are private institutions conducting franchised programmes from full-fledged universities (apart from running their own courses) such as SATT College (conducting franchised programmes from Universiti Teknologi MARA) and the Institute of Dynamic Management, Sarawak (conducting franchised programmes from Universiti Tun Abdul Razak). The International College of Advanced Technology Sarawak or ICATS is an institution created as the state government's initiative to enhance technical and vocational training education among school leavers. The college was established from the former INTI College Sarawak facilities. Operated by a state-owned subsidiary, ICATS focuses on producing human capital for the hi-tech sector, especially for the development of the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy. ### Libraries The Sarawak State Library is the major information resource centre and provides information services for the public and private sectors. The library serves Kuching and its outskirts as the main depository of public records. In addition, it administers, monitors, and facilitates the operations of 36 village libraries in the state funded by the National Library of Malaysia. Other public libraries in Kuching include the DBKU City Library and village libraries such as in Bandar Baru Samariang, Kampung Samariang Lama, and Taman Sepakat Jaya. ## Culture and leisure ### Attractions and recreation spots #### Cultural Kuching maintains several museums showcasing its culture and history. The Sarawak State Museum, is one of the finest museums in Asia and known as Kuching's oldest and most historical building, which exhibits collections of the indigenous races in Sarawak. Directly opposite the Sarawak Museum is the Borneo Cultures Museum which replaced the Tun Abdul Razak Hall. The Borneo Cultures Museum (opened on 9th March 2022) is a modern five-storey building with a distinctive architectural design that reflects Sarawak’s unique traditional crafts and rich cultural heritage. While located right behind the Borneo Cultures Museum is the Islamic Heritage Museum. Other museums in Kuching include the Chinese History Museum, Kuching Cat Museum, Sarawak Timber Museum and Textile Museum Sarawak. Kuching is also home to the first ever planetarium in Malaysia, the Sultan Iskandar Planetarium which adjacent to the Kuching Civic Centre. #### Historical Interesting historical landmarks and sites of Kuching include The Astana (the former palace of the White Rajahs and currently the official residence of the Yang di-Pertua Negeri of Sarawak), and Fort Margherita. The oldest street of Kuching is the Main Bazaar, a row of 19th century Chinese shophouses located along the Kuching Waterfront overlooking the Sarawak River. It offers the city's best concentration of antique and handicraft shops. The Main Bazaar is part of Kuching's old town, which also includes the Carpenter Street and India Street. The old Courthouse building, which sits in between Carpenter Street and India Street, has undergone major renovation and now houses the Sarawak Tourism Board complex. Some other interesting areas around the central business district include Padungan Street, which is the Chinatown of Kuching. In 2014, calls for the Historic Monuments of Kuching's inclusion in the world heritage list were made public. In 2017, a study was conducted on the possibility of Kuching to be nominated in the world heritage list. #### Leisure and conservation areas A number of leisure spots and conservation areas can be found in Kuching. The Talang-Satang National Park was established with the primary aim of conserving Sarawak's marine turtle population. It covers a total area of approximately 19,400 hectares (47,938 acres), and comprises all lands below the high tide marks on the respective islands. The park also comprises the coastline and sea surrounding four islands of the southwest coast of Sarawak; Talang Besar, Talang Kecil off Sematan, and Satang Besar and Satang Kecil off Santubong, near Kuching. These four "Turtle Islands" are responsible for 95% of all the turtle landings in Sarawak and the park also includes the Tukong Ara-Banun Island Wildlife Sanctuary, two tiny islets which are important nesting sites for colonies of bridled terns and black-naped terns. Damai, one of Sarawak's main beach resort area, is located on the Santubong Peninsula, about 35 minutes drive from Kuching. The area has sandy beaches at the foot of an imposing jungle-covered mountain. Damai features three world-class resort hotels such as the Damai Beach Resort, Damai Puri Resort and Spa and One Hotel Santubong. Each resort has their own private beach, swimming pool and offers jet-skiing, waterskiing, windsurfing, mountain biking, tennis, squash and fitness centres. There is also an international standard 18-hole golf course designed by the legendary Arnold Palmer located nearby. Other attractions include the Damai Central, Permai Rainforest Resort, Sarawak Cultural Village and the sleepy fishing villages of Santubong and Buntal with their excellent seafood restaurants. While for visitors who like adventurous activities, there is a trekking activity on Mount Santubong. Aside from that, Damai is also one of the places in Sarawak to see the Irrawaddy dolphin as the mammals can be spotted along the Salak River, Santubong estuary and at the Bako-Buntal Bay. The Santubong Peninsula offers a few sites for bird watching with the BirdLife International Organisation has registered the whole area on Bako-Buntal Bay as an 'Important Bird Area'. Between October and March, the Buntal River becomes an important wintering ground for bird migration. Birds which have been spotted by the Malaysian Nature Society (Kuching Branch) at Buntal include a variety of plovers, sandpipers, egrets, terns, and other rare migrants, while resident birds include collared kingfisher, the white-bellied sea eagle, and brahminy kite. National parks in Kuching include the Bako National Park and the Kuching Wetlands National Park as well as the Semenggoh Wildlife Centre which operates an orangutan orphanage and rehabilitation program. Also available near Kuching are the Gunung Gading National Park and the Kubah National Park. Located about 40-minutes drive from Kuching is Santubong, a prominent beach resort area home to numerous world-class beach resorts. Other beaches near Kuching are the Lundu Beach and the Sematan Beach. The Borneo Highlands Resort is also nearby, located 1000-metres above sea level. #### Other sights The Kuching Waterfront is a 2 kilometre long riverside esplanade stretching from the main hotel and commercial heartland of the city to downtown Kuching. Designed by Sydney architects, the waterfront landscaped is served with food stalls, restaurants, benches and offers an excellent views of the Astana, Fort Margherita, and the New Sarawak State Legislative Assembly Building. The waterfront also features an observation tower, an open-air theatre and musical fountains. The Kuching Orangutan Murals are vital images of a wheelbarrow filled with eight young orangutans and another baby orangutan swinging from a pipe. It was painted by Ernest Zacharevic along Power Street in the city on 27 April 2014. This latest mural is painted in Zacharevic's usual interactive style, with an actual wheelbarrow sliced into half and secured to the wall to enable the public to take selfies while holding onto the handle. On the other hand, the baby orangutan was painted over a nail on the wall, where people can 'place' items in its hand. #### Shopping Kuching features a number of shopping malls. These include VivaCity Megamall, Aeon Mall Kuching Central, The Spring, Plaza Merdeka, Farley Mall, CityONE Megamall, Kuching Sentral, Emart Lee Ling, Emart Batu Kawa, Emart Tabuan Jaya, Eco Mall, MetroMall, Aeroville Mall, Eastern Mall, Matang Mall, Sarawak Plaza, Riverside Shopping Complex, Majma' Mall, Moyan Square, Genesis Parade, Green Heights Mall, Wisma Saberkas, and many more. More shopping malls are set to open in the city as construction continues. The Satok Weekend Market is located at Medan Niaga Satok and operated in Saturdays and Sundays. A varieties of vegetables and fruits can be found there including other handicrafts, forest produce (such as wild honey), orchid plants, and a whole range of local snacks and delicacies. #### Entertainment There are five cinemas located around the city, most of them located inside shopping malls buildings (The Spring, CityONE, VivaCity, Riverside, Summer Mall). Most of the cinemas are owned by either Golden Screen Cinemas, MBO Cinemas, Lotus Five Star and TGV Cinemas. Bookaroo, a children's literature festival, travelled from India to Kuching since 2016 and takes place in April on the city every year to featuring the Bookaroo Kuching Fest. The festival invites authors, illustrators, storytellers, and performers from all over the world, urging children to bring books with them. ### Music Since 1997, Kuching has been host to the Rainforest World Music Festival (RWMF), an annual music festival which brings performers and spectators to the region from all over the world. Hosted by the Sarawak Cultural Village near the Mount Santubong, the festival is now one of the largest musical events in Malaysia. RWMF had been voted as Top 25 Best International Festivals by the British-based magazine Songlines. ### Radio stations Music radio station set up in Sarawak is Radio Klasik FM (87.6), Nasional FM (88.1), Sarawak FM (88.9), TraXX FM (89.9), Ai FM (90.7), Cats FM (99.3), Hot FM (94.3), Hitz (95.3), Era (96.1), My (96.9), Mix (97.7), One FM (98.3), Lite Sarawak (100.1), Bernama Radio (100.9), Sinar (102.1) and Melody (103.7). ## International relations Several countries have set up their consulates in Kuching, including Australia, Brunei, China, Denmark, France, Indonesia, Poland and the United Kingdom. ### Sister cities Kuching currently has twelve sister cities: - Dali, China. - Kunming, China. - Xiamen, China. - Zhenjiang, China. - Bandung, Indonesia. - Pontianak, Indonesia. - Singkawang, Indonesia. - Johor Bahru, Malaysia. - Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. - Nashville, USA - Ottawa, Canada - Guro, South Korea. ## See also - Tua Pek Kong Temple, Kuching - Archdiocese of Kuching - Kuching Heroes Cemetery - List of roads in Kuching
1,327,945	Sophiatown	1,165,562,388	Suburb of Johannesburg	[ "Housing in South Africa", "Johannesburg Region B" ]	Sophiatown /soʊˈfaɪətaʊn/, also known as Sof'town or Kofifi, is a suburb of Johannesburg, South Africa. Sophiatown was a black cultural hub that was destroyed under apartheid, It produced some of South Africa's most famous writers, musicians, politicians and artists. Rebuilt under the name of Triomf, and in 2006 officially returned to its original name. Sophiatown was one of the oldest black areas in Johannesburg and its destruction represents some of the excesses of South Africa under apartheid. ## History Sophiatown was originally part of the Waterfall farm. Over time it included the neighbouring areas of Martindale and Newclare. It was purchased by a speculator, Hermann Tobiansky, in 1897. He acquired 237 acres four miles or so west of the centre of Johannesburg. The private leasehold township was surveyed in 1903 and divided into almost 1700 small stands. The township was named after Tobiansky's wife, Sophia, and some of the streets were named after his children Toby, Gerty, Bertha and Victoria. Before the enactment of the Natives Land Act, 1913, coloured South Africans had freehold rights, and they bought properties in the suburb. The distance from the city centre was seen as disadvantageous and after the City of Johannesburg built a sewage plant nearby, the area seemed even less attractive. Because of these and other reasons most of the wealthy people had moved out by 1920. By the late 1940s Sophiatown had a population of nearly 54,000 Africans, 3,000 Coloureds, 1,500 Indians and 686 Chinese. ### Forced removals As neighbouring working-class areas, such as Westdene and Newlands, developed adjacent to Sophiatown, the perception arose that the suburb was too close to non coloured suburbia. From 1944 onwards, the Johannesburg City Council planned to move the coloured population out of the Western Areas, including Sophiatown. After the election victory of the National Party in 1948, relocation plans were debated at the level of national politics. Under the Immorality Amendment Act, No 21 of 1950, people of mixed races could not reside together, which made it possible for the government to segregate the different races. When the removals scheme was promulgated, Sophiatown residents united to protest against the forced removals, creating the slogan "Ons dak nie, ons phola hier" (we won't move). Father Trevor Huddleston, Nelson Mandela, Helen Joseph and Ruth First played an important role by becoming involved in the resistance. On 9 February 1955, 2,000 policemen, armed with handguns, rifles, and clubs known as knobkierries, forcefully moved the black families of Sophiatown to Meadowlands, Soweto. Other ethnic groups were also moved: Coloured people moved to Eldorado Park in the south-western part of Johannesburg in addition to Westbury, Noorgesig and other so-called coloured townships; the Indian community moved to Lenasia; and the Chinese people moved to central Johannesburg. Over the next eight years Sophiatown was flattened and removed from the maps of Johannesburg. ### Triomf After the forced removals and demolition, carried out under the Natives Resettlement Act of 1954, the area was rezoned for whites only and renamed "Triomf" —Afrikaans for Triumph—by the government. The social engineers of apartheid tried to create a suburb for the white working class. In the end it turned out that Triomf became a suburb mainly for poor white Afrikaners. ### Restoration of the name Sophiatown The Johannesburg City Council took the decision in 1997 to reinstate the old name Sophiatown for the suburb. On 11 February 2006, the process finally came to fruition when Mayor Amos Masondo changed the name of Triomf back to Sophiatown. ## Geography and geology Sophiatown is located on one of Johannesburg's ridges called Melville Koppies. Melville Koppies lies on the Kaapvaal craton, which dates from three billion years ago. The Koppies lie at the base of lithified sediments in the form of conglomerate, quartzite, shale, and siltstone. It represents the first sea shores and shallow beds of an ancient sea. It also forms part of the lowest level of one of the world's most well known geological features, the Witwatersrand Supergroup. Several fairly narrow layers of gravel, deposited quite late in the sequence, and bearing heavy elements, made the Witwatersrand Supergroup famous. These are the gold-bearing conglomerates of the main reefs. Melville Koppies represents in microcosm most of the features of the Witwatersrand Supergroup. What it does not have is gold-bearing rock. The gold occurs millions of years later, and several kilometres higher up, in the sequence. The Melville Koppies Nature Reserve is a Johannesburg City Heritage Site. In the last 1,000 years, Iron Age immigrants arrived and remains of their kraal walls can be found in the area. ## Culture ### Early life in Sophiatown Sophiatown, unlike other townships in South Africa, was a freehold township, which meant that it was one of the rare places in South African urban areas where blacks were allowed to own land. This was land that never belonged to the Johannesburg municipality, and so it never developed the form of municipal "matchbox" houses, built row upon row, with the same uniformity and lack of character. The houses were built according to people's ability to pay, tastes, and cultural background. Some houses were built of brick and had four or more rooms; some were much smaller. Others were built like homes in the rural areas; others still were single room shacks put together with corrugated iron and scrap sheet metal. The majority of the families living in Sophiatown were tenants and sub-tenants. Eight or nine people lived in a single room and the houses hid backyards full of shanties built of cardboard and flattened kerosene cans, since many Black property owners in Sophiatown were poor. In order to pay back the mortgages on their properties, they had to take in paying tenants. Sophiatown residents had a determination to construct a respectable lifestyle in the shadow of a state that was actively hostile to such ambitions. A respectable lifestyle rested on the three pillars of religious devotion, reverence for formal education, and a desire for law and order. People struggled to survive together starvation was a serious problem, and a rich culture based on shebeens (informal and mostly illegal pubs), mbaqanga music, and beer-brewing developed. The shebeens were one of the main forms of entertainment. People came to the shebeens not only for skokiaan or baberton (illegally self-made alcoholic beverages), but to talk about their daily worries, their political ideas and their fears and hopes. In these shebeens the politicians tried to influence others and get them to conform to their form of thinking. If one disagreed he immediately became suspect and was classified as a police informer. These two conflicting images of Sophiatown stand side by side – the romantic vision of a unique community juxtaposed with a seedy and violent township with dangers lurking at every corner. ### Arts and literature The cultural process was somehow intensified in Sophiatown, as in Soho, the Greenwich Village, the Quartier Latin or Kreuzberg. It was akin to what Harlem was to New York in the 1920s Harlem Renaissance and is sometimes referred to as the Sophiatown renaissance. The musical King Kong, sponsored by the Union of South African Artists, is described as the ultimate achievement and final flowering of Sophiatown multi-racial cultural exploits in the 1950s. King Kong is based on the life of Sophiatown legend Ezekiel Dlamini, who gained popularity as a famous boxer, notorious extrovert, a bum, and a brawler. The King Kong musical depicted the street life, the illicit shebeens, the violence, and something approximating the music of the township: jazz, penny whistles and the work songs of the black miners. When King Kong premiered in Johannesburg, Miriam Makeba the vocalist of the Manhattan Brothers, played in the female lead role. The musical later went to London's West End for two years. One of the boys, Hugh Masekela at St Peter's School, told Father Huddleston of his discovery of the music of Louis Armstrong. Huddleston found a trumpet for him and as the interest in making music caught on among the other boys, the Huddleston Jazz Band was formed. Masekela did not stay very long in Sophiatown. He was in the orchestra of King Kong and then made his own international reputation. Images of Sophiatown were initially built up in literature by a generation of South African writers: Can Themba, Bloke Modisane, Es'kia Mphahlele, Arthur Maimane, Todd Matshikiza, Nat Nakasa, Casey Motsisi, Dugmore Boetie, and Lewis Nkosi who all lived in Sophiatown at various stages during the 1950s. They all shared certain elements of a common experience: education at St Peter's School and Fort Hare University, living in Sophiatown, working for Drum magazine, exile, banning under the Suppression of Communism Act and for many the writing of an autobiography. Later, images of Sophiatown could be found in Nadine Gordimer's novels, Miriam Makeba's ghostwritten autobiography and Trevor Huddleston's Naught for your comfort. Marlene van Niekerk's novel Triomf focuses on the suburb Triomf and recounts the monotonous daily lives of a family of poor white Afrikaners. The book has been turned into a movie also called Triomf, which won the Best South African Movie award in 2008. ### Crime and gangsterism Crime and violence were a reality of urban life and culture in Sophiatown. The poverty, misery, violence and lawlessness of the city led to the growth of many gangs. Sections of society frowned on gangsterism as anti-social behaviour and gangsters like Kortboy and Don Mattera were despised by many as "anti social". After the Second World War, there was a large increase in the number of gangs in Sophiatown. Part of the reason for this was that there were about 20,000 African teenagers in the city who were not at school and did not have jobs. Township youths were unable to find jobs easily. Employers were reluctant to employ teenagers as they did not have any work experience, and many of them were not able to read or write. They also considered them to be undisciplined and weak. In Johannesburg in the 1950s, crime was a day-to-day reality, and Sophiatown was the nucleus of all reef crimes. Gangsters were city-bred and spoke a mixture of Afrikaans and English, known as tsotsitaal. Some of the more well-known gangs in Sophiatown were the Russians, the Americans, the Gestapo, the Berliners and the Vultures. The names the Gestapo and the Berliners reflect their admiration for Hitler, whom they saw as some kind of hero, for taking on the whites of Europe. The best known gang from this period, and also best studied, was the Russians. They were a group of Basotho migrant workers who banded together in the absence of any effective law enforcement by either mine owners or the state. The primary goal of this gang was to protect members from the tsotsis and from other gangs of migrant workers, and to acquire and defend resources they found desirable - most notably women, jobs and the urban space necessary for the parties and staged fights that formed the bulk of their weekend entertainment. One of the more successful community campaigns emerged in the early 1950s when informal policing initiatives known as the Civic Guards were mobilized to combat rising crime. This attempt to restore law and order attracted widespread support prior to a series of bloody clashes with the migrant criminal society from the poorer enclave of Newclare. This provided the state with an excuse to ban the Guard groups which they eyed with suspicion because of their ANC and Communist Party connections. These supposed arbiters of law and order engaged in a series of brutal street battles with members of the "Russians" gang in the early 1950s. The representation of gangsters in the literature (Drum magazine) went through very different stages during the 1950s and early 1960s. The first representation is characterized by consistent condemnations of crime as an urban phenomenon that threatens the rural identity of tribal blacks. The second is almost a complete turn-around from the first, as gangsters are portrayed as urban survivors who are able to achieve a standard of living normally denied to blacks. The final period is an extended period of nostalgia for the shebeen culture that all but disappeared with the destruction of Sophiatown. ## Landmarks ### The Church of Christ the King One of the few tangible reminders of the old Sophiatown is the Anglican Church of Christ the King in Ray Street. The architect was Frank Flemming, who designed 85 churches throughout South Africa. The church was constructed in 1933. The bell tower was added in 1936. So little money was made available for the construction that the architect called it a "Holy Barn". The church's distinctive feature was a mural that is no longer visible. It was painted between 1939 and 1941 by Sister Margaret. The church was an icon of the liberation struggle in South Africa. In 1940 Trevor Huddleston was appointed Rector. He was an outspoken opponent of apartheid. In 1955 during the forced removals, Huddleston was recalled to England. His ashes reside next to his former church. On the north-eastern side of the church there is a mural depicting Huddleston walking the dusty streets of Sophiatown. This mural was painted by 12 apprentice students under patronage of the Gerard Sekoto Foundation. It shows two children tugging at his cassock as well as Sekoto's famous yellow houses. The entire Sophiatown community was removed by the end of 1963; the church was deconsecrated in 1964 and sold to the Department of Community Development in 1967. In the 1970s it was bought by the Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk, which used it for Sunday School. The church changed hands again and the Pinkster Protestantse Kerk bought the building and altered it significantly. The nave was enclosed, a large font was built and wooden panelling and false organ pipes changed the look of the interior. In 1997 the Anglicans bought the church back and it was reconsecrated; the changes were reversed and the building was largely restored to its former self. However, the hall and gallery the Pinkster Protestantse Kerk had built were retained. ### Dr A. B. Xuma's house Dr A. B. Xuma was a medical doctor who had trained in the United States and the United Kingdom. He was a local celebrity, President of the African National Congress and Chairperson of the Western Areas Anti-Expropriation and Proper Housing Committee. His house was a landmark in Sophiatown (73 Toby Street) and was declared a National Heritage Monument on 11 February 2006. Currently, the house is the location of the Sophiatown Heritage and Cultural Centre. This is one of two houses to escape the destruction of Sophiatown by the government in the late 1950s. It was built in 1935 and named Empilweni. Xuma and his second wife Madie Hall Xuma lived there until 1959. The writer, actor and journalist Bloke Modisane reminisces that among all those modest, run-down buildings, could stand the palatial home of Dr A. B. Xuma with its two garages. Modisane remembers how he and his widowed mother, who ran a shebeen, had looked to Xuma and his house for a model of the good life, i.e. separate bedrooms, a room for sitting, another for eating, and a room to be alone, for reading or thinking, to shut out South Africa and not be black. ### Good Street Good Street was significant in the life of Sophiatown. It was described as a "Street of Shebeens". The writer Can Themba's house, called the House of Truth, was on Good Street, as well as Fatty Phyllis Peterson's 39 Steps. To get to the 39 Steps, one had to walk up a flight of steps, which looked by all accounts very dingy. One was then met by Fatty, who sold about every type of drink: whisky, brandy, gin, beer, wine, etc. Sometimes she even supplied cigars. Good Street was also renowned for its Indian, Chinese and Jewish shops, and for being a street of criminals and gangsters. ### St Joseph's Home for Children The Home opened its doors in 1923. It was built as a diocesan memorial to the Coloured men who paid the ultimate sacrifice for their country. It was run by the Anglican nuns, the Order of St Margaret, East Grinstead, who remained in charge until 1978, when they left South Africa in protest against apartheid. The Main Block, Boys' House and Priests' House were designed by the diocesan architect F. L. H. Flemming. The Church successfully opposed removal of the Home because the property was on farm land and not part of a proclaimed township. ### The Odin Cinema There were two cinemas in Sophiatown. The larger was the Odin, which at the time was also the largest in Africa and could seat 1,200 people. The other cinema, Balansky's, was a lower-class, rougher movie-house, while the Odin Cinema was more up-market. The Odin was the pride of Sophiatown. It was owned by a white couple, the Egnoses, who were known as Mr and Mrs Odin. Not only did they provide much loved entertainment, but also made the Odin available for political meetings, parties and stage performances. Some international acts played to multi-racial audiences at the Odin. It was also the site of a series of "Jazz at the Odin" jam sessions featuring white and black musicians. Also at a meeting at the Odin, the ultimately unsuccessful resistance to the destruction of Sophiatown began to coalesce. ### Freedom Square Freedom Square was located on the corner of Victoria and Morris Streets. It was famous in the 1950s for the political meetings held there. It was utilised by the African National Congress (ANC) and the Transvaal Congress Party. Many of the meetings were chaired by Trevor Huddleston. Freedom Square facilitated the cooperation between the aforementioned political parties. Here parties worked together against the apartheid regime. Freedom Square in Sophiatown should not be confused with Freedom Square in Kliptown, Soweto, where the Freedom Charter was adopted by the ANC in 1955. It was in this Freedom Square in Sophiatown that Nelson Mandela made his first public allusion to violence and armed resistance as a legitimate tool for change. This earned him a reprimand from Albert Luthuli who by then replaced Dr A.B. Xuma as president of the ANC. Current remnants of Freedom Square may be found beneath a school playing field alongside the Christ the King Church. ### St Cyprian's Missions School This primary school was the site of religious and educational significance in Sophiatown. It was an Anglican Mission school located in Meyer Street and was established in 1928. St Cyprian's was the largest primary school in Sophiatown. Oliver Tambo and Trevor Huddleston taught here, as both were passionate about education. It was also the St Cyprian's School boys who a dug out the pool behind the house of the Community of the Resurrection in order to have a swimming pool. The school boys of St Cyprian's later went to Father Ross or Father Raynes or Father Huddleston who tried to get them bursaries to go to St Peter's School, then Fort Hare University and later even the University of the Witwatersrand. The idea was that they should come back as doctors. ### Oak tree in Bertha Street The tree gained a sinister reputation as the "Hanging Tree" when two people hanged themselves from its branches, both due to being subjected to the forced removals. The tree was designated as of the first Champion Tree of South Africa. Champion trees are trees in South Africa that are of exceptional importance, and deserve national protection. ## Notable residents - Aggrey Klaaste - Bloke Modisane - Can Themba - Desmond Tutu - Don Mattera - Hugh Masekela - Mongane Wally Serote - Mzwakhe Mbuli - Percy Qoboza - Popo Molefe - Thandi Klaasen - Trevor Huddleston - Zakes Mokae - Dugmore Boetie ## See also - Sophiatown, a 2003 film about Sophiatown - Drum, a 2004 film about Sophiatown - Come Back, Africa, a film shot underground in Sophiatown in the 1950s by Lionel Rogosin with writing credits by Bloke Modisane, Lewis Nkosi, and Lionel Rogosin. - "The Suit", a short story by Sophiatown-resident Can Themba, set in 1950s Sophiatown. - The Suit (2016 film), a short film adaptation of the Can Themba short story set in Sophiatown, written and directed by Jarryd Coetsee.
36,419,010	Timeline of the Egyptian revolution of 2011	1,164,307,167	None	[ "Articles containing video clips", "Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014)", "Egyptian revolution of 2011", "Timelines of the Arab Spring", "Timelines of the Egyptian revolution of 2011" ]	The following chronological summary of major events took place during the 2011 Egyptian revolution right up to Hosni Mubarak's resignation as the fourth President of Egypt on 11 February 2011. From 1981 to 2011, Hosni Mubarak was in power under emergency law with his son Gamal appearing to be a likely successor for the presidency. In December 2010, protests in Tunisia sparked by the death of Mohamed Bouazizi turned into a revolution. The death of Khaled Saeed in June 2010 became a similar rallying point for activists in Egypt. Increasing use of social media among activists centered on plans for a nationwide protest on 25 January 2011. Millions turned out in major cities across Egypt on the 25th, especially in Cairo's Tahrir Square. In the beginning, tensions were high between the police and protesters with violence breaking out in Suez and Alexandria. The government took a hard line, using riot-control tactics, and shutting down communications; But by the 28th the protests were continuing and the police had retreated. The security role was taken over by the military, and from then on the situation remained almost entirely peaceful. As pressure rose on Mubarak, the scale of the protests continued to grow, especially on specially organized Friday rallies. Mubarak initially gave concessions, including the dissolution of parliament, agreeing to oversee a process of reform, and promising not to run for reelection in September 2011. The protesters, however, were not satisfied and by 8 February there were widespread calls for Mubarak's resignation. On the night of 10 February, Mubarak gave a speech in which it was expected he would step down. Anger erupted when he stated plans to merely delegate some of his power. By the next day, 11 February 2011, he had resigned. ## January 2011 On 25 January 2011, known as the "Day of Anger" (Arabic: يوم الغضب yawm al-ġaḍab, ) or the "Day of Revolt", protests took place in different cities across Egypt, including Cairo, Alexandria, Suez and Ismaïlia. The day was selected by many opposition groups such as the 6 April Youth Movement, We Are All Khaled Said Movement, National Association for Change, 25 January Movement and Kefaya to coincide with National Police Day. The purpose was to protest against abuses by the police in front of the Ministry of Interior. These demands expanded to include the resignation of the Minister of Interior, the restoration of a fair minimum wage, the end of Egyptian emergency law, and term limits for the president. Protests took place in different locations in Egypt. 20,000 protested in various locations across Alexandria, 200 demonstrators in the southern city of Aswan, 2,000 in the eastern city of Ismaïlia, and about 3,000 in the northern city of El-Mahalla El-Kubra. Deadly clashes broke out during the protests leading to the death of two protesters in Suez. Cairo protesters had gathered in the morning in front of the High Court in the centre of Cairo. The demonstration was larger than expected. It broke through the security cordon and moved to Tahrir Square. Thousands protested in Cairo, with 15,000 occupying Tahrir Square (Liberation Square). Police used tear gas and water cannons against the protesters, who in turn threw stones at police, eventually forcing them to retreat. Hossam el-Hamalawy stated to Al-Jazeera during the evening of the protest that the demonstrations were "necessary to send a message to the Egyptian regime that Mubarak is no different than Ben Ali and we want him to leave too." He also told Al-Jazeera, "People are fed up of Mubarak and of his dictatorship and of his torture chambers and of his failed economic policies. If Mubarak is not overthrown tomorrow then it will be the day after. If it's not the day after it's going to be next week." ### 26 January On 26 January, riots continued with protesters' numbers continuing to rise. Violence by both protesters and police increased. One protester and one police official were killed in Cairo. Suez experienced an unexpected uprising; many protesters faced live rounds, and both protesters and police were beaten. Suez protesters set fire to several government buildings, including the police station. ### 27 January Protests were not as large on 27 January while preparations were made for planned large-scale events on the following day (Friday). The Muslim Brotherhood declared its full support of the protests, and members planned to take part during Friday's demonstrations. Leader of the National Association for Change and former head of the International Atomic Energy Agency Mohamed ElBaradei returned that day. Later in the day a protester of Bedouin descent was shot dead by police in the town of Sheikh Zoweid in the North Sinai region, raising the death toll to seven. In Suez, the uprising continued and violence increased as more buildings were set ablaze, including police posts. Some Suez and Sinai region protesters armed themselves with guns leading to violent conflicts. Hundreds were arrested at the various protests. About 600 were arrested in Cairo, including 8 Egyptian journalists protesting against the government's reported restrictions on domestic and Middle Eastern affairs. More than 120 people were arrested in Asyut, mostly members of the Muslim Brotherhood. The government shut down four major ISPs at approximately 5:20 p.m. EST. disrupting Internet and telephone traffic in the entire country except for Egypt's stock exchange and some government ministries served by the fifth ISP: Noor Group. ### 28 January – Friday of Anger Tens of thousands filled the streets across Egypt on Friday, 28 January, called by some the "Friday of Anger" (Arabic: جمعة الغضب ǧumʿat al-ġaḍab ) and by others as the "Day of Rage". Hours before the protests, the Egyptian government shut down Internet services, although some people communicated using a text-to-speech telephone service set up by Google and Twitter. Text messaging and mobile phone services also appeared to be blocked. According to Vodafone, all mobile operators in Egypt were instructed to suspend services in selected areas. The authorities had prior legislative approval to issue such an order. Shortly after Jumu'ah (Friday prayers), tens of thousands of Egyptians assembled to protest; within hours the number rose to hundreds of thousands. ElBaradei arrived from Giza, where he had been leading protests, to Cairo. Ynetnews and CNN stated that ElBaradei was placed under arrest, while Al Jazeera English said that ElBaradei was unaware of his would-be house arrest. ElBaradei's detention prompted the U.S. to review its \$1.5 billion aid package for Egypt; he was later released. Meanwhile, the Muslim Brotherhood said that twenty members of the banned group had been detained overnight, including Essam el-Erian, its main spokesman, and Mohamed Morsi, one of its leaders. Throughout the day, police fired tear gas, rubber bullets, and water cannons into crowds during violent clashes between authorities and protesters throughout Egypt. In Port Said tens of thousands gathered and multiple government buildings were set ablaze. In Suez, police shot and killed at least one protester. Protesters in Suez took control of a police station, freed arrested protesters and then burned down a nearby smaller local police post. The government issued an 18:00 to 7:00 curfew, but protesters ignored it and were met by police. In the evening, one of the National Democratic Party (NDP) headquarters buildings in Cairo was set on fire by an unidentified culprit. While protesters paused for evening prayers, police continued firing tear gas. The day's defiance was summed up by the plethora of Tunisian national flags and anti-Mubarak graffiti that the protesters had created in the Greater Cairo region, Alexandria, Beni Suef, Mansoura and Manufiya. Amid reports of looting, concerns were raised about the safety of the antiquities of the famous Egyptian Museum, near the epicenter of the Cairo protests. Egyptian state television announced in the evening that army commandos had secured the museum. Protesters joined soldiers in protecting the museum, situated beside the burning ruling party headquarters. Looters managed to enter during the night from the roof to damage a number of small artifacts, and it was initially reported that they had ripped the heads off two mummies, but subsequent reports claimed that Egypt's top archaeologist had mistaken skulls from other skeletons, and that the mummies were intact. The arson and looting that took place throughout the day has been compared to the disorder that befell Cairo during the 1952 fire, also known as Black Saturday. #### Deployment of the army A delegation led by the chief of staff of Egypt's armed forces, Lt. Gen. Sami Hafez Enan, was in Washington, D.C., although the visit was truncated due to the protests. The sessions, an annual country-to-country military coordination, were being led for the U.S. by Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs Alexander Vershbow. A meeting with Adm. Mike Mullen, chairman of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, and other talks had been planned to extend to 2 February. However, in light of events in Egypt, the delegation left Washington to return home. Before their Friday night departure, Vershbow urged the two dozen representatives of the largely American-funded Egyptian military "to exercise 'restraint'". Al Jazeera reported an Associated Press claim that an elite counter-terrorism force had been deployed at strategic points around Cairo, and that Egypt's interior ministry was warning of "decisive measures". The secretary-general of the ruling National Democratic Party, Safwat Sherif, held a press conference stating, "We hope that tomorrow's Friday prayers and its rituals happen in a quiet way that upholds the value of such rituals ... and that no one jeopardises the safety of citizens or subjects them to something they do not want." The Egyptian government deployed military in Cairo, Alexandria, and Suez to assist the police. Al Jazeera reported that in Suez and in Alexandria the military wanted to avoid an open armed confrontation with protesters. In Giza, Protesters gathered in front of the l-Istiqama Mosque. where protesters and riot police fought in parts of Giza, including at the mosque. ### 29 January The night of 28/29 January was quieter in Cairo with fewer reports of looting than in previous days. Widespread protests continued, with many protesters chanting, "Down with Mubarak". Chants of "the people and the army are one" were also heard, as the position of the army in the course of events continued to be critical but ambiguous. By 2:00 pm local time, approximately 50,000 had gathered in Tahrir Square, 10,000 gathered in Kafr-al-Sheikh, and additional protests took place in other cities. A curfew was announced by the army for Cairo, Alexandria and Suez from 4–6 pm. The 6:00 pm police curfew the previous day had had "almost no effect whatsoever", according to Al Jazeera English, and protesters continued to descend on Tahrir Square. Protesters gathered at the Ministry of Interior, and three were killed by police when they tried to storm the building. Protesters were described by reporters as more confident and even celebratory as they felt they were nearing their objective—the end of Mubarak's regime—although they had no tangible evidence of this. In Beni Suef, south of Cairo, 17 protesters were killed by police as the protesters attempted to attack two police stations. In Abu Zabaal prison in Cairo, eight people were killed as police clashed with inmates trying to escape. According to a Reuters tally, these unconfirmed deaths brought the death toll to at least 100. Several Islamist terrorists and others escaped. Prison overcrowding and police brutality were voiced by many of the protesters. Emad Gad, an analyst with the Al-Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies, said that he had obtained information from a trustworthy source that "there have been orders from the very top to free known felons from the prisons, to arm them and to let them mingle with protesters." Two Egyptian policemen jailed following the death of anti-corruption activist Khaled Said were among the hundreds of prisoners that escaped in Cairo that day. Tanks were reported on the streets of Suez. A police station was torched after protesters seized weapons stored inside before telling officers to get out. At first there was a presence of the Central Security Force, then army troops who were ordered into major cities to quell street fighting. In the Sinai town of Rafah a lynch mob killed three police officers. Many tourists sites were disrupted and the access to the Pyramids was suspended. The resort town of Sharm-el Shaikh, however, remained calm. Chaos was reported at Cairo International Airport, where thousands of stranded and frightened foreigners attempted to evacuate. ### 30 January Overnight, thousands of protesters continued to defy the curfew and, as the night progressed, troops and armoured vehicles deployed across Cairo to guard key places such as train stations, major government buildings and banks. The army had insufficient capacity to patrol neighbourhoods, so residents set up armed vigilante groups to drive off looters and robbers. A heavy army presence (though no police) was reported in Suez. Chaos was rampant in Suez during the night, but as day broke the streets remained relatively quiet. As in Cairo, many residents formed vigilante groups to protect their homes and businesses in the absence of police. The military set up numerous checkpoints throughout the city. An estimation of about 30 bodies including the bodies of two children were taken to El Demerdash Hospital in central Cairo. By 6:00 am local time, Tahrir Square was quiet, with only a few hundred people. Later in the morning, 3–5,000 protesters were reported as gathering there, including hundreds of state judges protesting for the first time. The National Association for Change, along with the April 6 Youth Movement, "We are all Khaled Said", the Jan 25 Movement and Kefaya (the main organizers of the protests) gave their support to ElBaradei to negotiate the formation of a temporary national unity government. They called for a new constitution and a transitional government. The Muslim Brotherhood (MB), reiterated demands for Mubarak's resignation. The MB also said, after protests turned violent, that it was time for the military to intervene. Al Jazeera reported that 34 members of the Muslim Brotherhood were released from custody as their guards abandoned their posts. Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, Egypt's Minister of Defence and Commander in Chief of the Egyptian Armed Forces, was seen with the protesters in Tahrir Square in downtown Cairo. As of 18:30, ElBaradei had arrived in Tahrir Square and announced that "what we have begun cannot go back". He also said "You are the owners of this revolution. You are the future. Our key demand is the departure of the regime and the beginning of a new Egypt in which each Egyptian lives in virtue, freedom and dignity." Egyptian opposition leaders said that talks would be held only with the army. Mubarak was holding a meeting with his military commanders at the time. Soldiers were then ordered to use live ammunition, but the army refused the order since it was present to "protect the people". The army chief told protesters they would not be fired upon. Helicopters monitored the protests, and fighter jets repeatedly flew low over Tahrir Square. After the first pass of the two Egyptian Air Force F-16s, the crowd cheered and subsequent passes triggered louder chants, laughing, and waving. The crowd did not disperse. Protesters were also reported picking up garbage in Tahrir Square, as essential services were not working and that they wanted to "keep our country clean". Food and water were offered at the scene by Egyptian people to the Egyptian protesters in sign of solidarity with the protesters. Mubarak asked the current aviation minister and former chief of Air Staff Ahmed Shafiq, to form a new government. Shafiq, a Mubarak loyalist, had often been mentioned as a potential successor to Mubarak due to his politically reliable nature. The Egyptian Central Bank said all banks and the stock market would remain closed on 30 January. Police returned to the streets at about 10:30 pm except at Tahrir Square. By 10:55 local time, Al Jazeera's offices in Cairo were ordered to close. At the same time, all correspondents for the network had their credentials revoked. On the night of 30 January Mubarak's Sharm el-Sheikh holiday villa was guarded by a small force of armed and loyal police who turned away all approaching vehicles. Sharm el-Sheikh had seen no deaths and minimal trouble. Military aircraft were visible from the local airport's perimeter fence, although the airport was frequently used by the armed forces for operations. It was also one of the hubs for private air travel in and around Egypt, but most light aircraft had departed earlier that day. ### 31 January The night of 30 to 31 January was quieter in Cairo, with fewer reports of looting. For the fourth day in a row the curfew was violated without repercussions. Security officials had announced that the curfew would start at 3:00 pm and threatened to shoot anyone who ignored it, although eventually little or no action was taken as security and army personnel left Tahrir Square. Hundreds of thousands continued to protest in Egyptian cities, including 250,000 protesters in Cairo alone. A protester was shot dead in Abu Simbel and extra troops were moved to guard the Suez Canal. For the first time during protests, there were pro-Mubarak protests of at least 1,000 people. Mohamed ElBaradei again joined thousands of protesters in Tahrir Square. The National Association for Change, an umbrella group that contains several opposition movements including the Muslim Brotherhood and pro-democracy groups, chose ElBaradei to negotiate with Mubarak. Luis Ayala, the secretary-general of the Socialist International said that the NDP was expelled because: > The use of violence, with scores dead and injured, is totally incompatible with the policies and principles of any social democratic party anywhere in the world. Consequently, we consider that a party in government that does not listen, that does not move and that does not immediately initiate a process of meaningful change in these circumstances, cannot be a member of the Socialist International. We are, as of today, ceasing the membership of the NDP, however we remain determined to cooperate with all the democrats in Egypt striving to achieve an open, democratic, inclusive and secular state. Industrial strikes were also called in many cities, including Cairo. Nissan had suspended production at its plant in Egypt to ensure employees' safety after anti-government protests, but Hyundai's plant chose to continue working. Reports emerged of several major prisons across the country being attacked, and law and order rapidly deteriorated across most of Egypt. Criminal violence continued in Cairo as looters burnt out the Arkadia shopping mall. Egypt Air cancelled all internal and outbound flights; an inbound Egypt Air flight from London to Cairo was diverted to Athens because of an alleged bomb threat. Once policing became more problematic due to police disappearing from Cairo, the military took over, creating an overall more rigid system and making the military position more critical. Senior Egyptian generals led by Tantawi released a statement saying: > The armed forces will not resort to use of force against our great people. Your armed forces, who are aware of the legitimacy of your demands and are keen to assume their responsibility in protecting the nation and the citizens, affirms that freedom of expression through peaceful means is guaranteed to everybody. Zahi Hawass, an internationally known archeologist, was appointed by Mubarak to the newly created cabinet post of Minister of Antiquities during the cabinet shakeup on 31 January. Hawass said in a statement published on his personal blog that "the broken objects can all be restored, and we will begin the restoration process this week". In a New York Times interview he rejected comparisons with Iraq and Afghanistan and said that antiquities were being safeguarded. ## February 2011 ### 1 February – March of the Millions Opposition leaders called for a "March of the Millions", from the Arabic مسيرة مليونية masīrat milyōna) from Cairo's Tahrir Square to the Presidential Palace in Heliopolis on 1 February. Egyptian security forces fortified Mubarak's presidential palace with coils of barbed wire to ensure no demonstrators could break into the palace. According to the Egyptian government media, the number of protesters in Cairo was reported to be thousands. The BBC reported the number of protesters in Tahrir Square ranged from "more than 100,000 to some 250,000—the square's maximum capacity." Egyptian security forces stated that 500,000 people participated in the protests in Cairo alone. According to Al Jazeera, over one million protesters gathered in central Cairo by the afternoon, a number growing to around 2 million later in the day. Similar protests occurred across Egypt with hundreds of thousands in Alexandria, and an estimated 250,000 in Sinai and Suez marking the largest mobilisation in the then eight-day-old protest. Meanwhile, a virtual "March of Millions" was launched on Facebook with the goal of reaching one million voices in support of the march. Vice President Suleiman held a meeting with some of the Muslim Brotherhood figures, including Mohamed Morsi and Saad El-Katatny. In the meeting Suleiman asked them to withdraw the MB youth from Tahrir so the situation would cool down and in return the Muslim Brotherhood would gain legitimacy by obtaining an actual license for a political party plus releasing some of its members including Khairat El-Shater. In the late evening (11:00 PM local Egyptian time) President Mubarak proclaimed that he did not intend to run in the next election. Mubarak said he would stay in office to ensure a peaceful transition to the next election, set for September 2011, and promised to make political reforms. He also said that he would demand that Egyptian authorities pursue "outlaws" and "investigate those who caused the security disarray." Mubarak said that peaceful protests were transformed into "unfortunate clashes, mobilised and controlled by political forces that wanted to escalate and worsen the situation". He called upon the Egyptian parliament to change the term limits of the presidency and to change the requirements to run for president. He also admitted that there were voting violations by key members of the parliament, which would have led to removing those who were in rigged positions through the legal process. In his speech on 1 February 2011 he said: > This dear nation ... is where I lived, I fought for it and defended its soil, sovereignty and interests. On its soil I will die. History will judge me like it did others. Crowds continued protesting in Tahrir Square, demanding that the president step down. There were reports that Mubarak's proclamation came after President Barack Obama's special envoy, Frank G. Wisner, told Mubarak the U.S. saw his presidency at an end and urged him to prepare for an orderly transition to real democracy. In the past, Mubarak had said he would continue to serve Egypt until his last breath. The United Nations human rights chief Navi Pillay announced that there were reports that more than 300 people had died in the violence with up to 3,000 injured, although stressed that these reports remain unconfirmed. Meanwhile, banks remained closed, making it difficult for people to obtain money to buy food; for those that have money, prices skyrocketed as consumers flood the few open stores. Recep Tayyip Erdogan, Turkey's Prime Minister, urged Mubarak to meet his people's "desire for change". ### 2 February – Camel Battle During the night of 1–2 February, Mubarak supporters and protesters clashed in Alexandria, where shots were reportedly fired into the air. In Cairo, many protesters from the previous day had remained in Tahrir Square overnight. In the morning, Internet access had been partially restored and the night-time curfew was eased, running from 5:00 pm to 7:00 am instead of 3:00 PM to 8:00 AM. `By midday, the army was asking protesters to go home in order to stabilise the situation. State television then announced: "You have to evacuate Tahrir Square immediately. We've got confirmed information that violent groups are heading toward Tahrir Square carrying firebombs and seeking to burn the Square."` The NDP sent many people to show support for Mubarak. Provocateurs on horses and camels armed with swords, whips, clubs, stones, rocks, and pocket knives, attacked anti-government protesters in central Cairo, including Tahrir Square in what was later known as the (Battle of Jamal or Battle of the Camel) (Arabic: موقعة الجمل). Security officials were witnessed bribing ordinary citizens into attacking protesters. Some pro-Mubarak supporters were reportedly off-duty and undercover police, carrying police IDs. Gunfire was reported to be heard in Tahrir Square. Molotov cocktails were also used on protesters, some landing on the grounds of the Egyptian Museum. Pro-Mubarak supporters were filmed dropping stones and firebombs from buildings onto demonstrators. Five were reported killed and 836 were taken to hospitals according to the Health Minister. There were also clashes in Alexandria and unrest in Port Said. Shadi Hamid, a Brookings Institution analyst based in Qatar, suggested a strategy of "hired muscle" had repeatedly been employed in the past by the Mubarak government, suggesting the same approach was possible. The Interior Ministry denied that this was being done. Some journalists were attacked by the pro-Mubarak supporters. ElBaradei called on the army to intervene. He also said Mubarak should be given a "safe exit" for Friday's "Departure Day." and that "Today's violence is again an indication of a criminal regime that has lost any common sense. When the regime tries to counter a peaceful demonstration by using thugs ... there are few words that do justice to this villainy and I think it can only hasten that regime's departure." A coalition of opposition parties agreed to hold talks with the newly formed government. However, ElBaradei and the Muslim Brotherhood stressed they would not talk to any government representative, including Vice President Omar Suleiman, until Mubarak's resignation. Ali Gomaa, the Grand Mufti of Egypt, said: "I greet President Mubarak who offered dialogue and responded to the demands of the people. Going against legitimacy is Haram (forbidden). This is an invitation for chaos. We support stability. What we have now is a blind chaos leading to a civil war. I call on all parents to ask their children to stay home." A former general who was a part of the intelligence services said that Mubarak would have no qualms about "setting the whole country on fire." Western media suggested the possibility of civil war as violence between the two sides escalated, leaving over a thousand injured. #### Foreign response UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon condemned the violence and reiterated calls for reform, while EU foreign policy chief Catherine Ashton said that the violence must stop and that Mubarak needed to explicitly describe proposed changes. UK Prime Minister David Cameron and the White House condemned the violence, and the US State Department called for restraint. US President Obama also said that the transition "must be meaningful, it must be peaceful and it must begin now". German Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle and French President Nicolas Sarkozy asserted the right to march peacefully, while Erdogan called for democratisation. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu expressed concern over a new government saying: "I am convinced that the forces that want to bring change and democratization in Egypt will also enhance peace between Israel and the Arab world. But we are not there yet. The struggle has not been decided ... We need to do everything to make sure that peace endures." Mubarak rejected international calls to step aside. Finance Minister Samir Radwan said the government would be "open to discussion with all shades of political opinions". The army had earlier broadcast a message on television: ... You began by going out to express your demands and you are the ones capable of restoring normal life. ### 3 February On 2–3 February, 13 people were killed and 1,200 injured, according to the Egyptian health ministry. In Cairo, a standoff took place in front of the Egyptian Museum in the early morning hours with rocks and petrol bombs reportedly flying. Large-caliber shots were reportedly fired in the air by the army to keep opposing factions at bay. There was a heavy police presence at the museum following the standoff. Anti-government protesters banged on metal railings while rocks were thrown at them. Protests continued in Alexandria and Mansoura, where Al Jazeera suggested up to a million people marched. In Cairo, Egyptian army tanks cleared a highway overpass from which pro-Mubarak protesters had been hurling rocks and Molotov cocktails onto the anti-Mubarak protesters. On the streets below, hundreds of armed soldiers lined up between the two factions, pushing the pro-Mubarak protesters back and blocking the main hotspots in front of the Egyptian Museum and at other entrances to the square. Violence was reported to have been perpetrated by police. The Prosecutor General decided to prevent former ministers and government officials Ahmed Abdel Aziz Ahmed Ezz, Mohamed Zuhair Mohamed Waheed Garana, Ahmed Alaa El Din Maghraby, Habib Ibrahim El Adly and others from traveling outside the country. He also froze their bank accounts, and established investigative authorities and procedures to identify and investigate criminal and administrative responsibilities in all of these cases. With banks not due to reopen for three more days, cash-starved Egyptians reportedly were offered food and money to side against the anti-Mubarak protesters in Tahrir Square. Bloomberg reported that Vodafone had been forced by the Egyptian government to send SMS text messages to its customers. The pro-Mubarak messages characterized protesters as disloyal and called upon recipients to "confront" them. Vodafone CEO Vittorio Colao reported that the general public was still blocked from sending text messages. Shahira Amin resigned from her position as deputy head of Nile TV, citing its coverage of the protests, saying, "I walked out yesterday. I can't be part of the propaganda machine; I am not going to feed the public lies." Many international journalists in Egypt covering the protests were detained, beaten, shouted at or threatened by pro-Mubarak protesters, as were numerous Egyptian bloggers and activists including Wael Abbas. Two Al Jazeera reporters were attacked as they arrived from the airport while three others were arrested and later released. In an interview, Mubarak said that he was "fed up" with being in power but would not resign because he did not want Egypt to descend into a chaos in which the Muslim Brotherhood would be the beneficiaries. Suleiman said, in the same interview, that the Egyptian people do not have a culture of democracy and that an Islamic current is pushing young people to protest. In an interview broadcast on state television, Suleiman reasserted that "The president will not go for another term nor any member of his family including his son. The January 25 youth was not a destructive movement, however it was a demand movement ... Constitution articles 76 and 77 will be modified, other articles are subjected to change." Regarding the clashes in Tahrir Square he commented, "Everyone responsible for these clashes will be questioned ... The clashes had negatively impacted what the president speech had achieved." Regarding economic effects, he commented, "A million tourists had left Egypt in 9 days, imagine the lost revenue." He declared that anyone who had been arrested during the demonstrations would be released unless they had committed a crime. He asked the protesters to go home as all their demands had been heard. He thanked them for their efforts to move political life in Egypt forward. ### 4 February – Friday of Departure During the night of 3–4 February, there were tanks on the street in Cairo as many of the protesters again spent the night in Tahrir Square. Pro-government protesters were active and small-scale clashes happened in the early hours. Ahmad Mohamed Mahmoud of Al-Ta'awun became the first journalist to die covering the protests, from gunshot wounds sustained on 28 January. The organizers of the "Day of Revolt" and "Friday of Anger" called for a protest which was dubbed the "Friday of Departure". In Cairo, they planned to march to Heliopolis Palace. (Arabic: جمعة الرحيل gumʿat ar-raḥīl) They demanded Mubarak step down immediately, with 4 February as their deadline. Protest marches were also held in Giza and El-Mahalla El-Kubra, Suez, Port Said, Rafah, Ismailiya, Zagazig, al-Mahalla al-Kubra, Aswan and Asyut. Two million Egyptians flooded Tahrir Square to participate in Friday prayer in Tahrir Square. Egyptian Christians and others not performing Friday prayers formed a "human chain" around those praying to protect them from potential disruptions. The day's planned events began after prayers. Al Jazeera estimated the crowd size to be over one million in Tahrir Square. Protesters held portraits of former presidents Gamal Abdel Nasser and Anwar Sadat. However, protesters did not get to the presidential palace. In Alexandria, over a million protesters turned out, making it the biggest-ever protest there. They warned that if the government used violence against protesters in Cairo, they would march to Cairo to join the protesters. The New York Times and Bloomberg reported that the US administration was in talks with Egyptian officials over a proposal for Mubarak to resign immediately, turning over power to a transitional government headed by the vice-president, because the longer Mubarak held on to power the more "strident" protesters would become. Saad El-Katatny appeared on Mehwar TV Channel and stated that the Muslim brotherhood and Omar Suleiman reached an agreement in their previous meeting. The General Prosecutor followed up travel bans and frozen bank accounts on former ministers and government officials including former Minister of Trade and Industry Rachid Mohamed Rachid. He told Al Arabiya that "I returned from Davos to Egypt because of the current situation in Egypt. The new Prime Minister had contacted me for the same position in the new cabinet, I refused because I want fresh blood." Regarding the travel ban, he commented, "I had no idea about the accusations, I served for six and half years and I am completely ready to face any accusation. No one had informed me of this decision and I heard it from the news." He was considered a possible candidate for Prime Minister before the protests. ### 5 February During the night of 4–5 February, a few protesters continued to camp out in Tahrir Square. Early in the morning shots were fired as protesters said pro-Mubarak activists tried to assault the square. Troops then fired into the air to disperse them. Demonstrators later formed a human chain to prevent tanks from passing through the barricades into the square; a witness said scuffles broke out when an army general asked demonstrators to take down their makeshift barricades of corrugated steel and debris. As the army tightened access to Tahrir Square, the head of the army met protesters and asked them to return home. Protesters responded that "he (Mubarak) will go" and they would not. The army was also more organized and present than on any other day of the protest. A heavy military presence continued in central Cairo. An Interior Ministry spokesman said that "the army remains neutral and is not taking sides because if we protect one side we will be perceived as biased....our role is to prevent clashes and chaos as we separate the opposing groups." Scuffles were reported during the day in Tahrir Square and one protester was said to have died. A group of foreigners including an English protester on the 5th and a Swede on the 6th joined the protesters in Tahrir Square, handing out flowers in a sign of solidarity and holding up a banner in English. Five hundred protesters arrived in Tahrir Square from Suez. There were reports of over 10,000 people continuing to stay in Alexandria through the night. State television announced the appointment of Hossam Badrawi (seen as a member of the liberal wing of the party) as Head of the Shura Council after Safwat El-Sherif's resignation from his position within the party. Mubarak's son Gamal also resigned as Assistant Secretary and Secretary of the Policy Committee. Minister of State for Legal Affairs Mufid Shehab and Presidential Chief-of-Staff Zakaria Azmy were dismissed from the party. Initial reports indicated that Mubarak had resigned as head of the ruling NDP party, however this was later denied by state television and the Information Minister. Former Interior Minister Habib el-Adli and three of his leadership were put under house arrest. There had been reports about the arrest of other security leaders who were being held in a military prison. However, the opposition leaders continued to seek ways to remove Mubarak from power. They called on the protesters to continue at Tahrir Square every Tuesday and Friday until Mubarak "resigns and makes true the demands of the people." Trouble hit the border city of Rafa as a grenade was tossed into an empty church and the public library was set on fire on 5 February. ### 6 February – Sunday of Martyrs During the night of 5–6 February, protesters continued to camp out in Tahrir Square and Alexandria. However, gunfire was heard in the early hours of the day in Cairo. Banks temporarily reopened throughout the country amidst long queues, and people rushed to buy US dollars. The organizers of the "Day of Revolt", "Friday of Anger", "March of the Millions" and "Friday of Departure" called for a protest that was dubbed the "Sunday of Martyrs" (Arabic: أحد الشهداء). Copts held their Sunday Mass in Cairo's Tahrir Square as Muslim protesters formed a ring around them to protect them during the service.; They did it to counter claims by state television that most of the anti-Mubarak protesters were members of the Muslim Brotherhood. Copts wanted to show that they were a part of Egypt's popular uprising and shared the grievances. Crowds in Tahrir Square chanted "We are one, we are one" ahead of prayers held at noon for those killed during the protests. Muslims later participated in Salat al-Janazah (Arabic: صلاة الجنازة) (literally: funeral prayer). Protesters in Cairo numbered in the vicinity of one million. Demonstrations continued in Alexandria focused around the train station of El Ramel. Several thousand anti-government protesters continued calling for Mubarak's resignation in Mansoura. Ayman Mohyeldin, an Al Jazeera English journalist, was arrested by soldiers in Tahrir Square, and held for 9 hours. Vice President Suleiman negotiated with the opposition, including Mohamed Morsi and El-Sayyid el-Badawi. The Muslim Brotherhood said it was talking with the government. Suleiman agreed to set up a committee of judiciary and political figures to study constitutional reforms. The committee was due to meet by early March. Naguib Sawiris, who was involved in the talks, said that "big progress" had been made. ### 7 February Hundreds of thousands of protesters camped out in Tahrir Square where a symbolic funeral procession was held for Ahmad Mohamed Mahmoud of Al-Ta'awun. Protesters demanded that an investigation be carried out into the cause of his death. State-owned Al-Ahram, declared its support for the protesters and stopped supporting the government. At least 70 people were wounded when hundreds of residents attacked the police station in Khargah to demand the ouster of a police official who had a reputation for heavy-handedness. Police then opened fire on the protesters. Authorities said that 11 people had been killed. The United Nations estimated deaths at more than 300. Former minister of the interior Habib El-Adli faced prosecution in a military court for ordering police to fire at protesters and for his role on 31 December 2010 bombing of al-Qiddissin Church in Alexandria. Minister of Antiquities Zahi Hawass announced that artifacts damaged by looters would be restored over the next five days. He said that steps were being taken to reopen Egypt's famed archaeological sites, which had been closed since pro-democracy protests started. Among the damaged objects was a statue of King Tutankhamun standing on a panther and a wooden sarcophagus from the New Kingdom period, dating to roughly 3,500 years ago. The museum, which is adjacent to the anti-government protests in downtown Cairo, was being guarded by the army. Finance Minister Samir Radwan announced a 15 per cent raise in pensions and salaries for government employees at a cost of (US\$960 million). This decision was made at the first Cabinet meeting since the protests began. One protester said that protests would not end soon despite the government's increasing concessions. While banks had reopened, schools and the stock exchange remained closed. The Egyptian Stock Exchange said it would resume operation on 13 February. Wael Ghonim, Google's head of Marketing for the Middle East and North Africa and the founder of the Facebook page that was said to have been influential in fomenting the protests, who had been in custody since 25 January, was reported to have been released. At 20:00, he posted on Twitter that "Freedom is a blessing that deserves fighting for it." (sic) His release from custody and an emotional interview with Mona El-Shazly on DreamTV "inject[ed] new vigor into [the] protest movement". Thousands of supporters joined a Facebook page created in his honour, "We authorise Wael Ghoneim to speak on behalf of the Egyptian revolution." He issued a statement reading: > First of all my sincere condolences for all the Egyptians that lost their lives. I am really sorry for their loss, none of us wanted this. We were not destroying things. > > We all wanted peaceful protests, and our slogan was no to vandalism. > > Please don't turn me into a hero. I am not a hero, I am someone that was asleep for 12 days. The real heroes are the ones that took to the streets, please focus your cameras on the right people. > > I am ok. (sic) God willing we will change our country, and all the filth that was taking place in the country has to stop. Together we will clean this country. ### 8 February – Day of Egypt's Love The earlier organizers called for a new protest in what was dubbed the "Day of Egypt's Love". (Arabic: يوم حب مصر). Over a million people gathered in and around Tahrir Square to demonstrate. At least 1,000 went to the parliament to demand Mubarak's resignation while others went to the Shura Council and the Council of Ministers. They later slept in front of those buildings, besides the usual camp in Tahrir Square. Hundreds of journalists gathered in the lobby of the state-owned newspaper Al-Ahram's headquarters to protest corruption and to call for greater freedom of the press. A substantial protest took place in Alexandria, while workers at the Suez Canal went on strike. BBC correspondents reported that by the afternoon the protests had the highest turnout to date. Ibrahim Yosri, a lawyer and former deputy foreign minister, drafted a petition, along with 20 other lawyers, asking the Prosecutor General Abdel Meguid Mahmoud to try Mubarak and his family for stealing state wealth. According to the state-owned Middle East News Agency, The newly appointed Mubarak's Interior Minister, Mahmoud Wagdy, issued an order releasing 34 political detainees, mostly members of the Muslim Brotherhood. In a statement on Egyptian state television, Suleiman announced the formation of two independent committees for political and constitutional reforms, both starting work immediately. One committee would carry out constitutional and legislative amendments to enable a shift of power. The other would monitor the implementation of all proposed reforms. Suleiman also stressed that demonstrators would not be prosecuted and that a separate independent fact-finding committee would be established to probe the violence of 2 February. He said that wider press freedoms were under consideration and that he would produce a list of what was needed to hold free elections. He also said that plans were underway to organize a peaceful transfer of power. Suleiman reiterated his view that Egypt was not ready for democracy, while warning of a possible coup d'état unless demonstrators agreed to enter negotiations. ### 9 February Some protesters moved from Tahrir Square to the area outside the parliament buildings, while demanding the assembly's immediate dissolution. The demonstrators put up a sign that said: "Closed until the fall of the regime". Cabinet offices in Cairo were evacuated after anti-government protesters gathered outside the building. Meanwhile, labour unions across the country, and particularly in Alexandria, Cairo and Suez, staged general strikes, demanding higher wages and better treatment. The strikers were said to number around 20,000 workers. Violent clashes were reported in Wadi al-Jadid, where police stations and the NDP party building were destroyed, and several deaths and hundreds of injuries also occurred. Protesters in Port Said burnt down the governor's office in response to his reluctance to provide enough housing for the city's residents. Clashes were said to have killed three people and wounded hundreds more in the past two days. Egyptians living outside the country returned to join the anti-government demonstrations. An Internet campaign sought to mobilise thousands of expatriates to return home and support the uprising. The government followed up on a prisoner amnesty from the previous day, releasing 1,000 more prisoners who had served three-quarters of their sentence; 840 more were released from Sinai province. The Muslim Brotherhood continued to demand for Mubarak's resignation. The offices of state-owned Channel 5 in Alexandria were shut down and evacuated under the order of its chief amid mounting pressure by protesters. The government warned of a military crackdown amid ongoing protests. Foreign Minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit rejected US calls to repeal the emergency law and also accused the US of trying to impose its will on the Egyptian government. The newly appointed Mubarak's Culture Minister Gaber Asfour resigned after one week in office, citing health problems. ### 10 February The protests continued at Tahrir Square and the parliament building. 3,000 lawyers marched from the lawyers' syndicate in downtown Cairo to Abdeen Palace, one of Mubarak's official residences. About a thousand physicians, dressed in white coats, also arrived at Tahrir Square to applause. Strikes at national industries, including tourism and transportation, continued and spread to Alexandria, Mahalla and Port Said. Protesters around Egypt, expecting Mubarak's resignation, were described as euphoric, while singing and waving Egyptian flags. Fighter aircraft were heard above the Tahrir Square at 20:00 amid calls for the "destruction of the regime." In Alexandria, over 1,000 "diehard" protesters were reported by the train station. Prior to Mubarak's speech, contradictory reports from various media sources around the world stated that either Suleiman or Tantawi was expected to take over. The military council also met without Mubarak. The Muslim Brotherhood had feared a coup at one point. The head of the NDP said that Mubarak should go for the good of the country. Al Hurra TV reported that Mubarak was planning to hand authority to the Egyptian army. General Hassan al-Roueini, the military commander for the Cairo area, told protesters in Tahrir Square, "All your demands will be met today." State TV added that Mubarak would speak that night from his Cairo palace. This came after Egypt's military proclaimed on television that they had stepped in to "safeguard the country". The Associated Press suggested a military coup might be occurring. State TV showed Defence Minister Field Marshal Mohamed Hussein Tantawi meeting with two dozen top army officers. Mubarak and Suleiman were not present. However, information minister Anas el-Fiqqi, denied that Mubarak would resign. Prime Minister Ahmed Shafiq said, "everything is in the hands of President Hosni Mubarak and no decisions have been taken yet." Al Arabiya television, citing "trusted sources" just minutes before Mubarak was to speak, said he would transfer his powers to his vice president. In his television statement, Mubarak said that he would penalise those responsible for the violence and had a clear vision on how to end the crisis, but was satisfied with what he had offered. He stated that while remaining president to the end of his term in September he would transfer his powers to the vice-president. As far as transfer of power was concerned, Mubarak said "I have seen that it is required to delegate the powers and authorities of the president to the vice president as dictated in the constitution,". The constitutional article was used to transfer powers if the president was "temporarily" unable to carry out his duties and did not require his resignation. He also said he would request six constitutional amendments and that he would lift emergency laws when security in the country permitted. Mubarak said he would stay in the country and was "adamant to continue to shoulder my responsibility to protect the constitution and safeguard the interests of the people ... until power is handed over to those elected in September by the people in free and fair elections in which all the guarantees of transparencies will be secured." Protesters watched in stunned silence or in anger to his speech, some crying or waving their shoes in the air. People in Tahrir Square chanted "Leave! Leave! Leave!" after Mubarak's speech. Suleiman called on the protesters to go home. Protesters then moved to the state television and radio buildings. Soon after the television announcement, a large number of protesters began to march towards the presidential palace. ElBaradei said, "Egypt will explode" because Mubarak refused to step down and called on the military to intervene. Mubarak's top aides, family and son Gamal told him he could ride out the turmoil, which convinced him to cling to power. It was also reported that one son, Alaa, accused his younger brother Gamal of ruining their father's reputation. Eyewitnesses said that the Egyptian army had pulled out troops from many locations near the presidential palace. ### 11 February Shock that Mubarak did not step down resulted in a nationwide escalation of protests on 11 February, named again as the "Friday of Departure" by the opposition movement. Massive protests continued in Cairo, Alexandria, and other cities. The presidential palace and parliament remained surrounded by protesters and thousands of people surrounded the state TV building, keeping anyone from entering or leaving. The army issued a communiqué supporting Mubarak's attempt to remain de jure president. Hossam Badrawi, the new secretary of the NDP, resigned from unhappiness with Mubarak's refusal to leave. Demonstrators began to gather at new locations in Cairo. The army surrounded the presidential palace and state television and radio buildings as protesters surrounded the Egyptian radio and television union building demanding fair media coverage. State television shifted its attitude towards the protesters and begun referring to them as Jan25 Youth, admitting mistakes had been made in the media coverage of the protests: "We [the state TV] were under an information chaos," the news anchor stated. "We had strict orders from external sides." Major protests occurred in Alexandria and Mansoura. In Arish, in north Sinai, the second police station in 24 hours came under heavy arms fire—including RPGs—in which at least one protester was killed and 20 injured, with possibly more police fatalities. #### Resignation As the protesters started marching onto the Presidential Palace in the morning, Mubarak and his family reportedly left the Palace by helicopter which took them to the nearby Almaza Airbase, where they boarded the Presidential jet and headed to Sharm el-Sheikh. Former Finance Minister Youssef Boutros Ghali fled to Beirut. Vice President Omar Suleiman announced after 18:00 Cairo local time (GMT +2) on 11 February that the presidency had been vacated and the army council would run the country: Mubarak's resignation was followed by nationwide celebrations. ElBaradei told the Associated Press "This is the greatest day of my life. The country has been liberated after decades of repression," and he expected a "beautiful" transition of power. Mohammed ElBaradei said that "Egypt is free." Various media outlets pointed out that this date was also the anniversary of the Iranian Revolution, which occurred on 11 February 1979. An exchange-traded fund based on the Egyptian stock market listed at the NYSE Euronext increased by 5% following the announcement. Egyptian five-year credit default swaps fell by 0.25%. Al Arabiya reported that the military council said it would sack the cabinet and dissolve parliament, although they only did the latter. Celebrations and car honking were reported in Alexandria and Cairo. Celebratory gunfire in Gaza. CBS correspondent Lara Logan was covering the jubilation in Tahrir Square when she suffered a brutal and sustained sexual assault and beating before being saved by a group of women and an estimated 20 Egyptian soldiers.
1,320,257	Resplendent quetzal	1,171,989,798	Species of bird	[ "Birds described in 1832", "Birds of Central America", "Birds of Guatemala", "Birds of Honduras", "Birds of Mexico", "Birds of the Talamancan montane forests", "Guatemalan culture", "National symbols of Guatemala", "Natural history of Mesoamerica", "Pharomachrus" ]	The resplendent quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) is a small bird found in southern Mexico and Central America that lives in tropical forests, particularly montane cloud forests. They are part of the family Trogonidae and have two recognized subspecies, P. m. mocinno and P. m. costaricensis. Like other quetzals, the resplendent is mostly omnivorous; its diet mainly consists of fruits of plants in the laurel family, Lauraceae, but it occasionally also preys on insects, lizards, frogs and snails. The species is well known for its colorful and complex plumage that differs substantially between sexes. Males have iridescent green plumes, a red lower breast and belly, black innerwings and a white undertail, whilst females are duller and have a shorter tail. Grey lower breasts, bellies, and bills, along with bronze-green heads are characteristic of females. These birds hollow holes in decaying trees or use ones already made by woodpeckers as a nest site. They are known to take turns while incubating, males throughout the day and females at night. The female usually lays one to three eggs, which hatch in 17 to 19 days. The quetzal is an altitudinal migrant, migrating from the slopes to the canopy of the forest. This occurs during the breeding season, which varies depending on the location, but usually commences in March and extends as far as August. The resplendent quetzal is considered near threatened on the IUCN Red List, with habitat destruction being the main threat. It has an important role in Mesoamerican mythology, and is closely associated with Quetzalcoatl, a deity. It is the national animal of Guatemala, being pictured on the flag and coat of arms; it also gives its name to the country's currency, the Guatemalan quetzal. ## Taxonomy The resplendent quetzal was first described by Mexican naturalist Pablo de La Llave in 1832. It is one of five species of the genus Pharomachrus, commonly known as quetzals. Quetzal is usually specifically used to refer to the resplendent, but it typically applies to all members of the genera Pharomachrus and Euptilotis. Some scholars label the crested quetzal as a very close relative of the resplendent, and either suggest the crested quetzal to be a subspecies of the resplendent or the two form a superspecies. The quetzal clade is thought to have spread out from where it emerged in the Andes, the resplendent quetzal being the youngest species. The name of the genus, Pharomachrus, refers to the physical characteristics of the bird, with pharos meaning and makros meaning 'long' in Ancient Greek. The word 'quetzal' came from Nahuatl (Aztec), where quetzalli (from the root quetza, meaning 'stand') means 'tall upstanding plume' and then 'quetzal tail feather'; from that, Nahuatl quetzaltotōtl means 'quetzal-feather bird' and thus 'quetzal'. Two subspecies are recognized, P. m. mocinno and P. m. costaricensis, although there is an ongoing debate about whether costaricensis should be recognized as a distinct species. The specific epithet mocinno is a Latinization of the name of the biologist José Mariano M. Mociño, a mentor of his. ## Description The resplendent quetzal is the largest trogon. It is 36 to 40 cm (14–16 in) long; in the nominate subspecies, the tail streamers measure between 31 cm (12 in) and 100.5 cm (39.6 in), with the median being 75 cm (30 in) for males. The nominate subspecies weighs about 210 g (7.4 oz), while the subspecies costaricensis is slightly smaller than the nominate race, with shorter wings and bills. The tail plumes are shorter and narrower, measuring between 32 cm (13 in) and 86 cm (34 in), with the median being 63 cm (25 in). Resplendent quetzals have a green body (showing iridescence from green-gold to blue-violet) and a red lower breast and belly. Depending on the light, quetzal feathers can shine in a variant of colors: from green, cobalt, lime, and yellow to ultramarine. Their green upper hide their tails and are particularly splendid in breeding males, being longer than the rest of the body. Though the quetzal's plumage appears green, they are actually brown due to the pigment melanin. The primary wing coverts are also unusually long and have a fringed appearance. The male has a helmet-like crest. The bill, which is partly covered by green filamentous feathers, is yellow in mature males and grey in females. Their iridescent feathers, which cause them to appear shiny and green like the canopy leaves, are a camouflage adaptation to hide within the canopy during rainy weather. The quetzal's skin is very thin and easily torn, so it has evolved thick plumage to protect its skin. It has large eyes, adapted to see in the dim light of the forest. Their song is an array of full-toned, mellow, slurred notes in plain patterns and is often remarkably melodious: keow, kowee, keow, k'loo, keeloo. ## Distribution and habitat This species inhabits amidst lush vegetation, in specially moist rainforests at high elevations (900–3,200 m (3,000–10,500 ft)). They populate trees that make up the canopy and subcanopy of the rainforest, though they can also be found in ravines and cliffs. It prefers to live in decaying trees, stumps, and abandoned woodpecker hollows. The vivid colors of the quetzal are disguised by the rainforest. The resplendent quetzal can be found from southern Mexico (southernmost Oaxaca and Chiapas) to western Panama (Chiriquí). The ranges of the two subspecies differ: P. m. mocinno is found in southern Mexico, northern El Salvador, and northwestern Nicaragua, Guatemala and Honduras, while P. m. costaricensis is found in Costa Rica and western Panama. The geographical isolation between the two subspecies is caused by the Nicaraguan depression, a 50 km (31 mi) wide, 600 km (370 mi) long bottomland that contains the two largest lakes in Central America, Lake Managua and Lake Nicaragua, and the deficiency of the breeding habitats in regions adjoining to. The quetzal migrates from its breeding areas in the lower montane rainforest to the pre-montane rainforest on the Pacific slopes for three to four months (July–October), after which they move across the continental divide to the Atlantic slopes. Quetzal's abundance in its mating areas is correlated with the total number of fruiting species, although the correlation between quetzal abundance and the number of fruiting Lauraceae species is only marginal. ## Behavior Resplendent quetzals generally display shy and quiet behaviour to elude predators. In contrast, they are rather vocal during the mating season and their behavior is designated to exhibit and attract mates. Their known predators include the ornate hawk-eagle, golden eagle, and other hawks and owls as adults, along with emerald toucanets, brown jays, long-tailed weasels, squirrels, and kinkajous as nestlings or eggs. The resplendent quetzal plays an important ecological role in the cloud forests, helping disseminate the seeds of at least 32 tree species. ### Feeding Resplendent quetzals are considered specialized fruit-eaters, feeding on 41 to 43 species, although they also feed on insects (primarily wasps, ants, and larvae), frogs, lizards, and snails. Particularly important are the Symplococarpon purpusii and wild avocados, as well as other fruits of the laurel family, which the birds swallow whole before regurgitating the pits, which helps to disperse these trees. Quetzals feed more frequently in the midday hours. The adults eat a more fruit-based diet than the chicks, who eat insects primarily and some fruits. Over fifty percent of the fruit they eat are laurels. Quetzals use the methods of "hovering" and "stalling" in order to selectively pick the fruit from near the tips of the branches. ### Breeding Resplendent quetzals create their nests over 200 feet (60 m) up in the air and court in the air with specific calls. Six specific vocal calls have been recorded: the two-note whistle, gee-gee, wahc-ah-wahc, wec-wec, whistle, coouee, uwac, chatter, and buzzing. The first call is related to male territorial behavior, while the coouee whistle is a mating call. Resplendent quetzals usually live alone when not breeding. They are monogamous territorial breeders, with the size of their territory in Guatemala being 6–10 ha (15–25 acres). They are also seasonal breeders, with the breeding season lasting from March to April in Mexico, May to June in El Salvador, and March to May in Guatemala. When breeding, females lay one to three pale blue eggs with a mean of 38.9 millimetres (1.53 in) x 32.4 millimetres (1.28 in) in a nest placed in a hole which they carve in a rotten tree. Resplendent quetzals tend to lay two clutches per year and are known to have a high rate of nest failure, 67-78%. One of the most important factors when choosing a nest location for the quetzal is that the tree must be in a stage of decomposition and decay. They often reuse their previous sites. The height of nest stubs is 41 feet (10 m) and the nest holes 31 feet (9 m). Both parents take turns at incubating, with their long tail coverts folded forwards over out of the hole, giving them the appearance of a bunch of fern growing out of the hole. The incubation period lasts about 17 to 19 days, during which the male generally incubates the eggs during the day while the female incubates them at night. When the eggs hatch, both parents take care of the young, feeding them entire fruits, such as berries and avocados, as early as the second day. However, chicks are primarily fed insects, lizards, snails and small frogs. It was observed that males generally give more food, namely insects, than females. Nestlings are often neglected and even abandoned by females near the end of the rearing period, leaving it up to the male to continue caring for the offspring until they are ready to survive on their own. During the incubation period, parents land and rotate their heads side to side before entering the nest, a process known as "bowing in". This process ends when the chicks hatch. Young quetzals begin flying after a month, but the distinctive long tail feathers can take three years to develop in males. ## Conservation status The population trend varies between subpopulations but is generally decreasing although certain populations may be increasing or are at least stable. It is classified as being near threatened on the IUCN Red List, with an estimated population of 20,000–49,999 individuals. Due to the remote habitat of the quetzal, more monitoring is required to confirm the rate of decline, and depending on the results it could lead to it moving to a higher threat category. In 2001, the quetzal survived only in 11 small, isolated patches of forest. Its biggest threats are habitat loss because of deforestation, forest fragmentation, and agricultural clearing. The quetzal is also sometimes hunted for food and trapped for illegal trading. Cloud forests, the resplendent quetzal's habitat, are one of the most threatened ecosystems in the world, but the species occurs in several protected areas and is a sought-after species for birdwatchers and ecotourists. It was thought that the resplendent quetzal could not be bred or held for a long time in captivity, and was noted for usually dying soon after being captured or caged as a result of assimilation of iron through water ingestion, with this now understood they are now given tannic acid and iron is avoided in their diet. For this reason, it is a traditional symbol of liberty. The national anthem of Guatemala even includes the verse "Antes muerto que esclavo será" (Be rather dead than a slave). However, the scientific discovery about the bird's susceptibility to iron has allowed some zoos, including Miguel Álvarez del Toro Zoo in Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, to keep this species. Breeding in captivity was announced in 2004. ## In culture The resplendent quetzal is of great importance to Guatemalan culture, being present in various legends and myths. It was considered divine and associated with Quetzalcoatl, a feathered serpent and god of life, light, knowledge and the winds, by pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations. Its scintillating green tail feathers, symbolizes spring plant sprout, were venerated by the Aztec and Maya. The Maya also regarded the quetzal as figurative of freedom and wealth on account of quetzals deceasing in captivity and the worth of their feathers along with jade, correspondingly. Mesoamerican rulers and some high ranked nobles wore diadems created from quetzal feathers, symbolically linking them to Quetzalcoatl. Since the killing of quetzals was forbidden under the Mayas and Aztec criminal law, the bird was merely seized, its prolonged tail feathers deplumed, and was set loose. In ancient Mayan culture, the quetzal feathers were considered so precious that they were even used as a medium of exchange. Thus the name of the Guatemala currency, the quetzal. In various Mesoamerican languages, the word quetzal can as well mean precious, sacred, or king, warrior, prince''. One Mayan legend has it that a resplendent quetzal accompanied the hero, Tecún Umán, prince of the Quiché (K'iche') Maya, during his battle against Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado. Tecún, equipped with just an arrow and bow, nevertheless is able to incapacitate Alvarado's horse on the first strike. Alvarado was then given a second horse and counter-charged against Tecún, running his chest through with a spear. A quetzal flew down and alighted on Tecún's body, drenching its chest in his blood. It was then that the species, which used to be completely green, obtained its characteristic red chest feathers. Additionally, from that day on, the quetzal, which sang delightfully before the Spanish conquest, has been mute ever since; it will sing anew solely when the land is fully liberated. ## Gallery
472,997	HMS Gallant (H59)	1,060,337,429	G-class destroyer	[ "1935 ships", "G and H-class destroyers of the Royal Navy", "Maritime incidents in April 1942", "Maritime incidents in January 1941", "Maritime incidents in September 1943", "Ships built on the River Clyde", "World War II destroyers of the United Kingdom", "World War II shipwrecks in the Mediterranean Sea" ]	HMS Gallant (H59) was a G-class destroyer, built for the Royal Navy in the mid-1930s. During the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939 the ship spent considerable time in Spanish waters, enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict. Gallant was transferred from the Mediterranean Fleet shortly after the beginning of World War II to the British Isles, to escort shipping in local waters. She was slightly damaged by German aircraft during the evacuation of Allied troops from Dunkirk at the end of May 1940. Following repairs, Gallant was transferred to Gibraltar and served with Force H for several months. In November, the ship was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet, where she escorted several convoys. She struck a mine in January 1941 and was towed to Malta for repairs. These were proved extensive and Gallant was further damaged by near-misses during an air raid in April 1942, before they were completed. The additional damage made the ship uneconomical to repair so she was scuttled as a blockship in 1943. Her wreck was broken up in 1953. ## Description Gallant displaced 1,350 long tons (1,370 t) at standard load and 1,883 long tons (1,913 t) at deep load. The ship had an overall length of 323 feet (98.5 m), a beam of 33 feet (10.1 m) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches (3.8 m). She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines, driving two shafts, which developed a total of 34,000 shaft horsepower (25,000 kW) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph). Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3-drum water-tube boilers. Gallant carried a maximum of 470 long tons (480 t) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5,530 nautical miles (10,240 km; 6,360 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). The ship's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime, but it increased to 146 in wartime. The ship mounted four 45-calibre 4.7-inch (120 mm) Mark IX guns in single mounts. For anti-aircraft defence Gallant had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0.5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun. She was fitted with two above-water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21-inch (533 mm) torpedoes. One rail and two depth charge throwers were fitted; 20 depth charges were originally carried, but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began. ## Service Gallant was laid down by Alexander Stephen and Sons in Glasgow, Scotland, on 15 September 1934, launched on 26 September 1935 and completed on 25 February 1936. Excluding government-furnished equipment like the armament, the ship cost £252,920. She was assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning. Gallant patrolled Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War enforcing the edicts of the Non-Intervention Committee. She pulled off a Spanish merchantman that had grounded between Almeria and Málaga on 20 December 1936. The ship was attacked by a Spanish Nationalist aircraft off Cape San Antonio on 6 April 1937, but was not damaged. The next month she returned to Great Britain for an overhaul at Sheerness between 31 May and 21 July 1937. When World War II began in September 1939, Gallant was in the Mediterranean, but she and her entire flotilla were transferred to the Western Approaches Command at Plymouth in October. After a boiler cleaning, the ship was reassigned at the end of the month to the Nore Command in Harwich for patrol and escort duties. On 2 February 1940 Gallant and her sister ship, Griffin, rescued the crew from the oil tanker British Councillor which was sinking after it had struck a mine. Gallant took over escorting Convoy HN 12 after the destroyer Duchess was sunk on 18 February and she rescued 12 survivors from the Swedish ship Santos near Duncansby Head a week later. On 20 March 1940 she escorted the armed merchant cruisers Cilicia and Carinthia after they collided. The ship was refitted at Southampton between 28 March and 30 April and rejoined her flotilla at Harwich the next day. During the evening of 9/10 May, Gallant and the destroyer Bulldog rescued most of the crew of the destroyer Kelly after the latter ship was torpedoed by a German E-boat in the North Sea. While Gallant was participating in the Dunkirk evacuation, a near miss by a bomb on 29 May knocked out her steering and caused minor damage to her hull and electrical systems. She was repaired at Hull and encountered a German mine-laying sortie on the evening of 5/6 June off Lowestoft when in company with the destroyer Walpole. Later in June the ship was refitted in Chatham Dockyard with a 12-pounder 3-inch (76 mm) anti-aircraft gun that replaced the rear torpedo tube mount. After her refit Gallant was transferred to the 13th Destroyer Flotilla of the North Atlantic Command, arriving at Gibraltar on 30 July. On her voyage south the ship escorted the aircraft carrier Argus which was loaded with a dozen Hawker Hurricane fighters. During Operation Hurry, Gallant, and three other destroyers, escorted Argus to a position south-west of Sardinia so the carrier could fly off her Hurricanes to Malta on 2 August. After her return to Gibraltar the ship was transferred to Force H. On 20 October, Gallant, her sister Griffin and the destroyer Hotspur sank the Italian submarine Lafolè east of Gibraltar. The ship escorted the battleship Barham and the cruisers Berwick and Glasgow during Operation Coat in early November as they joined the Mediterranean Fleet. Gallant herself was transferred to the 14th Destroyer Flotilla at Malta on 10 November. She participated in the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento on 27 November during Operation Collar. On 10 January 1941, during Operation Excess, the Italian torpedo boats Circe and Vega attempted an attack on the Allied convoy off Pantellaria. Right after the engagement, in which Vega was sunk, Gallant struck a mine that detonated her forward magazine, because the Italian action pushed the British convoy too much south of their pre-established route. The explosion blew the bow off the ship, killing 65 and injuring 15 more of her crew. Her sister Griffin rescued most of the survivors and the destroyer HMS Mohawk towed her stern-first to Malta. The ship was slowly repaired and in October 1941 it was estimated that they would be completed in June 1942. However, on 5 April 1942, she was extensively damaged by bomb splinters by an air raid on Valletta and had to be beached at Pinto's Wharf to prevent her from sinking. She was judged to be a constructive total loss and any usable equipment was stripped from her hulk. Gallant was expended as a blockship at St Paul's Island in September 1943, with the wreck being broken up in 1953.
1,343,587	Kulottunga I	1,173,491,963	11th-century Indian monarch	[ "1120 deaths", "11th-century Indian monarchs", "12th-century Indian monarchs", "Chola dynasty", "Suryavansha", "Year of birth unknown" ]	Kulottunga Chola I (/ɡʊloʊtjəhuːnəɡə/; Middle Tamil: Kulōttuṅka Cōḻaṉ; Classical Sanskrit: Kulōttuṅgā Cōla; 1025 CE - 1122 CE) also spelt Kulothunga (lit. 'The Exalter of His Race'), born Rajendra Chalukya (Telugu: Rājēndra Cāḷukyuḍu), was a Chola Emperor who reigned from 1070 CE to 1122 CE succeeding his cousin Athirajendra Chola. He also served as the Eastern Chalukya king from 1061 CE to 1118 CE, succeeding his father Rajaraja Narendra. He is related to the Chola dynasty through his mother's side and the Eastern Chalukyas through his father's side. His mother, Ammangaidevi, was a Chola princess and the daughter of emperor Rajendra Chola I. His father was king Rajaraja Narendra of the Eastern Chalukya dynasty who was the nephew of Rajendra Chola I and maternal grandson of Rajaraja Chola I. According to historian Sailendra Nath Sen, his accession marked the beginning of a new era and ushered in a period of internal peace and benevolent administration. Kulottunga had diplomatic relations with the north Indian city Kanauj and also with distant countries like Cambodia, Srivijaya, Khmer, Pagan (Burma) and China. He established Chola overlordship over the Srivijayan province of Kedah in Malay Peninsula. An inscription in a Taoist temple in Guangzhou, dated to 1079 CE, declares Kulottunga, King of Chulien (Chola) to be the supreme chief of the Land of San-fo-tsi (Srivijaya). According to Tan Yeok Seong, the editor of the inscription, Kulottunga ruled both the Chola and Srivijayan kingdoms. In the small Leyden grant that is dated to 1090 CE, the king of Kadaram (Srivijaya) is mentioned as a vassal of Kulottunga. Like his predecessors, Kulottunga was a patron of arts and literature and the much celebrated Tamil poem Kalingattuparani was composed during his rule by poet Jayamkondaan who lived in his court. His records also testify to the highly organised system of fiscal and local administration. During his reign Kulottunga carried out a massive land survey that formed the basis for taxation. Kulatunga died around 1122 CE around the age of 97, although this is disputed. This makes him one of the longest living monarchs in the Middle Ages. He was succeeded by his son Vikrama Chola. According to historian Nilakanta Sastri, Kulottunga avoided unnecessary wars and evinced a true regard for the well-being of his subjects. He had a long and prosperous reign characterized by unparalleled success that laid the foundation for the well being of the empire for the next 150 years. ## Birth and early life Kulottunga was born under the star of Pusya around 1025 CE . The details of the king's family and parentage are available from a number of grants and plates like the one from Chelluru(a village in Rayavaram Mandalam of Konaseema district ) that was issued by his son, prince Vira Chola, and from literary works, such as the famous poem Kalingattupparani. Kulottunga was the maternal grandson of Emperor Rajendra Chola I through the latter's daughter Ammangadevi. His father was the Eastern Chalukya king Rajaraja Narendra who himself was the son of Kundavai, the younger sister of Rajendra Chola I and the daughter of Rajaraja I. Rajaraja Narendra married princess Ammangadevi, the daughter of his maternal uncle, Rajendra Chola I of the solar race. The latter is described as "the ornament of the race of the sun" in the Chellur plates of Vira Chola. The poem Kalingattuparani gives the details of Kulottunga's birth in the canto "Avataram" (incarnation), wherein his mother is described as belonging to the solar race and his father to the lunar race. Kulottunga is described as an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu in the canto. An excerpt from the poem reads: > Vishnu appeared again in the royal womb of the queen of him of the race of the moon which dispels all darkness, ... Rajaraja's gracious Lakshmi (queen) who was of the rival race of the sun. As a Chola prince he conquered the Sri Vijaya province Kedah and Chakrakota province (Bastar-Kalahandi district-Koraput region) on behalf of his maternal uncle, emperor Virarajendra Chola, in the 11th century. ## Accession According to the Tamil poem Kalingattuparani, Kulottunga was brought up in the court of Rajendra Chola I in Gangaikondacholapuram. During his youth, Kulottunga participated in many wars, serving alongside both Rajendra Chola I and his successors, Rajadhiraja I, Rajendra Chola II and Virarajendra Chola. During this period, he engaged in the northern campaigns of the empire in and around Sakkarakottam and Vayiragaram where he secured several victories and proved his mettle in warfare. The Sakkarakottam area is identified with the present day Bastar-Kalahandi district-Koraput region which together formed the Chakrakota province back in medieval times. According to Kalingattuparani, it was around this time that Mannar-Mannavan, that is, the "king of kings", suddenly died and the empire was thrown into a state of anarchy until Abhaya, that is Kulottunga, returned and restored order. The Teki, Chellur and Pithapuram grants of Kulottunga's sons, dated in the 17th, 21st and 23rd years of the king's reign, state that in the absence of the king's father, Rajaraja Narendra, Kulottunga was first crowned as the lord of Vengi where he obtained great fame. As per the plates. the king was later crowned in the Chola Rajya, a position said to be not less exalted than Devendra (Indra). These events are narrated as a flashback story in the Chellur grant, wherein Kulottunga explains to his son, prince Vira Chola, that he left Vengi to his (Kulottunga's) paternal uncle (Vijayaditya) as he (Kulottunga) desired the Chola kingdom. Other sources like Vikramankadevacharita, a work on the western Chalukya Vikramaditya VI by his court poet Bilhana, and Vikraman Solan Ula, a work on Kulottunga's son and successor Vikrama Chola by poet Ottakoothar, corroborate these events more or less and both works agree that there was a king between Virarajendra Chola and Kulottunga. This king has been identified with Adhirajendra and it is after the death of this Chola king that the kingdom was thrown into a state of anarchy. According to Vikramankadevacharita, Kulottunga got dislodged from Vengi due to some confusion in the Chola kingdom after the death of Virarajendra Chola. Even during the time of Virarajendra Chola, Vikramaditya VI and the Eastern Ganga king Rajaraja Devendravarman both supported Vijayaditya, the paternal uncle of Kulottunga, in his claim to the Vengi kingdom. Kulottunga is then said to have marched south to the Chola capital. Bilhana goes on to state that his patron, Vikramaditya VI, tried stopping Kulottunga from ascending the Chola throne by instead installing Adhirajendra (Vikramaditya's brother-in-law) as king. However this arrangement was short-lived and Kulottunga eventually succeeded in capturing the throne. Historian Nilakanta Sastri argues against the theories proposed by Fleet and other similar historians, about a hostile invasion of the Chola empire by Kulottunga. In Sastri's words, "the work Vikramankadevacarita does not contain the remotest suggestion that Kulottunga put his rivals out of the way by secret murder or even by open fighting". Ottakoothar's Vikrama Cholan Ula mentions Kulottunga's reign: > The first Kulothunga Chola conquered the Pandya king with his fish banner and the Chera king with his bow banner. He defeated his enemy kings in Kanthalurchalai, two times and took over the lands of Konganam and Karnataka. Defeating warriors on the battlefield, he subdued the valor of the Marata kings. His rule spread until the northern lands. He removed and crushed poverty and reduced taxes. His wheel of dharma encircled the world surrounded by the ocean. He, the king Abhaya Chola decorated with his shining Athi garland and gave grace to his land. Such is the glory of the father of Vikrama Chola. Kulottunga's own inscriptions also speak of the lack of leadership in the Chola country before ascension and in his records the king claims that he rightfully inherited the excellent crown of the Cholas. The king's epigraphs poetically claim that he ascended the throne to prevent the goddess Lakshmi of Southern region from becoming common property (an allusion to the illegitimate claims to the throne and meddling of affairs by kings of rival kingdoms), and to remove the loneliness of the goddess of the Chola country adorned by river Ponni (an allusion to the power vacuum in the empire). Thus it was under these circumstances that Kulottunga ascended the Chola throne in 1070 CE and established himself by soon overcoming the threats to the Chola Empire. According to Sastri, Kulottunga was in his teens or barely into his twenties when he ascended the throne. Military campaigns ### Sakkarakottam When Kulottunga was still a prince, he participated in many of the northern campaigns of his predecessor Virarajendra Chola. In the fifth year of his reign Virarajendra Chola dispatched his army to Kalinga and beyond it to Sakkarakottam. These expeditions appear to have been led by Kulottunga, who in his inscriptions claims that while he was still heir-apparent, he overcame the treachery of his enemies and by the strength of his arm and sword captured herds of elephants at Vayiragaram, conquered Sakkarakottam and graciously took tribute from the king of Dhara. Vayiragaram is identified with Wairagarh, a few miles off Bastar in the Chanda district and Sakkarakottam is the area in and around Bastar-Kalahandi-Koraput region which was called as the Chakrakota mandala in medieval times. Dhara is the Nagavanshi king Dharavarsha who was the ruler of Sakkarakottam during this period. The "treachery" that Kulottunga speaks of is an allusion to the internal politics of the empire and the schemes of his rivals who sought to deny him his rightful inheritance. According to Sastri, in spite of these setbacks, Kulottunga was successful in carving out a small principality for himself, north of Vengi, for Kulottunga claims that he gently raised the goddess of the earth residing in the "Land of the rising sun" and placed her under the shade of his parasol just like god Vishnu, who in his Varaha avatar lifted the earth. ## Conflict on Southern India ### Western Chalukya conflicts The Western Chalukya-Chola rivalry goes back to the beginning of the 10th century. The Western Chalukyas waged many wars with the Chola emperors and on each occasion the wars ended with the Cholas chasing their rivals, the Chalukyas, out of the battlefield, occupying their capital, with death of their generals or feudatories and levying tribute. Tailapa II and his son Satyashraya, who were opponents of Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, ended up being defeated at Annigeri and at Kogali respectively, Jayasimha was defeated in Kadambalige, Ahavamalla Someshwara I suffered defeats many a time at the hands of Rajadhiraja Chola, and lost his brother Jayasingan in battle with Rajendra Chola II. After Rajadhiraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola II, their brother Virarajendra Chola defeated Ahavamalla Someshwara I on not less than five occasions. Virarajendra Chola also put to flight the latter's two sons, Vikkalan (Vikramaditya VI) and Singanan (Jayasimha III), multiple times in the battles of Kudala sangama. Virarajendra Chola also defeated the eldest son of Ahavamalla Someshwara I, and crown-prince Someshwara II in Kampili, and spoiled his coronation ceremony. Ahavamalla Someshwara I seems to have died in the reign of Virarajendra Chola as there is no mention of him in Kulottunga's records. This is evident from a record of Virarajendra Chola, who in his fifth year states that unable to bear the disgrace of his earlier defeats, Ahavamalla Someshwara I wrote a letter to the Chola calling for war, but in the end never showed up and instead fled and plunged himself into the ocean. This is conceded in Bilhana's Vikramankadevacharita, a work on the life of Vikramaditya VI who claims that Ahavamalla Someshwara I died around this time by committing ritual suicide by drowning himself in the Tungabhadra. Upon his father's death, Vikramaditya VI approached Virarajendra and sued for peace and the Chola agreed as he saw in him an ally to counter and nullify the crown-prince Someshvara II. Accordingly, the Chola offered his daughter's hand in marriage, bestowed upon him the Rattapadi-seven-and-a-half-lakh country and made him the Vallabha (Chalukyan king). Vikramaditya readily accepted the deal for he had his own plans to overthrow his elder brother, which he would eventually accomplish and then usurp the throne. There was also another contender, Vijayaditya, on whom Virarajendra had bestowed Vengi towards the end of his reign. Some historians identify this Vijayaditya with the Eastern Chalukyan prince and half-brother of Rajaraja Narendra while others like Venkayya suggest that this person was yet another younger brother of Vikramaditya VI. That this Vijayaditya was an ally of Vikramaditya VI is evident from an inscription of Rajadhiraja Chola I. So at the end of Virarajendra reign, Kulottunga found himself facing Vikkalan (Vikramaditya VI), the latter's younger brother Singanan (Jayasimha), their elder brother Someshwara II and their younger brother or ally Vijayaditya. It was clear from the time Kulottunga ascended the throne that a confrontation with the Western Chalukyas was imminent as Vikramaditya VI could never accept the union of the Chola and Vengi kingdoms under the same ruler, let alone Kulottunga accession, for it simply meant an enemy too powerful. Kulottunga knew this from the very beginning and accordingly made preparations for the showdown. In 1075-76 CE, the war began with the incursion of the Chalukyan forces into the Chola territories and the two armies met in the Kolar district. What followed was the Chola counter-attack popularly known as the Nangili episode. In the ensuing battle, the Chalukyan army was completely routed and chased by the Chola forces from the rocky roads of Nangili all the way to the Tungabhadra via Manalur. Vikramaditya is said to have retreated hastily and fled, leaving behind the corpses of his dead elephants along the way. Kulottunga captured a thousand elephants at Navilai and conquered two provinces the Gangamandalam (the province of the Western Ganga dynasty) and Singanam as a direct result of this war. Navilai has been identified with Navale-nadu in the Mysore district, and Singanam referred to the region of Jayasimha, the younger brother of Vikramaditya VI. The word Konkana desam (country of Konkan) is substituted for the word Singanam in some of the records. Kulottunga, in his records, claims that at the end of this war, he broke the pride of Vikramaditya VI and that Vikkalan (Vikramaditya VI) and Singanan (Jayasimha) had nowhere to retreat except to plunge into the western ocean. Some other records of Kulottunga state that Vikramaditya VI fled back to his own dominion (north of the Tungabhadra), his pride broken, and that he (Vikramaditya VI) was happy to be there as the Chalukya did not go to war with the Chola for a long time. This is conceded by Bilhana in the Vikramankadevacarita, wherein he states that after these initial wars, there was a long period of peace (about half a century) between the two kingdoms. ### Pandya campaign Corrections by M. G. S. Narayanan on K. A. Nilakanta Sastri are employed.Once he finished dealing with Vikramaditya VI, Kulottunga turned his attention to the south and first took up the cause of bringing the ancient Pandimandalam, the country of the Pandyas, into his fold. The Pandya country never reconciled to the Chola overlordship and its rulers were a constant source of trouble for the Chola emperors. The Pandyas made use of the confusion in the Chola country during the accession of Kulottunga and tried once again to reassert their independence. Back in the days of Rajendra Chola I, the Pandya country was ruled over by Chola-Pandya viceroys, but by the time of Kulottunga, this system had ceased to exist and "Five Pandya" princes from the old line rose against the king. Kulottunga could not take this situation lightly as the loss of the Pandya territories meant a serious threat to the existence of the Chola kingdom itself. As soon as the Chalukyan war ended, Kulottunga turned all his energy to the suppression of the revolts in the Pandya territory (c. 1077-1081 AD). According to the Cholapuram inscription (1100 AD) the Cholas marched south with a huge army, conquered the Pandya country, the forests were the Five Pandya entered as refugees, the Pearl Fisheries, the Podiyil and Sahya Mountains, and Kanya Kumari and fixed the boundaries of the South Country (the Pandya country) at Kottar. Another inscription of his, in Sanskrit (undated) from Chidambaram, gives a similar account, where the king is said to have overcome the Five Pandyas with the help of a huge army, burnt down the fort at Kottar, and erected a pillar of victory at Kanya Kumari (and thus "making the rebel vassal kings obedient"). Kulottunga's Kerala campaign is now dated c. 1097 CE (it was initially assumed that the 1077-81 campaign also covered the rebelling Keralas). The Chera Perumal kings, who like their Pandyan neighbours, had followed suit and rebelled against their Chola overlords. Naralokavira Kalinga Rayan, a commander of the Pandya-Chola forces, lead a Chola thrust into Kerala and captured the port of Quilon. It seems that the Chera Perumals tried to recover the port Quilon soon afterwards. The eventual southern boundary of the Chola influence was located at Kottar. By c. 1100 CE, Kulottunga had successfully subjugated rebelling southern regions as far as the Pandya country, annexed the Pearl Fishery Coast, the ancient Podiyil mountains (in present-day Tirunelveli), and "fixed his southern boundary" at Kottar. He did away with the old system of appointing Chola-Pandya viceroys and instead built multiple cantonments as far south as Kottar, and heavily garrisoned the strategically important locations of the southern dominions. These units were in charge of protecting his interests and collecting tribute but did not interfere with the internal administration of the conquered territories, a responsibility which he left to the native chiefs and feudatories. His inscriptions belonging to this period are found in Cholapuram, Agastheeswaram, Suchindram, Variyur, Kanyakumari and Kottar. ## Conflict in Eastern India ### Vengi The Vengi kingdom was a bone of contention between the Cholas, the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Eastern Gangas from the times of Rajaraja Chola I. It was a site for proxy war during the times of Virarajendra Chola, who managed to wrest control of it from the Western Chalukyas and bestowed it on Vijayaditya, the paternal uncle of Kulottunga. It is unclear as to why Kulottunga was overlooked in the accession of Vengi as he would have been the rightful heir. On the other hand, it is of interest to note that Vijayaditya had briefly sided with Rajaraja Devendravarman of the Eastern Gangas. So, Virarajendra Chola agreed to bestow the Vengi kingdom on Kulottunga's paternal uncle Vijayaditya to avoid fighting wars on two fronts, that is, to avoid engaging both the Western Chalukyas and the Eastern Gangas. In any case, Kulottunga was generous enough to let his paternal uncle, the usurper Vijayaditya, to rule over Vengi even after he ascended the Chola throne. During this period in 1073 CE, the Vengi kingdom was invaded by the Kalachuri king Yakshakarna of Tripuri. However, this was merely a raid in search of riches rather than an invasion for territorial gains, and the intruders were repulsed by Vijayaditya. After the death of Vijayaditya in 1077, Kulottunga brought the Vengi province directly under his control and appointed his sons to rule over it. Rajaraja Chodaganga, the eldest son of Kulottunga, was first appointed as viceroy but as per inscriptions, the prince did not feel at home and returned to the Chola dominions in the south within a year. According to the Teki plates of Rajaraja Chodaganga, the Vengi province under him lay between Manneru in the Nellore district in the south and Mahendragiri in Ganjam district in the north. Rajaraja Chodaganga was followed by his brother Vira Chola who ruled for six years until 1084. The Chellur plates of Vira Chola state that he was crowned in the city of Jagannatha (Jagannatha-nagari). The two princes once again governed the Vengi province alternately for a period of five years and four years respectively. They were then followed by their brother Vikrama Chola who ruled over the region until he was made heir apparent in 1118 CE. According to the Pithapuram pillar inscription of Mallapadeva, dated 1202 CE, the Vengi province became devoid of a ruler and fell into a state of anarchy when Vikrama Chola left for the Chola dominions in the south towards the end of Kulottunga's reign. Vikramaditya VI used this opportunity to occupy Vengi during this period. However, this invasion was short lived and Vikrama Chola recaptured the province and annexed it to the Chola empire as soon as he ascended the throne. ### Kalinga wars The kingdom of Kalinga was not a single region but rather three distinct countries called Utkala or Odra (north and north-eastern parts of Odisha), Kosala or Dakshina Kosala (south-west Odisha and Chhattisgarh) and Kalinga proper. This region comprised the whole of present-day Odisha and northern part of Andhra Pradesh. These three regions together were referred to as Trikalinga. The Kalinga kingdom bordered the northern part of Vengi and therefore it was only natural for the different rulers of Kalinga to try and expand into the Eastern Chalukya territory or in the case of Kulottunga, the northern-eastern part of the Chola dominions. During the 11th century, the Kalinga kingdom was ruled by the Eastern Ganga dynasty who invariably became involved in Vengi and thereby indirectly in the Chola politics. The records of Kulottunga contain descriptions of two Kalinga wars. Prior to these wars, Kulottunga's forces was decimated by Rajaraja Deva of the Eastern Ganga dynasty and Kulottunga was forced to marry his daughter (or sister) to Rajaraja Deva. Kulottunga was also forced to put his sons as the Viceroy of Kalinga. Rajaraja Deva died in 1078 and Kulottunga's sons were in-charge of the adolescent Anantavarman Chodaganga, Rajaraja Deva's son. The first war seems to have occurred before 1096 CE as Kulottunga first claims to have conquered Kalinga in a record dated in the 26th year of his reign. The first Kalinga war seems to have been brought about by Kalinga's aggression against Vengi. The war resulted in the annexation of the southern part of Kalinga to the Chola kingdom. This is evident from the Teki plates of Kulottunga's son, Rajaraja Chodaganga, whose dominions included the region up to Mahendragiri in the Ganjam district in the north. The second invasion took place a few years later, sometime before the 33rd year of the king's reign, and is the subject of the Kalingattuparani. This expedition was led by his general Karunakara Tondaiman who defeated the Kalinga ruler Anantavarman Chodaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. Anantavarman was the son of Rajaraja Devendravarman and Chola princess Rajasundari, described as the daughter of Rajendra Chola. The identification of Anantavarman's maternal grandfather is a controversial topic. Some historians like Sastri identify this Rajendra Chola with Virarajendra Chola while others like Kielhorn identify this king as Kulottunga. According to the poem Kalingattuparani, this relationship did not stop Kulottunga from invading Kalinga and causing Anantavarman to flee. The Chola army is said to have returned with vast booty from this campaign. This fact is also borne out by an inscription of the king from the Bhimeswara temple in Draksharama. It is dated in the 33rd year of the king's reign and states that an officer of the king, titled variously as Pallavaraja and Vanduvaraja, reduced the whole of Kalinga to ashes, destroyed the Ganga Devendravarman in battle with the aid of the Kosala army, and planted a pillar of victory in the Odra frontier so as to raise aloft the fame of his king, Kulottunga Chola. This chief is none other than Karunakara Tondaiman as he is said to be from Thirunaraiyur nadu and the lord of Vandai as in the poem. His personal name is given as Thiruvarangan and is said to be the son of Sirilango of Vandalanjeri in Thirunaraiyur nadu. He is described as a sad-vaishnava (good vaishnavite) and is said to have built a Vishnu temple made of black stone in Alavely. According to the poem, the reason for the second war was a response to the default of Kalinga in its payment of annual tributes to Kulottunga by Anantavarman. Another view, by some historians like Venkayya is that, Kulottunga took up the expedition in order to help his relative Anantavarman against North Kalinga rebels. Yet another view is that, Devendravarman belonged to a collateral line of the Eastern Ganga dynasty and had opposed the accession of Kulottunga's relative Anantavarman. There is an inscription of Kulottunga from the Bhimeswara temple in Godavari district that describes a gift by the son of Anantavarmadeva. So it would seem that the latter was a vassal or at least in friendly terms with Kulottunga for sometime. ## Revolt in Sri Lanka According to the Mahavamsa, the Cholas were driven out of Lanka in the 15th year of Vijayabahu which coincides with the accession date of Kulottunga. Therefore, it would seem that the Sinhalese king took the opportunity to attack the Chola forces in the island nation at a time when the kingdom under Kulottunga was dealing with multiple revolts and attacks in the mainland. In 1070 CE, Vijayabahu attacked the Chola forces from his enclave in the Rohana district and defeated them. He sent two armies, one from Mahanagakula via Dakkinadesa, and the other via the well known route along Mahavali-Ganga. These armies defeated the Chola forces or what was left of them and captured Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa. After his victory over the Cholas, Vijayabahu got himself anointed in Anuradhapura. A few months later he moved to Polonnaruwa, renamed it as Vijayarajapura, made it his capital, and declared himself king of the island nation. Unlike the epigraphs of his predecessors, like Rajaraja Chola I, Rajendra Chola I and Rajadhiraja Chola I, that describe the details of their expeditions to the island nation, Kulottunga's inscriptions are generally silent in regards to Lanka or with regards to any campaigns or wars against the Sinhalese rulers. According to Sastri, Kulottunga was content with keeping the Chola empire from disintegrating on the mainland and was not that affected with the loss of the island nation. It is of interest to note that Vijayabahu married Lilavati, the daughter of Jagatipala, a former ruler of Rohana, after she escaped from the Cholas and returned to the island kingdom. Jagatipala was originally a prince of Ayodhya who had migrated to Lanka and become ruler of Rohana. He was slain on the battlefield during the Lankan expeditions of Kulottunga's predecessor, Rajadhiraja Chola I, when the Sinhalese kingdom lost four crowns in quick succession. At that time, this princess along with her aunt or mother was taken captive by the Chola forces. These events are described in great detail in the Mahavamsa and in an inscription of Rajadhiraja Chola I. ## Overseas Trade Kulottunga maintained overseas contacts with kingdoms of Sri Vijaya, China and Khmer Empire. The renaming of the famous harbor of Visakhapattanam in Andhra Pradesh as Kulottungacolapattanam also indicates his interest in trade with foreign countries across the Bay of Bengal. In 1077 CE, king Chulien (Chola) Ti-hua-kialo sent an embassy to Chinese court for promoting trade. Sastri identifies this Chola ruler with Kulottunga. This trading venture seems to have ended profitably for the Cholas and they returned with over 81,000 strings of copper cash and many more valuables. The Khmer king Suryavarman II, builder of the famous Angkor Wat, sent a mission to the Chola dynasty and presented a precious stone to Kulottunga in 1114 CE. According to Burmese accounts, Kyanzittha, the ruler of Pagan (Burma) met with the Chola royal family by sending an ambassador to the Chola emperor. In an inscription in Pagan, he even claims to have converted the Chola to Buddhism through a personal letter written on gold foils. There is also evidence to suggest that Kulottunga, in his youth (1063 CE), was in Sri Vijaya, restoring order and maintaining Chola influence in that area. Virarajendra Chola states in his inscription, dated in the 7th year of his reign, that he conquered Kadaram and gave it back to its king who came and worshiped his feet. These expeditions were led by Kulottunga to help the Sailendra king who had sought the help of Virarajendra Chola. An inscription of Canton mentions Ti-hua-kialo as the ruler of Sri Vijaya. According to historians, this ruler is the same as the Chola ruler Ti-hua-kialo (identified with Kulottunga) mentioned in the Song annals and who sent an embassy to China. According to Tan Yeok Song, the editor of the Sri Vijayan inscription of Canton, Kulottunga stayed in Kadaram after the naval expedition of 1067 CE and reinstalled its king before returning to South India and ascending the throne. Trade relations and cultural contacts established during the reigns of Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I were actively maintained by Kulottunga and his successors. In 1089 CE, the ruler of Sri Vijaya sent two ambassadors to Kulottunga's court, requesting him to renew the old grants to the Buddhist monastery (Chudamani Vihara) in Nagapattinam that was built during the period of Rajaraja Chola I. ## Extent of the empire The Chola kingdom remained formidable under Kulottunga in his 45th regnal year (c. 1115 CE). Except for the loose hold over Lanka, the rest of the empire remained intact. The boundary between the Cholas and the Western Chalukyas was as always the Tungabhadra river. The hold over Vengi was quite firm, and Dakkina Kosala (south-west Kalinga) and some parts of Kalinga (proper) including the capital Kalinganagara, the modern Mukhalingam in the Srikakulam district, was under the Chola rule. Port Quilon, on the Malabar Coast, was recovered by prince Vikrama Chola sometime between c. 1102 and c. 1118 CE. Towards the end of Kulottunga's reign, when his son Vikrama Chola, the viceroy of Vengi left south for the latter's coronation, the northern half of the Vengi kingdom seems to have slipped from his hands and gone to the Western Chalukya empire under Vikramaditya VI. According to some historians, during this period, Kulottunga also lost the province of Gangavadi, the province of the Western Gangas, to Hoysala Vishnuvardhana. The latter seems to have attacked and defeated the Chola Viceroy, Adigaiman, the controller of the Kongu and Kannada country. ## Administration Kulottunga's capital was Gangaikondacholapuram. Kanchi was next in importance and had a palace and an "abhisheka mandapam" (royal bathing hall) from where the king issued many of his charters. The king's inscriptions speak of a highly organized form of fiscal and local administration. He carried out a massive land survey which formed the basis for taxation. He promoted free trade by abolishing tolls or transit duties and came to be known as "Sungamtavirrton", that is, "one who abolished tolls". Kulottunga did away with the old system of appointing Chola-Pandya viceroys in the southern territories. The king, instead built military cantonments that were in charge of protecting his interests and collecting tribute, but did not interfere with the internal administration of the conquered territories, a responsibility which he left to the native chiefs and feudatories. Kulottunga was ably assisted in his campaigns and internal administration by his officials some of whom were; Karunakara Tondaiman, described as the minister and warrior of Abhaya; Solakon who distinguished himself in the campaigns in the west against the Kongos, Gangas and Mahrattas; the Brahmin Kannan of great fortress; Vanan (possibly the Bana Vanavaraiyan also called Suttamallan Mudikondan) who is said to be dexterous in the use of his beautiful bow in battle; the general Naralokaviran alias Kalingar-kon who distinguished himself in the Pandya and south Kerala wars; Kadava: Vailava, the lord of Chedi (Malayaman) country; Senapati (General) Anantapala; the Irungovel chieftain, Adavallan Gangaikonda Cholan alias Irungolan; the royal secretary ("Tirumandira-olai"), Arumoli-Vilupparaiyar; and the accountant, Arumoli-Porkari. Gonka I, a vassal from the Velanati Chodas family was greatly responsible for the political stability of the Chola power in the Vengi region. In appreciation of his services, the emperor conferred on Gonka I the lordship over 6000 villages on the southern bank of the Krishna River. ## Family and Personal life ### Royal House Kulottunga's chief queen was Dinachintamani, others being Elisaivallabhi and Thiyagavalli. Copper-plate grants state that Kulottunga married Madurantaki, the daughter of Rajendradeva of the Solar race, and had by her seven sons. According to some historians, she is identical with Dinachintamani. She seems to have died sometime before the thirtieth year of Kulottunga. Thiyagavalli took the place of the chief queen upon Dinachintamani's demise. The poem Kalingattupparani mentions Thiyagavalli together with Elisai Vallabhi (also known as Elulagudayal). It also states that Thiyagavalli enjoyed equal authority with the king. Another queen, called Solakulavalliyār, is also mentioned in inscriptions. She was instrumental in renewing the grant of Anaimangalam in favour of the Buddhist Chulamani Vihara at Nagapattinam. He also seems to have married a Pallava princess called Kadavan-Mahadevi. Epigraphs mention three of his sons, Rajaraja Chodaganga, Vira Chola and Vikrama Chola, of which Rajaraja was the eldest. A younger sister of the king is known to us from a very old inscription in the Nataraja temple at Chidambaram. The inscription gives the king three names, namely Kulottunga, Jayadhara and Rajendra. The epigraph states that Rajarajan-Kundavai-Alvar, the younger sister of Kulottunga gilded the Nataraja shrine and gifted a gold vessel, a mirror and made arrangements for the ablutions of the deity (Abishekam). It further states that the king of Kamboja exhibited a stone before the glorious Chola king and by the king's order the stone was placed in front of the main deity of the Nataraja temple. A daughter of Kulottunga I called Ammangai-Alvar and as Periya Nachiyar is known to us from an inscription of Kulottunga Chola III (referred to in the inscription as Virarajendradeva). ## Religious attitude The empire under Kulottunga encouraged both Saivism and Vaishnavism. The king and his family members continued to make endowments to the Nataraja Temple in Chidambaram. He was tolerant towards other religions, like Buddhism, and renewed the grants made to the Chudamani Vihara, the Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam. Historians dispute the identification of Krimikanta Chola, the persecutor of Vaishnavite acharya Ramanuja, with Kulottunga. One of the reasons for this disagreement is because, Ramanuja is said to have returned to the Chola kingdom from Hoysala Vishnuvardhana's court after an exile of 12 years (upon the Chola king's death), whereas Kulottunga ruled for 52 years. Some scholars are of the opinion that Kulottunga was secular through his early and middle years and persecuted Vaishnavites towards the end of his reign, succumbing to Saivite pressure. There is reason to believe that the king encouraged Vaishnavism during the later years as his records mention him giving gifts to the Vishnu shrines. For example, he visited the Ulagalandaperumal temple in Kanchipuram with his two queens, Tribuhavanamudaiyal and Solakulavalli, and made benefactions in the 40th year of his reign. ## Art and architecture Kulottunga was a patron of arts and architecture. The poet-laureate Jayamkondar is said to have adorned his court. The composition of the famous poem Kalingattuparani is attributed to him. Some scholars consider the poet Kambar to be a contemporary of Kulottunga I and the Ramavataram is said to have been composed during his rule. Others place him during the reign of Kulottunga II or III. Likewise a few believe that Ottakoothar, the author of the three Ulas namely the Kulothunga Cholan Ula, Vikraman Chola Ula and Rajaraja Cholan Ula, lived during his reign while others place him during the reign of his successors viz. Vikrama Chola, Kulottunga II and Rajaraja II. Kulothunga I and his son expanded the Chidambaram Nataraja Temple expanse sixfold. The construction of the Amritaghateswarar Shiva temple in Melakadambur was also attributed to the reign of Kulothunga . It is called as Karakkoil, and is perhaps the earliest shrine built in the shape of a chariot with wheels, and drawn by spirited horses. The temple contains an inscription of the king, dated in the 43rd year of his reign, corresponding to 1113 CE. During his time, Kulottunga Chozhapuram, now called Thungapuram, was a site of intense religious activity. The streets in the city are laid out like Madurai (square shape), hence it is called as Siru (small) Madurai. Kulottunga constructed two temples in Siru Madurai, one called Sokkanathar temple for Lord Siva, and the other, a Vishnu shrine called Lord Vinava Perumal Temple or Varadaraja perumal temple. Kulottunga was also on friendly terms with the Gahadavala kings of central India, who had Lord Surya for their tutelary deity. Later, inspired by his visits to the Gahadavala kingdom, Kulottunga built several temples dedicated to the Sun God, especially the Suryanar temples at Pudukkottai and Nagapattinam. ## Inscriptions Kulottunga's inscriptions mostly begin with the introduction "pugal madu vilanga" or "pugal sunda punari". The former gives details about his conquest over Cheras, Pandyas and Vikramaditya VI while the latter is even more detailed and includes the details of his early life, viz., his heroics in Chakrakotta and Vayiragram and how he came about to wear the excellent crown of jewels of the Chola country. An inscription from Kanchi beginning with the introduction "Pugal madu" mentions his birth star as Pushya. Another inscription of the king, from the Tripurantakesvara temple in Chingleput district, mentions the resale of some lands that were bought in the second year of Virarajendra Chola. In his early years, the king styled himself as Rajakesarivarman alias Rajendracholadeva. We have an inscription of the king from Kolar dated in the second year of his reign. He is called Rajakesarivarman alias Rajendra Chola deva and it mentions his heroics in Sakkarakottam and Vayiragaram. It states that an officer of the king called Virasikhamani Muvendavelar inspected a temple in Kuvalala nadu, a district of Vijayarajendra-mandalam and appointed a committee. There is another inscription from the Brahmapurisvara Temple in Tiruvottiyur, dated in the third year of his reign, wherein he is styled as Rajakesarivarman alias Rajendracholadeva. It states that Muvendavelar, an officer of the king, and a native of Aridayamangalam in Mudichonadu, a sub-division of Kalyanapuramkonda-sola-valanadu, bought some lands and donated them for feeding a Brahmana and a Sivayogin. The names Vijayarajendra-mandalam and Kalyanapuramgonda-sola-valanadu are significant and evidently named after Kulottunga's predecessor, Rajadhiraja Chola I, who sacked the Western Chalukya capital Kalyanapuram towards the end of his reign. Rajadhiraja Chola I then assumed the title Vijayarajendra after performing the "Virabhiseka" (anointment of heroes).
2,081,795	Spyro: A Hero's Tail	1,168,922,278	2004 video game	[ "2004 video games", "3D platform games", "Eurocom games", "GameCube games", "PlayStation 2 games", "Sierra Entertainment games", "Single-player video games", "Spyro the Dragon video games", "Universal Interactive games", "Video game sequels", "Video games developed in the United Kingdom", "Video games scored by Steve Duckworth", "Vivendi Games games", "Xbox games" ]	Spyro: A Hero's Tail is a platform game developed by Eurocom Entertainment Software and published by Vivendi Universal Games in November 2004 for the PlayStation 2, GameCube, and Xbox. It is the fifth console game in the original Spyro series and the ninth game in the series overall. Per usual, players act as the titular dragon collecting objects, platforming, flying, headbutting and breathing fire onto enemies to save the Dragon Realms. This time, he collects Dark Gems, which corrupt the land with maniacal creatures and deadly plants, planted by a banished Dragon Elder Red. Other characters, such as Sparx the Dragonfly, Hunter the Cheetah, Sgt. Byrd the Penguin, and newcomer Blink the Mole, are playable in mini-game stages. Development began in early November 2002 under the working title Spyro: The Dark Realms and was announced by Vivendi to be completed on 4 October 2004; the final title was decided by the publisher in early 2004. The game was produced by Suzanne Watson and Jon Williams, who explained that the goal was simply "to create a game that was in keeping with the franchise," with acknowledgement of the problems of the critically-panned previous entry Enter the Dragonfly (2002). The earlier games, particularly their promotional renders, were referenced so that the art style was suitable with the series universe. Jak and Daxter also influenced the creation of the polygons and textures, choice of lighting methods, and style of cutscenes. Spyro: A Hero's Tail garnered generally mixed reviews from professional critics. They agreed it was significantly better than Enter the Dragonfly, but argued its low difficulty meant only young gamers would enjoy it. They positively commented on the graphics, responsive controls, and incorporation of changing environments when Dark Gems are collected. However, they were disappointed in its lack of innovation and overemphasis on collecting, and had differing opinions on the mini-game sections. ## Gameplay Spyro: A Hero's Tail is a 3D platform game where the player collects a variety of objects, destroys walls and rocks, solves puzzles, plays mini-games, and fight pattern-based bosses that take three hits to kill. Typical of the series, it involves the titular purple dragon saving the Dragon Realms from danger. This time, he collects Dark Gems, planted by the former Elder Dragon Red, who was banished from the Realms. They corrupt the land with maniacal creatures and deadly plants, draining life out of its environment to power Red. The gameplay is also largely the same, where Spyro jumps on platforms, flies, head-butts into enemies, and wanders around collecting gems. His Fire, Ice and Electricity breath attacks return, although must be purchased from Mr. Moneybags, and are used to solve puzzles. However, he has new several abilities, such as ledge grabbing, wall kicking, horn diving into enemies while flying, and swinging his tail like a lasso, and a new Water breath attack. Moves cannot be perform until an Elder Dragon teaches them. The player traverses a variety of settings, such as colourful towns, dark lava-filled caves and snowy mountains. They have save points, represented by Zoe, who now can save both the player's current position in an area and overall game progress. Collecting the dark gems restores what the environments initially were. Transformations include flowers growing, frozen waterfalls warming and turning back into lakes, dilapidated bridges rebuilding, and gems being clean of purple goo. In addition to the Dark Gems, Spyro obtains Light Gems, big Easter eggs, colourful dragon eggs, multi-coloured gems and rainbow-colored shards. Light Gems open locked doors to new areas and power-up the gadgets. The dragon eggs open entrances to mini-game sections and unlock the game's concept art when returned to their owner Nanny Dragon. The coloured gems are currency for products from Mr. Moneybags' shop. Objects are obtained by killing enemies (such as Gnorcs), unlocking gates, opening wicker baskets, smashing treasure chests, completing mini-games, and performing tasks such as breaking down hidden walls. The game's early enemies can be destroyed by breathing fire on them, but later ones must be killed in specific ways. Crabs, for example, can only be killed by using the Electricity breath. In mini-game sections, the player acts as other characters, such as three returns from previous games—Hunter the Cheetah, Sgt. Byrd the rocket-propelled Penguin, and Sparx the Dragonfly—and a newcomer, Blink the Mole. Hunter the Cheetah can shoot with his bow, which he can also turn into a shield by spinning it, stomp on enemies midair and pull off combos of punches and kicks. Two type of arrows can be shot from the bow: standard and fire, the latter being limited in supply. His long legs provide him more jumping height than Spyro, making him useful for platforms the purple dragon cannot jump or fly up to. He also can walk upright and double-jump. The penguin Sgt. Byrd is able to fly and shoot missiles and bombs, his sections requiring the player to shoot at a number of targets under a time limit. Blink the Mole is armed with lasers and explosions, as well as a helmet to duck in, and is for reaching areas inaccessible for Spyro, with climbing and burrowing abilities. Sparx flies in rail shooter race mini-games. The Professor build four gadgets that Spyro uses: a glass ball a la Super Monkey Ball (2001–present) that he rolls in to move up slopes, a teleporter that warps to various areas of the Dragon Realms, one for temporary invincibility, and a Super Charge gadget that, for a limited amount of time, provides Spyro more strength and speed. Mr. Moneybags' shop, in addition to breath attacks, contains ammunition that increase their power, magazines that allow for more charges and blasts to be held, and a shockwave that increases the radius of the horn dive. The shop also sells lockpicks to open doors and gates, a chain that holds three lockpicks at a time, a multiplier that doubles the value of the coloured gems, a butterfly jar that restores Spyro's health, and an extra health unit. ## Development ### Workflow Spyro: A Hero's Tail was developed by Eurocom Entertainment Software, specifically the team of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (2003). The project's producer Jon Williams was first informed by Vivendi about the possibility of working on a Spyro game in early October 2002, and Eurocom and Vivendi had their first conference on 11 November. He co-produced the game with Suzanne Watson. A skeleton team of the leads kickstarted development in early November, before it expanded with additional programmers and artists as was the case with other Eurocom projects. Some design proposals were sent to the publisher in late October, before "real" Design and Technical Design documents were provided in early 2003. The working title was Spyro: The Dark Realms, before Vivendi decided on Spyro: A Hero's Tail in early 2004. Williams explained that the goal was simply "to create a game that was in keeping with the franchise," with criticisms of the critically-panned previous entry Spyro: Enter the Dragonfly (2002) acknowledged. On 4 October 2004, Vivendi Universal Games announced development was completed. Development consisted of Vivendi setting milestones for when Eurocom needed to complete demos, which the Universal publisher provided input to. Most of the Eurocom projects, in Williams' time at the company which started in the 1990s, were film tie-ins or games of well-established franchises. This meant they had lots of commands and strict deadlines from publishers and film studios at once, resulting in what he called nightmarish development environments. He more positively reflects on Spyro: A Hero's Tail, which he considered one of Eurocom's better projects in terms of collaboration between developer and publisher. He described it as "very professional and we never had any major fall outs." Particular praise was given by Williams and lede artist and concept artist Matt Dixon towards the support from Vivendi Universal producer Caroline Trujillo. ### Programming and design Spyro: A Hero's Tail was designed by Terry Lloyd and Phill Bennett, and programmed by Dave Pridmore, Andy Brown, Daniel Secker, John Stephens, Kristoffer Adock, Mark Topley, Matt Partridge, Narinder Singh Basran and Stuart Johnson. From the start, the developers were influenced by Jak and Daxter (2001–present), attempting to emulate the series' detail in polygons and textures, lightning methods, and style of cutscenes. Spyro: A Hero's Tail was produced with Engine X, in what was the first time Eurocom had multiple in-progress projects using the same engine. It was programmed by Chris Jackson, Ian Denny, Tim Rogers, Andy Hutchings, Ashley Finney, Dave Looker, Green Jam Canal, Kevin Grantham, Kevin Stainwright, Mark Gornall, Peter Livingstone, Shane Clark, Steve Robinson, and Steven Walker. Andy Mitchell, Bob Smith, Diego Garcia Huerta, Jim Makin, Kev Marks, Kevin Thacker, and Mark Duffill programmed the development kit's other tools. Although Williams explained any technical issues the developers faced were expected, production was complicated by the fact that the engine was still being written by its programmers, who at the same time also had to fix bugs and glitches for another team. The technical issue primarily focused on was loading, particularly the game doing so on three consoles of different hardware. The development systems took very long to load, making predicating the load time on a console precarious. Flying sections that connected the Realms together, which ultimately paved the way for mini-games, were scrapped due to loading issues. The emphasis on performance also meant low polygons for several characters, and most of the polygon detail being on the lead characters. In order for multiple programmers to work on a level, test maps like Test_AB and Test_JP were created for them to produce assets and experiment with mechanics. These would be imported into the main level map once completed. Although these were not meant to be in the released product, they are accessible via cheat codes and file-swapping. Williams suggests the development environment was so hectic it was not caught being in the code. Two other maps, hogwarts.edb (a model of the Harry Potter (1997–2007) location of the same name) and maptest.edb, are also on the disc. Williams does not remember the definite reason for their usage, but suspected it was so the team could start working on concepts before Eurocom's switch to Engine X. The Scanmode Enable feature, selectable in the debug menu, was used to bypass collision so that developers could see the full level. ### Graphics Dixon was lede artist and concept artist, Steve Bramford lede character artist. Amanda Barlow, Clive K. Stevenson, Gary Baker, Henk Nieborg, Jon Parr, Matt Farrell and Phil Dobson were also artists on the project. The animation team consisted of Almudean Soria Sancho, Antonio Palermo, Brian Riordan, Des Forde, Mark Jackson, Mark Povey, Jon Maine, Kenny Beard, Owen Flanagan, Phil Hanks, and Santiago Colomo Martinez. In addition to Bamford, Drew Kerins, Michael Lindsay, Oscar Fuertes Garcia, Phill Plunkett, and Steven Gratton modeled the characters. The characters and environments were designed, modeled and textured quickly. Each new character began with Bamford, for one-to-two hours, drawing a basic sketch based on a vague summary written by the game designers. The rudimentary style of the characters was a result of Bramford's lack of experience as a concept artist. Modelling, which was done with LightWave 3D, took one-to-three days, and texturing, the same part of the process where the colours and details were conceived, took three-to-five. Finally, scripts were written by Ramford for character rigging and skinning, which took one-to-two hours for each character. Dixon explained a similar process for the environments. Simple sketches providing a general idea of the shape and style were done in under an hour, before 12–24 hours was spent conceiving the colours and feel. Previous games were referenced for creating the graphics. Promo renders of the earlier entries were referenced to make the characters' style still suitable to the series' universe, while Dixon looked at the environments of those games to see how they could "evolve a little." With a decrease of angularity from the PS1 to the PS2, the fully-rounded marketing renders were extremely useful. The developers had the most artistic liberty in character personality and design with the coloured dragons. Vivendi's only request was to keep their bipedalism. Before the textures were finalized, Ramford created temporary swatch textures for characters, simply so the designer and programmers could add them to the levels. The swatch-textured characters were in some demos. Gratton, who textured Spyro, originally planned for his purple colour to match that of the previous games. However, he and Bramford agreed it was too "muddy" and analogous to grime on an oil painting, so he was slightly more saturated in the final product. Ramford's initial colour palette for Blinky was red, white, blue and amber, taking inspiration from that of the titular character of Billy Hatcher and the Giant Egg (2003). For a softer look that was appropriate for the setting and in the style of The Goonies (1985), Blink had added to him a backpack, his shoes changed from Converse boots to Timberlands, and his colours were altered to purple, blue, green and amber. A fez was added to Mr. Moneybags to give him the look of a shoekeeper at a bazaar, inspiring by a perceived Arabic feel of Spyro's home. Shere Khan from Disney's The Jungle Book (1967) was the inspiration for Titan. ### Audio Eurocom's Guy Cockcroft initially recorded and composed the music, heard in some of the game's demos. However, Vivendi, on 19 May 2004, decided to shift the responsibility of the music elsewhere, outsourcing another company for the soundtrack in the final game on 4 June. The reason was the long amount of time it took to respond with critiques towards Cockcroft's changes to the music, and the closer contact the publisher would have with an outsourced company. Game Audio Ltd, specifically Keith Leary, David Marsden, Paul Lawler, and Craig Sharmat, were the outsourced composers, although Cockcroft and another Eurocom composer, Steve Duckworth, are credited as well. Vivendi sent Eurocom the music from the end of June to August, a few updates to tracks made afterwards. The voice cast consists of Jess Harnell, Anndi McAfee, Tara Strong, Phil Crowley, Michael Gough, Brad Abrell, Susan Blakeslee, Fred Tatasciore, André Sogliuzzo, and Drew Markham. ### Rejected concepts Sgt. Byrd and Hunter were first planned to be playable throughout the game, Byrd having to collect ammunition. However, for reasons Williams suspects to be related to scheduling and design problems, they were segregated to mini-games where Sgt. Byrd had an infinite amount of bombs and missiles (in fact, he has 9,999, which is unlikely to run out during gameplay). The limited ammo was poorly-received by testers, and thus changed. One of the non-player characters, Ember, was also planned to be a fully playable character at the same time, but the developers thought it was too much effort to create NPC interactions and alternate speech. The level themes and the bosses associated with them, an early document labeling them "Electric / Water / Ice / Lava Serpent and Red," were decided early on. One of several ideas for a boss was the return of Ripto. Although most of the assets remained in the final product, the number of Realms was changed from five to four. The Fifth Realm, Secret Hideout, would have consisted of the Professor's Laboratory, Dark Mine, Red's Lair, and mini-games. Its assets were merged into the fourth Realm halfway through development. The name of Professor's Laboratory was changed to Red's Laboratory when Vivendi's localization department worked on translations, although the publisher has never publicly stated a rationale. The Gnasty Gnorc boss was much larger, split into three stages. Frostbite Village initially had baby mammoths. created by Phillip Bennett, as enemies, but these were removed for frame rate issues and Vivendi's disapproval of Spyro killing cute enemies. Another cut foe, seen in the demos and a test level on the disc, were Sharks in Dragonfly Falls. In the demos, they chase after the player character, while in the test level, they pop out of the ground and instantly kill as a way to prevent players from going past certain points. Spyro, who can breathe underwater infinitely in the final game, initially needed a gadget, Aqualung, to do so, but issues with difficulty balancing resulted in it being scrapped in April 2004. Areas of toxic water were incorporated instead to make the underwater sections challenging, and the Professor's explanation for Aqualung became that for Invincibility. The horn dive boulders, scrapped late in development, would have been filled with dragon eggs and Light Gems. ## Release and promotion On 27 April 2004, Spyro: A Hero's Tail received its first public announcement by Vivendi Universal Games; its premise, Spyro's new attacks, and the additional player characters were revealed, as well as its release date set sometime in last quarter of 2004 for the GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Xbox. Emmy Award winner J. Stewart Burns was also announced as writer. Worldwide Studios executive vice president Michael Pole stated it was the dragon's "greatest adventure to date--an adventure game that immerses players into a deep storyline, [with] more-diverse, lush environments, and [that also] introduces a strong lineup of engaging characters." Two weeks later, it was presented at E3 2004, and the date was set to be sometime in November. Douglas C. Perry of IGN reported the game's target audience to be very young, its size to be four times as large as Enter the Dragonfly, and taking potentially twice as long to beat, 18–20 hours. On 18 May 2004, the game was rated E by the Entertainment Software Rating Board and had its first trailer unveiled. All console versions were then presented at the September 2004 Game Stars Live event in London. Spyro: A Hero's Tail's only officially-released demos, solely for the PS2, were the E3 giveaway bundle with Crash Twinsanity (2004) and those in magazines. Days before its release, Spyro: A Hero's Tail received preview coverage in Cube and IGN. The Australian edition of PlayStation 2 Official Magazine, in its November 2004 issue, provided its readers a demo of Spyro: A Hero's Tail, where the main hub area, an egg-collecting mission, and mini-game levels for Hunter and St. Byrd were playable. The game was released in North America on 2 November 2004. In Europe, the PlayStation 2 version was released on 16 November, the Xbox version 19 November, and the GameCube version 26 November. Reminded of the technical flaws that plagued Enter the Dragonfly, critics from GameSpot and IGN were very hopeful of Spyro: A Hero's Tail for reasons of a reputable developer, improved graphics, wider draw distance, absence of loading times, and variety of playable characters and scenarios. IGN's Ivan Sulic enjoyed the game's meta humour. CUBE UK predicted the game would be like the others in the Spyro, but a little more fun due to less of an emphasis on collecting and more on platforming. ## Reception Spyro: A Hero's Tail received generally mixed reviews from professional critics, who deemed it vastly superior to Enter the Dragonfly. A common criticism, even among those that found Spyro: A Hero's Tail decent, was having too little innovations to the platform and collecting genres, as well as the series' formula. Avery Score of GameSpot wrote the template only shined in the series' time on the PlayStation 1, a console that had far less 3D platformers than the Nintendo 64, and that only "modest improvements," such as the addition of ledge-gripping, were made in A Hero's Tail. Brent Soboleski of TeamXbox was similarly concerned over the series not evolving enough to compete with other products that took far more advantage of console hardware. The gameplay was criticized as lacking thrills, containing an over-emphasis on collecting with few additional aspects spicing it up, such as Spyro's new moves and the multiple-character mechanic. X-Play's Jason D'Aprile reported that players would spend a majority of the gameplay backtracking for missed gems and suffering through "frustrating platform jumping." Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine's Dana Jongewaard also found the platforming tedious and disliked the "brainless" enemy showdowns, joking it was easier to die in mud puddles. Avery Score suggested even children would get bored with it. Soboleski was in the minority about the variations, feeling there was a right mix of previously established and new elements for the Spyro series to remain fresh. Hyper journalist Joey Tekken found that Spyro: A Hero's Tail had the "effortless charm" similar franchises such as Crash Bandicoot had lost, calling its characters and dialogue "quite funny" and noting its variety of move sets, mini-games and playable characters, and good flow in the level design. Sobeleski felt the game still had the prior games' "sharp wit and plenty of personality," and was just as fun to play. Juan Castro of IGN was positive towards the contribution of playable characters, attacks and challenges to the series, attributing the game's 15-hour replay value to them. He appreciated the game's incorporation of Sypro's new moves that were otherwise unoriginal, reasoning that it "feels less of a derivative game mechanic in this case." Jes Bickham, a writer for NGC Magazine, found the game "logically and pleasingly designed" if uninspired and easy, highlighting its incorporation of routes that open as a result of items being collected. The game's changing of environments when the dark gems are collected, were praised for being smooth and providing the player gratification for destroying the Dark Gems. As Ben Kosmina of Nintendo World Report explained, the transitions give a sense of progress, "as it feels as though you're actually doing something as opposed to just amassing a huge amount of generic objects." Some critics enjoyed the addition of other playable characters and mini-games, feeling they were "pretty cool" and added variety to the gameplay. D'Aprile was one of them, although was disappointed the additional characters were only "fodder" for the mini-game stages. Sobeleski enjoyed how the game smoothly transitioned from one playable character to another by how they are incorporated in the plot. On the other hand, Score criticized the mini-games for "artificially" increasing play time and being "disruptive and boring." Matthew Hawkins of GMR also found most of the characters too bland to be differentiable, finding only one of them, Sgt. Byrd, to have unique move sets and characteristics that were "somewhat interesting." D'Aprile and Score criticized the boss battles. D'Aprile noted them as being too easy and featuring more unoriginal platform tropes, such as having three hits and simple-to-learn patterns. Score found the boss battles "ego-padding interludes," poking at their "posturing," "perfunctory wailing and smashin," as well as the fact their own attacks harm themselves; he also noted the ability to save the game by the hit of a boss, making the bosses over-simple. Per previous entries, A Hero's Tail maintains a low challenge level, which critics thought would make it a great product for its young demographic, but maybe not for other gamers. Sobeleski felt critics of all age groups would enjoy it; the adults would appreciate the comedy and gameplay, and the difficulty would be low enough for very young players. He admitted to being challenged by the air-based missions. Kosmina found the mini-game stages tough, close to par with Contra (1987) and to the point of possibly turning off its demographic. He also was dismayed by an inconsistency of help being provided for bosses but not for the mini-games. "George", a writer for GameRankings, called it superior to Enter the Dragonfly for its increased responsiveness, frame rate, and focus on simple platforming over repetitive fighting. Other critics also praised the controls as responsive, Juan Castro of IGN calling them the most functional of the entire series. Anise Hollingshead of GameZone wrote that the GameCube version was easy to play, but reported issues in difficulty balance. She felt that being able to progress was occasionally hindered by a lack of detail on the map, the obscure placement of some dark jewels, and platforms being unclear in how to get on to them. On the other hand, the amount of hazards were small, and the foes "are laughably avoidable for the most part". The graphics and music were generally well received. Critics analogized the visuals as a polished PlayStation 1 title; although they argued it lacked detail and did not take full advantage of the PlayStation 2's capabilities, the child audience would still be enamored by its colorful and sharp textures, the diversity and detail in its environments, and adorable, cartoonish and well-animated characters. Castro positively analogized them as Tak 2: The Staff of Dreams (2004) and Scaler (2004) if they had less detail. Hollingshead compared its visual cartoon style and upbeat music to The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker (2002). Particle, lighting and blur effects of the explosions and Spyro's breathing were also well-received by Sobelski and Castro. However, Sobelski felt the polygon amount was too low for the fantasy world to be immersive, in spite of textures and lightings trying to hide these limitations. Paul Kautz of 4Players reported minor issues of background texture flickering and slightly off anti-aliasing in the PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions. Although finding the music "somewhat rehashed and quirky," he found the voice acting "very well done and quite comical in all the right ways." Michael Lafferty of GameZone dismissed the music as "on the elevator side" and "the type that one might hear in a pre-school, soft, light, and somewhat annoying after an hour". The writing was not heavily discussed. However, Kosmina was enthusiastic towards it, praising the personalities of the characters, his favourites being Sgt. Byrd, and the fairy that provides Spyro Electric breathing, and certain lines, such as a Professor's forgetting of what Spyro needs to collect. He was, however, unsatisfied with the absence of a reason why most of the characters refuse to talk about Red. ## Legacy According to a 2019 Game Informer piece by Andrew Reiner, Spyro: A Hero's Tail was part of a dark era in the franchise post-trilogy where developers switched between games, "none capable of delivering the magic fans have come to expect." He wrote that it lacked the "heart and soul" of the first three games, suffering in flow. Following completion, Eurocom considered developing another Spyro game, but plans for a Pirates of the Caribbean adaptation got in the way.
20,647,108	Red fox	1,173,859,414	Species of mammal	[ "Arctic land animals", "Articles containing video clips", "Carnivorans of Asia", "Carnivorans of Europe", "Carnivorans of North America", "Extant Middle Pleistocene first appearances", "Holarctic fauna", "Introduced mammals of Australia", "Mammals described in 1758", "Mammals of the Arctic", "Symbols of Mississippi", "Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus", "Vulpes" ]	The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the largest of the true foxes and one of the most widely distributed members of the order Carnivora, being present across the entire Northern Hemisphere including most of North America, Europe and Asia, plus parts of North Africa. It is listed as least concern by the IUCN. Its range has increased alongside human expansion, having been introduced to Australia, where it is considered harmful to native mammals and bird populations. Due to its presence in Australia, it is included on the list of the "world's 100 worst invasive species". The red fox originated from smaller-sized ancestors from Eurasia during the Middle Villafranchian period, and colonised North America shortly after the Wisconsin glaciation. Among the true foxes, the red fox represents a more progressive form in the direction of carnivory. Apart from its large size, the red fox is distinguished from other fox species by its ability to adapt quickly to new environments. Despite its name, the species often produces individuals with other colourings, including leucistic and melanistic individuals. Forty-five subspecies are currently recognised, which are divided into two categories: the large northern foxes and the small, basal southern grey desert foxes of Asia and North Africa. Red foxes are usually found in pairs or small groups consisting of families, such as a mated pair and their young, or a male with several females having kinship ties. The young of the mated pair remain with their parents to assist in caring for new kits. The species primarily feeds on small rodents, though it may also target rabbits, squirrels, game birds, reptiles, invertebrates and young ungulates. Fruit and vegetable matter is also eaten sometimes. Although the red fox tends to kill smaller predators, including other fox species, it is vulnerable to attack from larger predators, such as wolves, coyotes, golden jackals, large predatory birds such as golden eagles and Eurasian eagle owls, and medium- and large-sized felids. The species has a long history of association with humans, having been extensively hunted as a pest and furbearer for many centuries, as well as being represented in human folklore and mythology. Because of its widespread distribution and large population, the red fox is one of the most important furbearing animals harvested for the fur trade. Too small to pose a threat to humans, it has extensively benefited from the presence of human habitation, and has successfully colonised many suburban and urban areas. Domestication of the red fox is also underway in Russia, and has resulted in the domesticated silver fox. ## Terminology Males are called tods or dogs, females are called vixens, and young cubs are known as kits. Although the Arctic fox has a small native population in northern Scandinavia, and while the corsac fox's range extends into European Russia, the red fox is the only fox native to Western Europe, and so is simply called "the fox" in colloquial British English. ## Etymology The word "fox" comes from Old English, which derived from Proto-Germanic \fuhsaz. Compare with West Frisian foks, Dutch vos, and German Fuchs. This, in turn, derives from Proto-Indo-European \puḱ- 'thick-haired; tail'. Compare to the Hindi pū̃ch 'tail', Tocharian B päkā 'tail; chowrie', and Lithuanian paustìs 'fur'. The bushy tail also forms the basis for the fox's Welsh name, llwynog, literally 'bushy', from llwyn 'bush'. Likewise, Portuguese: raposa from rabo 'tail', Lithuanian uodẽgis from uodegà 'tail', and Ojibwe waagosh from waa, which refers to the up and down "bounce" or flickering of an animal or its tail. The scientific term vulpes derives from the Latin word for fox, and gives the adjectives vulpine and vulpecular. ## Evolution The red fox is considered to be a more specialised form of Vulpes than the Afghan, corsac and Bengal fox species, in regards to their overall size and adaptation to carnivory; the skull displays far fewer neotenous traits than in other foxes, and its facial area is more developed. It is, however, not as adapted for a purely carnivorous diet as the Tibetan fox. The sister lineage to the red fox is the Rüppell's fox, but the two species are surprisingly closely related through mitochondrial DNA markers, with Rüppell's fox nested inside the lineages of red foxes. Such a nesting of one species within another is called paraphyly. Several hypotheses have been suggested to explain this, including (1) recent divergence of Rüppell's fox from a red fox lineage, (2) incomplete lineage sorting, or introgression of mtDNA between the two species. Based on fossil record evidence, the last scenario seems most likely, which is further supported by the clear ecological and morphological differences between the two species. ### Origins The species is Eurasian in origin, and may have evolved from either Vulpes alopecoides or the related Chinese V. chikushanensis, both of which lived during the Middle Villafranchian of the Pleistocene Epoch. The earliest fossil specimens of V. vulpes were uncovered in Baranya County, Hungary, dating from 3.4 to 1.8 million years ago. The ancestral red fox was likely more diminutive compared to today’s extant foxes, as the earliest red fox fossils have shown a smaller build than living specimens. The earliest fossil remains of the modern species date back to the mid-Pleistocene, found in association with middens and refuse left by early human settlements. This has led to the theory that the red fox was hunted by primitive humans (as both a source of food and pelts); the possibility also exists of red foxes scavenging from middens or butchered animal carcasses. ### Colonisation of North America Red foxes colonised the North American continent in two waves: before and during the Illinoian glaciation, and during the Wisconsinan glaciation. Gene mapping demonstrates that red foxes in North America have been isolated from their Old World counterparts for over 400,000 years, thus raising the possibility that speciation has occurred, and that the previous binomial name of Vulpes fulva may be valid. In the far north, red fox fossils have been found in Sangamonian Stage deposits near the Fairbanks District, Alaska, and Medicine Hat, Alberta. Fossils dating from the Wisconsinan are present in 25 sites across Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Missouri, New Mexico, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and Wyoming. Although they ranged far south during the Wisconsinan, the onset of warm conditions shrank their range toward the north, and they have only recently reclaimed their former North American ranges because of human-induced environmental changes. Genetic testing indicates that two distinct red fox refugia exist in North America, which have been separated since the Wisconsinan. The northern (or boreal) refugium occurs in Alaska and western Canada, and consists of the larger subspecies V. v. alascensis, V. v. abietorum, V. v. regalis, and V. v. rubricosa. The southern (or montane) refugium occurs in the subalpine parklands and alpine meadows of the west, from the Rocky Mountains to the Cascades and the Sierra Nevada ranges, consisting of the smaller subspecies V. v. cascadensis, V. v. macroura, V. v. necator, and V. v. patwin. The latter clade has been separated from all other red fox populations since at least the last glacial maximum, and may possess unique ecological or physiological adaptations. Although European foxes (V. v. crucigera) were introduced to portions of the United States in the 1900s, recent genetic investigation indicates an absence of European fox mitochondrial haplotypes in any North American populations. Additionally, introduced eastern North American red foxes have colonised most of inland California, from Southern California to the San Joaquin Valley, Monterey and north-coastal San Francisco Bay Area (including urban San Francisco and adjacent cities). In spite of the red fox’s adaptability to city life, they are still found in somewhat greater numbers in the northern portions of California (north of the Bay Area) than in the south, as the wilderness is more alpine and isolated. The eastern red foxes appear to have mixed with the Sacramento Valley red fox (V. v. patwin) only in a narrow hybrid zone. In addition, no evidence is seen of interbreeding of eastern American red foxes in California with the montane Sierra Nevada red fox (V. v. necator) or other populations in the Intermountain West (between the Rocky Mountains to the east and the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains to the west). ### Subspecies The 3rd edition of Mammal Species of the World listed 45 subspecies as valid. In 2010, a distinct 46th subspecies, the Sacramento Valley red fox (V. v. patwin), which inhabits the grasslands of the Sacramento Valley, was identified through mitochondrial haplotype studies. Castello (2018) recognized 30 subspecies of the Old World red fox and nine subspecies of the North American red fox as valid. Substantial gene pool mixing between different subspecies is known; British red foxes have crossbred extensively with red foxes imported from Germany, France, Belgium, Sardinia and possibly Siberia and Scandinavia. However, genetic studies suggest very little differences between red foxes sampled across Europe. Lack of genetic diversity is consistent with the red fox being a highly agile species, with one red fox covering 320 km (200 mi) in under a year's time. Red fox subspecies in Eurasia and North Africa are divided into two categories: - Northern foxes are large and brightly coloured. - Southern grey desert foxes include the Asian subspecies V. v. griffithi, V. v. pusilla, and V. v. flavescens. These foxes display transitional features between the northern foxes and other, smaller fox species; their skulls possess more primitive, neotenous traits than the northern foxes and they are much smaller; the maximum sizes attained by southern grey desert foxes are invariably less than the average sizes of northern foxes. Their limbs are also longer and their ears larger. Red foxes living in Middle Asia show physical traits intermediate to the northern foxes and southern grey desert foxes. ## Description ### Build The red fox has an elongated body and relatively short limbs. The tail, which is longer than half the body length (70 percent of head and body length), is fluffy and reaches the ground when in a standing position. Their pupils are oval and vertically oriented. Nictitating membranes are present, but move only when the eyes are closed. The forepaws have five digits, while the hind feet have only four and lack dewclaws. They are very agile, being capable of jumping over 2 m (6 ft 7 in) high fences, and swim well. Vixens normally have four pairs of teats, though vixens with seven, nine, or ten teats are not uncommon. The testes of males are smaller than those of Arctic foxes. Their skulls are fairly narrow and elongated, with small braincases. Their canine teeth are relatively long. Sexual dimorphism of the skull is more pronounced than in corsac foxes, with female red foxes tending to have smaller skulls than males, with wider nasal regions and hard palates, as well as having larger canines. Their skulls are distinguished from those of dogs by their narrower muzzles, less crowded premolars, more slender canine teeth, and concave rather than convex profiles. ### Dimensions Red foxes are the largest species of the genus Vulpes. However, relative to dimensions, red foxes are much lighter than similarly sized dogs of the genus Canis. Their limb bones, for example, weigh 30 percent less per unit area of bone than expected for similarly sized dogs. They display significant individual, sexual, age and geographical variation in size. On average, adults measure 35–50 cm (14–20 in) high at the shoulder and 45–90 cm (18–35 in) in body length with tails measuring 30–55.5 cm (11.8–21.9 in). The ears measure 7.7–12.5 cm (3.0–4.9 in) and the hind feet 12–18.5 cm (4.7–7.3 in). Weights range from 2.2–14 kg (4.9–30.9 lb), with vixens typically weighing 15–20% less than males. Adult red foxes have skulls measuring 129–167 mm (5.1–6.6 in), while those of vixens measure 128–159 mm (5.0–6.3 in). The forefoot print measures 60 mm (2.4 in) in length and 45 mm (1.8 in) in width, while the hind foot print measures 55 mm (2.2 in) long and 38 mm (1.5 in) wide. They trot at a speed of 6–13 km/h (3.7–8.1 mph), and have a maximum running speed of 50 km/h (31 mph). They have a stride of 25–35 cm (9.8–13.8 in) when walking at a normal pace. North American red foxes are generally lightly built, with comparatively long bodies for their mass and have a high degree of sexual dimorphism. British red foxes are heavily built, but short, while continental European red foxes are closer to the general average among red fox populations. The largest red fox on record in Great Britain was a 1.4 m (4 ft 7 in) long male, that weighed 17.2 kg (38 lb), killed in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, in early 2012. ### Fur The winter fur is dense, soft, silky and relatively long. For the northern foxes, the fur is very long, dense and fluffy, but it is shorter, sparser and coarser in southern forms. Among northern foxes, the North American varieties generally have the silkiest guard hairs, while most Eurasian red foxes have coarser fur. The fur in "thermal windows" areas such as the head and the lower legs is kept dense and short all year round, while fur in other areas changes with the seasons. The foxes actively control the peripheral vasodilation and peripheral vasoconstriction in these areas to regulate heat loss. There are three main colour morphs; red, silver/black and cross (see Mutations). In the typical red morph, their coats are generally bright reddish-rusty with yellowish tints. A stripe of weak, diffuse patterns of many brown-reddish-chestnut hairs occurs along the spine. Two additional stripes pass down the shoulder blades, which, together with the spinal stripe, form a cross. The lower back is often a mottled silvery colour. The flanks are lighter coloured than the back, while the chin, lower lips, throat and front of the chest are white. The remaining lower surface of the body is dark, brown or reddish. During lactation, the belly fur of vixens may turn brick red. The upper parts of the limbs are rusty reddish, while the paws are black. The frontal part of the face and upper neck is bright brownish-rusty red, while the upper lips are white. The backs of the ears are black or brownish-reddish, while the inner surface is whitish. The top of the tail is brownish-reddish, but lighter in colour than the back and flanks. The underside of the tail is pale grey with a straw-coloured tint. A black spot, the location of the supracaudal gland, is usually present at the base of the tail. The tip of the tail is white. #### Colour morphs Atypical colouration in red foxes usually represents stages toward full melanism, and mostly occurs in cold regions. ### Senses Red foxes have binocular vision, but their sight reacts mainly to movement. Their auditory perception is acute, being able to hear black grouse changing roosts at 600 paces, the flight of crows at 0.25–0.5 km (0.16–0.31 mi) and the squeaking of mice at about 100 m (330 ft). They are capable of locating sounds to within one degree at 700–3,000 Hz, though less accurately at higher frequencies. Their sense of smell is good, but weaker than that of specialised dogs. ### Scent glands Red foxes have a pair of anal sacs lined by sebaceous glands, both of which open through a single duct. The anal sacs act as fermentation chambers in which aerobic and anaerobic bacteria convert sebum into odorous compounds, including aliphatic acids. The oval-shaped caudal gland is 25 mm (0.98 in) long and 13 mm (0.51 in) wide, and reportedly smells of violets. The presence of foot glands is equivocal. The interdigital cavities are deep, with a reddish tinge and smell strongly. Sebaceous glands are present on the angle of the jaw and mandible. ## Distribution and habitat The red fox is a wide-ranging species. Its range covers nearly 70,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> (27,000,000 sq mi) including as far north as the Arctic Circle. It occurs all across Europe, in Africa north of the Sahara Desert, throughout Asia apart from extreme Southeast Asia, and across North America apart from most of the southwestern United States and Mexico. It is absent in Greenland, Iceland, the Arctic islands, the most northern parts of central Siberia, and in extreme deserts. It is not present in New Zealand and is classed as a "prohibited new organism" under the Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996, which does not allow import. ### Australia In Australia, estimates in 2012 indicated that there were more than 7.2 million red foxes, with a range extending throughout most of the continental mainland. They became established in Australia through successive introductions in 1830s and 1840s, by settlers in the British colonies of Van Diemen's Land (as early as 1833) and the Port Phillip District of New South Wales (as early as 1845), who wanted to foster the traditional English sport of fox hunting. A permanent red fox population did not establish itself on the island of Tasmania, and it is widely held that foxes were out-competed by the Tasmanian devil. On the mainland, however, the species was successful as an apex predator. The fox is generally less common in areas where the dingo is more prevalent, but it has, primarily through its burrowing behaviour, achieved niche differentiation with both the feral dog and the feral cat. Consequently, the fox has become one of the continent's most destructive invasive species. The red fox has been implicated in the extinction or decline of several native Australian species, particularly those of the family Potoroidae, including the desert rat-kangaroo. The spread of red foxes across the southern part of the continent has coincided with the spread of rabbits in Australia, and corresponds with declines in the distribution of several medium-sized ground-dwelling mammals, including brush-tailed bettongs, burrowing bettongs, rufous bettongs, bilbys, numbats, bridled nail-tail wallabies and quokkas. Most of those species are now limited to areas (such as islands) where red foxes are absent or rare. Local fox eradication programs exist, although elimination has proven difficult due to the fox's denning behaviour and nocturnal hunting, so the focus is on management, including the introduction of state bounties. According to the Tasmanian government, red foxes were accidentally introduced to the previously fox-free island of Tasmania in 1999 or 2000, posing a significant threat to native wildlife, including the eastern bettong, and an eradication program was initiated, conducted by the Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries and Water. ### Sardinia, Italy The origin of the ichnusae subspecies in Sardinia, Italy is uncertain, as it is absent from Pleistocene deposits in their current homeland. It is possible it originated during the Neolithic following its introduction to the island by humans. It is likely then that Sardinian fox populations stem from repeated introductions of animals from different localities in the Mediterranean. This latter theory may explain the subspecies' phenotypic diversity. ## Behaviour ### Social and territorial behaviour Red foxes either establish stable home ranges within particular areas or are itinerant with no fixed abode. They use their urine to mark their territories. A male fox raises one hind leg and his urine is sprayed forward in front of him, whereas a female fox squats down so that the urine is sprayed in the ground between the hind legs. Urine is also used to mark empty cache sites, used to store found food, as reminders not to waste time investigating them. Males generally have higher urine marking rates during late summer and autumn, but the rest of the year the rates between male and female are similar. The use of up to 12 different urination postures allows them to precisely control the position of the scent mark. Red foxes live in family groups sharing a joint territory. In favourable habitats and/or areas with low hunting pressure, subordinate foxes may be present in a range. Subordinate foxes may number one or two, sometimes up to eight in one territory. These subordinates could be formerly dominant animals, but are mostly young from the previous year, who act as helpers in rearing the breeding vixen's kits. Alternatively, their presence has been explained as being in response to temporary surpluses of food unrelated to assisting reproductive success. Non-breeding vixens will guard, play, groom, provision and retrieve kits, an example of kin selection. Red foxes may leave their families once they reach adulthood if the chances of winning a territory of their own are high. If not, they will stay with their parents, at the cost of postponing their own reproduction. ### Reproduction and development Red foxes reproduce once a year in spring. Two months prior to oestrus (typically December), the reproductive organs of vixens change shape and size. By the time they enter their oestrus period, their uterine horns double in size, and their ovaries grow 1.5–2 times larger. Sperm formation in males begins in August–September, with the testicles attaining their greatest weight in December–February. The vixen's oestrus period lasts three weeks, during which the dog-foxes mate with the vixens for several days, often in burrows. The male's bulbus glandis enlarges during copulation, forming a copulatory tie which may last for more than an hour. The gestation period lasts 49–58 days. Though foxes are largely monogamous, DNA evidence from one population indicated large levels of polygyny, incest and mixed paternity litters. Subordinate vixens may become pregnant, but usually fail to whelp, or have their kits killed postpartum by either the dominant female or other subordinates. The average litter size consists of four to six kits, though litters of up to 13 kits have occurred. Large litters are typical in areas where fox mortality is high. Kits are born blind, deaf and toothless, with dark brown fluffy fur. At birth, they weigh 56–110 g (2.0–3.9 oz) and measure 14.5 cm (5.7 in) in body length and 7.5 cm (3.0 in) in tail length. At birth, they are short-legged, large-headed and have broad chests. Mothers remain with the kits for 2–3 weeks, as they are unable to thermoregulate. During this period, the fathers or barren vixens feed the mothers. Vixens are very protective of their kits, and have been known to even fight off terriers in their defence. If the mother dies before the kits are independent, the father takes over as their provider. The kits' eyes open after 13–15 days, during which time their ear canals open and their upper teeth erupt, with the lower teeth emerging 3–4 days later. Their eyes are initially blue, but change to amber at 4–5 weeks. Coat colour begins to change at three weeks of age, when the black eye streak appears. By one month, red and white patches are apparent on their faces. During this time, their ears erect and their muzzles elongate. Kits begin to leave their dens and experiment with solid food brought by their parents at the age of 3–4 weeks. The lactation period lasts 6–7 weeks. Their woolly coats begin to be coated by shiny guard hairs after 8 weeks. By the age of 3–4 months, the kits are long-legged, narrow-chested and sinewy. They reach adult proportions at the age of 6–7 months. Some vixens may reach sexual maturity at the age of 9–10 months, thus bearing their first litters at one year of age. In captivity, their longevity can be as long as 15 years, though in the wild they typically do not survive past 5 years of age. ### Denning behaviour Outside the breeding season, most red foxes favour living in the open, in densely vegetated areas, though they may enter burrows to escape bad weather. Their burrows are often dug on hill or mountain slopes, ravines, bluffs, steep banks of water bodies, ditches, depressions, gutters, in rock clefts and neglected human environments. Red foxes prefer to dig their burrows on well drained soils. Dens built among tree roots can last for decades, while those dug on the steppes last only several years. They may permanently abandon their dens during mange outbreaks, possibly as a defence mechanism against the spread of disease. In the Eurasian desert regions, foxes may use the burrows of wolves, porcupines and other large mammals, as well as those dug by gerbil colonies. Compared to burrows constructed by Arctic foxes, badgers, marmots and corsac foxes, red fox dens are not overly complex. Red fox burrows are divided into a den and temporary burrows, which consist only of a small passage or cave for concealment. The main entrance of the burrow leads downwards (40–45°) and broadens into a den, from which numerous side tunnels branch. Burrow depth ranges from 0.5–2.5 m (1 ft 8 in – 8 ft 2 in), rarely extending to ground water. The main passage can reach 17 m (56 ft) in length, standing an average of 5–7 m (16–23 ft). In spring, red foxes clear their dens of excess soil through rapid movements, first with the forepaws then with kicking motions with their hind legs, throwing the discarded soil over 2 m (6 ft 7 in) from the burrow. When kits are born, the discarded debris is trampled, thus forming a spot where the kits can play and receive food. They may share their dens with woodchucks or badgers. Unlike badgers, which fastidiously clean their earths and defecate in latrines, red foxes habitually leave pieces of prey around their dens. The average sleep time of a captive red fox is 9.8 hours per day. ## Communication ### Body language Red fox body language consists of movements of the ears, tail and postures, with their body markings emphasising certain gestures. Postures can be divided into aggressive/dominant and fearful/submissive categories. Some postures may blend the two together. Inquisitive foxes will rotate and flick their ears whilst sniffing. Playful individuals will perk their ears and rise on their hind legs. Male foxes courting females, or after successfully evicting intruders, will turn their ears outwardly, and raise their tails in a horizontal position, with the tips raised upward. When afraid, red foxes grin in submission, arching their backs, curving their bodies, crouching their legs and lashing their tails back and forth with their ears pointing backwards and pressed against their skulls. When merely expressing submission to a dominant animal, the posture is similar, but without arching the back or curving the body. Submissive foxes will approach dominant animals in a low posture, so that their muzzles reach up in greeting. When two evenly matched foxes confront each other over food, they approach each other sideways and push against each other's flanks, betraying a mixture of fear and aggression through lashing tails and arched backs without crouching and pulling their ears back without flattening them against their skulls. When launching an assertive attack, red foxes approach directly rather than sideways, with their tails aloft and their ears rotated sideways. During such fights, red foxes will stand on each other's upper bodies with their forelegs, using open mouthed threats. Such fights typically only occur among juveniles or adults of the same sex. ### Vocalisations Red foxes have a wide vocal range, and produce different sounds spanning five octaves, which grade into each other. Recent analyses identify 12 different sounds produced by adults and 8 by kits. The majority of sounds can be divided into "contact" and "interaction" calls. The former vary according to the distance between individuals, while the latter vary according to the level of aggression. - Contact calls: The most commonly heard contact call is a three to five syllable barking "wow wow wow" sound, which is often made by two foxes approaching one another. This call is most frequently heard from December to February (when they can be confused with the territorial calls of tawny owls). The "wow wow wow" call varies according to individual; captive foxes have been recorded to answer pre-recorded calls of their pen-mates, but not those of strangers. Kits begin emitting the "wow wow wow" call at the age of 19 days, when craving attention. When red foxes draw close together, they emit trisyllabic greeting warbles similar to the clucking of chickens. Adults greet their kits with gruff huffing noises. - Interaction calls: When greeting one another, red foxes emit high pitched whines, particularly submissive animals. A submissive fox approached by a dominant animal will emit a ululating siren-like shriek. During aggressive encounters with conspecifics, they emit a throaty rattling sound, similar to a ratchet, called "gekkering". Gekkering occurs mostly during the courting season from rival males or vixens rejecting advances. Both tamed and domesticated foxes have been observed making sounds similar to laughter, which is believed to be used as a contact call when communicating with human owners and handlers. Another call that does not fit into the two categories is a long, drawn-out, monosyllabic "waaaaah" sound. As it is commonly heard during the breeding season, it is thought to be emitted by vixens summoning males. When danger is detected, foxes emit a monosyllabic bark. At close quarters, it is a muffled cough, while at long distances it is sharper. Kits make warbling whimpers when nursing, these calls being especially loud when they are dissatisfied. ## Ecology ### Diet, hunting and feeding behaviour Red foxes are omnivores with a highly varied diet. Research conducted in the former Soviet Union showed red foxes consuming over 300 animal species and a few dozen species of plants. They primarily feed on small rodents like voles, mice, ground squirrels, hamsters, gerbils, woodchucks, pocket gophers and deer mice. Secondary prey species include birds (with Passeriformes, Galliformes and waterfowl predominating), leporids, porcupines, raccoons, opossums, reptiles, insects, other invertebrates, flotsam (marine mammals, fish and echinoderms) and carrion. On very rare occasions, foxes may attack young or small ungulates. They typically target mammals up to about 3.5 kg (7.7 lb) in weight, and they require 500 g (18 oz) of food daily. Red foxes readily eat plant material and in some areas fruit can amount to 100% of their diet in autumn. Commonly consumed fruits include blueberries, blackberries, raspberries, cherries, persimmons, mulberries, apples, plums, grapes and acorns. Other plant material includes grasses, sedges and tubers. Red foxes are implicated in the predation of game and song birds, hares, rabbits, muskrats and young ungulates, particularly in preserves, reserves and hunting farms where ground-nesting birds are protected and raised, as well as in poultry farms. While the popular consensus is that olfaction is very important for hunting, two studies that experimentally investigated the role of olfactory, auditory and visual cues found that visual cues are the most important ones for hunting in red foxes and coyotes. Red foxes prefer to hunt in the early morning hours before sunrise and late evening. Although they typically forage alone, they may aggregate in resource-rich environments. When hunting mouse-like prey, they first pinpoint their prey's location by sound, then leap, sailing high above their quarry, steering in mid-air with their tails, before landing on target up to 5 m (16 ft) away. They typically only feed on carrion in the late evening hours and at night. They are extremely possessive of their food and will defend their catches from even dominant animals. Red foxes may occasionally commit acts of surplus killing; during one breeding season, four red foxes were recorded to have killed around 200 black-headed gulls each, with peaks during dark, windy hours when flying conditions were unfavourable. Losses to poultry and penned game birds can be substantial because of this. Red foxes seem to dislike the taste of moles, but will nonetheless catch them alive and present them to their kits as playthings. A 2008–2010 study of 84 red foxes in the Czech Republic and Germany found that successful hunting in long vegetation or under snow appeared to involve an alignment of the red fox with the Earth's magnetic field. ### Enemies and competitors Red foxes typically dominate other fox species. Arctic foxes generally escape competition from red foxes by living farther north, where food is too scarce to support the larger-bodied red species. Although the red species' northern limit is linked to the availability of food, the Arctic species' southern range is limited by the presence of the former. Red and Arctic foxes were both introduced to almost every island from the Aleutian Islands to the Alexander Archipelago during the 1830s–1930s by fur companies. The red foxes invariably displaced the Arctic foxes, with one male red fox having been reported to have killed off all resident Arctic foxes on a small island in 1866. Where they are sympatric, Arctic foxes may also escape competition by feeding on lemmings and flotsam rather than voles, as favoured by red foxes. Both species will kill each other's kits, given the opportunity. Red foxes are serious competitors of corsac foxes, as they hunt the same prey all year. The red species is also stronger, is better adapted to hunting in snow deeper than 10 cm (3.9 in) and is more effective in hunting and catching medium-sized to large rodents. Corsac foxes seem to only outcompete red foxes in semi-desert and steppe areas. In Israel, Blanford's foxes escape competition with red foxes by restricting themselves to rocky cliffs and actively avoiding the open plains inhabited by red foxes. Red foxes dominate kit and swift foxes. Kit foxes usually avoid competition with their larger cousins by living in more arid environments, though red foxes have been increasing in ranges formerly occupied by kit foxes due to human-induced environmental changes. Red foxes will kill both species and compete with them for food and den sites. Grey foxes are exceptional, as they dominate red foxes wherever their ranges meet. Historically, interactions between the two species were rare, as grey foxes favoured heavily wooded or semiarid habitats as opposed to the open and mesic ones preferred by red foxes. However, interactions have become more frequent due to deforestation, allowing red foxes to colonise grey fox-inhabited areas. Wolves may kill and eat red foxes in disputes over carcasses. In areas in North America where red fox and coyote populations are sympatric, red fox ranges tend to be located outside coyote territories. The principal cause of this separation is believed to be active avoidance of coyotes by the red foxes. Interactions between the two species vary in nature, ranging from active antagonism to indifference. The majority of aggressive encounters are initiated by coyotes, and there are few reports of red foxes acting aggressively toward coyotes except when attacked or when their kits were approached. Foxes and coyotes have sometimes been seen feeding together. In Israel, red foxes share their habitat with golden jackals. Where their ranges meet, the two canids compete due to near-identical diets. Red foxes ignore golden jackal scents or tracks in their territories and avoid close physical proximity with golden jackals themselves. In areas where golden jackals become very abundant, the population of red foxes decreases significantly, apparently because of competitive exclusion. Red foxes dominate raccoon dogs, sometimes killing their kits or biting adults to death. Cases are known of red foxes killing raccoon dogs after entering their dens. Both species compete for mouse-like prey. This competition reaches a peak during early spring when food is scarce. In Tatarstan, red fox predation accounted for 11.1% of deaths among 54 raccoon dogs and amounted to 14.3% of 186 raccoon dog deaths in northwestern Russia. Red foxes may kill small mustelids like weasels, stone martens, pine martens (martes martes), stoats, siberian weasels, polecats and young sables. Eurasian badgers may live alongside red foxes in isolated sections of large burrows. It is possible that the two species tolerate each other out of mutualism; red foxes provide Eurasian badgers with food scraps, while Eurasian badgers maintain the shared burrow's cleanliness. However, cases are known of Eurasian badgers driving vixens from their dens and destroying their litters without eating them. Wolverines may kill red foxes, often while the latter is sleeping or near carrion. Red foxes, in turn, may kill young wolverines. Red foxes may compete with striped hyenas on large carcasses. Red foxes may give way to striped hyenas on unopened carcasses, as the latter's stronger jaws can easily tear open flesh that is too tough for red foxes. Red foxes may harass striped hyenas, using their smaller size and greater speed to avoid the hyena's attacks. Sometimes, red foxes seem to deliberately torment striped hyenas even when there is no food at stake. Some red foxes may mis-time their attacks and are killed. Red fox remains are often found in striped hyena dens and striped hyenas may steal red foxes from traps. In Eurasia, red foxes may be preyed upon by leopards, caracals and Eurasian lynxes. The Eurasian lynxes chase red foxes into deep snow, where their long legs and larger paws give them an advantage over red foxes, especially when the depth of the snow exceeds one meter. In the Velikoluksky District in Russia, red foxes are absent or are seen only occasionally where Eurasian lynxes establish permanent territories. Researchers consider Eurasian lynxes to represent considerably less danger to red foxes than wolves do. North American felid predators of red foxes include cougars, Canada lynxes and bobcats. Red foxes compete with various birds of prey such as common buzzards (Buteo buteo) and northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) and even steal their kills. In turn, golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) regularly takes young red foxes and prey on adults if needed. Other large eagles such as wedge-tailed eagles (Aquila audax), eastern imperial eagles (Aquila heliaca), white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla), and steller's sea eagles (Haliaeetus pelagicus) have also been known to kill red foxes less frequently. Additionally, large owls such as Eurasian eagle-owls (Bubo bubo) and snowy owls (Bubo scandiacus) will prey on young foxes, and adults on exceptional occasions. ### Diseases and parasites Red foxes are the most important rabies vector in Europe. In London, arthritis is common in foxes, being particularly frequent in the spine. Foxes may be infected with leptospirosis and tularemia, though they are not overly susceptible to the latter. They may also fall ill from listeriosis and spirochetosis, as well as acting as vectors in spreading erysipelas, brucellosis and tick-borne encephalitis. A mysterious fatal disease near Lake Sartlan in the Novosibirsk Oblast was noted among local red foxes, but the cause was undetermined. The possibility was considered that it was caused by an acute form of encephalomyelitis, which was first observed in captive-bred silver foxes. Individual cases of foxes infected with Yersinia pestis are known. Red foxes are not readily prone to infestation with fleas. Species like Spilopsyllus cuniculi are probably only caught from the fox's prey species, while others like Archaeopsylla erinacei are caught whilst traveling. Fleas that feed on red foxes include Pulex irritans, Ctenocephalides canis and Paraceras melis. Ticks such as Ixodes ricinus and I. hexagonus are not uncommon in red foxes, and are typically found on nursing vixens and kits still in their earths. The louse Trichodectes vulpis specifically targets red foxes, but is found infrequently. The mite Sarcoptes scabiei is the most important cause of mange in red foxes. It causes extensive hair loss, starting from the base of the tail and hindfeet, then the rump before moving on to the rest of the body. In the final stages of the condition, red foxes can lose most of their fur, 50% of their body weight and may gnaw at infected extremities. In the epizootic phase of the disease, it usually takes red foxes four months to die after infection. Other endoparasites include Demodex folliculorum, Notoderes, Otodectes cynotis (which is frequently found in the ear canal), Linguatula serrata (which infects the nasal passages) and ringworms. Up to 60 helminth species are known to infect captive-bred foxes in fur farms, while 20 are known in the wild. Several coccidian species of the genera Isospora and Eimeria are also known to infect them. The most common nematode species found in red fox guts are Toxocara canis and Uncinaria stenocephala, Capillaria aerophila and Crenosoma vulpis; the latter two infect their lungs. Capillaria plica infects the red fox's bladder. Trichinella spiralis rarely affects them. The most common tapeworm species in red foxes are Taenia spiralis and T. pisiformis. Others include Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis. Eleven trematode species infect red foxes, including Metorchis conjunctus. ## Relationships with humans ### In folklore, religion and mythology Red foxes feature prominently in the folklore and mythology of human cultures with which they are sympatric. In Greek mythology, the Teumessian fox, or Cadmean vixen, was a gigantic fox that was destined never to be caught. The fox was one of the children of Echidna. In Celtic mythology, the red fox is a symbolic animal. In the Cotswolds, witches were thought to take the shape of foxes to steal butter from their neighbours. In later European folklore, the figure of Reynard the Fox symbolises trickery and deceit. He originally appeared (then under the name of "Reinardus") as a secondary character in the 1150 poem "Ysengrimus". He reappeared in 1175 in Pierre Saint Cloud's Le Roman de Renart, and made his debut in England in Geoffrey Chaucer's The Nun's Priest's Tale. Many of Reynard's adventures may stem from actual observations on fox behaviour; he is an enemy of the wolf and has a fondness for blackberries and grapes. Chinese folk tales tell of fox-spirits called huli jing that may have up to nine tails, or kumiho as they are known in Korea. In Japanese mythology, the kitsune are fox-like spirits possessing magical abilities that increase with their age and wisdom. Foremost among these is the ability to assume human form. While some folktales speak of kitsune employing this ability to trick others, other stories portray them as faithful guardians, friends, lovers, and wives. In Arab folklore, the fox is considered a cowardly, weak, deceitful, and cunning animal, said to feign death by filling its abdomen with air to appear bloated, then lies on its side, awaiting the approach of unwitting prey. The animal's cunning was noted by the authors of the Bible who applied the word "fox" to false prophets (Ezekiel 13:4) and the hypocrisy of Herod Antipas (Luke 13:32). The cunning Fox is commonly found in Native American mythology, where it is portrayed as an almost constant companion to Coyote. Fox, however, is a deceitful companion that often steals Coyote's food. In the Achomawi creation myth, Fox and Coyote are the co-creators of the world, that leave just before the arrival of humans. The Yurok tribe believed that Fox, in anger, captured the Sun, and tied him to a hill, causing him to burn a great hole in the ground. An Inuit story tells of how Fox, portrayed as a beautiful woman, tricks a hunter into marrying her, only to resume her true form and leave after he offends her. A Menominee story tells of how Fox is an untrustworthy friend to Wolf. ### Hunting The earliest historical records of fox hunting come from the 4th century BC; Alexander the Great is known to have hunted foxes and a seal dated from 350 BC depicts a Persian horseman in the process of spearing a fox. Xenophon, who viewed hunting as part of a cultured man's education, advocated the killing of foxes as pests, as they distracted hounds from hares. The Romans were hunting foxes by AD 80. During the Dark Ages in Europe, foxes were considered secondary quarries, but gradually grew in importance. Cnut the Great re-classed foxes as Beasts of the Chase, a lower category of quarry than Beasts of Venery. Foxes were gradually hunted less as vermin and more as Beasts of the Chase, to the point that by the late 1200s, Edward I had a royal pack of foxhounds and a specialised fox huntsman. In this period, foxes were increasingly hunted above ground with hounds, rather than underground with terriers. Edward, Second Duke of York assisted the climb of foxes as more prestigious quarries in his The Master of Game. By the Renaissance, fox hunting became a traditional sport of the nobility. After the English Civil War caused a drop in deer populations, fox hunting grew in popularity. By the mid-1600s, Great Britain was divided into fox hunting territories, with the first fox hunting clubs being formed (the first was the Charlton Hunt Club in 1737). The popularity of fox hunting in Great Britain reached a peak during the 1700s. Although already native to North America, red foxes from England were imported for sporting purposes to Virginia and Maryland in 1730 by prosperous tobacco planters. These American fox hunters considered the red fox more sporting than the grey fox. > The grays furnished more fun, the reds more excitement. The grays did not run so far, but usually kept near home, going in a circuit of six or eight miles. 'An old red, generally so called irrespective of age, as a tribute to his prowess, might lead the dogs all day, and end by losing them as evening fell, after taking them a dead stretch for thirty miles. The capture of a gray was what men boasted of; a chase after 'an old red' was what they 'yarned' about. Red foxes are still widely persecuted as pests, with human-caused deaths among the highest causes of mortality in the species. Annual red fox kills are: UK 21,500–25,000 (2000); Germany 600,000 (2000–2001); Austria 58,000 (2000–2001); Sweden 58,000 (1999–2000); Finland 56,000 (2000–2001); Denmark 50,000 (1976–1977); Switzerland 34,832 (2001); Norway 17,000 (2000–2001); Saskatchewan (Canada) 2,000 (2000–2001); Nova Scotia (Canada) 491 (2000–2001); Minnesota (US) 4,000–8,000 (average annual trapping harvest 2002–2009); New Mexico (US) 69 (1999–2000). ### Fur use Red foxes are among the most important fur-bearing animals harvested by the fur trade. Their pelts are used for trimmings, scarfs, muffs, jackets and coats. They are principally used as trimming for both cloth coats and fur garments, including evening wraps. The pelts of silver foxes are popular as capes, while cross foxes are mostly used for scarves and rarely for trimming. The number of sold fox scarves exceeds the total number of scarves made from other fur-bearers. However, this amount is overshadowed by the total number of red fox pelts used for trimming purposes. The silver colour morphs are the most valued by furriers, followed by the cross colour morphs and the red colour morphs, respectively. In the early 1900s, over 1,000 American red fox skins were imported to Great Britain annually, while 500,000 were exported annually from Germany and Russia. The total worldwide trade of wild red foxes in 1985–86 was 1,543,995 pelts. Red foxes amounted to 45% of U.S. wild-caught pelts worth \$50 million. Pelt prices are increasing, with 2012 North American wholesale auction prices averaging \$39 and 2013 prices averaging \$65.78. North American red foxes, particularly those of northern Alaska, are the most valued for their fur, as they have guard hairs of a silky texture which, after dressing, allow the wearer unrestricted mobility. Red foxes living in southern Alaska's coastal areas and the Aleutian Islands are an exception, as they have extremely coarse pelts that rarely exceed one-third of the price of their northern Alaskan cousins. Most European peltries have coarse-textured fur compared to North American varieties. The only exceptions are the Nordic and Far Eastern Russian peltries, but they are still inferior to North American peltries in terms of silkiness. ### Livestock and pet predation Red foxes may on occasion prey on lambs. Usually, lambs targeted by red foxes tend to be physically weakened specimens, but not always. Lambs belonging to small breeds, such as the Scottish Blackface, are more vulnerable than larger breeds, such as the Merino. Twins may be more vulnerable to red foxes than singlets, as ewes cannot effectively defend both simultaneously. Crossbreeding small, upland ewes with larger, lowland rams can cause difficult and prolonged labour for ewes due to the heaviness of the resulting offspring, thus making the lambs more at risk to red fox predation. Lambs born from gimmers (ewes breeding for the first time) are more often killed by red foxes than those of experienced mothers, who stick closer to their young. Red foxes may prey on domestic rabbits and guinea pigs if they are kept in open runs or are allowed to range freely in gardens. This problem is usually averted by housing them in robust hutches and runs. Urban red foxes frequently encounter cats and may feed alongside them. In physical confrontations, the cats usually have the upper hand. Authenticated cases of red foxes killing cats usually involve kittens. Although most red foxes do not prey on cats, some may do so and may treat them more as competitors rather than food. ### Taming and domestication In their unmodified wild state, red foxes are generally unsuitable as pets. Many supposedly abandoned kits are adopted by well-meaning people during the spring period, though it is unlikely that vixens would abandon their young. Actual orphans are rare and the ones that are adopted are likely kits that simply strayed from their den sites. Kits require almost constant supervision; when still suckling, they require milk at four-hour intervals day and night. Once weaned, they may become destructive to leather objects, furniture and electric cables. Though generally friendly toward people when young, captive red foxes become fearful of humans, save for their handlers, once they reach 10 weeks of age. They maintain their wild counterparts' strong instinct of concealment and may pose a threat to domestic birds, even when well-fed. Although suspicious of strangers, they can form bonds with cats and dogs, even ones bred for fox hunting. Tame red foxes were once used to draw ducks close to hunting blinds. White to black individual red foxes have been selected and raised on fur farms as "silver foxes". In the second half of the 20th century, a lineage of domesticated silver foxes was developed by Russian geneticist Dmitry Belyayev who, over a 40-year period, bred several generations selecting only those individuals that showed the least fear of humans. Eventually, Belyayev's team selected only those that showed the most positive response to humans, thus resulting in a population of silver foxes whose behaviour and appearance was significantly changed. After about 10 generations of controlled breeding, these foxes no longer showed any fear of humans and often wagged their tails and licked their human caretakers to show affection. These behavioural changes were accompanied by physical alterations, which included piebald coats, floppy ears in kits and curled tails, similar to the traits that distinguish domestic dogs from grey wolves. ### Urban red foxes #### Distribution Red foxes have been exceedingly successful in colonising built-up environments, especially lower-density suburbs, although many have also been sighted in dense urban areas far from the countryside. Throughout the 20th century, they have established themselves in many Australian, European, Japanese and North American cities. The species first colonised British cities during the 1930s, entering Bristol and London during the 1940s, and later established themselves in Cambridge and Norwich. In Ireland, they are now common in suburban Dublin. In Australia, red foxes were recorded in Melbourne as early as the 1930s, while in Zurich, Switzerland, they only started appearing in the 1980s. Urban red foxes are most common in residential suburbs consisting of privately owned, low-density housing. They are rare in areas where industry, commerce or council-rented houses predominate. In these latter areas, the distribution is of a lower average density because they rely less on human resources; the home range of these foxes average from 80–90 ha (0.80–0.90 km<sup>2</sup>; 200–220 acres), whereas those in more residential areas average from 25–40 ha (0.25–0.40 km<sup>2</sup>; 62–99 acres). In 2006, it was estimated that there were 10,000 red foxes in London. City-dwelling red foxes may have the potential to consistently grow larger than their rural counterparts as a result of abundant scraps and a relative lack of predators. In cities, red foxes may scavenge food from litter bins and bin bags, although much of their diet is similar to rural red foxes. #### Behaviour Urban red foxes are most active at dusk and dawn, doing most of their hunting and scavenging at these times. It is uncommon to spot them during the day, but they can be caught sunbathing on roofs of houses or sheds. Urban red foxes will often make their homes in hidden and undisturbed spots in urban areas as well as on the edges of a city, visiting at night for sustenance. They sleep at night in dens. While urban red foxes will scavenge successfully in the city (and the red foxes tend to eat anything that humans eat) some urban residents will deliberately leave food out for the animals, finding them endearing. Doing this regularly can attract urban red foxes to one's home; they can become accustomed to human presence, warming up to their providers by allowing themselves to be approached and in some cases even played with, particularly young kits. #### Urban red fox control Urban red foxes can cause problems for local residents. They have been known to steal chickens, disrupt rubbish bins and damage gardens. Most complaints about urban red foxes made to local authorities occur during the breeding season in late January/early February or from late April to August when the new kits are developing. In the U.K., hunting red foxes in urban areas is banned and shooting them in an urban environment is not suitable. One alternative to hunting urban red foxes has been to trap them, which appears to be a more viable method. However, killing red foxes has little effect on the population in an urban area; those that are killed are very soon replaced, either by new kits during the breeding season or by other red foxes moving into the territory of those that were killed. A more effective method of urban red fox control is to deter them from the specific areas they inhabit. Deterrents such as creosote, diesel oil, or ammonia can be used. Cleaning up and blocking access to den locations can also discourage an urban red fox's return. #### Relationship between urban and rural red foxes In January 2014 it was reported that "Fleet", a relatively tame urban red fox tracked as part of a wider study by the University of Brighton in partnership with the BBC TV series Winterwatch, had unexpectedly traveled 195 miles in 21 days from his neighbourhood in Hove at the western edge of East Sussex across rural countryside as far as Rye, at the eastern edge of the county. He was still continuing his journey when the GPS collar stopped transmitting due to suspected water damage. Along with setting a record for the longest journey undertaken by a tracked red fox in the United Kingdom, his travels have highlighted the fluidity of movement between rural and urban red fox populations.
34,356,212	Yucamane	1,154,267,328	Volcano in Peru	[ "Andean Volcanic Belt", "Mountains of Peru", "Mountains of Tacna Region", "Quaternary South America", "Quaternary volcanoes", "Stratovolcanoes of Peru" ]	Yucamane, Yucamani or Yucumane is an andesitic stratovolcano in the Tacna Region of southern Peru. It is part of the Peruvian segment of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of the three volcanic belts of the Andes generated by the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South America plate. Peru's active volcanoes Ubinas, Sabancaya and El Misti are also part of the Central Volcanic Zone. Yucamane, together with the volcanoes Yucamane Chico and Calientes farther north, forms a Pleistocene volcanic group. Yucamane is constructed mainly by lava flows with subordinate pyroclastic deposits, and it has a well preserved summit crater with fumarolic activity. The volcanic group was active in the Pleistocene epoch, with the Holocene featuring several explosive eruptions occurring at Yucamane proper and effusive eruptions at Calientes. The last dated eruption of Yucamane occurred 1,320 BCE; whether there were historical eruptions is unclear as some eruptions attributed to Yucamane probably took place at Tutupaca. ## Geography and geomorphology Yucamane lies in the Tacna Region, Candarave Province, Candarave District of Peru, west of lake Vilacota. The town of Candarave lies 7 kilometres (4.3 mi)-11 kilometres (6.8 mi) southwest from the volcano and the city of Tacna 90 kilometres (56 mi) south. A number of mostly agricultural towns exist on its slopes, such as Aricota, Cairani, Camilaca, Cucachi, Huanuara, Morjani, Pallata, Susapaya, Tarata, Ticaco, Totora and Yucamane Pampa, as well as irrigation infrastructure and major roads. Sulfur was mined on the volcano in the past. The area of Yucamane is accessible by a number of roads including the international Ilo-Desaguadero highway, and a road leads up the northwestern flank of Yucamane to a point close to the mountain pass between Yucamane and Calientes. The edifice of the volcano and surrounding region are part of the Vilacota-Maure protected area. ### Regional The Andes are the longest mountain range on Earth, extending 9,000 kilometres (5,600 mi) from the Tierra del Fuego archipelago in southernmost South America to Venezuela in the north. In southern Peru, the Andes consist of several mountain chains including the Western Cordillera and the Eastern Cordillera, with elevations of up to 4,000–5,000 metres (13,000–16,000 ft), which are separated from each other by the Altiplano. More than 2,000 volcanoes exist in the Andes, mainly in the countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. Seven volcanoes have been active in Peru since the arrival of the Spaniards, but volcanic activity is typically poorly recorded in Peru, owing to the remote nature of the region and the scarce population. Yucamane is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of the three major volcanic belts in the Andes, which spans the countries of Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. In Peru about four hundred heavily eroded volcanoes make up the volcanically active area along with the active volcanoes El Misti, Sabancaya and Ubinas; the volcanoes Andagua volcanic field, Casiri, Chachani, Coropuna, Firura, Huaynaputina, Tutupaca and Yucamane may have been active in recent history. The largest historical eruption in Peru occurred in 1600 at Huaynaputina and caused 1,500 fatalities and severe economic damage. Other major eruptions occurred 2,000 years before present at El Misti volcano, 1,000 years before present at Ubinas and two centuries ago at Tutupaca. Finally, the three volcanoes Ampato, Chachani and Coropuna have heights exceeding 6,000 metres (20,000 ft). ### Local Yucamane is a mountain whose height is variously given as 5,495-metre (18,028 ft), 5,500-metre (18,000 ft) or 5,508-metre (18,071 ft). It is a high compound volcano, with an about 800-metre (2,600 ft) wide summit crater; this depression in turn has a smaller crater with a diameter of 300 metres (980 ft) and a depth of about 120 metres (390 ft) nested within. The summit crater has a young appearance, and due to the youth of the volcano there is little trace of glaciation. Yucamane has a conical shape and is formed primarily by lava flows with some block and ash flows and pyroclastic flows. Lava flows are 20–50 metres (66–164 ft) thick and often show characteristic flow ridges. They are especially prevalent on the upper western and upper southern flanks of the volcano, while the eastern flank has a higher proportion of pyroclastic flows, as does the far southern flank. Based on slope angle, a "Yucamane I" volcano, which forms the lower part of the volcano and has a more gentle slope, has been distinguished from a "Yucamane II", which sits atop "Yucamane I" and has steeper slopes. The lower part of the volcano bears traces of glaciation, presumably from the last glacial maximum. The edifice rises on a gently sloping plain between the Callazas and Calientes rivers. On the southeastern flank a secondary volcanic centre, 4,200-metre (13,800 ft) high Mal Paso, can be found. This cone is 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) wide and has a partially destroyed crater. Several other volcanoes lie north of Yucamane, such as the 5,025 metres (16,486 ft), 5,310-metre (17,420 ft) or 5,355-metre (17,569 ft) high Yucamane Chico and the 5,368-metre (17,612 ft), 5,358-metre (17,579 ft) or 4,980 metres (16,340 ft) high Calientes, which form a 11-kilometre (6.8 mi) long north-south volcanic chain with Yucamane. Calientes and Yucamane are considered to be a paired volcano with a volume of 20–25 cubic kilometres (4.8–6.0 cu mi) and a base area of 58–60 square kilometres (22–23 sq mi). Other volcanoes in the area include San Pedro, López Extraña and the much older Nazaparco. Nazaparco consists of andesitic rocks and rhyolitic block and ash flows, while Yucamane Chico and Calientes are surrounded by radially extending lava flows like Yucamane proper and Calientes has produced a 8–12 cubic kilometres (1.9–2.9 cu mi) ignimbrite south of Yucamane. Calientes has a 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) wide summit crater with a lava dome complex and a 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) long presumably glacial valley filled with the most recent lava domes. While its upper sector is well preserved, the lower flanks like the older volcanoes are eroded. The older volcanoes show evidence of sector collapses and have been glaciated, which has left moraines at elevations of about 4,300 metres (14,100 ft) and glacial deposits with a volume of about 0.5–1 cubic kilometre (0.12–0.24 cu mi). This volcanic complex is part of the Cordillera del Barroso mountain chain in southern Peru. A series of northwest-southeast trending normal faults runs along the Andes close to Yucamane. The Yucamane fault runs in a north-south direction across the volcanoes, and another fault that runs northwest-southeast is named the Yucamane Chico fault; the Yucamane Chico volcano roughly coincides with the intersection of these faults. ### Hydrology The slopes of the volcano drain westward, eastward and southward towards the Calientes and Callazas rivers in the east and west of Yucamane, respectively. Both rivers flow southward and ultimately join to form the Locumba river, which ends in the Pacific Ocean. The water in these rivers contains large quantities of arsenic derived from volcanic rocks, including Yucamane's volcanic rocks; arsenic in drinking water is linked to internal organ damage and cancer. ## Geology Off the western coast of South America, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate at a rate of about 4.6 centimetres per year (1.8 in/year). This subduction process is responsible for the volcanic activity in the Andes. The subducting slab releases fluids which induce the formation of melts which are then erupted on the surface as volcanism. The subduction process is not uniform along the plate margin; variations in the dip of the subducting Nazca plate occur along its length, and volcanic activity is concentrated in three belts (Northern Volcanic Zone, Central Volcanic Zone and Southern Volcanic Zone) where the angle of subduction is steep enough. Volcanism in the region has been active since the Jurassic, with remnants of the oldest volcanic arc recognizable in the Peruvian Coastal Cordillera. During the Miocene epoch, volcanic activity occurred along the entire length of Peru; Pliocene-Pleistocene activity on the other hand is confined to southern Peru as part of the Central Volcanic Zone, with volcanic centres concentrated in the Western Cordillera. Volcanoes in Peru were first catalogued in 1962 and 1966, with a major compilation being published in 1991 by De Silva and Francis. These volcanoes include composite volcanoes, ignimbrites, lava domes and lava flow fields. Yucamane is constructed on a basement formed by the Paleozoic Tacaza Group (lavas of the lower Tacaza formation), the Jurassic Yura Group (sediments of the Hualhuani formation), the Neogene volcanic Huaylillas formation and the 10-1 million years old Barroso Group; parts of this basement crop out on the southern side of Yucamane. This basement in turn consists of two major tectonic blocks, the southern Arequipa terrane and the northern Paracas massif; both are formed by igneous and metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and are covered by Mesozoic sedimentary and Cenozoic volcanic rocks. A large ring-shaped volcanic intrusion appears to underlie Yucamane. ### Petrology Yucamane has erupted andesite, basaltic andesite, trachyandesite and dacite, which define a potassium-rich calc-alkaline suite. The andesites make up the bulk of the outcropping edifice. These andesitic rocks contain phenocrysts of amphibole, biotite, hornblende, oxides, plagioclase and quartz. Calientes has produced a similar rock suite but with a dominance of dacite instead of basaltic andesite and andesite as in Yucamane. The magmas formed through the assimilation of crustal material and fractionation of amphibole. ## Climate and natural features The region has a dry tropical climate, with precipitation on Yucamane amounting to about 200–180 millimetres per year (7.9–7.1 in/year). Most of it falls during the summer months, and the amount of precipitation decreases southwestward towards the coast and away from the mountains. After precipitation events the mountain is sometimes covered with snow. Because of the scarcity of precipitation, the volcanoes are relatively uneroded. Above 4,500 metres (14,800 ft) elevation temperatures are almost always freezing, and while at 3,800–4,500 metres (12,500–14,800 ft) elevation daily temperatures can reach 5 °C (41 °F) night frosts are normal. Vegetation around the volcano includes a humid tundra with overall low vegetation density on its upper slopes, and paramo and montane steppe vegetation east/west and south of the volcano on its lower slopes, respectively. Quenoa woods have been observed on its flanks, which are otherwise covered by pastures lower on the volcano. The volcano is part of the Vilacota Maure Regional Conservation Area [es]. The scorpion species Brachistosternus ninapo is named after the volcano; the term ninapo is a portmanteau of the Quechua word for "fire-spitting mountain". This scorpion was discovered on the sides of the volcanoes Yucamane and El Misti. ## Eruptive history Yucamane Chico has produced rocks dated to 6.14 ± 0.11 and 5.47 ± 0.09 million years ago. Nazaparco was dated to 6.23 ± 0.1 million years ago, while dates of 540,000 ± 270,000, 486,000 ± 11,000, 200,000 - 150,000 (for the ignimbrite. Its eruption probably reached a volcanic explosivity index of 6 and may have produced a now-buried caldera), 126,000 ± 3,000, 95,600 ± 16,700, 133,400 ± 13,500, 102,000 ± 6,000 and 3,000 ± 3,000 years ago. Yucamane itself has an undated first stage, lava flows dated at 380,000 ± 300,000, 23,000 ± 1,000, 7,100 ± 1,000 and 3,000 ± 2,000 years before present. The activity of Calientes and Yucamane overlapped in time, and both have generated lava flows which lie above moraines. Tephrochronology has shown the occurrence of an eruption 44,000 ± 2,130/2,910 years ago; another one occurred 36,450 ± 250 years ago and generated a lateral blast that emplaced a block-and-ash deposit on the western and southern flanks. Other events occurred 29,200 + 170/−160, forming the Honda block-and-ash flow deposit, and 3,270 ± 50/3,085 ± 35 years before present; during the course of this eruption Yucamane expelled at least 7,000,000 cubic metres (250,000,000 cu ft) of material in the form of pumice, lapilli and tephra. This eruption had a volcanic explosivity index of 5; fallout deposits reached the Quelccaya Ice Cap and influenced the chemistry of lakes close to the ice cap. Activity during the late Pleistocene and Holocene epochs was mainly explosive with Vulcanian eruptions and phreatomagmatic eruptions among others, which generated volcanic ash falls, block and ash flows, pyroclastic flows and pyroclastic surges. In total, about 4-5 explosive eruptions occurred in post-glacial time and left tephra deposits over the southern and southeastern flanks of the edifice. ### Historical activity Eruptions reported in 1787, 1802, 1862 and 1902 in the region have also been attributed to Yucamane, although some may actually have occurred at Tutupaca. The 1787 and 1902 events involved the emission of ash; an 1874 edition of the Arequipa-based El Deber newspaper states that Yucamane was "bursting" and "steaming" in 1787. There does not appear to be any volcanic material more recent than the 3,270 ± 50/3,085 ± 35 eruption, however. Overall, historical records are fragmentary and scarce, and the Global Volcanism Program recognizes the 1,320 BCE eruption as the most recent event. Yucamane is fumarolically active in its summit crater, the fumaroles are most recognizable after precipitation and are not very intense. Presently, Yucamane is considered to be a dormant volcano. Thermal anomalies of about 3 °C (5.4 °F) of uncertain origin have been observed on Yucamane by satellite imagery. The Caliente geothermal field east of Yucamane, which includes geysers and hot springs, appears to be unrelated to Yucamane. ### Hazards As of 2021, the volcano is monitored with seismometers, detectors of tilt and cameras. The Peruvian geological agency INGEMMET considers Yucamane a "moderately hazardous" volcano; it has published ash fall, lava flow and pyroclastic flow hazard maps for Yucamane, and additional hazard maps are available on its website. According to these the western, eastern and southern flanks could be threatened by lava flows, whereas the older volcanoes protect much of the northern flank. Hazards from pyroclastic flows extend farther, down to the Laguna Aricota lake southwest of the volcano. Hazards from lava flows derive from their ability to bury land and to ignite flammable materials, as well as the possible creation of lava dams on rivers and outburst floods when they break, while the high speed and temperatures of pyroclastic flows threatens people with asphyxiation, burial and burns. More than 9,000 people live in the danger zone. Ash fall from an eruption could extend southeastward to the border with Chile]and affect the towns of Candarave, Ilabaya, Pachia, Palca and Tarata. Volcanic earthquakes like the 1999 Ticsani earthquakes at a volcano farther north and volcanic gases constitute additional dangers. ## See also - Chiarjaque - Choreveco
7,562,089	2001 BDO World Darts Championship	1,109,761,735	Darts tournament 2001 in Surrey	[ "2001 in British sport", "2001 in darts", "BDO World Darts Championships", "Frimley Green", "January 2001 sports events in the United Kingdom", "Sport in Surrey" ]	The 2001 BDO World Darts Championship was a professional darts tournament held from 6 to 14 January 2001 at the Lakeside Country Club in Frimley Green, Surrey. It was the 24th staging of the competition since the 1978 event and the 16th time it took place at the Lakeside Country Club. The tournament was the first of 44 British Darts Organisation (BDO) tournaments in 2001. The host broadcaster was the BBC and the competition was sponsored by the cigarette company Embassy. The 2000 Winmau World Masters winner John Walton defeated the reigning world champion Ted Hankey 6–2 in the final, becoming the 15th BDO world champion. He joined Eric Bristow and Raymond van Barneveld as the third player to follow their success in the Winmau World Masters with the world championship. Walton defeated Ritchie Davies, Mervyn King, Marko Pusa and Wayne Mardle en route to the final. Steve Coote achieved a 167 checkout, the highest of the competition, in his first round match against Mardle. A women's world championship was held for the first time. It was won by Trina Gulliver, whitewashing Crissy Howat 2–0 in the semi-final and defeating Mandy Solomons 2–1 in the final. ## Background ### Men's competition The British Darts Organisation (BDO) was formed in 1973 by the managing director Olly Croft; the BDO World Darts Championship was first held in 1978. The 2001 tournament was held between 6 and 14 January in Frimley Green, Surrey and was the first of 44 BDO-sanctioned events that year. It was the 24th edition of the tournament and featured a 32-player main draw that was played at the Lakeside Country Club. 27 players automatically qualified for the main draw with the top 8 seeded according to their final position in the BDO rankings. Mervyn King was seeded first overall and the tournament's reigning champion Ted Hankey was seeded seventh. The remaining five places were decided via a play-off round at the Lakeside Country Club on 30 November 2000. Steve Alker, Shaun Greatbatch, Jez Porter, Davy Richardson and Gary Robson were the five players who progressed from the qualifying rounds to the main draw. The maximum number of sets played in a match increased from five in the first and second rounds to nine in the quarter and semi-finals, leading up to the final which was played as best-of-11 frames. Sponsored by the cigarette brand Embassy, it had a total prize fund of £189,000 and the host broadcaster was the BBC. Bookmakers considered the two-time champion Raymond van Barneveld the favourite to win the tournament. Hankey said he was optimistic he could win the tournament for a second time, "I've kept my practising up and played in enough tournaments. I haven't let exhibitions take over." ### Women's tournament In November 2000, the BDO announced the creation of an independent women's world championship tournament; it was established to celebrate the BDO's 30th anniversary of staging and promoting darts competitions. The tournament was staged between 6 and 11 January 2001, and allowed women players to avoid having to compete with men in the International Play-offs, which they had done since 1995. It featured the world's top three ranked players with one unseeded player and a total prize fund of £8,300. Trina Gulliver was seeded first overall, Francis Hoenselaar was the second seed and Crissy Howat was the final seeded player. The only non-seeded participant was Mandy Solomon. All matches were played to the best-of-three sets. ## Men's tournament ### Round 1 The first round of the competition, in which 32 players participated, took place from 6 to 8 January and was held to the best-of-five sets. In this round, King came from 2–0 behind Chris Mason to win three sets in a row and a 3–2 victory; Mason missed two consecutive game-winning opportunities on the double 18 ring in the fifth set. Afterwards, he said "Lady Luck shone on me today." John Walton took the opening two sets against Ritchie Davies before his opponent won the third set. After Davies lost two legs in the fourth set, he won the third leg to return to contention; Walton won the match 3–1 in the fourth leg. Porter defeated fellow Englishman Richardson 3–2 in a closely contested match. Number five seed Co Stompé beat Andy Smith 3–1 to prevent a requite from Smith. On his debut appearance at the BDO World Darts Championship, Marko Pusa overcame the eighth seed Colin Monk 3–2. Pusa took the first two sets before Monk won the next two. Monk claimed the first two legs of the fifth set; Pusa forced a tie-break by taking the third and fourth legs. Pusa compiled two scores of 41 and one maximum score (180) to win the match on the double ten ring with his final dart throw. Wayne Mardle, the winner of the 2000 Dutch Open, defeated Steve Coote, who achieved a checkout of 167, 3–2. In the first match of the second day, Martin Adams. the England captain, achieved three maximum scores to lead Erik Clarys 1–0. Clarys responded with the same scores in the second set. Adams then won the following two sets to claim a 3–1 victory. Two-time finalist Ronnie Baxter defeated world number 26 Mitchell Crooks 3–1. during which the two competitors averaged over 30 points per dart. Steve Beaton registered the tournament's first whitewash with a 3–0 victory over Bob Aldous. Van Barneveld won three successive legs in the first set of his match against Robson; he attempted a nine-dart finish in the second leg. Robson produced a 100 checkout to take the second set. A maximum score in the fifth leg of the third set gave Van Barneveld the lead, who took the match 3–1 in the fourth set. Peter Hinkley took a 3–1 win over Nick Gedney. The match between Hankey and debutant Greatbatch was interrupted by the first streaker in darts history. It caused a twenty-minute stoppage to allow security to remove her from the Lakeside Country Club. Hankey achieved six maximum scores and averaged 31.34 per dart thrown to whitewash Greatbatch 3–0. Both Hankey and Greatbatch spoke of their annoyance over the interruption after the match. Of the other four first round matches, all of them ended in 3–0 whitewashes. Sixth seed Kevin Painter produced three maximum checkouts to defeat Andy Jenkins, 1996 quarter-finalist Matt Clark beat qualifier Alker, and world number 22 Tony David lost to the third seed Andy Fordham, who had back pain. The final match saw Bob Taylor lose to Wayne Jones. ### Round 2 The second round was held from 9 to 10 January. Mardle became the first player through to the quarter-finals when he took 24 minutes to whitewash Stompé 3–0. Walton took an early lead over King and averaged 32.95 per dart thrown. A checkout of 121 from King prevented Walton from winning four legs in a row; Walton won the second set 3–1. He took the first leg of the third set with a 148 checkout. Walton then completed a 3–0 whitewash of King with a checkout of 121. Pusa achieved an average of 33.77 points per dart thrown to defeat Porter 3–1. Baxter was the highest seeded player to enter the competition's next stage with a 3–1 victory over Adams. The fifth match of the second round saw Van Barneveld win 3–2 over Beaton. It began with Beaton winning the first set and Van Barneveld responded to claim the second and third sets and lost one leg in the process. Beaton won three consecutive legs in the fourth set to level the score at 2–2, which Van Barneveld responded to claim a 3–2 victory over the former in the match's final set. Hankey achieved five maximum scores and whitewashed Hinkley 3–0. The result set-up a match with Van Barneveld in the quarter-finals. Painter achieved a 164 checkout and multiple maximums in defeating Clark 3–1 with a match-finishing dart on the bullseye ring. In the final match of the second round Fordham and Jones equalled each other's performance in the first set until Fordham took the set. Fordham compiled two maximum scores and won two sets in a row to whitewash a faltering Jones 3–0. ### Quarter-finals The four quarter-finals were played to the best-of-nine sets between 11 and 12 January. Walton won the first set of his match against Pusa and then missed the chance to attain a nine-dart finish on his penultimate throw in the second. He then took three consecutive sets and completed a 138 checkout before Pusa produced two maximum scores as he won two legs in a row. Pusa could not convert this form and Walton completed a 5–0 whitewash. Later that night, Mardle took an early lead of 3–1 over Baxter, who came back to level the score at 3–3. Baxter could not maintain this form and Mardle won two sets in a row with a 124 checkout completed on the bullseye to win 5–3. This ensured that one of the two players in the final would not be seeded. Hankey overcame Van Barneveld 5–4 in a closely fought 1 hour, 40-minute match. The first two sets were won by Hankey by maintaining his composure and Van Barneveld levelled the score at 2–2. A fifth set whitewash returned Hankey to the lead; Van Barneveld twice levelled the score to 3–3 and then 4–4 to force a final set decider. Hankey took a 5–4 victory and progressed into the semi-finals with a 25 checkout after Van Barneveld was unable to convert a double. Against Painter, Fordham opened up a lead of 3–0. Painter reduced Fordham's advantage to one set ahead in the next two sets; he could not go any farther as Fordham took two consecutive sets to win 5–2 and was the final player to enter the semi-finals. ### Semi-finals Both of the semi-finals were played on 13 January. Walton overcame Mardle to win 5–3 and enter the final. He compiled finishes of 11 and 12 darts to claim the first set and Mardle took the second to level the score at 1–1. This prompted Walton to respond with victories in the following two sets to lead 3–1 at the mid-session interval. A second finish of 11 darts provided Walton with another set. Mardle then won the sixth and seventh sets to lower Walton's advantage to 4–3. Walton produced a 121 checkout and finished the match in the eighth set by throwing a dart on the double nine ring. Afterwards, Walton admitted to have calmed in the final set, "I had to get off to a good start, having the arrows in the first set, and just told myself to keep winning my legs, and I managed to nick a few of his as well." The other semi-final game saw Hankey enter the final of the tournament for the second year in a row with a 5–2 victory over Fordham. Hankey registered one maximum score en route to taking two consecutive sets and lead 3–1 before the mid-session interval. After the interval, Fordham drew to within one set with a finish of 11 darts. Hankey responded to win the match with victories in six of the next seven legs. Hankey reiterated afterwards that he sought to mirror Van Barneveld and Eric Bristow and win the tournament for the second time, "It will mean everything to me to win again because I don't just want one or two Embassy titles, I want four or five." Fordham said Hankey pressured him from the commencement of the match, "Ted played very well and although i didn't play badly it's very hard to stay in it when he's averaging over 33 for a dart." ### Final The final played between Hankey and Walton on 14 January was held to the best-of-11 sets. The match began with Hankey achieving a score of 22 with the first three throws of his darts pack. Walton achieved a maximum score on his first try of the match, and he went on to secure the first two sets 3–2; the first of which he won with a Shanghai. The third set was won by Hankey by the same scoreline as both players produced two maximum scores. Walton won the fourth set by achieving two further maximum scores, a 100 checkout and a 12-dart finish. Hankey secured the fifth set to enter the five-minute mid-session interval 3–2 behind. After the interval, Walton won the sixth set. He followed up with victory in the seventh set by throwing 31 darts, and it coincided with Hankey's form declining. Walton and Hankey exchanged the first two legs of the eighth set before Walton achieved a 76 checkout in the third leg. Hankey missed a shot to secure a 121 checkout and Walton finished the match with a 25 checkout to win the tournament. Walton's victory made him the 15th player to win the competition; he had won the Winmau World Masters in December 2000. He became the first player since Bristow and Burnett to follow his success in the World Masters with the World Championship. Walton was awarded the championship trophy by Kate Hoey, the Minister for Sport, and earned £46,000 for winning the tournament. He said of his triumph, "This means the world to me. It's an unbelievable feeling. When I hit the double eight I just wanted to fly. I'm absolutely delighted." Hankey praised his opponent's playing style, "He was buzzing. I hit 180s all the time but I just couldn't get away from him. I knew I had to win the sets in which I threw first but he hits so many 140s and 180s. When you go 4–2 down it's always hard to come back in a best-of-11 match. I missed a couple of doubles but I've no complaints." ## Women's tournament In the first semi-final match, Gulliver produced four maximum scores and an average score of 31.63 per dart to whitewash Howat 2–0. Howat did not win any legs; she achieved an average score of 27.28. Solomons defeated Hoensellar 2–1 in the second semi-final match. Hoensellar responded to Solomons winning the first leg by taking the second. Somlons took the third and fourth legs to win the first set. Hoensellar produced a maximum score, maintaining her form to claim set two and force a final set decider. Solomons achieved a 66 checkout to provide her with an early advantage before the final set was tied at 2–2. Hosensellar missed the double 16 ring; a 96 checkout from Solomons secured her a berth in the final. Solomons took the first set of the final with a score of 3–1. In the second set, Gulliver produced the game's first maximum score as Solomons won the set. The final set saw Gulliver hit the triple 14 and double 16 rings to move into a position of advantage. She compiled scores of 94, 100 and a maximum to lower the points she needed for victory to 127. Gulliver required six darts to claim the title and she converted four of them to win the match and the tournament. This made Gulliver the inaugural BDO Women's World Darts champion. ## Prize fund The breakdown of prize money for 2001 is shown below. Men's tournament - Winner: £46,000 - Runner-up: £23,000 - Semi-finalists (×2): £10,000 - Quarter-finalists (×4): £5,000 - Last 16 (×8): £3,900 - Last 32 (×16): £2,650 - 9 Dart Checkout: £52,000 - Highest checkout: £2,000 - Non-qualifiers: £5,200 - Total: £189,000 Women's tournament - Winner: £4,000 - Runner-up: £2,000 - Semi-finalists (×2): £1,000 - Non-qualifiers: £300 - Total: £8,300 ## Draw ### Men's draw Numbers given to the left of players' names show the seedings for the top eight players in the men's tournament. The five qualifiers are indicated by a (q). The figures in brackets to the right of a competitor's name state their three-dart finishing averages in a match. Players in bold denote match winners. ### Women's draw Numbers given to the left of players' names show the seedings for the top three players in the women's competition. The figures in brackets to the right of a competitor's name state their three-dart finishing averages in a match. Players in bold denote match winners.
13,212,983	French battleship Condorcet	1,136,534,429	French Danton-class semi-dreadnought	[ "1909 ships", "Danton-class battleships", "Maritime incidents in August 1944", "Maritime incidents in September 1941", "Naval ships of France captured by Germany during World War II", "Scuttled vessels", "Ships built in France" ]	Condorcet was one of the six Danton-class semi-dreadnought battleships built for the French Navy in the early 1900s. When World War I began in August 1914, she unsuccessfully searched for the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and the light cruiser SMS Breslau in the Western and Central Mediterranean. Later that month, the ship participated in the Battle of Antivari in the Adriatic Sea and helped to sink an Austro-Hungarian protected cruiser. Condorcet spent most of the rest of the war blockading the Straits of Otranto and the Dardanelles to keep German, Austro-Hungarian and Turkish warships bottled up. After the war, she was modernized in 1923–1925 and subsequently became a training ship. In 1931, the ship was converted into an accommodation hulk. Condorcet was captured intact when the Germans occupied Vichy France in November 1942 and was used by them to house sailors of their navy (Kriegsmarine). She was badly damaged by Allied bombing in 1944, but was later raised and scrapped by 1949. ## Design and description Although the Danton-class battleships were a significant improvement from the preceding Liberté class, they were outclassed by the advent of the dreadnought well before they were completed. This, combined with other poor traits, including the great weight in coal they had to carry, made them unsuccessful ships overall, though their numerous rapid-firing guns were of some use in the Mediterranean. Condorcet was 146.6 meters (481 ft 0 in) long overall and had a beam of 25.8 m (84 ft 8 in) and a full-load draft of 9.2 m (30 ft 2 in). She displaced 19,736 metric tons (19,424 long tons) at deep load and had a crew of 681 officers and enlisted men. The ship was powered by four Parsons steam turbines using steam generated by twenty-six Niclausse boilers. The turbines were rated at 22,500 shaft horsepower (16,800 kW) and provided a top speed of around 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). Condorcet reached a top speed of 19.7 knots (36.5 km/h; 22.7 mph) on her sea trials. She carried a maximum of 2,027 tonnes (1,995 long tons) of coal which allowed her to steam for 3,370 miles (2,930 nmi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). Condorcet's main battery consisted of four 305mm/45 Modèle 1906 guns mounted in two twin gun turrets, one forward and one aft. The secondary battery consisted of twelve 240mm/50 Modèle 1902 guns in twin turrets, three on each side of the ship. A number of smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats. These included sixteen 75 mm (3.0 in) L/65 guns and ten 47-millimetre (1.9 in) Hotchkiss guns. The ship was also armed with two submerged 450 mm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes. The ship's main belt was 270 mm (10.6 in) thick and the main battery was protected by up to 300 mm (11.8 in) of armor. The conning tower also had 300 mm thick sides. ### Wartime modifications During the war, 75 mm anti-aircraft guns were installed on the roofs of the ship's two forward 240 mm gun turrets. During 1918, the mainmast was shortened to allow the ship to fly a captive kite balloon and the elevation of the 240 mm guns was increased which extended their range to 18,000 meters (20,000 yd). ## Career Construction of Condorcet was begun on 26 December 1906 by Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire in Saint-Nazaire and the ship was laid down on 23 August 1907. She was launched on 20 April 1909 and was completed on 25 July 1911. Condorcet was initially assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Squadron (escadre) of the Mediterranean Fleet when she was commissioned. The ship participated in combined fleet maneuvers between Provence and Tunisia in May–June 1913 and the subsequent naval review conducted by the President of France, Raymond Poincaré on 7 June 1913. Afterwards, Condorcet joined her squadron in its tour of the Eastern Mediterranean in October–December 1913 and participated in the grand fleet exercise in the Mediterranean in May 1914. ### World War I At the beginning of the war, the ship, together with her sister Vergniaud and the dreadnought Courbet, unsuccessfully searched for the German battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau in the Balearic Islands. On 9 August, Condorcet cruised the Strait of Sicily in an attempt to prevent the German ships from breaking out to the West. On 16 August 1914 the combined Anglo-French Fleet under Admiral Auguste Boué de Lapeyrère, including Condorcet, made a sweep of the Adriatic Sea. The Allied ships encountered the Austro-Hungarian cruiser SMS Zenta, escorted by the destroyer SMS Ulan, blockading the coast of Montenegro. There were too many ships for Zenta to escape, so she remained behind to allow Ulan to get away and was sunk by gunfire during the Battle of Antivari off the coast of Bar, Montenegro. Condorcet subsequently participated in a number of raids into the Adriatic later in the year and patrolled the Ionian Islands. From December 1914 to 1916, the ship participated in the distant blockade of the Straits of Otranto while based in Corfu. On 1 December 1916, Condorcet was in Athens and contributed troops to the Allied attempt to ensure Greek acquiescence to Allied operations in Macedonia. Shortly afterwards, she was transferred to Mudros to prevent Goeben from breaking out into the Mediterranean and remained there until September 1917. The ship was transferred to the 2nd Division of the 1st Squadron in May 1918 and returned to Mudros where she remained for the rest of the war. ### Postwar career From 6 December 1918 to 2 March 1919, Condorcet represented France in the Allied squadron in Fiume that supervised the settlement of the Yugoslav question. Afterwards, the ship was assigned to the Channel Division of the French Navy. She was modernized in 1923–24 to improve her underwater protection and her four aft 75 mm guns were removed. Together with her sisters Diderot and Voltaire, she was assigned to the Training Division at Toulon. Condorcet housed the torpedo and electrical schools and had a torpedo tube fitted on the port side of her quarterdeck. She was partially disarmed in 1931 and converted into an accommodation hulk; by 1939 her propellers had been removed. The famous underwater explorer Jacques Cousteau began diving while stationed aboard the ship in 1936. In April 1941, the ship was towed to sea to evaluate the propellant used by the battleship Richelieu during the Battle of Dakar on 24 September 1940. One 38-centimetre (15 in) gun had an explosion in the breech and the propellant for the shell was thought to be the cause. A number of shots were successfully fired from Condorcet's aft turret by remote control that exonerated the propellant. The following July, the ship was modified to house the signal, radio and electrician's schools. Berthing areas were installed in the bases of four funnels, which had been removed previously, and the latest radio equipment was installed for the students to train on. On 10 September 1941, Condorcet was accidentally rammed by the submarine Le Glorieux as she was leaving drydock. The impact punctured the ship's hull and flooded one compartment which required Condorcet to be drydocked for repairs. The ship was captured intact by the Germans when they occupied Vichy France on 27 November 1942. Unlike the bulk of the French Fleet in Toulon, Condorcet was not scuttled because she had trainees aboard. Used by the Germans as a barracks ship, she was badly damaged by Allied aircraft in August 1944 and scuttled that same month by the Germans. Some of her 240 mm guns were used by the Germans in a coastal battery on the north bank of the Gironde estuary on the Bay of Biscay in 1944. The ship was salvaged in September 1945 and listed for sale on 14 December. Condorcet's breaking up was completed about 1949.
28,916,478	Inosperma maculatum	1,133,778,175	Species of fungus	[ "Fungi described in 1885", "Fungi of Asia", "Fungi of Europe", "Fungi of North America", "Inosperma", "Poisonous fungi", "Taxa named by Jean Louis Émile Boudier" ]	Inosperma maculatum, formerly named Inocybe maculata and known in the vernacular as the frosty fibrecap, is a species of mushroom in the family Inocybaceae. First described by Jean Louis Émile Boudier in 1885, I. maculatum is found throughout Europe, Asia and North America. It is a medium-sized brown mushroom with a fibrous, brown cap with white remnants of a universal veil in the middle. The stem is cream or brown. The species is ectomycorrhizal and grows at the base of various trees, including beech. Inosperma maculatum is poisonous, containing muscarine. Possible symptoms after consumption of I. maculatum mushrooms are salivation, lacrimation, urination, defecation, gastrointestinal problems and vomiting, with the possibility of death due to respiratory failure. ## Taxonomy, phylogeny, and naming The species was given its specific epithet, "maculata" (from the Latin for "spotted"), by Jean Louis Émile Boudier in 1885 in an article in the Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France. Within the genus Inocybe, it was placed within the subgenus Inosperma and section Rimosae. However, Phylogenetic analysis, has shown that section Rimosae as formerly defined does not form a monophyletic group (that is, descended from a single exclusive ancestor), and former Rimosae species are better grouped into two clades, Maculata and Rimosae. Other species joining I. maculata in the Maculata clade include I. cookei, I. quietiodor, I. rhodiola, I. adaequata, and I. erubescens. A 2019 multigene phylogenetic study by Matheny and colleagues found that I. maculata and its relatives in the subgenus Inosperma were only distantly related to the other members of the genus Inocybe. Inosperma was raised to genus rank and the species became Inosperma maculatum. There has been some debate about its status as a single species; due to the wide geographic and morphological variation of the species, some authors have proposed multiple species and varieties. In response, mycologist Thom Kuyper has listed over thirty specific names and varieties as synonyms of Inocybe lacera, which is still generally recognised. It has also been suggested that Inocybe lanatodisca is a synonym, but where the species occur together, they can be distinguished from each other, and so it is still recognised as distinct. The form I. maculata f. fulva was named and described in 1991 by Marcel Bon in France. Inosperma maculatum is commonly known as the frosty fibrecap. ## Description Inosperma maculatum has a conical or bell-shaped cap which is up to 8 centimetres (3.1 in) in diameter. As the mushrooms age, the cap becomes flatter, and the broad umbo becomes prominent. The centre of the cap has white remains of the universal veil, especially on younger mushrooms. The cap is covered in fibres which extend from the centre of the cap to the margin (which is usually split). The cap is typically a chestnut brown in colour, though it is paler towards the margin. As well as chestnut, the camp has been described as "Buckthorn brown", "snuff brown", "tawny olive" and "Saccardo's umber". Both cap colour and the presences of veil remnants are known to be very variable. In appearance, Inosperma maculatum f. fulvum has a lighter cap colour (typically more yellow to reddish-brown) and less (or even no) remnants of the veil on the cap. The gill attachment is adnate, meaning that the gills are attached to the stem along their entire depth. The gills are crowded, with white edges that are finely toothed. Younger mushrooms have gills that are greyish-white that eventually mature to an olive-brown colour. The stem is up to 8 cm (3.1 in) in length, and generally cylindrical in shape, though it is often thicker towards the base. While the stem is initially solid, it later becomes hollow. There is often a small bulb at the base of the stem. The stem has cream colouration, becoming gradually browner with age. The base sometimes white and powdery. The flesh is white. ### Microscopic features Inosperma maculatum has thin-walled cheilocystidia, which are clavate (club-shaped), lack encrustation at the apex, and are colourless. The basidia are also clavate, and can be two-, three- or four-spored, and measure from 15 to 30 micrometres (μm) by 5 to 9 μm. The sterigmata (the narrow horns on the end of the basidia which hold the spores) are 4 to 5 μm long. It lacks pleurocystidia. The species leaves a snuff-brown spore print. The spores themselves are smooth and bean shaped; they have a yellow-brown to rusty brown colouration, and measure from 9 to 11 μm by 4.5 to 5.5 μm. The hyphae can have clamp connections, but can also lack them. ### Similar species Inosperma maculatum is similar to the variable Inocybe lacera, the split fibrecap, but it can be differentiated by the darker colouration of the cap, and the white remains of the veil in the centre of the cap. The species is also similar in appearance to Inocybe lanatodisca, but can be readily distinguished by odour (I. lanatodisca has a characteristic sweet, green-corn smell) and the colour of the cap (I. lanatodisca has a fulvous cap). It is closely related to Inocybe fastigiata, but can again be distinguished by colour; I. fastigiata has lighter coloured fibrils. ## Distribution and habitat Inosperma maculatum is an ectomycorrhizal species, with a wide ecological range. It is found in all biomes from low-lying deciduous woodland to arctic-alpine areas. It typically grows on the ground in deciduous (or mixed) woodland, favouring beech. It grows best on chalky soil, among leaf litter. In North America, it favours sandy soil, clay or moss. It is also encountered on pathsides. As well as beech, the species has been recorded growing in association with hornbeam, hazel, oak and lime. Inocybe maculata f. fulva favours birch, spruce, pine, Populus, willow, (as well as Dryas and Polygonum in alpine regions). Mushrooms grow individually or in scattered groups. Though widespread in the areas it is found, it is not a common species. It is found from western Europe to eastern Asia; and in North America, from where it was first collected in the 1960s. Inocybe maculata f. fulva was first identified in France, and has since been found elsewhere in Europe. ## Edibility The flesh has a mild taste, and a strong, pungent, fruity smell. The mushroom is poisonous, containing muscarine compounds. Consumption of the mushroom could lead to a number of physiological effects, including: salivation, lacrimation, urination, defecation, gastrointestinal problems and emesis (vomiting); this array of symptoms is also known by the acronym SLUDGE. Other potential effects include a drop in blood pressure, sweating and death due to respiratory failure. ## See also - List of Inocybe species
67,841,887	HMS Marvel (1915)	1,119,786,924	British M-Class destroyer, WW1	[ "1915 ships", "Admiralty M-class destroyers", "Ships built on the River Clyde", "World War I destroyers of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS Marvel was a Admiralty M-class destroyer which served with the Royal Navy during the First World War. The M class were an improvement on the previous L class, capable of higher speed. The vessel, launched in October 1915, joined the Twelfth Destroyer Flotilla under the flotilla leader Faulknor. The ship saw action during the Battle of Jutland in May and June 1916, being hit by a 12 in (300 mm) shell that did not explode and jointly sinking the German torpedo boat SMS V48. Six months later, the vessel successfully rescued all but four of the crew of the sinking flotilla leader Hoste, despite sustaining substantial damage in the process. In June 1917, the vessel was involved in the sinking of the German merchant ship SS Gamma in Norwegian waters, which led to a diplomatic protest from the Norwegian government. At the end of the war, the vessel was placed in reserve until being sold to be broken up in May 1921. ## Design and development Marvel was one of nine Admiralty M-class destroyers ordered by the British Admiralty in November 1914 as part of the Second War Construction Programme. The M class was an improved version of the earlier L-class destroyers, required to reach a higher speed in order to counter rumoured German fast destroyers. The remit was to have a maximum speed of 36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph) and, although the eventual design did not achieve this, the greater performance was appreciated by the navy. It transpired that the German ships did not exist. The destroyer had a length of 265 feet (80.8 m) between perpendiculars and 273 feet 4 inches (83.3 m) overall, with a beam of 26 feet 7 inches (8.1 m) and a draught of 8 feet 7 inches (2.6 m). Displacement was 994 long tons (1,010 t) normal and 1,025 long tons (1,041 t) full load. Power was provided by three Yarrow boilers feeding Parsons steam turbines rated at 25,000 shaft horsepower (19,000 kW) and driving three shafts, to give a design speed of 34 knots (63 km/h; 39 mph). Three funnels were fitted. A total of 268 long tons (272 t) of oil could be carried, including 40 long tons (41 t) in peace tanks that were not used in wartime, giving a range of 2,280 nautical miles (4,220 km; 2,620 mi) at 17 knots (31 km/h; 20 mph). Armament consisted of three single QF 4-inch (102 mm) Mk IV guns on the ship's centreline, with one on the forecastle, one aft on a raised platform and one between the middle and aft funnels on a bandstand. Torpedo armament consisted of two twin mounts for 21 in (533 mm) torpedoes. A single QF 2-pounder 40 mm (1.6 in) "pom-pom" anti-aircraft gun was mounted between the torpedo tubes. After February 1916, for anti-submarine warfare, Marvel was equipped with two chutes for two depth charges. The number of depth charges carried increased as the war progressed. The ship had a complement of 80 officers and ratings. ## Construction and career Marvel was laid down by William Denny and Brothers at Dumbarton on 11 January 1915 with the yard number 1031, launched on 7 October and completed on 28 December. This was the first time the name had been used in the Royal Navy. The vessel was deployed as part of the Grand Fleet, joining the Twelfth Destroyer Flotilla under the flotilla leader Faulknor. On 30 May 1916, the destroyer sailed with the Grand Fleet to confront the German High Seas Fleet in what would be the Battle of Jutland, forming part of the First Division of the Flotilla that was led by Faulknor and included sister ships Mindful, Obedient and Onslaught. The division was deployed in action against the German light cruisers. However, in the battle melee, the division also got within the range of the main batteries of the battleships and battlecruisers which were at the centre of the action. At 6:29 PM, Marvel was hit by a stray 12 in (300 mm) shell, but it did not explode. Shortly afterwards, the division saw the approaching line of the German Third Torpedo Boat Flotilla and attacked. The destroyer, along with the rest of the flotilla, sank the torpedo boat V48, previously disabled by the destroyer Shark. As the battle closed, the Flotilla spotted the retreating German line. The First Division was ordered to attack, and, using their superior speed, the destroyers sped ahead of the German ships. At about 2:00 AM on 1 June, Marvel swung round and, finding a good position to target the battleships, launched four torpedoes. They all missed. On 18 August, the destroyer was escorting the dreadnought battleship and flagship of the Grand Fleet Iron Duke along with sister ship Onslaught to intercept the High Seas Fleet on their attack on Sunderland. On 21 December, the destroyer was called to assist the flotilla leader Hoste, which had collided and sank Negro. Along with sister ship Marmion, Marvel attempted to tow the damaged ship back to Scapa Flow, but after three hours, Hoste began to founder. Disregarding the severe conditions, Marvel went alongside to rescue the crew of the sinking ship. Despite repeatedly being forced apart by the heavy seas and sustaining substantial damage to the forecastle, the destroyer returned twelve times and successfully rescued all but four of the ship's crew before the flotilla leader eventually sank. On 2 June 1917, Marvel was involved in the sinking of the German steamship, SS Gamma. The destroyer was patrolling off the Norwegian coast along with the light cruiser Cambrian and sister ship Mindful when the merchantman was spotted. A warning shot was fired and Gamma turned to the Norwegian shore. The British vessels pursued and sank the ship. The Norwegian government protested the violation of their neutrality and presented the UK government with a bill of 3,406,124 marks, given to them by the German government, which the British government ignored. The cruise also led to protests from five other vessels, sailing under Norwegian and Swedish flags, four of which the Royal Navy admitted were stopped in neutral waters. The harsh conditions of wartime operations, particularly the combination of high speed and the poor weather that is typical of the North Sea, exacerbated by the fact that the hull was not galvanised, meant that the destroyer was soon worn out. After the Armistice, the Royal Navy returned to a peacetime level of operation and it was decided that Marvel was to be withdrawn from active service. Initially, the destroyer was placed in reserve at Devonport. However, this did not last long as the navy needed to reduce both the number of ships and the amount of staff to save money. On 9 May 1921, the vessel was sold to Thos. W. Ward of Hayle and broken up. ## Pennant numbers
206,705	Colin Farrell	1,173,780,540	Irish actor	[ "1976 births", "20th-century Irish male actors", "21st-century Irish male actors", "Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe (film) winners", "Irish expatriates in the United States", "Irish male film actors", "Irish male television actors", "Living people", "Male actors from County Dublin", "People educated at Castleknock College", "People educated at Gormanston College", "People from Castleknock", "Volpi Cup for Best Actor winners" ]	Colin James Farrell (/ˈfærəl/; born 31 May 1976) is an Irish actor. A leading man in blockbusters and independent films since the 2000s, he has received various awards and nominations, including two Golden Globe Awards and a nomination for an Academy Award. The Irish Times named him Ireland's fifth-greatest film actor in 2020, and Time magazine named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2023. Farrell began acting in the BBC drama series Ballykissangel (1998) and made his film debut in the drama The War Zone (1999). His first lead film role was in the war drama Tigerland (2000), and he made his breakthrough in Steven Spielberg's science fiction film Minority Report (2002). He took on high-profile roles as Bullseye in Daredevil (2003) and as Alexander the Great in Alexander (2004), with further starring roles in Michael Mann's Miami Vice (2006) and Woody Allen's Cassandra's Dream (2007). Farrell earned acclaim for playing a rookie hitman in Martin McDonagh's comedy In Bruges (2008), winning a Golden Globe Award. He went on to play a variety of leading and character roles in the comedy Horrible Bosses (2011), the science fiction film Total Recall (2012), the drama Saving Mr. Banks (2013), the dark comedies Seven Psychopaths (2012), The Lobster (2015), and The Killing of a Sacred Deer (2017), the thriller The Beguiled (2017), and the fantasy films Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (2016) and Dumbo (2019). He also starred in the second season of HBO's thriller series True Detective (2015). In 2022, Farrell played Penguin in the superhero film The Batman, and gained acclaim for his roles in the science fiction drama After Yang, the survival film Thirteen Lives, and McDonagh's drama The Banshees of Inisherin. For playing a naïve Irishman in the lattermost, he won the Volpi Cup for Best Actor and another Golden Globe, in addition to a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor. ## Early life Colin James Farrell was born in the Castleknock suburb of Dublin on 31 May 1976, to Rita (née Monaghan) and Eamon Farrell. His father played football for Shamrock Rovers FC and ran a health food shop. Colin played for Castleknock Celtic FC, the team was managed by his father. His uncle, Tommy Farrell, also played for Shamrock Rovers. He has an older brother named Eamon Jr. and two sisters named Claudine (who now works as his personal assistant) and Catherine. He was educated at St. Brigid's National School, followed by the exclusive all-boys private school Castleknock College, and then Gormanston College in County Meath. He unsuccessfully auditioned for the boy band Boyzone around this time. He was inspired to try acting when Henry Thomas' performance in E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) moved him to tears. With his brother's encouragement, he attended the Gaiety School of Acting, but dropped out when he was cast as Danny Byrne in the BBC drama Ballykissangel. While traveling in Sydney at the age of 18, Farrell became a suspect in an attempted murder case. The police sketch looked remarkably like him and he had even described blacking out during the night in question; his only alibi was a journal kept by his friend, which explained that the two had been taking MDMA on the other side of town that night. ## Career ### Early career Farrell had roles in television shows and films, including Ballykissangel and Falling for a Dancer in 1998 and 1999. He made his feature film debut in English actor Tim Roth's directorial debut, The War Zone, a drama about child sexual abuse, starring Ray Winstone and Tilda Swinton as parents of a girl Farrell's character (Nick) dates. Farrell also appeared in Ordinary Decent Criminal with Kevin Spacey and Linda Fiorentino, a film loosely based on the life of Martin Cahill. In 2000, Farrell was cast in the lead role of Private Roland Bozz in Tigerland, directed by Joel Schumacher. He reportedly got the part on the basis of his charm. Emanuel Levy of Variety said that Farrell "shines as the subversive yet basically decent lad whose cynicism may be the only sane reaction to a situation". Michael Holden of The Guardian wrote that Farrell was "too much the hero" to fit the classic rebel archetype properly, but he still delievered a good performance. Tigerland earned \$139,500. ### 2001–2003: First box office successes Farrell's next American films, American Outlaws (2001) and Hart's War (2002), were not commercially successful. His 2002–2003 films, including Phone Booth, The Recruit and S.W.A.T. (all thrillers, with the former two his first starring roles), were well received by critics and successful at the box office. Of Phone Booth, Roger Ebert wrote that it is "Farrell's to win or lose, since he's onscreen most of the time, and he shows energy and intensity". Philip French of The Guardian praised Farrell's performance. In S.W.A.T., Farrell starred in an ensemble cast including Samuel L. Jackson, Michelle Rodriguez, Olivier Martinez and Jeremy Renner; Renner became a friend. Alan Morrison of Empire wrote, "Farrell can usually be relied upon to bring a spark to the bonfire. That's also true of [this movie]." Elvis Mitchell of the New York Times criticised Farrell's accent, writing that he "employ[ed] a wobbly American accent that makes him sound like an international criminal a step ahead of the authorities". Ebert and The New York Times' A.O. Scott disagreed on Farrell's effectiveness in The Recruit; Ebert noted Farrell's likability, but Scott felt that Farrell "spends his time in a caffeinated frenzy, trying to maintain his leading-man sang-froid while registering panic, stress and confusion". Phone Booth earned \$46.6 million, S.W.A.T. \$116.9 million and The Recruit \$52.8 million at the box office. Farrell's supporting roles include an ambitious Justice Department agent opposite Tom Cruise as a "potential criminal" in Minority Report (2002), and the villain Bullseye in Daredevil (2003). Matt Damon was originally offered the Minority Report role, turning it down to appear in Ocean's Eleven. Farrell said "he had no problem" being the producer's fallback after Damon declined. Farrell was signed to the role in December 2001, although he was considered for the lead role of Matt Murdock (Daredevil) until Ben Affleck signed. Farrell was encouraged to keep his Irish accent, since this version of Bullseye is from Ireland. He read Frank Miller's Daredevil comics to understand Bullseye "because the expression on the character's faces in the comic books, and just the way they move sometimes, and the exaggerations of the character I'm playing... he's so over-the-top that you do draw from that. But it's not exactly a character you can do method acting for...you know, running around New York killing people with paper clips". In 2003, he was voted sixth World's "Sexiest Man" by Company magazine. ### 2003–2008: From independents to epics In late 2003 Farrell starred as a criminal who plots a bank robbery with Cillian Murphy in the dark comedy Intermission, which held the record for highest-grossing Irish independent film in Irish box-office history for three years. In 2004, he appeared in several other independent films receiving limited theatrical release in most countries, including A Home at the End of the World (adapted from Michael Cunningham's novel of the same name). Roger Ebert praised Farrell, saying that he was "astonishing in the movie, not least because the character is such a departure from everything he has done before". Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle differed, saying that Farrell "is keen on making good....The effort is there, but it's a performance you end up rooting for rather than enjoying, because there's no way to just relax and watch". Farrell played the title role of Alexander the Great in Oliver Stone's 2004 biographical film Alexander, which, while receiving some favourable reviews internationally, was poorly received in the United States. Its portrayal of the conqueror as bisexual was controversial; the film was criticised by some historians for its treatment of the ancient Persians, although others praised it for its accuracy. An ancient history scholar at the University of Nebraska wrote: > I would compare [Alexander] to Lawrence of Arabia, in terms of sheer scope, pacing, and its unrelenting focus on a single individual.... In many ways, this is a movie for Greek and Alexander 'geeks.' The more one knows, the more one will recognise—the historical accuracy of sets is better than I've seen in some documentaries. The film grossed \$167 million worldwide, just exceeding its budget of \$155 million. Farrell's next film was 2005's Academy Award-nominated The New World, his second historical epic. He played the lead role of Captain John Smith, the founder of 17th-century colonial Jamestown, Virginia who falls in love with the Native American princess Pocahontas (Q'Orianka Kilcher). Director Terrence Malick went out of his way to keep Farrell and Kilcher apart until they were filmed together. Although it was released in only 811 theatres worldwide and had a relatively low box-office gross, the film received a large number of positive reviews. In one of four reviews in The Guardian, John Patterson described it as a "bottomless movie, almost unspeakably beautiful and formally harmonious". The New World was followed by Ask the Dust, a period romance set in Los Angeles based on a John Fante novel and co-starring Salma Hayek. Reviews were mixed; Manohla Dargis of The New York Times favourably described Farrell's work, but Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian found "something a little forced in both lead performances". With a limited theatrical release, it was not a financial success. Farrell was more successful in 2006 with his role opposite Jamie Foxx in Michael Mann's action crime drama, Miami Vice. The film grossed \$164 million worldwide on a budget of \$135 million, and TimeOut New York ranked it among the top 50 movies of the decade. (The DVD, released the same year, also managed to sell over a million copies (equivalent to \$7.91 million in pirated versions) in its first week alone., and, as of 11 February 2007, had grossed over \$36.45 million in rentals. A. O. Scott criticised Farrell's work: "When he's not on screen, you don't miss him, and when he is, you find yourself, before long, looking at someone or something else." Conversely, Peter Travers of Rolling Stone was enthusiastic. Farrell also reportedly took a slight pay cut to make friend and recent Oscar winner Jamie Foxx happy; his salary was initially larger than Foxx's. Farrell next appeared in Woody Allen's drama Cassandra's Dream, which premiered in 2007 and was distributed in the US in early 2008. Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle praised Farrell: "Allen is notorious for not giving his actors explicit instructions, and yet somehow this worked wonders for Farrell, who has never seemed so naked, so clear, and so unencumbered as he does here." Manohla Dargis concurred in the New York Times, adding that she thought Farrell was well-matched with co-star Ewan McGregor. Farrell's next film, Martin McDonagh's first full-length feature, In Bruges, opened the 2008 Sundance Film Festival. While The New Yorker and TimeOut London's film critics found co-star Brendan Gleeson's performance the stronger of the two, Bradshaw of The Guardian found Farrell (as hitman Ray) "absolutely superb: moody and funny, lethally sexy, sometimes heartbreakingly sad and vulnerable like a little boy". Farrell won his first Golden Globe Award for his performance in the film. Shortly thereafter, he appeared in Kicking It, a documentary following six homeless men from Kenya, Russia, Afghanistan, Ireland, Spain, and the US as they attempt to qualify for the Homeless World Cup. Farrell appeared on screen and provided the narration, donating his earnings to a homeless shelter in Ireland. The film was released simultaneously in theatres and on television, airing on ESPN2 in a very short window before its DVD release. Farrell received positive reviews for his involvement in the true story. Later in 2008, Farrell starred opposite Edward Norton in Pride and Glory, a police drama directed by Gavin O'Connor. Roger Ebert disliked the film and A. O. Scott said that Farrell "once again indulges his blustery mixture of menace and charm, overdoing both," but Gregory Kirschling of Entertainment Weekly liked Farrell's work. ### 2009–2010: More independent productions On 11 January 2009, Farrell won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for In Bruges, in which he co-starred with Brendan Gleeson. That year, he also appeared in Terry Gilliam's film The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus, starring Christopher Plummer and Andrew Garfield. Farrell was one of three actors (with Johnny Depp and Jude Law), who helped to complete Heath Ledger's role when Ledger died before filming ended. They played "Imaginarium" versions of Ledger's character Tony, donating their earnings to Ledger's daughter Matilda. Farrell also starred that year in Triage, directed by Oscar-winning Bosnian screenwriter and director Danis Tanović, about the life of a war correspondent. He lost 30 pounds for the role. Farrell's work was described as "dedicated" by Variety's Todd McCarthy, and Julian Sancton of Vanity Fair wrote that the film was "a hell of a lot more insightful than other movies that deal with a similar topic". However, Triage was not widely distributed due to the marketing challenges posed by its difficult topics (including PTSD). That year, Farrell played a supporting role (as Tommy Sweet) in Crazy Heart with Jeff Bridges. Another 2009 release was Ondine, a fantasy-drama directed by Neil Jordan starring Farrell as a fisherman with a disabled daughter. Shot in the village of Castletownbere on Ireland's southwest coast, it featured cinematography by longtime Wong Kar-wai collaborator Christopher Doyle. Mary Pols of Time magazine called the role "tailor-made for Farrell", saying that Farrell gave a "beautifully confident performance". Todd McCarthy of Variety singled Farrell out, noting that he worked well as an ensemble actor "graciously allowing [child star Alison Barry] to steal every scene she's in". The next year, Farrell starred with Keira Knightley in the crime romance London Boulevard. The film, American William Monahan's debut as director after writing screenplays for The Departed and Body of Lies, was panned by critics. Peter Bradshaw of the Guardian wrote that the film "uses up all its energy, wit and ideas in the first 20 or so minutes, before collapsing into a flurry of boring violence". Leslie Felperin of Variety described it as "like a fancy, retro-styled pocket watch that someone accidentally broke and tried to reassemble with only a vague idea of clockwork". Felperin thought the stars' work was frail, with Farrell "mostly taciturn and vacuous." ### 2011–2021: Blockbuster and independent films Farrell starred in the 2011 comedy Horrible Bosses, directed by Seth Gordon, with Jennifer Aniston, Jason Bateman, Charlie Day, Jason Sudeikis, Kevin Spacey and his Miami Vice co-star Jamie Foxx. The film focuses on a trio of employees who plot to murder their tyrannical bosses. The Guardian's Mark Kermode wrote that although the film would have benefited from a tighter script, Farrell and Foxx had juicy roles which they "riff with panache". Michael Phillips of the Los Angeles Times wrote that Farrell brought "massive, slobby relish" to his role as Sudeikis' cocaine-fiend boss. Later that year, Farrell played the main antagonist in the Fright Night remake, joining Anton Yelchin, David Tennant and Toni Collette in the story of a charismatic vampire who moves next door to a high-school student and his single mother. The film was released by DreamWorks, with Craig Gillespie (of Lars and the Real Girl) directing a script by Buffy the Vampire Slayer writer Marti Noxon. Sukhdev Sandhu of The Daily Telegraph wrote that Farrell "proves his comedy credentials once more....utterly seductive as the plushly eyebrowed carpenter-cum-bloodsucker", while The New York Times' A.O. Scott thought that Farrell played his role with "a wink and a snarl and a feline purr". Logan Hill of New York magazine, on the other hand, was confused by Farrell's performance: "Sure, [it] may not make much sense, but neither do centuries-old vampires living in Nevadan subdivisions. So he goes for it." Farrell starred with Kate Beckinsale in Columbia Pictures' Total Recall, a 2012 remake of the 1990 film, playing the role originally played by Arnold Schwarzenegger. It was filmed from May to September 2011 in Toronto and directed by Len Wiseman. Co-star Jessica Biel appreciated Farrell's skills, calling him "surprising and exciting. He just has the ability to be trying different things all the time." Roger Ebert and The New York Times said that although they believed Farrell the better actor, Schwarzenegger in the original was "more of a movie presence and better suited for the role". Farrell's second film with Martin McDonagh, Seven Psychopaths, premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival and was released in October 2012. He starred as creatively blocked writer Marty in a black comedy with Sam Rockwell, Woody Harrelson and Christopher Walken. The film broke even at the box office, with generally good reviews, including David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter writing that Farrell "serves as an excellent foil for Rockwell" and he "is in subdued mode... his performance largely defined by the endless expressivity of his eyebrows." That month, Farrell appeared on the cover of the magazine Details. In March 2013, Farrell starred in Dead Man Down, a thriller directed by Niels Arden Oplev, appearing alongside Terrence Howard for the first time since Hart's War 10 years earlier. Noomi Rapace, star of Oplev's The Girl with a Dragon Tattoo, starred as a facially scarred woman who blackmails Farrell's character into killing the man who disfigured her in a car crash. Reviews were mixed, with Empire magazine calling the film "a pleasingly intricate double (or is it triple?) revenge plot anchored by excellent acting" and The Hollywood Reporter saying that "[J.H.] Wyman's script and the measured pace don't lend themselves to the necessary escalating tension that would have resulted in a more rewarding climax." The New York Times' Manohla Dargis called the film a failure, but said of Farrell that "his sensitive, hardworking eyebrows help keep it from becoming a full-bore lampoon." Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News also disliked the film, writing that it contained "a lot to roll your eyes over" and that Farrell was "as stoic as a statue". In 2014, Farrell starred in a film adaptation of Mark Helprin's Winter's Tale. The film was written and directed by Akiva Goldsman and based on Helprin's 1983 novel, and co-starred Jessica Brown Findlay, Jennifer Connelly, Russell Crowe, and Will Smith. Farrell won the lead role over younger actors Garrett Hedlund, Tom Hiddleston and Aaron Taylor-Johnson. Although the film generally received negative reviews, writers such as The Village Voice's Stephanie Zacharek had nothing but praise for Farrell. She described him as "an extraordinary appealing actor" who "has always made a terrific bad boy, but ... seems to be settling into some very serious, responsible-adult roles." Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle agreed, writing that Farrell "holds the movie together" and is part of "the most beautiful [love scene] so far of 2014." His role as P. L. Travers' alcoholic father in Saving Mr. Banks received contrasting reviews, with Scott Foundras of Variety calling it "excellent" and Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter deeming it "his best work in some time"; conversely, Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian described his performance as "bland" and "uninspired", while Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph found Farrell miscast in the role. Farrell starred in Liv Ullmann's adaptation of August Strindberg's Miss Julie opposite Jessica Chastain and Samantha Morton. His turn as John, the serving man to Chastain's character's father, was described by Stephen Holden of The New York Times as the "strongest" of the three performances, though Ullmann's direction was deemed too flat by most reviewers. He starred in the second season of the TV series True Detective as Ray Velcoro, alongside Vince Vaughn, Taylor Kitsch, and Rachel McAdams. The first two episodes were directed by Justin Lin. He worked with a dialect coach to adopt a nonstandard Californian accent for his character, which he found challenging. Farrell starred in The Lobster, a romantic science fiction thriller which was released in 2015 and directed by Greek director Yorgos Lanthimos in his English-language debut. Its script was awarded the ARTE International Prize for Best CineMart 2013 Project at the 42nd Rotterdam International Film Festival. Set in a dystopian near-future in which finding a partner is a matter of life and death, the film tells an unconventional love story. The film also stars Rachel Weisz, Ben Whishaw, Olivia Colman, Léa Seydoux and John C. Reilly. In 2016, Farrell starred in the Harry Potter spin-off film Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them; a traced version of a licensed promotional photo of Farrell from the film was subsequently used for the character Nefarian Serpine on the tenth anniversary cover of 2007's Skulduggery Pleasant, the first book in the series of the same name. In 2017, he had leading roles in the films The Beguiled, The Killing of a Sacred Deer, and Roman J. Israel, Esq. In 2018, he co-starred in Steve McQueen's thriller Widows, and then starred in Tim Burton's 2019 live-action fantasy Dumbo. ### 2022: Continued acclaim In 2022, Farrell co-starred in the film Thirteen Lives, which chronicles the 2018 Tham Luang cave rescue of a Thai boys' soccer team that was trapped 2.5 miles inside the cave for eighteen days as a result of a flash-flood. The British cave divers Rick Stanton and John Volanthen participated in the rescue operation and retrieved the boys. During this production, Farrell and the other cast members did their own stunts and diving. In an interview about the film, Farrell admitted to suffering significant anxiety from the underwater work. He portrayed Oswald "Oz" Cobblepot / Penguin in Matt Reeves' 2022 film The Batman and will continue to portray the character in a spin-off solo series on HBO Max. That same year, Farrell reunited with Martin McDonagh and Brendan Gleeson for The Banshees of Inisherin, which earned Farrell a Volpi Cup for Best Actor from the 79th Venice Film Festival and a Golden Globe, as well as a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor. ## Charity work In 2007, Farrell joined other celebrities as a spokesperson for the Special Olympics World Games in Shanghai. He also lent his support to the anti-bullying campaign Stand Up! organised by the Irish LGBT youth organisation BeLonG To in March 2012. Farrell, whose brother, Eamonn, is gay, had appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show two years earlier to increase awareness of the subject. In 2015, he became an official Ambassador of the Homeless World Cup, which uses street football to inspire homeless people to change their lives. ## Personal life Farrell owns homes in Dublin and Los Angeles. In 2013, he revealed that he suffers from insomnia and has suffered from occasional bouts of depression and dark thoughts. ### Relationships and children Farrell met English actress and singer Amelia Warner at the premiere of Quills in 2000. They dated from July to November 2001. There was unproven speculation that they married. Farrell said of the relationship that they were "too fast, too young". He has had relationships with American model Nicole Narain, and actresses Elizabeth Taylor, Maeve Quinlan, and Demi Moore. He has a son, born in 2003, with American model Kim Bordenave. In October 2007, he said that James has Angelman syndrome, a rare genetic disorder characterised by intellectual and developmental delay, lack of speech, and an excitable demeanour. From 2007 to 2008, Farrell dated Irish medical student Muireann McDonnell. Farrell and British-American writer Emma Forrest dated for over a year, an experience she discussed in depth in her memoir Your Voice in My Head (which mostly focused on her relationship with her therapist, who died unexpectedly). According to Forrest, she and Farrell planned to have a child together before he ended the relationship. In October 2009, Farrell fathered his second son with Polish actress Alicja Bachleda-Curuś (his Ondine co-star). Their relationship ended in mid-2010. ### Drug addiction In December 2005, Farrell checked into a rehabilitation centre for addictions to recreational drugs and painkillers. He commented on the topic during an interview on Late Show with David Letterman after leaving rehab, and continued to do so in subsequent years. He said, "There was an energy that was created, a character that was created, that no doubt benefited me... then there was a stage where it all began to crumble around me." ### Sex tape In January 2006, Farrell filed a lawsuit against his ex-girlfriend, American model Nicole Narain, and the Internet Commerce Group (ICG) for the unauthorised public distribution of a 13-minute sex tape they had made in 2003. He was offered \$5 million for its rights. While ICG tried to release it, Narain said that she would work with Farrell to ensure that the tape remained private; Farrell said she tried to release it to damage his acting career and "make money out of it", which Narain denied. On 16 April 2006, they reached a confidential settlement; Farrell's lawsuit against ICG continued with a trial date of 21 July 2006, and was eventually settled amicably. ### Stalker On 20 July 2006, as Farrell was being interviewed on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, a telephone sex worker named Dessarae Bradford evaded security, walked on stage and confronted Farrell. She threw a self-published book-length exposé about him on Jay Leno's desk. As Farrell escorted her off the stage and handed her over to NBC security, she shouted: "I'll see you in court!" After being held by police in Burbank, California, Bradford was released. The next day, Farrell obtained a restraining order against her and the incident was edited off the broadcast. Bradford had twice attempted to sue Farrell for abusive messages, but the lawsuits were dismissed due to a lack of evidence. She failed a polygraph, an unreliable lie-detection test, on an Ion Television program when attempting to prove her claims. ## Acting credits and awards
1,247,736	Troilus	1,169,270,181	Mythical prince of Troy in Greek mythology	[ "Characters in poems", "Children of Apollo", "Children of Priam", "Demigods in classical mythology", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Male Shakespearean characters", "Medieval literature", "Princes in Greek mythology", "Troilus and Cressida", "Trojan Leaders" ]	Troilus (English: /ˈtrɔɪləs/ or /ˈtroʊələs/; Ancient Greek: Τρωΐλος, romanized: Troïlos; Latin: Troilus) is a legendary character associated with the story of the Trojan War. The first surviving reference to him is in Homer's Iliad, composed in the late 8th century BCE. In Greek mythology, Troilus is a young Trojan prince, one of the sons of King Priam (or Apollo) and Hecuba. Prophecies link Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he is ambushed and murdered by Achilles. Sophocles was one of the writers to tell this tale. It was also a popular theme among artists of the time. Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. He was also regarded as a paragon of youthful male beauty. In Western European medieval and Renaissance versions of the legend, Troilus is the youngest of Priam's five legitimate sons by Hecuba. Despite his youth he is one of the main Trojan war leaders. He dies in battle at Achilles' hands. In a popular addition to the story, originating in the 12th century, Troilus falls in love with Cressida, whose father Calchas has defected to the Greeks. Cressida pledges her love to Troilus but she soon switches her affections to the Greek hero Diomedes when sent to her father in a hostage exchange. Chaucer and Shakespeare are among the authors who wrote works telling the story of Troilus and Cressida. Within the medieval tradition, Troilus was regarded as a paragon of the faithful courtly lover and also of the virtuous pagan knight. Once the custom of courtly love had faded, his fate was regarded less sympathetically. Little attention was paid to the character during the 18th and 19th centuries. However, Troilus has reappeared in 20th and 21st century retellings of the Trojan War by authors who have chosen elements from both the classical and medieval versions of his story. ## The story in the ancient world For the ancient Greeks, the tale of the Trojan War and the surrounding events appeared in its most definitive form in the Epic Cycle of eight narrative poems from the archaic period in Greece (750 BC – 480 BC). The story of Troilus is one of a number of incidents that helped provide structure to a narrative that extended over several decades and 77 books from the beginning of the Cypria to the end of the Telegony. The character's death early in the war and the prophecies surrounding him demonstrated that all Trojan efforts to defend their home would be in vain. His symbolic significance is evidenced by linguistic analysis of his Greek name "Troilos". It can be interpreted as an elision of the names of Tros and Ilos, the legendary founders of Troy, as a diminutive or pet name "little Tros" or as an elision of Troië (Troy) and lyo (to destroy). These multiple possibilities emphasise the link between the fates of Troilus and of the city where he lived. On another level, Troilus' fate can also be seen as foreshadowing the subsequent deaths of his murderer Achilles, and of his nephew Astyanax and sister Polyxena, who, like Troilus, die at the altar in at least some versions of their stories. Given this, it is unfortunate that the Cypria—the part of the Epic Cycle that covers the period of the Trojan War of Troilus' death—does not survive. Indeed, no complete narrative of his story remains from archaic times or the subsequent classical period (479–323 BC). Most of the literary sources from before the Hellenistic age (323–30 BC) that even referred to the character are lost or survive only in fragments or summary. The surviving ancient and medieval sources, whether literary or scholarly, contradict each other, and many do not tally with the form of the myth that scholars now believe to have existed in the archaic and classical periods. Partially compensating for the missing texts are the physical artifacts that remain from the archaic and classical periods. The story of the circumstances around Troilus' death was a popular theme among pottery painters. (The Beazley Archive website lists 108 items of Attic pottery alone from the 6th to 4th centuries BC containing images of the character.) Troilus also features on other works of art and decorated objects from those times. It is a common practice for those writing about the story of Troilus as it existed in ancient times to use both literary sources and artifacts to build up an understanding of what seems to have been the most standard form of the myth and its variants. The brutality of this standard form of the myth is highlighted by commentators such as Alan Sommerstein, an expert on ancient Greek drama, who describes it as "horrific" and "[p]erhaps the most vicious of all the actions traditionally attributed to Achilles." ### The standard myth: the beautiful Troilus murdered Troilus is an adolescent boy or young man, the son of Hecuba, queen of Troy. As he is so beautiful, Troilus is taken to be the son of the god Apollo. However, Hecuba's husband, King Priam, treats him as his own much-loved child. A prophecy says that Troy will not fall if Troilus lives to the age of twenty. So the goddess Athena encourages the Greek warrior Achilles to seek him out early in the Trojan War. Troilus is known to take great delight in his horses. Achilles ambushes him and his sister Polyxena when he has ridden with her for water from a well in the Thymbra – an area outside Troy where there is a temple of Apollo. The Greek is struck by the beauty of both Trojans and is filled with lust. It is the fleeing Troilus whom swift-footed Achilles catches, dragging him by the hair from his horse. The young prince refuses to yield to Achilles' sexual attentions and somehow escapes, taking refuge in the nearby temple. But the warrior follows him in, and beheads him at the altar before help can arrive. The mourning of the Trojans at Troilus' death afterward is great. This sacrilege leads to Achilles’ own death, when Apollo avenges himself by helping Paris strike Achilles with the arrow that pierces his heel. ### Ancient literary sources supporting the standard myth #### Homer and the missing texts of the archaic and classical periods The earliest surviving literary reference to Troilus is in Homer's Iliad, which formed one part of the Epic Cycle. It is believed that Troilus' name was not invented by Homer and that a version of his story was already in existence. Late in the poem, Priam berates his surviving sons, and compares them unfavourably to their dead brothers including Trôïlon hippiocharmên. The interpretation of hippiocharmên is controversial but the root hipp- implies a connection with horses. For the purpose of the version of the myth given above, the word has been taken as meaning "delighting in horses". Sommerstein believes that Homer wishes to imply in this reference that Troilus was killed in battle, but argues that Priam's later description of Achilles as andros paidophonoio ("boy-slaying man") indicates that Homer was aware of the story of Troilus as a murdered child; Sommerstein believes that Homer is playing here on the ambiguity of the root paido- meaning boy in both the sense of a young male and of a son. Troilus' death was also described in the Cypria, one of the parts of the Epic Cycle that is no longer extant. The poem covered the events preceding the Trojan War and the first part of the war itself up to the events of the Iliad. Although the Cypria does not survive, most of an ancient summary of the contents, thought to be by Eutychius Proclus, remains. Fragment 1 mentions that Achilles killed Troilus, but provides no more detail. However, Sommerstein takes the verb used to describe the killing (phoneuei) as meaning that Achilles murders Troilus. In Athens, the early tragedians Phrynicus and Sophocles both wrote plays called Troilos and the comic playwright Strattis wrote a parody of the same name. Of the esteemed Nine lyric poets of the archaic and classical periods, Stesichorus may have referred to Troilus' story in his Iliupersis and Ibycus may have written in detail about the character. With the exception of these authors, no other pre-Hellenistic written source is known to have considered Troilus at any length. Unfortunately, all that remains of these texts are the smallest fragments or summaries and references to them by other authors. What does survive can be in the form of papyrus fragments, plot summaries by later authors or quotations by other authors. In many cases these are just odd words in lexicons or grammar books with an attribution to the original author. Reconstructions of the texts are necessarily speculative and should be viewed with "wary but sympathetic scepticism". In Ibycus' case all that remains is a parchment fragment containing a mere six or seven words of verse accompanied with a few lines of scholia. Troilus is described in the poem as godlike and is killed outside Troy. From the scholia, he is clearly a boy. The scholia also refer to a sister, someone "watching out" and a murder in the sanctuary of Thymbrian Apollo. While acknowledging that these details may have been reports of other later sources, Sommerstein thinks it probable that Ibycus told the full ambush story and is thus the earliest identifiable source for it. Of Phrynicus, one fragment remains considered to refer to Troilus. This speaks of "the light of love glowing on his reddening cheeks". Of all these fragmentary pre-Hellenistic sources, the most is known of Sophocles Troilos. Even so, only 54 words have been identified as coming from the play. Fragment 619 refers to Troilus as an andropais, a man-boy. Fragment 621 indicates that Troilus was going to a spring with a companion to fetch water or to water his horses. A scholion to the Iliad states that Sophocles has Troilus ambushed by Achilles while exercising his horses in the Thymbra. Fragment 623 indicates that Achilles mutilated Troilus' corpse by a method known as maschalismos. This involved preventing the ghost of a murder victim from returning to haunt their killer by cutting off the corpse's extremities and stringing them under its armpits. Sophocles is thought to have also referred to the maschalismos of Troilus in a fragment taken to be from an earlier play Polyxene. Sommerstein attempts a reconstruction of the plot of the Troilos, in which the title character is incestuously in love with Polyxena and tries to discourage the interest in marrying her shown by both Achilles and Sarpedon, a Trojan ally and son of Zeus. Sommerstein argues that Troilus is accompanied on his fateful journey to his death, not by Polyxena, but by his tutor, a eunuch Greek slave. Certainly there is a speaking role for a eunuch who reports being castrated by Hecuba and someone reports the loss of their adolescent master. The incestuous love is deduced by Sommerstein from a fragment of Strattis' parody, assumed to partially quote Sophocles, and from his understanding that the Sophocles play intends to contrast barbarian customs, including incest, with Greek ones. Sommerstein also sees this as solving what he considers the need for an explanation of Achilles' treatment of Troilus' corpse, the latter being assumed to have insulted Achilles in the process of warning him off Polyxena. Italian professor of English and expert on Troilus, Piero Boitani, on the other hand, considers Troilus' rejection of Achilles' sexual advances towards him as sufficient motive for the mutilation. #### Alexandra The first surviving text with more than the briefest mention of Troilus is Alexandra, a Hellenistic poem dating from no earlier than the 3rd century BC by the tragedian Lycophron (or a namesake of his). The poem consists of the obscure prophetic ravings of Cassandra: > Ay! me, for thee fair-fostered flower, too, I groan, O lion whelp, sweet darling of thy kindred, who didst smite with fiery charm of shafts the fierce dragon and seize for a little loveless while in unescapable noose him that was smitten, thyself unwounded by thy victim: thou shalt forfeit thy head and stain thy father’s altar-tomb with thy blood. This passage is explained in the Byzantine writer John Tzetzes' scholia as a reference to Troilus seeking to avoid the unwanted sexual advances of Achilles by taking refuge in his father Apollo's temple. When he refuses to come out, Achilles goes in and kills him on the altar. Lycophron's scholiast also says that Apollo started to plan Achilles' death after the murder. This begins to build up the elements of the version of Troilus' story given above: he is young, much loved and beautiful; he has divine ancestry, is beheaded by his rejected Greek lover and, we know from Homer, had something to do with horses. The reference to Troilus as a "lion whelp" hints at his having the potential to be a great hero, but there is no explicit reference to a prophecy linking the possibility of Troilus reaching adulthood and Troy then surviving. #### Other written sources No other extended passage about Troilus exists from before the Augustan Age by which time other versions of the character's story have emerged. The remaining sources compatible with the standard myth are considered below by theme. Parentage : The Apollodorus responsible for the Library lists Troilus last of Priam and Hecuba's sons – a detail adopted in the later tradition – but then adds that it is said that the boy was fathered by Apollo. On the other hand, Hyginus includes Troilus in the middle of a list of Priam's sons without further comment. In the early Christian writings the Clementine Homilies, it is suggested that Apollo was Troilus' lover rather than his father. Youthfulness : Horace emphasises Troilus' youth by calling him inpubes ("unhairy", i.e. pre-pubescent or, figuratively, not old enough to bear arms). Dio Chrysostom derides Achilles in his Trojan discourse, complaining that all that the supposed hero achieved before Homer was the capture of Troilus who was still a boy. Prophecies : The First Vatican Mythographer reports a prophecy that Troy will not fall if Troilus reaches the age of twenty and gives that as a reason for Achilles' ambush. In Plautus, Troilus' death is given as one of three conditions that must be met before Troy would fall. Beauty : Ibycus, in seeking to praise his patron, compares him to Troilus, the most beautiful of the Greeks and the Trojans. Dio Chrysostom refers to Troilus as one of many examples of different kinds of beauty. Statius compares a beautiful dead slave missed by his master to Troilus. Object of pederastic love : Servius, in his scholia to the passage from Virgil discussed below, says that Achilles lures Troilus to him with a gift of doves. Troilus then dies in the Greek's embrace. Robert Graves interprets this as evidence of the vigour of Achilles' love-making but Timothy Gantz considers that the "how or why" of Servius' version of Troilus' death is unclear. Sommerstein favours Graves's interpretation saying that murder was not a part of ancient pederastic relations and that nothing in Servius suggests an intentional killing. Location of ambush and death : A number of reports have come down of Troilus' death variously mentioning water, exercising horses and the Thymbra, though they do not necessarily build into a coherent whole: the First Vatican Mythographer reports that Troilus was exercising outside Troy when Achilles attacked him; a commentator on Ibycus says that Troilus was slain by Achilles in the Thymbrian precinct outside Troy; Eustathius of Thessalonica's commentary on the Iliad says that Troilus was exercising his horses there; Apollodorus says that Achilles ambushed Troilus inside the temple of Thymbrian Apollo; finally, Statius reports that Troilus was speared to death as he fled around Apollo's walls. Gantz struggles to make sense of what he sees as contradictory material, feeling that Achilles' running down of Troilus' horse makes no sense if Troilus was just fleeing to the nearby temple building. He speculates that the ambush at the well and the sacrifice in the temple could be two different versions of the story or, alternatively, that Achilles takes Troilus to the temple to sacrifice him as an insult to Apollo. Mourning : Trojan and, especially, Troilus' own family's mourning at his death seems to have epitomised grief at the loss of a child in classical civilization. Horace, Callimachus and Cicero all refer to Troilus in this way. ### Ancient art and artifact sources Ancient Greek art, as found in pottery and other remains, frequently depicts scenes associated with Troilus' death: the ambush, the pursuit, the murder itself and the fight over his body. Depictions of Troilus in other contexts are unusual. One such exception, a red-figure vase painting from Apulia c.340BC, shows Troilus as a child with Priam. In the ambush, Troilus and Polyxena approach a fountain where Achilles lies in wait. This scene was familiar enough in the ancient world for a parody to exist from c.400BC showing a dumpy Troilus leading a mule to the fountain. In most serious depictions of the scene, Troilus rides a horse, normally with a second next to him. He is usually, but not always, portrayed as a beardless youth. He is often shown naked; otherwise he wears a cloak or tunic. Achilles is always armed and armoured. Occasionally, as on the vase picture at , or the fresco from the Tomb of the Bulls shown at the head of this article, either Troilus or Polyxena is absent, indicating how the ambush is linked to each of their stories. In the earliest definitely identified version of this scene, (a Corinthian vase c.580BC), Troilus is bearded and Priam is also present. Both these features are unusual. More common is a bird sitting on the fountain; normally a raven, symbol of Apollo and his prophetic powers and thus a final warning to Troilus of his doom; sometimes a cock, a common love gift suggesting that Achilles attempted to seduce Troilus. In some versions, for example an Attic amphora in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston dating from c.530BC (seen here ) Troilus has a dog running with him. On one Etruscan vase from the 6th century BC, doves are flying from Achilles to Troilus, suggestive of the love gift in Servius. The fountain itself is conventionally decorated with a lion motif. The earliest identified version of the pursuit or chase is from the third quarter of the 7th century BC. Next chronologically is the best known version on the François Vase by Kleitias. The number of characters shown on pottery scenes varies with the size and shape of the space available. The François Vase is decorated with several scenes in long narrow strips. This means that the Troilus frieze is heavily populated. In the centre, (which can be seen at the Perseus Project at ,) is the fleeing Troilus, riding one horse with the reins of the other in his hand. Below them is the vase—which Polyxena (partially missing), who is ahead of him, has dropped. Achilles is largely missing but it is clear that he is armoured. They are running towards Troy where Antenor gestures towards Priam. Hector and Polites, brothers of Troilus, emerge from the city walls in the hope of saving Troilus. Behind Achilles are a number of deities, Athena, Thetis (Achilles' mother), Hermes, and Apollo (just arriving). Two Trojans are also present, the woman gesturing to draw the attention of a youth filling his vase. As the deities appear only in pictorial versions of the scene, their role is subject to interpretation. Boitani sees Athena as urging Achilles on and Thetis as worried by the arrival of Apollo who, as Troilus' protector, represents a future threat to Achilles. He does not indicate what he thinks Hermes may be talking to Thetis about. The classicist and art historian Professor Thomas H. Carpenter sees Hermes as a neutral observer, Athena and Thetis as urging Achilles on, and the arrival of Apollo as the artist's indication of the god's future role in Achilles' death. As Athena is not traditionally a patron of Achilles, Sommerstein sees her presence in this and other portrayals of Troilus' death as evidence of the early standing of the prophetic link between Troilus' death and the fall of Troy, Athena being driven, above all, by her desire for the city's destruction. The standard elements in the pursuit scene are Troilus, Achilles, Polyxena, the two horses and the fallen vase. On two tripods, an amphora and a cup, Achilles already has Troilus by the hair. A famous vase in the British Museum, which gave the Troilos Painter the name by which he is now known, shows the two Trojans looking back in fear, as the beautiful youth whips his horse on. This vase can be seen at the Perseus Project site . The water spilling from the shattered vase below Troilus' horse, symbolises the blood he is about to shed. The iconography of the eight legs and hooves of the horses can be used to identify Troilus on pottery where his name does not appear; for example, on a Corinthian vase where Troilus is shooting at his pursuers and on a peaceful scene on a Chalcidian krater where the couples Paris and Helen, Hector and Andromache are labelled, but the youth riding one of a pair of horses is not. A later Southern Italian interpretation of the story is on vases held respectively at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts and the Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg. On the krater from c.380-70BC at Troilus can be seen with just one horse trying to defend himself with a throwing spear; on the hydria from c.325-320BC at , Achilles is pulling down the youth's horse. The earliest known depictions of the death or murder of Troilus are on shield bands from the turn of the 7th into the 6th century BC found at Olympia. On these, a warrior with a sword is about to stab a naked youth at an altar. On one, Troilus clings to a tree (which Boitani takes for the laurel sacred to Apollo). A crater contemporary with this shows Achilles at the altar holding the naked Troilus upside down while Hector, Aeneas and an otherwise unknown Trojan Deithynos arrive in the hope of saving the youth. In some depictions Troilus is begging for mercy. On an amphora, Achilles has the struggling Troilus slung over his shoulder as he goes to the altar. Boitani, in his survey of the story of Troilus through the ages, considers it of significance that two artifacts (a vase and a sarcophagus) from different periods link Troilus' and Priam's death by showing them on the two sides of the same item, as if they were the beginning and end of the story of the fall of Troy. Achilles is the father of Neoptolemus, who slays Priam at the altar during the sack of Troy. Thus the war opens with a father killing a son and closes with a son killing a father. Some pottery shows Achilles, already having killed Troilus, using his victim's severed head as a weapon as Hector and his companions arrive too late to save him; some includes the watching Athena, occasionally with Hermes. At is one such picture showing Achilles fighting Hector over the altar. Troilus' body is slumped and the boy's head is either flying through the air, or stuck to the end of Achilles' spear. Athena and Hermes look on. Aeneas and Deithynos are behind Hector. Sometimes details of the closely similar deaths of Troilus and Astyanax are exchanged. shows one such image where it is unclear which murder is portrayed. The age of the victim is often an indicator of which story is being told and the relative small size here might point towards the death of Astyanax, but it is common to show even Troilus as much smaller than his murderer, (as is the case with the kylix pictured to the above right). Other factors in this case are the presence of Priam (suggesting Astyanax), that of Athena (suggesting Troilus) and the fact that the scene is set outside the walls of Troy (again suggesting Troilus). ### A variant myth: the boy-soldier overwhelmed A different version of Troilus' death appears on a red-figure cup by Oltos. Troilus is on his knees, still in the process of drawing his sword when Achilles' spear has already stabbed him and Aeneas comes too late to save him. Troilus wears a helmet, but it is pushed up to reveal a beautiful young face. This is the only such depiction of Troilus' death in early figurative art. However, this version of Troilus as a youth defeated in battle appears also in written sources. #### Virgil and other Latin sources This version of the story appears in Virgil's Aeneid, in a passage describing a series of paintings decorating the walls of a temple of Juno. The painting immediately next to the one depicting Troilus shows the death of Rhesus, another character killed because of prophecies linked to the fall of Troy. Other pictures are similarly calamitous. `In a description whose pathos is heightened by the fact that it is seen through a compatriot's eyes, Troilus is infelix puer ("unlucky boy") who has met Achilles in "unequal" combat. Troilus' horses flee while he, still holding their reins, hangs from the chariot, his head and hair trailing behind while the backward-pointing spear scribbles in the dust. (The First Vatican Mythographer elaborates on this story, explaining that Troilus's body is dragged right to the walls of Troy.)` In his commentary on the Aeneid, Servius considers this story as a deliberate departure from the "true" story, bowdlerized to make it more suitable for an epic poem. He interprets it as showing Troilus overpowered in a straight fight. Gantz, however, argues that this might be a variation of the ambush story. For him, Troilus is unarmed because he went out not expecting combat and the backward pointing spear was what Troilus was using as a goad in a manner similar to characters elsewhere in the Aeneid. Sommerstein, on the other hand believes that the spear is Achilles' that has struck Troilus in the back. The youth is alive but mortally wounded as he is being dragged towards Troy. An issue here is the ambiguity of the word congressus ("met"). It often refers to meeting in a conventional combat but can have reference to other types of meetings too. A similar ambiguity appears in Seneca and in Ausonius' 19th epitaph, narrated by Troilus himself. The dead prince tells how he has been dragged by his horses after falling in unequal battle with Achilles. A reference in the epitaph comparing Troilus' death to Hector's suggests that Troilus dies later than in the traditional narrative, something that, according to Boitani, also happens in Virgil. #### Greek writers in the boy-soldier tradition Quintus of Smyrna, in a passage whose atmosphere Boitani describes as sad and elegiac, retains what for Boitani are the two important issues of the ancient story, that Troilus is doomed by Fate and that his failure to continue his line symbolises Troy's fall. In this case, there is no doubt that Troilus entered battle knowingly, for in the Posthomerica Troilus's armour is one of the funerary gifts after Achilles' own death. Quintus repeatedly emphasises Troilus's youth: he is beardless, virgin of a bride, childlike, beautiful, the most godlike of all Hecuba's children. Yet he was lured by Fate to war when he knew no fear and was struck down by Achilles' spear just as a flower or corn that has borne no seed is killed by the gardener. In the Ephemeridos belli Trojani (Journal of the Trojan War), supposedly written by Dictys the Cretan during the Trojan War itself, Troilus is again a defeated warrior, but this time captured with his brother Lycaon. Achilles vindictively orders that their throats be slit in public, because he is angry that Priam has failed to advance talks over a possible marriage to Polyxena. Dictys' narrative is free from gods and prophecy but he preserves Troilus' loss as something to be greatly mourned: ## The story in the medieval and Renaissance eras In the sources considered so far, Troilus' only narrative function is his death. The treatment of the character changes in two ways in the literature of the medieval and renaissance periods. First, he becomes an important and active protagonist in the pursuit of the Trojan War itself. Second, he becomes an active heterosexual lover, rather than the passive victim of Achilles' pederasty. By the time of John Dryden's neo-classical adaptation of Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida it is the ultimate failure of his love affair that defines the character. For medieval writers, the two most influential ancient sources on the Trojan War were the purported eye-witness accounts of Dares the Phrygian, and Dictys the Cretan, which both survive in Latin versions. In Western Europe the Trojan side of the war was favoured and therefore Dares was preferred over Dictys. Although Dictys' account positions Troilus' death later in the war than was traditional, it conforms to antiquity's view of him as a minor warrior if one at all. Dares' De excidio Trojae historia (History of the Fall of Troy) introduces the character as a hero who takes part in events beyond the story of his death. Authors of the 12th and 13th centuries such as Joseph of Exeter and Albert of Stade continued to tell the legend of the Trojan War in Latin in a form that follows Dares' tale with Troilus remaining one of the most important warriors on the Trojan side. However, it was two of their contemporaries, Benoît de Sainte-Maure in his French verse romance and Guido delle Colonne in his Latin prose history, both also admirers of Dares, who were to define the tale of Troy for the remainder of the medieval period. The details of their narrative of the war were copied, for example, in the Laud and Lydgate Troy Books and also in Raoul Lefevre's Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye. Lefevre, through Caxton's 1474 printed translation, was in turn to become the best known retelling of the Troy story in Renaissance England and influenced Shakespeare among others. The story of Troilus as a lover, invented by Benoît and retold by Guido, generated a second line of influence. It was taken up as a tale that could be told in its own right by Boccaccio and then by Chaucer who established a tradition of retelling and elaborating the story in English-language literature, which was to be followed by Henryson and Shakespeare. ### The second Hector, wall of Troy As indicated above, it was through the writings of Dares the Phrygian that the portrayal of Troilus as an important warrior was transmitted to medieval times. However, some authors have argued that the tradition of Troilus as a warrior may be older. The passage from the Iliad described above is read by Boitani as implying that Priam put Troilus on a par with the very best of his warrior sons. The description of him in that passage as hippiocharmên is rendered by some authorities as meaning a warrior charioteer rather than merely someone who delights in horses. The many missing and partial literary sources might include such a hero. Yet only the one ancient vase shows Troilus as a warrior falling in a conventional battle. #### Dares In Dares, Troilus is the youngest of Priam's royal sons, bellicose when peace or truces are suggested and the equal of Hector in bravery, "large and most beautiful... brave and strong for his age, and eager for glory."[^1] He slaughters many Greeks, wounds Achilles and Menelaus, routs the Myrmidons more than once before his horse falls and traps him and Achilles takes the opportunity to put an end to his life. Memnon rescues the body, something that didn't happen in many later versions of the tale. Troilus' death comes near the end of the war not at its beginning. He now outlives Hector and succeeds him as the Trojans' great leader in battle. Now it is in reaction to Troilus's death that Hecuba plots Achilles' murder. As the tradition of Troilus the warrior advances through time, the weaponry and the form of combat change. Already in Dares he is a mounted warrior, not a charioteer or foot warrior, something anachronistic to epic narrative. In later versions he is a knight with armour appropriate to the time of writing who fights against other knights and dukes. His expected conduct, including his romance, conforms to courtly or other values contemporary to the writing. #### Description in medieval texts The medieval texts follow Dares' structuring of the narrative in describing Troilus after his parents and four royal brothers Hector, Paris, Deiphobus and Helenus. Joseph of Exeter, in his Daretis Phrygii Ilias De bello Troiano (The Iliad of Dares the Phrygian on the Trojan War), describes the character as follows: Benoît de Sainte-Maure's description in Le Roman de Troie (The Romance of Troy) is too long to quote in full, but influenced the descriptions that follow. Benoît goes into details of character and facial appearance avoided by other writers. He tells that Troilus was "the fairest of the youths of Troy" with: Guido delle Colonne's Historia destructionis Troiae (History of the Destruction of Troy) says: The Laud Troy Book: The boy who in the ancient texts was never Achilles' match has now become a young knight, a worthy opponent to the Greeks. #### Knight and war leader In the medieval and renaissance tradition, Troilus is one of those who argue most for war against the Greeks in Priam's council. In several texts, for example the Laud Troy Book, he says that those who disagree with him are better suited to be priests. Guido, and writers who follow him, have Hector, knowing how headstrong his brother can be, counsel Troilus not to be reckless before the first battle. In the medieval texts, Troilus is a doughty knight throughout the war, taking over, as in Dares, after Hector's death as the main warrior on the Trojan side. Indeed he is named as a second Hector by Chaucer and Lydgate. These two poets follow Boccaccio in reporting that Troilus kills thousands of Greeks. However, the comparison with Hector can be seen as acknowledging Troilus' inferiority to his brother through the very need to mention him. In Joseph, Troilus is greater than Alexander, Hector, Tydeus, Bellona and even Mars, and kills seven Greeks with one blow of his club. He does not strike at opponents' legs because that would demean his victory. He only fights knights and nobles, and disdains facing the common warriors. Albert of Stade saw Troilus as so important that he is the title character of his version of the Trojan War. He is "the wall of his homeland, Troy's protection, the rose of the military...." The list of Greek leaders Troilus wounds expands in the various re-tellings of the war from the two in Dares to also include Agamemnon, Diomedes and Menelaus. Guido, in keeping his promise to tell of all Troilus' valorous deeds, describes many incidents. Troilus is usually victorious but is captured in an early battle by Menestheus before his friends rescue him. This incident reappears in the imitators of Guido, such as Lefevre and the Laud and Lydgate Troy Books. #### Death Within the medieval Trojan tradition, Achilles withdraws from fighting in the war because he is to marry Polyxena. Eventually, so many of his followers are killed that he decides to rejoin the battle leading to Troilus' death and, in turn, to Hecuba, Polyxena and Paris plotting Achilles' murder. Albert and Joseph follow Dares in having Achilles behead Troilus as he tries to rise after his horse falls. In Guido and authors he influenced, Achilles specifically seeks out Troilus to avenge a previous encounter where Troilus has wounded him. He therefore instructs the Myrmidons to find Troilus, surround him and cut him off from rescue. In the Laud Troy Book, this is because Achilles almost killed Troilus in the previous fight but the Trojan was rescued. Achilles wants to make sure that this does not happen again. This second combat is fought as a straight duel between the two with Achilles, the greater warrior, winning. In Guido, Lefevre and Lydgate Troilus' killer's behaviour is very different, shorn of any honour. Achilles waits until his men have killed Troilus' horse and cut loose his armour. Only then does Achilles attack and behead him. In an echo of the Iliad, Achilles drags the corpse behind his horse. Thus, the comparison with the Homeric Hector is heightened and, at the same time, aspects of the classical Troilus's fate are echoed. ### The lover The last aspect of the character of Troilus to develop in the tradition has become the one for which he is best known. Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde and Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida both focus on Troilus in his role as a lover. This theme is first introduced by Benoît de Sainte-Maure in the Roman de Troie and developed by Guido delle Colonne. Boccaccio's Il Filostrato is the first book to take the love-story as its main theme. Robert Henryson and John Dryden are other authors who dedicate works to it. The story of Troilus' romance developed within the context of the male-centred conventions of courtly love and thus the focus of sympathy was to be Troilus and not his beloved. As different authors recreated the romance, they would interpret it in ways affected both by the perspectives of their own times and their individual preoccupations. The story as it would later develop through the works of Boccaccio, Chaucer and Shakespeare is summarised below. #### The story of Troilus and Cressida Troilus used to mock the foolishness of other young men's love affairs. But one day he sees Cressida in the temple of Athena and falls in love with her. She is a young widow and daughter of the priest Calchas who has defected to the Greek camp. Embarrassed at having become exactly the sort of person he used to ridicule, Troilus tries to keep his love secret. However, he pines for Cressida and becomes so withdrawn that his friend Pandarus asks why he is unhappy and eventually persuades Troilus to reveal his love. Pandarus offers to act as a go-between, even though he is Cressida's relative and should be guarding her honour. Pandarus convinces Cressida to admit that she returns Troilus' love and, with Pandarus's help, the two are able to consummate their feelings for each other. Their happiness together is brought to an end when Calchas persuades Agamemnon to arrange Cressida's return to him as part of a hostage exchange in which the captive Trojan Antenor is freed. The two lovers are distraught and even think of eloping together but they finally cooperate with the exchange. Despite Cressida's initial intention to remain faithful to Troilus, the Greek warrior Diomedes wins her heart. When Troilus learns of this, he seeks revenge on Diomedes and the Greeks and dies in battle. Just as Cressida betrayed Troilus, Antenor was later to betray Troy. #### Benoît and Guido In the Roman de Troie, the daughter of Calchas whom Troilus loves is called Briseis. Their relationship is first mentioned once the hostage exchange has been agreed: In Guido, Troilus' and Diomedes' love is now called Briseida. His version (a history) is more moralistic and less touching, removing the psychological complexity of Benoît's (a romance) and the focus in his retelling of the love triangle is firmly shifted to the betrayal of Troilus by Briseida. Although Briseida and Diomedes are most negatively caricatured by Guido's moralising, even Troilus is subject to criticism as a "fatuous youth" prone, as in the following, to youthful faults. Briseis, at least for now, is equally affected by the possibility of separation from her lover. Troilus goes to her room and they spend the night together, trying to comfort each other. Troilus is part of the escort to hand her over the next day. Once she is with the Greeks, Diomedes is immediately struck by her beauty. Although she is not hostile, she cannot accept him as her lover. Meanwhile Calchas tells her to accept for herself that the gods have decreed Troy's fall and that she is safer now she is with the Greeks. A battle soon takes place and Diomedes unseats Troilus from his horse. The Greek sends it as a gift to Briseis/Briseida with an explanation that it had belonged to her old lover. In Benoît, Briseis complains at Diomedes' seeking to woo her by humbling Troilus, but in Guido all that remains of her long speech in Benoît is that she "cannot hold him in hatred who loves me with such purity of heart." Diomedes soon does win her heart. In Benoît, it is through his display of love and she gives him her glove as a token. Troilus seeks him out in battle and utterly defeats him. He saves Diomedes' life, only so that he can bring her a message of Troilus' contempt. In Guido, Briseida's change of heart comes after Troilus wounds Diomedes seriously. Briseida tends Diomedes and then decides to take him as her lover, because she does not know if she will ever meet Troilus again. In later medieval tellings of the war, the episode of Troilus and Briseida/Cressida is acknowledged and often given as a reason for Diomedes and Troilus to seek each other out in battle. The love story also becomes one that is told separately. #### Boccaccio The first major work to take the story of Troilus' failed love as its central theme is Giovanni Boccaccio's Il Filostrato. The title means "the one struck down by love". There is an overt purpose to the text. In the proem, Boccaccio himself is Filostrato and addresses his own love who has rejected him. Boccaccio introduces a number of features of the story that were to be taken up by Chaucer. Most obvious is that Troilus' love is now called Criseida or Cressida. An innovation in the narrative is the introduction of the go-between Pandarus. Troilus is characterised as a young man who expresses whatever moods he has strongly, weeping when his love is unsuccessful, generous when it is. Boccaccio fills in the history before the hostage exchange as follows. Troilus mocks the lovelorn glances of other men who put their trust in women before falling victim to love himself when he sees Cressida, here a young widow, in the Palladium, the temple of Athena. Troilus keeps his love secret and is made miserable by it. Pandarus, Troilus' best friend and Cressida's cousin in this version of the story, acts as go-between after persuading Troilus to explain his distress. In accordance with the conventions of courtly love, Troilus' love remains secret from all except Pandarus, until Cassandra eventually divines the reason for Troilus' subsequent distress. After the hostage exchange is agreed, Troilus suggests elopement, but Cressida argues that he should not abandon Troy and that she should protect her honour. Instead, she promises to meet him within ten days. Troilus spends much of the intervening time on the city walls, sighing in the direction where Cressida has gone. No horses or sleeves, as used by Guido or Benoît, are involved in Troilus' learning of Cressida's change of heart. Instead a dream hints at what has happened, and then the truth is confirmed when a brooch – previously a gift from Troilus to Cressida – is found on Diomedes' looted clothing. In the meantime, Cressida has kept up the pretence in their correspondence that she still loves Troilus. After Cressida's betrayal is confirmed, Troilus becomes ever fiercer in battle. #### Chaucer and his successors Geoffrey Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde reflects a more humorous world-view than Boccaccio's poem. Chaucer does not have his own wounded love to display and therefore allows himself an ironic detachment from events and Criseyde is more sympathetically portrayed. In contrast to Boccaccio's final canto, which returns to the poet's own situation, Chaucer's palinode has Troilus looking down laughing from heaven, finally aware of the meaninglessness of earthly emotions. About a third of the lines of the Troilus are adapted from the much shorter Il Filostrato, leaving room for a more detailed and characterised narrative. Chaucer's Criseyde is swayed by Diomedes playing on her fear. Pandarus is now her uncle, more worldly-wise and more active in what happens and so Troilus is more passive. This passivity is given comic treatment when Troilus passes out in Criseyde's bedroom and is lifted into her bed by Pandarus. Troilus' repeated emotional paralysis is comparable to that of Hamlet who may have been based on him. It can be seen as driven by loyalty both to Criseyde and to his homeland, but has also been interpreted less kindly. Another difference in Troilus' characterisation from the Filostrato is that he is no longer misogynistic in the beginning. Instead of mocking lovers because of their putting trust in women, he mocks them because of how love affects them. Troilus' vision of love is stark: total commitment offers total fulfilment; any form of failure means total rejection. He is unable to comprehend the subtleties and complexities that underlie Criseyde's vacillations and Pandarus' manoeuvrings. In his storytelling Chaucer links the fates of Troy and Troilus, the mutual downturn in fortune following the exchange of Criseyde for the treacherous Antenor being the most significant parallel. Little has changed in the general sweep of the plot from Boccaccio. Things are just more detailed, with Pandarus, for example, involving Priam's middle son Deiphobus during his attempts to unite Troilus and Cressida. Another scene that Chaucer adds was to be reworked by Shakespeare. In it, Pandarus seeks to persuade Cressida of Troilus' virtues over those of Hector, before uncle and niece witness Troilus returning from battle to public acclaim with much damage to his helmet. Chaucer also includes details from the earlier narratives. So, reference is made not just to Boccaccio's brooch, but to the glove, the captured horse and the battles of the two lovers in Benoît and Guido. Because of the great success of the Troilus, the love story was popular as a free standing tale to be retold by English-language writers throughout the 15th and 16th centuries and into the 17th century. The theme was treated either seriously or in burlesque. For many authors, true Troilus, false Cresseid and pandering Pandarus became ideal types eventually to be referred to together as such in Shakespeare. During the same period, English retellings of the broader theme of the Trojan War tended to avoid Boccaccio's and Chaucer's additions to the story, though their authors, including Caxton, commonly acknowledged Chaucer as a respected predecessor. John Lydgate's Troy Book is an exception. Pandarus is one of the elements from Chaucer's poem that Lydgate incorporates, but Guido provides his overall narrative framework. As with other authors, Lydgate's treatment contrasts Troilus' steadfastness in all things with Cressida's fickleness. The events of the war and the love story are interwoven. Troilus' prowess in battle markedly increases once he becomes aware that Diomedes is beginning to win Cressida's heart, but it is not long after Diomedes final victory in love when Achilles and his Myrmidon's treacherously attack and kill Troilus and maltreat his corpse, concluding Lydgate's treatment of the character as an epic hero, who is the purest of all those who appear in the Troy Book. Of all the treatments of the story of Troilus and, especially, Cressida in the period between Chaucer and Shakespeare, it is Robert Henryson's that receives the most attention from modern critics. His poem The Testament of Cresseid is described by the Middle English expert C. David Benson as the "only fifteenth century poem written in Great Britain that begins to rival the moral and artistic complexity of Chaucer's Troilus". In the Testament the title-character is abandoned by Diomedes and then afflicted with leprosy so that she becomes unrecognizable to Troilus. He pities the lepers she is with and is generous to her because she reminds him of the idol of her in his mind, but he remains the virtuous pagan knight and does not achieve the redemption that she does. Even so, following Henryson Troilus was seen as a representation of generosity. #### Shakespeare and Dryden Another approach to Troilus' love story in the centuries following Chaucer is to treat Troilus as a fool, something Shakespeare does in allusions to him in plays leading up to Troilus and Cressida. In Shakespeare's "problem play" there are elements of Troilus the fool. However, this can be excused by his age. He is an almost beardless youth, unable to fully understand the workings of his own emotions, in the middle of an adolescent infatuation, more in love with love and his image of Cressida than the real woman herself. He displays a mixture of idealism about eternally faithful lovers and of realism, condemning Hector's "vice of mercy". His concept of love involves both a desire for immediate sexual gratification and a belief in eternal faithfulness. He also displays a mixture of constancy, (in love and supporting the continuation of war) and inconsistency (changing his mind twice in the first scene on whether to go to battle or not). More a Hamlet than a Romeo, by the end of the play his illusions of love shattered and Hector dead, Troilus might show signs of maturing, recognising the nature of the world, rejecting Pandarus and focusing on revenge for his brother's death rather than for a broken heart or a stolen horse. The novelist and academic Joyce Carol Oates, on the other hand, sees Troilus as beginning and ending the play in frenzies – of love and then hatred. For her, Troilus is unable to achieve the equilibrium of a tragic hero despite his learning experiences, because he remains a human-being who belongs to a banal world where love is compared to food and cooking and sublimity cannot be achieved. Troilus and Cressida's sources include Chaucer, Lydgate, Caxton and Homer, but there are creations of Shakespeare's own too and his tone is very different. Shakespeare wrote at a time when the traditions of courtly love were dead and when England was undergoing political and social change. Shakespeare's treatment of the theme of Troilus' love is much more cynical than Chaucer's, and the character of Pandarus is now grotesque. Indeed, all the heroes of the Trojan War are degraded and mocked. Troilus' actions are subject to the gaze and commentary of both the venal Pandarus and of the cynical Thersites who tells us: The action is compressed and truncated, beginning in medias res with Pandarus already working for Troilus and praising his virtues to Cressida over those of the other knights they see returning from battle, but comically mistaking him for Deiphobus. The Trojan lovers are together only one night before the hostage exchange takes place. They exchange a glove and a sleeve as love tokens, but the next night Ulysses takes Troilus to Calchas' tent, significantly near Menelaus' tent. There they witness Diomedes successfully seducing Cressida after taking Troilus' sleeve from her. The young Trojan struggles with what his eyes and ears tell him, wishing not to believe it. Having previously considered abandoning the senselessness of war in favour of his role of lover and having then sought to reconcile love and knightly conduct, he is now left with war as his only role. Both the fights between Troilus and Diomedes from the traditional narrative of Benoît and Guido take place the next day in Shakespeare's retelling. Diomedes captures Troilus' horse in the first fight and sends it to Cressida. Then the Trojan triumphs in the second, though Diomedes escapes. But in a deviation from this narrative it is Hector, not Troilus, whom the Myrmidons surround in the climactic battle of the play and whose body is dragged behind Achilles' horse. Troilus himself is left alive vowing revenge for Hector's death and rejecting Pandarus. Troilus' story ends, as it began, in medias res with him and the remaining characters in his love-triangle remaining alive. Some seventy years after Shakespeare's Troilus was first presented, John Dryden re-worked it as a tragedy, in his view strengthening Troilus' character and indeed the whole play, by removing many of the unresolved threads in the plot and ambiguities in Shakespeare's portrayal of the protagonist as a believable youth rather than a clear-cut and thoroughly sympathetic hero. Dryden described this as "remov[ing] that heap of Rubbish, under which many excellent thoughts lay bury'd." His Troilus is less passive on stage about the hostage exchange, arguing with Hector over the handing over of Cressida, who remains faithful. Her scene with Diomedes that Troilus witnesses is her attempt "to deceive deceivers". She throws herself at her warring lovers' feet to protect Troilus and commits suicide to prove her loyalty. Unable to leave a still living Troilus on the stage, as Shakespeare did, Dryden restores his death at the hands of Achilles and the Myrmidons but only after Troilus has killed Diomedes. According to P. Boitani, Dryden goes to "the opposite extreme of Shakespeare's... solv[ing] all problems and therefore kill[ing] the tragedy". ## Modern versions After Dryden's Shakespeare, Troilus is almost invisible in literature until the 20th century. Keats does refer to Troilus and Cressida in the context of the "sovereign power of love" and Wordsworth translated some of Chaucer but, as a rule, love was portrayed in ways far different from how it is in the Troilus and Cressida story. Boitani sees the two World Wars and the 20th century's engagement "in the recovery of all sorts of past myths" as contributing to a rekindling of interest in Troilus as a human being destroyed by events beyond his control. Similarly Foakes sees the aftermath of one World War and the threat of a second as key elements for the successful revival of Shakespeare's Troilus in two productions in the first half of the 20th century, and one of the authors discussed below names Barbara Tuchman's The March of Folly: From Troy to Vietnam as the trigger for his wish to retell the Trojan war. Boitani discusses the modern use of the character of Troilus in a chapter entitled Eros and Thanatos. Love and death, the latter either as a tragedy in itself or as an epic symbol of Troy's own destruction, therefore, are the two core elements of the Troilus myth for the editor of the first book-length survey of it from ancient to modern times. He sees the character as incapable of transformation on a heroic scale in the manner of Ulysses and also blocked from the possibility of development as an archetypal figure of troubled youth by Hamlet. Troilus' appeal for the 20th and 21st century is his very humanity. Belief in the medieval tradition of the Trojan War that followed Dictys and Dares survived the Revival of Learning in the Renaissance and the advent of the first English translation of the Iliad in the form of Chapman's Homer. (Shakespeare used both Homer and Lefevre as sources for his Troilus.) However the two supposedly eye-witness accounts were finally discredited by Jacob Perizonius in the early years of the 18th century. With the chief source for his portrayal as one of the most active warriors of the Trojan War undermined, Troilus has become an optional character in modern Trojan fiction, except for those that retell the love story itself. Lindsay Clarke and Phillip Parotti, for example, omit Troilus altogether. Hilary Bailey includes a character of that name in Cassandra: Princess of Troy but little remains of the classical or medieval versions except that he fights Diomedes. However, some of the over sixty re-tellings of the Trojan War since 1916 do feature the character. ### Once more a man-boy One consequence of the reassessment of sources is the reappearance of Troilus in his ancient form of andropais. Troilus takes this form in Giraudoux's The Trojan War Will Not Take Place, his first successful reappearance in the 20th century. Troilus is a fifteen-year-old boy whom Helen has noticed following her around. After turning down the opportunity to kiss her when she offers and when confronted by Paris, he eventually accepts the kiss at the end of the play just as Troy has committed to war. He is thus a symbol of the whole city's fatal fascination with Helen. Troilus, in one of his ancient manifestations as a boy-soldier overwhelmed, reappears both in works Boitani discusses and those he does not. Christa Wolf in her Kassandra features a seventeen-year-old Troilus, first to die of all the sons of Priam. The novel's treatment of the character's death has features of both medieval and ancient versions. Troilus has just gained his first love, once more called Briseis. It is only after his death that she is to betray him. On the first day of the war, Achilles seeks Troilus out and forces him into battle with the help of the Myrmidons. Troilus tries to fight in the way he has been taught princes should do, but Achilles strikes the boy down and leaps on top of him, before attempting to throttle him. Troilus escapes and runs to the sanctuary of the temple of Apollo where he is helped to take his armour off. Then, in "some of the most powerful and hair-raising" words ever written on Troilus' death, Wolf describes how Achilles enters the temple, caresses then half-throttles the terrified boy, who lies on the altar, before finally beheading him like a sacrificial victim. After his death, the Trojan council propose that Troilus be officially declared to have been twenty in the hope of avoiding the prophecy about him but Priam, in his grief, refuses as this would insult his dead son further. In "exploring the violent underside of sexuality and the sexual underside of violence", Wolf revives a theme suggested by the ancient vases where an "erotic aura seems to pervade representations of a fully armed Achilles pursuing or butchering a naked, boyish Troilus". Colleen McCullough is another author who incorporates both the medieval Achilles' seeking Troilus out in battle and the ancient butchery at the altar. Her The Song of Troy includes two characters, Troilos and Ilios, who are Priam's youngest children – both with prophecies attached and both specifically named for the city's founders. They are eight and seven respectively when Paris leaves for Greece and somewhere in their late teens when killed. Troilos is made Priam's heir after Hector's death, against the boy's will. Odysseus's spies learn of the prophecy that Troy will not fall if Troilos comes of age. Achilles therefore seeks him out in the next battle and kills him with a spear-cast to his throat. In a reference to the medieval concept of Troilus as the second Hector, Automedon observes that "with a few more years added, he might have made another Hektor." Ilios is the last son of Priam to die, killed at the altar in front of his parents by Neoptolemos. Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Firebrand features an even younger Troilus, just twelve when he becomes Hector's charioteer. (His brother wants to keep a protective eye on him now he is ready for war.) Troilus helps kill Patroclus. Although he manages to escape the immediate aftermath of Hector's death, he is wounded. After the Trojans witness Achilles' treatment of Hector's body, Troilus insists on rejoining the battle despite his wounds and Hecuba's attempts to stop him. Achilles kills him with an arrow. The mourning Hecuba comments that he did not want to live because he blamed himself for Hector's death. ### Reinventing the love story A feature already present in the treatments of the love story by Chaucer, Henryson, Shakespeare and Dryden is the repeated reinvention of its conclusion. Boitani sees this as a continuing struggle by authors to find a satisfying resolution to the love triangle. The major difficulty is the emotional dissatisfaction resulting from how the tale, as originally invented by Benoît, is embedded into the pre-existing narrative of the Trojan War with its demands for the characters to meet their traditional fates. This narrative has Troilus, the sympathetic protagonist of the love story, killed by Achilles, a character totally disconnected from the love triangle, Diomedes survive to return to Greece victorious, and Cressida disappear from consideration as soon as it is known that she has fallen for the Greek. Modern authors continue to invent their own resolutions. William Walton's Troilus and Cressida is the best known and most successful of a clutch of 20th-century operas on the subject after the composers of previous eras had ignored the possibility of setting the story. Christopher Hassall's libretto blends elements of Chaucer and Shakespeare with inventions of its own arising from a wish to tighten and compress the plot, the desire to portray Cressida more sympathetically and the search for a satisfactory ending. Antenor is, as usual, exchanged for Cressida but, in this version of the tale, his capture has taken place while he was on a mission for Troilus. Cressida agrees to marry Diomedes after she has not heard from Troilus. His apparent silence, however, is because his letters to her have been intercepted. Troilus arrives at the Greek camp just before the planned wedding. When faced with her two lovers, Cressida chooses Troilus. He is then killed by Calchas with a knife in the back. Diomedes sends his body back to Priam with Calchas in chains. It is now the Greeks who condemn "false Cressida" and seek to keep her but she commits suicide. Before Cressida kills herself she sings to Troilus to This is one of three references in 20th century literature to Troilus on the banks of the River Styx that Boitani has identified. Louis MacNeice's long poem The Stygian Banks explicitly takes its name from Shakespeare who has Troilus compare himself to "a strange soul upon the Stygian banks" and call upon Pandarus to transport him "to those fields where I may wallow in the lily beds". In MacNeice's poem the flowers have become children, a paradoxical use of the traditionally sterile Troilus who The third reference to the Styx is in Christopher Morley's The Trojan Horse. A return to the romantic comedy of Chaucer is the solution that Boitani sees to the problem of how the love story can survive Shakespeare's handling of it. Morley gives us such a treatment in a book that revels in its anachronism. Young Lieutenant (soon to be Captain) Troilus lives his life in 1185 BC where he has carefully timetabled everything from praying, to fighting, to examining his own mistakes. He falls for Cressida after seeing her, as ever, in the Temple of Athena where she wears black, as if mourning the defection of her father, the economist Dr Calchas. The flow of the plot follows the traditional story, but the ending is changed once again. Troilus' discovery of Cressida's change of heart happens just before Troy falls. (Morley uses Boccaccio's version of the story of a brooch, or in this case a pin, attached to a piece of Diomedes' armour as the evidence that convinces the Trojan.) Troilus kills Diomedes as he exits the Trojan Horse, stabbing him in the throat where the captured piece of armour should have been. Then Achilles kills Troilus. The book ends with an epilogue. The Trojan and Greek officers exercise together by the River Styx, all enmities forgotten. A new arrival (Cressida) sees Troilus and Diomedes and wonders why they seem familiar to her. What Boitani calls "a rather dull, if pleasant, ataraxic eternity" replaces Chaucer's Christian version of the afterlife. In Eric Shanower's graphic novel Age of Bronze, currently still being serialised, Troilus is youthful but not the youngest son of Priam and Hecuba. In the first two collected volumes of this version of the Trojan War, Shanower provides a total of six pages of sources covering the story elements of his work alone. These include most of the fictional works discussed above from Guido and Boccaccio down to Morley and Walton. Shanower begins Troilus' love story with the youth making fun of Polyxena's love for Hector and in the process accidentally knocking aside Cressida's veil. He follows the latter into the temple of Athena to gawp at her. Pandarus is the widow Cressida's uncle encouraging him. Cressida rejects Troilus' initial advances not because of wanting to act in a seemly manner, as in Chaucer or Shakespeare, but because she thinks of him as just a boy. However, her uncle persuades her to encourage his affection, in the hope that being close to a son of Priam will protect against the hostility of the Trojans to the family of the traitor Calchas. Troilus' unrequited love is used as comic relief in an otherwise serious retelling of the Trojan War cycle. The character is portrayed as often indecisive and ineffectual as on the second page of this episode sample at the official site . It remains to be seen how Shanower will further develop the story. Troilus is rewarded a rare happy ending in the early Doctor Who story The Myth Makers. The script was written by Donald Cotton who had previously adapted Greek tales for the BBC Third Programme. The general tone is one of high comedy combined with a "genuine atmosphere of doom, danger and chaos" with the BBC website listing A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum as an inspiration together with Chaucer, Shakespeare, Homer and Virgil. Troilus is again an andropais "seventeen next birthday" described as "looking too young for the military garb". Both "Cressida" and "Diomede" are the assumed names of the Doctor's companions. Thus Troilus' jealousy of Diomede, whom he believes also loves Cressida, is down to confusion about the real situation. In the end "Cressida" decides to leave the Doctor for Troilus and saves the latter from the fall of Troy by finding an excuse to get him away from the city. In a reversal of the usual story, he is able to avenge Hector by killing Achilles: they meet outside Troy and the Greek hero, despite being more than a match for the young Trojan, catches his heel on some vegetation and stumbles. The story was originally intended to end more conventionally, with "Cressida", despite her love for him, apparently abandoning him for "Diomede", but the producers declined to renew co-star Maureen O'Brien's contract, requiring that her character Vicki be written out. ## See also - List of children of Priam ## Annotated bibliography - Andrew, M. (1989) "The Fall of Troy in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Troilus and Criseyde ", in: Boitani (1989: pp. 75–93). Focuses on a comparison between how the Gawain poet and Chaucer handle their themes. - Antonelli, R. (1989) "The Birth of Criseyde: an exemplary triangle; 'Classical' Troilus and the question of love at the Anglo-Norman court", in: Boitani (1989: pp. 21–48). Examination of Benoît's and Guido's treatment of the love triangle. - Benson, C. D. (1980) The History of Troy in Middle English Literature, Woodbridge: D. S. Brewer. A study examining Guido's influence on writers on Troy up to Lydgate and Henryson. Troilus is discussed throughout. - Benson, C. D. (1989) "True Troilus and False Cresseid: the descent from tragedy" in Boitani (1989: pp. 153–170). Examination of the Troilus and Cressida story in the minor authors between Chaucer and Shakespeare. - Boitani, P. (ed.) (1989) The European Tragedy of Troilus, Oxford, Clarendon Press . This was the first full book to examine the development of Troilus through the ages. The outer chapters are by Boitani reviewing the history of Troilus as a character from ancient to modern times. The middle chapters, looking at the tale through the medieval and renaissance periods, are by other authors with several examining Chaucer and Shakespeare. - Burgess, J. S. (2001) The Tradition of the Trojan War in Homer and the Epic Cycle, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press . Examination of the Trojan War in archaic literary and artifact sources. Troilus mentioned in passing. - Carpenter, T. H. (1991) Art and Myth in Ancient Greece, London, Thames and Hudson. Contains roughly four pages (17–21) of text and, separately, fourteen illustrations (figs. 20–22, 25–35) on Troilos in ancient art. . - Coghill, N. (ed.) (1971: pp. xi–xxvi) "Introduction" in: Geoffrey Chaucer, Troilus and Criseyde, London: Penguin . Discusses Chaucer, his sources and key themes in the Troilus. The main body of the book is a translation into modern English by Coghill. - Foakes, R. A. (ed.) (1987) Troilus and Cressida (The New Penguin Shakespeare.) London: Penguin . Annotated edition with introduction. - Frazer, R. M. (trans.) (1966) The Trojan War: the Chronicles of Dictys of Crete and Dares the Phrygian. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. English translation of Dictys' Ephemeridos belli Trojani (pp. 17–130) and Dares' De excidio Trojae historia (pp. 131–68) with Introduction (pp. 3–15) covering the theme of Troy in medieval literature and endnotes. - Gantz, T. (1993) Early Greek Myth. Baltimore: Johns Hopklins U. P. A standard sourcebook on Greek myths. Multiple versions available. There are approximately six pages (597–603) plus notes discussing Troilos in Volume 2 of the two volume edition. Page references are to the two volume 1996 Johns Hopkins Paperbacks edition (). - Gordon, R. K. (1934) The Story of Troilus. London: J. M. Dent. (Dutton Paperback ed. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1964.) This book has been reprinted by various publishers. It contains a translated selection from Le Roman de Troie, a full translation of Il filostrato and the unmodernised texts of Troilus and Criseyde and The Testament of Cresseid. Page references are to the 1995 printing by University of Toronto Press and the Medieval Academy of America (). - Graves, R. (1955) The Greek Myths. Another standard sourcebook available in many editions. Troilus is discussed in Volume 2 of the two volume version. Page references are to the 1990 Penguin printing of the 1960 revision (). - Lewis, C. S. (1936) The Allegory of Love. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Influential work on the literature of courtly love, including Chaucer's Troilus. - Lombardo, A. (1989) "Fragments and Scraps: Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida" in Boitani (1989: pp. 199–217). Sets the cynical tone of Troilus in the context of changes both in the world and the theatre. - Lyder, T. D. (2010) "Chaucer's second Hector: the triumphs of Diomede and the possibility of epic in Troilus and Criseyde. (Critical essay)", Medium Aevum, March 22, 2010, Accessed through Highbeam, August 30, 2012 (subscription required). - March, J. (1998) Dictionary of Classical Mythology. London: Cassell. Illustrated dictionary with Troilus covered in one page. Page references are to 1998 hardback edition. - Natali, G. (1989) "A Lyrical Version: Boccaccio's Filostrato", in: Boitani (1989: pp. 49–73). An examination of the Filostrato in context. - Novak, M. E (ed.) (1984) The Works of John Dryden: Volume XIII Plays: All for Love; Oedipus; Troilus and Cressida. Berkeley: University of California Press . Volume in complete edition with annotated texts and commentaries. - Oates, J. O. (1966/7) "The Tragedy of Existence: Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida" by Joyce Carol Oates. Originally published as two separate essays, in Philological Quarterly, Spring 1967, and Shakespeare Quarterly, Spring 1966. Available online at (Checked 17 August 2007). - Palmer, K. (ed.) (1982) Troilus and Cressida. (The Arden Shakespeare.) London: Methuen. Edition of the play as part of respected series, with extensive notes, appendices and 93 page introduction. References are to 1997 printing by Thomas Nelson & Sons, London (). - Rufini, S. (1989) "'To Make that Maxim Good': Dryden's Shakespeare", in: Boitani (1989: pp. 243–80). Discussion of Dryden's remodeling of Troilus. - Sommer, H. O. (ed.) (1894) The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye: written in French by Raoul Lefèvre; translated and printed by William Caxton (about A.D. 1474); the first English printed book, now faithfully reproduced, with a critical introduction, index and glossary and eight pages in photographic facsimile. London: David Nutt. Edition of Caxton translation of Lefevre with introduction of 157 pages. Page references are to AMS Press 1973 reprinting (). - Sommerstein, A. H., Fitzpatrick, D. & Talby, T. (2007) Sophocles: Selected Fragmentary Plays. Oxford: Aris and Phillips (). This is a product of the University of Nottingham's project on Sophocles' fragmentary plays. The book contains a 52-page chapter (pp. 196–247) on the Troilos, including the Greek text with translation and commentary of the few words and phrases known to come from the play. The introduction to this chapter includes approximately seven pages on the literary and artistic background on Troilus plus discussion and a putative reconstruction of the plot of the play itself. This, the chapter on the Polyxene, where Troilus is also discussed, and the general introduction to the book are all solely by Sommerstein and therefore he alone is referenced above. - Torti, A. (1989) "From 'History' to 'Tragedy': The Story of Troilus and Criseyde in Lydgate's Troy Book and Henryson's Testament of Cresseid", in: Boitani (1989: pp. 171–97). Examination of the two most important authors considering the love story between Chaucer and Shakespeare. - Windeatt, B. (1989) "Classical and Medieval Elements in Chaucer's Troilus", in: Boitani (1989: p. 111–131) - Woodford, S. (1993) The Trojan War in Ancient Art''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press . Contains approximately four illustrated pages (55–59) on Troilos in ancient art. [^1]: Dares, De excidio Trojae Historia, 12.
344,298	Emile Heskey	1,171,853,954	English association football player	[ "1978 births", "2002 FIFA World Cup players", "2010 FIFA World Cup players", "A-League Men players", "Association football coaches", "Aston Villa F.C. players", "Birmingham City F.C. players", "Black British sportsmen", "Bolton Wanderers F.C. players", "England men's B international footballers", "England men's international footballers", "England men's under-21 international footballers", "England men's youth international footballers", "English Football League players", "English expatriate men's footballers", "English expatriate sportspeople in Australia", "English football managers", "English men's footballers", "English sportspeople of Antigua and Barbuda descent", "Expatriate men's soccer players in Australia", "Footballers from Leicester", "Leicester City F.C. players", "Leicester City W.F.C. managers", "Liverpool F.C. players", "Living people", "Marquee players (A-League Men)", "Men's association football forwards", "Newcastle Jets FC players", "Premier League players", "UEFA Cup winning players", "UEFA Euro 2000 players", "UEFA Euro 2004 players", "Wigan Athletic F.C. players" ]	Emile William Ivanhoe Heskey (born 11 January 1978) is an English former professional footballer who currently serves as head of football development of Leicester City Women. Playing as a striker, he made more than 500 appearances in the Football League and Premier League over an 18-year career, and represented England in international football. He also had a spell in Australia, playing for the A-League club Newcastle Jets. Born in Leicester, Heskey started his career with Leicester City after progressing through their youth system, making his first-team debut in 1995. After winning the League Cup in 1997 and 2000 he made an £11 million move to Liverpool in 2000, which, at the time, was the record transfer fee paid by the club. At Liverpool, he won multiple honours, including the FA Cup in 2001. He moved to Birmingham City in 2004 and after their relegation from the Premier League signed for Wigan Athletic for a club record £5.5 million fee in 2006. He signed for Aston Villa in 2009 and was released in 2012 before signing for A-League club Newcastle Jets. After two years, he returned to England, finishing his career with Championship club Bolton Wanderers. Heskey was an England international at under-16, under-18, under-21, B and senior levels. He made his England debut against Hungary in a 1–1 draw in 1999. He lost his place in the squad after UEFA Euro 2004, during which he failed to shine and was the subject of much criticism. After a long lay-off from international duty, Heskey was recalled to the England squad for UEFA Euro 2008 qualifiers in September 2007. In England and Liverpool, Heskey formed a successful strike partnership with Michael Owen. He retired from international football following the 2010 FIFA World Cup, having attained 62 caps and scored 7 goals for his country. In 2021, Heskey was announced as the head of women's football development at Leicester City Women. ## Early life Heskey was born in Leicester, Leicestershire, to a family of Antiguan descent, and his father, Tyrone Heskey, ran the security of nightclubs in Leicester. He attended City of Leicester School, Evington. ## Club career ### Leicester City Heskey was a keen footballer in his childhood and played for Ratby Groby Juniors, a local youth team in Leicester. He stood out amongst his peers and at the age of nine accepted a place at Leicester City's football academy. Progressing through their youth system, he made his first-team debut at the age of 17 while still a first-year trainee in a Premier League match against Queens Park Rangers on 8 March 1995. Leicester were relegated to the First Division following the end of the 1994–95 season and he signed his first professional contract with the club on 3 October 1995. He became a first-team regular in the 1995–96 season, making 30 league appearances. During this season, Heskey scored his first goal, which came in a 1–0 victory over Norwich City, in a season he managed to score seven goals. He helped Leicester earn promotion back to the Premier League, starting in the 1996 First Division play-off final on 27 May as they beat Crystal Palace 2–1. During the 1996–97 season, his first in the Premier League, Heskey scored 10 goals in 35 appearances, and scored the equaliser in the 1997 League Cup Final against Middlesbrough, which Leicester won in a replay. Heskey was runner-up to David Beckham for the PFA Young Player of the Year award. The following season saw interest from Leeds United and Tottenham Hotspur for Heskey, as he again scored 10 Premier League goals, making him Leicester's top scorer that season. However, the 1998–99 season saw Heskey score only six top-flight goals, and he was criticised for not scoring enough goals and going to ground too easily. During this season however, he forged an effective strike partnership with Tony Cottee, who benefited from Heskey's unselfish style of play, which manager Martin O'Neill claimed kept the club in the Premier League. Heskey started for Leicester in the 1999 League Cup Final on 21 March, in which they were beaten 1–0 by Tottenham Hotspur. He went on to win the League Cup again with a 2–1 win against Tranmere Rovers in the 2000 final on 27 February. ### Liverpool Heskey signed for Liverpool on 10 March 2000 in a long-anticipated £11 million move, which, at the time, set the record transfer fee paid by the Merseyside club. Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier looked forward to working with him, but stated that "at his age he is not the finished product". The press saw the move as expensive and risky as Heskey was relatively inexperienced and was not a prolific goalscorer. However, he was held in high regard by both the England under-21 manager, Peter Taylor, and England and Liverpool teammate Michael Owen. Veteran Liverpool striker Ian Rush approved of the signing, noting that Heskey would "give Liverpool a different dimension", bringing strength to the Liverpool strikeforce and complementing Owen and Robbie Fowler's pacey play. Heskey made his debut in an Premier League clash with Sunderland on 11 March 2000 and scored his first goal in a 3–0 victory over Coventry City on 1 April. He finished the 1999–2000 season with 12 appearances and 3 goals for Liverpool. He started in the 2001 League Cup Final on 25 February, in which Liverpool beat Birmingham City 5–4 on penalties after a 1–1 extra-time draw. He played in the 2001 FA Cup Final on 12 May 2001, starting ahead of Fowler, which Liverpool won 2–1 against Arsenal. Four days later, Heskey started in the 2001 UEFA Cup Final, in which Liverpool beat Deportivo Alavés 5–4 after extra time. In the 2000–01 season, Heskey scored 22 goals for Liverpool as the club won the FA Cup, League Cup and UEFA Cup treble. He started for Liverpool in the 2001 FA Charity Shield on 12 August, in which they beat Manchester United 2–1. He scored Liverpool's second goal when they beat Bayern Munich 3–2 in the 2001 UEFA Super Cup on 24 August. Heskey started for Liverpool in their 2–1 defeat to Arsenal in the 2002 FA Community Shield on 11 August 2002. He was linked with a £12 million move to Tottenham Hotspur in December 2002, but Houllier insisted he was a part of his long-term plans and he remained at Liverpool. The same year, Heskey made a six-figure donation to aid a consortium led by Gary Lineker in their bid to buy-out his former club, Leicester City, who were experiencing financial difficulties. He started in Liverpool's 2–0 win over Manchester United in the 2003 League Cup Final on 2 March. The 2002–03 season saw him score 9 goals in 51 appearances for Liverpool and received criticism for his low goal to game ratio, with Houllier claiming that his future at the club was safe. He picked up a hamstring injury during a match against Newcastle United in January 2004, which ruled him out of action for three weeks. In the 2003–04 season, Heskey faced increasing competition from Milan Baroš for a place in the Liverpool starting line-up. He regained his place in the team after an injury ruled Baroš out for months and finished the season with 12 goals. ### Birmingham City At the end of the 2003–04 season, Heskey signed for Birmingham City on 18 May 2004 on a five-year contract for an initial £3.5 million fee, which could have risen to £6.25 million, and would thus have become Birmingham's most expensive player. He suffered an ankle injury during a pre-season friendly against CA Osasuna, which put his Premier League debut against Portsmouth in doubt. He was eventually able to play against Portsmouth on 14 August, and the match ended as a 1–1 draw. His first goal came with a header in the eighth minute against Manchester City, which was enough to earn a 1–0 victory on 24 August. Despite Birmingham's mediocre 2004–05 season, Heskey was named as the club's Player of the Season, Player's Player of the Season, finished as top goalscorer with 11 goals and won most man of the match awards. He suffered from an ankle injury against Blackburn Rovers on 19 April 2006, and after passing a late fitness test, played in a 0–0 draw against Everton on 22 April. Birmingham's 2005–06 season, during which Heskey scored only four goals in 34 league appearances, culminated in relegation to the Championship. During this season, Heskey gave inconsistent performances and received abuse from Birmingham fans. Birmingham managing director Karren Brady stated that Birmingham's relegation meant that the last £1.5 million of the maximum £6.25 million fee for signing Heskey from Liverpool would not be payable. ### Wigan Athletic Heskey was signed by Premier League club Wigan Athletic on 7 July 2006 for a £5.5 million fee. He made his debut against Newcastle United on 19 August 2006, which his new team lost 2–1. On his 500th league appearance, Heskey scored his first goal for Wigan in a 1–0 Premier League victory over Reading on 26 August. He scored 8 goals in 36 appearances in the 2006–07 season, as Wigan avoided relegation on goal difference over Sheffield United, against whom Heskey played well on 13 May 2007, in a match he nearly scored a bicycle kick. Heskey suffered a suspected broken metatarsal in September 2007, and made his return for Wigan in a 2–0 defeat to Arsenal in November. He picked up an ankle injury during Wigan's 5–3 victory against Blackburn in December 2007. On 14 April 2008, Heskey scored a 90th minute equalising goal against Chelsea, which damaged their hopes of winning the Premier League. He went on to score Wigan's equaliser against Tottenham Hotspur in the following match to give them a 1–1 draw, which proved to be his last goal of the 2007–08 season, which he finished with 4 goals in 30 appearances. His first goal of the 2008–09 season came in Wigan's fourth match, a 5–0 victory against Hull City at the KC Stadium. He hinted in October 2008 that he would be interested in leaving Wigan to play in the Champions League, although Wigan manager Steve Bruce hoped to persuade him to sign a new contract at the club. Heskey commented on reports of interest from Liverpool by saying "It would be lovely. We'll see how it goes." He scored his 100th goal in the Premier League against Portsmouth on 1 November 2008, which secured a 2–1 victory for Wigan. Dave Whelan, the Wigan chairman, hinted that Heskey could be transferred by Wigan in January 2009, as a fee would be received, whereas he would move on for free in the summer, which came after he had stalled on talks over a new contract. However, Bruce said he would only accept an offer for Heskey if it was "outrageous". He later said he was confident of keeping Heskey at the club. Heskey picked up a hamstring injury during a match against Bolton Wanderers in December 2008, which resulted in him missing an FA Cup third round tie against Tottenham Hotspur. He later said he would stay at Wigan and see out his contract until the summer of 2009. ### Aston Villa Heskey signed for Aston Villa on 23 January 2009 for a £3.5 million fee on a three-and-a-half-year contract. He made his debut four days later against Portsmouth and scored with a shot from 20 yards, the first time he had scored on a club debut. He scored one more goal before the end of the season, with the opening goal in a 1–1 draw with West Ham United. He finished the 2008–09 season with 14 appearances and 2 goals for Villa. He suffered from concussion after minutes into a Peace Cup pre-season friendly match against Málaga in July 2009. Heskey was reported to have said he was considering leaving Villa during the January 2010 transfer window, to help ensure he would be chosen for the England team at the 2010 FIFA World Cup, to which manager Martin O'Neill responded by saying "There are players at this club with England ambitions. I wouldn't be overly concerned about all that yet." However, Heskey later denied he was seeking to leave Villa. O'Neill told him to "build up a head of steam" in February 2010, saying he was concerned that Heskey's injuries were denying him from producing his best form. He started for Villa in the 2010 League Cup Final, in which they lost 2–1 to Manchester United. Heskey finished the 2009–10 season with 42 appearances and 5 goals. His first appearance of the 2010–11 season came after starting in a 1–1 draw at Rapid Vienna in the Europa League play-off first leg. Under Gérard Houllier, who previously managed Heskey at Liverpool, the striker enjoyed a successful start to the 2010–11 campaign including winning goals in the local derbies with Wolverhampton Wanderers and West Bromwich Albion. On 7 May 2011, in Aston Villa's home match against Wigan, Heskey barged into referee Mike Jones and continued to argue with him because he did not award a free kick for an alleged elbow by Antolín Alcaraz. Heskey received a yellow card for his behaviour and had to be restrained by teammates such as Brad Friedel and captain Stiliyan Petrov. He played for the remainder of the half, but had to be restrained again in the tunnel at the interval. Caretaker manager Gary McAllister chose to substitute him for Marc Albrighton at half-time, and Heskey was not allowed to remain at the stadium for the rest of the match. Despite his outburst, Heskey received no punishment from either Villa or The Football Association. Teammate Luke Young later said that Heskey was "lucky he didn't get sent off". Heskey remained with Villa for one more season, in which he scored just once, in an August 2011 win over Blackburn. He was released in May 2012 after being told he would not be offered a new contract. ### Newcastle Jets Heskey signed for Australian A-League club Newcastle Jets on 21 September 2012 as their marquee player for the 2012–13 season. He made his debut in the Jets' 2–0 home defeat to Adelaide United, in which he was substituted in the 72nd minute for James Virgili. Heskey scored his first A-League goal in a 3–2 away win against Sydney FC on 13 October 2012. In five starts, Heskey put his goal tally up to five, with his goal against Sydney FC, followed by one goal against F3 Derby rivals the Central Coast Mariners, two goals against Melbourne Victory on 26 October and one goal against the Western Sydney Wanderers, which took him to joint top scorer of the league. The match against Melbourne featured "Heskey Cam", which allowed the viewer to track Heskey's movements with one camera throughout the match. Having finished 2012–13 with 9 goals in 23 appearances and earning a nomination for the Jets' Player of the Year award, Heskey signed a new contract for the 2013–14 season in April 2013. After scoring once in 19 appearances in the 2013–14 season, Heskey left the Jets to pursue a move to an English club. ### Bolton Wanderers After a successful trial Heskey signed for Championship club Bolton Wanderers on a short-term contract on 24 December 2014. He made his debut two days later as a half-time substitute for Robert Hall with Bolton 1–0 down at home to Blackburn, but after scoring the equalising goal in the 59th minute Bolton went on to win 2–1. His goal was set up by another 36-year-old forward who the club had signed that month, Eiður Guðjohnsen. Heskey was released by Bolton when his contract expired at the end of 2015–16 season. He subsequently retired from playing. ## Post-playing career Heskey joined Cheshire League One club Egerton in 2017 as a coach, alongside Jlloyd Samuel, Jim Cherneski and Dean Gorré. In May 2020 Heskey revealed that he was on a UEFA Management course and was looking to take up an internship with Leicester City's women's side as part of it. In September, he was appointed to an ambassadorial and mentoring role with Leicester City Women as they worked towards professional status, and tasked with supporting the club's head of women's football, Russ Fraser, with developing the academy. Fraser left a year later, and Heskey succeeded him as head of women's football development. Leicester Women's manager, Jonathan Morgan, was sacked on 25 November 2021 after the team began the 2021–22 FA WSL season with eight successive losses, and Heskey took over the role on an interim basis. Five days later, it was announced that Lydia Bedford would succeed Morgan as manager, but Heskey was allowed to prepare for the team's upcoming League Cup tie against Manchester United. His sole match in charge was won on penalties, following a 2–2 draw in regular time. On 18 August 2023, Heskey was appointed as a coach supporting the England U18s ahead of the 2023 FIFA U-17 World Cup as part of The Football Association and Professional Footballers' Association's joint England Elite Coach Programme (EECP). ## International career ### Youth level Heskey gained his first international recognition with the England national under-16 team, making his debut on 26 April 1994 as a substitute in 1–0 win over Portugal in their opening match at the 1994 UEFA European Under-16 Championship. His first start came two days later as England drew 1–1 with the Republic of Ireland. All four of Heskey's under-16 caps came at this tournament, in which England were eliminated in the quarter-final by Ukraine, losing 7–6 on penalties after a 2–2 extra-time draw. Heskey made his debut for under-18s on 16 November 1995 when starting against Latvia in 1996 UEFA European Under-18 Championship qualification, scoring both goals in a 2–0 win in the second and 58th minutes. He played in all four matches for the team at the 1996 UEFA European Under-18 Championship, scoring in the 18th minute of the third-place match against Belgium as England won 3–2 after extra time. He finished his under-18 career with eight appearances and five goals. Heskey went on to gain recognition with the under-21 team, making his debut after starting in a 0–0 draw with Poland on 8 October 1996; a year later on 30 May 1997, he scored against the same team in a 1–1 stalemate. Making his final appearance on 29 March 2000 in a 3–0 victory over FR Yugoslavia in a 2000 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualification play-off, he finished his under-21 career with 17 caps, in which he scored six goals. He was capped once by the England B team, against Chile on 10 February 1998, scoring a 90th-minute goal in a 2–1 defeat. ### Senior level Heskey was given his first call-up to the senior England team for a friendly against the Czech Republic on 18 November 1998, but did not play. He made his debut in a friendly against Hungary in Budapest in a 1–1 draw on 28 April 1999 and made his first start against Argentina at Wembley Stadium on 23 February 2000. That showing ensured he was in the England squad for UEFA Euro 2000. However, his two substitute performances in the tournament could not help England, as the team were eliminated in the group stage. #### 2002 FIFA World Cup In September 2001, Heskey scored to "make it five" in England's 5–1 win away in Germany in a qualifying match for the 2002 FIFA World Cup. This was accompanied by his DJ goal celebration, a celebration he popularised. Heskey was selected in the squad for the 2002 FIFA World Cup in South Korea and Japan, and was used as a makeshift option to play in England's left-wing role in the match against Sweden, but did not perform well out of his regular position. He scored against Denmark in England's 3–0 victory, which saw England reach the quarter-finals of the tournament. He featured in the match where England were beaten 2–1 by the eventual champions Brazil. #### UEFA Euro 2004 He and teammate Ashley Cole received abuse from some Slovakia supporters when England played them in a Euro 2004 qualifier in October 2002, which led to UEFA opening an investigation into the allegations. Slovakia were eventually forced to play their next home international behind closed doors. Heskey's place in the England squad had been placed under scrutiny in 2003 with the emergence of Wayne Rooney into the England squad. However, despite being criticised for his lack of international goals, he continued to be an integral part of the international squad and took over the captaincy from Michael Owen after he was substituted when England beat Serbia and Montenegro 2–1 in his hometown of Leicester in June 2003. Heskey was named in the England squad for UEFA Euro 2004, but failed to perform well, and was the subject of much criticism. He came on as a substitute while England were leading 1–0 against France and fouled Claude Makélélé on the edge of the penalty area, giving away a free kick from which France equalised. England eventually lost 2–1. #### 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification Heskey was recalled into the England squad for the 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifiers against Northern Ireland and Azerbaijan in 2005, after having been dropped following the match against Ukraine in August 2004. Since the emergence of Peter Crouch in the England squad, the possibility of a recall receded further. #### UEFA Euro 2008 qualification Heskey's international appearances under manager Steve McClaren were limited, although he was recalled to the England squad in September 2007 for the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifiers as cover for the injured Rooney against Israel and Russia, on the recommendation of Michael Owen, after stating that he wanted to play alongside Heskey. He started the match against Israel and played an important role in the England attack, and by featuring he became the first England player to be capped for England whilst playing for Wigan Athletic. Heskey also started the next match against Russia, fighting off competition from Peter Crouch for a place in the team, during which he created an assist for Owen's second goal. He was widely praised for his performances in the two matches, with former England international Alan Shearer commenting, "Never in a million years did I expect to be discussing whether Emile Heskey should keep his place ahead of Wayne Rooney but the Wigan striker was outstanding over both matches." #### 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification Heskey was called into manager Fabio Capello's first squad against Switzerland, but had to withdraw due to an injury. He was called into the squad for a friendly against the Czech Republic in August 2008 and came on as a 46th-minute substitute, in a match that finished 2–2. He featured in the following 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification victories against Andorra and Croatia. Heskey was alleged to have been racially abused during the match against Croatia, with monkey chants being heard from sections of the Croatia support, after which FIFA opened an investigation, and eventually fined the Croatian Football Federation £15,000 for the incident. He played his 50th match for England in the 2010 World Cup qualifier against Belarus on 15 October 2008, after which he was credited as helping Wayne Rooney's improved form in international matches, with the two forming an effective strike partnership and keeping Owen out of the team. He started in a friendly against Spain in February 2009, which drew an angry reaction by Villa manager Martin O'Neill, who wanted to know why Capello played Heskey after suffering from an injury. Heskey scored his first goal for England in six years against Slovakia, scoring England's first in a 4–0 victory at Wembley Stadium. He picked up a hamstring injury during this match, which forced him into withdrawing from the squad. He scored in a 4–0 victory over Kazakhstan in a 2010 World Cup qualifier in June 2009, which was his first competitive goal for England in seven years. #### 2010 FIFA World Cup Heskey was named in England's preliminary 30-man squad for the 2010 World Cup on 11 May 2010 and was eventually chosen for the final 23-man squad on 1 June. Heskey injured England captain Rio Ferdinand during a training session on 4 June, which ruled Ferdinand out of the tournament. He started in England's opening match, a 1–1 draw with the United States and assisted Steven Gerrard's goal. Heskey retired from international football on 15 July 2010, at the age of 32, having scored 7 goals in 62 appearances for England. ## Style of play Heskey played as a striker, being a mobile yet powerful targetman, gifted with pace, physical strength, and an ability to utilise his height to win aerial challenges; he was also an intelligent and hard working player, known for his movement and athleticism. His play was likened to "a blunt instrument with which to bludgeon defences". His main contributions to the team lied in the way he held the ball up with his back to goal and drew defenders out, leaving space behind him for another player to score. He was credited as being an unselfish player who would link-up well with other players and create space or chances for teammates, allowing other forwards to benefit. He was not a prolific goalscorer, or particularly graceful or skilful from a technical standpoint, but was able to provide a significant number of assists when deployed as a second striker in an attacking partnership alongside another striker. He was quoted as saying "Forwards are judged on their goalscoring but I like to think I bring a lot more to the game and I do get pleasure from assisting". He impressed the England staff with his versatility, as he could also play down the left wing, in addition to his usual role as an out–and–out striker; he also drew praise from managers and teammates over his selfless team-play. However, he was criticised by the media for his lack of goals and perceived poor mentality; lapses in his goalscoring were described as being "hardly uncommon". It was stated in 2008 that "It is only the perception of his talents that changes" after Heskey stated he was no better or worse than before. Although primarily a forward, he was also used in a more withdrawn role on occasion during his time with Aston Villa, functioning as an attacking midfielder, whose role was to link-up the midfield with the attack, or even as a central midfielder. ## Personal life Heskey was the partner of Kylee Pinsent but left her in 2004 and married Chantelle (née Tagoe) in May 2014 at Rookery Hall, Cheshire. He started seeing Tagoe secretly in 2002, who worked part-time as a waitress at a lap-dancing bar in Liverpool, while still in a relationship with Pinsent. Following the revelation of his two-year affair with Tagoe, Pinsent broke up with Heskey. He is the father of six children, three of them with former partner Pinsent and three with Tagoe. His fiancée Tagoe was held at knifepoint at their home in Hale, Greater Manchester in July 2008, while he was at a training session. The thieves burgled the house and stole Heskey's car but neither Tagoe, nor their two (at the time) children who were in the house, were hurt. Following this, he said Tagoe was "very, very distressed" by the incident. In 2009, he was rated as owning a personal fortune of £12 million. Heskey and other members of the England team supported the Shoe Aid for Africa campaign in 2009, which was aimed at helping underprivileged children in Africa. Heskey's son Jaden is a youth team player for Manchester City. On 19 March 2023, he scored in City EDS' 6-0 win over Manchester United. ## Career statistics ### Club ### International Source: England score listed first, score column indicates score after each Heskey goal. ## Honours Leicester City - Football League Cup: 1996–97, 1999–2000; runner-up: 1998–99 - Football League First Division play-offs: 1996 Liverpool - FA Cup: 2000–01 - Football League Cup: 2000–01, 2002–03 - FA Charity Shield: 2001; runner-up 2002 - UEFA Cup: 2000–01 - UEFA Super Cup: 2001 Aston Villa - Football League Cup runner-up: 2009–10 Individual - Birmingham City Player of the Season: 2004–05 - Birmingham City Players' Player of the Season: 2004–05
43,359,486	The Boat Race 1982	1,013,239,576	128th boat race between Oxford and Cambridge universities in England	[ "1982 in English sport", "1982 in rowing", "1982 sports events in London", "March 1982 sports events in the United Kingdom", "The Boat Race" ]	The 128th Boat Race took place on 27 March 1982. Held annually, the Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. Oxford won by 3+1⁄4 lengths, securing their seventh consecutive victory. Their number five, Boris Rankov, won a record fifth Boat Race as a rower, and Oxford's Clay brothers became the first twins to win the event. In the reserve race, Oxford's Isis beat Cambridge's Goldie by 1+1⁄4 lengths, and in the Women's Boat Race, Cambridge were victorious. ## Background The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). First held in 1829, the race takes place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide. Oxford went into the race as reigning champions, having beaten Cambridge by eight lengths in the previous year's race. However Cambridge held the overall lead, with 68 victories to Oxford's 58 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877). The first Women's Boat Race took place in 1927, but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s. Up until 2014, the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races, but as of the 2015 race, it is held on the River Thames, on the same day as the men's main and reserve races. The reserve race, contested between Oxford's Isis boat and Cambridge's Goldie boat has been held since 1965. It usually takes place on the Tideway, prior to the main Boat Race. During the pre-race preparations, the Cambridge crew struck a floating railway sleeper near Chiswick Eyot, damaging their boat, which needed repair before the race. Oxford's crew suffered illness in the days leading up the race, in particular the president Nick Conington who was moved from stroke to bow to reduce the chances of a possible recurrence of glandular fever. ## Crews The Oxford crew weighed an average of just below 14 st (88.7 kg) per rower, and had a 10 pounds (4.5 kg) per man advantage over Cambridge. Oxford saw four former Blues return, including the first female cox in Sue Brown. Cambridge's crew contained a single Blue in boat club president Roger Stephens. Despite retiring from rowing, Boris Rankov, a junior fellow at St Hugh's was persuaded back into the crew by the Oxford boat club president Nick Conington. Rankov was rowing in his fifth consecutive Boat Race, alongside Steve Foster whom he supervised in classics. Oxford's crew also contained the Clay twins, Robert and Hugh. ## Race River conditions were calm: Jim Railton of The Times described the course as "a smooth and flat Queen's highway from Putney to Mortlake." Michael Muir-Smith was the umpire for the race, for which Oxford were "heavily favoured". They won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station. A good start from the Light Blues saw them a length ahead by Craven Cottage and passing the Mile Post one second ahead of Oxford. From Harrods Furniture Depository, Oxford fought their way back into contention with cox Brown forcing her counterpart Bernstein to steer towards the centre of the river. Both crews shot Hammersmith Bridge a second apart, with Oxford quickly gaining a length's lead and a clear water advantage. Cambridge were nine seconds down by Chiswick Steps and a further second behind at Barnes Bridge. Oxford passed the finishing post eleven seconds and 3+1⁄4 lengths ahead of Cambridge, in a time of 18 minutes 21 seconds, to record their seventh consecutive victory. In the reserve race, Isis beat Goldie by 1+1⁄4 lengths and five seconds in a time of 18 minutes 43 seconds to record their third consecutive victory. In the 37th running of the Women's Boat Race, Cambridge triumphed, their first win in three years. ## Reaction Rankov, who became the first rower to win five consecutive Boat Races (C. R. W. Tottenham had won five as a cox in the 1860s), admitted, "The beginning was all right. We expected them to be up on us before Hammersmith. But the burn we did there was exhausting. It was really hard just to keep in front for the rest of the way." Defeated Cambridge cox Bernstein said, "I can't wait to get back at them next year", while his stroke Simon Harris stated, "we will have six of this crew left next year. That's a good base". The Clays became the first twins to win a Boat Race.
2,907,099	California State Route 198	1,171,613,625	Highway in California	[ "Freeways in California", "Roads in Fresno County, California", "Roads in Kings County, California", "Roads in Monterey County, California", "Roads in Tulare County, California", "State highways in California", "Streets in Visalia, California", "Transportation in Visalia, California", "U.S. Route 99" ]	State Route 198 (SR 198) is an east–west state highway in the U.S. state of California that runs from U.S. Route 101 (US 101) south of King City to Sequoia National Park. It connects the California Central Coast to the mid–Central Valley through Hanford and Visalia, although the most developed portion is in the Central Valley itself. SR 198 intersects the major north–south routes in the Central Valley, including Interstate 5 (I-5), SR 33, and SR 99. The highway that would become SR 198 was approved for construction in the 1910s through three bond issues, and was added to the state highway system in 1934. Parts of the highway were upgraded to freeway during the 1960s. Another portion was converted to an expressway in between Hanford and Visalia, and was completed in late 2012. ## Route description The road begins at a remote interchange with US 101 south of King City in the Salinas River Valley. Leaving US 101, SR 198 passes through the Priest Valley, climbs the Diablo Range as a two-lane road and crosses over an unnamed pass. It then descends along Warthan Canyon to the town of Coalinga in the agricultural Central Valley, where it briefly runs concurrently with SR 33. On both sides of Coalinga the road passes through the enormous Coalinga Oil Field. SR 198 then intersects Interstate 5 (I-5) in Fresno County near the Harris Ranch Airport before becoming a freeway west of Lemoore. The landscape becomes a bit less rural as it goes through Hanford and passes near the Hanford Municipal Airport, where it continues as a four-lane expressway from the intersection with SR 43 until SR 198 encounters a freeway-to-freeway interchange with SR 99 as it enters Visalia, the largest city it passes through, and goes by the Visalia Municipal Airport. It remains a freeway until east of Visalia, intersecting SR 65 and passing by College of the Sequoias. SR 198 starts to climb the forested Sierra Nevada and ends at the Sequoia National Park boundary, near Lake Kaweah, where the road continues through the park as the Generals Highway. This is one of the main routes providing access to Sequoia National Park, the other being SR 180 to the north. SR 198 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System, and east of I-5 is part of the National Highway System, a network of highways that are considered essential to the country's economy, defense, and mobility by the Federal Highway Administration. SR 198 is eligible to be included in the State Scenic Highway System, but it is not officially designated as a scenic highway by the California Department of Transportation. ## History All of SR 198 was added to the state highway system in the three bond issues floated to pay for the construction of the system. The first bond issue, approved by the state's voters in 1910, included the road from Visalia west to Hanford, connecting the two county seats with the central north–south highway (Route 4, now SR 99). As part of the 1916 bond issue, the route was extended west from Hanford through Coalinga to the coast trunk highway (Route 2, now US 101) near San Lucas, and assigned it the Route 10 designation. The third bond issue, passed in 1919, included a further extension east from Visalia to Sequoia National Park. The entire length of Route 10 was marked as Sign Route 198 in 1934, and this number was adopted legislatively in the 1964 renumbering. The portion east of Interstate 5 near Coalinga was added to the California Freeway and Expressway System in 1959, and parts of it have been built as such. The construction of the freeway east of Visalia to Road 192 was approved in January 1961, with the remainder of the freeway unplanned at that time as contingent on the routing of SR 65. The projected cost in 1958 of the entire freeway east of Visalia was \$13 million (equivalent to \$ in ) and was scheduled to be completed by 1964. The freeway through Visalia was completed by 1965, with an expressway connecting it to US 99. Also completed was the expressway heading west out of Hanford, with part of it access-controlled west of Lemoore. Construction began in November 2009 on a project to widen a two-lane, 10-mile (16 km) section of SR 198 between SR 43 and SR 99 into a four-lane expressway. The \$60 million project was completed in December 2012. ## Future The Kings County Association of Governments has plans to improve the state highways within the county. Developers are interested in building distribution warehouses in Kings County because of its strategic location midway between the Los Angeles and San Francisco Bay areas, but they are currently turned off by the lack of freeway access. For SR 198, the plan is to extend the freeway segment from Naval Air Station Lemoore to I-5. However, Kings County voters have shown little interest in passing any transportation taxes to fund these projects. ## Major intersections ## See also
4,984,163	1970 World Snooker Championship	1,156,586,132	Professional snooker tournament, held 1969–70	[ "1970 in English sport", "1970 in snooker", "1970 sports events in London", "April 1970 sports events in the United Kingdom", "International sports competitions in London", "World Snooker Championships" ]	The 1970 World Snooker Championship was a professional snooker tournament that took place from 15 October 1969 to 11 April 1970, as an edition of the World Snooker Championship. The final was held at Victoria Hall in London from 6 to 11 April 1970. For the second and last time the event was sponsored by Player's No.6. There were nine participants in the tournament, one more than in the previous year. John Spencer was the defending champion, having defeated Gary Owen 37–24 in the 1969 World Snooker Championship final. Spencer was eliminated in the 1970 semi-final after a 33–37 loss to Ray Reardon, who claimed the title with a 37–33 final victory over John Pulman, and received a total of £1,225 in prize money. Reardon made the highest of the tournament, 118. He held the title for only seven months, until the next championship in Australia which concluded in November 1970. Reardon eventually won a total of six world titles, the last of them in 1978. ## Background The World Snooker Championship is a professional tournament and the official world championship of the game of snooker. The sport was developed in the late 19th century by British Army soldiers stationed in India. Professional English billiards player and billiard hall manager Joe Davis noticed the increasing popularity of snooker compared to billiards in the 1920s, and with Birmingham-based billiards equipment manager Bill Camkin, persuaded the Billiards Association and Control Council (BACC) to recognise an official professional snooker championship in the 1926–27 season. The annual competition was not titled the World Championship until 1935, but the 1927 tournament is now referred to as the first World Snooker Championship. In 1952, the, following a dispute between the Professional Billiards Players' Association (PBPA) and the BACC about the distribution of income from the world championship, the PBPA members established an alternative competition known as the World Professional Match-play Championship, the editions of which are now recognised as world championships, whilst only Horace Lindrum and Clark McConachy entered for the BACC's 1952 World Snooker Championship. The World Professional Match-play Championship continued until 1957, after which there were no world championship matches until it was revived on a challenge basis in 1964. John Pulman retained the title in several challenges from 1964 to 1968. Tobacco brand John Player sponsored his 1968 match against Eddie Charlton. The good attendances for the championship match led to John Player deciding to sponsor the 1969 World Snooker Championship as a knock-out format tournament, using their "Players No. 6" brand. The 1969 championship is regarded as the first of the modern snooker era, and was won by John Spencer, who defeated Gary Owen 37–24 in the final. The 1970 Championship was sponsored by tobacco company John Player, using their Player's No.6 brand, the second and last time that they were the world championship sponsors. The tournament was played between 15 October 1969 and 11 April 1970. The winner of the event received cumulative prize money of £1,225. The eight players who participated in the 1969 championship all entered again, joined by David Taylor, who had turned professional after winning the 1968 World Amateur Snooker Championship. ### Prize fund Prize money was awarded as follows: - Quarter-final losers £125; quarter-final winners £175 - Semi-final losers £250; semi-final winners £300 - Runner-up £500 - Winner £750 ## Tournament summary There was one first round match, which was played as the best of 21 between Taylor and Bernard Bennett at the Yew Tree Labour Club, West Bromwich, from 15 to 17 October 1969. Bennett won the first two frames, and the players were level at 3–3 before the first day finished with Bennett 4–3 up. He added the eighth frame, with Taylor then taking four consecutive frames. After Bennett won the 13th frame, Taylor made a break of 52 and led 8–6. Taylor ensured qualification for the next round by securing a winning margin at 11–8, with the score 12–9 after . The quarter-finals were played as the best of 61 frames. Owen met Williams at West Bromwich Community Centre from 1 to 6 December, and won all six frames in their first session. He won the seventh frame too, before Williams registered his first frame win. With Williams missing many attempts to balls, Owen took a winning lead at 31–11, and finished 46–15 ahead. Spencer played Jackie Rea at the Co-Op Hall, Bolton, from 8 to 12 December, and won 31–15. Reardon and Fred Davis contested their semi-final from 15 to 19 December at Longport W.M.C., Bolton, with Reardon prevailing 31–26. The last quarter-final, between Pulman and Taylor, was held from 12 to 16 January 1970, at Grimsby and Cleethorpes Transport Recreation Club. After the first two days of play, the pair were tied at 12 frames each, before Pulman went on to win 31–20, and 39–22 after dead frames. The semi-finals were both contested over 73 frames. Spencer and Reardon played their semi-final from 16 to 21 February at the Co-Op Hall, Bolton. In his 1982 autobiography, Reardon recalled that the of the billiard table were "far too tight for a championship" and that "You could not pot the off the at speed with much confidence. The ball was drifting and skidding everywhere and was uncontrollable." Reardon built an 8–5 lead on the first day, and led 13–6 after day two. Writing for Billiards and Snooker magazine, Norman Haseldine thought that Reardon started to manage the "peculiar running" of the balls on the table better than Spencer did, although "both players were guilty of innumerable misses ... and the match never attained the high standard expected". Reardon went on to defeat Spencer 37–33. The second semi-final took place at Priory Social Club, Middlesbrough from 23 to 28 February, between Pulman and Owen. Pulman led 9–3 after the first day, and extended this to 19–5 on the next day, then to 27–9 after day three. He won 37–13, and the match finished 48–25 after dead frames. The final was held at the Victoria Hall in Bloomsbury Square, London, from 6 to 11 April, as the best of 73 frames. Reardon led 4–2 after the first session, and 8–4 after the second. On the next day, Reardon won four of the six afternoon session frames, and Pulman took four of the six evening frames, including the last three of the session, leaving Reardon 14–10 ahead. Reardon later extended his lead to 27–14, but Pulman narrowed the deficit to a single frame at 33–34. Reardon eventually won 37–34. Reardon received prize money of £1,125 (£750 for winning the final, £300 for winning the semi-final and £175 for winning the quarter-final) and Pulman took £975 (£500 as runner up, and the same amounts as Reardon for the semi-final and quarter-finals). Pulman said after the match that Reardon had deserved to win, and acclaimed Reardon's long potting. Pulman also stated that he felt that his own consistency in matches had been diminished due to a lack of match practice, leading to lapses in concentration. Reardon later wrote that "nothing will ever surpass the wonder of winning the world crown for the first time", and that the win made him financially secure for the first time since becoming a professional player: "I knew that the gamble had succeeded, that I could settle my debts and that the lean years were over. They had been well worthwhile." Reardon held the title for only seven months until the next championship in Australia during November 1970. He went on to win a total of six world championships, the last of them in 1978. ## Main draw The draw and results for the tournament are shown below. Match winners are denoted in bold. ## Century breaks Two century breaks were made at the tournament. - 118 – Ray Reardon - 105 – Gary Owen
73,290,227	Killer toy	1,170,857,019	Horror fiction stock character	[ "Dolls in fiction", "Fictional puppets", "Horror fiction", "Sentient toys in fiction", "Stock characters" ]	A killer toy is a stock character in horror fiction. They include toys, such as dolls and ventriloquist dummies, that come to life and seek to kill or otherwise carry out violence. The killer toy subverts the associations of childhood with innocence and lack of agency while invoking the uncanny nature of a lifelike toy. Killer toy fiction often invokes ideas of companionship and the corruption of children, sometimes taking place in dysfunctional or single parent homes. They have historically been associated with occultism and spirit possession, though artificial intelligence became more common in later works. The killer toy most commonly appears in film, where it dates back to Dead of Night (1945) and expands on earlier films such as The Great Gabbo (1929) and The Devil-Doll (1936). These early examples primarily featured ventriloquist dummies, with works featuring killer dolls developing in the 1960s through the 1980s. The genre of killer toy fiction was popularized by Child's Play (1988) and its killer doll Chucky, which has become widely recognized as a horror icon in popular culture. Killer toy fiction has remained prevalent in horror, and other popular killer doll franchises have been created since then, including Puppet Master and The Conjuring. ## History ### Precursors and ventriloquist dummies Nineteenth-century precursors to the killer toy include "The Sandman" (1816) by E. T. A. Hoffmann and The Adventures of Pinocchio (1883) by Carlo Collodi, both of which experimented with the idea of a puppet's identity becoming more humanlike. Many American children's stories in the late 19th century emphasized dolls, sometimes marketing themselves as being written by the doll. These stories acknowledged the bond between children and dolls and the personification of dolls by children, both of which would be subverted by later killer-toy fiction. Ventriloquist dummies served as some of the earliest examples of unnatural toys in horror films, being established with "Otto" in the musical drama The Great Gabbo (1929). The dummy was a convenient prop for early film, as it could largely be operated onscreen without any technical special effects. Dead of Night (1945) is the first identified example of a killer dummy in film, establishing its dummy Hugo by building on the ideas in The Great Gabbo. The killer dummy became a stock character in horror over the following decades, with appearances in The Dummy Talks (1943), Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1957), The Twilight Zone (1962 and 1964), and Magic (1978). The relationship between the ventriloquist and the dummy influenced later killer toy characters, even as they moved away from strictly psychological elements toward the supernatural. ### Killer dolls in the mid-20th century The Devil-Doll (1936) developed a predecessor to the killer doll, featuring shrunken humans controlled psychokinetically. The Twilight Zone introduced Talky Tina, one of the first on-screen killer dolls, in the episode "Living Doll" (1963). This use of the killer doll was contrasted with the idea of a dysfunctional family, with the narrator describing the doll as the child's "guardian". This portrayal was inspired by the advent of talking dolls like Chatty Cathy in the 1960s, which allowed for increased characterization and uncanniness of killer toys. In the 1960s, the trend of ugly and "monstrous" toys began, with toy manufacturers such as Aurora Plastics Corporation expanding from traditional dolls and toys that complied with conceptions of morality at the time. These toys included merchandising based on popular monster movies as well as other "unattractive" toys such as toy insects. By the 1970s, this trend became associated with counterculture and teenage rebellion, incorporating imagery that would go on to be associated with horror fiction and goth subculture. Poltergeist (1982) portrayed a killer toy with an evil clown toy that was possessed while in a supernatural realm. The film demonstrated the clown's agency by having it move while offscreen before having the child establish his own agency by killing the clown toy in self-defense. Dolls (1987) introduced the concept of explicitly creating horror through the imagery of childhood manifested by dolls. ### Child's Play and contemporary killer toys The development of animatronics allowed for more sophisticated killer toy characters beginning in the 1980s. The film Child's Play (1988) popularized killer toy films and established its killer doll, Chucky, as a defining example of the killer doll in popular culture. This incarnation of the killer doll incorporated many of the ideas that defined such characters, including the subversion of childhood innocence, the share of agency between the toy and a child, and the emergence of the occult into the living world. The film was distinct in the source of its killer toy; rather than an undefined demonic presence, the character of Chucky is created in the physical world from a previously established character. Child's Play defined the genre, inspiring numerous successors and other similar films. Killer doll films proliferated over the following years, including further Child's Play films, the Puppet Master film series, and Dolly Dearest (1991). Saw (2004) modified the idea of the killer toy by portraying its ventriloquist dummy, Billy the Puppet, as a lifeless messenger used by the film's antagonist. By the 2010s, the killer doll became a cliché of horror stock characters. The killer doll Annabelle, allegedly based on a real haunted doll, was prominent in the 2010s. The character was created for The Conjuring (2013) before receiving a dedicated film series within the Conjuring franchise. In 2016, fiction anthologist Ellen Datlow published The Doll Collection as the first book that specifically collected killer toy fiction. Beginning in the 2010s, killer toy fiction increasingly emphasized artificial intelligence over occultism as the cause of killer dolls. The Child's Play remake (2019) introduced Chucky as a product of technology rather than occultism. M3GAN (2022) incorporated similar themes, inverting the tradition of making a doll look more humanlike by taking a human actress and making her look less humanlike. ## Psychological effects Dolls represent objects that appear corpse-like or both alive and dead, creating a sense of the uncanny. The uncanny nature of a killer toy creates a strong visual element, allowing for a prominent role in visual media such as film. Creators of killer toy films invoke the uncanny valley, in which the toy looks realistic enough to be disconcerting without looking realistic enough to look natural. The human mind naturally seeks out human faces and is more inclined to interpret personality from an object with a recognizable face. Killer toys in film can produce horror by invoking uncertainty before revealing the toy's nature with subtle changes or movements to create suspense when it is unclear whether the toy is acting autonomously. Sigmund Freud's analysis of uncanniness in his essay "The Uncanny" (1919) has informed the phenomenon's role in horror, and it has regularly been used as a reference for the psychological effects that killer toys have on audiences. Freud posited that children do not make the same "distinction between the animate and the inanimate", while adults have an aversion to this blurring of living and non-living due to a repression of childlike ideas. Killer toy fiction that features artificial intelligence can invoke an additional sense of horror not present in stories based on occultism. These stories reflect fears that are expressed in real-world discussions about artificial intelligence, providing a more plausible justification for the toy's behavior and creating a villain that could conceivably exist in the real world. They also invoke the uncanny in the toy's personality as well as its appearance, with artificial intelligence providing it with a nearly human demeanor. ## Themes Killer toys feature prominently in contemporary Gothic fiction. They are most commonly established as a type of occultism or spirit possession in which a toy is inhabited by a demon. The killer toy can be contrasted with stories in which friendly toys come to life, such as The Adventures of Pinocchio (1883) and Toy Story (1995), as well as with science fiction stories of androids and automatons. In popular consciousness, killer toys may also be associated with other uncanny humanlike constructs, such as golems, mannequins, scarecrows, and statues. Killer toys subvert the traditional association of childhood with innocence and dependence, to the point that the doll has become a shorthand for childhood in the horror genre. The image of the toy accentuates this theme, conflating the childish appearance of a doll with gratuitously violent and profane behavior. The threat of a killer toy includes both the threat of physical harm and the loss of innocence. The climax of killer toy fiction often involves a child killing or destroying the killer toy, granting agency to the child and completing a "cycle" of violence that exists between the toy and the child. Killer toys invoke parental fears that children may become corrupted or that a parent may accidentally provide them with a negative influence. Stories about killer toys often involve homes with a single parent and an only child, allowing for the killer toy to fulfill an emotional role for a lonely child. In these cases, the child character may develop an attachment to the toy, reminiscent of real-life projection of children's identities onto dolls. The toy may also be dependent on the child to carry out its violence, creating a system of codependency and further blurring the individual identities of the child and the toy. The killer toy may also be used as a criticism of adulthood and consumerism, particularly in how these concepts interact with children. Under this interpretation, the toy can be seen as carrying out revenge on adults as a proxy of the child. Feminine portrayals of killer toys rarely differ from masculine portrayals, with the focus typically being on innocence and monstrosity rather than sexuality. One practical consideration in killer toy films is the need to convince a viewer that the toy is a legitimate physical threat to its victims. Due to the small size of most toys, killer toys are often depicted as using creative or sudden attacks that do not provide an opportunity for self-defense. Killer ventriloquist dummies invoke additional symbolic meanings by imbuing life into a toy that already appears to be living and serves as an extension of an already living person, and this connection between the puppeteer and the puppet can invoke the idea of an evil doppelgänger. The puppeteer has been recognized as a symbol for the extension of an identity since ancient times, and the merging of identities between the puppeteer and the puppet has influenced the killer toy character beyond its use with ventriloquist dummies. Dummies also reinforce the elements of childhood found in killer toy fiction due to their small stature and the childlike behavior of sitting on the ventriloquist's lap. ## See also - History of horror films - Slasher film
43,447,077	The Boat Race 1866	1,154,823,460	null	[ "1866 in English sport", "1866 in sports", "March 1866 events", "The Boat Race" ]	The 23rd Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 24 March 1866. The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Oxford won by three lengths in a time of 25 minutes and 35 seconds, one of the slowest times in the history of the event. ## Background The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). The race was first held in 1829, and since 1845 has taken place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. Oxford entered the race as reigning champions, having defeated Cambridge by four lengths in the previous year's race. Oxford led overall with twelve wins to Cambridge's ten. In late 1865, the Cambridge University Boat Club president Robert Kinglake wrote to Oxford in order to draw up rules on the seniority of participants in the Boat Race, asserting that Cambridge could not agree to send out a challenge unless this agreement was made. The proposal included the suggestion that "no pass or πολλ man may row after one year has elapsed from the date of him having passed his final examination. That no honour man may row after the end of his fourth year from the date of his commencing residence." While both universities were agreed with regard to the exclusion of those reading "ordinary" degrees (also referred to as "pass" degrees, as opposed to honours degrees), Oxford rejected the second clause which would have potentially excluded a small number of rowers given the differences in timetables between the universities. Despite the disagreement, Kinglake sent the traditional challenge to Oxford who accepted. Cambridge went to Putney ten days before the race which was scheduled for 24 March, while Oxford practised there for eight days. The Light Blues rowed against a London Rowing Club eight in the buildup while the Dark Blues took on a watermen eight and a Kingston eight during their preparations. The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 (in the March and December races) and the 1852 race, while the starter was Edward Searle. ## Crews The two crews were nearly identical in weight: the average of the Cambridge crew was 11 st 12.875 lb (75.5 kg), 0.125 pounds (0.1 kg) per rower more than Oxford. Each crew saw the return of five former Blues, including the Light Blue number six Robert Kinglake who was rowing in his fourth Boat Race; Dark Blues Robert Taunton Raikes, Brown and Charles Tottenham were making their third Boat Race appearance. ## Race Oxford won the toss for the fifth consecutive year and elected to start on the Middlesex side of the river, handing the Surrey station to Cambridge, despite the advantage being "nullified ... for there was a strong wind blowing from the south-west." According to The Field, "arrangements had been made by the Thames Conservancy Board, which had most effectually put a stopper" on disruption from paddle boats to allow an uninterrupted start at 7.48 a.m. Oxford led from the start but Cambridge redressed the balance and were half a length ahead by the time the crews shot Hammersmith Bridge. They maintained their lead to Chiswick Eyot and despite rough water, Cambridge continued in front. Avoiding a barge at Corny Reach, the Light Blues allowed their opponents to pass and take a half-length lead which Oxford took to Barnes Bridge. Even though Cambridge made a push, even drawing level, Oxford pulled away and won by three lengths in a time of 25 minutes and 35 seconds. It was the third-slowest time in the history of the event on the Championship Course.
2,904,391	Soviet cruiser Chervona Ukraina	1,136,089,274	Soviet Admiral Nakhimov-class cruiser	[ "1915 ships", "Admiral Nakhimov-class cruisers", "Cruisers sunk by aircraft as targets", "Germany–Soviet Union relations", "Maritime incidents in 1952", "Maritime incidents in November 1941", "Maritime incidents in the Soviet Union", "Ships built at the Black Sea Shipyard", "Ships built in the Soviet Union", "Ships sunk as targets", "Ships sunk by German aircraft", "World War II cruisers of the Soviet Union", "World War II shipwrecks in the Black Sea" ]	Chervona Ukraina (Ukrainian: "Червона Україна") was an Admiral Nakhimov-class light cruiser of the Soviet Navy assigned to the Black Sea Fleet. During World War II, she supported Soviet forces during the Sieges of Odessa and Sevastopol before being sunk at Sevastopol on 12 November 1941 by German aircraft. She was raised in 1947 and was used as a training hulk before becoming a target ship in 1950. ## Description Chervona Ukraina displaced 8,400 long tons (8,500 t) at deep load. The ship had an overall length of 163.2 metres (535 ft 5 in), a beam of 15.7 metres (51 ft 6 in) and a mean draught of about 5.6 metres (18 ft 4 in). She was powered by four Curtiss-AEG steam turbines, each driving one shaft, which developed a total of 55,000 shaft horsepower (41,000 kW) and gave a maximum speed of 29.5 knots (54.6 km/h; 33.9 mph). The engines were powered by 14 Yarrow water-tube boilers. Four were coal-fired while the rest were mixed-firing. The ship carried a maximum of 540 long tons (550 t) of coal and an additional 690 long tons (700 t) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate in the mixed-firing boilers. At full capacity, she could steam for 1,200 nautical miles (2,200 km; 1,400 mi) at a speed of 14 knots (26 km/h; 16 mph). Chervona Ukraina was designed to carry about 630 officers and men. The ship's main armament consisted of fifteen 55-calibre 130 mm (5.1 in)B7 Pattern 1913 guns in single mounts, six of which were mounted in casemates. Her anti-aircraft armament consisted of four 64-millimetre (2.5 in) guns. Chervona Ukraina also mounted twelve above-water 457-millimetre (18 in) torpedo tubes in triple swivelling mounts. Chervona Ukraina's waterline belt consisted of 76 millimetres (3.0 in) of Krupp cemented armour and above it was an upper belt 25 millimetres (0.98 in) thick. The gun shields were protected by 25 millimetres (0.98 in) of armour. Each of the armoured decks was 20 millimetres (0.79 in) thick. The armour of the conning tower was 76 millimetres (3.0 in) thick. ## Service history She was laid down on 3 October 1913 as Admiral Nakhimov after Pavel Nakhimov and launched on 6 November 1915. Construction was abandoned in 1917 during the October Revolution when the ship was about 80% complete. In the second half of 1918, the Marine Department of Hetman Pavlo Skoropadskyi restarted construction of the ship. On 25 January 1919, the ship was formally renamed Hetman Bogdan Khmelnitsky, but Nikolayev was captured shortly afterward by French-led Allied military forces. At the start of the Russian Civil War, the ship was run aground at the fitting dock in Nikolayev by the shipyard workers to hinder the evacuation by the Whites in 1919. The ship was raised by the Soviets in 1920 pending a decision on her disposition. The ship was renamed to Chervona Ukraina on 7 December 1922. It was decided to finish her in 1923 and the job was completed in 1927 to nearly the original design. She was modified to handle aircraft by adding cranes on either side of the middle funnel and a parking area was built for them between the central and rear funnels, although no catapult was ever fitted. The original internal torpedo tubes were replaced by four triple 457 mm (18.0 in) torpedo tubes mounted on the deck abaft the rear funnel. Chervona Ukraina made a number of port visits to Turkey, Greece and Italy before World War II. She was extensively overhauled between 26 August 1939 and 1 May 1941 where her aircraft equipment was removed and she was fitted with new fire control equipment. The ship was given three Italian Minizini twin-gun 50 caliber 100 mm (3.9 in) anti-aircraft mounts, one was placed on the forecastle, in front of the forward 130 mm (5.1 in) B7 Pattern 1913 gun and the other two on each side of the quarterdeck. One torpedo tube mount was removed from each side and four single mounts for the semi-automatic 45 mm (1.8 in) 21-K gun were fitted as well as seven 12.7 mm (0.50 in) DShK heavy machine guns. ### World War II Chervona Ukraina, in company with the cruisers Krasny Kavkaz, Komintern and a number of destroyers, laid down a defensive mine barrage protecting the Black Sea Fleet base at Sevastopol on 22 June 1941. She provided gunfire support to Soviet forces during the Siege of Odessa and escorted convoys bringing the 157th Rifle Division into Odessa during September 1941. She escorted convoys from Odessa to Sevastopol in October when the evacuation of Odessa was ordered. During the Siege of Sevastopol Chervona Ukraina provided gunfire support and evacuated cut-off troops from elsewhere in the Crimea into Sevastopol and brought in reinforcements from Caucasian ports. She was hit three times in the South Bay of Sevastopol by bombs from German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive-bombers from II./StG 77 on 12 November 1941, but didn't sink until the next day after her crew was ordered to abandon her. Her guns were salvaged and most of the guns and crew were incorporated into the port's defenses, although two of her twin Minizini turrets were added to Krasny Kavkaz. She was raised on 3 November 1947, repaired, and used as a training hulk until 30 October 1950 when she became a target ship. On 10 May 1952, Chervona Ukraina was grounded on a spit to serve as a fixed target; by 1980 there was nothing left of the ship above the surface. ## See also - Chervona Ukraina, a Slava-class cruiser commissioned in 1989 and since renamed Varyag
24,580,536	Cobalt	1,173,809,027	null	[ "Chemical elements", "Chemical elements with hexagonal close-packed structure", "Child labour", "Cobalt", "Cobalt mining", "Dietary minerals", "Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative", "Ferromagnetic materials", "IARC Group 2B carcinogens", "Informal economy in Africa", "Mining communities in Africa", "Native element minerals", "Resource economics", "Transition metals" ]	Cobalt is a chemical element with the symbol Co and atomic number 27. As with nickel, cobalt is found in the Earth's crust only in a chemically combined form, save for small deposits found in alloys of natural meteoric iron. The free element, produced by reductive smelting, is a hard, lustrous, silver metal. Cobalt-based blue pigments (cobalt blue) have been used since ancient times for jewelry and paints, and to impart a distinctive blue tint to glass, but the color was for a long time thought to be due to the known metal bismuth. Miners had long used the name kobold ore (German for goblin ore) for some of the blue pigment-producing minerals; they were so named because they were poor in known metals and gave off poisonous arsenic-containing fumes when smelted. In 1735, such ores were found to be reducible to a new metal (the first discovered since ancient times), and this was ultimately named for the kobold. Today, some cobalt is produced specifically from one of a number of metallic-lustered ores, such as cobaltite (CoAsS). The element is, however, more usually produced as a by-product of copper and nickel mining. The Copperbelt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Zambia yields most of the global cobalt production. World production in 2016 was 116,000 tonnes (114,000 long tons; 128,000 short tons) (according to Natural Resources Canada), and the DRC alone accounted for more than 50%. Cobalt is primarily used in lithium-ion batteries, and in the manufacture of magnetic, wear-resistant and high-strength alloys. The compounds cobalt silicate and cobalt(II) aluminate (CoAl<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>, cobalt blue) give a distinctive deep blue color to glass, ceramics, inks, paints and varnishes. Cobalt occurs naturally as only one stable isotope, cobalt-59. Cobalt-60 is a commercially important radioisotope, used as a radioactive tracer and for the production of high-energy gamma rays. Cobalt is also used in the petroleum industry as a catalyst when refining crude oil. This is to clean it of its sulfur content, which is very polluting when burned and causes acid rain. Cobalt is the active center of a group of coenzymes called cobalamins. Vitamin B, the best-known example of the type, is an essential vitamin for all animals. Cobalt in inorganic form is also a micronutrient for bacteria, algae, and fungi. ## Characteristics Cobalt is a ferromagnetic metal with a specific gravity of 8.9. The Curie temperature is 1,115 °C (2,039 °F) and the magnetic moment is 1.6–1.7 Bohr magnetons per atom. Cobalt has a relative permeability two-thirds that of iron. Metallic cobalt occurs as two crystallographic structures: hcp and fcc. The ideal transition temperature between the hcp and fcc structures is 450 °C (842 °F), but in practice the energy difference between them is so small that random intergrowth of the two is common. Cobalt is a weakly reducing metal that is protected from oxidation by a passivating oxide film. It is attacked by halogens and sulfur. Heating in oxygen produces Co<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub> which loses oxygen at 900 °C (1,650 °F) to give the monoxide CoO. The metal reacts with fluorine (F<sub>2</sub>) at 520 K to give CoF<sub>3</sub>; with chlorine (Cl<sub>2</sub>), bromine (Br<sub>2</sub>) and iodine (I<sub>2</sub>), producing equivalent binary halides. It does not react with hydrogen gas (H<sub>2</sub>) or nitrogen gas (N<sub>2</sub>) even when heated, but it does react with boron, carbon, phosphorus, arsenic and sulfur. At ordinary temperatures, it reacts slowly with mineral acids, and very slowly with moist, but not dry, air. ## Compounds Common oxidation states of cobalt include +2 and +3, although compounds with oxidation states ranging from −3 to +5 are also known. A common oxidation state for simple compounds is +2 (cobalt(II)). These salts form the pink-colored metal aquo complex [Co(H <sub>2</sub>O) <sub>6</sub>]<sup>2+</sup> in water. Addition of chloride gives the intensely blue [CoCl <sub>4</sub>]<sup>2−</sup> . In a borax bead flame test, cobalt shows deep blue in both oxidizing and reducing flames. ### Oxygen and chalcogen compounds Several oxides of cobalt are known. Green cobalt(II) oxide (CoO) has rocksalt structure. It is readily oxidized with water and oxygen to brown cobalt(III) hydroxide (Co(OH)<sub>3</sub>). At temperatures of 600–700 °C, CoO oxidizes to the blue cobalt(II,III) oxide (Co<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>), which has a spinel structure. Black cobalt(III) oxide (Co<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) is also known. Cobalt oxides are antiferromagnetic at low temperature: CoO (Néel temperature 291 K) and Co<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub> (Néel temperature: 40 K), which is analogous to magnetite (Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>), with a mixture of +2 and +3 oxidation states. The principal chalcogenides of cobalt include the black cobalt(II) sulfides, CoS<sub>2</sub>, which adopts a pyrite-like structure, and cobalt(III) sulfide (Co<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>). ### Halides Four dihalides of cobalt(II) are known: cobalt(II) fluoride (CoF<sub>2</sub>, pink), cobalt(II) chloride (CoCl<sub>2</sub>, blue), cobalt(II) bromide (CoBr<sub>2</sub>, green), cobalt(II) iodide (CoI<sub>2</sub>, blue-black). These halides exist in anhydrous and hydrated forms. Whereas the anhydrous dichloride is blue, the hydrate is red. The reduction potential for the reaction Co<sup>3+</sup> + e<sup>−</sup> → Co<sup>2+</sup> is +1.92 V, beyond that for chlorine to chloride, +1.36 V. Consequently, cobalt(III) chloride would spontaneously reduce to cobalt(II) chloride and chlorine. Because the reduction potential for fluorine to fluoride is so high, +2.87 V, cobalt(III) fluoride is one of the few simple stable cobalt(III) compounds. Cobalt(III) fluoride, which is used in some fluorination reactions, reacts vigorously with water. ### Coordination compounds As for all metals, molecular compounds and polyatomic ions of cobalt are classified as coordination complexes, that is, molecules or ions that contain cobalt linked to one or more ligands. These can be combinations of a potentially infinite variety of molecules and ions, such as: - water H <sub>2</sub>O, as in the cation hexaaquocobalt(II) [Co(H <sub>2</sub>O) <sub>6</sub>]<sup>2+</sup> . This pink-colored complex is the predominant cation in solid cobalt sulfate CoSO <sub>4</sub>·(H <sub>2</sub>O)<sub>x</sub>, with x = 6 or 7, as well as in water solutions thereof. - ammonia NH <sub>3</sub>, as in cis-diaquotetraamminecobalt(III) [Co(NH <sub>3</sub>) <sub>4</sub>(H <sub>2</sub>O) <sub>2</sub>]<sup>3+</sup> , in hexol [Co(Co(NH <sub>3</sub>) <sub>4</sub>(HO) <sub>2</sub>) <sub>3</sub>]<sup>6−</sup> , in [Co(NO <sub>2</sub>) <sub>4</sub>(NH <sub>3</sub>) <sub>2</sub>]<sup>−</sup> (the anion of Erdmann's salt), and in [Co(NH <sub>3</sub>) <sub>5</sub>(CO <sub>3</sub>)]<sup>−</sup> . - carbonate [CO <sub>3</sub>]<sup>2−</sup> , as in the green triscarbonatocobaltate(III) [Co(CO <sub>3</sub>) <sub>3</sub>]<sup>3−</sup> anion. - nitrite [NO <sub>2</sub>]<sup>−</sup> as in [Co(NO <sub>2</sub>) <sub>4</sub>(NH <sub>3</sub>) <sub>2</sub>]<sup>−</sup> . - hydroxide [HO]<sup>−</sup> , as in hexol. - chloride [Cl]<sup>−</sup> , as in tetrachloridocobaltate(II) CoCl <sub>4</sub>]<sup>2−</sup> . - bicarbonate [HCO <sub>3</sub>]<sup>−</sup> , as in [Co(CO <sub>3</sub>) <sub>2</sub>(HCO <sub>3</sub>)(H <sub>2</sub>O)]<sup>3−</sup> . - oxalate [C <sub>2</sub>O <sub>4</sub>]<sup>2−</sup> , as in trisoxalatocobaltate(III) [Co(C <sub>2</sub>O <sub>4</sub>)<sup>3−</sup> <sub>3]</sub>. These attached groups affect the stability of oxidation states of the cobalt atoms, according to general principles of electronegativity and of the hardness–softness. For example, Co<sup>3+</sup> complexes tend to have ammine ligands. Because phosphorus is softer than nitrogen, phosphine ligands tend to feature the softer Co<sup>2+</sup> and Co<sup>+</sup>, an example being tris(triphenylphosphine)cobalt(I) chloride (P(C <sub>6</sub>H <sub>5</sub>) <sub>3</sub>) <sub>3</sub>CoCl). The more electronegative (and harder) oxide and fluoride can stabilize Co<sup>4+</sup> and Co<sup>5+</sup> derivatives, e.g. caesium hexafluorocobaltate(IV) (Cs<sub>2</sub>CoF<sub>6</sub>) and potassium percobaltate (K<sub>3</sub>CoO<sub>4</sub>). Alfred Werner, a Nobel-prize winning pioneer in coordination chemistry, worked with compounds of empirical formula [Co(NH <sub>3</sub>) <sub>6</sub>]<sup>3+</sup> . One of the isomers determined was cobalt(III) hexammine chloride. This coordination complex, a typical Werner-type complex, consists of a central cobalt atom coordinated by six ammine orthogonal ligands and three chloride counteranions. Using chelating ethylenediamine ligands in place of ammonia gives tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III) ([Co(en) <sub>3</sub>]<sup>3+</sup> ), which was one of the first coordination complexes to be resolved into optical isomers. The complex exists in the right- and left-handed forms of a "three-bladed propeller". This complex was first isolated by Werner as yellow-gold needle-like crystals. ### Organometallic compounds Cobaltocene is a structural analog to ferrocene, with cobalt in place of iron. Cobaltocene is much more sensitive to oxidation than ferrocene. Cobalt carbonyl (Co<sub>2</sub>(CO)<sub>8</sub>) is a catalyst in carbonylation and hydrosilylation reactions. Vitamin B<sub>12</sub> (see below) is an organometallic compound found in nature and is the only vitamin that contains a metal atom. An example of an alkylcobalt complex in the otherwise uncommon +4 oxidation state of cobalt is the homoleptic complex tetrakis(1-norbornyl)cobalt(IV) (Co(1-norb)<sub>4</sub>), a transition metal-alkyl complex that is notable for its resistance to β-hydrogen elimination, in accord with Bredt's rule. The cobalt(III) and cobalt(V) complexes [Li(THF) <sub>4</sub>]<sup>+</sup> [Co(1-norb) <sub>4</sub>]<sup>−</sup> and [Co(1-norb) <sub>4</sub>]<sup>+</sup> [BF <sub>4</sub>]<sup>−</sup> are also known. ## Isotopes <sup>59</sup>Co is the only stable cobalt isotope and the only isotope that exists naturally on Earth. Twenty-two radioisotopes have been characterized: the most stable, <sup>60</sup>Co, has a half-life of 5.2714 years; <sup>57</sup>Co has a half-life of 271.8 days; <sup>56</sup>Co has a half-life of 77.27 days; and <sup>58</sup>Co has a half-life of 70.86 days. All the other radioactive isotopes of cobalt have half-lives shorter than 18 hours, and in most cases shorter than 1 second. This element also has 4 meta states, all of which have half-lives shorter than 15 minutes. The isotopes of cobalt range in atomic weight from 50 u (<sup>50</sup>Co) to 73 u (<sup>73</sup>Co). The primary decay mode for isotopes with atomic mass unit values less than that of the only stable isotope, <sup>59</sup>Co, is electron capture and the primary mode of decay in isotopes with atomic mass greater than 59 atomic mass units is beta decay. The primary decay products below <sup>59</sup>Co are element 26 (iron) isotopes; above that the decay products are element 28 (nickel) isotopes. ## History Cobalt compounds have been used for centuries to impart a rich blue color to glass, glazes, and ceramics. Cobalt has been detected in Egyptian sculpture, Persian jewelry from the third millennium BC, in the ruins of Pompeii, destroyed in 79 AD, and in China, dating from the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) and the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD). Cobalt has been used to color glass since the Bronze Age. The excavation of the Uluburun shipwreck yielded an ingot of blue glass, cast during the 14th century BC. Blue glass from Egypt was either colored with copper, iron, or cobalt. The oldest cobalt-colored glass is from the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (1550–1292 BC). The source for the cobalt the Egyptians used is not known. The word cobalt is derived from the German kobalt, from kobold meaning "goblin", a superstitious term used for the ore of cobalt by miners. The first attempts to smelt those ores for copper or silver failed, yielding simply powder (cobalt(II) oxide) instead. Because the primary ores of cobalt always contain arsenic, smelting the ore oxidized the arsenic into the highly toxic and volatile arsenic oxide, adding to the notoriety of the ore. Paracelsus, Georgius Agricola, and Basil Valentine all referred to such silicates as "cobalt". Swedish chemist Georg Brandt (1694–1768) is credited with discovering cobalt c. 1735, showing it to be a previously unknown element, distinct from bismuth and other traditional metals. Brandt called it a new "semi-metal". He showed that compounds of cobalt metal were the source of the blue color in glass, which previously had been attributed to the bismuth found with cobalt. Cobalt became the first metal to be discovered since the pre-historical period. All other known metals (iron, copper, silver, gold, zinc, mercury, tin, lead and bismuth) had no recorded discoverers. During the 19th century, a significant part of the world's production of cobalt blue (a pigment made with cobalt compounds and alumina) and smalt (cobalt glass powdered for use for pigment purposes in ceramics and painting) was carried out at the Norwegian Blaafarveværket. The first mines for the production of smalt in the 16th century were located in Norway, Sweden, Saxony and Hungary. With the discovery of cobalt ore in New Caledonia in 1864, the mining of cobalt in Europe declined. With the discovery of ore deposits in Ontario, Canada, in 1904 and the discovery of even larger deposits in the Katanga Province in the Congo in 1914, the mining operations shifted again. When the Shaba conflict started in 1978, the copper mines of Katanga Province nearly stopped production. The impact on the world cobalt economy from this conflict was smaller than expected: cobalt is a rare metal, the pigment is highly toxic, and the industry had already established effective ways for recycling cobalt materials. In some cases, industry was able to change to cobalt-free alternatives. In 1938, John Livingood and Glenn T. Seaborg discovered the radioisotope cobalt-60. This isotope was famously used at Columbia University in the 1950s to establish parity violation in radioactive beta decay. After World War II, the US wanted to guarantee the supply of cobalt ore for military uses (as the Germans had been doing) and prospected for cobalt within the U.S. border. An adequate supply of the ore was found in Idaho near Blackbird canyon in the side of a mountain. The firm Calera Mining Company started production at the site. It has been argued that cobalt will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy and dependent on batteries, but this perspective has also been criticised for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production. ## Occurrence The stable form of cobalt is produced in supernovae through the r-process. It comprises 0.0029% of the Earth's crust. Free cobalt (the native metal) is not found on Earth because of the oxygen in the atmosphere and the chlorine in the ocean. Both are abundant enough in the upper layers of the Earth's crust to prevent native metal cobalt from forming. Except as recently delivered in meteoric iron, pure cobalt in native metal form is unknown on Earth. The element has a medium abundance but natural compounds of cobalt are numerous and small amounts of cobalt compounds are found in most rocks, soils, plants, and animals. In nature, cobalt is frequently associated with nickel. Both are characteristic components of meteoric iron, though cobalt is much less abundant in iron meteorites than nickel. As with nickel, cobalt in meteoric iron alloys may have been well enough protected from oxygen and moisture to remain as the free (but alloyed) metal, though neither element is seen in that form in the ancient terrestrial crust. Cobalt in compound form occurs in copper and nickel minerals. It is the major metallic component that combines with sulfur and arsenic in the sulfidic cobaltite (CoAsS), safflorite (CoAs<sub>2</sub>), glaucodot ((Co,Fe)AsS), and skutterudite (CoAs<sub>3</sub>) minerals. The mineral cattierite is similar to pyrite and occurs together with vaesite in the copper deposits of Katanga Province. When it reaches the atmosphere, weathering occurs; the sulfide minerals oxidize and form pink erythrite ("cobalt glance": Co<sub>3</sub>(AsO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·8H<sub>2</sub>O) and spherocobaltite (CoCO<sub>3</sub>). Cobalt is also a constituent of tobacco smoke. The tobacco plant readily absorbs and accumulates heavy metals like cobalt from the surrounding soil in its leaves. These are subsequently inhaled during tobacco smoking. ## In the ocean Cobalt is a trace metal involved in photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation detected in most ocean basins and is a limiting micronutrient for phytoplankton and cyanobacteria. The Co-containing complex cobalamin is only synthesized by cyanobacteria and a few archaea, so dissolved cobalt concentrations are low in the upper ocean. Like Mn and Fe, Co has a hybrid profile of biological uptake by phytoplankton via photosynthesis in the upper ocean and scavenging in the deep ocean, although most scavenging is limited by complex organic ligands. Co is recycled in the ocean by decaying organic matter that sinks below the upper ocean, although most is scavenged by oxidizing bacteria. Sources of cobalt for many ocean bodies include rivers and terrestrial runoff with some input from hydrothermal vents. In the deep ocean, cobalt sources are found lying on top of seamounts (which can be large or small) where ocean currents sweep the ocean floor to clear sediment over the span of millions of years allowing them to form as ferromanganese crusts. Although limited mapping of the seafloor has been done, preliminary investigation indicates that there is a large amount of these cobalt-rich crusts located in the Clarion Clipperton Zone, an area garnering increasing interest for deep sea mining ventures due to the mineral-rich environment within its domain. Anthropogenic input contributes as a non-natural source but in very low amounts. Dissolved cobalt (dCo) concentrations across oceans are controlled primarily by reservoirs where dissolved oxygen concentrations are low. The complex biochemical cycling of cobalt in the ocean is still not fully understood, but patterns of higher concentrations have been found in areas of low oxygen such as the Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ) in the Southern Atlantic Ocean. Cobalt is considered toxic for marine environments at high concentrations. Safe concentrations fall around 18 μg/L in marine waters for plankton such as diatoms. ## Production The main ores of cobalt are cobaltite, erythrite, glaucodot and skutterudite (see above), but most cobalt is obtained by reducing the cobalt by-products of nickel and copper mining and smelting. Since cobalt is generally produced as a by-product, the supply of cobalt depends to a great extent on the economic feasibility of copper and nickel mining in a given market. Demand for cobalt was projected to grow 6% in 2017. Primary cobalt deposits are rare, such as those occurring in hydrothermal deposits, associated with ultramafic rocks, typified by the Bou-Azzer district of Morocco. At such locations, cobalt ores are mined exclusively, albeit at a lower concentration, and thus require more downstream processing for cobalt extraction. Several methods exist to separate cobalt from copper and nickel, depending on the concentration of cobalt and the exact composition of the used ore. One method is froth flotation, in which surfactants bind to ore components, leading to an enrichment of cobalt ores. Subsequent roasting converts the ores to cobalt sulfate, and the copper and the iron are oxidized to the oxide. Leaching with water extracts the sulfate together with the arsenates. The residues are further leached with sulfuric acid, yielding a solution of copper sulfate. Cobalt can also be leached from the slag of copper smelting. The products of the above-mentioned processes are transformed into the cobalt oxide (Co<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>). This oxide is reduced to metal by the aluminothermic reaction or reduction with carbon in a blast furnace. ## Extraction The United States Geological Survey estimates world reserves of cobalt at 7,100,000 metric tons. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) currently produces 63% of the world's cobalt. This market share may reach 73% by 2025 if planned expansions by mining producers like Glencore Plc take place as expected. Bloomberg New Energy Finance has estimated that by 2030, global demand for cobalt could be 47 times more than it was in 2017. Changes that Congo made to mining laws in 2002 attracted new investments in Congolese copper and cobalt projects. Glencore's Mutanda Mine shipped 24,500 tons of cobalt in 2016, 40% of Congo DRC's output and nearly a quarter of global production. After oversupply, Glencore closed Mutanda for two years in late 2019. Glencore's Katanga Mining project is resuming as well and should produce 300,000 tons of copper and 20,000 tons of cobalt by 2019, according to Glencore. ### Democratic Republic of the Congo In 2005, the top producer of cobalt was the copper deposits in the Democratic Republic of the Congo's Katanga Province. Formerly Shaba province, the area had almost 40% of global reserves, reported the British Geological Survey in 2009. Artisanal mining supplied 17% to 40% of the DRC production. Some 100,000 cobalt miners in Congo DRC use hand tools to dig hundreds of feet, with little planning and fewer safety measures, say workers and government and NGO officials, as well as The Washington Post reporters' observations on visits to isolated mines. The lack of safety precautions frequently causes injuries or death. Mining pollutes the vicinity and exposes local wildlife and indigenous communities to toxic metals thought to cause birth defects and breathing difficulties, according to health officials. Child labor is used in mining cobalt from African artisanal mines. Human rights activists have highlighted this and investigative journalism reporting has confirmed it. This revelation prompted cell phone maker Apple Inc., on March 3, 2017, to stop buying ore from suppliers such as Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt who source from artisanal mines in the DRC, and begin using only suppliers that are verified to meet its workplace standards. There is a push globally by the EU and major car manufacturers (OEM) for global production of cobalt to be sourced and produced sustainably, responsibly and traceability of the supply chain. Mining companies are adopting and practising ESG initiatives in line with OECD Guidance and putting in place evidence of zero to low carbon footprint activities in the supply chain production of lithium-ion batteries. These initiatives are already taking place with major mining companies, artisanal and small-scale mining companies (ASM). Car manufacturers and battery manufacturer supply chains: Tesla, VW, BMW, BASF and Glencore are participating in several initiatives, such as the Responsible Cobalt Initiative and Cobalt for Development study. In 2018 BMW Group in partnership with BASF, Samsung SDI and Samsung Electronics have launched a pilot project in the DRC over one pilot mine, to improve conditions and address challenges for artisanal miners and the surrounding communities. The political and ethnic dynamics of the region have in the past caused outbreaks of violence and years of armed conflict and displaced populations. This instability affected the price of cobalt and also created perverse incentives for the combatants in the First and Second Congo Wars to prolong the fighting, since access to diamond mines and other valuable resources helped to finance their military goals—which frequently amounted to genocide—and also enriched the fighters themselves. While DR Congo has in the 2010s not recently been invaded by neighboring military forces, some of the richest mineral deposits adjoin areas where Tutsis and Hutus still frequently clash, unrest continues although on a smaller scale and refugees still flee outbreaks of violence. Cobalt extracted from small Congolese artisanal mining endeavors in 2007 supplied a single Chinese company, Congo DongFang International Mining. A subsidiary of Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt, one of the world's largest cobalt producers, Congo DongFang supplied cobalt to some of the world's largest battery manufacturers, who produced batteries for ubiquitous products like the Apple iPhones. Because of accused labour violations and environmental concerns, LG Chem subsequently audited Congo DongFang in accordance with OECD guidelines. LG Chem, which also produces battery materials for car companies, imposed a code of conduct on all suppliers that it inspects. The Mukondo Mountain project, operated by the Central African Mining and Exploration Company (CAMEC) in Katanga Province, may be the richest cobalt reserve in the world. It produced an estimated one-third of the total global cobalt production in 2008. In July 2009, CAMEC announced a long-term agreement to deliver its entire annual production of cobalt concentrate from Mukondo Mountain to Zhejiang Galico Cobalt & Nickel Materials of China. In February 2018, global asset management firm AllianceBernstein defined the DRC as economically "the Saudi Arabia of the electric vehicle age", due to its cobalt resources, as essential to the lithium-ion batteries that drive electric vehicles. On March 9, 2018, President Joseph Kabila updated the 2002 mining code, increasing royalty charges and declaring cobalt and coltan "strategic metals". The 2002 mining code was effectively updated on December 4, 2018. In December 2019, International Rights Advocates, a human rights NGO, filed a landmark lawsuit against Apple, Tesla, Dell, Microsoft and Google company Alphabet for "knowingly benefiting from and aiding and abetting the cruel and brutal use of young children" in mining cobalt. The companies in question denied their involvement in child labour. ### Canada In 2017, some exploration companies were planning to survey old silver and cobalt mines in the area of Cobalt, Ontario, where significant deposits are believed to lie. ### Cuba Canada's Sherritt International processes cobalt ores in nickel deposits from the Moa mines in Cuba, and the island has several others mines in Mayarí, Camagüey, and Pinar del Rio. Continued investments by Sherritt International in Cuban nickel and cobalt production while acquiring mining rights for 17–20 years made the communist country third for cobalt reserves in 2019, before Canada itself. ### Indonesia Starting from smaller amounts in 2021, Indonesia began producing cobalt as a byproduct of nickel production. By 2022, the country had become the world's second-largest cobalt producer, with Benchmark Mineral Intelligence forecasting Indonesian output to make up 20 percent of global production by 2030. ## Applications In 2016, 116,000 tonnes (128,000 short tons) of cobalt was used. Cobalt has been used in the production of high-performance alloys. It is also used in some rechargeable batteries. ### Alloys Cobalt-based superalloys have historically consumed most of the cobalt produced. The temperature stability of these alloys makes them suitable for turbine blades for gas turbines and aircraft jet engines, although nickel-based single-crystal alloys surpass them in performance. Cobalt-based alloys are also corrosion- and wear-resistant, making them, like titanium, useful for making orthopedic implants that do not wear down over time. The development of wear-resistant cobalt alloys started in the first decade of the 20th century with the stellite alloys, containing chromium with varying quantities of tungsten and carbon. Alloys with chromium and tungsten carbides are very hard and wear-resistant. Special cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloys like Vitallium are used for prosthetic parts (hip and knee replacements). Cobalt alloys are also used for dental prosthetics as a useful substitute for nickel, which may be allergenic. Some high-speed steels also contain cobalt for increased heat and wear resistance. The special alloys of aluminium, nickel, cobalt and iron, known as Alnico, and of samarium and cobalt (samarium–cobalt magnet) are used in permanent magnets. It is also alloyed with 95% platinum for jewelry, yielding an alloy suitable for fine casting, which is also slightly magnetic. ### Batteries Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO<sub>2</sub>) is widely used in lithium-ion battery cathodes. The material is composed of cobalt oxide layers with the lithium intercalated. During discharge (i.e. when not actively being charged), the lithium is released as lithium ions. Nickel–cadmium (NiCd) and nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries also include cobalt to improve the oxidation of nickel in the battery. Transparency Market Research estimated the global lithium-ion battery market at \$30 billion in 2015 and predicted an increase to over US\$75 billion by 2024. Although in 2018 most cobalt in batteries was used in a mobile device, a more recent application for cobalt is rechargeable batteries for electric cars. This industry has increased five-fold in its demand for cobalt, which makes it urgent to find new raw materials in more stable areas of the world. Demand is expected to continue or increase as the prevalence of electric vehicles increases. Exploration in 2016–2017 included the area around Cobalt, Ontario, an area where many silver mines ceased operation decades ago. Cobalt for electric vehicles increased 81% from the first half of 2018 to 7,200 tonnes in the first half of 2019, for a battery capacity of 46.3 GWh. Since child and slave labor have been repeatedly reported in cobalt mining, primarily in the artisanal mines of DR Congo, technology companies seeking an ethical supply chain have faced shortages of this raw material and the price of cobalt metal reached a nine-year high in October 2017, more than US\$30 a pound, versus US\$10 in late 2015. After oversupply, the price dropped to a more normal \$15 in 2019. As a reaction to the issues with artisanal cobalt mining in DR Congo a number of cobalt suppliers and their customers have formed the Fair Cobalt Alliance (FCA) which aims to end the use of child labor and to improve the working conditions of cobalt mining and processing in the DR Congo. Members of FCA include Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt, Sono Motors, the Responsible Cobalt Initiative, Fairphone, Glencore and Tesla, Inc. Research is being conducted by the European Union into the possibility of eliminating cobalt requirements in lithium-ion battery production. As of August 2020 battery makers have gradually reduced the cathode cobalt content from 1/3 (NMC 111) to 1/5 (NMC 442) to currently 1/10 (NMC 811) and have also introduced the cobalt free lithium iron phosphate cathode into the battery packs of electric cars such as the Tesla Model 3. In September 2020, Tesla outlined their plans to make their own, cobalt-free battery cells. Lithium iron phosphate batteries officially surpassed ternary cobalt batteries in 2021 with 52% of installed capacity. Analysts estimate that its market share will exceed 60% in 2024. ### Catalysts Several cobalt compounds are oxidation catalysts. Cobalt acetate is used to convert xylene to terephthalic acid, the precursor of the bulk polymer polyethylene terephthalate. Typical catalysts are the cobalt carboxylates (known as cobalt soaps). They are also used in paints, varnishes, and inks as "drying agents" through the oxidation of drying oils. However, their use is being phased out due to toxicity concerns. The same carboxylates are used to improve the adhesion between steel and rubber in steel-belted radial tires. In addition they are used as accelerators in polyester resin systems. Cobalt-based catalysts are used in reactions involving carbon monoxide. Cobalt is also a catalyst in the Fischer–Tropsch process for the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide into liquid fuels. Hydroformylation of alkenes often uses cobalt octacarbonyl as a catalyst. The hydrodesulfurization of petroleum uses a catalyst derived from cobalt and molybdenum. This process helps to clean petroleum of sulfur impurities that interfere with the refining of liquid fuels. ### Pigments and coloring Before the 19th century, cobalt was predominantly used as a pigment. It has been used since the Middle Ages to make smalt, a blue-colored glass. Smalt is produced by melting a mixture of roasted mineral smaltite, quartz and potassium carbonate, which yields a dark blue silicate glass, which is finely ground after the production. Smalt was widely used to color glass and as pigment for paintings. In 1780, Sven Rinman discovered cobalt green, and in 1802 Louis Jacques Thénard discovered cobalt blue. Cobalt pigments such as cobalt blue (cobalt aluminate), cerulean blue (cobalt(II) stannate), various hues of cobalt green (a mixture of cobalt(II) oxide and zinc oxide), and cobalt violet (cobalt phosphate) are used as artist's pigments because of their superior chromatic stability. ### Radioisotopes Cobalt-60 (Co-60 or <sup>60</sup>Co) is useful as a gamma-ray source because it can be produced in predictable amounts with high activity by bombarding cobalt with neutrons. It produces gamma rays with energies of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV. Cobalt is used in external beam radiotherapy, sterilization of medical supplies and medical waste, radiation treatment of foods for sterilization (cold pasteurization), industrial radiography (e.g. weld integrity radiographs), density measurements (e.g. concrete density measurements), and tank fill height switches. The metal has the unfortunate property of producing a fine dust, causing problems with radiation protection. Cobalt from radiotherapy machines has been a serious hazard when not discarded properly, and one of the worst radiation contamination accidents in North America occurred in 1984, when a discarded radiotherapy unit containing cobalt-60 was mistakenly disassembled in a junkyard in Juarez, Mexico. Cobalt-60 has a radioactive half-life of 5.27 years. Loss of potency requires periodic replacement of the source in radiotherapy and is one reason why cobalt machines have been largely replaced by linear accelerators in modern radiation therapy. Cobalt-57 (Co-57 or <sup>57</sup>Co) is a cobalt radioisotope most often used in medical tests, as a radiolabel for vitamin B uptake, and for the Schilling test. Cobalt-57 is used as a source in Mössbauer spectroscopy and is one of several possible sources in X-ray fluorescence devices. Nuclear weapon designs could intentionally incorporate <sup>59</sup>Co, some of which would be activated in a nuclear explosion to produce <sup>60</sup>Co. The <sup>60</sup>Co, dispersed as nuclear fallout, is sometimes called a cobalt bomb. ### Other uses - Cobalt is used in electroplating for its attractive appearance, hardness, and resistance to oxidation. - It is also used as a base primer coat for porcelain enamels. ## Biological role Cobalt is essential to the metabolism of all animals. It is a key constituent of cobalamin, also known as vitamin B<sub>12</sub>, the primary biological reservoir of cobalt as an ultratrace element. Bacteria in the stomachs of ruminant animals convert cobalt salts into vitamin B<sub>12</sub>, a compound which can only be produced by bacteria or archaea. A minimal presence of cobalt in soils therefore markedly improves the health of grazing animals, and an uptake of 0.20 mg/kg a day is recommended, because they have no other source of vitamin B<sub>12</sub>. Proteins based on cobalamin use corrin to hold the cobalt. Coenzyme B<sub>12</sub> features a reactive C-Co bond that participates in the reactions. In humans, B<sub>12</sub> has two types of alkyl ligand: methyl and adenosyl. MeB<sub>12</sub> promotes methyl (−CH<sub>3</sub>) group transfers. The adenosyl version of B<sub>12</sub> catalyzes rearrangements in which a hydrogen atom is directly transferred between two adjacent atoms with concomitant exchange of the second substituent, X, which may be a carbon atom with substituents, an oxygen atom of an alcohol, or an amine. Methylmalonyl coenzyme A mutase (MUT) converts MMl-CoA to Su-CoA, an important step in the extraction of energy from proteins and fats. Although far less common than other metalloproteins (e.g. those of zinc and iron), other cobaltoproteins are known besides B<sub>12</sub>. These proteins include methionine aminopeptidase 2, an enzyme that occurs in humans and other mammals that does not use the corrin ring of B<sub>12</sub>, but binds cobalt directly. Another non-corrin cobalt enzyme is nitrile hydratase, an enzyme in bacteria that metabolizes nitriles. ### Cobalt deficiency In humans, consumption of cobalt-containing vitamin B<sub>12</sub> meets all needs for cobalt. For cattle and sheep, which meet vitamin B<sub>12</sub> needs via synthesis by resident bacteria in the rumen, there is a function for inorganic cobalt. In the early 20th century, during the development of farming on the North Island Volcanic Plateau of New Zealand, cattle suffered from what was termed "bush sickness". It was discovered that the volcanic soils lacked the cobalt salts essential for the cattle food chain. The "coast disease" of sheep in the Ninety Mile Desert of the Southeast of South Australia in the 1930s was found to originate in nutritional deficiencies of trace elements cobalt and copper. The cobalt deficiency was overcome by the development of "cobalt bullets", dense pellets of cobalt oxide mixed with clay given orally for lodging in the animal's rumen. ## Health issues The LD<sub>50</sub> value for soluble cobalt salts has been estimated to be between 150 and 500 mg/kg. In the US, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has designated a permissible exposure limit (PEL) in the workplace as a time-weighted average (TWA) of 0.1 mg/m<sup>3</sup>. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.05 mg/m<sup>3</sup>, time-weighted average. The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) value is 20 mg/m<sup>3</sup>. However, chronic cobalt ingestion has caused serious health problems at doses far less than the lethal dose. In 1966, the addition of cobalt compounds to stabilize beer foam in Canada led to a peculiar form of toxin-induced cardiomyopathy, which came to be known as beer drinker's cardiomyopathy. Furthermore, cobalt metal is suspected of causing cancer (i.e., possibly carcinogenic, IARC Group 2B) as per the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Monographs. It causes respiratory problems when inhaled. It also causes skin problems when touched; after nickel and chromium, cobalt is a major cause of contact dermatitis.
1,160,500	Didsbury	1,171,899,983	Suburban village of Manchester	[ "Areas of Manchester", "Didsbury" ]	Didsbury is a suburban village in Manchester, Greater Manchester, England, on the north bank of the River Mersey, 5 miles (8 kilometres) south of Manchester city centre. The population at the 2011 census was 26,788. Within the boundaries of the historic county of Lancashire, there are records of Didsbury existing as a small hamlet as early as the 13th century. Its early history was dominated by being part of the Manor of Withington, a feudal estate that covered a large part of what is now the south of Manchester. Didsbury was described during the 18th century as a township separate from outside influence. In 1745 Charles Edward Stuart crossed the Mersey at Didsbury in the Jacobite march south from Manchester to Derby, and again in the subsequent retreat. Didsbury was largely rural until the mid-19th century, when it underwent development and urbanisation during the Industrial Revolution. It became part of Manchester in 1904. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds was formed in Didsbury in 1889. ## History ### Toponymy Didsbury derives its name from the Anglo-Saxon Dyddi's burg, probably referring to a man known as Dyddi whose stronghold or township it was on a low cliff overlooking a place where the River Mersey could be forded. In the 13th century Didsbury was variously referred to as Dydesbyre, Dydesbiri, Didsbury or Dodesbury. ### Parish church A charter granted in about 1260 shows that a corn-grinding mill was operating in Didsbury, along the River Mersey, but the earliest reference to Didsbury is in a document dating from 1235, recording a grant of land for the building of a chapel. The church was named St James Church in 1855. It underwent major refurbishment in 1620 and again in the 19th century, although most of the stonework visible today dates from the 17th century. A parsonage was built next to one of the two public houses that flanked the nearby village green, Ye Olde Cock Inn, so-called because of the cockfighting that used to take place there. The parsonage soon gained a reputation for being haunted; servants refused to sleep on the premises, and it was abandoned in 1850. Local alderman Fletcher Moss bought the house in 1865, and lived in it for more than 40 years. In 1902, he installed a gateway complete with wrought iron gates which he purchased from the soon to be demolished Spread Eagle Hotel in central Manchester which he once owned, at the entrance to the parsonage's garden, which, because of the building's reputation, became known locally as "the gates to Hell". The parsonage is now open to the community and used as exhibition rooms for various forms of art. The gardens are still open to the public. The area around St James' Church has the highest concentration of listed buildings in Manchester, outside the city centre. ### River Mersey Didsbury was one of the few places between Stretford and Stockport where the River Mersey could be forded, which made it significant for troop movements during the English Civil War, in which Manchester was on the Parliamentarian side. The Royalist commander, Prince Rupert, stationed himself at Didsbury Ees, to the south of Barlow Moor. A section of the Jacobite army including the Duke of Perth crossed the Mersey at Didsbury in 1745 in the Jacobite march south from Manchester to Derby. Bonnie Prince Charlie crossed at Stockport. ### Immigration from Europe Jewish immigrants started to arrive in Manchester from the late 18th century, initially settling mainly in the suburbs to the north of the city. From the 1890s onwards, many of them moved to what were seen as the more "sophisticated" suburbs in the south, such as Withington and Didsbury. The influx of Jewish immigrants led to West Didsbury being nicknamed "Yidsbury" and Palatine Road, a main road through West Didsbury, "Palestine Road". A growing population of German merchants and industrialists in the mid-19th century earned Manchester the nickname of "the German city". In the Didsbury area, the Souchays were a well-known merchant family of Huguenot descent with connections to Germany. John D. Souchay built Eltville House, a large residence on the corner of Fog Lane and Wilmslow Road (a site bounded today by Clayton Avenue and Clothorn Road). The house, named after Eltville in Germany, had a pair of gate lodges at its Wilmslow Road entrance and the Ball Brook ran through its large garden. Other members of the family, Charles (or Carl) and Adelaide (or Adelheid) Souchay, lived nearby at Withington House on Wilmslow Road (the present site of the telephone exchange at Old Broadway). The Souchays were related to Cécile Mendelssohn Bartholdy, wife of the German composer Felix Mendelssohn. In the 1840s, Mendelssohn made several visits to Britain and stayed with the Souchays; he wrote a number of letter to friends with "Eltville House, Withington" as the return address. The Souchays were members of St Paul's Church, Withington; Mendelssohn gave a recital on the newly installed pipe organ there in 1847, and the first wedding to take place there was that of John Souchay's eldest daughter in 1850. The Souchays are buried in St Paul's churchyard. Eltville House was purchased by Jame Clayton Chorlton in 1888 and he renamed it Didsbury Priory. The Chorltons often opened their private garden to the public during springtime. Among the other German industrialists in Didsbury was Johann Georg Silkenstadt, a cotton merchant who moved to the area from Bremen in 1865. He and his wife Josephine Helene built Rose Bank on Palatine Road in West Didsbury in 1872. Their only daughter, Marie Louise, married William Murray Caldwell Greaves Bagshawe of Ford Hall in Chapel-en-le-Frith, Derbyshire. The Silkenstadts built for Greystoke Hall as a wedding present for them next to their family home. Marie Louise died of peritonitis in 1891, and her father died the following year. The grieving Josephine Silkenstadt created a 5-acre (20,000 m<sup>2</sup>) public botanical garden opposite their house, named Marie Louise Gardens in memory of her late daughter, and bequeathed it to Withington Urban District Council. The gardens and the Lodge were designed by the civil engineer Joshua Cartwright, and were formally opened in June 1903 by James Kenyon. ### 19th and 20th centuries During the Victorian expansion of Manchester, Didsbury developed as a prosperous settlement; a few mansions from the period still exist on Wilmslow Road between Didsbury village and Parrs Wood to the east and Withington to the north, but they have now been converted to nursing homes and offices. The opening of the Manchester South District Line by the Midland Railway in 1880 contributed greatly to the rapid growth in the population of Didsbury. Easy rail connections to Manchester Central were now provided from Didsbury railway station in Didsbury Village, and from Withington & West Didsbury on Palatine Road. Didsbury station was also served by Express trains from Manchester to London St Pancras. Further expansion of the railways ensued when the London & North Western Railway's Styal Line from Manchester London Road to Wilmslow opened in 1909, introducing two new stations to the area, East Didsbury & Parrs Wood and Burnage. In 1910, A stone clock tower and water fountain was erected outside Didsbury Midland Railway station in memory of local doctor and campaigner for the poor, Dr. J. Milson Rhodes. On 28 April 1910, French pilot Louis Paulhan landed his Farman biplane in Barcicroft Fields, Pytha Fold Farm, on the borders of Withington, Burnage and Didsbury, at the end of the first flight from London to Manchester in under 24 hours, with one short overnight stop at Lichfield. Arriving at 5:30 am, Paulhan beat the British contender, Claude Grahame-White, winning a £10,000 prize offered by the Daily Mail. This was the first powered flight into Manchester from any point outside the city. Two special trains were chartered to the newly built but unopened Burnage railway station to take spectators to the landing, many of whom had stood throughout the night. Paulhan's progress was followed throughout by a special train carrying his wife, Henri Farman and his mechanics. Afterwards, his train took the party to a civic reception given by the Lord Mayor of Manchester in the town hall. A house in Paulhan Road, constructed in the 1930s near the site of his landing, is marked by a blue plaque to commemorate his achievement. In 1921, a war memorial was erected outside Didsbury Library, on the opposite side of the road to the Midland Railway station. Dedicated to the memory of the 174 local servicemen who fell in World War I, it was unveiled by Edward Stanley, 17th Earl of Derby. After World War II, a further 67 names were added. Further transport enhancements came in the form of two new arterial roads which were constructed at the peripheral edges of Didsbury 1928–1930: Kingsway (named after King George V) through East Didsbury; and Princess Road through West Didsbury. Both were laid out as dual carriageways for motor vehicles with a segregated tram track along the central reservation. Manchester Corporation Tramways operated a tram line from Parrs Wood via Burnage into Manchester city centre until 1949, when the service was closed. In the postwar years, passenger train services on the South District Line (now part of British Rail) were gradually reduced, and in 1967 the line was closed as part of the Beeching cuts. For some years the old station building was in use as Station Hardware and DIY store, before it was demolished in 1982. ## Governance ### Civic history In the early 13th century, Didsbury lay within the manor of Withington, a feudal estate that also included the townships of Withington, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Moss Side, Rusholme, Burnage, Denton and Haughton, ruled by the Hathersage, Longford and Tatton families, and within the historic county boundaries of Lancashire. Didsbury remained within the manor of Withington for several centuries. By 1764, Didsbury was described as a township in its own right. It became a civil parish in 1866, and in 1876 was incorporated into the Withington Urban Sanitary District, superseded in 1894 by the creation of Withington Urban District. Withington Urban District was a subdivision of the administrative county of Lancashire, created as part of the provisions of the Local Government Act 1894. In 1904, Withington Urban District was amalgamated into the city and county borough of Manchester, and so Didsbury was absorbed into Manchester, although it remained a civil parish until 1910. Following the Local Government Act 1972, Manchester became a metropolitan borough of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester. ### Political representation Didsbury is in the parliamentary constituency of Manchester Withington, and is represented by Jeff Smith MP, a member of the Labour Party. Until 2004, most of the area formed the Didsbury ward of Manchester City Council with a section of West Didsbury contained within the Barlow Moor ward. However, boundary changes in 2004 resulted in Didsbury being split mainly between the two new wards of Didsbury East and Didsbury West while a small section of West Didsbury was incorporated into the new ward of Chorlton Park. Didsbury East is represented by Labour councillors Linda Foley, James Wilson and Andrew Simcock. Didsbury West is represented by Labour councillors Debbie Hilal and Greg Stanton, and Liberal Democrat councillor John Leech. All wards within Manchester elect in thirds on a four yearly cycle. ## Geography Didsbury, at (53.4166, −2.2311), is south of the midpoint of the Greater Manchester Urban Area, 4+1⁄2 miles (7 kilometres) south of Manchester city centre. To the north, Didsbury is bordered by Withington, Chorlton-cum-Hardy and Burnage, to the west by Northenden, to the east and south-east by Heaton Mersey and Cheadle, and by Gatley to the south. The River Mersey forms Didsbury's southern and southwestern boundaries and certain stretches of the river also demarcate the boundaries of the City of Manchester. The area is generally considered to be roughly enclosed by Princess Parkway to the west, Kingsway to the east and the Ball Brook, just north of Lapwing Lane/Fog Lane to the north. This northern boundary is marked by a boundary stone in the front garden wall of a house on the west side of Wilmslow Road. A "country trail" passes from West Didsbury to East, named the Trans Pennine Trail (National Cycle Route 62). It was sited along a disused railway track, as part of a nationwide initiative to promote cycling. Didsbury's built environment has developed around the areas of East Didsbury, West Didsbury, and Didsbury Village, which separates the two. The Albert Park conservation area, covering much of West Didsbury, places planning restrictions on development, alterations to buildings, and pruning of trees. The areas adjacent to the Mersey lie within the river's flood plain, and so have historically been prone to flooding after heavy rainfall. The last major flooding was in the late 1960s. In the 1970s extensive flood mitigation work carried out along the Mersey Valley through Manchester has helped to speed up the passage of floodwater. Fletcher Moss Botanical Garden also acts as an emergency flood basin, storing floodwater until it can be safely released back into the river. Parts of the local flood plain, much of Fletcher Moss Botanical Garden, the whole of nearby Didsbury Park and many of the listed buildings in the area are grouped into the St. James' Conservation area, which is centred on Wilmslow Road, just south of Didsbury Village. ## Demography The United Kingdom Census 2001 recorded Didsbury as having a population of 14,292, of whom 87% were born in the United Kingdom. A large majority of residents, 88%, identified themselves as white, 8% as Asian, 2% as mixed ethnicity, 1% black and 1% Chinese or other ethnic group. The under-16s accounted for 17% of the population, and the over-65s for 15%. The population density in 2001 was 5,276/square mile (2,037/km<sup>2</sup>). In May 2021 a claim published by the Daily Mail that Didsbury was among a number of "no-go areas for white people" attracted media criticism. ## Economy As of the UK's 2001 census, Didsbury had an estimated workforce of 10,755 or 75% of the population. Economic status in Didsbury was: 48% in full-time employment, 11% retired, 10% self-employed, 8% in part-time employment, 4% full-time student (without job), 4% housewife/husband or carer, 4% permanently sick or disabled, 4% unemployed and 2% economically inactive for unstated reasons. Didsbury's 48% rate of full-time employment compares with 33% in Manchester and 41% across the whole of England. The area's 4% unemployment rate is in contrast to Manchester's rate of 9% and broadly in line with the 5% rate of unemployment for England. In 2001, the main industries of employment in Didsbury were 20% property and business services, 15% education, 15% health and social work, 10% retail and wholesale, 9% manufacturing, 6% transport and communications, 5% financial services, 4% hotels and restaurants, 4% construction, 4% public administration and defence, and 8% other. These figures were similar to those from surrounding areas, but Didsbury did have a relatively larger education sector than other nearby wards, perhaps explained by the high density of schools in the area. A significant number of people (12%) commute to areas outside Didsbury; at the 2001 census there were 6,555 jobs in Didsbury, compared with the 7,417 employed residents. Siemens' UK head office is in West Didsbury, occupying Sir William Siemens House and the Turing building, employing around 800 people here. The head office of BA CityFlyer is in Didsbury. British Airways has an office with 300 employees in Pioneer House on the 292,000 square feet (27,100 m2), Dutch-owned Towers Business Park. In 2005, other tenants of the business park included Cisco, IWG, Logica, Trinity Integrated Systems and Thorn Lighting. Didsbury is considered to form a 'stockbroker belt', as it is Manchester's most affluent suburb. ## Culture The original site of Didsbury Village is in the conservation area now known as Didsbury St James, about half a mile (1 km) to the south of what is today's village centre. The old village green is now the beer garden of The Didsbury pub. The traditional independent retailers are gradually being replaced by multi-national firms, raising fears that Didsbury may lose its individual identity and become a "clone town". However, independent traders continue to thrive, especially along Burton Road in West Didsbury, which celebrates its independent spirit each year with the two-day Westfest festival. The 200-year-old Peacock's Funeral Parlour, one of the few pre-Victorian buildings in the village and regarded by some as the centrepiece of the village, was demolished in the summer of 2005 to make way for a new branch of Boots the Chemists. The owner, United Co-op, blamed changing demographics for the closure of the funeral parlour; with more and more homes being occupied by young professional people, the death rate was falling in the area. ### Green areas The Fletcher Moss Botanical Garden is a 21-acre (8-hectare) recreational park south of the village centre. It is named after local Alderman Fletcher Moss, who donated the park to the city of Manchester in 1919. In 2008, it won the Green Flag Award, the national standard for parks and green spaces in England, an award it has held since 2000. Alderman Fletcher Moss was also responsible for restoring the gardens surrounding the old parsonage of St James's Church. Today, the Parsonage Gardens are open to the public, and the former parsonage house is now in use as an art gallery and community building. Didsbury Park was also a winner of the Green Flag Award in 2008. It is a community park in Didsbury village centre that comprises a bowls area, crèche, football pitch and play area. Once a year, at the Didsbury Festival, pupils from local schools dress up to a theme and meet in the playground of St. Catherine's Primary School from where they parade to Didsbury Park. Marie Louise Gardens is a relatively small park to the west of the centre of Didsbury, opened in 1903 in memory of Marie Louise Silkenstadt. The gardens are planted out with a number of rare and unusual tree species. The park was at the centre of controversy in 2007 after Manchester City Council proposed to sell a portion of it to a private property developer. In the northern part of Didsbury lies Fog Lane Park, a large municipal green space which borders on Withington and Burnage. The park, which features playing fields and ornamental gardens, was established in 1926 by the Manchester Corporation. The park also contains basketball courts, tennis courts, a skate park and a children's play area. Fog Lane takes its name from Yorkshire-fog, a type of wild grass. ## Media Between 1956 and 1969, the old Capitol Theatre at the junction of Parrs Wood Road and School Lane served as the northern studios of ITV station ABC Weekend Television. Programmes such as Opportunity Knocks and Police Surgeon were made in the studios. ABC ceased to use the site in 1968 when it lost its ITV franchise, on its merger with fellow ITV company Rediffusion. The site was then used briefly by Yorkshire Television until its own facilities in Leeds were ready. In 1971, the studios were acquired by Manchester Polytechnic, who used it for cinema, television studies and theatre. The building was demolished in the late 1990s to make way for a residential development, but the name lives on in the form of a new theatre space in the heart of the M.M.U. campus in the All Saints area along Oxford Road, just to the south of Manchester city centre. Until 2009 Didsbury was the base for one of the Manchester Evening News subsidiaries, the South Manchester Reporter. ## Transport ### Roads Didsbury is close to junction 5 of Manchester's ring road, the M60 motorway. ### Air Manchester Airport, the busiest airport in the UK outside London, is situated about 4 miles (6.5 km) to the south. ### Bus Didsbury is served by bus routes on the Wilmslow Road bus corridor, said to be the busiest bus corridor in Europe. There are frequent bus services into Manchester city centre, The Trafford Centre, Northenden and other destinations. Services include: - 23: Stockport – Didsbury – Chorlton-cum-Hardy – Stretford – Urmston – Trafford Centre. - 42: Stockport – Didsbury – Withington – Manchester Royal Infirmary – Manchester. ### Railway The nearest commuter railway stations to Didsbury are East Didsbury and Burnage on the Styal Line, which runs between Manchester Piccadilly and Manchester Airport. The stations were opened in 1909 by the London and North Western Railway. East Didsbury is served additionally by regional trains to destinations including Liverpool Lime Street, Crewe, Chester and Llandudno. Until the 1960s, the suburb was also served by two stations on the South District Line from Manchester Central: Withington and West Didsbury station on Lapwing Lane (closed in 1961) and Didsbury station (closed in 1967, during the Beeching Axe). Both stations have since been demolished, although new stops on Manchester's Metrolink have since risen in their place. ### Metrolink The area is served by the Manchester Metrolink light rail/tram with three tram stops at , and . The tram route uses a reopened section of the former Midland Railway line. Proposals were first announced in 1984 to reopen the disused line as part of the Project Light Rail scheme and the former Didsbury station was to reopen under the name of Didsbury Central or Didsbury Village. The first phase of the Manchester Metrolink light rail/tram system opened in 1992 but, due to funding problems, the old trackbed through Didsbury remained derelict for over 20 years until it was reopened in 2013. Rather than reopening the old Midland Railway station on Wilmslow Road, it was decided instead to locate the new Didsbury Village tram stop further down the line at School Lane. ## Education Didsbury has a non-selective education system, assessed by the SATs exam. There are seven primary schools and two state comprehensive secondary schools. The Barlow RC High School is one of those chosen by Manchester Council to benefit from funding made available in wave 4 of the government's Building Schools for the Future programme, a national scheme for the refurbishment and remodelling of every secondary school in England. It is planned to replace all the current buildings, which date back to 1951. Parrs Wood and The Barlow were two of only six schools in Manchester to achieve the Manchester Inclusion Standard in 2007, awarded by Manchester Council to those schools doing innovative work to ensure that all their pupils are able to participate fully in the school's activities. There is one centre of further and higher education in Didsbury: The Manchester College, (formerly City College Manchester) Fielden Campus, which was opened in 1972 by Margaret Thatcher, offers a variety of courses including communication and technology. Manchester Metropolitan University's Didsbury Campus, the former Didsbury School of Education, was home to the faculties of health, social care, and education, along with the Broomhurst Hall of Residence. The University closed the campus and sold the land in 2014. ### Primary schools - Beaver Road Primary School - Broad Oak Primary School - Cavendish Community Primary School - Didsbury CE Primary School - St Catherine's RC Primary School - West Didsbury CE Primary School - St Ambrose RC Primary School ### Secondary schools - Parrs Wood High School Parrs Wood, with about 2,000 pupils on its register, is much larger than the average, and is regularly over-subscribed in Year 7. In its 2007 inspection report by the Office for Standards in Education, Children's Services and Skills (Ofsted) the school was criticised for "failing to give its pupils an acceptable standard of education", and for providing "unsatisfactory" value for money. However, in 2012 it came out of special measures and Ofsted deemed it a "satisfactory" school with aspects of "good teaching" and "good management". - The Barlow RC High School The Barlow RC High School is an average size secondary school, with about 1,000 pupils. It too is regularly over-subscribed. It was described in its October 2003 Ofsted report as "a successful and effective school that is providing a good education for its pupils". ### Special and alternative schools - The Birches School - Lancasterian School ## Religion It is uncertain when the first chapel was built in Didsbury, but it is thought to have been before the middle of the 13th century. When the plague reached the village in 1352 the chapel yard was consecrated to provide a cemetery for the victims, it being "inconvenient to carry the dead all the way to Manchester". The BBC Radio 4 Daily Service programme of Christian worship – the world's oldest continuous radio programme – is often broadcast from Emmanuel Church, on Barlow Moor Road. Two of Didsbury's religious buildings are Grade II listed: Didsbury Methodist Church of St Paul (now an office building), and the Nazarene Theological College which hosts the Didsbury Lectures. Didsbury was once the location of a Methodist training college, the Wesleyan Theological Institution; the Grade II\*-listed building became Didsbury School of Education, part of Manchester Metropolitan University. and has now been converted to private housing. Didsbury is in the Church of England Diocese of Manchester, and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Salford. It is not as religiously diverse as some other areas of Manchester, but it has the second largest Jewish population in the borough and two synagogues: the Shaare Hayim Synagogue and the Sha'are Sedek Synagogue. Didsbury has a medium-sized Muslim population in comparison with areas such as Rusholme, Longsight and Levenshulme; a converted church in West Didsbury houses the Didsbury Mosque and Islamic Centre. ## Sport Didsbury Sports Centre, on Wilmslow Road, is a part of the Manchester Metropolitan University campus. It provides a fitness suite with classes and facilities for badminton and tennis. Didsbury has two rugby union clubs, Toc H R.F.C. and Old Bedians. Toc H, founded in 1924, plays at Simons Fields, on Ford Lane. Its first team plays in the North Lancashire and Cumbria league. The club runs four senior teams and a youth section; it has run a 10-a-side competition every May since 1951, as a charity fund raiser for local hospices. Old Bedians is based in East Didsbury and was founded in 1954. It regularly fields three senior teams as well as a junior section. Desmond Pastore, believed to be the oldest rugby player in the world, was a founder member of the club and later became its president. Formerly a player for Sale and Cheshire, Desmond played his last game for Manchester club Egor on his 91st birthday. Bedians AFC, an amateur football club that was founded in 1928, share the Underbank Farm ground with Old Bedians RUFC. Didsbury Cricket Club fields four Saturday teams, two Women's teams and a Sunday team. The 1st XI plays in the Cheshire County ECB Premier League. The Women's teams compete in the Cheshire Womens Cricket League, and their junior section play in the Cheshire High Peak Junior Cricket League. It is also home to Manchester Waconians Lacrosse Club and Didsbury Grey's Women's Hockey Team, which do not actually play at the site but at grounds in Belle Vue, that were designed for the XVII Commonwealth Games. Northern Tennis Club, in West Didsbury, is one of Manchester's few racquet clubs; it plays host to an Association of Tennis Professionals tournament annually every July. ## Public services Withington Community Hospital, opened in 2005, occupies part of the site of the former (and much larger) Withington Hospital, developed on the site of a workhouse some of whose buildings are still evident. Didsbury is covered by the South Manchester Division of Greater Manchester Police. The Towers, formerly the Shirley Institute, was once the home of engineer Daniel Adamson – the driving force behind the Manchester Ship Canal project – and the venue where the decision to build the canal was taken. The house was designed by Salford architect Thomas Worthington, for the editor and proprietor of the Manchester Guardian, John Edward Taylor. ## Notable people - Daniel Adamson, promoter of the Manchester Ship Canal, lived at the Towers (blue plaque – once the Shirley Institute) on Wilmslow Road from 1874 until his death in 1890. His Grade II listed home, designed by Thomas Worthington for John Edward Taylor, the editor and proprietor of the Manchester Guardian, was the venue for the 1882 meeting at which it was decided to construct the ship canal project. - Dame Kathleen Ollerenshaw, mathematician, local politician, co-founder of the Royal Northern College of Music - Emily Williamson, a pioneer of wildlife protection, was a resident of Didsbury from 1882 to 1912. She founded the Plumage League in 1889 and went on to co-found the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) in 1904. In 1989 a plaque was placed on her former home, the Croft, to honour the centenary of the organisation, although it did not actually mention Williamson by name. - Sidney Bernstein and Denis Forman who created Granada Television Manchester also lived in Didsbury during their work requirements at the Granada Studios in Manchester. - Plant ecologist Verona Conway was born in Didsbury in 1910. - Lord Marcus Joseph Sieff, the chairman of Marks & Spencer from 1972 to 1982, was born in Didsbury in 1913. - Francis French, author and noted space historian, grew up in Didsbury, and attended the same school as noted poet and novelist Sophie Hannah. - Carol Ann Duffy, the first female Poet Laureate, lives in West Didsbury as of 2009. - Nigel Henbest, astronomer, author and television producer, was born in West Didsbury in 1951. - Philip Irwin, cricketer and Royal Navy officer, was born in Didsbury in 1884. - Martin Lewis, journalist, was born in Withington Hospital and spent his earliest years growing up in Didsbury. - Howard Spring – novelist and journalist for The Manchester Guardian lived in Didsbury 1915–1930 whilst working for the Guardian. Several novels including Shabby Tiger were based in Manchester. - Broadcaster and humanitarian Olive Shapley lived on Millgate Lane 1953–1981, where she ran a refuge for single mothers, and later for Vietnamese boat people. A street in Didsbury is named after her, Olive Shapley Avenue. - Actress Holliday Grainger was born in Didsbury. - Rik Mayall lived in East Didsbury whilst attending Manchester University in the mid-1970's. - Comedian and writer Caroline Aherne lived in Didsbury with her musician husband Peter Hook in the mid-1990s. ## See also - Listed buildings in Manchester-M20
6,701,524	Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project	1,169,405,146	Project to add new information about past North Atlantic hurricanes	[ "Atlantic hurricanes" ]	The Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration seeks to correct and add new information about past North Atlantic hurricanes. It was started around 2000 to update HURDAT, the official hurricane database for the Atlantic Basin, which has become outdated since its creation due to various systematic errors introduced into the database over time. This effort has involved reanalyses of ship observations from the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (ICOADS) as well as reanalyses done by other researchers over the years. It has been ongoing as of 2016. ## Inaccuracies and omissions in existing data ### Errors HURDAT contains a number of errors which need to be corrected, such demonstrated by the outliers in the a pressure vs. wind speed graph of datapoints in the database (right). Some of these errors have existed since the database's creation during NASA's Apollo Program, where it was used to help produce probabilities of tropical cyclone-induced winds in critical areas such as Cape Kennedy (now Cape Canaveral). ### New information A significant amount of new data for systems between 1851 and 1886 became available after a major basin-wide reanalysis in 1996, a project led by Jose Fernandez-Paratagas with the collaboration of Henry Diaz. The new data was constructed using old newspaper articles and the hemispheric weather map series. Hurricane histories for individual states had been constructed by the 1990s as well, which proposed new storms and increased the knowledge of tropical cyclones already in the database. Due to this profusion of relevant information not included in HURDAT, and evolving definitions for tropical and subtropical cyclones over the decades, the project was started around 2000 to update the official database. Since then, the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set has been utilized to check for older ship reports which were either not utilized nor available to previous researchers. ### Incompleteness of dataset As early as 1957, it was recognized that an increasing trend in the number of tropical cyclones each season in the Atlantic Basin was at least partially tied to increasing observations and better records. By analyzing the density of ship tracks over time, it has been estimated that between 1900 and 1966, an average of two storms per year are missing from HURDAT. This is mainly due to a lack of satellite imagery and lack of reconnaissance aircraft prior to 1943. An additional storm per year is likely missing prior to the advent of new technologies. These technologies include satellite-derived Quikscat winds, satellite-derived temperature profile information, and Robert Hart's cyclone phase space diagrams, which have led to a recent increase in tropical cyclone detection. Quikscat was launched in 1999, and has been credited with allowing Chantal to be named during the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season. The last two help determine whether or not a low pressure area is an extratropical cyclone, subtropical cyclone, or tropical cyclone. Christopher Landsea noted that the efforts to reanalyze the Atlantic hurricane database > will not be able to recover observations of open ocean tropical cyclones that were just never taken. Researchers cannot assume that the Atlantic tropical cyclone database presents a complete depiction of frequency of events before the advent of satellite imagery in the mid-1960s. Moreover, newly available advanced tools and techniques are also contributing toward monitoring about one additional Atlantic tropical cyclone per year since 2002. Thus large, long-term 'trends' in tropical cyclone frequency are primarily manifestations of increased monitoring capabilities and likely not related to any real change in the climate in which they develop. The IPCC report from 2007 noted on older datasets, "The historical record typically records the central pressure and the maximum winds, but these turn out not to be physically consistent in older records, mainly prior to about the early 1970s. However, attempts at mutual adjustments result in increases in some years and decreases in others, with little effect on overall trends." However, scientist also point out that many storms remain under reported, especially those not making landfall, or staying in the open ocean. The emerging studies of geological proxies in Paleotempestology however can help to bring more trends to light, by for instance assessing sediments proxies from storm surge. ## Progress The project ranks the year 1914 as the quietest hurricane season ever for the Atlantic basin with just one tropical storm. The project has currently reanalyzed storms from the period 1886 to 1970, with 1965-1970 period being revised in January 2022, and has extended HURDAT back to 1851. In 2001, data for the years 1851–1885 were added to the official database from the Fernández-Partagás series of publications. Also, a paleotempestology conference was held at the University of South Carolina which proposed to increase the scope of HURDAT from a starting year of 1851 to a start of 1800. The conference also discussed ways of exchanging information for the inclusion of older tropical cyclones, such as via compact disc or a Wikipedia-style website. While the reanalysis has mostly proceeded sequentially, notable exceptions have been made for the reanalysis of some significant tropical cyclones. In 2002, for the tenth anniversary of Hurricane Andrew, the reanalysis was completed for the hurricane, which upgraded the cyclone to a Category 5 hurricane. In 2014, a similar reanalysis was completed for Hurricane Camille. In 2022, the Great Atlantic Hurricane of 1944 was also upgraded to a Category 5. Work by Michael Chenoweth, in collaboration with Cary Mock, increased knowledge of tropical cyclones in the Caribbean Sea for 1750 to 1786. In 2006, Chenoweth completed and published a basin-wide reassessment for old source material from the 1700 to 1855 period by using surface weather observations mainly in the form of ship reports, newspapers, and various diaries and journals from the region around the Caribbean Sea. In 2014, Michael Chenoweth and Dmitry Divine completed and published an Atlantic basin-wide reassessment for the 1851-1898 period as well. ### Future efforts in other basins There is agreement within tropical cyclone circles of doing an "Atlantic-style" reanalysis for other ocean basins. Some efforts are underway to start similar reanalyses across the western and eastern north Pacific Ocean, but are likely to take longer to complete. This is due to the need for coordination between the multiple Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres, which have the responsibility for tracking and forecasting tropical cyclones across that ocean. During February 2016, the NHC released the 1959 Mexico hurricane's reanalysis, which was the first system outside the Atlantic basin to be reassessed using methods developed for the Atlantic reanalysis process. ## See also - HURDAT (online database) - Outline of tropical cyclones - Tropical cyclones and climate change
1,554,557	USS Tecumseh (1863)	1,127,546,502	Canonicus-class monitor	[ "1863 ships", "American Civil War monitors of the United States", "American Civil War on the National Register of Historic Places", "Canonicus-class monitors", "Maritime incidents in August 1864", "National Register of Historic Places in Baldwin County, Alabama", "Ships built in Kearny, New Jersey", "Ships of the Union Navy", "Ships sunk by mines", "Shipwrecks of the Alabama coast", "Shipwrecks of the American Civil War", "Shipwrecks on the National Register of Historic Places in Alabama" ]	USS Tecumseh was a Canonicus-class monitor built for the United States Navy during the American Civil War. Although intended for forthcoming operations against Confederate fortifications guarding Mobile Bay with Rear Admiral David Farragut's West Gulf Blockading Squadron, Tecumseh was temporarily assigned to the James River Flotilla in April 1864. The ship helped to plant obstacles in the river and engaged Confederate artillery batteries in June. Tecumseh was sunk on 5 August during the Battle of Mobile Bay when she struck a mine. The ship capsized and rests upside down northwest of Fort Morgan. The Smithsonian Institution surveyed her wreck in 1967 with the intent of raising it, but ultimately decided against the project when proffered funding was withdrawn. Several other plans to raise the wreck have been made, but all have fallen through. ## Description and construction The ship was 223 feet (68 m) long overall, had a beam of 43 feet 4 inches (13.2 m) and had a maximum draft of 13 feet 6 inches (4.1 m). Tecumseh had a tonnage of 1,034 tons burthen and displaced 2,100 long tons (2,100 t). Her crew consisted of 100 officers and enlisted men. Tecumseh was powered by a two-cylinder horizontal vibrating-lever steam engine that drove one propeller using steam generated by two Stimers horizontal fire-tube boilers. The 320-indicated-horsepower (240 kW) engine gave the ship a top speed of 8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph). She carried 140–150 long tons (140–150 t) of coal. Tecumseh's main armament consisted of two smoothbore, muzzle-loading, 15-inch (381 mm) Dahlgren guns mounted in a single gun turret. Each gun weighed approximately 43,000 pounds (20,000 kg). They could fire a 350-pound (158.8 kg) shell up to a range of 2,100 yards (1,900 m) at an elevation of +7°. The exposed sides of the hull were protected by five layers of 1-inch (25 mm) wrought iron plates, backed by wood. The armor of the gun turret and the pilot house consisted of ten layers of one-inch plates. The ship's deck was protected by armor 1.5 inches (38 mm) thick. A 5-by-15-inch (130 by 380 mm) soft iron band was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent shells and fragments from jamming the turret as had happened to the older Passaic-class monitors during the First Battle of Charleston Harbor in April 1863. The base of the funnel was protected to a height of 6 feet (1.8 m) by 8 inches (200 mm) of armor. A "rifle screen" of 1⁄2-inch (13 mm) armor 3 feet (0.9 m) high was installed on the top of the turret to protected the crew against Confederate snipers based on a suggestion by Commander Tunis A. M. Craven. The contract for Tecumseh, named after the Indian chief, was awarded to Charles Secor & Co.; the ship was laid down in 1862 by the primary subcontractor Joseph Colwell at his Jersey City, New Jersey shipyard. She was launched on 12 September 1863 and commissioned on 19 April 1864 with Craven in command. The ship's construction was delayed by multiple changes ordered while she was being built that reflected battle experience with earlier monitors. This included the rebuilding of the turrets and pilot houses to increase their armor thickness from 8 inches (203 mm) to 10 inches and to replace the bolts that secured their armor plates together with rivets to prevent them from being knocked loose by the shock of impact from shells striking the turret. Other changes included deepening the hull by 18 inches (457 mm) to increase the ship's buoyancy, moving the position of the turret to balance the ship's trim and replacing all of the ship's deck armor. ## Service After commissioning, the ship was ordered to join the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron at Newport News and arrived there on 28 April. Tecumseh was ordered to protect the transports conveying Major General Benjamin Butler's Army of the James up the James River at the beginning of the Bermuda Hundred Campaign on 4 May. To prevent Confederate warships from coming down from the James, the Union forces blocked the channel in mid-June 1864. Tecumseh sank four hulks and a schooner and laid several boom across the river as part of this effort. On 21 June, Commander Craven spotted a line of breastworks that the enemy was building at Howlett's Farm and the ship opened fire at the workers. The Confederates replied with a battery of four guns near the breastworks and her sisters Canonicus and Saugus joined in the bombardment. A half-hour later, Confederate ships near Dutch Gap joined in, but their fire was ineffective because they were firing blindly at the Union monitors. During the engagement, Tecumseh fired forty-six 15-inch shells and was not hit by any Confederate shells. Craven claimed the destruction of one gun emplacement. Two days after the battle, Tecumseh sailed down the James for Norfolk, Virginia, but ran aground en route when her wire steering ropes broke after having been burned halfway through by the heat of her boilers. She was refloated four hours later and spend a week in Norfolk making repairs and taking on supplies. On 5 July, the ship got underway for Pensacola, Florida to join the West Gulf Blockading Squadron, towed by the side-wheel gunboats Augusta and Eutaw. The ship's engine had overheated en route and required a week's repairs at Port Royal, South Carolina and Augusta had to turn back with engine problems, but Eutaw and Tecumseh arrived in Pensacola on 28 July. Towed by the side-wheel gunboat Bienville, the monitor arrived off Mobile Bay on the evening of 4 August. Farragut briefed Craven on his ship's intended role in the battle. She and her sister Manhattan were to keep the ironclad ram CSS Tennessee away from the vulnerable wooden ships while they were passing Fort Morgan and then sink her. The river monitors Winnebago and Chickasaw were to engage the fort until all of the wooden ships had passed. The four monitors would form the starboard column of ships, closest to Fort Morgan, with Tecumseh in the lead, while the wooden ships formed a separate column to port. The eastern side of the channel closest to Fort Morgan was free of obstacles, but "torpedoes" were known to be present west of a prominent black buoy in the channel. At 06:47 Tecumseh opened fire on Ft. Morgan's lighthouse to test her guns. The Confederates held their fire until 07:05 when they began to shoot at the ships in both columns. By this time the Confederate ships had positioned themselves across the mouth of the channel, with Tennessee facing the unprotected side, and they started shooting as well. By 07:30 Tecumseh was about 600 yards (550 m) away from Tennessee and Craven did not think that he could intercept the Confederate ironclad before Hartford entered the channel unless he passed through the field of "torpedoes", as mines were called at the time, because of his ship's poor maneuverability. He ordered the pilot to steer directly for Tennessee. Ten minutes later, Tecumseh struck a "torpedo" 100 yards from the Tennessee and sank in less than 30 seconds. Craven and the pilot, John Collins, arrived at the foot of the ladder leading to the main deck simultaneously with water up to their waists. Craven stepped back, saying "After you, pilot", but was unable to follow him to safety before the monitor capsized. Including Craven, 94 of the crew went down with the ship. Commander James Jouett of the gunboat Metacomet dispatched a boat commanded by Acting Ensign Henry C. Nields to rescue any survivors. They successfully rescued ten men, including the pilot, and delivered them to Winnebago. Seven other survivors reached one of Tecumseh's boats and four other men swam ashore and were captured. ## Post-war The ship capsized as she sank and rests upside down in 30 feet (9.1 m) of water some 300 yards (270 m) northwest of Fort Morgan. On 3 August 1873, salvage rights for the wreck of Tecumseh were sold by the Department of the Treasury to James E. Slaughter for \$50. After the purchase, Slaughter announced that he intended to use explosives to blast the wreck into salvageable pieces. In 1876, the relatives of the men lost on Tecumseh petitioned Congress to stop the salvage. Congress quickly passed Joint Resolution No. 23 on 15 August directing the Secretary of the Treasury to return the \$50 to Slaughter, with 6% interest. The Secretary of the Navy was to assume control of the wreck and was empowered to protect Tecumseh. Congress stipulated that any salvage efforts must provide for the proper removal and burial of the vessel's dead crewmen. In the mid-1960s, the Smithsonian Institution formed the Tecumseh Project Team, which was intended to raise the ship as the centerpiece of a planned National Armed Forces Museum Park in Washington, D. C. The team found the wreck in February 1967, capsized and buried just off Fort Morgan, but the primary donor was forced to rescind the funding, so the project was suspended. "In a 1993 survey, archaeologists from East Carolina University reported the hull to be covered by a calcareous crust with only nominal surface deterioration present." In 1974, Jack Friend – a Mobile naval historian – was commissioned to examine the feasibility of raising Tecumseh and concluded that it would cost an estimated \$10 million. More modern estimates have determined a salvage and conservation cost of \$80 million. Divers from the Smithsonian Institution recovered an anchor, dishes from the ship's dining hall and a variety of other artifacts during their 1967 expedition. Tecumseh's engine room gong was also removed and is currently on display at the Hampton Roads Naval Museum. The wreck site is marked and under United States Coast Guard surveillance pending continued preservation efforts. She is considered a war grave and may not be disturbed without permission of the United States Secretary of the Navy.
10,591,031	Nguyễn Văn Nhung	1,169,800,198	South Vietnamese military officer, 1919/20-1964	[ "1960s murders in Vietnam", "1964 crimes in Vietnam", "1964 deaths", "1964 murders in Asia", "Assassinated military personnel", "Assassins of heads of state", "Date of birth unknown", "Deaths by firearm in Vietnam", "Place of birth missing", "South Vietnamese military personnel of the Vietnam War", "Vietnamese anti-communists", "Vietnamese assassins", "Year of birth uncertain" ]	Major Nguyễn Văn Nhung (1919 or 1920 – 31 January 1964) was an officer in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN). After joining the French Army in 1944 during the colonial era of Vietnam, he soon met and became the aide-de-camp and bodyguard of Dương Văn Minh, and spent the rest of his career in this role as Minh rose up the ranks to become a general. Nhung and Minh later transferred to the French-backed Vietnamese National Army (VNA) during the First Indochina War and he became an officer; the VNA then became the ARVN after the creation of the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). A soft-spoken man, Nhung was a professional military assassin best known for his role in the November 1963 coup d'état led by Minh that ousted President Ngô Đình Diệm from office. At the end of the coup, Nhung - having shot Colonel Lê Quang Tung, the loyalist commander of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces at a grave at Tân Sơn Nhứt Air Base the day before - executed President Diệm and his brother Ngô Đình Nhu. An investigation led by General Trần Văn Đôn, another coup plotter, determined that Nhung had repeatedly stabbed and shot the Ngô brothers while escorting them back to military headquarters after having arrested them. It was widely believed that Minh had ordered Nhung to execute the Ngô brothers. Following Nguyễn Khánh's successful January 1964 coup against Minh's military junta, Nhung died in mysterious circumstances, the only fatality in the otherwise bloodless regime change. ## Career Nhung was born in either 1919 or early 1920. At the time, Vietnam was a French colony within French Indochina; and, in 1944, Nhung joined the French Army, where he soon met Dương Văn Minh, who became his superior for the next two decades. Nhung would spend most of his career as Minh's aide-de-camp and bodyguard. He was described as a quiet and slightly built man who smoked a pipe. Following the end of World War II, the French set up the State of Vietnam, an associated state within the French Union, and created the Vietnamese National Army (VNA), and both Minh and Nhung transferred to the VNA, where they were trained and commissioned as officers. By November 1963, Nhung had risen to the rank of captain. He was reputed to have etched a line on his revolver for each of his killings, and ended the lives of 50 people during his career. ## 1963 coup ### Tung assassination On 1 November 1963, a group of ARVN generals, led by Minh, orchestrated a coup against President Ngô Đình Diệm. The plotters summoned a group of ARVN officers to the Joint General Staff headquarters at Tân Sơn Nhứt Air Base, on the pretext that they were going to attend a lunch meeting. Among those invited was the loyalist commander of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces, Colonel Lê Quang Tung. At 13:30 (UTC 06:30), General Trần Văn Đôn announced that a coup was taking place. Most of the officers rose to applaud, but Tung did not, refusing to join the coup. He was taken away by Nhung, all the while shouting, "Remember who gave you your stars!" At 16:45, Tung was forced at gunpoint to talk to Diệm on the phone, telling the president that he had ordered his special forces to surrender. Minh then ordered Nhung to execute the Diệm loyalist. Tung had failed to convince the president to surrender and still commanded the loyalty of his men. The other generals had little sympathy for Tung, because the special forces' commander had disguised his men in regular army uniforms and framed the generals for the Xá Lợi Pagoda raids in August. The generals were well aware of the threat that Tung posed; they had discussed his elimination during their planning, having contemplated waging an offensive against his special forces. At nightfall, Nhung took Tung, and his brother and deputy, Major Lê Quang Triệu, with their hands tied, to a jeep and drove them to the edge of the air base. Forced to kneel over two freshly dug holes, the brothers were shot into their graves and buried. ### Diệm and Nhu assassination By the next morning, the loyalist forces had collapsed. Diệm and his younger brother and chief adviser, Ngô Đình Nhu, agreed to surrender, and coup plotter Đôn promised them safe passage out of the country. In the meantime, Minh left Joint General Staff (JGS) headquarters and travelled to Gia Long Palace in a sedan, accompanied by Nhung. He arrived at the palace at 08:00 in full military uniform to supervise the arrest of Diệm and Nhu for the surrender ceremony. However, the Ngô brothers were not there, they had escaped from Gia Long Palace via a secret tunnel to a safehouse in Cholon the previous night. Diệm and Nhu had communicated with the generals via a direct phone link from the safehouse to the palace, giving the false impression that they were still besieged. Having been informed of Diệm and Nhu’s whereabouts, Minh dispatched a group of officers and troops—which included Nhung—to arrest them. He was aware that the brothers had left the safehouse to go to St Francis Xavier's Church. Led by General Mai Hữu Xuân, the officers took an M113 armored personnel carrier (APC), four jeeps, and several soldiers to Cholon. As they left, Minh gestured to Nhung with two fingers, taken to be an order to shoot the brothers. The soldiers arrived at the church and promptly arrested the brothers, tying them with their hands behind their backs. After the arrest, Nhung and Major Dương Hiếu Nghĩa sat with Diệm and Nhu inside the APC, and the convoy departed for Tân Sơn Nhứt. They stopped at a railroad crossing on the return trip where, by all accounts, the brothers were assassinated. An investigation by Đôn later determined that Nghĩa had shot the brothers at point-blank range with a semi-automatic firearm and that Nhung sprayed them with bullets before repeatedly stabbing their bodies with a knife. During the journey back, Nghĩa gave his account of the assassinations to military headquarters: "As we rode back to the Joint General Staff headquarters, Diệm sat silently, but Nhu and the captain [Nhung] began to insult each other. I don't know who started it. The name-calling grew passionate. The captain had hated Nhu before. Now he was charged with emotion." When the convoy reached a train crossing, Nghĩa said that Nhung "lunged at Nhu with a bayonet and stabbed him again and again, maybe fifteen or twenty times. Still in a rage, he turned to Diệm, took out his revolver and shot him in the head. Then he looked back at Nhu, who was lying on the floor, twitching. He put a bullet into his head too. Neither Diệm nor Nhu ever defended themselves. Their hands were tied." In a 1994 interview, General Nguyễn Khánh recalled, "Nhu (Diệm's brother) was alive when they put the knife in to take out some of the organs...the gallbladder. And in the Orient when you are a big soldier, big man - this thing is very important... They do it against Nhu when Nhu was alive... And Diệm had this happen to him, and later on they kill him by pistol and rifle." Đôn and other officers were stunned when the corpses arrived at JGS headquarters. Đôn confronted Minh in his office, and while they were remonstrating, Xuân entered the room. Unaware of Đôn's presence, Xuân snapped to attention and stated in French, “Mission accomplie”. Despite Đôn's investigation, no one was ever charged with the killings. ## Death Following the coup, Nhung's commanding officer, General Minh, became the President of South Vietnam, ruling through a military junta known as the Military Revolutionary Council. After three months of rule, which was criticised for its lack of direction, General Nguyễn Khánh deposed Minh in a bloodless coup before dawn on 30 January 1964. Minh was briefly put under house arrest, and the next day, reports surfaced that Nhung was dead, the only fatality in the coup or its aftermath. There was initially confusion as various conflicting reports of Nhung's demise surfaced, one source telling journalists that Nhung lived in a cottage within the grounds of Minh's villa and shot himself outside his house. These informants speculated that Nhung committed suicide to avoid having to live to see Minh being demoted or humiliated. The time of this incident was reported to be 21:00. Other reports at the time said that Nhung was found dead as a result of strangulation at the Joint General Staff headquarters. According to variations of this line, Nhung either hanged himself in custody or was murdered by an unknown hand. More recently, historians have come to believe that Khánh ordered that Nhung be liquidated and that the earlier reports were deliberately false material disseminated by Khánh through his subordinates. According to this account, one of Khánh's men took Nhung to the garden of a Saigon villa and forced him to kneel, before executing him with a single gunshot to the back of the head. Nhung's death led to protests among the Saigon public, who took the killing to be a signal that the remaining members of Diệm's regime would be reinstated to positions of authority. Nhung was buried on 1 February, the day after his death, in the presence of family and friends, at Gia Đính cemetery. Nhung's death was never formally investigated by an independent body and the official line of suicide continued to be propagated. Minh was said to have been deeply affected by the loss of his long-time aide, and it was reported that the general erected an altar dedicated to Nhung's memory in his office, with the major's portrait on it. Shortly after the coup, Khánh made Minh the figurehead head of state under American advice, hoping that the presence of the popular general would help to unify the armed forces, but Minh made little attempt to help Khánh, partly because of resentment over the loss of his aide.
1,220,101	Joseph Maxwell	1,171,638,726	Australian Victoria Cross recipient	[ "1896 births", "1967 deaths", "20th-century Australian non-fiction writers", "Australian Army officers", "Australian Army personnel of World War II", "Australian World War I recipients of the Victoria Cross", "Australian boilermakers", "Australian recipients of the Distinguished Conduct Medal", "Burials at Eastern Suburbs Memorial Park", "Military personnel from Sydney", "Recipients of the Military Cross" ]	Joseph Maxwell, (10 February 1896 – 6 July 1967) was an Australian soldier, writer, and a recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest decoration for gallantry "in the face of the enemy" that can be awarded to members of British and Commonwealth armed forces. Often described as Australia's second most decorated soldier of the First World War, he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force on 8 February 1915, and served at Gallipoli before being transferred to the Western Front. In just over twelve months he was commissioned and decorated four times for his bravery. An apprentice boilermaker before the war, Maxwell returned to Australia in 1919 and worked as a gardener. In 1932, he published Hell's Bells and Mademoiselles, a book written in collaboration with Hugh Buggy about his war experiences. Attempting to enlist for service during the Second World War, Maxwell was rejected on the grounds of his age before enlisting under an alias in Queensland; his identity was discovered, and after a short period in a training position, he sought discharge. In 1967, aged 71, he died of a heart attack. ## Early life Maxwell was born in the Sydney suburb of Forest Lodge, New South Wales, on 10 February 1896 to John Maxwell, a labourer, and his wife Elizabeth, née Stokes. A member of the Senior Australian Army Cadets for three years, he worked as an apprentice boilermaker at an engineering works near Newcastle upon leaving school. For two years, he served as a member of the Citizens Military Forces, and on 6 February 1915, he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force enticed by the prospects of better pay. ## First World War ### Training, February 1915 to Western Front, May 1917 Having received his initial training at Liverpool Camp, Maxwell was allotted to "B" Company of the 18th Battalion as a lance corporal, and embarked for Egypt aboard HMAT Ceramic on 25 May 1915. The 18th Battalion trained in Egypt from mid-June until mid-August, before proceeding to Gallipoli, where they landed at Anzac Cove on 22 August. The battalion fought its first battle on the same day, staging an attack on the Turkish-held Hill 60. The engagement lasted until 29 August, with half of the battalion becoming casualties, and Maxwell briefly assuming the duties of a stretcher bearer. Maxwell served at Gallipoli with his unit until 2 December, when he was admitted to 5th Field Ambulance and evacuated from the peninsula suffering from jaundice. Admitted to 3rd Auxiliary Hospital, Heliopolis, he remained there until 11 December, when he was posted to a convalescent camp at Ras el Tin. He rejoined the 18th Battalion on 5 January 1916, which had been evacuated from the Gallipoli Peninsula on 20 December the previous year and posted to Egypt. On 4 February, Maxwell was admitted to the Australian Dermatological Hospital, Abbassia with venereal disease. He returned to his battalion four days before it embarked for France, and the Western Front on 18 March. Arriving in Marseilles, France, Maxwell was admitted to 7th Australian Field Ambulance and then transferred to the 3rd Canadian General Hospital following wounds sustained during battle. He was moved to the 1st Convalescent Depot on 2 May, and then discharged to Base Details eleven days later. He was later found guilty of breaking ranks at the 07:30 parade on the same day and being absent without leave from 08:00 until 13:00 on 24 May; for this transgression, he was reduced to the ranks. Rejoining his battalion on 1 June, he took part in the Battle of Pozières and received a promotion to sergeant in October. Suffering synovitis to his right knee, Maxwell was hospitalised for two days and posted to a training battalion in England on 28 November 1916. He stayed there for five months before embarking for France on 9 May 1917 and rejoining the 18th Battalion five days later. Maxwell was only briefly in France before being selected for officer training. Shortly after arriving in England, he attended a boisterous party with a group of soldiers. The military police raided the party and called the local police for assistance after confronting Maxwell's group. Maxwell was fined £20 and sent back to his unit for his actions. ### Western Front: May 1917 to August 1918 Maxwell was again selected for officer training, and on 5 July, he was posted to No. 6 Officers' Cadet Battalion. He was promoted to company sergeant major on 7 August, before rejoining the 18th Battalion on 11 September. Nine days later, he was engaged in action near Westhoek during the Third Battle of Ypres when he performed the deeds that earned him the Distinguished Conduct Medal. In the battle, the commander of a platoon was killed; Maxwell took command and led it into attack. Noticing that one of the newly captured positions was under heavy fire, Maxwell dashed to it and led the men to a safer and more tactically secure position, thus minimizing casualties. Commissioned in the field as a second lieutenant on 29 September 1917, Maxwell took part in the engagements around Poelcappelle, Belgium, the following month. He earned promotion to lieutenant on 1 January 1918 and was admitted to the 7th Australian Field Ambulance on 10 January suffering scabies. Having been discharged from the hospital, he rejoined the 18th Battalion on 17 January. On 8 March 1918, Maxwell commanded a scouting patrol that was operating to the east of Ploegsteert. Having obtained the required information, he ordered the patrol to withdraw. He and three of his men were covering the withdrawal of the main body when he noticed about thirty Germans nearby. Recalling the patrol, he led an attack against the party, which had sheltered in an old trench; the Germans quickly withdrew, leaving three dead and one wounded prisoner of war. Maxwell was awarded the Military Cross for his actions during this engagement, news of which was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 13 May 1918. Throughout the spring of 1918, the 18th Battalion was involved in operations to repel the German offensive. Maxwell took part in these actions until he was granted leave and went back to England on 17 July. He returned to France and rejoined the 18th Battalion on 1 August, before taking part in the Battle of Amiens where he was to earn a Bar to his Military Cross. On 9 August, the battalion was preparing to attack near Rainecourt. Maxwell took command of the company after all of its other officers became casualties. Under his leadership, the company was able to attack on time, despite being subjected to heavy fire. A tank that preceded the advance immediately became the object of enemy fire and was knocked out by a 77 mm gun. Maxwell, who was in close proximity, rushed over and opened the hatch, allowing the crew to escape. After escorting the tank commander to safety, Maxwell returned to lead the company in the attack, which succeeded in reaching and consolidating their objective. The award of the bar was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 1 February 1919. ### Victoria Cross, October 1918 to repatriation, August 1919 On 3 October 1918, the 5th Brigade—of which the 18th Battalion was part—became engaged in its last battle of the First World War when breaching the Hindenburg Line close to Beaurevoir and Montbrehain. While taking part in this battle, Maxwell was a member of the attacking party along the Beaurevoir-Fonsomme line when he performed the acts for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross. Early in the advance, Maxwell's company commander was severely wounded, resulting in Maxwell assuming control. Reaching the German barbwire defences under intense machine-gun fire, the company suffered heavy casualties, including all of the officers except Maxwell. Pushing forward alone through a narrow passageway in the wire, Maxwell captured the most dangerous machine gun, killed three Germans and took another four as prisoners; thereby enabling the company to move through the wire and reach their objective. Shortly afterwards, it was noticed that the company on their left flank was held up and failing to advance. Gathering a party of men, Maxwell led the group in an attempt to attack the German force from the rear. They soon came under heavy machine gun fire, and, single-handedly, Maxwell dashed forward and attacked the foremost gun. Firing his revolver, he managed to shoot five of the crew and silence the gun. Later in the advance, Maxwell learnt from an English-speaking prisoner that a group of Germans in the adjacent post wished to surrender, but were afraid to give themselves up. Accompanied by two privates and the prisoner—who was to act as an interpreter—Maxwell approached the post. The three Australians, however, were immediately surrounded by a group of twenty German soldiers and disarmed. They seemed set to become prisoners themselves, before an artillery barrage fell on the position. Taking advantage of the resulting confusion, Maxwell pulled out a concealed revolver and shot two of the Germans before escaping with his men under heavy rifle fire; one of the privates was subsequently wounded. Organising a party of men, he immediately attacked and captured the post. The full citation for Maxwell's Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette on 6 January 1919, it read: > War Office, 6th January, 1919 > > His Majesty the KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Officers, Non-commissioned Officers and Men: — > > Lt. Joseph Maxwell, M.C., D.C.M., 18th Bn., A.I.F. > > For most conspicuous bravery and leadership in attack on the Beaurevoir-Fonsomme line near Estrees, North of St. Quentin, on the 3rd October, 1918. > > His company commander was severely wounded early in the advance, and Lt. Maxwell at once took charge. The enemy wire when reached under intense fire was found to be exceptionally strong and closely supported by machine guns, whereupon Lt. Maxwell pushed forward single-handed through the wire and captured the most dangerous gun, killing three and capturing four enemy. He thus enabled his company to penetrate the wire and reach the objective. Later, he again dashed forward and silenced, single-handed, a gun which was holding up a flank company. Subsequently, when with two men only he attempted to capture a strong party of the enemy, he handled a most involved situation very skilfully, and it was due to his resource that he and his comrades escaped. > > Throughout the day Lt. Maxwell set a high example of personal bravery, coupled with excellent judgment and quick decision. The 18th Battalion was training away from the frontline when the Armistice was declared on 11 November 1918. On 8 March 1919, Maxwell was invested with his Victoria Cross by King George V in the ballroom of Buckingham Palace. He headed for Australia on 1 May aboard HT China, disembarking at Melbourne on 8 June and proceeding to Sydney, where he was discharged from the Australian Imperial Force on 20 August. ## Later life Following demobilisation, Maxwell worked as a gardener in Canberra, Moree and the Maitland district. Having described himself as a reporter, Maxwell married 19-year-old tailoress Mabel Maxwell (unrelated) in a Catholic ceremony at Bellevue Hill, Sydney on 14 February 1921. The marriage produced a daughter, Jean, before being dissolved in 1926 upon Mabel's instigation. On 11 November 1929, Maxwell attended the New South Wales Dinner for recipients of the Victoria Cross in Sydney, and 1932 saw the publication of Hell's Bells and Mademoiselles, a book written in collaboration with Hugh Buggy about his experiences in the war. At the time, Maxwell was working as a gardener with the Department of the Interior in Canberra. The book was a success, but Maxwell soon spent what money he made from it. In the late 1930s, he wrote the manuscript for a second book entitled From the Hindenburg Line to the Breadline. The book was never published and the manuscript was lost when it was lent to someone to read. In 1933, Maxwell acted as a defence witness in the trial of Alfred Jamieson, who was accused of housebreaking. Maxwell was Jamieson's former platoon commander and testified that Jamieson had been of good character but had been strongly affected by the war. After the outbreak of the Second World War, Maxwell made several attempts to enlist, but was unsuccessful due to his age, and deteriorating health. He eventually travelled to Queensland, where he enlisted under the alias of Joseph Wells on 27 June 1940. However, his identity was soon discovered and he was given a training position; dissatisfied, he took his discharge on 9 September 1940. In 1952, Maxwell joined the contingent of Victoria Cross recipients invited to the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. On 6 March 1956, describing himself as a journalist from Bondi, Maxwell married widow Anne Martin, née Burton, in Sydney. Three years later, he attended the Victoria Cross centenary celebrations in London, before later re-visiting the battlefields in France. In 1964, together with his wife, Maxwell attended the opening of the VC Corner in the Australian War Memorial, Canberra. He was determined that his Victoria Cross would not wind up in the collection, believing that the award would be devalued by "lumping" them together. On 6 July 1967, Maxwell collapsed and died of a heart attack in a street in his home town Matraville, New South Wales. He had been an invalid pensioner for some time. His funeral service took place with full military honours at St Mathias Anglican Church, Paddington. Having been cremated, his ashes were interred at the Eastern Suburbs Crematorium in Botany. Anne Maxwell presented her husband's medals to the Army Museum of New South Wales at Victoria Barracks, Paddington, and subsequently the medals, together with a portrait and a brass copy of his VC citation, were unveiled by the Minister of Defence, Allan Fairhall. In 2003, Maxwell's medals were presented to the Australian War Memorial on a permanent loan basis.
24,827,998	Pilot (Community)	1,164,036,122	null	[ "2009 American television episodes", "American television series premieres", "Community (season 1) episodes", "Television episodes written by Dan Harmon" ]	"Pilot" is the first episode of the first season of the NBC sitcom Community. It aired in the United States on September 17, 2009. Written by Dan Harmon, the show's creator, the episode was directed by Anthony Russo and Joe Russo. The episode introduces Jeffrey Winger (Joel McHale), a disbarred lawyer who is forced to attend community college to get his license back. He tries to exploit his friendship with one of the faculty members for easy credits, but fails, and is forced to join a Spanish study group. The members of this study group make up the main cast of the series. The show takes place at the fictional Greendale Community College in Greendale, Colorado. Harmon based the show on his own experiences in community college and partly modeled the character of Jeffrey Winger on himself. He emphasized the cast's importance to the show and also credited some of the actors for their improvisational skills. The episode attracted generally favorable reviews from Rotten Tomatoes, which praised both the actors and the comedy writing. The show received good viewership and stood out in NBC's Thursday lineup, where the network's other shows suffered declines in ratings. ## Plot Jeff Winger, a lawyer disbarred for having falsified his degree, has enrolled at Greendale Community College as a condition for getting his license back. His plan is to use his friendship with Dr. Ian Duncan, a professor at the college and Jeff's client, to obtain test answers. In the cafeteria, Jeff meets the attractive Britta and, in an attempt to get closer to her, convinces her to join his non-existent Spanish study group. As the study group convenes, Jeff pretends the other members simply did not show up. Britta, however, has invited Abed to join them. Jeff unsuccessfully tries to make him leave and then gets called to the football field by Dr. Duncan, who makes a futile attempt to appeal to Jeff's conscience and eventually agrees to provide the answers. Jeff returns to the study group, discovering that Abed has also invited Troy, Shirley, Pierce and Annie. Finding Britta smoking outside, he suggests the two study alone, but she persuades him to return. Jeff, eager to get away, deliberately stirs up a fight among the group then leaves once more to get the test answers. Dr. Duncan hands him a sealed envelope, but only in return for Jeff's Lexus. When Jeff returns, the group is in turmoil, and Britta promises to go out with him if he can restore order. He does this through an inspirational speech, but Britta sees through his lies and asks him to leave. Jeff then comes clean about everything, adding that since he now has the test answers, he does not need the study group. As the group turns against him, he leaves. Leaving the building, Jeff finds all the pages in the envelope to be blank. He returns to the office of Dr. Duncan, who tells him that he wanted to teach him a lesson, although Jeff gets his car keys back. As he is about to leave campus, Jeff runs into Pierce and Troy and shows his ability to make people feel better about themselves through advice and encouragement. The others join, and Jeff admits to being a fraud. He says that he does not have the test answers, and that he will probably flunk next day's test. The group has now taken a liking to him, and they invite him back in. The episode ends with a dedication to the recently deceased John Hughes, whose film The Breakfast Club had been repeatedly referenced throughout the episode. ## Cast and characters The pilot emphasizes character introduction, and a great deal of biographical information about the various main characters is revealed in the episode. - Joel McHale as Jeff Winger – A smooth-talking lawyer who was debarred once it was revealed that his college degree was "less than legitimate". The condition of his reinstatement is that he finishes a college degree. - Chevy Chase as Pierce Hawthorne – He is implicitly described by the college dean as one of the school's "old people keeping their minds active as they circle the drains of eternity". He is a retired entrepreneur who made a fortune on moist towelettes. He has been married seven times and has now decided to go back to college. - Gillian Jacobs as Britta Perry – Who dropped out of high school because she thought it would impress Radiohead. She then joined a group of anarchists who vandalized billboards. She has been in the Peace Corps and done foot modeling before she enrolled at Greendale. She is strongly concerned with honesty, and does not take lightly to anyone lying to her. - Danny Pudi as Abed Nadir – Abed is a Palestinian/Polish man who – according to Jeff – has Asperger syndrome. He proves helpful to Jeff with his ability to obtain quick and detailed knowledge of everyone he meets. - Yvette Nicole Brown as Shirley Bennett – A "middle-aged divorcee" who "has made some bad life choices" and is going to school to start a brownie business. - Alison Brie as Annie Edison – An 18-year old who dropped out of high school after becoming addicted to Adderall - Donald Glover as Troy Barnes – A high school football star who injured himself, costing himself the chance to get a scholarship. - John Oliver as Dr. Ian Duncan, psychology teacher at Greendale. – Dr. Duncan once faced a DUI charge but was acquitted thanks to Jeff's help. - Jim Rash as Dean Pelton – Dean Pelton is first introduced while giving his introductory speech to the new students, a speech that ends up being unintentionally offensive. ## Casting Harmon has emphasized the importance of the cast to making the premise of the comedy work. "Casting was 95 percent of putting the show together," he said in an interview. He had worked with several of the cast members earlier; Joel McHale, John Oliver and Chevy Chase all had cameo roles in episode 9 of Water and Power, the short film series produced by Harmon for Channel 101. Actor Chevy Chase had long been a favorite of Harmon. Though principally not very partial to sitcoms, Chase was persuaded to take the job by the quality of the show's writing. Harmon saw similarities between Chase and the character he plays on the show. Though Chase has often been ridiculed for his career choices, Harmon believed this role could be redeeming: "What makes Chevy and Pierce heroic is this refusal to stop." Harmon had to warn Chase against playing a "wise-ass" the way he often does in his roles, since the character of Pierce is a rather pathetic figure who is normally the butt of the joke himself. McHale – known from the E! comedy The Soup – was also, like Chase, impressed by Harmon's writing. He commented that "after reading Dan's script it was so head and shoulders above everything else that I was reading." McHale appealed to Harmon because of his likable quality, which allowed the character to possess certain unsympathetic traits without turning the viewer against him. For the role of Annie, Harmon wanted someone who would resemble Tracy Flick, Reese Witherspoon's character from the 1999 movie Election. Originally the producers were looking for a Latina or Asian Tracy Flick, for greater diversity, but could not find any. Instead, they ended up casting Alison Brie, known from her role as Trudy Campbell on Mad Men. ## Production The premise of Community was based on Harmon's real-life experiences. In an attempt to save his relationship with his then-girlfriend, he once enrolled in Glendale Community College, north of Los Angeles, where they would take Spanish together. Harmon got involved in a study group and – somewhat against his own instincts – became closely connected to the group of people with whom he had very little in common. "...I was in this group with these knuckleheads and I started really liking them," he explained, "even though they had nothing to do with the film industry and I had nothing to gain from them and nothing to offer them." With this as the background, Harmon wrote the show with a main character largely based on himself. He had, like Jeff, been self-centered and independent to the extreme before he realised the value of connecting with other people. About the creative process behind the writing, Harmon says that he had to write the show as if it were a movie, not a sitcom. Essentially, he says, the process was no different from the earlier work he had done, except for the length and the target demographic. Filming the show involved a lot of improvisation, particularly from Chevy Chase. Harmon said about Chase that he "tends to come up with lines that you can actually end scenes with sometimes." He also mentioned Joel McHale and Donald Glover, the actor who portrays Troy, as adept improvisers. ## Reception Premiering in the 9:30 pm time slot on September 17, 2009, the pilot episode had a viewership of 7.680 million. In the 18–49 audience, it had a rating of 3.7. As such, it held 93% of this audience from The Office, which had been in the previous time slot. The show was called the "bright spot for the night" for NBC, considering that The Office was down 18% from the previous year's premiere, while Parks and Recreation, in the preceding time slot, was down 30%. The pilot episode of Community received generally favorable reviews from critics. The aggregate review website Metacritic gives the show a score of 69 out of 100, based on 23 reviews. Entertainment Weekly's Ken Tucker called it "One of the new season's best sitcoms", and gave it a grade B+. Heather Havrilesky, writing for Salon.com, agreed with this assessment and commended the "alarmingly smart writing". Alan Sepinwall at The Star-Ledger similarly called it "the best, and funniest, new show of the season," and said he laughed just as much after seeing the pilot four times. Others were less impressed; Variety's Brian Lowry found the satire wanting and did not much appreciate McHale's performance. The Miami Herald's Glenn Garvin found that, though particularly McHale was capable of generating "sporadic laughter", the show was just not very amusing.
43,402,974	Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2	1,173,451,010	2017 Marvel Studios film	[ "2010s American films", "2010s English-language films", "2010s science fiction comedy films", "2010s superhero comedy films", "2017 3D films", "2017 action comedy films", "2017 science fiction action films", "American action comedy films", "American adventure comedy films", "American science fiction action films", "American science fiction comedy films", "American sequel films", "American space adventure films", "American space opera films", "American superhero films", "Fiction about intergalactic travel", "Films about extraterrestrial life", "Films about father–son relationships", "Films directed by James Gunn", "Films scored by Tyler Bates", "Films set in 1980", "Films set in 2014", "Films set in Missouri", "Films set on fictional planets", "Films shot at Pinewood Atlanta Studios", "Films shot in Atlanta", "Films using motion capture", "Films with screenplays by James Gunn", "Guardians of the Galaxy (film series)", "Guardians of the Galaxy films", "IMAX films", "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Three films", "Patricide in fiction" ]	Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 is a 2017 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team Guardians of the Galaxy, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the sequel to Guardians of the Galaxy (2014) and the 15th film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). Written and directed by James Gunn, the film stars an ensemble cast featuring Chris Pratt, Zoe Saldaña, Dave Bautista, Vin Diesel, Bradley Cooper, Michael Rooker, Karen Gillan, Pom Klementieff, Sylvester Stallone, and Kurt Russell. In the film, the Guardians travel throughout the cosmos as they help Peter Quill learn more about his mysterious parentage. The film was officially announced at the 2014 San Diego Comic-Con International before the theatrical release of the first film, along with James Gunn's return from the first film, with the title of the sequel revealed a year later in June 2015. Principal photography began in February 2016 at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, with many crew changes from the first film due to other commitments. Filming concluded in June 2016. James Gunn chose to set the sequel shortly after the first film to explore the characters' new roles as the Guardians, and to follow the storyline of Quill's father established throughout that previous film. Russell was confirmed as Quill's father in July 2016, portraying Ego, a departure from Quill's comic father. Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 premiered in Tokyo on April 10, 2017, and was released in the United States on May 5, 2017, as part of Phase Three of the MCU. It grossed more than \$863 million worldwide, making it the eighth-highest-grossing film of 2017, while also outgrossing its predecessor. The film received praise for its visuals, direction, soundtrack, action sequences, humor, and performances, though some critics deemed it inferior to the original. It received a nomination for Best Visual Effects at the 90th Academy Awards. A sequel, Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3, was released on May 5, 2023, preceded by the Disney+ special The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special in November 2022. ## Plot In 2014, Peter Quill, Gamora, Drax, Rocket, and Baby Groot are renowned as the Guardians of the Galaxy. Ayesha, leader of the Sovereign race, has the Guardians protect valuable batteries from an Abilisk, an inter-dimensional monster, in exchange for Gamora's estranged sister Nebula, who was caught attempting to steal the batteries. After Rocket steals the batteries for himself, the Sovereign attacks the Guardians' ship with a fleet of drones. A mysterious figure destroys the drones and the Guardians crash-land on a nearby planet Berhert. The figure reveals himself as Quill's father, Ego, and he is joined by Mantis, his naïve empath servant. Ego invites Quill, Gamora, and Drax to his home planet, while Rocket and Groot remain behind to repair the ship and watch Nebula. Ayesha hires Yondu Udonta and his crew, who have been exiled from the greater Ravager community for child trafficking, to recapture the Guardians. They capture Rocket, but when Yondu hesitates to turn over Quill, whom he raised, his lieutenant Kraglin Obfonteri questions his objectivity, and another lieutenant, Taserface, leads a mutiny, aided by Nebula, who shot Yondu. Taserface imprisons Rocket and Yondu aboard Yondu's ship and executes his loyalists. Nebula leaves to find and kill Gamora, whom she blames for the torture inflicted on her by their adoptive father, Thanos. Groot and Kraglin, who is remorseful and never intended for a mutiny, free Rocket and Yondu. Using Yondu's arrow, the group destroys the ship and its crew while escaping. Taserface warns the Sovereign before dying. Ego, a god-like Celestial that manipulated the matter around his consciousness to form his "home" planet, explains that he projected a humanoid guise to travel the universe and discover a purpose, eventually falling in love with Quill's mother Meredith. Ego hired Yondu to collect the young Quill after Meredith's death, but the boy was never delivered, and Ego has been searching for him ever since. He teaches Quill to manipulate his inherited Celestial power, while Mantis grows close to Drax and tries to warn him of Ego's plans. Nebula arrives at Ego's planet and tries to kill Gamora, but the pair reconcile and reach an uneasy alliance, soon discovering a cavern filled with skeletal remains. Ego brainwashes Quill and reveals that in his travels, he planted seedlings on thousands of worlds that can terraform into new extensions of himself, but only the power of two Celestials can activate them. To that end, he impregnated countless women and hired Yondu to collect their offspring, but killed them all when they failed to inherit his Celestial power. Quill fights off Ego's influence when Ego reveals that he gave Meredith the brain tumor that killed her; after Quill violently attacks Ego, Ego parasitically draws Quill's energy to activate the seedlings, which begin to consume the worlds they're on. Rocket, Yondu, Groot, and Kraglin arrive, and together with Mantis, Drax, Nebula and Gamora, they rescue Quill. The reunited Guardians travel to Ego's brain at the planet's core, where Yondu reveals that he kept Quill to spare him from Ego. As the Sovereign's drones return and attack, Rocket makes a bomb using the stolen batteries, which Groot plants on Ego's brain. Quill uses his newfound Celestial powers to fight Ego, distracting him long enough for the other Guardians and Mantis to escape. The bomb explodes, killing Ego and disintegrating the planet, which drains Quill of his Celestial powers. Yondu sacrifices himself to save Quill and dies in the vacuum of space. Despite having reconciled with Gamora, Nebula chooses to leave and resume her quest to kill Thanos. The Guardians, with Mantis as a new member, hold a funeral for Yondu. Rocket and Kraglin are elated as dozens of Ravager ships arrive, acknowledging Yondu's sacrifice and accepting him as a Ravager again. In a series of mid-and post-credit scenes, Kraglin takes up Yondu's telekinetic arrow and control-fin; Ravager leader Stakar Ogord reunites with his ex-teammates; Ayesha creates Adam, a new artificial being with whom she plans to destroy the Guardians; and Groot grows into a teenager. ## Cast - Chris Pratt as Peter Quill / Star-Lord: The half-human, half-Celestial leader of the Guardians of the Galaxy who was abducted from Earth as a child and raised by a group of alien thieves and smugglers called the Ravagers. Pratt, who returns as part of a multi-film contract with Marvel, said Quill is now famous throughout "the galaxy for having saved so many people... He feels like he's part of this group, a leader of this group. He's a little more responsible and trying to stay out of trouble, but not necessarily doing the best job." Pratt stated that working on the film forced him to come to terms with the death of his own father. Wyatt Oleff once again portrays a young Quill. - Zoe Saldaña as Gamora: A member of the Guardians and an orphan from an alien world who seeks redemption for her past crimes. She was trained by Thanos to be his personal assassin. Saldaña described Gamora's role in the team as "the voice of reason", saying, "She's surrounded by all these dudes who are so stupid half the time," and added that she is the "Mom" of the team, saying that she is "just a meticulous, detailed, professional individual." Regarding Gamora's relationship with Nebula, Saldaña described it as "volatile" and added, "we're starting somewhere very crazy but appropriate given where we had ended things off in the first installment". - Dave Bautista as Drax the Destroyer: A member of the Guardians and highly skilled warrior. Bautista waited for the final version of the script to not take "away from the magic", which he felt had happened when he read early drafts of the first film. He added that "I wasn't crazy about my part [in Vol. 2, initially]. It went a different direction than what I thought they were going to go with Drax," noting he did not "think Drax was that significant in the film". The part "clicked" for Bautista after the table read with the other cast. Bautista called Drax "more funny, driven" than in the first film, and having "a sense of innocence and heartbreak about him", despite "most people's first perception of Drax [that] he's just a big, muscly brute". Bautista's makeup took only 90 minutes to apply, down from four hours for the first film. He would have to sit in a sauna at the end of the day to get the makeup off, after his makeup test was found to be too "abrasive". - Vin Diesel as Baby Groot: A member of the Guardians who is a tree-like humanoid and the accomplice of Rocket. The character began growing from a sapling at the end of the first film, with James Gunn intending for him to be fully grown by the sequel. Gunn eventually decided to keep him as "Baby Groot", which was one of the reasons the film is set only a few months after the first. Gunn described Baby Groot as the son of Groot from the first film, with Diesel explaining that "we're going to see this goofy, adorable, baby Groot [just] kinda learning as he goes." Prop master Russell Bobbitt created a 1:1 scale model of the 10-inch (25 cm) Baby Groot for filming, to use as a lighting reference and sometimes as a puppet for the actors to interact with. As Groot only communicates with the phrase "I am Groot" in different inflections, Gunn created a "Groot Version" of the script for himself and Diesel, which contains each of Groot's lines in English. Diesel used a higher register of his voice for Baby Groot, which was pitched up by seven to nine semitones depending on the take. He also delivered lines slowly to avoid any time stretching issues. Diesel recorded Groot's voice for sixteen foreign-language releases of the film (up from six in the first film). Sean Gunn provided on-set reference for adolescent Groot in the post-credit sequence. - Bradley Cooper as Rocket: A member of the Guardians who is a genetically engineered raccoon-based bounty hunter, mercenary, and master of weapons and battle tactics. Sean Gunn once again served as the stand-in for the character during filming, with Cooper's performance also referenced. Sean Gunn said that "Rocket has the same sort of crisis of faith [that he had in the first film] about whether or not he belongs in this family", with James Gunn adding, "this is really about Rocket coming to terms with accepting his place within a group of people, which probably seemed like a good idea" when they were heroes together at the end of the first film, but now "he's just not very comfortable with the idea". Feige stated that the relationship between Rocket and Groot has changed, saying, "Groot was Rocket's protector in the first movie, [and now] Rocket is Groot's protector." - Michael Rooker as Yondu Udonta: A blue-skinned buccaneer of the Ravagers who is a fatherly figure to Quill and member of the Guardians. He is also the former deputy to Ayesha. Yondu has a larger head fin in the film, to look closer to his comic counterpart, and Rooker worked with the prosthetic department to add gaps to his prosthetic teeth, "just like real teeth", to aid him in whistling as the character. Rooker explained that, for the sequel, Gunn "wanted people to experience more in-depth what Yondu was thinking and how he's feeling—a more serious Yondu." Rooker noted the complex relationship between Yondu and Quill where "we don't agree on things...they are constantly at each other's throats [but] Yondu truly cares about this kid." Gunn was reluctant to kill Yondu in the film, but ultimately felt that "this is a story about a father's love for his son, his ultimate love, so much love that he sacrifices himself for that, and that's what Yondu is. He is 100 percent Peter Quill's father" despite Ego being Quill's biological father. Before the release of Vol. 2, Rooker spent time on the set of Avengers: Infinity War (2018) to counteract rumors that the reason his character would not appear in that film was that he would die in this one. - Karen Gillan as Nebula: An adopted daughter of Thanos who was raised with Gamora as sisters and a former enemy of the Guardians. Gillan stated the film would further explore the sisterly relationship between Nebula and Gamora, including their backstory "and what happened to these two girls growing up and actually how awful it was for them and how it has ruined their relationship", adding "we're [also] going to start to see how much pain [Thanos] actually caused [Nebula]... we really start to see the emotional crack in her character". While Gillan had to shave her head for the first film, she only had to shave half of her head for the sequel, taking away the underneath part and leaving the top. Gillan's makeup took two and a half hours to apply, down from five hours for the first film. - Pom Klementieff as Mantis: A mantis-like creature and member of the Guardians with empathic powers who lives with Ego. Executive producer Jonathan Schwartz said the character "has never really experienced social interaction", and learns about "social intricacies" from the other Guardians. Klementieff added, "She was really lonely and by herself, so it's a completely new thing to meet these people and to discover new things", comparing this to a child making awkward mistakes in social situations. Mantis and Drax have an "interesting" relationship in the film due to both being "complete odd balls". Steve Englehart, Mantis' co-creator, was disappointed with the character's portrayal, saying, "That character has nothing to do with Mantis ... I really don't know why you would take a character who is as distinctive as Mantis is and do a completely different character and still call her Mantis." - Sylvester Stallone as Stakar Ogord: A high-ranking Ravager who holds a grudge against Yondu. Stallone likened his character's relationship with Yondu to a father-son relationship, and called the confrontation they have in the film "pretty intense". For Stakar's acceptance of Yondu as a Ravager at the end of the film, Gunn asked Stallone to channel the "That'll do, pig" line from the film Babe. Gunn described Stakar as "very important to the Marvel Universe", and said that "it's our plan to see more of Stallone" in future MCU films, though he was not sure then if that would include Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3 (2023). - Kurt Russell as Ego: An ancient Celestial who is Quill's father. Pratt was the first to suggest to Gunn that he consider Russell for the role; he portrays an avatar of Ego who is more traditionally seen in the comics in his "Living Planet" form. Russell appreciated why he was wanted for the role after seeing Pratt's performance in the first film, feeling "That's my kinda guy. I know where that kind of goof comes from." He added, "I bring the right things [from previous roles]...I connected the dots from some of the things I've done in the past." Ego replaces Quill's original comic father of J'son, and was allowed to be used in the film after 20th Century Fox reached a deal with Marvel Studios to return the film rights of Ego for changing the power set of Negasonic Teenage Warhead, whom Fox wanted to use in Deadpool (2016). Gunn originally thought Marvel held the rights to the character, and stated that, had the deal with Fox not been made, there was "no back up plan, and it would [have been] nearly impossible to just drop another character in," given the extensive work done surrounding the character. For the film's opening sequence, set in 1980 Missouri, Aaron Schwartz served as facial reference for the young Ego. Elizabeth Debicki appears as Ayesha, the golden High Priestess and the leader of the Sovereign people, a genetically engineered race who are "gold and perfect and wanting to be physically and mentally impeccable". Gunn was "very specific" when writing the character, and after casting director Sarah Finn suggested Debicki, Gunn "knew right away that she was the one". Gunn highlighted the actress' beauty and height. Debicki wore platform shoes to increase her height to . Chris Sullivan portrays Taserface, the leader of a mutinous group of the Ravagers. Gunn originally posted a photo of the comic book character on his social media after landing Guardians of the Galaxy, calling him "the dumbest character of all time" and saying he would never feature the character in a film. After eventually deciding to use the character in the sequel, Gunn felt the character had given himself the name Taserface and is "a real dumbass". Sullivan's makeup took two-and-a-half to three-and-a-half hours to apply each day. Sean Gunn appears as Kraglin Obfonteri, Yondu's second-in-command in the Ravagers. Kraglin has an expanded role compared to the previous film—Sean Gunn explained, "In the first film he did a lot of just saying yes and being at Yondu's side, but in this movie things take a little bit of a different turn as Kraglin has a little bit of a crisis of conscience and has to decide whether he's going to stick with Yondu or join forces with the growing faction of mutineers." Additionally, reprising their roles from the first film are Laura Haddock as Meredith Quill, Gregg Henry as her father, Seth Green as the voice of Howard the Duck, and canine actor Fred as Cosmo. Members of Yondu's Ravager crew appearing in the film include Evan Jones as Retch, Jimmy Urine as Half-Nut, Stephen Blackehart as Brahl, Steve Agee as Gef, Mike Escamilla as Scrote, Joe Fria as Oblo, Terence Rosemore as Narblik, and Tommy Flanagan as Tullk, as well as Charred Walls of the Damned drummer and Howard Stern Show personality Richard Christy in a cameo appearance. The other members of Stakar and Yondu's old team, based on the comic's original incarnation of the Guardians of the Galaxy, include Michael Rosenbaum as Martinex, Ving Rhames as Charlie-27, and Michelle Yeoh as Aleta Ogord. Also included in the team are the CG characters Krugarr and Mainframe, with the latter voiced, in an uncredited cameo, by Miley Cyrus. Rosenbaum had previously auditioned to play Peter Quill in Vol. 1. Gunn cast Yeoh because of his love of 1990s Hong Kong films, and Cyrus after admiring "the tone of her voice" while watching her as a coach on The Voice. He added that the team would return in future MCU films alongside Stallone's Stakar. Stan Lee appears as an informant to the Watchers, discussing previous adventures that include his cameos in other MCU films; he specifically mentions his time as a FedEx delivery man, which connects to Lee's cameo as a FedEx delivery man in Captain America: Civil War (2016). This acknowledged the fan theory that Lee may be portraying the same character in all his cameos, with Gunn noting that "people thought Stan Lee is a Watcher and that all of these cameos are part of him being a Watcher. So, Stan Lee as a guy who is working for the Watchers was something that I thought was fun for the MCU." Feige added that Lee "clearly exists, you know, above and apart from the reality of all the films. So the notion that he could be sitting there on a cosmic pit stop during the jump gate sequence in Guardians...really says, so wait a minute, he's this same character who's popped up in all these films?" Lee filmed several different versions of the scene, including an alternative where he references his role in Deadpool, which would have been the first acknowledgment of the X-Men film series by an MCU film. Gunn later admitted that the Civil War reference is a continuity error, given Vol. 2 is set before the events of Civil War, saying, "I screwed up; I wasn't thinking. But I'm going to say that probably Stan Lee used the guise of a FedEx guy more than one time." David Hasselhoff makes a cameo appearance as himself, when Ego shape-shifts to his likeness, while Rob Zombie once again has a Ravager voice cameo. Footage of Jeff Goldblum dancing as the Grandmaster from the set of Thor: Ragnarok (2017) is used briefly during the end credits, with Feige explaining that Marvel "thought it would be fun to put it in there" especially since the comic version of Grandmaster is the brother of the Collector, who appeared in the first Guardians film. Ben Browder, the star of the series Farscape, of which Gunn is an avid fan, cameos as a Sovereign Admiral. Molly Quinn appears as Howard the Duck's date. Jim Gunn Sr. and Leota Gunn, parents of James and Sean Gunn, also make cameo appearances in the film as an elderly couple on Earth. Jimmy Kimmel Live!'s Guillermo Rodriguez has an uncredited cameo appearance as a police officer on Earth when the seedling was terraforming. ## Production ### Development In May 2014, Disney CEO Bob Iger stated he felt the first Guardians of the Galaxy film (2014) had "strong franchise potential". He added that their goal was to create "another Avengers (2012)". James Gunn, who directed and co-wrote the first film, said that he would like to return for a sequel, and that he was contractually obligated to if asked. The next month, producer Kevin Feige said there are "places we can take [the franchise] and we have ideas of where we'd like to go" based on the wide array of characters, worlds and storylines from the comics. In July 2014, Guardians of the Galaxy co-screenwriter Nicole Perlman confirmed a sequel, saying it was "going to happen" due to the positive internal response to the first film at Disney, and that Gunn would write and direct. At San Diego Comic-Con International soon after, the sequel was given a release date of July 28, 2017. Gunn had begun work on the film within a month, and said it would include at least one new Guardian from the comics. In October, Gunn confirmed that all five original Guardians would return for the sequel, along with other supporting characters, and the release date was moved up to May 5, 2017. In the following months, Michael Rooker said he would return as Yondu Udonta, and was looking forward to exploring new areas of the character. Chris Pratt, who played Peter Quill/Star-Lord in the first film, confirmed the sequel would be one of his next projects. Bradley Cooper expressed interest and excitement when asked if he would return as Rocket. Vin Diesel also confirmed he would return as Groot. In March 2015, Gunn revealed that filming would take place in Atlanta, Georgia with "major crew changes" from the first film, and that his brother, Sean Gunn, would return as Kraglin Obfonteri alongside Karen Gillan as Nebula. He explained his relationship with Marvel Studios, saying the company "let me go and do my thing, and I truly listen to their notes and ideas. I've never been told to put in any character or plot element at all... When they trust you they give you a wide berth... we just fit". In May, Gunn said the sequel would feature fewer characters than the first film, and that he had planned to introduce two major new characters in the script—Mantis and Adam Warlock. Talks had begun with an actor Gunn had in mind to portray Mantis, while he had decided to remove Warlock due to the film "getting too busy", explaining, "one of the main things with Guardians of the Galaxy is not to add a bunch of characters, not to make it bigger in that way but to go deeper with the characters... and getting to know them more emotionally... everything is just getting too sprawling and too crazy for me in these superhero comic book movies". Gunn added, "I adored what we had done with him. I think we did something really creative and unique with Adam Warlock. But it was one character too many and I didn't want to lose Mantis and Mantis was more organically part of the movie anyway". He noted that Warlock could appear in future Guardians films, and is considered "a pretty important part" of the cosmic side of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The character's future introduction is hinted at in one of the film's mid-credits scenes. Gunn noted that Marvel gave him "some blowback" for including the Warlock teaser because they felt fans would believe the character would be appearing in Avengers: Infinity War (2018) and Avengers: Endgame (2019), which was not the case. By including the scene, Gunn promised Marvel he would use his social media presence to clarify for fans that the character would not be seen in either of the Avengers films. #### Writing After the film's announcement, Gunn said he knew "a lot of where I want to go [in the sequel]", having written the backstory of Peter Quill, his father and his history with Yondu during the making of the first film with the intention of exploring them in a future film. Gunn's earliest idea for a Guardians sequel involved Rocket and Groot starring as the main characters in a story fleshing out the former's origin story, but Gunn felt that he had to flesh out Peter Quill's origins first. Gunn wanted to give the sequel a different structure from the first film, since "one of the reasons people like Guardians is because it's fresh and different, so the second one will be fresh and different from the first one". Before starting on the script, Gunn hoped to further explore Drax, Nebula, Kraglin and the Collector and expand on Xandarian, Kree, Krylorian and Ravager culture. He also hoped to introduce more female characters in the sequel, though wanted to avoid including "earthlings" such as Carol Danvers, as well as Novas Richard Rider or Sam Alexander, saying, "I think Quill being the only earthling is important. That serves the entire movie-going audience and not just the handful of Nova [and Carol Danvers] fans". The character Darkhawk had also been considered for the film. Feige said exploring Quill's father "would certainly be part of a next Guardians adventure", adding "I think there's a reason we seeded it at the very end of the [first] film like that". Gunn also stated that he wanted to make sure "Yondu's place in everything made sense" in regards to his relationship to Quill and his father, and also revealed Quill's father would not be J'son as in the comics. Gunn "was less confident [Marvel] was going to buy in on Baby Groot than" including Ego, since "adult Groot was the most popular character from the first film and I didn't think they'd want to risk a good thing". However, by changing Groot, Gunn felt it "opened the film up" creatively, allowing Gunn to bring out "new aspects of our other characters". Gunn said Thanos would only appear in the sequel "if he helps our story and he will not show up at all if not. Thanos is not the most important thing in Guardians 2, that's for damn sure. There's the Guardians themselves and other threats the Guardians are going to be facing that are not Thanos". Feige later confirmed that Thanos would not appear in the sequel, as he was being saved for a "grander" return. When asked about how the film would connect with the other Phase Three films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Gunn said, "I don't feel beholden to that stuff at all. I think it's really about the Guardians and what they are doing". Gunn set the film two to three months after the first film "because he felt the group are just such fragile egos and he didn't think this story could start years later". Major planets visited in the film include Sovereign, Berhart and Contraxia. Feige also stated two or three other worlds would be seen, as well as "a little bit of Earth in this film, but it's not these characters going to Earth". In December 2014, Gunn revealed the story for the film was written, saying, "It's [still] constantly shifting, but I feel like it's pretty strong. I'm excited about it". By early February 2015, Gunn was "a few short weeks" away from submitting a full story treatment to Marvel, and said that when he first presented his idea for the sequel to the company they thought it was "risky". He described it as "not really based on anything" from the comics, being mainly an original story. Gunn later referred to the full treatment as a "scriptment", "a 70-page combination of a script and a treatment and it goes through every beat of the movie". By April, he was preparing to write the screenplay, and in May he was hoping to complete the script before he began work on The Belko Experiment (2016) in June 2015. As he developed the story, Gunn considered to have Gamora killed off due to Zoe Saldaña's original expectations to only play the role in the first film. As he knew that Saldaña didn't wish to play Gamora for a few years, Gunn considered to have Gamora sacrifice herself at the end of the film to save Peter so he could learn about himself, but Feige and Louis D'Esposito talked Gunn out from taking that decision because it didn't work well with the story, in addition to their plans to have Gamora die in Infinity War instead as the Russo brothers informed Gunn during months of planning Vol. 2. After discussing it with Marvel and realizing that it would be better for Gamora to die in the third Avengers film, Gunn ultimately concluded that the story naturally progressed in a way that insisted that Yondu Udonta should be the one to die at the end to rescue Quill despite Gunn's initial reluctance in killing off Michael Rooker's character due to their friendship, but in retrospective, Gunn felt that the story worked out in a perfect way to set up Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3 (2023). ### Pre-production On June 2, 2015, Gunn announced on social media that he had completed the first draft of the screenplay, and that the film's title would not simply be Guardians of the Galaxy 2. The same week, he confirmed the return of Saldaña, Dave Bautista and Cooper as Gamora, Drax and Rocket, respectively. At the end of the month, Gunn announced the film would be titled Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, saying he "came up with a LOT of titles for Vol. 2. But because 'Guardians of the Galaxy' is already so wordy, it seemed strange to add another bunch of words after it. I liked Vol. 2 the best, so that's what I stuck on the cover of the screenplay—and, fortunately, [Marvel] liked it". In September 2015, Gunn said in a Facebook post that he wanted to use Sneepers, an alien race that first appeared in Marvel Comics in 1964, as background characters in the film, but was advised against it by Marvel's legal department because the name was too similar to snípur, the Icelandic word for clitoris. The Marvel legal department later cleared the use of Sneepers in the film, in part because of all the media coverage Gunn's initial post received. At the end of the month, Feige stated casting announcements would be made before the end of 2015, and by the end of October, Pom Klementieff was cast as Mantis. Also, it was reported that Matthew McConaughey had recently turned down the role of "the villain" in the film, in favor of The Dark Tower (2017). McConaughey felt he would have been "an amendment" in Vol. 2 in "a colorful part [made] for another big-name actor". In December, Gunn said that he was corresponding with John C. Reilly about him reprising his role as Nova Corpsman Rhomann Dey, while Kurt Russell entered early talks to play Quill's father. After the death of David Bowie in January 2016, Gunn said that there had been discussions for Bowie to appear in the film as a member of Yondu's original crew. Gunn also stated that he had completed the final draft of the script. Benicio del Toro, who portrayed the Collector in the first film, expressed interest in portraying the character again, despite Marvel not contacting him about the sequel; Gunn explained that the Collector "just didn't fit" into Vol. 2. In early February, comedian Steve Agee was revealed to be in the film. Prop master Russell Bobbitt had difficulty finding the cassette decks that had been used in the first film, and all of the Sony Walkman headsets they sourced for the sequel were broken. Sony also did not have any headsets available for filming, while three pairs Bobbitt found on eBay cost around \$1,800 and were not the exact model. Bobbitt eventually created six from scratch for Vol. 2. Other props he created for the film included two sets of blasters for Quill, with removable blaster cartridges, and "steampunk-looking weapons and belts" for the Ravagers; Bobbitt explained that four different weapons were designed for the latter group, and then 15–20 versions of those were produced to be used by the various Ravager actors (there could be up to 85–95 Ravagers per scene). For their belts, the props team cut the leather themselves rather than buying existing belts, and then parts from different electronic devices such as radios and cell phones were glued together to make each belt "a unique piece of art". The prop department also made edible props for certain scenes: a prop of a stinkbug-inspired insect was made from chocolate and injected with black honey so it could be eaten on screen and "when he bit down the honey poured out of his mouth"; similarly, a "yarrow root" was designed based on enlarged images of pollen, and then created with non-dairy white chocolate to be eaten onscreen. ### Filming Pre-shooting began on February 11, 2016, at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, under the working title Level Up, with Henry Braham serving as cinematographer and Scott Chambliss as production designer. Gunn noted that many of the crew from the first film, such as cinematographer Ben Davis and production designer Charles Wood, signed on to work on Doctor Strange (2016), and due to a late change in production schedule for that film, were unable to work on Vol. 2. Principal photography began on February 17, with Marvel confirming that Russell had joined the cast, and revealing that Elizabeth Debicki and Chris Sullivan had also been cast, all in undisclosed roles. The production used all 18 stages at Pinewood Atlanta Studios, an increase in stage space from what was used for the first film. Gunn said the sequel required more sets than the first and "our sets are very large, even though a lot of the film is CGI. I like to have as many practical sets as we can and make the environments as real as possible so it balances out the CGI elements". Despite this, Gunn noted that there were less locations featured in the sequel, with the focus instead on being more specific and detailed with fewer places shown. Sets constructed for the film included several for the Sovereign planet, for which Chambliss used a "1950s pulp fiction variation on 1930s art deco design aesthetic"; the Ravager's main ship in the film, the Eclector, which was constructed in sections to provide a complete 360-degree view of the ship as well as the ability to move sections around and portray different areas of the ship; and the Iron Lotus establishment on the "pleasure planet" of Contraxia, which Chambliss wanted to feel like it had been put together from "a whole yard of repurposed junk where old spaceships are cast away and industrial materials that aren't of use anymore are just left to rot", creating a "kind of neon jungle in its own way and covered in ice and snow". Interiors for other ships were also constructed, to limit the amount of blue screen the actors had to interact with; this includes the cockpit of Quill's ship that had been built for the first film before being stored in London which was transported to Atlanta for the sequel. Originally shot was a scene featuring Star-Lord and Gamora kissing, establishing themselves as a couple, but Gunn ultimately cut the scene due to feeling that the kiss happened in a "weird time". He would later beg the Infinity War filmmakers to include the kiss there. Vol. 2 was the first film to be shot with an 8K resolution camera, the Red Weapon 8K. Braham had wanted to use a different camera than the Alexa 65 that had been used for several other Marvel films, because he found it to be a "very big and heavy camera". He wanted a camera that could deliver equivalent image quality to the Alexa 65, and tested multiple options. He eventually met with Red employees, whom he had a positive experience with working on The Legend of Tarzan (2016), and they introduced him to an early prototype for the Weapon 8K. He, Gunn, and Marvel decided to use the camera in September 2015, when only that single prototype existed, and spent three months working with Red to get the camera ready for filming. For the sequence where Rocket and Yondu escape from the Ravagers, a Phantom Camera was used to film scenes up to 2,000 frames per second, with the footage able to be moved from slow-motion to high-speed within a single shot. Each shot using the camera had to be carefully set up and choreographed. Additional scenes were also shot in IMAX and its aspect ratio. Braham filmed almost 85 percent of the film using a stabilizing technology he had contributed to called Stabileye, which he called "a handheld dolly" which allowed "a spontaneity to the way the camera moves that is different and that felt appropriate for this movie". For filming the cockpits of spaceships, Braham surrounded the practical sets with video panels and other light sources that he could use to create realistic lighting no matter the environment outside the ship. Exteriors of the ships were filmed with the camera on a technocrane, but any shots inside the cockpits again used the Stabileye which is "so small that you can get it in there next to the actors". In April 2016, Gunn revealed that Reilly would not be part of the film, and stated that there were many other characters he could not include in the film due to rights issues, saying that 20th Century Fox "owns so many awesome cosmic villains and minor characters that I'd love to play around with" such as Annihilus and Kang the Conqueror. Gunn also planned on filming scenes with Glenn Close, reprising her role as Nova Prime Irani Rael from the first film. When filming Stan Lee's cameo, Gunn also filmed two other cameo appearances with Lee including one for Doctor Strange, to limit the amount of travel Lee had to do. Additional filming for Vol. 2 took place in Cartersville, Georgia, a state park north of Portland, Oregon, and in St. Charles, Missouri. The Georgia International Convention Center served as additional soundstage space after pre-production on Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017) began at several Pinewood Atlanta Studios soundstages. Principal photography wrapped on June 16, 2016. ### Post-production At San Diego Comic-Con 2016, Russell and Debicki were revealed to be playing Ego, Quill's father, and Ayesha, respectively. Sylvester Stallone was also revealed to be in the film, with his role later revealed as Stakar Ogord. Gunn also introduced multiple actors who were playing Ravager characters, since the Ravagers have a larger presence in the film. On the decision to reveal Russell as Ego and Quill's father when he did, Gunn felt that since "people were going to figure it out eventually [...] it was better that we took the reins in our own hands" and make the reveal. Gunn also felt that this would move the focus of audiences from wanting to discover who Quill's father is to "the story and the relationship that these characters have". In August 2016, Gunn confirmed the film would feature a post-credits scene, later stating there would be five in total, with four mid-credits scenes and one post-credits. Gunn also planned a sixth scene, where the Ravager Gef is found "mortally wounded" on the ship, but "it ended up being a little confusing". In November, Gillan revealed that the film was undergoing reshoots. That February, it was reported that the film had scored a perfect 100 in test screenings, the highest for any Marvel Studios film. The Hollywood Reporter noted this score could not necessarily be compared to any non-Marvel movies due to Marvel's specific testing process that selects its audience "from a more select pool of recruits, what it terms 'friends and families screenings'". In March 2017, Gunn revealed that Michael Rosenbaum would appear in the film, and that Gunn would provide reference for Baby Groot's dancing "in a much bigger way [than the first film]. I actually had to do like a full day's worth of dancing to get Groot's dance down this time. Last time it was me in front of an iPhone, and this time it's me dancing on a huge soundstage and shooting it from five different angles". Fred Raskin and Craig Wood returned from the first film to serve as editors. On scenes that were cut from the film, Gunn said Nathan Fillion, who had had a voice cameo in the first film, was going to appear as Simon Williams in a sequence that would have shown several movie posters for films starring Williams, including films in which he portrays Arkon and Tony Stark. Gunn chose Williams for Fillion's cameo because he wanted Fillion to have a bigger role in the MCU at some point and so did not want to give him a role that could prevent him from taking a more substantial one later. Gunn still considered Fillion's cameo canon to the MCU, despite it being cut. He also confirmed that Close's scenes had been cut from the film, because it felt like he "was trying to cram Nova Prime into the second movie as opposed to having it happen organically". #### Visual effects Visual effects for the film were created by Framestore, Weta Digital, Trixter, Method Studios, Animal Logic, Scanline VFX, Lola VFX, Luma, and Cantina Creative. Previsualization was done by The Third Floor. Framestore created 620 shots for the film, Weta Digital created 530, Method Studios more than 500, and Animal Logic created 147. Framestore once again created Rocket and Groot, with Method Studios, Weta Digital and Trixter also working on Rocket. Framestore rebuilt Rocket "from the ground up" for Vol. 2, giving him an updated fur simulation, new facial shapes and phonemes, as well as a new eye rig, which came from a rig used for the character Gnarlack from Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (2016). Trixter's work on Rocket included when he sets off a trap for the Ravagers, additionally working on the sequence when Rocket, Yondu and Kraglin jump across space. Other work from Framestore included creatures, spaceships, Ayesha's lair, the space chase, the Eclector scenes, and the adolescent Groot post-credit scene. Framestore also created the film's opening sequence. Despite appearing as a single shot, it ultimately was composed of 11 different visual effect shots. Gunn provided reference video for Baby Groot's dancing in the sequence. Framestore animation supervisor Arslan Elver noted that the majority of the opening sequence includes CGI and digital doubles, with three moments (Quill falling on the ground near Baby Groot, Gamora talking to Baby Groot, and Drax rolling behind Baby Groot) consisting of actual photography. As with the first film, Sarofsky created the typography for the opening, using the same style from Guardians of the Galaxy for consistency, "this time in rusty gold and glowing blue neon". Executive Creative Director Erin Sarofsky noted the challenge of placing the credits while the sequence was being refined by Framestore. Sarofsky proposed several different options for the credits, including having "a little hovering character that projected a hologram up on the screen", but Gunn did not want another character in the sequence to deal with. A simpler 2D option was used instead. Sarofsky also worked on the end credits, the first time for the company, integrating the actual credits from company Exceptional Minds with designs inspired by old music album art, taking albums and scanning them for their old textures and scratches. The destruction of the Ravager ship the Eclector was handled by Weta Digital. Weta Digital also handled Ego during his fight with Quill, utilizing a digital double of Russell for many of their shots. Weta also needed to create a digital double for David Hasselhoff for the moment when Ego shifts into Hasselhoff's guise. Guy Williams, Weta's visual effects supervisor, said, "We tried morphing to a live-action Hoff—but it did not hold up as well. The Kurt version looked better than the Hoff version ... and while we had built a very detailed Kurt digi-double ... we didn't want to go to the same level on the Hoff for just two shots. But in the end we did have to do a partial build digi-double of the Hoff. The reason we did the Kurt digi-double in the first place was to make sure all the effects stuck correctly to the body ... so we went with the approach of a full digi-double, the hair, the side of the face everything on Kurt. For the Hoff, we got pretty close, but it is not quite as detailed as for Kurt". Additional work by Weta included the inside of Ego's planet, known as the Planet Hollow, which was inspired by the fractal art of Hal Tenny, who Gunn hired to help design Ego's environment. Gunn added that there are "over a trillion polygons on Ego's planet," calling it "the biggest visual effect of all time. There's nothing even close to it". Animal Logic and Method Studios also worked on the various parts of Ego's planet, with Animal Logic focusing on Ego's cathedral, and Method on the arrival sequence and Baby Groot's "not that button" sequence in the Planet Hollow. Animal Logic's work for Ego's cathedral was also based on fractal art. The team at Animal Logic were initially brought on to the film to work on the story vignettes that were used to explain the backstory, which started as oil paintings before evolving to falling sand, and eventually the final plastic sculptures that were used. Method also created the film's final sequence for Yondu's funeral. To make Rocket shedding a tear convincing, Method used in-house footage of Animation Supervisor Keith Roberts "performing the scene for reference, studying the macro facial movements like minor eye darts or blinks, in addition to what was filmed on set and in the sound booth by" Cooper. Additional work included the scenes on the planet Berhart. Lola VFX worked on de-aging Russell, having previously done similar work in other MCU films; they also added to various characters, including Nebula. To achieve the younger Ego, Lola referenced Russell's performance in Used Cars (1980), as "he had a lot of the [facial] action" the visual effects artists were looking for. They also used a younger stand in, Aaron Schwartz, since he had "big broad jaw, chin, and most importantly the way the laugh lines move[d] and crease[d] as he talk[ed]", similar to Russell's. Laura Haddock, reprising her role from the first film of Meredith Quill in the sequence, was also slightly de-aged to play the younger version of that character. Luma worked on the Sovereign people and their world, and Adam Warlock's cocoon. ## Music By August 2014, Gunn had "some ideas listed, but nothing for sure" in terms of songs to include in Quill's Awesome Mix Vol. 2 mixtape, for which he felt "a little pressure" due to the positive response to the first film's soundtrack. Gunn added, "But I feel like the soundtrack in the second one is better." By June 2015, Gunn had chosen all of the songs and built them into the script, calling Awesome Mix Vol. 2 "more diverse" than the first one, with "some really incredibly famous songs and then some songs that people have never heard." Tyler Bates was confirmed to score the film by August 2015, returning from the first film. As with Guardians of the Galaxy, Bates wrote some of the score first so Gunn could film to the music, as opposed to Bates scoring to the film. Recording for the score occurred in January 2017 at Abbey Road Studios. Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2: Awesome Mix Volume 2, along with the film score album composed by Bates, were released on April 21, 2017. A cassette version of Awesome Mix Volume 2 was released on June 23, 2017, while a deluxe-edition vinyl LP featuring both Awesome Mix Volume 2 and Bates' score was released on August 11, 2017. ## Marketing In June 2016, Marvel announced plans for an expanded merchandising program for the sequel, with Groot playing a central role. Gunn ensured the film's female characters received more representation in the merchandise than in the first. Paul Gitter, senior vice president of licensing at Disney Consumer Products, said they intended to build Guardians of the Galaxy into a tentpole franchise. Partners in the campaign included Hasbro, Lego, Funko, LB Kids, GEICO, Ford Motor Company, Go-Gurt, Hanes, Synchrony Bank, Dairy Queen, M&M's, Screenvision, Sprint Corporation, and Wrigley Company. Additionally, Marvel partnered with Doritos for their Rock Out Loud campaign to create a custom "limited-edition series of Doritos bags featuring a built-in cassette tape deck-inspired player that plays" Awesome Mix Vol. 2 and can be recharged. The custom bags were available to purchase on Amazon.com, with Doritos also hosting Rock Out Loud pop-up recording booths in New York and Los Angeles where fans could sing the songs from Awesome Mix Vol. 2 and have the opportunity to win various prizes, including the custom bags, concert tickets, and free bags of Doritos." In July 2016, Gunn, Pratt and other members of the cast attended San Diego Comic-Con to promote the film, showing footage and revealing additional character information. On October 19, a "sneak peek" teaser was released ahead of the first full teaser trailer. Ethan Anderton of /Film felt the teaser was strong, despite not showing any of the new characters or relying on Baby Groot, while The A.V. Club's Esther Zuckerman called it "an immediate crowd-pleaser". According to media-measurement firm Comscore and its PreAct service, the teaser was the top trailer for the week it released, generating 108,000 new social media conversations. In early December, before Gunn revealed the first teaser trailer at Comic Con Experience 2016, he said that finding scenes and moments to showcase in the trailer without revealing too much of the film resulted in hard choices, since "people really go through every single little shot and try to figure out what the movie's about. And there's a lot of mysteries in Guardians 2." Describing the teaser trailer, Jacob Hall of /Film noted that the trailer was able to succeed without giving too much away as it focused on character interactions rather than plot. The teaser trailer received 81 million views in 24 hours, becoming the second-most viewed teaser behind Beauty and the Beast and largest Marvel Studios teaser ever. Additionally, Sweet's "Fox on the Run" reached number one on the iTunes Rock Chart after featuring in the teaser. A second trailer aired during Super Bowl LI. Germain Lussier for io9 called it "hilarious", while Anderton said it was "one hell of a" Super Bowl spot, "one that probably overshadows the game itself for people like me... There's plenty of badass cosmic action, the humor we all love, a stellar soundtrack, and some great new footage from the sequel." The spot generated the most Twitter conversation volume during the game with 47,800 conversations, according to Comscore, who measured the volume of trailers that aired during the game from the time it aired through the end of the game. The film also topped a Fandango survey of fans' favorite film trailer during the Super Bowl. An additional trailer debuted on February 28, 2017, on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. Haleigh Foutch at Collider felt the trailer added "hype" to the film, and was "just an all-around wonderful trailer, lit up with the wacky humor and irreverent charm that made the first film such a hit, with an extra dose of visual splendor." Pratt and Saldaña appeared at the 2017 Kids' Choice Awards, where they debuted an exclusive clip. In mid-July, Marvel created a 1980s-inspired infomercial and an 800 number to promote the film's home media release. ## Release ### Theatrical Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 made its world premiere in Tokyo on April 10, 2017, and its Hollywood premiere on April 19 at the Dolby Theatre. The film began its international release on April 25, in Australia, New Zealand, and Italy, alongside a total of 37 markets in its first weekend, with 176 IMAX screens in 35 of those markets. Its North American release on May 5 took place in 4,347 theaters, of which over 3,800 were in 3D, 388 in IMAX and IMAX 3D, 588 premium large-format, and 194 D-Box locations. The film's opening in China was in 400 IMAX theaters, the largest ever for the country. On May 4, 2017, 550 theaters in the United States had a special RealD Guardians of the Galaxy double feature event before preview screenings of Vol. 2. Guests who attended received an exclusive mini poster and a set of souvenir collectible buttons. Vol. 2 was originally intended to be released on July 28, 2017. The film is part of Phase Three of the MCU. ### Home media Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 was released on digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on August 8, 2017, and on Blu-ray, Blu-ray 3D, Ultra HD Blu-ray, and DVD on August 22. The Ultra HD Blu-ray version is the first Disney home media release in 4K resolution. The digital and Blu-ray releases include behind-the-scenes featurettes, audio commentary, deleted scenes, a blooper reel, and a music video for the song "Guardians Inferno". The digital release also exclusively features the breakdown of three scenes, from their initial ideas to their completed versions, and a behind-the-scenes look at the Guardians of the Galaxy – Mission: Breakout!, an accelerated drop tower dark ride attraction at Disney California Adventure. The 1970s-style music video for "Guardians Inferno" was directed by David Yarovesky and features Hasselhoff alongside James Gunn, Pratt, Saldaña, Bautista, Klementieff, Gillan, Rooker, and Sean Gunn. Stan Lee and Guillermo Rodriguez also make cameo appearances in the video. The digital release of the film had the most digital downloads and largest opening week of any Marvel Studios film. The physical releases in its first week of sale were the top home media release, selling "nearly three times as many discs as the rest of the top 10 sellers combined", according to NPD VideoScan data. The Blu-ray version accounted for 83% of the sales, with 10% of total sales coming from the Ultra HD Blu-ray version. In its second week, the film was once again the top home media release. As well, total sales of Vol. 2 in the United Kingdom were more than the other films in the top 40 combined; it was also the top film in the country. The IMAX Enhanced version of the film was made available on Disney+ beginning on November 12, 2021. ## Reception ### Box office Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 grossed over \$389.8 million in the United States and Canada, and over \$473.9 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of \$863.8 million. The film had earlier surpassed the first film's gross (\$773 million) by Memorial Day weekend, three weeks after release, with \$783.3 million worldwide, and became the fifth-highest-grossing MCU film a week later. Deadline Hollywood calculated the film's net profit as \$157 million, accounting for production budgets, marketing, talent participations, and other costs; box office grosses and home media revenues placed it ninth on their list of 2017's "Most Valuable Blockbusters". Since tickets went on sale on April 24, 2017, the film was the number one seller on Fandango, and surpassed the advance sales of Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015) in the similar time frame. Over 80% of sales on MovieTickets.com were for the film ahead of its release. Vol. 2 earned \$146.5 million in its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, with IMAX contributing \$13 million. The \$17 million that came from Thursday night previews was the highest preview amount of 2017. The film had previously been projected to earn upwards of \$160 million in its opening weekend, with Deadline Hollywood predicting it could reach the \$179 million debut of Captain America: Civil War. It remained at number one in its second weekend, and fell to second in its third, behind Alien: Covenant. Vol. 2 remained at number two in its fourth weekend, this time behind Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales, and crossed \$337.6 million, surpassing the domestic gross of the first film. By its fifth weekend, the film fell to fourth, and in its next, fell to fifth. Vol. 2 continued to remain in the top 10 for two more weeks, placing ninth in its seventh weekend, and tenth in its eighth weekend. Outside of the United States and Canada, the film earned \$106 million in its first weekend from 37 markets, becoming the top film in them all except Portugal, Turkey, and Vietnam. IMAX contributed \$5 million to the opening-weekend gross. The film also outperformed the original's opening weekend in all markets except Belgium. In its second weekend, the sequel opened as the top film in South Korea, China, and Russia. It had the highest opening for an MCU film in Austria, the second-highest in Australia (\$11.8 million), the Netherlands (\$500,000), Germany (\$9.3 million), and the United Kingdom (\$16.9 million), and the third-highest in New Zealand (\$400,000), Italy (\$1.4 million), and Russia (\$11.6 million). The New Zealand and Netherlands openings were also the highest of 2017 for the countries, while Germany and the United Kingdom's were the second-highest. In South Korea, it had the biggest opening day (\$3.3 million) and second-best opening weekend (\$13.3 million) of 2017, the latter surpassing the original's entire earnings in the country. It also had the biggest May opening day and the third-highest opening day for an MCU film there. Ukraine had the second-largest opening ever, while in Puerto Rico, the film had the largest IMAX opening. More markets saw their gross for Vol. 2 surpass the total gross from the first film in its third weekend, with China following in its fourth. The next weekend saw Vol. 2's gross outside the United States and Canada (\$451.1 million) surpass the international gross of the first film (\$440 million). Vol. 2's three biggest markets in total earnings were: China (\$99.3 million), the United Kingdom (\$51.3 million), and Germany (\$28 million). ### Critical response The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of , with an average score of , based on reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2's action-packed plot, dazzling visuals, and irreverent humor add up to a sequel that's almost as fun—if not quite as thrillingly fresh—as its predecessor." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 67 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it a 93% overall positive score and a 77% "definite recommend". Owen Gleiberman of Variety called the film "an extravagant and witty follow-up, made with the same friendly virtuosic dazzle... and just obligatory enough to be too much of a good thing." He cautioned that "this time you can sense just how hard [Gunn] is working to entertain you. Maybe a little too hard." Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers described the film as a "blast" and gave it three stars out of four, praising the film for its tone and fun, soundtrack, and characters. He noted that "Vol. 2 can't match the sneak-attack surprise of its predecessor...[but] the followup, while taking on some CGI bloat and sequel slickness, hasn't lost its love for inspired lunacy. Chicago Sun-Times' Richard Roeper also gave the film three stars, calling it not "quite as much fun, not quite as clever, not quite as fresh as the original—but it still packs a bright and shiny and sweet punch." Roeper continued that "even with all the silliness and all the snarkiness, the Guardians can put a lump in your throat", and praised the cast, especially Rooker, with "one of the best roles in the movie". In his review for RogerEbert.com, Brian Tallerico gave the film three stars out of four, describing it as "a thoroughly enjoyable summer blockbuster" that does not take itself seriously, avoiding "many of the flaws of the first movie, and [doing] several things notably better. It's fun, clever and a great kick-off to the summer movie season." Also giving the film three out of four stars, Sara Stewart at the New York Post felt the film was overstuffed, but that Gunn's "lighthearted approach makes this matter surprisingly little" and "at least it's stuffed with good cheer". Praising the tone and 1980s references that gave the film a sense of fun, Stewart called Vol. 2 an "antidote to somber superheroes". At The Washington Post, Michael O'Sullivan gave the film four stars, praising it as being "funnier, nuttier, and more touching" than the first film. O'Sullivan felt it avoided usual sequel problems by building on the original film rather than repeating it, and also noted the use of music as well as "dazzling" visuals throughout, describing the film as "a toe-tapping, eye-popping indication that summer is here, and that it might not be so bad after all." Brian Lowry, writing for CNN.com, criticized the middle portion of the film and its villain, but felt the film fared better than other Marvel sequels with its strong beginning and end, and "good-natured energy", saying it "ultimately shares just enough with its central quintet—rather heroically getting the job done, even if the trip from here to there can be a bit disjointed and messy." For The Atlantic, Christopher Orr felt the film did not live up to the original, particularly due to its heavier themes and feeling that Russell was "badly miscast", but the rest of the cast, soundtrack, and humor were enough for him to give an overall positive review. At The Hollywood Reporter, Todd McCarthy said "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 plays like a second ride on a roller-coaster that was a real kick the first time around but feels very been-there/done-that now." Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times was positive of the film's soundtrack and cast, especially Russell, but felt Gunn was trying too hard to re-capture the magic of the first film, and the increased scope of effects and action becomes weary. Turan concluded, "There are enough reminders of the first Guardians to make the sequel an acceptable experience, [but it's] less like itself and more like a standard Marvel production." Manohla Dargis at The New York Times said the film "certainly has its attractions, but most of them are visual rather than narrative." She also felt Gunn was trying too hard, and found many elements of the sequel to be too serious even with Russell balancing that with a much-needed "unforced looseness". Anthony Lane in his review for The New Yorker felt once Ego was introduced, the film began to suffer from "the curse of the backstory" and that the "point that the movie, which has been motoring along nicely, fuelled by silliness and pep, begins to splutter" was when Ego's desire for larger meaning is revealed. Lane concluded, "Let's hope that Vol. 3 recaptures the fizz of the original, instead of slumping into the most expensive group-therapy session in the universe." ### Accolades ## Future ### Sequel Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3 was released on May 5, 2023, with Gunn returning to write and direct. Pratt, Saldaña, Bautista, Diesel, Cooper, Gillan, Klementieff, and Sean Gunn reprise their roles in the film, and are joined by Will Poulter as Adam Warlock. ### I Am Groot In December 2020, I Am Groot, a series of animated short films focused on Baby Groot, was announced for Disney+. Diesel reprises his role, with all five shorts released on August 10, 2022. ### The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special is a Marvel Studios Special Presentation that was released on Disney+ on November 25, 2022, with Gunn writing and directing. Pratt, Bautista, Diesel, Cooper, Gillan, Klementieff, Rooker, and Sean Gunn reprise their roles in the special, which is set before the events of Vol. 3. ## See also - "What If... the Watcher Broke His Oath?", an episode of the MCU television series What If...? that reimagines some events of this film
8,645,642	Kurt Wolff (aviator)	1,172,923,760	German flying ace, born 1895	[ "1895 births", "1917 deaths", "Aviation in World War I", "Aviators killed by being shot down", "German World War I flying aces", "German military personnel killed in World War I", "Luftstreitkräfte personnel", "Military personnel from the Province of Pomerania", "People from Greifswald", "Prussian Army personnel", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)" ]	Oberleutnant Kurt Robert Wilhelm Wolff PlM (6 February 1895 – 15 September 1917) was one of Imperial Germany's highest-scoring fighter aces during World War I. The frail youthful orphan originally piloted bombers before being picked by Manfred von Richthofen to join Jagdstaffel 11 (Fighter Squadron 11) in the burgeoning Imperial German Air Service. Under the tutelage of Richthofen, Wolff would shoot down 33 enemy aircraft in four months, including 22 victims during the Royal Flying Corps' disastrous Bloody April, 1917. Wolff scored victories so rapidly he outran the Prussian awards system; although the Pour le Merite was customarily awarded after a fighter ace's 20th victory, Wolff's was not received until after his 29th. On 6 May 1917, after this 29th victory, Wolff was transferred to command Jagdstaffel 29 and score two victories. When Richthofen moved up from Jagdstaffel 11 to become the wing commander of the Flying Circus, his replacement as Jagdstaffel 11 commander was killed. Wolff was transferred to command his old squadron; he scored his 32nd and 33rd victories with them. On 11 July, he was wounded and grounded after a crash landing. On 12 September 1917, the day after he returned to duty, he was promoted to Oberleutnant. Three days later, Wolff made his final patrol, leading a patrol of five in a prototype Fokker Triplane. In a chaotic dogfight with Sopwith Camels from No. 10 Naval Squadron, Wolff nearly collided with his assailant, Norman MacGregor. As Wolff fell out of sight, MacGregor claimed an "out of control" victory. Wolff was probably dead before the triplane's explosive impact. ## Early life Kurt Wolff was born in Greifswald, Pomerania. He was orphaned as a child and was raised by relatives in Memel, East Prussia. Wolff enlisted in the Bavarian Army in 1912 at the age of 17, joining a transport unit, Railway Regiment Nr. 4. He was still with this regiment when World War I began. He received a commission on 17 April 1915, and he transferred to the Fliegertruppen (Flying Troops) in July. ## Fighter pilot ### Training and first posting Wolff's first flight was almost his last. The instructor crashed the aircraft, killing himself; Wolff's shoulder was dislocated. Eventually, Wolff received his pilot's badge in late 1915 and was assigned to a series of two-seater bomber units over the next year. On 12 October 1916 he was posted to La Brayelle Airfield in northern France to join the then victoryless Royal Prussian Jagdstaffel 11 (Hunting Team 11). For months, Wolff and his comrades in the squadron had had no success in aerial combat. That changed when command was given to the Red Baron, Rittmeister (Cavalry Captain) Manfred von Richthofen. Under the Red Baron's leadership, Jagdstaffel 11 began to score victories, and Wolff became an excellent fighter pilot. Like his commanding officer, Wolff soon became an avid collector of souvenirs from the aircraft he shot down. Wolff's room at his airfield soon became decorated with serial numbers, airplane parts and machine guns salvaged from his victims. Like all the Jagdstaffel 11 aircraft, Wolff's Albatros D.III was painted in the unit's basic red livery. To this, he added individual markings for inflight identification by having his plane's elevators and tailplane painted green. He first claimed an aerial victory on 6 March 1917, a Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2d of No. 16 Squadron RFC. Four more victories followed during March, making Wolff an ace. ### Bloody April By the end of March 1917, the Royal Flying Corps held a numerical edge over the Luftstreitkräfte of about two to one. The German aircraft numbered about 195; about half these could be used to attack other planes. By contrast, the British were fielding about 365 airplanes; a third were single-seat fighters. However, despite their superior numbers, the British aircraft were technologically inferior to the German fighters. Nevertheless, the British pushed their air offensive over the German lines to maintain their air superiority during April 1917, despite ongoing heavy casualties among their aircrew. The British lost almost 250 aircraft to German action during Bloody April, 1917; the blood cost came to over 400 British aviators killed or wounded. Among Jagdstaffel 11 aces, Sebastian Festner shot down 10 British airplanes; Lothar von Richthofen shot down 15; Karl Emil Schaefer 16; Manfred von Richthofen 21; Kurt Wolff shot down 22. Besides the individual victories throughout the month, Wolff would score multiple victories on five April days. Most notable was Friday, 13 April, when Wolff shot down four British airplanes from four different squadrons on four sorties. Also notably, he scored three victories on 29 April 1917, including Major H.D. Harvey-Kelly, commander of No. 19 Squadron RFC. Wolff ended the month with his victims numbering 29. Having previously earned both classes of the Prussian Iron Cross, Wolff was awarded that kingdom's Knight's Cross with Swords of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern on 26 April. Wolff's rapid victory pace had outrun the awards section; at 20 victories, he became eligible for the Pour le Mérite, but could not receive it before the yet-to-be awarded Hohenzollern. ### Wolff in command Wolff was awarded the German Empire's most prestigious award, the Prussian Pour le Mérite, on 4 May 1917. Two days later, with his victory total at 29, Wolff left his pilot's assignment with Jagdstaffel 11 when he was promoted to command Royal Prussian Jagdstaffel 29. Wolff shot down a French SPAD on 13 May and a No. 60 Squadron Nieuport 17 on 27 June before he returned to Jagdstaffel 11 as its commander in July 1917. Wolff was selected to replace Leutnant (Second lieutenant) Karl Allmenroeder, who had fallen in combat. Wolff's youthful looks and frail physical stature masked his deadly skills as a combat pilot. As the Adjutant of Jagdstaffel 11, Karl Bodenschatz's estimate of Wolff was: > "...Leutnant Kurt Wolff. At first glance, you could only say 'delicate little flower'. A slender, thin little figure, a very young face, whose entire manner is one of extreme shyness. He looks as if you could tip him backwards with one harsh word. But below this friendly schoolboy's face dangles the order Pour le Mérite. And so far, these modest looking eyes have taken 30 enemy airplanes from the sky over the sights of his machine guns, set them afire, and made them smash to pieces on the ground." During Wolff's assignment to Jagdstaffel 29 as its commander, Jagdstaffel 11 was one of four squadrons incorporated into the first German fighter wing, Jagdgeschwader I, on 24 June 1917. Manfred von Richthofen was promoted up from squadron command to lead the new wing. Inheriting Richthofen's Jagdstaffel 11 command and leading this squadron as part of the new wing, Wolff downed a RE-8 of No. 4 Squadron RFC and a Sopwith Triplane of No. 1 Naval Squadron in early July for his final victories, the 32nd and 33rd. However, on 11 July Wolff was shot in both his left hand and left shoulder by gunfire from a Sopwith Triplane flown by future ace Flight Sub-Lieutenant Herbert Rowley of No. 1 Naval Squadron. Wolff crash landed his aircraft on the Courtrai railway line. The crash ripped off the undercarriage and flipped the aircraft over. The wreck came to rest with Wolff's head within inches of smashing on a metal fence. His rescuers toted him off to the hospital. Wolff would not return from sick leave until 11 September. The day after his return, he was promoted to oberleutnant (lieutenant). ## Final fight The first two Fokker Triplane prototypes had been allocated to Jagdgeschwader 1. Upon his return on 11 September, Wolff was eager to fly one of the prototypes in Richthofen's absence. Four days later, on 15 September he found his opportunity. Despite heavily overcast skies, he took off in Richthofen's prototype Triplane. He was flying the lone Triplane, leading a patrol of five Albatros fighters. Meanwhile, three new Sopwith Camels of No. 10 Squadron Royal Naval Air Service, sallied forth from their lines on an offensive patrol. Somewhere in the vicinity of Moorslede, Belgium, at 16.30 hours the trio was the target of a diving attack by Wolff and his patrol. In the confusion of the dogfight, the British pilots mistakenly thought four triplanes were involved. As Wolff singled out a Camel to shoot down, he was suddenly fired on from behind by Flight Sub-Lieutenant Norman MacGregor. MacGregor fired a quick burst from 25 yards range, then had to zoom to avoid colliding with the Fokker. Glancing behind him and downwards, he noted only that Wolff was in a vertical dive. McGregor's combat claim was for an 'out of control' victory. It seems probable that Wolff was killed by MacGregor's bullets in midair and was already dead when his Triplane crashed and burst into flames north of Wervik near Moorslede at 17.30 hours (German time). Wolff's remains were taken back to Memel for burial. His interment in a military ceremony included display of his native Bavaria's Military Merit Order, 4th Class with Swords, in addition to his Prussian awards. ## Awards Before winning the Pour le Merite on 4 May 1917, Kurt Wolff was awarded both classes of the Iron Cross, the House Order of Hohenzollern, and the Bavarian Military Merit Order, Fourth Class with Swords. ## Victory list Opposing pilots are singly listed as casualties. Double listings are pilot and observer respectively. ## Footnote ## Endnotes
4,366,124	All the Best Cowboys Have Daddy Issues	1,171,557,602	null	[ "2004 American television episodes", "Lost (season 1) episodes", "Television episodes directed by Stephen Williams (director)" ]	"All the Best Cowboys Have Daddy Issues" is the eleventh episode of the American drama series first season of Lost. The episode was directed by Stephen Williams and written by Javier Grillo-Marxuach. It first aired on December 8, 2004, on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). In the episode, flashbacks reveal Jack Shephard being responsible for his father's dismissal from a hospital after performing surgery while drunk. In the present, Jack and a team go searching for two fellow plane crash survivors after they are kidnapped by somebody who was not listed in the passenger manifest. The flashbacks were inspired by Grillo-Marxuach's background as the son of a doctor, and the episode in general went through several changes in the writing stage, one of them being the creation of two new characters who help look for the missing survivors, who were then scrapped in favor of including regular character Boone Carlyle. "All the Best Cowboys Have Daddy Issues" was watched by 18.88 million Americans and was met with positive reviews from critics, with several reviewers commending the scene in which Jack saves Charlie Pace. ## Plot ### Flashbacks Jack Shephard (Matthew Fox) operates on a woman who flatlines, and despite his attempts to revive her, his father Christian Shephard (John Terry) forces him to stop and call the time of death. It is later revealed that it was actually Christian's operation; Jack was called in by a nurse after it becomes apparent that his father was performing the surgery under the influence of alcohol. Christian attempts to cover this up by making Jack sign a form detailing the surgery, albeit with his inebriation omitted from the report, stating that the hospital will revoke his medical license if alcohol is mentioned. However, sometime later Jack learns the patient's husband is suing the hospital. Jack and Christian then attend a board meeting discussing what went wrong during the operation. The board reveals that the deceased woman was pregnant, which was unknown by Jack. Horrified, he confesses to the board that Christian was operating under the influence during the surgery, which impaired his judgment that led to the chain of events causing the woman's death. ### On the Island On Day 16, October 7, 2004, back at the caves, the camp has learned from Hugo "Hurley" Reyes (Jorge Garcia) that one survivor, Ethan Rom (William Mapother), is not listed in the passenger manifest. Furthermore, Charlie Pace (Dominic Monaghan) and Claire Littleton (Emilie de Ravin) are missing. Jack and John Locke (Terry O'Quinn) run through the jungle to find three distinct footprints, indicating that Ethan took Charlie and Claire. Locke decides to go back to gather a hunting party, but Jack continues alone. Locke returns with Kate Austen (Evangeline Lilly) and Boone Carlyle (Ian Somerhalder) and finds Jack. After they find a knuckle bandage left by Charlie as a clue, the party find two separate trails. Locke takes Boone in one direction, while Jack and Kate take the other. It soon turns out that Jack and Kate are following the correct trail when they find more of Charlie's knuckle bandages. When it starts raining, Jack believes he hears Claire screaming. Jack tumbles down an embankment to find Ethan, who warns Jack he will kill one of his captives if he does not stop following Ethan. A fistfight ensues, but Ethan gains the upper hand and subdues Jack. When he regains consciousness, Jack continues on, eventually finding Charlie, who has been hanged by Ethan. Kate cuts him down, and Jack furiously performs CPR—despite Kate's pleas that he is dead. Jack does not give up and brings Charlie back to life. Back at the caves at nightfall, Jack learns from Charlie that "they" only wanted Claire all along. In the meantime, Boone and Locke are still looking through the jungle. Boone decides to go back to the caves. As Locke throws him a flashlight, Boone drops it, and it lands on a metal surface embedded in the ground. Curious, the two proceed to remove the mud over it to find out what it is. ## Production "All the Best Cowboys Have Daddy Issues" was written by Javier Grillo-Marxuach. Throughout the writing process, the episode went through several changes. The working title for the episode was "What It Takes"; however, the writers deemed the title "lame." In writing Jack's flashback scenes, Grillo-Marxuach drew his inspiration on his own background as the son of a doctor. Two new minor characters, named Arthur and Sullivan, were originally created to accompany Locke. The idea was later scrapped in favor of including series regular Boone Carlyle; this development would serve as a genesis for the character's upcoming death in a later episode, "Do No Harm". The idea behind the metal surface, which would be known as the hatch for the rest of the season, came when the producers were storyboarding the season. The hatch's discovery was to be introduced earlier into the episode, but was moved to the end to give the episode a cliffhanger. With Jack and Kate's journey, in the original outline they were to come under a dart attack by the Others, the island's native inhabitants, however it was cut because executive producer Damon Lindelof deemed the attack too "cheesy." Grillo-Marxuach described the "hysterical CPR" as "the biggest cliché in the book," but added "the nine people who were writing for the show decided, maybe we earned that. It gave us the emotional payoff for the episode." The fight scene between Jack and Ethan was performed by the actors themselves. The two were given the freedom to set up how their characters would fight each other. However, stunt coordinator Michael Vendrell wanted Ethan to be "as feral as possible; no school of combat, karate, kung-fu." Before filming the scene where Jack finds Charlie, episode director Stephen Williams scouted for a suitable location and found "what looked like a cathedral," because of the layout of trees behind where Charlie was hung. Monaghan had to be harnessed to a cable for roughly four to five hours. The actor described the scene; "they put me in the tree and I just hung there. I just hung limp. I tried to fall asleep, I tried to relax. When everything was going on, when they cut me down from the tree, when [Matthew Fox] was trying to revive me, when [Evangeline Lilly] was crying, I really didn't hear any of it. I just was in a semi-meditative state; however close that I could get with someone smacking me in the chest. ## Reception "All the Best Cowboys Have Daddy Issues" received a 6.8 in the ages 18–49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings. The episode was watched by 18.88 million viewers, the sixth largest audience in American television the week it aired. It was also an improvement of over 1.7 million over the previous episode, "Raised by Another". In the United Kingdom, the episode was seen by 3.76 million viewers. It was the second highest-rated series to air on Channel 4 for the week. Critical reactions of the episode were positive. Chris Carabott of IGN rated the episode 9 out of 10, calling it "a swift return to form" with "plenty of striking and emotional moments" that made it one of the better episodes of the first season. Carabott commented on the flashbacks; "We don't necessarily learn anything new about Jack from a personality standpoint," but Fox did "an exceptional job of conveying Jack's heartbreak as he reveals that his father operated on a woman while under the influence of alcohol." He enjoyed Jack and Ethan's encounter, calling it "chilling." Carabott also praised the scene where Jack tries to save Charlie; "I remember believing that they had killed off Charlie on my initial viewing and even though I knew the outcome this time, it was still a hard scene to watch," adding "after Jack finally manages to resuscitate him, you have to feel for Charlie because you know that he's disappointed in himself for letting Claire down." Another IGN article ranked "All the Best Cowboys Have Daddy Issues" the 33rd best Lost episode. Emily VanDerWerff of the Los Angeles Times rated the episode the 79th of all Lost episodes (apart from the series finale), described the episode as "thrilling," but opined that the show since "has done similar things much better." Whitney Pastorek of Entertainment Weekly did not care for Jack's flashbacks, but commended the scene in which Jack saved Charlie, stating "even though I knew he was going to go back to the CPR and save Charlie's life, I started crying. This is how you identify good TV: When you know what's going to happen and you still get swept up in it all."
19,880,087	Hollywood Undercover	1,157,355,386	2007 book by Ian Halperin	[ "2008 non-fiction books", "Books about film", "Books critical of Scientology", "Mainstream Publishing books", "Works about the history of Hollywood, Los Angeles" ]	Hollywood Undercover: Revealing the Sordid Secrets of Tinseltown is a non-fiction book about the culture of Hollywood society, written by investigative journalist and author Ian Halperin. Halperin poses as a gay man trying to become a successful actor in Hollywood, and informs individuals he is from the non-existent "Israeli royal family". He investigates rumors that the Church of Scientology reportedly claims to have a "cure" for homosexuality through "auditing", and speaks with a former Scientologist about his experiences. He also explores the casting couch phenomenon, the pornography industry, and the Oscars. Halperin meets with famous actors and celebrities, successfully obtains a talent agent, and a role in the film The Aviator. The book was published in 2007 in the United Kingdom by Mainstream Publishing, and on January 15, 2008, in the United States. Hollywood Undercover received generally positive reviews in The Herald, New York Daily News, The Saturday Star, and Contactmusic.com; and a critical review in The Independent. Halperin later released a documentary film on the same topic, His Highness Hollywood, which premiered in New York City in April 2008. His Highness Hollywood is a companion documentary to the book. ## Contents Halperin pretends to be an individual trying to become a successful actor in Los Angeles, and gains access to exclusive celebrity parties. He informs individuals in the entertainment industry that he is a "member of the Israeli royal family" (which does not exist). The book takes a critical look at the Church of Scientology and its influence in Hollywood. Halperin posed as a gay man looking for a "cure" for homosexuality from Scientology in order to expose what he felt were inherent prejudices in the organization. He investigates rumors that Scientology claims to have a cure for homosexuality through a special "auditing" process. Halperin interviews former Scientologist Michael Pattinson, who sued the Church of Scientology claiming fraudulent activities after spending US\$500,000 over 18 years in attempts to cure his homosexuality. Halperin states that he told a Scientology official he wanted to have a successful career in Hollywood but was afraid that if his homosexuality was revealed it would stymie his career. He states that the Scientology official said the organization would "cure him of his sexuality through auditing". According to Halperin the Scientology organization has arranged "cover" marriages as part of a "cure" for homosexuality, and notes that actor and Scientologist John Travolta married Kelly Preston two days after a male porn star told the National Enquirer of an alleged relationship he had with Travolta. According to Halperin, bisexual Anna Nicole Smith had wanted to become a Scientologist, but decided against it after she was informed by a friend of the organization's stance on homosexuality. After her death, Halperin claimed he and Smith ended up having sex in front of Marilyn Monroe's grave. Halperin concludes that the Scientology organization is more focused on money than on other issues: "I pretty much found that everything about the church is about making as much money as possible, which doesn't really make them much different from most other religions. I have to be honest and admit I also met some nice people in the church. It's just that I have a huge problem with their discriminatory attitude toward gays." Halperin disputes Andrew Morton's claim in his book Tom Cruise: An Unauthorized Biography that actor Tom Cruise is second in command of the organization, instead asserting Cruise is actually in the top position of leadership. Halperin also explores the pornography industry, the Oscars, and the travails of the casting couch phenomenon. Links to YouTube videos by Halperin are given throughout the book, to illustrate encounters he had with various entertainment personalities. Halperin meets with famous actors and celebrities including Barbra Streisand, George Clooney and Leonardo DiCaprio, and asks them to share their advice with him about the workings of the entertainment industry. Halperin eventually lands a talent agent, and a role in the film The Aviator. ## Reception Cheryl Caira, Rosemary Goring and Anne Johnstone reviewed the book for The Herald, and describe Halperin's experiences in the book as "certainly entertaining, and at times scandalous". Ben Widdicombe of New York Daily News notes Halperin "received the most offensive response imaginable" when he asked a Scientology official who Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard would have voted for in the 2008 United States presidential election; according to Halperin, he asserted he spoke with a recruiter for Scientology, "He said, 'I can tell you who shouldn't be President - Barack Obama, Condoleezza Rice and the Rev. Al Sharpton. They should not be allowed to run for office, they should be sweeping the office.'" A review of the book in The Independent comments that the YouTube links provided throughout the book "have the effect of making virtually everyone who tries to help him seem nice while presenting Halperin as an unscrupulous creep". In a review in The Saturday Star, Angelique Serrao writes that Halperin "interviews insiders who spill scandalous information that will leave you gasping at the audacity of the movie world". Adam Adshead of Contactmusic.com writes: "Hollywood undercover is a candid and intelligent look at the fame game from an insider's point of view." Marc Weisblott reviewed the book for Eye Weekly, and comments: "Cynical reporting about the Hollywood system isn't hard to come by, but Halperin has the audacity to get involved with his subjects, attracting empathy even while claiming that he's a royal scion craving fame that his homeland cannot facilitate." ## See also - Cinema of the United States - Hollywood, Interrupted - Homosexuality and Scientology - Investigative journalism
2,918,703	Sea Monsters (TV series)	1,156,351,503	2003 BBC television nature documentary miniseries	[ "2003 British television series debuts", "2003 British television series endings", "BBC television documentaries", "Discovery Channel original programming", "Documentary films about prehistoric life", "English-language television shows", "Walking with..." ]	Sea Monsters, marketed as Chased by Sea Monsters in the United States, is a 2003 three-part nature documentary television miniseries created by Impossible Pictures and produced by the BBC Natural History Unit, the Discovery Channel and ProSieben. Following in the footsteps of The Giant Claw (2002) and Land of Giants (2003), special episodes of the nature documentary series Walking with Dinosaurs, Sea Monsters stars British wildlife presenter Nigel Marven as a "time-travelling zoologist" who travels to seven different periods of time in prehistory, diving in the "seven deadliest seas of all time" and encountering and interacting with the prehistoric creatures who inhabit them. The series is narrated by Karen Hayley. As with previous documentaries in the Walking with... franchise, Sea Monsters recreated extinct animals through a combination of computer-generated imagery and animatronics, incorporated into live action footage shot at various locations. The visual effects of Sea Monsters, as with previous series, received praise and won a BAFTA TV Award. For his role as the presenter of the series, Marven was nominated for a Royal Television Society Programme award. Though some reviewers praised Marven's energetic and enthusiastic "animal-grabbing" style of presentation, others considered a wildlife presenter to be unnecessary or even "patronising", parallelling debates on the merits of wildlife presenters in documentaries on modern-day animals. A companion book, Sea Monsters: Prehistoric Predators of the Deep (published as Chased by Sea Monsters: Prehistoric Predators of the Deep in the United States), was co-authored by Marven and Jasper James, producer and director of the series. The book received positive reviews, with reviewers noting that though it was based on a TV series, it also stood on its own as an information source about extinct sea creatures. In 2011, an exhibition based on the series, the Sea Monsters Exhibition, was held at Bournemouth International Centre in Dorset. In addition to imagery from the series, the exhibition featured full-scale models of both modern and prehistoric sea creatures as well as behind-the-scenes information on how the animals were reconstructed and brought "back to life". ## Premise Following in the footsteps of The Giant Claw (2002) and Land of Giants (2003), special episodes of the nature documentary series Walking with Dinosaurs, Sea Monsters sees time-travelling zoologist Nigel Marven travel back in time to encounter and interact with prehistoric life. Whereas both of the previous specials took place on land and were confined to a single setting, Sea Monsters focuses on the aquatic life of seven different geological periods between 4 and 450 million years ago. Travelling on this prehistoric safari with his boat, The Ancient Mariner, Marven aims to dive in the seven deadliest seas of all time, searching for the most dangerous sea creatures to ever live. The titular prehistoric "sea monsters" encountered throughout the series include the giant orthocone (Cameroceras), an enormous primitive cephalopod, the armor-plated giant predatory fish Dunkleosteus, the giant pliosaur Liopleurodon, the early whale Basilosaurus, and megalodon, the largest shark to ever live. The series culminates in the "deadliest sea of all time", the Cretaceous ocean. Dubbed "Hell's aquarium", this sea is determined to be the most dangerous due to the sheer number of different predators present, including 17-metre (56 ft) giant mosasaurs (Tylosaurus). In addition to providing information on the animals encountered, Marven's presence also serves to provide a sense of scale and dread throughout the series. Like the previous specials, Sea Monsters is a definite step away from traditionally narrated documentaries, such as the original 1999 series of Walking with Dinosaurs. In comparison with the original series of Walking with Dinosaurs, Sea Monsters is considerably more action-oriented, with Marven frequently interacting with the animals. Though entertainment and adventure is a bigger focus than in previous entries in the franchise, the series still ultimately aims to be an educational documentary, weaving facts into the action and intending to teach viewers about the extinct animals it portrays. ## Production Sea Monsters was created by Impossible Pictures, the same production team as previous entries in the Walking with... series, such as Walking with Dinosaurs (1999) and Walking with Beasts (2001). The same technologies used to restore the animals in the previous series were used to reconstruct the prehistoric creatures and environments showcased in Sea Monsters, with computer-generated animals and animatronics being used for the animals and background footage being shot in real natural environments. Filming the series took over seven months. Among others, filming locations included the oceans around New Zealand and the shores of the Red Sea in Egypt. Filming by the Red Sea was done covertly as the production team had to dodge Egyptian military police. Following his work in The Giant Claw and Land of Giants, Marven was approached by Jasper James, producer of both episodes and director of Land of Giants, about Sea Monsters. Marven had a great passion for sharks and had already dived and swum together with the biggest sharks alive today, which led James to come up with the idea of a time-travelling programme in which Marven immersed himself in the deadliest seas of all time, diving with the largest sharks of all time as well as various other prehistoric sea creatures. Marven was enthusiastic about the project, referring to it as a "mouthwatering prospect" in the companion book to the series. The series was narrated by Karen Hayley. As for previous series, the animatronic creatures used in Sea Monsters were created by special effects company Crawley Creatures. The visual effects were created by visual effects company Framestore, which had also worked on previous series in the Walking with... franchise. The team at Framestore worked for more than a year to deliver the nineteen computer-generated creatures featured in the series. By the time Sea Monsters entered production, the team at Framestore were already familiar with what techniques to use due to their past experience on the previous series. As a result, they were able to refine their work process and spend more time on each creature. Whereas an evening had been the normal rendering time for a shot with CGI creatures in previous series, a single shot when a megalodon passes Marven's shark cage in Sea Monsters took two weeks to render. In total, the series took one and a half years to make. BBC News reported that it cost £3 million to make, whereas Der Spiegel reported a cost of €8 million (\~ £5.3 million). Sea Monsters was announced alongside the rest of the BBC:s 2003 autumn shows on 29 July 2003, marketed as a "underwater version" of Walking with Dinosaurs, with prehistoric sea animals recreated using sophisticated computer imagery. According to James, producer and director of the series, the animals in Sea Monsters were reconstructed based on "as many sources as possible". James went on to say that the production team "talked to palaeontologists and zoologists so that we could be as accurate as we possibly could". As an example, the sea scorpions, an extinct group of chelicerate arthropods encountered by Marven in the Ordovician, were developed and refined based on the input from Simon Braddy, a palaeontologist at Bristol University. According to Braddy, the initial models of the sea scorpions were "not very good at all" but following revisions based on Braddy's input, he believed that the final version of the sea scorpions was "just right", with the animals being portrayed as accurately as possible. One scene depicts the sea scorpions congregating on a beach, which Braddy stated fits with current theories that sea scorpions "would congregate en masse on the beaches to mate and moult". ## Episodes ## Reception ### Reviews Writing for The Spectator, Simon Hoggart praised Sea Monsters, calling it "terrific". Hoggart especially praised Marven's work as the presenter of the series, writing that he had "the boyish enthusiasm of Jamie Oliver, cheerily leaping overboard to find more terrifying computer simulations" and that Marven "may well be a computer simulation himself". The only aspect of the series Hoggart considered to be a drawback was the narration, which he found to be "drippy" and "drivelling". Brother Paul Hoggart gave the series a negative review in The Times. Though Hoggart wrote that previous entries in the Walking with... series had "despite some questionable voiceovers" been "amazing and terrific fun", he stated that Sea Monsters was "too short on monsters and much too long on Nigel Marvin [sic] trying to act "scared" as a graphic of a giant squid in an ice-cream cone supposedly approaches him". Hoggart also believed the inclusion of a presenter in the previous series Walking with Cavemen (2003, featuring Robert Winston) to have been "silly" and wrote in regards to Sea Monsters that "if you are worried the horse might get tired, for heaven's sake don't dress it up in a daft costume". ### Awards In 2004, Sea Monsters won a BAFTA TV Award for Best Visual Effects. The series was also nominated for a Visual Effects Society Award for Outstanding Visual Effects in a Television Series. For his work in Sea Monsters and in the preceding Land of Giants, Nigel Marven was nominated for a Royal Television Society Programme award for best presenter (factual). ### Inclusion of a presenter The inclusion of a presenter instead of just narration was notably criticised by evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins, who stated that "I think the Nigel Marven programmes are awful, awful - really naff". Dawkins elaborated, saying that "it is as though they think the public are so stupid that they can't enjoy the spectacle of the animals themselves" and "isn't it at least patronising and condescending when television people assume, without asking them, that their audiences can't cope with science unless the pill is coated with the sugar of personal anecdote?". Defending Sea Monsters, Jasper James did not believe that the series was patronising, stating that "if you can enjoy the drama of a programme while learning something then that's great". The inclusion of a wildlife presenter in Sea Monsters and in the preceding specials was interpreted by researcher Vincent Campbell in 2008 as an evolution of the techniques already used in Walking with Dinosaurs, where some animals were depicted as affecting the camera filming them, such as a Tyrannosaurus roaring, leading to the camera lens being covered with saliva. Campbell stated that the appearance of presenter-led programmes on prehistoric animals could be seen as a way to incorporate the traditional way of depicting prehistoric animals as "movie monsters", but adapting it for a nature documentary context. Campbell also commented that the merits of wildlife presenters in nature documentaries is a broader topic beyond just Sea Monsters. The unorthodox "animal-grabbing" and energetic presentation style used by presenters such as Marven and Steve Irwin has been a point of controversy in documentaries on modern wildlife as well. In 2016, Campbell maintained his previous assessment, writing that the inclusion of Marven, as with scenes where animals affected the camera in previous series, served to reinforce the realism of the series. As per Campbell, the scenes were Marven interacts with animals were "constructed to match similar scenes in presenter-led natural history films of the Steve Irwin mould". As with past entries into the Walking with... series, some scientists feared that Sea Monsters sacrificed scientific accuracy for drama and entertainment. Parts of the series, such as mating behaviour of the various animals, can only ever be speculation and guess work, but it is not made clear what is and is not fact in the programme itself. Dawkins pointed out that "In Nigel Marven's past programmes they didn't give the viewer any indication of what is known and what is conjecture". In response to such fears, James stated that nothing in the series was said "unless there was some evidence for it". ## Influence Palaeontologists have cited Sea Monsters as inspirational for their careers. Jack A. Cooper, who led a team investigating the body size of megalodon and published a study concerning it in 2020, cited the animal's appearance in Sea Monsters as the inspiration that made him pursue a career in palaeontology and inspired him to study the ancient shark. Cooper was six years old at the time the programme first aired and remembered being both terrified and captivated. Following the paper's publication, Nigel Marven tweeted his congratulations to Cooper. ## In other media ### Companion book Jasper James and Nigel Marven co-authored a companion book for the series, titled Sea Monsters: Prehistoric Predators of the Deep (published in the United States as Chased by Sea Monsters: Prehistoric Predators of the Deep). The book begins with a description of the Big Bang, before going through the seven periods of time featured in the series, from the Ordovician to the Pliocene, referred to as the "seven most deadly seas of all time". Each chapter features renderings of the animals as seen in the series and sidebars feature information about each of the featured animals, including how to pronounce their names, their classification, their size and their diet. In a review in The Science Teacher, LaRue Sellers praised the book, writing that despite it being based on a TV programme, the book "stands alone as an outstanding source of information about ocean predators from each geologic era". Sellers concluded that "this book would make a great addition to any high school teacher's library" and that "students could use it as a reference source, and they will definitely be captivated by the wonderful illustrations". A review of the book in Publishers Weekly called it "fascinating, if somewhat unsophisticated", lending much focus to more captivating aspects of prehistoric life such as size and teeth, and noted that "the book's combination of sensationalism, lurid graphics and solid scientific exposition is well judged to stimulate budding paleontologists". ### Website An accompanying website to Sea Monsters was launched in 2003, featuring a countdown list of the seven seas featured in the series, fact files on the different animals and a flash game, the Sea Monsters adventure game, where players complete tasks in order to survive the different prehistoric seas. ### Exhibition An exhibition based on the series, the Sea Monsters Exhibition, was held at the Bournemouth International Centre in Dorset from 23 July to 11 September 2011. The exhibition showcased large animals alive in the oceans today, such as the giant squid, great white shark and basking shark, alongside prehistoric sea creatures, such as Liopleurodon and Leedsichthys. In addition to creatures showcased in the Sea Monsters series, the exhibition also featured some animals that were not featured in the original series, such as the Cambrian predator Anomalocaris. Modern and prehistoric creatures were not presented just through photographs and renderings from Sea Monsters, but also in the form of full-scale models, created by Avalanche Studios, allowing visitors to see their size. Other interactive features of the exhibition included a sandpit, where children could dig for fossils, a painting station where children could paint their own dinosaurs, and a big green screen where visitors could see themselves next to various prehistoric sea creatures. In addition to depictions of the sea creatures themselves, the exhibition also included behind-the-scenes information on the technology and techniques used to bring the prehistoric animals "back to life".
153,432	Mario Party 4	1,173,907,201	2002 video game	[ "2002 video games", "D.I.C.E. Award for Family Game of the Year winners", "GameCube games", "GameCube-only games", "Mario Party", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Party video games", "Video games about size change", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games set in amusement parks" ]	Mario Party 4 is a 2002 party video game developed by Hudson Soft and published by Nintendo for the GameCube. The game is the fourth installment in the Mario Party series and is the first game in the series to be released for the GameCube. Like the previous games in the series, it features eight playable characters: Mario, Luigi, Princess Peach, Yoshi, Wario, Donkey Kong, Princess Daisy, and Waluigi from the Mario franchise, who can be directed as characters on 6 themed game boards. The objective is to earn as many stars as possible, which are obtained by purchase from a single predefined space on the game board. Each character's movement is determined by a roll of a die, with a roll from each player forming a single turn. Each turn is followed by a minigame in which characters compete for coins they can use to purchase items and stars. Mario Party 4 was met with mixed reception, with some complaints regarding a lack of originality and slow pacing during games. It won the Family Game of the Year award at the Interactive Achievement Awards of 2003. The game was followed by Mario Party 5 in 2003. ## Gameplay Mario Party 4 is based on an interactive board game played by 4 characters from the Mario franchise, which are controlled either by the player or the game's artificial intelligence. The game features 8 playable characters, although they do not have any different gameplay attributes from each other (save for favouring certain items when controlled by the AI). Players can arrange their characters into opposing pairs, or play independently in a battle royale. As with most board games, each participant takes turns in rolling a dice block (1 to 10) to determine the number of spaces moved on the board. There are 60 minigames, one of which follows each round of four turns, which yields a coin prize for the winner. Twenty coins are required to purchase a star, with the victor being the character with the most stars at the end of the game. The length of a game can vary as the predetermined number of minigames is adjustable in multiples of 5 (min.10 max.50). Stars are usually attained by purchase at the specific space on the board where it is set, with the star location changing to another space after every acquisition. Three extra stars can be obtained if "Bonus mode" is switched on, with a star each awarded to the player with the most minigames won, most coins collected, and most happening spaces visited. This mode also contains hidden blocks, which will grant either coins or a star when located and hit. Mario Party 4 features 6 boards, 5 of which take their name from a secondary Mario character, such as Goomba. The boards are themed to correspond with their titular character, and contain specialised features to reflect this such as the roulette wheel in the casino-based "Goomba's Greedy Gala". The on-board characters follow a set route, although this becomes optional when arriving at a junction. The boards also contain multiple "Events", which are generic stations placed on every board. These include "Lottery Shops", where money is gambled on item prizes, and "Boo Houses", where Boo is paid to steal either coins or a star from an opponent. The majority of spaces on the boards are denoted by either blue or red circles, with blue granting coins and red deducting them. Alternative spaces are also available, such as "happening spaces", which trigger an event exclusive to the current board. "Mushroom Spaces" grant the user either a "Mega" or "Mini" Mushroom—"Mega Mushrooms" extend the movement range while "Mini Mushrooms" curtail it. Additionally, giant characters will bypass "Events" and stars while reduced characters can access special areas on the board via pipes. Multiple other items can be bought from on-board shops, such as "Swap Cards", which exchanges items between 2 players. The minigames in Mario Party 4 are short, unrelated events with a specified objective that the players must attempt to meet to earn coins as a reward. Minigames are unlocked during the main "Party Mode", although they can be played outside of the game board context in "Minigame Mode". This allows the player to either freely play minigames; select which minigames they want, and control conditions for victory in a match, such as the "3-win-match"; or play 2 vs. 2 minigames to claim a space on a tic-tac-toe board. Minigames are split into 7 categories: "4-player", "1 vs 3", "2 vs 2", "Battle", "Bowser", "Story", etc.. The first 3 occur randomly after each set of turns during a party, while "Battle" can only be triggered by landing on the corresponding space on the board. Unlike regular minigames, the players must contribute their money and then compete to reclaim it or earn more by winning the minigame. There are also rarer groups of minigames, such as the Bowser minigames requiring the loser to forfeit items or coins and the minigames, which can only be accessed by characters reduced by the "Mini Mushroom". A set of minigames that cannot be played during normal conditions are located in the "Extra room", featuring Thwomp and Whomp. The game features a loose plot in that the player must progress through Story Mode to earn presents from the eponymous characters of the pertaining boards. These are presents that had been brought to the player's birthday party in the game, which must be completed by earning the most stars in a board game and subsequently defeating the present giver in a special one-on-one Story minigame. This is all contained within the "Party Cube", which grants the wishes of its users; the story's climax comes in the form of Bowser, who wishes to disrupt the party with his own board, hosted by Koopa Kid. Also, unlike its predecessor, Princess Daisy and Waluigi are now playable in Story Mode. ## Development Mario Party 4, like all the games in the Mario Party series through Mario Party 8, was developed by Hudson Soft and published by Nintendo. The game was first announced in a 2002 Nintendo press conference in Tokyo, with the announcements made by Shigeru Miyamoto and Satoru Iwata. It was targeted as part of the 2002 roster of Nintendo games, which they rated as their "biggest year" for software at the time. Nintendo presented a playable demonstration of the game at E3 2002, featuring a limited set of minigames. The game featured voice acting from Charles Martinet (Mario, Luigi, Wario, and Waluigi), Jen Taylor (Peach, Daisy, and Toad), and Kazumi Totaka (Yoshi), all three of whom worked on the previous games in the Mario franchise. Mario Party 4's character designs marked the finalization of a refresh of the Mario franchise's art direction, which began as early as Luigi's Mansion in 2001 to replace the stocky and cartoonish 3D designs of the Nintendo 64 era. Character design elements such as Wario's clothing, Peach and Daisy's dresses, and Daisy's physical appearance were finalized in Mario Party 4, and have remained largely unchanged since. ## Reception Mario Party 4 received "mixed or average" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. In Japan, Famitsu gave it a score of 30 out of 40. GameSpot's Ryan Davis praised the game's minigame format, although he noted that "players who have already exhausted themselves on previous Mario Party titles may not find enough here to draw them back again". Eurogamer's Tom Bramwell acknowledged the variety and thematic features of the boards, but thought they were too large, resulting in a "glacial pace" when coupled with the on-board animations. Despite this, IGN praised the boards for the thematic features on each one, which helped to "ease the tediousness". The game's controls were lauded for their compatibility with the minigames and simplicity, with most minigames requiring simple actions and button presses. The game's multiplayer was praised by reviewers, especially in comparison to the single-player Story Mode. The multiplayer element was noted for appealing to a diverse demographic for its party game qualities and being an "'everybody' title". Conversely, Story Mode was criticised for exacerbating issues relating to pace, which was already remarked as having "snail's pace". Additionally, the game's artificial intelligence was bemoaned for contributing an imbalance in the game, with the random availability of quality items giving players an unfair advantage. The "reversal of fortune" space, which initiates a minigame by which the victor would receive another player's stars or coins, was criticised for similar reasons, as it potentially penalises players who do well in the game. The minigames were mainly met with a positive reaction, with critics praising their simplicity. The grouping feature in the minigames were also welcomed for contributing a new dynamic of gameplay, although Bramwell commented that "it might seem a little odd to gang up with your competitors in some cases". Most reviewers noted the game's graphical improvement from its predecessors, with the minigames' visual style in particular receiving praise. Although IGN remarked that the game was graphically a "huge improvement since we last saw the franchise", they proceeded to comment that "It's a mixed bag of good and bad". GameSpot complained that the character animations appear "a bit lifeless" and that the boards were not aesthetically pleasing. The game's audio was met with an ambivalent reaction, with critics enjoying the music but complaining about the "annoying" character catchphrases. While not memorable, the music was lauded for fitting the game's whimsical nature. Gaming websites The Game of Nerds and The Gamer ranked Mario Party 4 the best entry in the series. Lifewire called it the best Mario Party game of the four released on the GameCube. Den of Geek agreed, and also viewed it as the 4th best game in the Mario Party series, citing its minigames as why. ### Sales and accolades Mario Party 4 won "Family Game of the Year" during the AIAS' 6th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards. It was nominated for GameSpot's annual "Best Party Game on GameCube" award, which went to Super Monkey Ball 2. The game sold 1,100,000 units from its release to December 27, 2007, in North America, and an additional 902,827 copies in Japan, bringing its overall sales to 2,000,000.
26,768,876	Road Rash 3	1,108,821,788	1995 video game	[ "1995 video games", "Electronic Arts games", "Motorcycle video games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "North America-exclusive video games", "Racing video games", "Road Rash", "Sega Genesis games", "Sega Genesis-only games", "Split-screen multiplayer games", "Vehicular combat games", "Video game sequels", "Video games developed in the United States", "Video games set in Australia", "Video games set in Brazil", "Video games set in Germany", "Video games set in Italy", "Video games set in Japan", "Video games set in Kenya", "Video games set in the United Kingdom" ]	Road Rash 3 is a 1995 racing and vehicular combat video game developed and published by Electronic Arts (EA) for the Sega Genesis. It is the fourth installment in the Road Rash series and the last to be released for the Genesis, as well as the last EA title to be developed for the Genesis. The game is centered around a worldwide series of motorcycle races that the player must win to advance to higher-difficulty races, while engaging in unarmed and armed combat to hinder the other racers. Development of Road Rash 3 began after series programmer Dan Geisler experienced frustration working on Michael Jordan: Chaos in the Windy City and offered to make a new Road Rash title instead. The game's worldwide settings were influenced by the need for a significant new feature despite the Genesis's technology having been pushed to its limit. The game was positively received by critics and commercially successful; critics appreciated the refined gameplay and visuals, but pointed out a lack of innovation, and had mixed reactions to the audio. ## Gameplay Road Rash 3 puts the player in control of a motorcycle racer who must finish in third place or higher among fourteen other racers; the player advances throughout the game's five levels by winning five races on each level. The game's races take place in a number of settings around the world, consisting of Australia, Kenya, Japan, Italy, Brazil, Germany, and the United Kingdom. During a race, the racer can brake, accelerate and attack neighboring opponents. The racer will punch at the nearest opponent with a default input, while holding a directional button during the input will result in either a backhand or a kick. Some opponents wield weapons such as clubs, chains, nunchaku, crowbars, mace, cattle prods and oil cans, which can be taken and used by the racer if the opponent is attacked as they are holding the weapon out to strike. The racer can carry multiple weapons at once and cycle through them to select a weapon for use. The mace, cattle prod and oil can are limited to ten charges each, and will be discarded when all charges have been used. The racer can be ejected from their bike if they crash into an obstacle or if they run out of stamina (shown in the bottom-left corner of the screen) due to fights with opponents. In this event, the racer will automatically run back toward their bike, though the player can alter their course with the directional buttons, or stand still by holding the brake input button. Opponents will likewise be ejected from their bike if their own stamina is depleted; the stamina of the nearest opponent is visible within the bottom-right corner of the screen. The racer begins the game with \$1,000 and earns cash prizes for each successful race. The player can access a shop from the game's main menu to view bikes of differing weights, speeds and steering capabilities, and the player may purchase a new bike with the money they have accumulated. Certain bikes are equipped with a series of nitrous oxide charges, which can provide a burst of speed if the player quickly taps the acceleration input button twice. The player can also upgrade their current bike in four areas: engine performance, chassis endurance, tires and suspension. A bike can only be upgraded once in each area. The player will receive a password at the end of a successful race, which can be entered at a password entry screen in a subsequent session to maintain the player's progress. The player will advance to the next level after winning a race on five of the game's seven tracks. The bike has its own "damage gauge" between the racer's and opponents' stamina meters, which decreases every time the racer suffers a crash. The bike will be wrecked if the meter fully depletes, which ends the player's participation in the current race and deducts the cost of a repair bill from the racer's balance. Motor officers make sporadic appearances throughout the game's tracks, and can also end the player's participation if they apprehend the racer following a crash, which deducts the cost of a fine from their balance. The appearance of a police helicopter signifies the nearby presence of a motor officer, and the helicopter will attempt to strike the racer with its landing rails and make them vulnerable to the upcoming officer. If the racer lacks the funds to cover either a repair bill or a fine, they will respectively be asked to continue as a repo man for the shop or a snitch for the police. In either case, the racer will be given the task of apprehending a wanted opponent by making them crash and pulling over next to them. To aid in this mission, the shop owner will provide the racer with a crowbar, while the police will provide a club. The wanted opponent stands out from the others by wearing differently colored leathers. Successful apprehension of the wanted opponent will result in the racer's repair bill or fine being waived, while failure will prematurely end the game. Road Rash 3 features a two-player mode that can either be played intermittently between players or simultaneously with the use of a split-screen display. Two players can either race against each other along with other computer-controlled racers or engage in the "Mano a Mano" mode, in which the two human players are the only competing racers on the track. In this mode, the players can select a weapon to wield prior to the start of the race. ## Development and release Upon the completion of Road Rash II, series co-creator and programmer Dan Geisler planned to leave EA and accepted an employment offer from Crystal Dynamics; he was primarily motivated by inadequate compensation for his work on the first two titles, and he felt that the technology for the Genesis had been pushed as far as it could. Geisler only remained with EA after negotiating for a significant payment up front. During a frustrating experience working on Michael Jordan: Chaos in the Windy City, Geisler encountered EA Vice President of Marketing Bing Gordon and offered to create Road Rash 3, reasoning that it could be created faster and be more commercially successful, and Gordon accepted. Road Rash 3 began development in March 1994, with Nana Chambers serving as director and series co-creator Randy Breen as producer. The game was developed in parallel with the 3DO version of Road Rash, and the two titles shared production assets as a result, particularly the gameplay sprites. Artist Michael Hulme was recruited from Cinemaware for the game's development team, and was told that Road Rash 3 would be EA's final title for the Sega Genesis. As EA's marketing division desired a "big new feature" for the game despite the Genesis's technology having been pushed to its limit, Hulme suggested worldwide settings as something that would "take [the series] someplace that people haven't been before", and he painted ten rough conceptual settings in four days, which were eventually whittled down to seven settings for the final game. The game's audio was created by Don Veca. Road Rash 3 was showcased at the 1995 Winter Consumer Electronics Show and released in March. It was the final Road Rash game to be released for the Sega Genesis. A promotional sweepstake was run by GamePro and Best Buy the following month, in which contestants who filled and mailed an entry form were eligible to win a grand prize consisting of an all-expenses-paid trip for the winner and a guest to San Francisco in June to see a concert performance by Monster Magnet, one of the featured bands in the 3DO and Sega CD versions of Road Rash. The winner would meet the band backstage and receive an autographed copy of their latest album Dopes to Infinity, and would also receive a Sega Genesis console and a copy of Road Rash 3. ## Reception Although Road Rash 3 lacked the critical acclaim of previous entries in the series, it was met with generally positive reviews. Bacon of GamePro voiced approval for the game's variety of weapons and tracks, and said that the tight controls complemented the bike-upgrading feature, though he criticized the unwieldy weapon-cycling mechanic, and felt that the two-player mode, while faster and more fluid than that of Road Rash II, was still twitchier and less responsive than the single-player campaign. He noted the enhanced realism of the visual details and scenery and the slickness of the sprites, but criticized the music as "annoyingly peppy" and described the sound effects as "often silly". Gary Lord of Computer and Video Games and Neil West of Game Players deemed Road Rash 3 to be essentially the same game as the previous entries in spite of its visual and gameplay enhancements. West considered the visuals to be dated despite the extra animations and scenery, and while he described the soundtrack as "nifty" and the sound effects as convincing, but questioned the absence of the grunge soundtrack from the 3DO entry. Gus Swan and Steve Merrett of Mean Machines Sega considered Road Rash 3 to be the fastest and most refined installment of the series, but also dated in comparison to Ridge Racer and Daytona USA, and they cited EA's previous title Skitchin''' as a more effective and original take on the formula. Although they acknowledged the increased crispness and size of the graphics and the variety of the audio, Merrett saw the colors as "dreadfully washed out", and they derided the music as "sad Megadrive metal for people with acne and Bon Jovi T-shirts". Chris Gore of VideoGames declared Road Rash 3 to be "the best one yet" and praised the violent gameplay and realistic backgrounds, but felt the music was "okay". A reviewer for Next Generation applauded the game's inclusion of the animations and track layouts of the acclaimed 3DO version of Road Rash, as well as the new weapons and bike enhancer mode. According to Randy Breen, Road Rash 3 outsold the previous Genesis titles. The game was the fourth-highest renting Genesis title at Blockbuster Video in its opening month, and charted within the top ten on five subsequent months; it re-entered the chart for three months in 1996, and for eleven months in 1997. In GamePro's "1995 Readers' Choice Awards", Road Rash 3'' was voted "Best Racing Sim (16-Bit Games)", taking 55% of the vote.
74,216	Theodora Porphyrogenita	1,173,135,983	Byzantine empress from 1042 to 1056	[ "1040s in the Byzantine Empire", "1050s in the Byzantine Empire", "1056 deaths", "10th-century Byzantine women", "11th-century Byzantine emperors", "11th-century Byzantine empresses", "11th-century women rulers", "980s births", "Augustae", "Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles", "Byzantine empresses regnant", "Daughters of Byzantine emperors", "Eastern Orthodox monarchs", "Macedonian dynasty", "Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor", "Porphyrogennetoi" ]	Theodora Porphyrogenita (Greek: Θεοδώρα Πορφυρογέννητη, Theodōra Porphyrogenítē; – 31 August 1056) was Byzantine Empress from 21 April 1042 to her death on 31 August 1056, and sole ruler from 11 January 1055. She was the last sovereign of the Macedonian dynasty, that ruled the Eastern Roman Empire for almost 200 years. Theodora was the youngest daughter of Emperor Constantine VIII. After Theodora's father died in 1028, her older sister Zoë co-ruled with her husbands Romanos III and Michael IV, keeping Theodora closely watched. After two foiled plots, Theodora was exiled to an island monastery in the Sea of Marmara in 1031. A decade later, the people of Constantinople rose against Michael IV's nephew and successor, Michael V, and insisted that Theodora return to rule alongside Zoë. After 65 days Zoë married again, to Constantine IX, who assumed the imperial responsibilities. Theodora seemingly retired to a convent after Zoë's death in 1050. When Constantine died, the 74-year-old Theodora returned to the throne despite fierce opposition from court officials and military claimants. For 16 months she ruled as empress in her own right before succumbing to a sudden illness and dying at 76. She was the last ruler of the Macedonian line. ## Early life Theodora was the third and youngest daughter of Byzantine Emperor Constantine VIII and Helena, daughter of Alypius. She was Porphyrogenita, "born into the purple"; the appellation for a child born in the capital to a reigning emperor. Her father became co-emperor in 962 and sole emperor upon the death of his brother Basil II in 1025. His reign as sole emperor lasted less than three years, from 15 December 1025 to 12 November 1028. As an eligible imperial princess, Theodora was considered as a possible bride for the Holy Roman Emperor in the west, Otto III, in 996. However, she was overlooked in favour of her sister Zoë. Otto III died before any marriage could occur. Basil II prevented his nieces from marrying any of the Byzantine nobility, calculating that such a marriage would have given their husbands a claim on the imperial throne. As women, Theodora and Zoë were unable to exercise any state authority; their only say in this was in choosing, or more likely accepting or not, a husband who would acquire their authority upon marriage. Consequently, Theodora lived a life of virtual obscurity in the imperial gynaeceum (women's quarters). Intelligent and possessing a strong and austere character, Theodora defied Constantine--by then, sole emperor--by refusing to marry the man her father had chosen to succeed him, Romanos Argyros, stating that Romanos was already married—his wife having become a nun to allow Romanos to marry into the imperial family. Theodora further claimed that since Romanos and she were third cousins, it was too close a blood relationship for marriage to occur. Consequently, Constantine VIII chose Theodora's sister. Zoë married Romanos three days before her father died. With the accession of Romanos, Theodora prudently retreated back into the gynaeceum, with its daily religious routines. Still, Zoë persuaded her husband to appoint one of his own men as the chief of Theodora's household, with orders to spy on her. Shortly afterwards, Theodora was accused of plotting to marry the Bulgarian prince Presian and usurp the throne with him. Presian was blinded and sent to a monastery; Theodora was not punished. In 1031 she was implicated in a similar conspiracy, this time with Constantine Diogenes, the Archon of Sirmium. Theodora was forcibly confined in the monastery of Petrion. During a visit, Zoë compelled her sister to "assume the monastic habit." Theodora remained there for the next 11 years as Zoë managed the empire with her husbands Romanos III and, after his death, Michael IV. ## Co-empress with Zoë With Michael IV's death in December 1041, Zoë adopted Michael's nephew, who was crowned as Michael V. Although he promised to respect Zoë, he promptly banished her to a monastery on the Princes' Islands on charges of attempted regicide. This treatment of the legitimate heir to the Macedonian dynasty caused a popular uprising in Constantinople, and on 19 April 1042, the people revolted against Michael V in support of not only Zoë, but Theodora as well. Michael V, desperate to keep his throne, initially brought Zoë back from Princes' Island and displayed her to the people, but the population rejected his proposal that he continue to rule alongside Zoë. Key members of the court decided that flighty Zoë needed a co-ruler, and backed the people's demand that it should be Theodora. A delegation, headed by the patrician Constantine Cabasilas, went to the monastery at Petrion to convince Theodora to become co-empress. Theodora, accustomed to a life of religious contemplation, rejected their pleas out of hand, and fled to the convent chapel to seek sanctuary. Constantine and his retinue pursued her, forcibly dragged her out and exchanged her monastic clothes for imperial ones. At an assembly at Hagia Sophia, the people escorted the now furious Theodora and proclaimed her empress with Zoë. They were both crowned at dawn on 21 April. After the ceremony, the mob stormed the palace, forcing Michael V to escape to a monastery. Zoë immediately assumed power and tried to force Theodora back to her monastery, but the Senate and the people demanded that the two sisters should jointly reign. As her first act Theodora was called upon to deal with Michael V. Zoë, weak and easily manipulated, wanted to pardon and free Michael, but Theodora was far more strict. She initially guaranteed Michael's safety before ordering that he be blinded and spend the rest of his life as a monk. With Michael V dealt with, Theodora refused to leave Hagia Sophia until she had received a formal invitation from Zoë, some 24 hours after they had been crowned. Officially Theodora was the junior empress, and her throne was situated slightly behind Zoë's on all public occasions. In practice she was the driving force behind the joint administration. The sisters administered the empire, focusing on curbing the sale of public offices and on the administration of justice. Although contemporary historian Michael Psellus claimed the joint reign was a complete failure, John Scylitzes stated that they conscientiously rectified the abuses of the previous reigns. Although Theodora and Zoë appeared together at meetings of the Senate or when they gave public audiences, it was soon apparent that their joint reign was under considerable strain. Still jealous of Theodora, Zoë had no desire to administer the empire, but she would not allow Theodora to conduct public business alone. Court factions formed behind each empress. After two months of increasing acrimony between them, Zoë decided to search for a new husband, thereby denying Theodora the opportunity to increase her influence through her obvious talents for governing. She eventually married Constantine IX, on 11 June 1042, and the management of the empire reverted to him. Although Theodora and Zoë continued to be recognised as empresses, and although Theodora continued to appear at all official functions, power devolved onto her brother-in-law. Nevertheless, Theodora exerted influence at court, as demonstrated by her ordering the arrest and blinding of John the Eunuch, the powerful administrator who had been the chief minister of Romanos III, the brother of Michael IV, and the uncle of Michael V; he had lived in exile after the fall of Michael V. Constantine IX's preferential treatment of his mistress in the early part of his reign caused rumours that he was planning to murder Theodora and Zoë. This led to a popular uprising by the citizens of Constantinople in 1044, which came dangerously close to actually harming Constantine who was participating in a religious procession along the streets of Constantinople. The mob was only quieted by the appearance on a balcony of Zoë and Theodora, who reassured the mob they were in no danger of assassination. ## Return to power After Zoë's death in 1050, Theodora seems to have retired to a convent, leaving Constantine IX to rule alone until his own death on 11 January 1055. As Constantine lay dying, he was persuaded by his councilors, chiefly the logothetes tou dromou John, to ignore the rights of Theodora and to pass the throne to the doux (Duke) of the Byzantine Theme of Bulgaria, Nikephoros Proteuon. However, Theodora preempted their plans when, despite her advanced age, she vigorously asserted her right to rule. She came out of retirement and convened the Senate, and the imperial guard proclaimed her "emperor" shortly before Constantine's death. A purge of senior officials and the leadership of the European military units followed. Nikephoros Bryennios, whom the western tagmata apparently wanted to proclaim emperor instead, was dismissed and exiled on Theodora's orders, after which she confiscated his estates and banished his supporters from court. Theodora controlled the nobles and checked numerous abuses. She damaged her reputation, however, with excessive severity toward private enemies and undue employment of such menials as Leo Paraspondylos as her advisors. Military and court offices were filled by her household eunuchs, and such able commanders as Isaac Komnenos were replaced with minor functionaries. Determined to centralize as much power in her hands as possible, she presided in person in the Senate and heard appeals as supreme judge in civil cases. Her appointment of clerics offended the Patriarch Michael Keroularios, who considered this the duty of men, not women. During Theodora's sole ruling period, her coins and seals bear the inscription 'Theodora, δέσποινα (déspoina) and porphyrogenita' and 'Theodora, Augusta and porphyrogenita'. When Theodora was seventy-six, the patriarch Michael Keroularios advocated that Theodora advance a subject to the throne through marriage to her, in order to assure a succession. She refused to consider marriage, no matter how token. She also refused to name an heir to the throne. Theodora became gravely ill with an intestinal disorder in late August 1056. On 31 August her advisors, chaired by Leo Paraspondylos, met to decide whom to recommend to her as a successor. According to Psellus, they selected Michael Bringas, an aged civil servant and former military finance minister whose main attraction was that "he was less qualified to rule than he was to be ruled and directed by others". Theodora was unable to speak, but Paraspondylos decided that she had nodded at an appropriate moment. Hearing of this the Patriarch refused to believe it. Eventually he was persuaded and Bringas was crowned as Michael VI. Theodora died a few hours later and with her death, the Macedonian dynasty's 189-year rule ended. ## See also - List of Byzantine emperors ## General sources ### Primary sources - Michael Psellus, Chronographia. ### Secondary sources - George Finlay, History of the Byzantine Empire from 716–1057, William Blackwood & Sons, 1853
30,310,874	Shaygan Kheradpir	1,168,632,730	American businessman (born 1960)	[ "1960 births", "Alumni of Aiglon College", "American chief executives of manufacturing companies", "American chief operating officers", "American chief technology officers", "American people of Iranian descent", "British emigrants to the United States", "Chief information officers", "Cornell University College of Engineering alumni", "Living people" ]	Shaygan Kheradpir (Persian: شایگان خردپیر; born December 19, 1960) is an American businessman and technology executive. Kheradpir holds a bachelor's, master's and doctoral degree in electrical engineering from Cornell University. He is best known for driving transformational change through the use of technology of Verizon where he led technology, Barclays bank as COO, Juniper Networks and Coriant as CEO. He is an honorary member of Cornell Engineering council and served on the advisory board of the US National Institute of Standards and Technology VCAT [22]. ## Early life and education Shaygan Kheradpir was born in London and grew up in Iran where his father was one of the pioneers of Otolaryngology in the country. After attending Aiglon College for high school, Kheradpir moved to the United States, earning a bachelor's, master's and doctoral degree in electrical engineering from Cornell University where he developed one of the early control algorithms for obstacle avoidance of autonomous robots. ## Career ### Early work Kheradpir's first job was at GTE Laboratories in 1987. There he worked on network routing, management, and control and patented a real-time algorithm. He eventually became chief information officer at GTE Corporation, "earning respect for delivering new products on schedule," according to The Wall Street Journal. ### Verizon In 2000, GTE merged with Bell Atlantic to form Verizon Communications. Kheradpir initially served as the president of Verizon's e-business division, before becoming the company's first CIO/CTO. At Verizon, Kheradpir contributed to the company's diversification into a broader range of telecommunications products & services, as well as the automation of operations. In 2001, Kheradpir formed small teams that were each responsible for coming up with and developing new products. Kheradpir implemented a 30-day prototype cycle to rapidly test and modify new technologies in development. His team of approximately 10,000 staff often worked late hours, but positions at Verizon were in high demand, because of the department's rapid pace. According to InfoWorld, he led technology development for strategic initiatives such as FiOS (United States' largest fiber to the premises initiative at the time), process and systems transformation, and many new customer-facing products." In 2003 his team created iobi, which manages address books, caller ID and other features across devices over the internet. The Verizon One, a combination phone, router, modem and smart portable device, was developed from his department the following year. In 2010 they unveiled live TV on the first generation iPad streamed via FiOS TV as a cloud service. In the process he generated a number of product patents for internet-based multi-media communication services. His division also reengineered many of Verizon's core network system, including call center, website, automated customer service systems, and integrated formerly separate systems from predecessor companies GTE, Bell Atlantic and NYNEX. During Kheradpir's tenure at Verizon, the company reduced its information technology budget from six percent of revenue (the industry average) to four percent. From 2000 to 2003, he reduced IT staff by 20 percent and reduced purchasing from technology vendors by 30 percent. He negotiated aggressively with vendors to reduce prices and lobbied Verizon to eliminate its policy against purchasing IT equipment being auctioned on eBay by failed dot-com businesses. He globalized many contract programming positions through creation of Verizon's own software development group in India called VDSI which grew to a multi-thousand force. Additionally, new software was installed that improved Verizon's utilization of IT hardware. ### Barclays In January 2011, Kheradpir joined Barclays as the Chief Operating Officer of the Global Retail & Business Bank, where he oversaw technology innovations such as Pingit mobile payments platform and app with associated patent, the use of iPads to improve customer service in bank branches, introduction of state-of-the-art unified systems and "big data" at the bank and overall digitization of the bank. In March 2013, Kheradpir was promoted to Chief Operations and Technology Officer of the Barclays Group, leading the bank operations, technology functions, and the strategic transformation initiatives across retail, corporate, card and investment banking sectors. It was the first time a technology executive sat on the executive team at Barclays. Under his leadership Digitally Active customers for retail business grew by 19%, mobile banking customers by 56%, payments by 21% and digital unsecured lending doubled from 2013 to 2014. According to Financial Times, his departure from Barclays was viewed as "a blow to the bank and undermining the turnaround efforts vital to adopting to a tougher banking environment characterized by tougher regulation and challenging business environment". ### Juniper Networks Kheradpir became CEO of Juniper Networks in January 2014. He developed and executed a restructuring and cost-cutting plan that Juniper called its Integrated Operating Plan (IOP), in response to pressure from activist investors at Elliot Management. The plan included consolidation of product and R&D groups, putting a major emphasis on the market segments of Web 2.0, Cloud-Builder & High-IQ Networks, \$160 million in structural cost cuts and returning \$3 billion to shareholders over three years by buying shares and increasing dividends. According to Network World, Elliot Management was pleased with the plan. In its 2014 annual report, Juniper heralded "2014 was a year of significant change for Juniper. We made major strides, having implemented a series of initiatives designed to streamline our organization, reduce our cost structure, improve our balance sheet, return capital to our shareholders and drive long-term profitable growth in a challenging revenue environment. In many areas we exceeded our commitments by working in a more efficient manner with greater accountability”. Kheradpir resigned from Juniper in late 2014 (November 2014) due to a disagreement with the board during a customer negotiation. ### Coriant In September 2015, Kheradpir was announced as the Chairman & CEO of Coriant. During his tenure at Coriant he revamped the company and its product portfolio for the new age of Telecom. Coriant's new product portfolio focused on open architectures fit for 5G, super high speed clouds with disruptive cost-per-bit economics via hyperscale packet-optical and routing architectures. In May 2018 Coriant announced in a public statement that Mr. Kheradpir was stepping down to pursue other opportunities and re-appointed Pat DiPietro as CEO. Just two months later in July 2018 Infinera announced it was buying Coriant for \$430M, stating “The combination positions Infinera to capitalize on the next wave of global network spending as network operators transform their networks to transition from 4G to 5G, from Optical Transport Network (OTN) to packet and from closed to open network architectures”. Kheradpir publicly thanked Coriant employees for being a “much needed disruptive force in the networking industry”. The Coriant acquisition approximately doubles Infinera's revenue and expands the company's customer base "to serve nine of the top 10 global network operators (five new to Infinera) and the top six global internet content providers (three new to Infinera)." The combination also enables Coriant to become more “vertically integrated”. ## Other activities From 2010 to 2013, Kheradpir served on a board of the United States National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), known as the Visiting Committee on Advanced Technology. From 2007 to 2010, Kheradpir served on the advisory board of the YMCA of Greater New York. Kheradpir is a member of the Cornell University Engineering Council and on the board of MTN Group, a telecom service provider with 230 million subscribers globally. He was inducted into CIO Hall of fame in 2007.
47,099,545	1921 Georgia Tech Golden Tornado football team	1,170,623,504	American college football season	[ "1920s in Atlanta", "1921 Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association football season", "1921 in sports in Georgia (U.S. state)", "Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football seasons" ]	The 1921 Georgia Tech Golden Tornado football team represented the Georgia Tech Golden Tornado of the Georgia Institute of Technology during the 1921 Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association football season. The Golden Tornado played its home games at Grant Field. The Golden Tornado was coached by William Alexander in his second year as head coach, compiling an 8–1 record (5–0 against Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA) teams) and outscoring opponents 360 to 56. The team beat Rutgers and its only loss was its only road game, at the Polo Grounds in New York City, to undefeated eastern power Penn State. Defeating the rival Auburn Tigers secured a sharing of the SIAA title with the Georgia Bulldogs and Vanderbilt Commodores, though "no championship was ever won with less effort or achievement." noted sportswriter Fuzzy Woodruff. Captain Judy Harlan made Walter Camp's third-team All-America. Red Barron led the team in scoring and rushed for 1,459 yards during the season, a school record at the time. Harlan, Barron, brothers John and Al Staton, and Oscar Davis made All-Southern. ## Before the season In 1921, football used a one-platoon system in which players played offense, defense, and special teams. A team which scored a touchdown had the option to kick-off or receive, and the ball was much rounder. Coach William Alexander retained his predecessor John Heisman's scheme, using the pre-snap movement of his jump shift offense. Gone from the team were greats such as Buck Flowers and Bill Fincher, who graduated in 1920. The Tornado captain was senior fullback Judy Harlan, called the school's greatest back by some and one of the country's best defensive backs. Also in the backfield was junior halfback Red Barron, who had just recovered from a broken jaw received the previous season in a game against Vanderbilt. Future Tech fullback Sam Murray said about a strong runner during the 1930s, "He's good. But if I were playing again, I would have one wish – never to see bearing down upon me a more fearsome picture of power than Judy Harlan blocking for Red Barron." Junior starting quarterback Jack McDonough missed the final four games last year due to an ankle injury caused by Pitt's fullback Orville Hewitt. Another halfback was Jimmy Brewster, known as the "side stepping wonder". In the line at either end were the brothers John and Al Staton. At guard was Oscar Davis, who (with Barron) was listed on an All-Tech Alexander-era team. At center was sophomore Dad Amis. ## Schedule ## Season summary ### Wake Forest - Sources: The season opened with a 42–0 shutout of the Wake Forest Demon Deacons, who were hold to just one first down. The intense heat made for many substitutions, and a number of Tech players starred. Despite the weather, Harlan still smashed into the line. Brewster got the season's first touchdown, a 25-yard run around left end. Barron later got a touchdown on a 60-yard run. The starting lineup was J. Staton (left end), McRee (left tackle), McIntyre (left guard), Amis (center), Davis (right guard), Lyman (right tackle), A. Staton (right end), Hunt (quarterback), Brewster (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback). ### Oglethorpe - Sources: In the second week of play, Red Barron starred as the Tornado defeated the neighboring Oglethorpe Stormy Petrels 41–0. Just prior to the game Oglethorpe had lost its star Johnny Knox. The Tornado had 363 yards from scrimmage to Oglethorpe's four. The "right side of the Oglethorpe line was a wide open as the gap of Gehenna." A crowd of about 8,000 attended. Dewey Scarboro scored Tech's first touchdown, and the second came on a 25-yard run by Barron, the star of the contest. In the third quarter, Tech sent in a substitute backfield which was even more successful. The starting lineup was Nabelle (left end), Johnson (left tackle), Lebey (left guard), Frye (center), Davis (right guard), Fincher (right tackle), A. Staton (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Scarboro (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback). ### Davidson - Sources: Tech shut out Davidson 70–0, with 22 first downs; Davidson had none. For the first touchdown, Barron threw a pass and Staton ran 35 yards for the score. The final score came when Barron had a 63-yard punt return for a touchdown, and Judy Harlan had four touchdowns. The starting lineup was J. Staton (left end), McRee (left tackle), Frye (left guard), Amis (center), Borum (right guard), Lyman (right tackle), A. Staton (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Ferst (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback). ### Furman - Sources: The Tech backfield, led by Barron, defeated Billy Laval's Furman Purple Hurricane, 69–0. Milton McManaway played for Furman. Barron had a 55-yard touchdown run. A punt return for a touchdown, with Barron reversing field, was disallowed due to an offside penalty. Judy Harlan received praise for his work as a defensive back. The starting lineup was J. Staton (left end), McRee (left tackle), Lebey (left guard), Amis (center), Frye (right guard), Lyman (right tackle), A. Staton (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Ferst (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback). ### Rutgers - Sources: The Tornado defeated Rutgers in an inter-sectional contest, 48–14. Tech's shift was at its peak, and Red Barron was the game's star. The first score was when Barron broke away for a 20-yard touchdown run around end. Rutgers' Carl Waite threw a 30-yard touchdown to Heinie Benkert. The starting lineup was J. Staton (left end), McRee (left tackle), Frye (left guard), Amis (center), Davis (right guard), Lyman (right tackle), A. Staton (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Brewster (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback). ### Penn State - Sources: On October 29, the Penn State Nittany Lions' undefeated "Mystery Team" defeated Georgia Tech 28–7 at the Polo Grounds. Both teams used a shift. Tech started strong, and Red Barron scored Tech's only touchdown. The game's star play immediately followed: an 85-yard kickoff return for a touchdown by Glenn Killinger. Penn State's defense stiffened after that. The starting lineup was J. Staton (left end), McRee (left tackle), Frye (left guard), Amis (center), Davis (right guard), Lyman (right tackle), A. Staton (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Barron (left halfback), Brewster (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback). ### Clemson - Sources: "Just as we used to bring in a load of stove wood at nightfall, feed the pigs and milk the cows, so do football teams of note have their chores to perform year in and year out. Georgia Tech performed one of its accustomed tasks Saturday afternoon, when Clemson was decidedly thrashed, but the task was not performed in the usual manner, for Clemson scored a touchdown. The score was 48 to 7." Tech started the game with a second-string backfield. Clemson scored first, with Burton running in a touchdown. Tech's first score came six seconds before the end of the first quarter, when Red Barron went around the tackle for a touchdown. The second touchdown came after a 20-yard Barron run. Pinkey Hunt got the first score of the second half. The fourth touchdown came when Jimmy Brewster gained 28 yards down field and almost 100 yards in all. Brewster also scored the next touchdown on a 15-yard run after completing an 18-yard pass. Barron and Harlan returned to the lineup late, scoring an additional touchdown apiece. The starting lineup was Cornell (left end), Johnson (left tackle), Barnett (left guard), Amis (center), Davis (right guard), Lyman (right tackle), A. Staton (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Ferst (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Farnsworth (fullback). ### Georgetown - Sources: The Tornado defeated the Georgetown Blue and Gray, 21–7. Tech's first score came from Judy Harlan on a two-yard run behind right tackle. The second score was in the second half, when Red Barron skirted the left end for 20 yards and a touchdown. Barron made his team's final touchdown on a two-yard run behind left guard. Georgetown scored on a 95-yard return after DuFour recovered a Jack McDonough fumble. The starting lineup was J. Staton (left end), Johnson (left tackle), Frye (left guard), Amis (center), Davis (right guard), A. Staton (right tackle), Mitchell (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Ferst (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback). ### Auburn - Sources: Georgia Tech defeated Auburn, 14–0. More than 21,000 fans, the largest crowd of the Southern football season, watched the game. After a scoreless first half, Tech opened a drive to start the second half with runs from Barron, Harlan, and Ferst. As Barron was about to score, he fumbled and McDonough recovered the ball in the end zone. Barron later scored the second touchdown. The starting lineup was J. Staton (left end), Johnson (left tackle), Lebey (left guard), Amis (center), Davis (right guard), A. Staton (right tackle), Mitchell (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Ferst (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback). ## Postseason ### Awards and honors Barron rushed for 1,459 yards during the season, and led the team in scoring with 90 points. Harlan, Barron, and Al Staton were composite All-Southerns, and Davis and John Staton made some All-Southern teams. Harlan made Walter Camp's third All-America team, and Barron made Jack Veiock's third team. ### Championships For yet another season, neither Tech nor the Bulldogs of Georgia lost to a Southern team. Tech tied with independent Centre, Georgia, and Vanderbilt for claims of the SIAA title. For Georgia coach Herman Stegeman, the contest for the mythical title of greatest Southern team was between Centre, Georgia Tech, and Georgia. Sportswriter Fuzzy Woodruff in his History of Southern Football explained Tech was picked as champion "through force of habit"; though "no championship was ever won with less effort or achievement." ## Personnel ### Depth chart The following chart depicts Tech's lineup during the 1921 season, with games started at the position in parentheses. It mimics the offense after the jump shift. ### Scoring leaders The following is an incomplete list of statistics and scores, largely dependent on newspaper summaries. ## See also - 1921 Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association football season - 1921 College Football All-America Team ## Endnotes

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