fmars/wiki_stem · Datasets at Hugging Face

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3,600	In biomechanics, center of pressure (CoP) is the term given to the point of application of the ground reaction force vector. The ground reaction force vector represents the sum of all forces acting between a physical object and its supporting surface. Analysis of the center of pressure is common in studies on human postural control and gait	Center of pressure (terrestrial locomotion)
3,601	Cometabolism is defined as the simultaneous degradation of two compounds, in which the degradation of the second compound (the secondary substrate) depends on the presence of the first compound (the primary substrate). This is in contrast to simultaneous catabolism, where each substrate is catabolized concomitantly by different enzymes. Cometabolism occurs when an enzyme produced by an organism to catalyze the degradation of its growth-substrate to derive energy and carbon from it is also capable of degrading additional compounds	Cometabolism
3,602	The core or trunk is the axial (central) part of an organism's body. In common parlance, the term is broadly considered to be synonymous with the torso, but academically it also includes the head and neck. Functional movements are highly dependent on this part of the body, and lack of core muscular development can result in a predisposition to injury	Core (anatomy)
3,603	In fluid mechanics, dynamic similarity is the phenomenon that when there are two geometrically similar vessels (same shape, different sizes) with the same boundary conditions (e. g. , no-slip, center-line velocity) and the same Reynolds and Womersley numbers, then the fluid flows will be identical	Dynamic similarity (Reynolds and Womersley numbers)
3,604	Ecomechanics is a biomechanic scientific discipline studying the mechanisms underlying organisms' interactions with their environment. It incorporates elements of ecology and comparative physiology, as an outgrowth of biomechanics. The term was originally coined by Dr	Ecomechanics
3,605	An endoskeleton (From Greek ἔνδον, éndon = "within", "inner" + σκελετός, skeletos = "skeleton") is an internal support structure of an animal, composed of mineralized tissue. Overview An endoskeleton is a skeleton that is on the inside of a body, like humans, dogs, or some fish. The endoskeleton develops within the skin or in the deeper body tissues	Endoskeleton
3,606	An exoskeleton (from Greek έξω éxō "outer" and σκελετός skeletós "skeleton") is an external skeleton that supports and protects an animal's body, in contrast to an internal skeleton (endoskeleton) in for example, a human. Some large exoskeletons are known as "shells". Examples of exoskeletons within animals include the arthropod exoskeleton shared by chelicerates, myriapods, crustaceans, and insects, as well as the shell of certain sponges and the mollusc shell shared by snails, clams, tusk shells, chitons, and nautilus	Exoskeleton
3,607	Flapping counter-torque is a ubiquitous passive rotational damping effect in flapping flight that arises from world frame differences in the speed of flapping wings during turns. During a turns, flapping that is symmetrical (in velocity and speed) in the body frame of the animal is not symmetrical (in velocity or speed) in the lab frame. During such turns, the wings travel at different speeds (despite no change to local velocity from the perspective of the flapping animal or machine)	Flapping counter-torque
3,608	Force platforms or force plates are measuring instruments that measure the ground reaction forces generated by a body standing on or moving across them, to quantify balance, gait and other parameters of biomechanics. Most common areas of application are medicine and sports. Operation The simplest force platform is a plate with a single pedestal, instrumented as a load cell	Force platform
3,609	Forensic biomechanics is the application of biomechanical engineering science to litigation where biomechanical experts determine whether an accident was the cause of an alleged injury. (See "New York State Bar Association Bar Journal November/December 2010 - The Rise of Biomechanical Experts at Trial by Robert Glick, Esq. and Sean O'Loughlin, Esq	Forensic biomechanics
3,610	Functional movements are movements based on real-world situational biomechanics. They usually involve multi-planar, multi-joint movements which place demand on the body's core musculature and innervation. Functional vs other movements Sports-specific Sports-specific movements, such as a tennis swing or bowling a cricket ball, are based on sports-specific situations	Functional movement
3,611	A functional spinal unit (FSU) (or motion segment) is the smallest physiological motion unit of the spine to exhibit biomechanical characteristics similar to those of the entire spine. A FSU consists of two adjacent vertebrae, the intervertebral disc and all adjoining ligaments between them and excludes other connecting tissues such as muscles. The three-joint complex that results is sometimes referred to as the "articular triad"	Functional spinal unit
3,612	Yuan-Cheng "Bert" Fung (September 15, 1919 – December 15, 2019) was a Chinese-American bioengineer and writer. He is regarded as a founding figure of bioengineering, tissue engineering, and the "Founder of Modern Biomechanics". Biography Fung was born in Jiangsu Province, China in 1919	Yuan-Cheng Fung
3,613	A gait is a manner of limb movements made during locomotion. Human gaits are the various ways in which humans can move, either naturally or as a result of specialized training. Human gait is defined as bipedal forward propulsion of the center of gravity of the human body, in which there are sinuous movements of different segments of the body with little energy spent	Gait (human)
3,614	Gray's Paradox is a paradox posed in 1936 by British zoologist Sir James Gray. The paradox was to figure out how dolphins can obtain such high speeds and accelerations with what appears to be a small muscle mass. Gray made an estimate of the power a dolphin could exert based on its physiology, and concluded the power was insufficient to overcome the drag forces in water	Gray's paradox
3,615	In physics, and in particular in biomechanics, the ground reaction force (GRF) is the force exerted by the ground on a body in contact with it. For example, a person standing motionless on the ground exerts a contact force on it (equal to the person's weight) and at the same time an equal and opposite ground reaction force is exerted by the ground on the person. In the above example, the ground reaction force coincides with the notion of a normal force	Ground reaction force
3,616	In biomechanics, Hill's muscle model refers to the 3-element model consisting of a contractile element (CE) in series with a lightly-damped elastic spring element (SE) and in parallel with lightly-damped elastic parallel element (PE). Within this model, the estimated force-velocity relation for the CE element is usually modeled by what is commonly called Hill's equation, which was based on careful experiments involving tetanized muscle contraction where various muscle loads and associated velocities were measured. They were derived by the famous physiologist Archibald Vivian Hill, who by 1938 when he introduced this model and equation had already won the Nobel Prize for Physiology	Hill's muscle model
3,617	In baseball, hitting mechanics studies the biomechanical motion that governs the swing of a baseball player. The goal of biomechanics in hitting during baseball training is to study and improve upon the physics involved in hitting. This includes optimizing a player's swing for either maximizing their "bat speed" or time for plate coverage	Hitting mechanics
3,618	The evolution of human bipedalism, which began in primates approximately four million years ago, or as early as seven million years ago with Sahelanthropus, or approximately twelve million years ago with Danuvius guggenmosi, has led to morphological alterations to the human skeleton including changes to the arrangement, shape, and size of the bones of the foot, hip, knee, leg, and the vertebral column. These changes allowed for the upright gait to be overall more energy efficient in comparison to quadrupeds. The evolutionary factors that produced these changes have been the subject of several theories that correspond with environmental changes on a global scale	Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism
3,619	Patria Anne Hume is a New Zealand sports biomechanics academic. She is currently a full-time Professor of Human Performance at the Auckland University of Technology Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ) at AUT Millennium. Hume represented New Zealand in rhythmic gymnastics for six years, before coaching gymnasts who won medals at the 1990 Commonwealth Games	Patria Hume
3,620	A hydrostatic skeleton, or hydroskeleton, is a flexible skeleton supported by fluid pressure. Hydrostatic skeletons are common among simple invertebrate organisms. While more advanced organisms can be considered hydrostatic, they are sometimes referred to as hydrostatic for their possession of a hydrostatic organ instead of a hydrostatic skeleton	Hydrostatic skeleton
3,621	IMeasureU (IMU) is a wearable technology company. They make inertial measurement unit that analyze running movements and other body movements in elite sports. They combine the sensor data with computational models to accurately model human body movement	I Measure U
3,622	Iatromathematicians (from Greek ἰατρική "medicine" and μαθηματικά "mathematics") were a school of physicians in 17th-century Italy who tried to apply the laws of mathematics and mechanics in order to understand the functioning of the human body. They were also keen students of anatomy. These iatromathematicians made an effort to prove that applying a purely mechanical conception to the study of the human body is futile	Iatromathematicians
3,623	The International Society of Biomechanics, commonly known as the ISB, is a society dedicated to promoting biomechanics in its various forms. It promotes the study of all areas of biomechanics at the international level, although special emphasis is given to the biomechanics of human movement. The Society encourages international contacts amongst scientists, promotes the dissemination of knowledge, and forms liaisons with national organizations	International Society of Biomechanics
3,624	Caitríona Lally is a professor of Bioengineering in Trinity College, Dublin. She has been a qualified mechanical engineer since 1997. She did a PhD in cardiovascular biomechanics	Caitríona Lally
3,625	The Lattice Boltzmann methods for solids (LBMS) are a set of methods for solving partial differential equations (PDE) in solid mechanics. The methods use a discretization of the Boltzmann equation(BM), and their use is known as the lattice Boltzmann methods for solids. LBMS methods are categorized by their reliance on: Vectorial distributions Wave solvers Force tuningThe LBMS subset remains highly challenging from a computational aspect as much as from a theoretical point of view	Lattice Boltzmann methods for solids
3,626	Limits of Stability (LoS) are a concept in balance and stability, defined as the points at which the center of gravity (CoG) approaches the limits of the base of support (BoS) and requires a corrective strategy to bring the center of mass (CoM) back within the BoS. In simpler terms, LoS represents the maximum distance an individual can intentionally sway in any direction without losing balance or needing to take a step. The typical range of stable swaying is approximately 12	Limits of stability
3,627	In the field of biomechanics, the lines of non-extension are notional lines running across the human body along which body movement causes neither stretching or contraction. Discovered by Arthur Iberall in work beginning in the 1940s, as part of research into space suit design, they have been further developed by Dava Newman in the development of the Space Activity Suit. They were originally mapped by Iberall by drawing a series of circles over a portion of the body and then watching their deformations as the wearer walked around or performed various tasks	Lines of non-extension
3,628	Locomotor effects of shoes are the way in which the physical characteristics or components of shoes influence the locomotion neuromechanics of a person. Depending on the characteristics of the shoes, the effects are various, ranging from alteration in balance and posture, muscle activity of different muscles as measured by electromyography (EMG), and the impact force. There are many different types of shoes that exist, such as running, walking, loafers, high heels, sandals, slippers, work boots, dress shoes, and many more	Locomotor effects of shoes
3,629	The mechanics of human sexuality or mechanics of sex, or more formally the biomechanics of human sexuality, is the study of the mechanics related to human sexual activity. Examples of topics include the biomechanical study of the strength of vaginal tissues and the biomechanics of male erectile function. The mechanics of sex under limit circumstances, such as sexual activity at zero-gravity in outer space, are also being studied	Mechanics of human sexuality
3,630	The mechanics of the running blades used by South African former Paralympic runner Oscar Pistorius depend on special carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer prosthetics. Pistorius has double below-the-knee amputations and competed in both non-disabled and T44 amputee athletics events. Pistorius's eligibility to run in international non-disabled events is sanctioned by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF)	Mechanics of Oscar Pistorius's running blades
3,631	The mechanome[1] consists of the body, or ome, of data including cell and molecular processes relating to force and mechanical systems at molecular, cellular and tissue length scales - the fundamental "machine code" structures of the cell. The mechanome encompasses biological motors, like kinesin, myosin, RNAP, and Ribosome mechanical structures, like actin or the cytoskeleton and also proteomic and genomic components that are mechanosensitive and are involved in the response of cells to externally applied force. A definition of the "Mechanome" extending to cell/organ/body given by Prof	Mechanome
3,632	In biomechanics, the Moens–Korteweg equation models the relationship between wave speed or pulse wave velocity (PWV) and the incremental elastic modulus of the arterial wall or its distensibility. The equation was derived independently by Adriaan Isebree Moens and Diederik Korteweg. It is derived from Newton's second law of motion, using some simplifying assumptions, and reads: P W V = E inc ⋅ h 2 r ρ {\displaystyle PWV={\sqrt {\dfrac {E_{\text{inc}}\cdot h}{2r\rho }}}} The Moens–Korteweg equation states that PWV is proportional to the square root of the incremental elastic modulus, (Einc), of the vessel wall given constant ratio of wall thickness, h, to vessel radius, r, and blood density, ρ, assuming that the artery wall is isotropic and experiences isovolumetric change with pulse pressure	Moens–Korteweg equation
3,633	Movement assessment is the practice of analysing movement performance during functional tasks to determine the kinematics of individual joints and their effect on the kinetic chain. Three-dimensional or two-dimensional analysis of the biomechanics involved in sporting tasks can assist in prevention of injury and enhancing athletic performance. Identification of abnormal movement mechanics provides physical therapists and Athletic trainers the ability to prescribe more accurate corrective exercise programs to prevent injury and improve exercise rehabilitation and progression following injury and assist in determining readiness to return to sport	Movement assessment
3,634	A muscular hydrostat is a biological structure found in animals. It is used to manipulate items (including food) or to move its host about and consists mainly of muscles with no skeletal support. It performs its hydraulic movement without fluid in a separate compartment, as in a hydrostatic skeleton	Muscular hydrostat
3,635	Nanobiomechanics (also bionanomechanics) is an emerging field in nanoscience and biomechanics that combines the powerful tools of nanomechanics to explore fundamental science of biomaterials and biomechanics. Since the introduction by its founder Yuan-Cheng Fung, the field of biomechanics has become one of the branches of mechanics and bioscience. For many years, biomechanics has examined tissue	Nanobiomechanics
3,636	Neuro Biomechanics is based upon the research of bioengineering researchers, neuro-surgery, orthopedic surgery and biomechanists. Neuro Biomechanics are utilized by neurosurgeons, orthopedic surgeons and primarily by integrated physical medicine practitioners. Practitioners are focused on aiding people in the restoration of biomechanics of the skeletal system in order to measurably improve nervous system function, health, function, quality of life, reduce pain and the progression of degenerative joint and disc disease	Neuro biomechanics
3,637	The neutral body posture (NBP) is the posture the human body naturally assumes in microgravity. Adopting any other posture while floating requires muscular effort. In the 1980s, NASA developed the Man-System Integration Standards (MSIS), a set of guidelines based on anthropometry and biomechanics, which included a definition of an average typical NBP created from measurements of crew members in the microgravity environment onboard Skylab	Neutral body posture
3,638	OpenSim is an open source software system for biomechanical modeling, simulation and analysis. Its purpose is to provide free and widely accessible tools for conducting biomechanics research and motor control science. OpenSim enables a wide range of studies, including analysis of walking dynamics, studies of sports performance, simulations of surgical procedures, analysis of joint loads, design of medical devices, and animation of human and animal movement	OpenSim (simulation toolkit)
3,639	The overhand (or overhead) throw is a single-handed throw of a projectile where the object is thrown above the shoulder. The overhand throw is a complex motor skill that involves the entire body in a series of linked movements starting from the legs, progressing up through the pelvis and trunk, and culminating in a ballistic motion in the arm that propels a projectile forward. It is used almost exclusively in athletic events	Overhand throw
3,640	Pedobarography is the study of pressure fields acting between the plantar surface of the foot and a supporting surface. Used most often for biomechanical analysis of gait and posture, pedobarography is employed in a wide range of applications including sports biomechanics and gait biometrics. The term 'pedobarography' is derived from the Latin: pedes, referring to the foot (as in: pedometer, pedestrian, etc	Pedobarography
3,641	The physics of skiing refers to the analysis of the forces acting on a person while skiing. The motion of a skier is determined by the physical principles of the conservation of energy and the frictional forces acting on the body. For example, in downhill skiing, as the skier is accelerated down the hill by the force of gravity, their gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic energy, the energy of motion	Physics of skiing
3,642	Several organisms are capable of rolling locomotion. However, true wheels and propellers—despite their utility in human vehicles—do not seem to play a significant role in the movement of living things (with the exception of certain flagella, which work like corkscrews). Biologists have offered several explanations for the apparent absence of biological wheels, and wheeled creatures have appeared often in speculative fiction	Rotating locomotion in living systems
3,643	Sauropod neck posture is a subject occasionally debated among scientists, with some favoring postures closer to horizontal whilst others a more upright posture. Research has looked at various avenues of evidence and analysis including: attempting to reconstruct the neutral posture of their necks and estimating range of motion by studying the bones; attempting to reconstruct sauropod metabolism and the energy requirements of sustaining incredibly long necks in various postures; and comparing sauropod neck anatomy to those of living animals. Biomechanics The biomechanics of sauropod skeletons and necks can help determine at what angle the neck was positioned	Sauropod neck posture
3,644	The serape effect is a rotational trunk movement that increases the power output of the human body. It is trained in sports that involve rotation of the torso, such as boxing and discus throwing. The muscles involved in the serape effect are stretched and then snap-back with increased strength	Serape effect
3,645	In baseball, sidearm is a motion for throwing a ball along a low, approximately horizontal plane rather than a high, mostly vertical plane (overhand). Sidearm is a common way of throwing the ball in the infield, because many throws must be made hurriedly from the glove after fielding ground balls. An infielder's quickest throw to the bases is often from just above ground level, necessitating a horizontal release of the ball	Sidearm (baseball)
3,646	Soft tissue is all the tissue in the body that is not hardened by the processes of ossification or calcification such as bones and teeth. Soft tissue connects, surrounds or supports internal organs and bones, and includes muscle, tendons, ligaments, fat, fibrous tissue, lymph and blood vessels, fasciae, and synovial membranes. It is sometimes defined by what it is not – such as "nonepithelial, extraskeletal mesenchyme exclusive of the reticuloendothelial system and glia"	Soft tissue
3,647	In baseball, a submarine is a pitch in which the ball is released often just above the ground, but not underhanded, with the torso bent at a right angle, and shoulders tilted so severely that they rotate around a nearly horizontal axis. This is in stark contrast to the underhand softball pitch in which the torso remains upright, the shoulders are level, and the hips do not rotate. Description The "upside down" release of the submariner causes balls to move differently from pitches generated by other arm slots	Submarine (baseball)
3,648	Adrian Leland Rees Thomas (born 1963) is a professor of biomechanics at the University of Oxford and Director of Studies in Biological Sciences at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford running the Animal Flight Research Group. He is co-founder and Chief Scientific Officer at Animal Dynamics and is also chairman of the flight section of the Bionis International Biomimetics Network. Education Thomas was educated at Abingdon School and studied zoology at Oxford as an undergraduate from 1981 to 1984	Adrian Thomas (zoologist)
3,649	Throwing is an action which consists in accelerating a projectile and then releasing it so that it follows a ballistic trajectory, usually with the aim of impacting a remote target. This action is best characterized for animals with prehensile limbs: in this case the projectile is grasped, while the limb segments impart a motion of the hand through compounded mechanical advantage. For other animals, the definition of throwing is somewhat unclear, as other actions such as spitting or spraying may or may not be included	Throwing
3,650	The Tinetti Test (TT), or Performance Oriented Mobility Assessment (POMA) is a common clinical test for assessing a person's static and dynamic balance abilities. It is named after one of the inventors, Mary Tinetti. The test is in two short sections that contain one examining static balance abilities in a chair and then standing, and the other gait	Tinetti test
3,651	The Womersley number ( α {\displaystyle \alpha } or Wo {\displaystyle {\text{Wo}}} ) is a dimensionless number in biofluid mechanics and biofluid dynamics. It is a dimensionless expression of the pulsatile flow frequency in relation to viscous effects. It is named after John R	Womersley number
3,652	The work loop technique is used in muscle physiology to evaluate the mechanical work and power output of skeletal or cardiac muscle contractions via in vitro muscle testing of whole muscles, fiber bundles or single muscle fibers. This technique is primarily used for cyclical contractions such as cockroach walking. , the rhythmic flapping of bird wings or the beating of heart ventricular muscle	Work loop
3,653	Biomineralization, also written biomineralisation, is the process by which living organisms produce minerals, often to harden or stiffen existing tissues. Such tissues are called mineralized tissues. It is an extremely widespread phenomenon; all six taxonomic kingdoms contain members that are able to form minerals, and over 60 different minerals have been identified in organisms	Biomineralization
3,654	Biocrystallization is the formation of crystals from organic macromolecules by living organisms. This may be a stress response, a normal part of metabolism such as processes that dispose of waste compounds, or a pathology. Template mediated crystallization is qualitatively different from in vitro crystallization	Biocrystallization
3,655	A biointerface is the region of contact between a biomolecule, cell, biological tissue or living organism or organic material considered living with another biomaterial or inorganic/organic material. The motivation for biointerface science stems from the urgent need to increase the understanding of interactions between biomolecules and surfaces. The behavior of complex macromolecular systems at materials interfaces are important in the fields of biology, biotechnology, diagnostics, and medicine	Biointerface
3,656	Biomineralising polychaetes are polychaetes that produce minerals to harden or stiffen their own tissues (biomineralize). The most important biomineralizing polychaetes are serpulids, sabellids and cirratulids. They secrete tubes of calcium carbonate	Biomineralising polychaete
3,657	Calcification is the accumulation of calcium salts in a body tissue. It normally occurs in the formation of bone, but calcium can be deposited abnormally in soft tissue, causing it to harden. Calcifications may be classified on whether there is mineral balance or not, and the location of the calcification	Calcification
3,658	Diatomaceous earth ( DY-ə-tə-MAY-shəs), diatomite ( dy-AT-ə-myte), celite or kieselgur/kieselguhr is a naturally occurring, soft, siliceous sedimentary rock that can be crumbled into a fine white to off-white powder. It has a particle size ranging from more than 3 mm to less than 1 μm, but typically 10 to 200 μm. Depending on the granularity, this powder can have an abrasive feel, similar to pumice powder, and has a low density as a result of its high porosity	Diatomaceous earth
3,659	Enamelin is an enamel matrix protein (EMPs), that in humans is encoded by the ENAM gene. It is part of the non-amelogenins, which comprise 10% of the total enamel matrix proteins. It is one of the key proteins thought to be involved in amelogenesis (enamel development)	Enamelin
3,660	Magnetotactic bacteria (or MTB) are a polyphyletic group of bacteria that orient themselves along the magnetic field lines of Earth's magnetic field. Discovered in 1963 by Salvatore Bellini and rediscovered in 1975 by Richard Blakemore, this alignment is believed to aid these organisms in reaching regions of optimal oxygen concentration. To perform this task, these bacteria have organelles called magnetosomes that contain magnetic crystals	Magnetotactic bacteria
3,661	Marine biogenic calcification is the process by which marine organisms such as oysters and clams form calcium carbonate. Seawater is full of dissolved compounds, ions and nutrients that organisms can use for energy and, in the case of calcification, to build shells and outer structures. Calcifying organisms in the ocean include molluscs, foraminifera, coccolithophores, crustaceans, echinoderms such as sea urchins, and corals	Marine biogenic calcification
3,662	Mineralized tissues are biological tissues that incorporate minerals into soft matrices. Typically these tissues form a protective shield or structural support. Bone, mollusc shells, deep sea sponge Euplectella species, radiolarians, diatoms, antler bone, tendon, cartilage, tooth enamel and dentin are some examples of mineralized tissues	Mineralized tissues
3,663	Many protists have protective shells or tests, usually made from silica (glass) or calcium carbonate (chalk). Protists are a diverse group of eukaryote organisms that are not plants, animals, or fungi. They are typically microscopic unicellular organisms that live in water or moist environments	Protist shell
3,664	Silicon isotope biogeochemistry is the study of environmental processes using the relative abundance of Si isotopes. As the relative abundance of Si stable isotopes varies among different natural materials, the differences in abundance can be used to trace the source of Si, and to study biological, geological, and chemical processes. The study of stable isotope biogeochemistry of Si aims to quantify the different Si fluxes in the global biogeochemical silicon cycle, to understand the role of biogenic silica within the global Si cycle, and to investigate the applications and limitations of the sedimentary Si record as an environmental and palaeoceanographic proxy	Silicon isotope biogeochemistry
3,665	Sustainable agriculture is farming in sustainable ways meeting society's present food and textile needs, without compromising the ability for current or future generations to meet their needs. It can be based on an understanding of ecosystem services. There are many methods to increase the sustainability of agriculture	Sustainable agriculture
3,666	A bioactive compound is a compound that has an effect on a living organism, tissue or cell, usually demonstrated by basic research in vitro or in vivo in the laboratory. While dietary nutrients are essential to life, bioactive compounds have not been proved to be essential – as the body can function without them – or because their actions are obscured by nutrients fulfilling the function. Bioactive compounds lack sufficient evidence of effect or safety, and consequently they are usually unregulated and may be sold as dietary supplements	Bioactive compound
3,667	Cardiovascular physiology is the study of the cardiovascular system, specifically addressing the physiology of the heart ("cardio") and blood vessels ("vascular"). These subjects are sometimes addressed separately, under the names cardiac physiology and circulatory physiology. Although the different aspects of cardiovascular physiology are closely interrelated, the subject is still usually divided into several subtopics	Cardiovascular physiology
3,668	Afterload is the pressure that the heart must work against to eject blood during systole (ventricular contraction). Afterload is proportional to the average arterial pressure. As aortic and pulmonary pressures increase, the afterload increases on the left and right ventricles respectively	Afterload
3,669	The ankle-brachial pressure index (ABPI) or ankle-brachial index (ABI) is the ratio of the blood pressure at the ankle to the blood pressure in the upper arm (brachium). Compared to the arm, lower blood pressure in the leg suggests blocked arteries due to peripheral artery disease (PAD). The ABPI is calculated by dividing the systolic blood pressure at the ankle by the systolic blood pressure in the arm	Ankle–brachial pressure index
3,670	An artery (PL: arteries) (from Greek ἀρτηρία (artēríā) 'windpipe, artery') is a blood vessel in humans and most animals that takes blood away from the heart to one or more parts of the body (tissues, lungs, brain etc. ). Most arteries carry oxygenated blood; the two exceptions are the pulmonary and the umbilical arteries, which carry deoxygenated blood to the organs that oxygenate it (lungs and placenta, respectively)	Artery
3,671	The Bainbridge reflex or Bainbridge effect, also called the atrial reflex, is an increase in heart rate due to an increase in central venous pressure. Increased blood volume is detected by stretch receptors (Cardiac Receptors) located in both sides of atria at the venoatrial junctions. History Francis Arthur Bainbridge described this as a reflex in 1918 when he was experimenting on dogs	Bainbridge reflex
3,672	The baroreflex orbaroreceptor reflex is one of the body's homeostatic mechanisms that helps to maintain blood pressure at nearly constant levels. The baroreflex provides a rapid negative feedback loop in which an elevated blood pressure causes the heart rate to decrease. Decreased blood pressure decreases baroreflex activation and causes heart rate to increase and to restore blood pressure levels	Baroreflex
3,673	Bathmotropic often refers to modifying the degree of excitability specifically of the heart; in general, it refers to modification of the degree of excitability (threshold of excitation) of musculature in general, including the heart. It especially is used to describe the effects of the cardiac nerves on cardiac excitability. Positive bathmotropic effects increase the response of muscle to stimulation, whereas negative bathmotropic effects decrease the response of muscle to stimulation	Bathmotropic
3,674	Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure of circulating blood against the walls of blood vessels. Most of this pressure results from the heart pumping blood through the circulatory system. When used without qualification, the term "blood pressure" refers to the pressure in a brachial artery, where it is most commonly measured	Blood pressure
3,675	Blood volume (volemia) is the volume of blood (blood cells and plasma) in the circulatory system of any individual. Humans A typical adult has a blood volume of approximately 5 liters, with females and males having approximately the same blood percentage by weight (approx 7 to 8%) Blood volume is regulated by the kidneys. Blood volume (BV) can be calculated given the hematocrit (HC; the fraction of blood that is red blood cells) and plasma volume (PV), with the hematocrit being regulated via the blood oxygen content regulator: B V = P V 1 − H C {\displaystyle BV={\frac {PV}{1-HC}}} Blood volume measurement may be used in people with congestive heart failure, chronic hypertension, kidney failure and critical care	Blood volume
3,676	Capillary refill time (CRT) is defined as the time taken for color to return to an external capillary bed after pressure is applied to cause blanching. It can be measured by holding a hand higher than heart-level and pressing the soft pad of a finger or fingernail until it turns white, then taking note of the time needed for the color to return once pressure is released. In humans, CRT of more than three seconds indicates decreased peripheral perfusion and may indicate cardiovascular or respiratory dysfunction	Capillary refill
3,677	The cardiac cycle is the performance of the human heart from the beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of the next. It consists of two periods: one during which the heart muscle relaxes and refills with blood, called diastole, following a period of robust contraction and pumping of blood, called systole. After emptying, the heart relaxes and expands to receive another influx of blood returning from the lungs and other systems of the body, before again contracting to pump blood to the lungs and those systems	Cardiac cycle
3,678	A cardiac function curve is a graph showing the relationship between right atrial pressure (x-axis) and cardiac output (y-axis). Superimposition of the cardiac function curve and venous return curve is used in one hemodynamic model. Shape of curve It shows a steep relationship at relatively low filling pressures and a plateau, where further stretch is not possible and so increases in pressure have little effect on output	Cardiac function curve
3,679	Cardiac index (CI) is a haemodynamic parameter that relates the cardiac output (CO) from left ventricle in one minute to body surface area (BSA), thus relating heart performance to the size of the individual. The unit of measurement is litres per minute per square metre (L/min/m2). Calculation The index is usually calculated using the following formula: CI = CO BSA = SV × HR BSA {\displaystyle {\text{CI}}={\frac {\text{CO}}{\text{BSA}}}={\frac {{\text{SV}}\times {\text{HR}}}{\text{BSA}}}} where CI Cardiac index BSA Body surface area SV Stroke volume HR Heart rate CO Cardiac output Clinical significance The normal range of cardiac index at rest is 2	Cardiac index
3,680	In cardiac physiology, cardiac output (CO), also known as heart output and often denoted by the symbols Q {\displaystyle Q} , Q ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}} , or Q ˙ c {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}_{c}} , is the volumetric flow rate of the heart's pumping output: that is, the volume of blood being pumped by a single ventricle of the heart, per unit time (usually measured per minute). Cardiac output (CO) is the product of the heart rate (HR), i. e	Cardiac output
3,681	Cardiac reserve refers to the difference between the rates at which the heart pumps blood - at any given time versus its maximum capacity. A measurement of the cardiac reserve may be a health indicator for some medical conditions. Cardiac reserve may be 4-5 times greater than a resting value for a healthy person	Cardiac reserve
3,682	Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) refers to the ability of the circulatory and respiratory systems to supply oxygen to skeletal muscles during sustained physical activity. Scientists and researchers use CRF to assess the functional capacity of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. These functions include ventilation, perfusion, gas exchange, vasodilation, and delivery of oxygen to the body's tissues	Cardiorespiratory fitness
3,683	The cardiovascular centre is a part of the human brain which regulates heart rate through the nervous and endocrine systems. It is considered one of the vital centres of the medulla oblongata. Structure The cardiovascular centre, or cardiovascular center, is part of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem	Cardiovascular centre
3,684	Cardiovascular fitness refers a health-related component of physical fitness that is brought about by sustained physical activity. A person's ability to deliver oxygen to the working muscles is affected by many physiological parameters, including heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, and maximal oxygen consumption. Understanding the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and other categories of conditioning requires a review of changes that occur with increased aerobic, or anaerobic capacity	Cardiovascular fitness
3,685	Central venous pressure (CVP) is the blood pressure in the venae cavae, near the right atrium of the heart. CVP reflects the amount of blood returning to the heart and the ability of the heart to pump the blood back into the arterial system. CVP is often a good approximation of right atrial pressure (RAP), although the two terms are not identical, as a pressure differential can sometimes exist between the venae cavae and the right atrium	Central venous pressure
3,686	Cerebral hyperperfusion syndrome, also known as reperfusion syndrome, is a dysregulated state of cerebral blood flow following the restoration of arterial blood flow to the brain, usually following treatment of carotid artery stenosis. Risk factors include hypertension, particularly high blood pressures in the first few days following revascularization and bilateral stenosis. Symptoms The first symptom is usually severe headache, and a headache in the setting of recent carotid endarterectomy or carotid stenting should prompt a return to the hospital and close attention by clinicians	Cerebral hyperperfusion syndrome
3,687	Chronotropic effects (from chrono-, meaning time, and tropos, "a turn") are those that change the heart rate. Chronotropic drugs may change the heart rate and rhythm by affecting the electrical conduction system of the heart and the nerves that influence it, such as by changing the rhythm produced by the sinoatrial node. Positive chronotropes increase heart rate; negative chronotropes decrease heart rate	Chronotropic
3,688	Compliance is the ability of a hollow organ (vessel) to distend and increase volume with increasing transmural pressure or the tendency of a hollow organ to resist recoil toward its original dimensions on application of a distending or compressing force. It is the reciprocal of "elastance", hence elastance is a measure of the tendency of a hollow organ to recoil toward its original dimensions upon removal of a distending or compressing force. Blood vessels The terms elastance and compliance are of particular significance in cardiovascular physiology and respiratory physiology	Compliance (physiology)
3,689	Coronary perfusion pressure (CPP) refers to the pressure gradient that drives coronary blood pressure. The heart's function is to perfuse blood to the body; however, the heart's own myocardium (heart muscle) must, itself, be supplied for its own muscle function. The heart is supplied by coronary vessels, and therefore CPP is the blood pressure within those vessels	Coronary perfusion pressure
3,690	Cushing reflex (also referred to as the vasopressor response, the Cushing effect, the Cushing reaction, the Cushing phenomenon, the Cushing response, or Cushing's Law) is a physiological nervous system response to increased intracranial pressure (ICP) that results in Cushing's triad of increased blood pressure, irregular breathing, and bradycardia. It is usually seen in the terminal stages of acute head injury and may indicate imminent brain herniation. It can also be seen after the intravenous administration of epinephrine and similar drugs	Cushing reflex
3,691	The diving reflex, also known as the diving response and mammalian diving reflex, is a set of physiological responses to immersion that overrides the basic homeostatic reflexes, and is found in all air-breathing vertebrates studied to date. It optimizes respiration by preferentially distributing oxygen stores to the heart and brain, enabling submersion for an extended time. The diving reflex is exhibited strongly in aquatic mammals, such as seals, otters, dolphins, and muskrats, and exists as a lesser response in other animals, including human babies up to 6 months old (see infant swimming), and diving birds, such as ducks and penguins	Diving reflex
3,692	The term dromotropic derives from the Greek word δρόμος drómos, meaning "running", a course, a race. A dromotropic agent is one which affects the conduction speed (in fact the magnitude of delay) in the AV node, and subsequently the rate of electrical impulses in the heart. Positive dromotropy increases conduction velocity (e	Dromotropic
3,693	The E/A ratio is a marker of the function of the left ventricle of the heart. It represents the ratio of peak velocity blood flow from left ventricular relaxation in early diastole (the E wave) to peak velocity flow in late diastole caused by atrial contraction (the A wave). It is calculated using Doppler echocardiography, an ultrasound-based cardiac imaging modality	E/A ratio
3,694	The effective circulating volume (ECV) is the volume of arterial blood effectively perfusing tissue. ECV is a dynamic quantity and not a measurable, distinct compartment. This concept is useful for discussion of cardiovascular and renal physiology	Effective circulating volume
3,695	An ejection fraction (EF) is the volumetric fraction (or portion of the total) of fluid (usually blood) ejected from a chamber (usually the heart) with each contraction (or heartbeat). It can refer to the cardiac atrium, ventricle, gall bladder, or leg veins, although if unspecified it usually refers to the left ventricle of the heart. EF is widely used as a measure of the pumping efficiency of the heart and is used to classify heart failure types	Ejection fraction
3,696	In cardiovascular physiology, end-diastolic volume (EDV) is the volume of blood in the right or left ventricle at end of filling in diastole which is amount of blood present in ventricle at the end of diastole. Because greater EDVs cause greater distention of the ventricle, EDV is often used synonymously with preload, which refers to the length of the sarcomeres in cardiac muscle prior to contraction (systole). An increase in EDV increases the preload on the heart and, through the Frank-Starling mechanism of the heart, increases the amount of blood ejected from the ventricle during systole (stroke volume)	End-diastolic volume
3,697	End-systolic volume (ESV) is the volume of blood in a ventricle at the end of contraction, or systole, and the beginning of filling, or diastole. ESV is the lowest volume of blood in the ventricle at any point in the cardiac cycle. The main factors that affect the end-systolic volume are afterload and the contractility of the heart	End-systolic volume
3,698	An exudate is a fluid emitted by an organism through pores or a wound, a process known as exuding or exudation. Exudate is derived from exude 'to ooze' from Latin exsūdāre 'to (ooze out) sweat' (ex- 'out' and sūdāre 'to sweat'). Medicine An exudate is any fluid that filters from the circulatory system into lesions or areas of inflammation	Exudate
3,699	The Fåhræus effect is the decrease in average concentration of red blood cells in human blood as the diameter of the glass tube in which it is flowing decreases. In other words, in blood vessels with diameters less than 500 micrometers, the hematocrit decreases with decreasing capillary diameter. The Fåhræus effect definitely influences the Fåhræus–Lindqvist effect, which describes the dependence of apparent viscosity of blood on the capillary size, but the former is not the only cause of the latter	Fåhræus effect

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In biomechanics, center of pressure (CoP) is the term given to the point of application of the ground reaction force vector. The ground reaction force vector represents the sum of all forces acting between a physical object and its supporting surface. Analysis of the center of pressure is common in studies on human postural control and gait

Center of pressure (terrestrial locomotion)

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Cometabolism is defined as the simultaneous degradation of two compounds, in which the degradation of the second compound (the secondary substrate) depends on the presence of the first compound (the primary substrate). This is in contrast to simultaneous catabolism, where each substrate is catabolized concomitantly by different enzymes. Cometabolism occurs when an enzyme produced by an organism to catalyze the degradation of its growth-substrate to derive energy and carbon from it is also capable of degrading additional compounds

Cometabolism

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The core or trunk is the axial (central) part of an organism's body. In common parlance, the term is broadly considered to be synonymous with the torso, but academically it also includes the head and neck. Functional movements are highly dependent on this part of the body, and lack of core muscular development can result in a predisposition to injury

Core (anatomy)

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In fluid mechanics, dynamic similarity is the phenomenon that when there are two geometrically similar vessels (same shape, different sizes) with the same boundary conditions (e. g. , no-slip, center-line velocity) and the same Reynolds and Womersley numbers, then the fluid flows will be identical

Dynamic similarity (Reynolds and Womersley numbers)

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Ecomechanics is a biomechanic scientific discipline studying the mechanisms underlying organisms' interactions with their environment. It incorporates elements of ecology and comparative physiology, as an outgrowth of biomechanics. The term was originally coined by Dr

Ecomechanics

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An endoskeleton (From Greek ἔνδον, éndon = "within", "inner" + σκελετός, skeletos = "skeleton") is an internal support structure of an animal, composed of mineralized tissue. Overview An endoskeleton is a skeleton that is on the inside of a body, like humans, dogs, or some fish. The endoskeleton develops within the skin or in the deeper body tissues

Endoskeleton

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An exoskeleton (from Greek έξω éxō "outer" and σκελετός skeletós "skeleton") is an external skeleton that supports and protects an animal's body, in contrast to an internal skeleton (endoskeleton) in for example, a human. Some large exoskeletons are known as "shells". Examples of exoskeletons within animals include the arthropod exoskeleton shared by chelicerates, myriapods, crustaceans, and insects, as well as the shell of certain sponges and the mollusc shell shared by snails, clams, tusk shells, chitons, and nautilus

Exoskeleton

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Flapping counter-torque is a ubiquitous passive rotational damping effect in flapping flight that arises from world frame differences in the speed of flapping wings during turns. During a turns, flapping that is symmetrical (in velocity and speed) in the body frame of the animal is not symmetrical (in velocity or speed) in the lab frame. During such turns, the wings travel at different speeds (despite no change to local velocity from the perspective of the flapping animal or machine)

Flapping counter-torque

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Force platforms or force plates are measuring instruments that measure the ground reaction forces generated by a body standing on or moving across them, to quantify balance, gait and other parameters of biomechanics. Most common areas of application are medicine and sports. Operation The simplest force platform is a plate with a single pedestal, instrumented as a load cell

Force platform

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Forensic biomechanics is the application of biomechanical engineering science to litigation where biomechanical experts determine whether an accident was the cause of an alleged injury. (See "New York State Bar Association Bar Journal November/December 2010 - The Rise of Biomechanical Experts at Trial by Robert Glick, Esq. and Sean O'Loughlin, Esq

Forensic biomechanics

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Functional movements are movements based on real-world situational biomechanics. They usually involve multi-planar, multi-joint movements which place demand on the body's core musculature and innervation. Functional vs other movements Sports-specific Sports-specific movements, such as a tennis swing or bowling a cricket ball, are based on sports-specific situations

Functional movement

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A functional spinal unit (FSU) (or motion segment) is the smallest physiological motion unit of the spine to exhibit biomechanical characteristics similar to those of the entire spine. A FSU consists of two adjacent vertebrae, the intervertebral disc and all adjoining ligaments between them and excludes other connecting tissues such as muscles. The three-joint complex that results is sometimes referred to as the "articular triad"

Functional spinal unit

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Yuan-Cheng "Bert" Fung (September 15, 1919 – December 15, 2019) was a Chinese-American bioengineer and writer. He is regarded as a founding figure of bioengineering, tissue engineering, and the "Founder of Modern Biomechanics". Biography Fung was born in Jiangsu Province, China in 1919

Yuan-Cheng Fung

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A gait is a manner of limb movements made during locomotion. Human gaits are the various ways in which humans can move, either naturally or as a result of specialized training. Human gait is defined as bipedal forward propulsion of the center of gravity of the human body, in which there are sinuous movements of different segments of the body with little energy spent

Gait (human)

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Gray's Paradox is a paradox posed in 1936 by British zoologist Sir James Gray. The paradox was to figure out how dolphins can obtain such high speeds and accelerations with what appears to be a small muscle mass. Gray made an estimate of the power a dolphin could exert based on its physiology, and concluded the power was insufficient to overcome the drag forces in water

Gray's paradox

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In physics, and in particular in biomechanics, the ground reaction force (GRF) is the force exerted by the ground on a body in contact with it. For example, a person standing motionless on the ground exerts a contact force on it (equal to the person's weight) and at the same time an equal and opposite ground reaction force is exerted by the ground on the person. In the above example, the ground reaction force coincides with the notion of a normal force

Ground reaction force

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In biomechanics, Hill's muscle model refers to the 3-element model consisting of a contractile element (CE) in series with a lightly-damped elastic spring element (SE) and in parallel with lightly-damped elastic parallel element (PE). Within this model, the estimated force-velocity relation for the CE element is usually modeled by what is commonly called Hill's equation, which was based on careful experiments involving tetanized muscle contraction where various muscle loads and associated velocities were measured. They were derived by the famous physiologist Archibald Vivian Hill, who by 1938 when he introduced this model and equation had already won the Nobel Prize for Physiology

Hill's muscle model

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In baseball, hitting mechanics studies the biomechanical motion that governs the swing of a baseball player. The goal of biomechanics in hitting during baseball training is to study and improve upon the physics involved in hitting. This includes optimizing a player's swing for either maximizing their "bat speed" or time for plate coverage

Hitting mechanics

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The evolution of human bipedalism, which began in primates approximately four million years ago, or as early as seven million years ago with Sahelanthropus, or approximately twelve million years ago with Danuvius guggenmosi, has led to morphological alterations to the human skeleton including changes to the arrangement, shape, and size of the bones of the foot, hip, knee, leg, and the vertebral column. These changes allowed for the upright gait to be overall more energy efficient in comparison to quadrupeds. The evolutionary factors that produced these changes have been the subject of several theories that correspond with environmental changes on a global scale

Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism

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Patria Anne Hume is a New Zealand sports biomechanics academic. She is currently a full-time Professor of Human Performance at the Auckland University of Technology Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ) at AUT Millennium. Hume represented New Zealand in rhythmic gymnastics for six years, before coaching gymnasts who won medals at the 1990 Commonwealth Games

Patria Hume

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A hydrostatic skeleton, or hydroskeleton, is a flexible skeleton supported by fluid pressure. Hydrostatic skeletons are common among simple invertebrate organisms. While more advanced organisms can be considered hydrostatic, they are sometimes referred to as hydrostatic for their possession of a hydrostatic organ instead of a hydrostatic skeleton

Hydrostatic skeleton

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IMeasureU (IMU) is a wearable technology company. They make inertial measurement unit that analyze running movements and other body movements in elite sports. They combine the sensor data with computational models to accurately model human body movement

I Measure U

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Iatromathematicians (from Greek ἰατρική "medicine" and μαθηματικά "mathematics") were a school of physicians in 17th-century Italy who tried to apply the laws of mathematics and mechanics in order to understand the functioning of the human body. They were also keen students of anatomy. These iatromathematicians made an effort to prove that applying a purely mechanical conception to the study of the human body is futile

Iatromathematicians

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The International Society of Biomechanics, commonly known as the ISB, is a society dedicated to promoting biomechanics in its various forms. It promotes the study of all areas of biomechanics at the international level, although special emphasis is given to the biomechanics of human movement. The Society encourages international contacts amongst scientists, promotes the dissemination of knowledge, and forms liaisons with national organizations

International Society of Biomechanics

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Caitríona Lally is a professor of Bioengineering in Trinity College, Dublin. She has been a qualified mechanical engineer since 1997. She did a PhD in cardiovascular biomechanics

Caitríona Lally

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The Lattice Boltzmann methods for solids (LBMS) are a set of methods for solving partial differential equations (PDE) in solid mechanics. The methods use a discretization of the Boltzmann equation(BM), and their use is known as the lattice Boltzmann methods for solids. LBMS methods are categorized by their reliance on: Vectorial distributions Wave solvers Force tuningThe LBMS subset remains highly challenging from a computational aspect as much as from a theoretical point of view

Lattice Boltzmann methods for solids

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Limits of Stability (LoS) are a concept in balance and stability, defined as the points at which the center of gravity (CoG) approaches the limits of the base of support (BoS) and requires a corrective strategy to bring the center of mass (CoM) back within the BoS. In simpler terms, LoS represents the maximum distance an individual can intentionally sway in any direction without losing balance or needing to take a step. The typical range of stable swaying is approximately 12

Limits of stability

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In the field of biomechanics, the lines of non-extension are notional lines running across the human body along which body movement causes neither stretching or contraction. Discovered by Arthur Iberall in work beginning in the 1940s, as part of research into space suit design, they have been further developed by Dava Newman in the development of the Space Activity Suit. They were originally mapped by Iberall by drawing a series of circles over a portion of the body and then watching their deformations as the wearer walked around or performed various tasks

Lines of non-extension

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Locomotor effects of shoes are the way in which the physical characteristics or components of shoes influence the locomotion neuromechanics of a person. Depending on the characteristics of the shoes, the effects are various, ranging from alteration in balance and posture, muscle activity of different muscles as measured by electromyography (EMG), and the impact force. There are many different types of shoes that exist, such as running, walking, loafers, high heels, sandals, slippers, work boots, dress shoes, and many more

Locomotor effects of shoes

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The mechanics of human sexuality or mechanics of sex, or more formally the biomechanics of human sexuality, is the study of the mechanics related to human sexual activity. Examples of topics include the biomechanical study of the strength of vaginal tissues and the biomechanics of male erectile function. The mechanics of sex under limit circumstances, such as sexual activity at zero-gravity in outer space, are also being studied

Mechanics of human sexuality

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The mechanics of the running blades used by South African former Paralympic runner Oscar Pistorius depend on special carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer prosthetics. Pistorius has double below-the-knee amputations and competed in both non-disabled and T44 amputee athletics events. Pistorius's eligibility to run in international non-disabled events is sanctioned by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF)

Mechanics of Oscar Pistorius's running blades

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The mechanome[1] consists of the body, or ome, of data including cell and molecular processes relating to force and mechanical systems at molecular, cellular and tissue length scales - the fundamental "machine code" structures of the cell. The mechanome encompasses biological motors, like kinesin, myosin, RNAP, and Ribosome mechanical structures, like actin or the cytoskeleton and also proteomic and genomic components that are mechanosensitive and are involved in the response of cells to externally applied force. A definition of the "Mechanome" extending to cell/organ/body given by Prof

Mechanome

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In biomechanics, the Moens–Korteweg equation models the relationship between wave speed or pulse wave velocity (PWV) and the incremental elastic modulus of the arterial wall or its distensibility. The equation was derived independently by Adriaan Isebree Moens and Diederik Korteweg. It is derived from Newton's second law of motion, using some simplifying assumptions, and reads: P W V = E inc ⋅ h 2 r ρ {\displaystyle PWV={\sqrt {\dfrac {E_{\text{inc}}\cdot h}{2r\rho }}}} The Moens–Korteweg equation states that PWV is proportional to the square root of the incremental elastic modulus, (Einc), of the vessel wall given constant ratio of wall thickness, h, to vessel radius, r, and blood density, ρ, assuming that the artery wall is isotropic and experiences isovolumetric change with pulse pressure

Moens–Korteweg equation

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Movement assessment is the practice of analysing movement performance during functional tasks to determine the kinematics of individual joints and their effect on the kinetic chain. Three-dimensional or two-dimensional analysis of the biomechanics involved in sporting tasks can assist in prevention of injury and enhancing athletic performance. Identification of abnormal movement mechanics provides physical therapists and Athletic trainers the ability to prescribe more accurate corrective exercise programs to prevent injury and improve exercise rehabilitation and progression following injury and assist in determining readiness to return to sport

Movement assessment

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A muscular hydrostat is a biological structure found in animals. It is used to manipulate items (including food) or to move its host about and consists mainly of muscles with no skeletal support. It performs its hydraulic movement without fluid in a separate compartment, as in a hydrostatic skeleton

Muscular hydrostat

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Nanobiomechanics (also bionanomechanics) is an emerging field in nanoscience and biomechanics that combines the powerful tools of nanomechanics to explore fundamental science of biomaterials and biomechanics. Since the introduction by its founder Yuan-Cheng Fung, the field of biomechanics has become one of the branches of mechanics and bioscience. For many years, biomechanics has examined tissue

Nanobiomechanics

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Neuro Biomechanics is based upon the research of bioengineering researchers, neuro-surgery, orthopedic surgery and biomechanists. Neuro Biomechanics are utilized by neurosurgeons, orthopedic surgeons and primarily by integrated physical medicine practitioners. Practitioners are focused on aiding people in the restoration of biomechanics of the skeletal system in order to measurably improve nervous system function, health, function, quality of life, reduce pain and the progression of degenerative joint and disc disease

Neuro biomechanics

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The neutral body posture (NBP) is the posture the human body naturally assumes in microgravity. Adopting any other posture while floating requires muscular effort. In the 1980s, NASA developed the Man-System Integration Standards (MSIS), a set of guidelines based on anthropometry and biomechanics, which included a definition of an average typical NBP created from measurements of crew members in the microgravity environment onboard Skylab

Neutral body posture

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OpenSim is an open source software system for biomechanical modeling, simulation and analysis. Its purpose is to provide free and widely accessible tools for conducting biomechanics research and motor control science. OpenSim enables a wide range of studies, including analysis of walking dynamics, studies of sports performance, simulations of surgical procedures, analysis of joint loads, design of medical devices, and animation of human and animal movement

OpenSim (simulation toolkit)

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The overhand (or overhead) throw is a single-handed throw of a projectile where the object is thrown above the shoulder. The overhand throw is a complex motor skill that involves the entire body in a series of linked movements starting from the legs, progressing up through the pelvis and trunk, and culminating in a ballistic motion in the arm that propels a projectile forward. It is used almost exclusively in athletic events

Overhand throw

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Pedobarography is the study of pressure fields acting between the plantar surface of the foot and a supporting surface. Used most often for biomechanical analysis of gait and posture, pedobarography is employed in a wide range of applications including sports biomechanics and gait biometrics. The term 'pedobarography' is derived from the Latin: pedes, referring to the foot (as in: pedometer, pedestrian, etc

Pedobarography

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The physics of skiing refers to the analysis of the forces acting on a person while skiing. The motion of a skier is determined by the physical principles of the conservation of energy and the frictional forces acting on the body. For example, in downhill skiing, as the skier is accelerated down the hill by the force of gravity, their gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic energy, the energy of motion

Physics of skiing

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Several organisms are capable of rolling locomotion. However, true wheels and propellers—despite their utility in human vehicles—do not seem to play a significant role in the movement of living things (with the exception of certain flagella, which work like corkscrews). Biologists have offered several explanations for the apparent absence of biological wheels, and wheeled creatures have appeared often in speculative fiction

Rotating locomotion in living systems

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Sauropod neck posture is a subject occasionally debated among scientists, with some favoring postures closer to horizontal whilst others a more upright posture. Research has looked at various avenues of evidence and analysis including: attempting to reconstruct the neutral posture of their necks and estimating range of motion by studying the bones; attempting to reconstruct sauropod metabolism and the energy requirements of sustaining incredibly long necks in various postures; and comparing sauropod neck anatomy to those of living animals. Biomechanics The biomechanics of sauropod skeletons and necks can help determine at what angle the neck was positioned

Sauropod neck posture

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The serape effect is a rotational trunk movement that increases the power output of the human body. It is trained in sports that involve rotation of the torso, such as boxing and discus throwing. The muscles involved in the serape effect are stretched and then snap-back with increased strength

Serape effect

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In baseball, sidearm is a motion for throwing a ball along a low, approximately horizontal plane rather than a high, mostly vertical plane (overhand). Sidearm is a common way of throwing the ball in the infield, because many throws must be made hurriedly from the glove after fielding ground balls. An infielder's quickest throw to the bases is often from just above ground level, necessitating a horizontal release of the ball

Sidearm (baseball)

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Soft tissue is all the tissue in the body that is not hardened by the processes of ossification or calcification such as bones and teeth. Soft tissue connects, surrounds or supports internal organs and bones, and includes muscle, tendons, ligaments, fat, fibrous tissue, lymph and blood vessels, fasciae, and synovial membranes. It is sometimes defined by what it is not – such as "nonepithelial, extraskeletal mesenchyme exclusive of the reticuloendothelial system and glia"

Soft tissue

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In baseball, a submarine is a pitch in which the ball is released often just above the ground, but not underhanded, with the torso bent at a right angle, and shoulders tilted so severely that they rotate around a nearly horizontal axis. This is in stark contrast to the underhand softball pitch in which the torso remains upright, the shoulders are level, and the hips do not rotate. Description The "upside down" release of the submariner causes balls to move differently from pitches generated by other arm slots

Submarine (baseball)

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Adrian Leland Rees Thomas (born 1963) is a professor of biomechanics at the University of Oxford and Director of Studies in Biological Sciences at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford running the Animal Flight Research Group. He is co-founder and Chief Scientific Officer at Animal Dynamics and is also chairman of the flight section of the Bionis International Biomimetics Network. Education Thomas was educated at Abingdon School and studied zoology at Oxford as an undergraduate from 1981 to 1984

Adrian Thomas (zoologist)

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Throwing is an action which consists in accelerating a projectile and then releasing it so that it follows a ballistic trajectory, usually with the aim of impacting a remote target. This action is best characterized for animals with prehensile limbs: in this case the projectile is grasped, while the limb segments impart a motion of the hand through compounded mechanical advantage. For other animals, the definition of throwing is somewhat unclear, as other actions such as spitting or spraying may or may not be included

Throwing

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The Tinetti Test (TT), or Performance Oriented Mobility Assessment (POMA) is a common clinical test for assessing a person's static and dynamic balance abilities. It is named after one of the inventors, Mary Tinetti. The test is in two short sections that contain one examining static balance abilities in a chair and then standing, and the other gait

Tinetti test

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The Womersley number ( α {\displaystyle \alpha } or Wo {\displaystyle {\text{Wo}}} ) is a dimensionless number in biofluid mechanics and biofluid dynamics. It is a dimensionless expression of the pulsatile flow frequency in relation to viscous effects. It is named after John R

Womersley number

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The work loop technique is used in muscle physiology to evaluate the mechanical work and power output of skeletal or cardiac muscle contractions via in vitro muscle testing of whole muscles, fiber bundles or single muscle fibers. This technique is primarily used for cyclical contractions such as cockroach walking. , the rhythmic flapping of bird wings or the beating of heart ventricular muscle

Work loop

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Biomineralization, also written biomineralisation, is the process by which living organisms produce minerals, often to harden or stiffen existing tissues. Such tissues are called mineralized tissues. It is an extremely widespread phenomenon; all six taxonomic kingdoms contain members that are able to form minerals, and over 60 different minerals have been identified in organisms

Biomineralization

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Biocrystallization is the formation of crystals from organic macromolecules by living organisms. This may be a stress response, a normal part of metabolism such as processes that dispose of waste compounds, or a pathology. Template mediated crystallization is qualitatively different from in vitro crystallization

Biocrystallization

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A biointerface is the region of contact between a biomolecule, cell, biological tissue or living organism or organic material considered living with another biomaterial or inorganic/organic material. The motivation for biointerface science stems from the urgent need to increase the understanding of interactions between biomolecules and surfaces. The behavior of complex macromolecular systems at materials interfaces are important in the fields of biology, biotechnology, diagnostics, and medicine

Biointerface

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Biomineralising polychaetes are polychaetes that produce minerals to harden or stiffen their own tissues (biomineralize). The most important biomineralizing polychaetes are serpulids, sabellids and cirratulids. They secrete tubes of calcium carbonate

Biomineralising polychaete

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Calcification is the accumulation of calcium salts in a body tissue. It normally occurs in the formation of bone, but calcium can be deposited abnormally in soft tissue, causing it to harden. Calcifications may be classified on whether there is mineral balance or not, and the location of the calcification

Calcification

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Diatomaceous earth ( DY-ə-tə-MAY-shəs), diatomite ( dy-AT-ə-myte), celite or kieselgur/kieselguhr is a naturally occurring, soft, siliceous sedimentary rock that can be crumbled into a fine white to off-white powder. It has a particle size ranging from more than 3 mm to less than 1 μm, but typically 10 to 200 μm. Depending on the granularity, this powder can have an abrasive feel, similar to pumice powder, and has a low density as a result of its high porosity

Diatomaceous earth

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Enamelin is an enamel matrix protein (EMPs), that in humans is encoded by the ENAM gene. It is part of the non-amelogenins, which comprise 10% of the total enamel matrix proteins. It is one of the key proteins thought to be involved in amelogenesis (enamel development)

Enamelin

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Magnetotactic bacteria (or MTB) are a polyphyletic group of bacteria that orient themselves along the magnetic field lines of Earth's magnetic field. Discovered in 1963 by Salvatore Bellini and rediscovered in 1975 by Richard Blakemore, this alignment is believed to aid these organisms in reaching regions of optimal oxygen concentration. To perform this task, these bacteria have organelles called magnetosomes that contain magnetic crystals

Magnetotactic bacteria

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Marine biogenic calcification is the process by which marine organisms such as oysters and clams form calcium carbonate. Seawater is full of dissolved compounds, ions and nutrients that organisms can use for energy and, in the case of calcification, to build shells and outer structures. Calcifying organisms in the ocean include molluscs, foraminifera, coccolithophores, crustaceans, echinoderms such as sea urchins, and corals

Marine biogenic calcification

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Mineralized tissues are biological tissues that incorporate minerals into soft matrices. Typically these tissues form a protective shield or structural support. Bone, mollusc shells, deep sea sponge Euplectella species, radiolarians, diatoms, antler bone, tendon, cartilage, tooth enamel and dentin are some examples of mineralized tissues

Mineralized tissues

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Many protists have protective shells or tests, usually made from silica (glass) or calcium carbonate (chalk). Protists are a diverse group of eukaryote organisms that are not plants, animals, or fungi. They are typically microscopic unicellular organisms that live in water or moist environments

Protist shell

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Silicon isotope biogeochemistry is the study of environmental processes using the relative abundance of Si isotopes. As the relative abundance of Si stable isotopes varies among different natural materials, the differences in abundance can be used to trace the source of Si, and to study biological, geological, and chemical processes. The study of stable isotope biogeochemistry of Si aims to quantify the different Si fluxes in the global biogeochemical silicon cycle, to understand the role of biogenic silica within the global Si cycle, and to investigate the applications and limitations of the sedimentary Si record as an environmental and palaeoceanographic proxy

Silicon isotope biogeochemistry

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Sustainable agriculture is farming in sustainable ways meeting society's present food and textile needs, without compromising the ability for current or future generations to meet their needs. It can be based on an understanding of ecosystem services. There are many methods to increase the sustainability of agriculture

Sustainable agriculture

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A bioactive compound is a compound that has an effect on a living organism, tissue or cell, usually demonstrated by basic research in vitro or in vivo in the laboratory. While dietary nutrients are essential to life, bioactive compounds have not been proved to be essential – as the body can function without them – or because their actions are obscured by nutrients fulfilling the function. Bioactive compounds lack sufficient evidence of effect or safety, and consequently they are usually unregulated and may be sold as dietary supplements

Bioactive compound

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Cardiovascular physiology is the study of the cardiovascular system, specifically addressing the physiology of the heart ("cardio") and blood vessels ("vascular"). These subjects are sometimes addressed separately, under the names cardiac physiology and circulatory physiology. Although the different aspects of cardiovascular physiology are closely interrelated, the subject is still usually divided into several subtopics

Cardiovascular physiology

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Afterload is the pressure that the heart must work against to eject blood during systole (ventricular contraction). Afterload is proportional to the average arterial pressure. As aortic and pulmonary pressures increase, the afterload increases on the left and right ventricles respectively

Afterload

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The ankle-brachial pressure index (ABPI) or ankle-brachial index (ABI) is the ratio of the blood pressure at the ankle to the blood pressure in the upper arm (brachium). Compared to the arm, lower blood pressure in the leg suggests blocked arteries due to peripheral artery disease (PAD). The ABPI is calculated by dividing the systolic blood pressure at the ankle by the systolic blood pressure in the arm

Ankle–brachial pressure index

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An artery (PL: arteries) (from Greek ἀρτηρία (artēríā) 'windpipe, artery') is a blood vessel in humans and most animals that takes blood away from the heart to one or more parts of the body (tissues, lungs, brain etc. ). Most arteries carry oxygenated blood; the two exceptions are the pulmonary and the umbilical arteries, which carry deoxygenated blood to the organs that oxygenate it (lungs and placenta, respectively)

Artery

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The Bainbridge reflex or Bainbridge effect, also called the atrial reflex, is an increase in heart rate due to an increase in central venous pressure. Increased blood volume is detected by stretch receptors (Cardiac Receptors) located in both sides of atria at the venoatrial junctions. History Francis Arthur Bainbridge described this as a reflex in 1918 when he was experimenting on dogs

Bainbridge reflex

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The baroreflex orbaroreceptor reflex is one of the body's homeostatic mechanisms that helps to maintain blood pressure at nearly constant levels. The baroreflex provides a rapid negative feedback loop in which an elevated blood pressure causes the heart rate to decrease. Decreased blood pressure decreases baroreflex activation and causes heart rate to increase and to restore blood pressure levels

Baroreflex

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Bathmotropic often refers to modifying the degree of excitability specifically of the heart; in general, it refers to modification of the degree of excitability (threshold of excitation) of musculature in general, including the heart. It especially is used to describe the effects of the cardiac nerves on cardiac excitability. Positive bathmotropic effects increase the response of muscle to stimulation, whereas negative bathmotropic effects decrease the response of muscle to stimulation

Bathmotropic

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Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure of circulating blood against the walls of blood vessels. Most of this pressure results from the heart pumping blood through the circulatory system. When used without qualification, the term "blood pressure" refers to the pressure in a brachial artery, where it is most commonly measured

Blood pressure

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Blood volume (volemia) is the volume of blood (blood cells and plasma) in the circulatory system of any individual. Humans A typical adult has a blood volume of approximately 5 liters, with females and males having approximately the same blood percentage by weight (approx 7 to 8%) Blood volume is regulated by the kidneys. Blood volume (BV) can be calculated given the hematocrit (HC; the fraction of blood that is red blood cells) and plasma volume (PV), with the hematocrit being regulated via the blood oxygen content regulator: B V = P V 1 − H C {\displaystyle BV={\frac {PV}{1-HC}}} Blood volume measurement may be used in people with congestive heart failure, chronic hypertension, kidney failure and critical care

Blood volume

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Capillary refill time (CRT) is defined as the time taken for color to return to an external capillary bed after pressure is applied to cause blanching. It can be measured by holding a hand higher than heart-level and pressing the soft pad of a finger or fingernail until it turns white, then taking note of the time needed for the color to return once pressure is released. In humans, CRT of more than three seconds indicates decreased peripheral perfusion and may indicate cardiovascular or respiratory dysfunction

Capillary refill

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The cardiac cycle is the performance of the human heart from the beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of the next. It consists of two periods: one during which the heart muscle relaxes and refills with blood, called diastole, following a period of robust contraction and pumping of blood, called systole. After emptying, the heart relaxes and expands to receive another influx of blood returning from the lungs and other systems of the body, before again contracting to pump blood to the lungs and those systems

Cardiac cycle

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A cardiac function curve is a graph showing the relationship between right atrial pressure (x-axis) and cardiac output (y-axis). Superimposition of the cardiac function curve and venous return curve is used in one hemodynamic model. Shape of curve It shows a steep relationship at relatively low filling pressures and a plateau, where further stretch is not possible and so increases in pressure have little effect on output

Cardiac function curve

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Cardiac index (CI) is a haemodynamic parameter that relates the cardiac output (CO) from left ventricle in one minute to body surface area (BSA), thus relating heart performance to the size of the individual. The unit of measurement is litres per minute per square metre (L/min/m2). Calculation The index is usually calculated using the following formula: CI = CO BSA = SV × HR BSA {\displaystyle {\text{CI}}={\frac {\text{CO}}{\text{BSA}}}={\frac {{\text{SV}}\times {\text{HR}}}{\text{BSA}}}} where CI Cardiac index BSA Body surface area SV Stroke volume HR Heart rate CO Cardiac output Clinical significance The normal range of cardiac index at rest is 2

Cardiac index

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In cardiac physiology, cardiac output (CO), also known as heart output and often denoted by the symbols Q {\displaystyle Q} , Q ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}} , or Q ˙ c {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}_{c}} , is the volumetric flow rate of the heart's pumping output: that is, the volume of blood being pumped by a single ventricle of the heart, per unit time (usually measured per minute). Cardiac output (CO) is the product of the heart rate (HR), i. e

Cardiac output

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Cardiac reserve refers to the difference between the rates at which the heart pumps blood - at any given time versus its maximum capacity. A measurement of the cardiac reserve may be a health indicator for some medical conditions. Cardiac reserve may be 4-5 times greater than a resting value for a healthy person

Cardiac reserve

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Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) refers to the ability of the circulatory and respiratory systems to supply oxygen to skeletal muscles during sustained physical activity. Scientists and researchers use CRF to assess the functional capacity of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. These functions include ventilation, perfusion, gas exchange, vasodilation, and delivery of oxygen to the body's tissues

Cardiorespiratory fitness

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The cardiovascular centre is a part of the human brain which regulates heart rate through the nervous and endocrine systems. It is considered one of the vital centres of the medulla oblongata. Structure The cardiovascular centre, or cardiovascular center, is part of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem

Cardiovascular centre

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Cardiovascular fitness refers a health-related component of physical fitness that is brought about by sustained physical activity. A person's ability to deliver oxygen to the working muscles is affected by many physiological parameters, including heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, and maximal oxygen consumption. Understanding the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and other categories of conditioning requires a review of changes that occur with increased aerobic, or anaerobic capacity

Cardiovascular fitness

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Central venous pressure (CVP) is the blood pressure in the venae cavae, near the right atrium of the heart. CVP reflects the amount of blood returning to the heart and the ability of the heart to pump the blood back into the arterial system. CVP is often a good approximation of right atrial pressure (RAP), although the two terms are not identical, as a pressure differential can sometimes exist between the venae cavae and the right atrium

Central venous pressure

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Cerebral hyperperfusion syndrome, also known as reperfusion syndrome, is a dysregulated state of cerebral blood flow following the restoration of arterial blood flow to the brain, usually following treatment of carotid artery stenosis. Risk factors include hypertension, particularly high blood pressures in the first few days following revascularization and bilateral stenosis. Symptoms The first symptom is usually severe headache, and a headache in the setting of recent carotid endarterectomy or carotid stenting should prompt a return to the hospital and close attention by clinicians

Cerebral hyperperfusion syndrome

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Chronotropic effects (from chrono-, meaning time, and tropos, "a turn") are those that change the heart rate. Chronotropic drugs may change the heart rate and rhythm by affecting the electrical conduction system of the heart and the nerves that influence it, such as by changing the rhythm produced by the sinoatrial node. Positive chronotropes increase heart rate; negative chronotropes decrease heart rate

Chronotropic

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Compliance is the ability of a hollow organ (vessel) to distend and increase volume with increasing transmural pressure or the tendency of a hollow organ to resist recoil toward its original dimensions on application of a distending or compressing force. It is the reciprocal of "elastance", hence elastance is a measure of the tendency of a hollow organ to recoil toward its original dimensions upon removal of a distending or compressing force. Blood vessels The terms elastance and compliance are of particular significance in cardiovascular physiology and respiratory physiology

Compliance (physiology)

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Coronary perfusion pressure (CPP) refers to the pressure gradient that drives coronary blood pressure. The heart's function is to perfuse blood to the body; however, the heart's own myocardium (heart muscle) must, itself, be supplied for its own muscle function. The heart is supplied by coronary vessels, and therefore CPP is the blood pressure within those vessels

Coronary perfusion pressure

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Cushing reflex (also referred to as the vasopressor response, the Cushing effect, the Cushing reaction, the Cushing phenomenon, the Cushing response, or Cushing's Law) is a physiological nervous system response to increased intracranial pressure (ICP) that results in Cushing's triad of increased blood pressure, irregular breathing, and bradycardia. It is usually seen in the terminal stages of acute head injury and may indicate imminent brain herniation. It can also be seen after the intravenous administration of epinephrine and similar drugs

Cushing reflex

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The diving reflex, also known as the diving response and mammalian diving reflex, is a set of physiological responses to immersion that overrides the basic homeostatic reflexes, and is found in all air-breathing vertebrates studied to date. It optimizes respiration by preferentially distributing oxygen stores to the heart and brain, enabling submersion for an extended time. The diving reflex is exhibited strongly in aquatic mammals, such as seals, otters, dolphins, and muskrats, and exists as a lesser response in other animals, including human babies up to 6 months old (see infant swimming), and diving birds, such as ducks and penguins

Diving reflex

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The term dromotropic derives from the Greek word δρόμος drómos, meaning "running", a course, a race. A dromotropic agent is one which affects the conduction speed (in fact the magnitude of delay) in the AV node, and subsequently the rate of electrical impulses in the heart. Positive dromotropy increases conduction velocity (e

Dromotropic

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The E/A ratio is a marker of the function of the left ventricle of the heart. It represents the ratio of peak velocity blood flow from left ventricular relaxation in early diastole (the E wave) to peak velocity flow in late diastole caused by atrial contraction (the A wave). It is calculated using Doppler echocardiography, an ultrasound-based cardiac imaging modality

E/A ratio

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The effective circulating volume (ECV) is the volume of arterial blood effectively perfusing tissue. ECV is a dynamic quantity and not a measurable, distinct compartment. This concept is useful for discussion of cardiovascular and renal physiology

Effective circulating volume

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An ejection fraction (EF) is the volumetric fraction (or portion of the total) of fluid (usually blood) ejected from a chamber (usually the heart) with each contraction (or heartbeat). It can refer to the cardiac atrium, ventricle, gall bladder, or leg veins, although if unspecified it usually refers to the left ventricle of the heart. EF is widely used as a measure of the pumping efficiency of the heart and is used to classify heart failure types

Ejection fraction

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In cardiovascular physiology, end-diastolic volume (EDV) is the volume of blood in the right or left ventricle at end of filling in diastole which is amount of blood present in ventricle at the end of diastole. Because greater EDVs cause greater distention of the ventricle, EDV is often used synonymously with preload, which refers to the length of the sarcomeres in cardiac muscle prior to contraction (systole). An increase in EDV increases the preload on the heart and, through the Frank-Starling mechanism of the heart, increases the amount of blood ejected from the ventricle during systole (stroke volume)

End-diastolic volume

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End-systolic volume (ESV) is the volume of blood in a ventricle at the end of contraction, or systole, and the beginning of filling, or diastole. ESV is the lowest volume of blood in the ventricle at any point in the cardiac cycle. The main factors that affect the end-systolic volume are afterload and the contractility of the heart

End-systolic volume

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An exudate is a fluid emitted by an organism through pores or a wound, a process known as exuding or exudation. Exudate is derived from exude 'to ooze' from Latin exsūdāre 'to (ooze out) sweat' (ex- 'out' and sūdāre 'to sweat'). Medicine An exudate is any fluid that filters from the circulatory system into lesions or areas of inflammation

Exudate

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The Fåhræus effect is the decrease in average concentration of red blood cells in human blood as the diameter of the glass tube in which it is flowing decreases. In other words, in blood vessels with diameters less than 500 micrometers, the hematocrit decreases with decreasing capillary diameter. The Fåhræus effect definitely influences the Fåhræus–Lindqvist effect, which describes the dependence of apparent viscosity of blood on the capillary size, but the former is not the only cause of the latter

Fåhræus effect