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8,000 | Albert Tangora (July 2, 1903 – April 7, 1978) set the world speed record for sustained typing on a manual keyboard for one hour, 147 words per minute, on October 22, 1923. After a rest period, he typed 159 words in a one-minute "sprint. " The machine was an Underwood Standard, with a QWERTY keyboard | Albert Tangora |
8,001 | Touch typing (also called blind typing, or touch keyboarding) is a style of typing. Although the phrase refers to typing without using the sense of sight to find the keys—specifically, a touch typist will know their location on the keyboard through muscle memory—the term is often used to refer to a specific form of touch typing that involves placing the eight fingers in a horizontal row along the middle of the keyboard (the home row) and having them reach for specific other keys. (Under this usage, typists who do not look at the keyboard but do not use home row either are referred to as hybrid typists | Touch typing |
8,002 | Typeahead is a feature of computers and software (and some typewriters) that enables users to continue typing regardless of program or computer operation—the user may type in whatever speed is desired, and if the receiving software is busy at the time it will be called to handle this later. Often this means that keystrokes entered will not be displayed on the screen immediately. This programming technique for handling uses what is known as a keyboard buffer | Typeahead |
8,003 | Typing Day (also known as International Typing Day or World Typing Day) is an annual event that falls on 8 January in Malaysia. It is co-organized by the STC (Speed Typing Contest) Team from JCI (Junior Chamber International) Mines and Team TAC (Typo Auto Corrector) to promote speed, accuracy and efficiency in written communication among the public.
Origination
Typing Day was conceptualized in Malaysia and falls yearly on the 8th of January | Typing Day |
8,004 | A typographical error (often shortened to typo), also called a misprint, is a mistake (such as a spelling or transposition error) made in the typing of printed or electronic material. Historically, this referred to mistakes in manual typesetting. Technically, the term includes errors due to mechanical failure or slips of the hand or finger, but excludes errors of ignorance, such as spelling errors, or changing and misuse of words such as "than" and "then" | Typographical error |
8,005 | The Ultimate Typing Championship (UTC) is a typing competition designed to identify and award the fastest typists in the US.
History
The Ultimate Typing Championship was created in order to promote typing and find the fastest typists in the United States of America. Players compete against each other in typing races | Ultimate Typing Championship |
8,006 | Words per minute, commonly abbreviated wpm (sometimes uppercased WPM), is a measure of words processed in a minute, often used as a measurement of the speed of typing, reading or Morse code sending and receiving.
Alphanumeric entry
Since words vary in length, for the purpose of measurement of text entry the definition of each "word" is often standardized to be five characters or keystrokes long in English, including spaces and punctuation. For example, under such a method applied to plain English text the phrase "I run" counts as one word, but "rhinoceros" and "let's talk" would both count as two | Words per minute |
8,007 | Starting at the end of the nineteenth century, well before the advent of electronic computers, data processing was performed using electromechanical machines collectively referred to as unit record equipment, electric accounting machines (EAM) or tabulating machines.
Unit record machines came to be as ubiquitous in industry and government in the first two-thirds of the twentieth century as computers became in the last third. They allowed large volume, sophisticated data-processing tasks to be accomplished before electronic computers were invented and while they were still in their infancy | Unit record equipment |
8,008 | A punched card sorter is a machine for sorting decks of punched cards.
Sorting was a major activity in most facilities that processed data on punched cards using unit record equipment. The work flow of many processes required decks of cards to be put into some specific order as determined by the data punched in the cards | Punched card sorter |
8,009 | A punched card sorter is a machine for sorting decks of punched cards.
Sorting was a major activity in most facilities that processed data on punched cards using unit record equipment. The work flow of many processes required decks of cards to be put into some specific order as determined by the data punched in the cards | Punched card sorter |
8,010 | A punched card sorter is a machine for sorting decks of punched cards.
Sorting was a major activity in most facilities that processed data on punched cards using unit record equipment. The work flow of many processes required decks of cards to be put into some specific order as determined by the data punched in the cards | Punched card sorter |
8,011 | A punched card sorter is a machine for sorting decks of punched cards.
Sorting was a major activity in most facilities that processed data on punched cards using unit record equipment. The work flow of many processes required decks of cards to be put into some specific order as determined by the data punched in the cards | Punched card sorter |
8,012 | A punched card sorter is a machine for sorting decks of punched cards.
Sorting was a major activity in most facilities that processed data on punched cards using unit record equipment. The work flow of many processes required decks of cards to be put into some specific order as determined by the data punched in the cards | Punched card sorter |
8,013 | A punched card sorter is a machine for sorting decks of punched cards.
Sorting was a major activity in most facilities that processed data on punched cards using unit record equipment. The work flow of many processes required decks of cards to be put into some specific order as determined by the data punched in the cards | Punched card sorter |
8,014 | The IBM 101 Electronic Statistical Machine, introduced in 1952, combines in one unit the functions of sorting, counting, accumulating, balancing, editing, and printing of summaries of facts recorded in IBM cards.
The 101 could sort cards based on multiple columns. For example, if a card had multiple 3-column test scores, the 101 could be wired to sort into pocket 0 those cards with no scores over 090, into pocket 1 those with one score over 090, and so on; logic limited only by the number of relays available | IBM 101 |
8,015 | The IBM 402 and IBM 403 Accounting Machines were tabulating machines introduced by International Business Machines in the late 1940s.
Overview
The 402 could read punched cards at a speed of 80 to 150 cards per minute, depending on process options, while printing data at a speed of up to 100 lines per minute. The built-in line printer used 43 alpha-numerical type bars (left-side) and 45 numerical type bars (right-side, shorter bars) to print a total of 88 positions across a line of a report | IBM 402 |
8,016 | The tabulating machine was an electromechanical machine designed to assist in summarizing information stored on punched cards. Invented by Herman Hollerith, the machine was developed to help process data for the 1890 U. S | Tabulating machine |
8,017 | The IBM 407 Accounting Machine, introduced in 1949, was one of a long line of IBM tabulating machines dating back to the days of Herman Hollerith. It had a card reader and printer; a summary punch could be attached. Processing was directed by a control panel | IBM 407 |
8,018 | The IBM 421 accounting machine saw use in the 1960s.
The largely-mechanical IBM 421 read 80-column punch cards and could print upper-case letters of the alphabet, the decimal digits 0 to 9, a period (. ), and plus and minus signs | IBM 421 |
8,019 | The IBM 519 Document-Originating Machine, introduced in 1946, was the last in a series of unit record machines designed for automated preparation of punched cards. Others in the series included the IBM 513 & IBM 514 Reproducing Punch.
The 519, which was "state of the art for the time",
could:
reproduce all or parts of the information on a set of cards
"gangpunch" - copy information from a master card into the following detail cards
print up to eight digits on the end of a card
compare two decks of cards
"summary punch" — create punch cards containing summary information provided by a connected accounting machine, such as totals from a group of processed cards
"mark sense" — detect marks made with an electrographic pencil in designated locations on a punched card and then punch holes corresponding to those marks into the card
number cards consecutively (an optional feature)The reproducing, gangpunching, summary punching, and comparing features of the IBM 519 are very similar to those of the IBM 513 and IBM 514 | IBM 519 |
8,020 | The IBM 550 numerical interpreter was the first commercial machine made by IBM that read numerical data punched on cards and printed it across the top of each card. The 550 was introduced in 1930. Information to be printed could be placed in any sequence via plugboard control panel selections | IBM 550 |
8,021 | The IBM 557 Alphabetic Interpreter allowed holes in punched cards to be interpreted and the punched card characters printed on any row or column, selected by a control panel. Introduced in 1954, the machine was a synchronous system where brushes would glide over a hole in a punched card and contact a brass roller thereby setting up part of a character code.
Features
Proof – where the 557 verified, again through electrical mechanical means, that the information printed was correct
Multiple Stacker – the printed card could be placed in a selected output stacker
Selective Line Print – the standard 557 could only print on the top two horizontal lines (between the 12 and 11 rows and between the 11 and 0 rows) – selective line print feature allowed printing on one of 26 lines
40 or 60 column card read – Standard punched card was 80 columns, but there were exceptions
Master/detail printing – text on a master card could be printed on following detail cards
Maintenance
The 557 was a maintenance headache | IBM 557 |
8,022 | The IBM 601 Multiplying Punch was a unit record machine that could read two numbers from a punched card and punch their product in a blank field on the same card. The factors could be up to eight decimal digits long. The 601 was introduced in 1931 and was the first IBM machine that could do multiplication | IBM 601 |
8,023 | The IBM 602 Calculating Punch, introduced in 1946, was an electromechanical calculator capable of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The 602 was IBM's first machine that did division. (The IBM 601, introduced in 1931, only multiplied | IBM 602 |
8,024 | The IBM 603 Electronic Multiplier was the first mass-produced commercial electronic calculating device; it used full-size vacuum tubes to perform multiplication and addition. (The earlier IBM 600 and released in the same year IBM 602 used relay logic. ) The IBM 603 was adapted as the arithmetic unit in the IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator | IBM 603 |
8,025 | The IBM 604 Electronic Calculating Punch was the world's first mass-produced electronic calculator along with its predecessor the IBM 603. It was an electronic unit record machine that could perform multiple calculations, including division. It was invented and developed by Ralph Palmer, Jerrier Haddad and Byron Phelps | IBM 604 |
8,026 | The IBM 608 Transistor Calculator, a plugboard-programmable unit, was the first IBM product to use transistor circuits without any vacuum tubes and is believed to be the world's first all-transistorized calculator to be manufactured for the commercial market. : 34 Announced in April 1955, it was released in December 1957. The 608 was withdrawn from marketing in April 1959 | IBM 608 |
8,027 | The IBM 632 was a valve-and-relay driven basic (very basic) accounting machine, introduced in 1958, that was available in seven different models. It consisted of an IBM Electric typewriter and at least a punched card unit (like the IBM 024) that housed the "electronics" in two gates (a relay gate and an electronic gate). Some machines also had a card reader unit (like the IBM 026) | IBM 632 |
8,028 | The IBM 6400 Accounting Machine is a series of four calculating and accounting machines produced by the IBM Electric Typewriter (ET) division in 1962. It was announced in January 1963 and was sold to perform what IBM referred to as BICARSA, which stood for billing, inventory control, accounts receivable and sales analysis.
Characteristics
The output for each machine is facilitated using a keyboardless IBM Selectric typewriter mounted above the CPU | IBM 6400 Accounting Machine |
8,029 | The IBM Card-Programmed Electronic Calculator or CPC was announced by IBM in May 1949. Later that year an improved machine, the CPC-II, was also announced.
IBM's electronic (vacuum tube) calculators could perform multiple calulations, including division | IBM CPC |
8,030 | The IBM Electromatic Table Printing Machine was a typesetting-quality printer, consisting of a modified IBM Electromatic Proportional Spacing Typewriter connected to a modified IBM 016 keypunch. A plugboard control panel was used for programming and formatting of the printout.
A deck of punched cards containing the table (calculated and punched by other unit record equipment) to be printed was put into the IBM 016, which read them and then controlled the typing of the typewriter through a box containing solenoids that depressed the keys | IBM Electromatic Table Printing Machine |
8,031 | A plugboard or control panel (the term used depends on the application area) is an array of jacks or sockets (often called hubs) into which patch cords can be inserted to complete an electrical circuit. Control panels are sometimes used to direct the operation of unit record equipment, cipher machines, and early computers.
Unit record equipment
Main article: Unit record equipment
The earliest machines were hardwired for specific applications | Plugboard |
8,032 | The tabulating machine was an electromechanical machine designed to assist in summarizing information stored on punched cards. Invented by Herman Hollerith, the machine was developed to help process data for the 1890 U. S | Tabulating machine |
8,033 | Card image is a traditional term for a character string, usually 80 characters in length, that was, or could be, contained on a single punched card. IBM cards were 80 characters in length. UNIVAC cards were 90 characters in length | Card image |
8,034 | A punched card (also punch card or punched-card) is a piece of stiff paper that holds digital data represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions. Punched cards were once common in data processing applications or to directly control automated machinery.
Punched cards were widely used through much of the 20th century in the data processing industry, where specialized and increasingly complex unit record machines, organized into semiautomatic data processing systems, used punched cards for data input, output, and storage | Punched card |
8,035 | In computing jargon, the bit bucket (or byte bucket) is where lost computerized data has gone, by any means; any data which does not end up where it is supposed to, being lost in transmission, a computer crash, or the like, is said to have gone to the bit bucket – that mysterious place on a computer where lost data goes, as in:
The errant byte, having failed the parity test, is unceremoniously dumped into the bit bucket, the computer's wastepaper basket.
Millions of dollars in time and research data gone into the bit-bucket?
History
Originally, the bit bucket was the container on teletype machines or IBM key punch machines into which chad from the paper tape punch or card punch was deposited; the formal name is "chad box" or (at IBM) "chip box". The term was then generalized into any place where useless bits go, a useful computing concept known as the null device | Bit bucket |
8,036 | Chad refers to fragments sometimes created when holes are made in a paper, card or similar synthetic materials, such as computer punched tape or punched cards. The word "chad" has been used both as a mass noun (as in "a pile of chad") and as a countable noun (pluralizing as in "many chads").
Etymology
The origin of the term chad is uncertain | Chad (paper) |
8,037 | Herman Hollerith (February 29, 1860 – November 17, 1929) was a German-American statistician, inventor, and businessman who developed an electromechanical tabulating machine for punched cards to assist in summarizing information and, later, in accounting. His invention of the punched card tabulating machine, patented in 1884, marks the beginning of the era of mechanized binary code and semiautomatic data processing systems, and his concept dominated that landscape for nearly a century. Hollerith founded a company that was amalgamated in 1911 with several other companies to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company | Herman Hollerith |
8,038 | The IBM Building is an office building at 1240 Ala Moana Boulevard in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi. Designed by Vladimir Ossipoff, the building opened in 1962 as the Honolulu headquarters for American technology company IBM. It is presently owned by Howard Hughes Corporation, serving as a sales center for its surrounding Ward Village development | IBM Building, Honolulu |
8,039 | A keypunch is a device for precisely punching holes into stiff paper cards at specific locations as determined by keys struck by a human operator. Other devices included here for that same function include the gang punch, the pantograph punch, and the stamp. The term was also used for similar machines used by humans to transcribe data onto punched tape media | Keypunch |
8,040 | A lace card is a punched card with all holes punched (also called a whoopee card, ventilator card, flyswatter card, or IBM doily). They were mainly used as practical jokes to cause disruption in card readers. Card readers tended to jam when a lace card was inserted, as the resulting card had too little structural strength to avoid buckling inside the mechanism | Lace card |
8,041 | Electrographic is a term used for punched-card and page-scanning technology that allowed cards or pages marked with a pencil to be processed or converted into punched cards. The primary developer of electrographic systems was IBM, who used mark sense as a trade name for both the forms and processing system. The term has since come to be used generically for any technology allowing marks made using ordinary writing implements to be processed, encompassing both optical mark recognition and electrographic technology | Mark sense |
8,042 | A computer punched card reader or just computer card reader is a computer input device used to read computer programs in either source or executable form and data from punched cards. A computer card punch is a computer output device that punches holes in cards. Sometimes computer punch card readers were combined with computer card punches and, later, other devices to form multifunction machines | Punched card input/output |
8,043 | In computing, a signed overpunch is a coding scheme which stores the sign of a number by changing (usually) the last digit. It is used in character data on IBM mainframes by languages such as COBOL, PL/I, and RPG. Its purpose is to save a character that would otherwise be used by the sign digit | Signed overpunch |
8,044 | The tabulating machine was an electromechanical machine designed to assist in summarizing information stored on punched cards. Invented by Herman Hollerith, the machine was developed to help process data for the 1890 U. S | Tabulating machine |
8,045 | The tub file was a technique used in the punched card era to speed generation of data files. Multiple copies of frequently used cards were prepunched and stored in trays with index tabs between card sets, arranged so that cards would be easy to find.
This technique was an early form of random access memory | Tub file |
8,046 | Two-pass verification, also called double data entry, is a data entry quality control method that was originally employed when data records were entered onto sequential 80-column Hollerith cards with a keypunch. In the first pass through a set of records, the data keystrokes were entered onto each card as the data entry operator typed them. On the second pass through the batch, an operator at a separate machine, called a verifier, entered the same data | Two-pass verification |
8,047 | Starting at the end of the nineteenth century, well before the advent of electronic computers, data processing was performed using electromechanical machines collectively referred to as unit record equipment, electric accounting machines (EAM) or tabulating machines.
Unit record machines came to be as ubiquitous in industry and government in the first two-thirds of the twentieth century as computers became in the last third. They allowed large volume, sophisticated data-processing tasks to be accomplished before electronic computers were invented and while they were still in their infancy | Unit record equipment |
8,048 | Starting at the end of the nineteenth century, well before the advent of electronic computers, data processing was performed using electromechanical machines collectively referred to as unit record equipment, electric accounting machines (EAM) or tabulating machines.
Unit record machines came to be as ubiquitous in industry and government in the first two-thirds of the twentieth century as computers became in the last third. They allowed large volume, sophisticated data-processing tasks to be accomplished before electronic computers were invented and while they were still in their infancy | Unit record equipment |
8,049 | The Remington Rand 409, a punched card calculator which was programmed with a plugboard, was designed in 1949. It was sold in two models: the UNIVAC 60 (1952) and the UNIVAC 120 (1953). The model number referred to the number of decimal digits it could read from each punched card | Remington Rand 409 |
8,050 | The Remington Rand 409, a punched card calculator which was programmed with a plugboard, was designed in 1949. It was sold in two models: the UNIVAC 60 (1952) and the UNIVAC 120 (1953). The model number referred to the number of decimal digits it could read from each punched card | Remington Rand 409 |
8,051 | UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) was a line of electronic digital stored-program computers starting with the products of the Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation. Later the name was applied to a division of the Remington Rand company and successor organizations.
The BINAC, built by the Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation, was the first general-purpose computer for commercial use, but it was not a success | UNIVAC |
8,052 | UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) was a line of electronic digital stored-program computers starting with the products of the Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation. Later the name was applied to a division of the Remington Rand company and successor organizations.
The BINAC, built by the Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation, was the first general-purpose computer for commercial use, but it was not a success | UNIVAC |
8,053 | A keypunch is a device for precisely punching holes into stiff paper cards at specific locations as determined by keys struck by a human operator. Other devices included here for that same function include the gang punch, the pantograph punch, and the stamp. The term was also used for similar machines used by humans to transcribe data onto punched tape media | Keypunch |
8,054 | A plugboard or control panel (the term used depends on the application area) is an array of jacks or sockets (often called hubs) into which patch cords can be inserted to complete an electrical circuit. Control panels are sometimes used to direct the operation of unit record equipment, cipher machines, and early computers.
Unit record equipment
Main article: Unit record equipment
The earliest machines were hardwired for specific applications | Plugboard |
8,055 | The Powers Accounting Machine was an information processing device developed in the early 20th century for the U. S. Census Bureau | Powers Accounting Machine |
8,056 | The Remington Rand 409, a punched card calculator which was programmed with a plugboard, was designed in 1949. It was sold in two models: the UNIVAC 60 (1952) and the UNIVAC 120 (1953). The model number referred to the number of decimal digits it could read from each punched card | Remington Rand 409 |
8,057 | The philosophy of artificial intelligence is a branch of the philosophy of mind and the philosophy of computer science that explores artificial intelligence and its implications for knowledge and understanding of intelligence, ethics, consciousness, epistemology, and free will. Furthermore, the technology is concerned with the creation of artificial animals or artificial people (or, at least, artificial creatures; see artificial life) so the discipline is of considerable interest to philosophers. These factors contributed to the emergence of the philosophy of artificial intelligence | Philosophy of artificial intelligence |
8,058 | Many scholars believe that advances in artificial intelligence, or AI, will eventually lead to a semi-apocalyptic post-scarcity economy where intelligent machines can outperform humans in nearly, if not every, domain. The questions of what such a world might look like, and whether specific scenarios constitute utopias or dystopias, are the subject of active debate.
Background
Most scientists believe that AI research will at some point lead to the creation of machines that are as intelligent, or more intelligent, than human beings in every domain of interest | AI aftermath scenarios |
8,059 | In the field of artificial intelligence (AI), AI alignment research aims to steer AI systems towards humans' intended goals, preferences, or ethical principles. An AI system is considered aligned if it advances the intended objectives. A misaligned AI system pursues some objectives, but not the intended ones | AI alignment |
8,060 | In the field of artificial intelligence (AI) design, AI capability control proposals, also referred to as AI confinement, aim to increase our ability to monitor and control the behavior of AI systems, including proposed artificial general intelligences (AGIs), in order to reduce the danger they might pose if misaligned. However, capability control becomes less effective as agents become more intelligent and their ability to exploit flaws in human control systems increases, potentially resulting in an existential risk from AGI. Therefore, the Oxford philosopher Nick Bostrom and others recommend capability control methods only as a supplement to alignment methods | AI capability control |
8,061 | The AI effect is when onlookers discount the behavior of an artificial intelligence program by arguing that it is not "real" intelligence. Author Pamela McCorduck writes: "It's part of the history of the field of artificial intelligence that every time somebody figured out how to make a computer do something—play checkers well, solve simple but relatively informal problems—there was a chorus of critics to say, 'that's not thinking'. " Researcher Rodney Brooks complains: "Every time we figure out a piece of it, it stops being magical; we say, 'Oh, that's just a computation | AI effect |
8,062 | Algorithmic bias describes systematic and repeatable errors in a computer system that create "unfair" outcomes, such as "privileging" one category over another in ways different from the intended function of the algorithm.
Bias can emerge from many factors, including but not limited to the design of the algorithm or the unintended or unanticipated use or decisions relating to the way data is coded, collected, selected or used to train the algorithm. For example, algorithmic bias has been observed in search engine results and social media platforms | Algorithmic bias |
8,063 | In the digital humanities, "algorithmic culture" is part of an emerging synthesis of rigorous software algorithm driven design that couples software, highly structured data driven design with human oriented sociocultural attributes. An early occurrence of the term is found in Alexander R. Galloway classic Gaming: Essays on Algorithmic CultureOther definitions include Ted Striphas' where AC refers to the ways in which the logic of big data and large scale computation (including algorithms) alters they culture is practiced, experienced and understood | Algorithmic culture |
8,064 | Android epistemology is an approach to epistemology considering the space of possible machines and their capacities for knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, desires and for action in accord with their mental states. Thus, android epistemology incorporates artificial intelligence, computational cognitive psychology, computability theory and other related disciplines.
References
Craig, Ian D | Android epistemology |
8,065 | Artificial imagination, also called synthetic imagination or machine imagination, is defined as the artificial simulation of human imagination by general or special purpose computers or artificial neural networks. The applied form of it is known as media synthesis or synthetic media.
The term artificial imagination is also used to describe a property of machines or programs | Artificial imagination |
8,066 | Artificial stupidity is a term used within the field of computer science to refer to a technique of "dumbing down" computer programs in order to deliberately introduce errors in their responses.
History
Alan Turing, in his 1950 paper Computing Machinery and Intelligence, proposed a test for intelligence which has since become known as the Turing test. While there are a number of different versions, the original test, described by Turing as being based on the "imitation game", involved a "machine intelligence" (a computer running an AI program), a female participant, and an interrogator | Artificial stupidity |
8,067 | Blockhead is the name of a theoretical computer system invented as part of a thought experiment by philosopher Ned Block, which appeared in a paper titled "Psychologism and Behaviorism". Block did not name the computer in the paper.
Overview
In "Psychologism and Behaviorism," Block argues that the internal mechanism of a system is important in determining whether that system is intelligent and claims to show that a non-intelligent system could pass the Turing test | Blockhead (thought experiment) |
8,068 | == Context ==
Intelligent systems
Intelligence is conventionally defined in terms of goal-achieving, problem-solving, or pattern-recognizing capability. Recent development in machine learning gives rise to systems that can attempt to emulate those intelligent behaviours. AlphaGo, a machine learning system developed by DeepMind, became the first computer program to win a Go game against a human professional player | Buddhism and artificial intelligence |
8,069 | In the philosophy of mind, the China brain thought experiment (also known as the Chinese Nation or Chinese Gym) considers what would happen if each member of the Chinese nation were asked to simulate the action of one neuron in the brain, using telephones or walkie-talkies to simulate the axons and dendrites that connect neurons. Would this arrangement have a mind or consciousness in the same way that brains do?
Early versions of this scenario were put forward in 1961 by Anatoly Dneprov, in 1974 by Lawrence Davis, and again in 1978 by Ned Block. Block argues that the China brain would not have a mind, whereas Daniel Dennett argues that it would | China brain |
8,070 | The Chinese room argument holds that a digital computer executing a program cannot have a "mind", "understanding", or "consciousness", regardless of how intelligently or human-like the program may make the computer behave. The argument was presented by philosopher John Searle in his paper "Minds, Brains, and Programs", published in Behavioral and Brain Sciences in 1980. Similar arguments were presented by Gottfried Leibniz (1714), Anatoly Dneprov (1961), Lawrence Davis (1974) and Ned Block (1978) | Chinese room |
8,071 | Computational creativity (also known as artificial creativity, mechanical creativity, creative computing or creative computation) is a multidisciplinary endeavour that is located at the intersection of the fields of artificial intelligence, cognitive psychology, philosophy, and the arts (e. g. , computational art as part of computational culture) | Computational creativity |
8,072 | In philosophy of mind, the computational theory of mind (CTM), also known as computationalism, is a family of views that hold that the human mind is an information processing system and that cognition and consciousness together are a form of computation. Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts (1943) were the first to suggest that neural activity is computational. They argued that neural computations explain cognition | Computational theory of mind |
8,073 | Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation (1976) by Joseph Weizenbaum displays the author's ambivalence towards computer technology and lays out the case that while artificial intelligence may be possible, we should never allow computers to make important decisions because computers will always lack human qualities such as compassion and wisdom.
Weizenbaum makes the crucial distinction between deciding and choosing. Deciding is a computational activity, something that can ultimately be programmed | Computer Power and Human Reason |
8,074 | "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" is a seminal paper written by Alan Turing on the topic of artificial intelligence. The paper, published in 1950 in Mind, was the first to introduce his concept of what is now known as the Turing test to the general public.
Turing's paper considers the question "Can machines think?" Turing says that since the words "think" and "machine" cannot be clearly defined we should "replace the question by another, which is closely related to it and is expressed in relatively unambiguous words | Computing Machinery and Intelligence |
8,075 | Connectionism (coined by Edward Thorndike in the 1930s) is a name of an approach to the study of human mental processes with many 'waves'. The first one appeared in the 1950s with Warren Sturgis McCulloch and Walter Pitts both focusing on comprehending neural circuitry through a formal and mathematical approach, and Frank Rosenblatt who published the 1958 book “The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model For Information Storage and Organization in the Brain” in Psychological Review, while working at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory. The first wave ended with the 1969 book about the limitations of the original perceptron idea, written by Marvin Minsky and Papert, which contributed to discouraging major funding agencies in the US from investing in connectionist research | Connectionism |
8,076 | The Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence was a 1956 summer workshop widely considered to be the founding event of artificial intelligence as a field.
The project lasted approximately six to eight weeks and was essentially an extended brainstorming session. Eleven mathematicians and scientists originally planned to attend; not all of them attended, but more than ten others came for short times | Dartmouth workshop |
8,077 | Dataism is a term that has been used to describe the mindset or philosophy created by the emerging significance of big data. It was first used by David Brooks in The New York Times in 2013. The term has been expanded to describe what historian Yuval Noah Harari, in his book Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow from 2015, calls an emerging ideology or even a new form of religion, in which "information flow" is the "supreme value" | Dataism |
8,078 | Hubert Dreyfus was a critic of artificial intelligence research. In a series of papers and books, including Alchemy and AI (1965), What Computers Can't Do (1972; 1979; 1992) and Mind over Machine (1986), he presented a pessimistic assessment of AI's progress and a critique of the philosophical foundations of the field. Dreyfus' objections are discussed in most introductions to the philosophy of artificial intelligence, including Russell & Norvig (2021), the standard AI textbook, and in Fearn (2007), a survey of contemporary philosophy | Hubert Dreyfus's views on artificial intelligence |
8,079 | Hubert Lederer Dreyfus ( DRY-fəs; October 15, 1929 – April 22, 2017) was an American philosopher and professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. His main interests included phenomenology, existentialism and the philosophy of both psychology and literature, as well as the philosophical implications of artificial intelligence. He was widely known for his exegesis of Martin Heidegger, which critics labeled "Dreydegger" | Hubert Dreyfus |
8,080 | Embodied cognition is the theory that many features of cognition, whether human or otherwise, are shaped by aspects of an organism's entire body. The cognitive features include high-level mental constructs (such as concepts and categories) and performance on various cognitive tasks (such as reasoning or judgment). The bodily aspects involve the motor system, the perceptual system, the bodily interactions with the environment (situatedness), and the assumptions about the world built the functional structure of organism's brain and body | Embodied cognition |
8,081 | The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds and The Laws of Physics is a 1989 book by the mathematical physicist Sir Roger Penrose.
Penrose argues that human consciousness is non-algorithmic, and thus is not capable of being modeled by a conventional Turing machine, which includes a digital computer. Penrose hypothesizes that quantum mechanics plays an essential role in the understanding of human consciousness | The Emperor's New Mind |
8,082 | Equalized odds, also referred to as conditional procedure accuracy equality and disparate mistreatment, is a measure of fairness in machine learning. A classifier satisfies this definition if the subjects in the protected and unprotected groups have equal true positive rate and equal false positive rate, satisfying the formula:
For example,
A
{\displaystyle A}
could be gender, race, or any other characteristics that we want to be free of bias, while
Y
{\displaystyle Y}
would be whether the person is qualified for the degree, and the output
R
{\displaystyle R}
would be the school's decision whether to offer the person to study for the degree. In this context, higher university enrollment rates of African Americans compared to whites with similar test scores might be necessary to fulfill the condition of equalized odds, if the "base rate" of
Y
{\displaystyle Y}
differs between the groups | Equalized odds |
8,083 | The ethics of artificial intelligence is the branch of the ethics of technology specific to artificially intelligent systems. It is sometimes divided into a concern with the moral behavior of humans as they design, make, use and treat artificially intelligent systems, and a concern with the behavior of machines, in machine ethics.
Ethics fields' approaches
Robot ethics
The term "robot ethics" (sometimes "roboethics") refers to the morality of how humans design, construct, use and treat robots | Ethics of artificial intelligence |
8,084 | The ethics of uncertain sentience refers to questions surrounding the treatment of and moral obligations towards individuals whose sentience—the capacity to subjectively sense and feel—and resulting ability to experience pain is uncertain; the topic has been particularly discussed within the field of animal ethics, with the precautionary principle frequently invoked in response.
Views
Animal ethics
David Foster Wallace in his 2005 essay "Consider the Lobster" investigated the potential sentience and capacity of crustaceans to experience pain and the resulting ethical implications of eating them. In 2014, the philosopher Robert C | Ethics of uncertain sentience |
8,085 | Fairness in machine learning refers to the various attempts at correcting algorithmic bias in automated decision processes based on machine learning models. Decisions made by computers after a machine-learning process may be considered unfair if they were based on variables considered sensitive. Examples of these kinds of variable include gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, disability and more | Fairness (machine learning) |
8,086 | Luciano Floridi (Italian: [floˈriːdi]; born 16 November 1964) is an Italian and British philosopher. He is the Director of the Digital Ethics Center at the Yale University. He is also a Professor of Sociology of Culture and Communication at the University of Bologna, Department of Legal Studies, where he is the director of the Centre for Digital Ethics | Luciano Floridi |
8,087 | Vilém Flusser (May 12, 1920 – November 27, 1991) was a Brazilian Czech-born philosopher, writer and journalist. He lived for a long period in São Paulo (where he became a Brazilian citizen) and later in France, and his works are written in many different languages.
His early work was marked by discussion of the thought of Martin Heidegger, and by the influence of existentialism and phenomenology | Vilém Flusser |
8,088 | Friendly artificial intelligence (also friendly AI or FAI) is hypothetical artificial general intelligence (AGI) that would have a positive (benign) effect on humanity or at least align with human interests or contribute to fostering the improvement of the human species. It is a part of the ethics of artificial intelligence and is closely related to machine ethics. While machine ethics is concerned with how an artificially intelligent agent should behave, friendly artificial intelligence research is focused on how to practically bring about this behavior and ensuring it is adequately constrained | Friendly artificial intelligence |
8,089 | In the philosophy of artificial intelligence, GOFAI ("Good old fashioned artificial intelligence") is classical symbolic AI, as opposed to other approaches, such as neural networks, situated robotics, narrow symbolic AI or neuro-symbolic AI.
The term was coined by philosopher John Haugeland in his 1985 book Artificial Intelligence: The Very Idea. Haugeland coined the term to address two questions:
Can GOFAI produce human level artificial intelligence in a machine?
Is GOFAI the primary method that brains use to display intelligence?AI founder Herbert A | GOFAI |
8,090 | Golem XIV is a book written by Polish science fiction writer Stanisław Lem, published in 1981. It is a philosophical essay in the format of science fiction, presented as a part of the lecture course given by a superintelligent computer, Golem XIV. It contains two lectures, together with an introduction, a foreword, a memo, and an afterword, all of them being fictitious | Golem XIV |
8,091 | In the field of artificial intelligence (AI), a hallucination or artificial hallucination (also called confabulation or delusion) is a confident response by an AI that does not seem to be justified by its training data. For example, a hallucinating chatbot might, when asked to generate a financial report for a company, falsely state that the company's revenue was $13. 6 billion (or some other random number apparently "plucked from thin air") | Hallucination (artificial intelligence) |
8,092 | The technological singularity—or simply the singularity—is a hypothetical future point in time at which technological growth becomes uncontrollable and irreversible, resulting in unforeseeable changes to human civilization. According to the most popular version of the singularity hypothesis, I. J | Technological singularity |
8,093 | LaMDA (Language Model for Dialogue Applications) is a family of conversational large language models developed by Google. Originally developed and introduced as Meena in 2020, the first-generation LaMDA was announced during the 2021 Google I/O keynote, while the second generation was announced the following year. In June 2022, LaMDA gained widespread attention when Google engineer Blake Lemoine made claims that the chatbot had become sentient | LaMDA |
8,094 | A legal singularity is a hypothetical future point in time beyond which the law is much more completely specified, with human lawmakers and other legal actors being supported by rapid technological advancements and artificial intelligence (AI), leading to a vast reduction in legal uncertainty. The legal singularity is based on the idea that as AI systems become more advanced, they will be capable of processing and analyzing vast amounts of legal data and case law more quickly and accurately than humans. This could potentially lead to a situation where AI systems become the primary legal decision-makers, and humans are relegated to a more supervisory role | Legal Singularity |
8,095 | Machine ethics (or machine morality, computational morality, or computational ethics) is a part of the ethics of artificial intelligence concerned with adding or ensuring moral behaviors of man-made machines that use artificial intelligence, otherwise known as artificial intelligent agents. Machine ethics differs from other ethical fields related to engineering and technology. Machine ethics should not be confused with computer ethics, which focuses on human use of computers | Machine ethics |
8,096 | The Machine Question: Critical Perspectives on AI, Robots, and Ethics is a 2012 nonfiction book by David J. Gunkel that discusses the evolution of the theory of human ethical responsibilities toward non-human things and to what extent intelligent, autonomous machines can be considered to have legitimate moral responsibilities and what legitimate claims to moral consideration they can hold. The book was awarded as the 2012 Best Single Authored Book by the Communication Ethics Division of the National Communication Association | The Machine Question |
8,097 | The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World is a book by Pedro Domingos released in 2015. Domingos wrote the book in order to generate interest from people outside the field.
Overview
The book outlines five approaches of machine learning: inductive reasoning, connectionism, evolutionary computation, Bayes' theorem and analogical modelling | The Master Algorithm |
8,098 | Artificial intelligence and moral enhancement involves the application of artificial intelligence to the enhancement of moral reasoning and the acceleration of moral progress.
Artificial moral reasoning
With respect to moral reasoning, some consider humans to be suboptimal information processors, moral judges, and moral agents. Due to stress or time constraints, people often fail to consider all the relevant factors and information necessary to make well-reasoned moral judgments, people lack consistency, and they are prone to biases | Artificial intelligence and moral enhancement |
8,099 | Moravec's paradox is the observation in artificial intelligence and robotics that, contrary to traditional assumptions, reasoning requires very little computation, but sensorimotor and perception skills require enormous computational resources. The principle was articulated by Hans Moravec, Rodney Brooks, Marvin Minsky and others in the 1980s. Moravec wrote in 1988, "it is comparatively easy to make computers exhibit adult level performance on intelligence tests or playing checkers, and difficult or impossible to give them the skills of a one-year-old when it comes to perception and mobility" | Moravec's paradox |
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