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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Arabian Peninsula
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Arabian Peninsula - The land is easily divided into four basic longitudinal, or north-south, geographical regions: the coastal plain, the central hill country, the Jordan rift, and the Transjordan plateau (cf. Deut. 1:6–8). The major latitudinal or east-west geographical divisions of Palestine are connected both with the geographical features of the land and political boundaries of the Israelite divided kingdoms. These divisions included the region of Galilee in the north, Samaria in the north-central area of Palestine, Judah in the south-central portion of Palestine, the Negev (or “dry” steppe) in the south, and the Sinai peninsula forming a great natural barrier between Palestine and Egypt.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Coastal Plain
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Coastal Plain - The coastal plain gradually widens to distances of ten to twelve miles in southern Palestine. This fertile strip of land receives more than 30 inches of rainfall annually off the Mediterranean Sea. Three distinct plains are identified along the coast: Acre (Acco), extending northward from Mount Carmel (twenty-five miles long and five to eight miles wide); Sharon, between Mount Carmel and the port city of Joppa (fifty miles long and ten miles wide); and the plain of the Philistines in the extreme south from Joppa to Gaza. The coastal plain never held primary importance to the Hebrews geographically during Old Testament history. The Phoenicians controlled the northern plain, the Philistines controlled the southern plain, and the plain of Sharon was wasteland, marsh, and dense forest in ancient times.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Central Hill Country
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Central Hill Country - The region of the central hill country was the most varied geographically and the most important historically in Old Testament times. The majority of Israelite cities were located here, and the territory comprised the bulk of the land area controlled by the Hebrew united and divided monarchies. The mountainous terrain forms the spine, or backbone, of western Palestine and is commonly divided into three major geographical sections: Galilee, Samaria (or Ephraim), and Judah. The slopes reach heights of 3,000 to 3,300 feet; the region receives adequate rainfall and was suitable to the Hebrews for agricultural cultivation, including grains, vineyards, and fruit and olive groves. The principal features of Galilee include Mount Tabor (Judg. 4:6, 12) and the Jezreel Valley. The city of Shechem, flanked by mounts Ebal and Gerizim dominated Samaria (Josh. 8:30–35). Jerusalem was prominently situated at the crossing of the trade routes in Judah (2 Sam. 5:6–12). The strip of land between the coastal plain in the south and the central highlands was known as the Shephelah. This broad and fertile piedmont (or plateau between coast and mountains) was a forested area in Old Testament times and occupied by the Philistines (cf. Judg. 14–15; 1 Sam. 17). During the days of the Judahite monarchy, Beth-Shemesh and Lachish were important fortifications along the southwestern flank of Judah (2 Chron. 25:17–28).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Jordan Rift
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Jordan Rift - The Jordan River rift, or Jordan cleft, is a great geological depression that begins in Syria in the Lebanon mountains and runs south to the Gulf of Aqabah and the Red Sea. The Jordan River valley that forms the eastern boundary of Palestine is also part of this jagged geological trench. The Jordan River has its origins on the lower slopes of Mount Hermon and rises from three spring-fed rivulets. The Jordan flows southward from Hermon to the Hula Lake and swamp and then drops quickly some 900 feet and empties into the Sea of Galilee. This inland, freshwater lake is 650 feet below sea level and is surrounded by rounded hillocks. The lake itself is thirteen miles wide and seven miles long. The Jordan River then flows south from the Sea of Galilee winding its way to the great Salt or Dead Sea, nearly 1,300 feet below sea level—the lowest point on the face of the earth. During antiquity the region around the Sea of Galilee was heavily populated and intensively cultivated by means of irrigation. Further south, the river valley narrowed and was covered with dense junglelike vegetation, a habitat for wild animals in Old Testament times (Jer. 49:19; 50:44; Zech. 11:3). The southern end of the river valley was largely unpopulated, except where the Jabbok River entered the Jordan and at the spring-watered oasis of Jericho. Lined with slippery clay-mud hills and thick vegetation, the Jordan Valley still constitutes a natural barrier between Palestine and the Transjordan plateau.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Jordan Rift
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Jordan Rift - The Dead Sea has no natural outlet, and its mineral-rich waters have a salt content of 30 percent. The limestone cliffs lining the western shore of the Dead Sea are pocked with caves that served as hideaways for bandits, political fugitives, and sectarian religious communities. It was here among the caves of this “badlands”-type landscape that the famous Dead Sea or Qumran community scrolls were found. South of the Dead Sea, the Arabah valley stretches some hundred miles to the Gulf of Aqabah. The inhabitants of this desolate and dry desert fringe mined the iron and copper deposits found in the hills bordering the Arabah, or engaged in the caravan trade that transversed the region.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Transjordan Plateau
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Transjordan Plateau - Broadly speaking, the Transjordan plateau is an extensive tableland rising some 2,000 to 6,000 feet above sea level between the Jordan River and the northernmost reaches of the Arabian desert. The region yields some minerals and is suitable for both agricultural and pastoral lifestyles. Four major wadis or rivers feed the Jordan River from the plateau, including the Yarmuk, Jabbok, Arnon, and the Zered. The Transjordan tableland may be subdivided into three main plateaus: the Seir mountain plateau in the south (from the Gulf of Elath to the Zered River), the area of Moab and Gilead in the central Transjordan (extending from the Zered to the Yarmuk rivers), and the Bashan plateau in the north (stretching from the Yarmuk to Dan). The King’s Highway ran the length of the Transjordan plateau from Bozrah to Damascus. The Seir plateau is the most rugged of the three, with mountain peaks rising to nearly 6,000 feet. It was here the Edomites and later the Nabateans built their cities amid the rock cliffs. Moab and Gilead contained fertile soil for cultivation and extensive tracts of grazing land for animal herds. Forest remnants can be still be found in Gilead. The largest and most fertile of the plateaus was the region of Bashan. Here the tableland sits some 3,000 to 5,000 feet above sealevel, permitting adequate rainfall for agriculture. The rich volcanic soils of the plain of Bashan made it the best pastureland in the entire Levantine region of the eastern Mediterranean (Ps. 22:12; cf. Amos 4:1).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Transjordan Plateau
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Transjordan Plateau - The Transjordan region was the first area settled by the Hebrews as part of the conquest of Palestine after the exodus from Egypt (Josh. 13:24–31). Throughout Old Testament history the plateau area was often the site of military conflict. The Hebrews, Arameans, Assyrians, Moabites, and Ammonites all vied for control of the trade route centers along the King’s Highway and of the fruitful land of Gilead and Bashan, a most valuable commodity in the arid and desert-like environment of most of the Near East.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - Overland Routes
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - Overland Routes - The prophet Ezekiel’s description of Phoenician commerce in the first millennium BC confirms the strategic geographical location of Syro-Palestine (Ezek. 27:12–36). As the land bridge between Africa and Eurasia, Palestine played a prominent role in international trade as early as the third millennium BC. There were two major international highways linking Mesopotamia and Egypt via Palestine. Both were very ancient routes, their history traceable back to the Early Bronze Age (3000–2100 BC). One was known as “the way of the sea” (or Via Maris in Roman times). The route originated at Qantir (Qantara) in the eastern delta of Lower Egypt, crossed the northern Sinai peninsula, turned north along the coast of the Negev and Judea, and then veered inland through Megiddo to the plain of Beth-Shan. Here the road divided, one artery branching off along the west shoreline of the Sea of Galilee to Dan and Damascus, the other continuing eastward through Bashan to Damascus. At that point the highway turned to the southeast, connecting Babylon and Ur. The second important trade route was known as “the way of the kings.” It too joined Babylon with Egypt, transversing the Sinai desert through Kadesh-Barnea and continuing into the Negev through Edom. The highway then jogged to the north through the Transjordan area of Moab, Ammon, and Gilead to Damascus, and from there into Mesopotamia. King Jehoram identifies the southern portion of this route as “the way of the wilderness of Edom” (2 Kings. 3:8). Secondary roads branching off the King’s Highway included a route from Kadesh-Barnea to Elath (perhaps the “way of the Red Sea” in Num. 14:25) and another route to Elath from Bozrah mentioned in the battle that the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah waged against Kedorlaomer (Gen. 14:5–6).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - Overland Routes
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - Overland Routes - A lesser trade route originated at Elath, extending to Babylon via the Arabian desert with stops at Dumah and Tema. There was also a route northward to Damascus from Dumah. Moreover, some twenty-three regional or local routes crisscrossed Palestine during biblical times (e.g., “the way of the wilderness toward the Red Sea,” Exod. 13:18; “the highway from Bethel to Shechem,” Judg. 21:19; and “the way of the plain,” 2 Sam. 18:23).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Importance of the Trade Routes
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Importance of the Trade Routes - Palestine’s location as a corridor for commerce between three continents had great significance for the Israelites. Politically the location made the Hebrews vulnerable to hostile invasion by foreign powers seeking to control the land bridge for military and economic reasons. This forced Israel to engage in international diplomacy, including forging alliances with surrounding pagan powers. On this account Hosea the prophet rebuked the northern kingdom of Israel (Hos. 7:10–11). In their pride and self-sufficiency the Hebrews sought political treaties with Egypt and Assyria, refusing to seek help from the Lord. Of course, this type of political maneuvering was useless. The Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and later the Greeks and Romans all took their turn overrunning Palestine as part of the military expansion of their empires. The crucial location of Palestine also had implications for the Israelites socially, economically, and religiously. Trade and commerce fostered the development of a merchant class. Soon the rich were able to gain control of the institutions of society and oppress the poor, breaking down covenant community (and equality before God). Economically the prosperity and wealth associated with those engaged in merchandising encouraged a crass materialism. Naturally, the emphasis on trade and commerce led to Sabbath violations. All this gave rise to pride, arrogance, self-sufficiency, and a false sense of security. Yahweh seemed irrelevant. The cosmopolitan nature of Syro-Palestine also led to intermarriage between Hebrews and foreign neighbors. This encouraged the syncretism of Hebrew religion with the cults of Baal, Chemosh, Milcom, and so on—not separation, uniqueness, and holiness God required of his elect. Ultimately it was this “religious pluralism” that led to the overthrow of the Hebrew kingdoms and exile in Assyria and Babylonia (cf. Hos. 4 and Amos 3).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Importance of the Trade Routes
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Importance of the Trade Routes - Palestine, or the land of Canaan, is also an important theological symbol in the Old Testament. This real estate was a major component in God’s initial covenant promise to Abram (Gen. 12:1–3) and is the goal or destination of the Pentateuchal narratives. The exodus from Egypt was divine deliverance for the purpose of bringing the Israelites into “a good and spacious land, … flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8). The land of Canaan was both the goal of covenant obedience before Yahweh and the reward for maintaining his covenant stipulations.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Importance of the Trade Routes
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Importance of the Trade Routes - Because it was part of God’s covenant promise, the land was integrally involved with the Hebrews’ covenant relationship with Yahweh. The Ebal ceremony outlined in Deuteronomy 27 and enacted in Joshua 8 formalized the ties between the Hebrews, the Law of Yahweh, and the land of the promise. All three were inextricably bound together under Yahweh’s sovereign rule. This meant God’s presence and blessing overshadowed Israel as they obeyed the covenant stipulations (Deut. 28:1–14). It also meant that any Israelite trespass of the covenant defiled the land and jeopardized their claim to possess it (Deut. 28:15–68). Practicing the “abominations” of the Canaanites would eventually result in the forfeiture of the land; the land would “vomit” them out as it had the Canaanites (Lev. 18:24–25). Sadly, all this came to pass as a result of the policies and practices instituted by King Manasseh (2 Kings 21:10–15; 24:3). In fact, the length of Israel’s exile from the land was directly associated with the concept of sabbatical rest for the covenant land (2 Chron 36:21; see also chapter 6, “Leviticus”). The Old Testament prophets and poets reminded Israel that possession of the land guaranteed neither God’s presence nor his blessing (Jer. 7:1–7). The whole earth belongs to the Lord (Ps. 24:1), and he transcends the “land” in that the earth is but his footstool (Isa. 66:1). By the same token, exile from the land of the promise did not necessarily signify God’s abandonment, as Ezekiel’s chariot vision testifies (Ezek. 1). The throne of Yahweh is movable, and he is capable of seeing and responding to the needs of Israel in any location. Nehemiah lamented the hollowness of possessing the land of the promise as slaves to foreign powers because of sin and covenant unfaithfulness (Neh. 9:32–37). He understood that right relationship to the land of covenant promise was rooted in right relationship to God in covenant faithfulness.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Importance of the Trade Routes
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Importance of the Trade Routes - Finally, even the language and literary images of the Old Testament were influenced by the geography of the land of the promise. Psalm 23 abounds with the imagery of the land, and elsewhere the psalmist likened the righteous to trees planted by flowing waters (Ps. 1:3). The premium on water in the arid climate of the Near East conditioned the language of the prophets as well as the psalmists. The rain and dew are often symbols of God’s blessing and vindication (e.g., Joel 2:23; 3:18). Likewise, even the epithets for God such as “Rock, Fortress” and “Refuge” were probably inspired by the rugged and boulder-strewn terrain of the Sinai desert and Judean wilderness (Deut. 32:15). Even the reference to Canaan as a land “flowing with milk and honey” pictured the richness of the land for supporting the lifestyles of pastoralism (i.e., the “milk” of flocks and herds) and agriculture (i.e., the “honey,” or nectar of crops and produce).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Importance of the Trade Routes
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Importance of the Trade Routes - influence the history of Israel? 3. What was the theological significance of the land of Canaan for the Hebrews? 4. How was life in Palestine different for the Hebrews from their life as captives in Egypt? Aharoni, Yohanan. The Land of the Bible: A Historical Geography. 2nd ed. Trans. by A. F. Rainey. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1981. Comprehensive and authoritative, an excellent resource. Aharoni, Yohanan, et al. Carta Bible Atlas. 4th ed. (Formerly titled The Macmillan Bible Atlas.) New York: Carta, 2002. Anati, E. Palestine Before the Hebrews. New York: Knopf, 1963. Avi-Yonah, Michael. The Holy Land: A Historical Geography. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1977. Baly, Denis. The Geography of the Bible. Rev. ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. A classic, the standard work on the topic. Bietzel, Barry. The Moody Atlas of Bible Lands. Chicago: Moody Press, 1985. Brisco, T. C. Holman Bible Atlas. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999. Brueggemann, Walter. The Land: Place as Gift, Promise, and Challenge in Biblical Faith. 2nd ed. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2002. A theological treatment of the “land” as part of Yahweh’s covenant promise to Israel and its implications for the Christian church. Frank, Harry Thomas. Discovering the Biblical World. Maplewood, N.J.: Hammond, 1975. Gordon, R. P. Holy Land, Holy City: Sacred Geography and the Interpretation of the Bible. Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 2004. Hammond Atlas of Bible Lands. 3rd ed. Maplewood, N.J.: Hammond, 2006. Harper Atlas of the Bible. Ed. by J. B. Pritchard. New York: Harper & Row, 1987. LaSor, William Sanford. “Palestine.” ISBE. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986. 3:632–49. Technical discussions of Palestine’s geology, geography, climate, flora, and fauna. Lawrence, Paul. IVP Atlas of Bible History. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2006.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Importance of the Trade Routes
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Importance of the Trade Routes - Monson, J. M. The Land Between. Jerusalem: Biblical Backgrounds, 1983. A programmed text designed to be used with the Student Map Manual introducing Palestinian history and geography.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Importance of the Trade Routes
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - The Trade Routes - The Importance of the Trade Routes - Pritchard, James B., ed. The Harper Atlas of the Bible. New York: Harper & Row, 1987. The most comprehensive Bible atlas available. Rasmussen, Carl G. The NIV Atlas of the Bible. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989. Profusely illustrated, useful, and usable for both the specialist and the nonspecialist. Rogerson, J., and P. Davies. The Old Testament World. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1989. Helpful introductory sections on the geography and ecology of ancient Israel. Sarel, Baruch. Understanding the Old Testament: An Introductory Atlas to the Hebrew Bible. Jerusalem: Carta, 1997. Simmons, J. The Geographical and Topographical Texts of the Old Testament. Leiden: Brill, 1959. Student Map Manual. Jerusalem: Pictorial Archive, 1979. Van der Woude, A. S., ed. The World of the Old Testament. Translated by S. Woudstra. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986. Von Soden, Wolfram. The Ancient Orient: An Introduction to the Study of the Ancient Near East. Trans. by D. G. Schley. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994. Vos, H. F. Wycliffe Historical Geography of Bible Lands. Rev. ed. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2003.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - Theological Significance of the Land
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - Theological Significance of the Land - Palestine, or the land of Canaan, is also an important theological symbol in the Old Testament. This real estate was a major component in God’s initial covenant promise to Abram (Gen. 12:1–3) and is the goal or destination of the Pentateuchal narratives. The exodus from Egypt was divine deliverance for the purpose of bringing the Israelites into “a good and spacious land, … flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8). The land of Canaan was both the goal of covenant obedience before Yahweh and the reward for maintaining his covenant stipulations. The Hebrew possession of the land of Palestine signaled the displacement of the indigenous Canaanites. The Hebrew conquest under Joshua was “holy war” against the Canaanites. The Old Testament considers the onslaught just punishment meted out by God through theocratic Israel for the gross sin associated with the fertility cult of Baal and Asherah. The Canaanites had defiled the land, and by purging the land of Canaanite presence, the Hebrews themselves were cleansed (Lev. 18:24–30).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - Theological Significance of the Land
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - Theological Significance of the Land - Because it was part of God’s covenant promise, the land was integrally involved with the Hebrews’ covenant relationship with Yahweh. The Ebal ceremony outlined in Deuteronomy 27 and enacted in Joshua 8 formalized the ties between the Hebrews, the Law of Yahweh, and the land of the promise. All three were inextricably bound together under Yahweh’s sovereign rule. This meant God’s presence and blessing overshadowed Israel as they obeyed the covenant stipulations (Deut. 28:1–14). It also meant that any Israelite trespass of the covenant defiled the land and jeopardized their claim to possess it (Deut. 28:15–68). Practicing the “abominations” of the Canaanites would eventually result in the forfeiture of the land; the land would “vomit” them out as it had the Canaanites (Lev. 18:24–25). Sadly, all this came to pass as a result of the policies and practices instituted by King Manasseh (2 Kings 21:10–15; 24:3). In fact, the length of Israel’s exile from the land was directly associated with the concept of sabbatical rest for the covenant land (2 Chron 36:21; see also chapter 6, “Leviticus”).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - Theological Significance of the Land
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - Theological Significance of the Land - Nehemiah lamented the hollowness of possessing the land of the promise as slaves to foreign powers because of sin and covenant unfaithfulness (Neh. 9:32–37). He understood that right relationship to the land of covenant promise was rooted in right relationship to God in covenant faithfulness. Finally, even the language and literary images of the Old Testament were influenced by the geography of the land of the promise. Psalm 23 abounds with the imagery of the land, and elsewhere the psalmist likened the righteous to trees planted by flowing waters (Ps. 1:3). The premium on water in the arid climate of the Near East conditioned the language of the prophets as well as the psalmists. The rain and dew are often symbols of God’s blessing and vindication (e.g., Joel 2:23; 3:18). Likewise, even the epithets for God such as “Rock, Fortress” and “Refuge” were probably inspired by the rugged and boulder-strewn terrain of the Sinai desert and Judean wilderness (Deut. 32:15). Even the reference to Canaan as a land “flowing with milk and honey” pictured the richness of the land for supporting the lifestyles of pastoralism (i.e., the “milk” of flocks and herds) and agriculture (i.e., the “honey,” or nectar of crops and produce).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - Questions for Further Study and Discussion
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - Questions for Further Study and Discussion - 1. Why is a knowledge of geography important to the study of the Old Testament? influence the history of Israel? 3. What was the theological significance of the land of Canaan for the Hebrews? 4. How was life in Palestine different for the Hebrews from their life as captives in Egypt?
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - For Further Reading
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - For Further Reading - Aharoni, Yohanan. The Land of the Bible: A Historical Geography. 2nd ed. Trans. by A. F. Rainey. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1981. Comprehensive and authoritative, an excellent resource. Aharoni, Yohanan, et al. Carta Bible Atlas. 4th ed. (Formerly titled The Macmillan Bible Atlas.) New York: Carta, 2002. Anati, E. Palestine Before the Hebrews. New York: Knopf, 1963. Avi-Yonah, Michael. The Holy Land: A Historical Geography. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1977. Baly, Denis. The Geography of the Bible. Rev. ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. A classic, the standard work on the topic. Bietzel, Barry. The Moody Atlas of Bible Lands. Chicago: Moody Press, 1985. Brisco, T. C. Holman Bible Atlas. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999. Brueggemann, Walter. The Land: Place as Gift, Promise, and Challenge in Biblical Faith. 2nd ed. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2002. A theological treatment of the “land” as part of Yahweh’s covenant promise to Israel and its implications for the Christian church. Frank, Harry Thomas. Discovering the Biblical World. Maplewood, N.J.: Hammond, 1975. Gordon, R. P. Holy Land, Holy City: Sacred Geography and the Interpretation of the Bible. Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 2004. Hammond Atlas of Bible Lands. 3rd ed. Maplewood, N.J.: Hammond, 2006. Harper Atlas of the Bible. Ed. by J. B. Pritchard. New York: Harper & Row, 1987. LaSor, William Sanford. “Palestine.” ISBE. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986. 3:632–49. Technical discussions of Palestine’s geology, geography, climate, flora, and fauna. Lawrence, Paul. IVP Atlas of Bible History. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2006. Monson, J. M. The Land Between. Jerusalem: Biblical Backgrounds, 1983. A programmed text designed to be used with the Student Map Manual introducing Palestinian history and geography. _____. Regions on the Run: Introductory Map Studies in the Land of the Bible. Biblical Backgrounds, Inc., 1998.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - For Further Reading
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - For Further Reading - Pritchard, James B., ed. The Harper Atlas of the Bible. New York: Harper & Row, 1987. The most comprehensive Bible atlas available.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - For Further Reading
CHAPTER 2GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT - For Further Reading - Zondervan, 1989. Profusely illustrated, useful, and usable for both the specialist and the nonspecialist. Rogerson, J., and P. Davies. The Old Testament World. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1989. Helpful introductory sections on the geography and ecology of ancient Israel. Sarel, Baruch. Understanding the Old Testament: An Introductory Atlas to the Hebrew Bible. Jerusalem: Carta, 1997. Simmons, J. The Geographical and Topographical Texts of the Old Testament. Leiden: Brill, 1959. Student Map Manual. Jerusalem: Pictorial Archive, 1979. Van der Woude, A. S., ed. The World of the Old Testament. Translated by S. Woudstra. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986. Von Soden, Wolfram. The Ancient Orient: An Introduction to the Study of the Ancient Near East. Trans. by D. G. Schley. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994. Vos, H. F. Wycliffe Historical Geography of Bible Lands. Rev. ed. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2003.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Key Ideas Abrahamic covenant as unifying theological theme Diversity of literary types and distinctive literary features Issues related to the historicity of the narrative texts The term Pentateuch is commonly applied to the first five books of the Old Testament: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. This Greek expression simply means “five scrolls” and apparently was popularized by the Hellenized Jews of Alexandria in the first century AD. The Hebrew-speaking Jewish community traditionally referred to these five books as the “Torah” (or “instruction” in holiness). Other designations for the Pentateuch include the Book of the Law, emphasizing the covenant stipulations as its defining feature; and the Law of Moses, emphasizing the human mediator as its defining feature. The Pentateuch was the first divinely prompted literary collection acknowledged as Scripture by the Hebrew community. As such, it is the most important division of the Hebrew canon. It always stands first in the threefold division of the Old Testament: Law, Prophets, and Writings. Its supreme rank in the Old Testament canon in respect to authority and holiness is evidenced by its position and separation from the other books in the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Old Testament). The careful translation of the Hebrew Pentateuch into Greek also confirms the high regard for the collection in the Hebrew community (in contrast to the incomplete and more loosely translated divisions of the Prophets and Writings).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Theme and General Contents
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Theme and General Contents - The “five-book” division of the Pentateuch is really a secondary partitioning of what was intended to be a unified, literary whole. The Pentateuch is better understood as a “five-volume” book, a five-part miniseries of sorts. D. J. A. Clines (1979) has convincingly argued that the Pentateuch has two basic divisions, Genesis 1–11 and Genesis 12–Deuteronomy 34. In view of the fall of humankind and the broken fellowship between God and humanity, the first division poses the question, “How can that relationship be repaired or restored?” The second division then provides an answer, or at least a partial answer, to the human dilemma depicted in Genesis 1–11. The solution is rooted in the idea of covenant bonding between God and Abram in Genesis 12:1–3. This passage constitutes the focal point of the second division and actually summarizes the key themes of the Pentateuchal narratives: Yahweh’s covenant, Abraham’s posterity, divine election and blessing, and the grant of a “promised land.” Part 1 explains the origins of the earth and humankind, explains the nature and purpose of humanity created male and female, records the intrusion of sin into God’s good creation, and reveals the character of God, who both judges human sin (as witnessed in the Flood account) and deals mercifully with fallen creation (as seen in the grace extended to Noah and his family). Part 2 explains how Israel (through Abraham) became the elect covenant people of Yahweh and God’s instrument for revealing himself and restoring the broken and corrupted relationship between the Creator and his creation. The Pentateuchal accounts are significant both for Israel, due to their unique covenant relationship with Yahweh, and for the nations of the world, since the destiny of humanity is ultimately tied to Israel’s covenant with God.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Theme and General Contents
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Theme and General Contents - The unifying theological theme of the Pentateuch is Yahweh’s covenant promise to Abram in Genesis 12:3. What humankind was unable to do in all its pride and self-sufficiency (epitomized in the Tower of Babel), God initiated in his covenant promise. The literary plan of the Pentateuch is but an expansion of the three-part covenant promise extended to Abram, as outlined in figure 3.1.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - The Pentateuch, or Book of the Law, is a rich collection of literary genres or types. This diversity of literary types enhances both the artistic nature of the work and the key theological themes unifying the anthology. By the same token, these multiple and complex literary forms have been directly responsible for the ongoing debate over the composition and date of the Pentateuch (see below).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Prose Narrative
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Prose Narrative - Most of the Pentateuchal literature is prose narrative. The narrative is simple but direct and forceful. The text is largely a third-person account of early Israelite history interspersed with prayers, speeches, and other types of direct discourse (e.g., Abraham’s intercessory prayer for Sodom in Gen. 18:22–33, Yahweh’s speech to Moses in Exod. 3:7–12, and the exchange between Pharaoh and Moses in Exod. 10:1–21). The narratives artfully blend historical reporting and theological interpretation. This makes the Pentateuch more than a mere register of chronologically ordered events yet something less than pointed religious propaganda serving to explain or justify certain actions, events, institutions, or theological teachings. Perhaps the best example of this blend of historical reporting and theological interpretation is the providential understanding of Joseph’s trials as benefiting all of Jacob’s family (Gen. 50:15–21). The language of the Pentateuch is simple and beautiful. It uses anthropomorphic language (i.e., ascribing human qualities to God), and frequent reference to theophany (i.e., a visible and/or audible manifestation of God to a human being). The detailed characterizations and repetitious plots in the stories have led some scholars to use terms like “myth” or “saga,” “folklore,” and “legend” for portions of the Pentateuchal narratives (especially Genesis). Traditionally, evangelical scholars have balked at employing such labels for the Pentateuchal narratives lest the accounts be thought of as fiction. The inability of modern scholarship to define these genres or literary categories carefully and clearly has also contributed to this reluctance to use these terms. Once again, belief in the historicity of the Old Testament make some scholars reluctant to include Genesis (and the rest of the Pentateuch) in these ill-defined genres. This historical aspect of the Pentateuchal prose narratives is discussed later on.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Ancient Poetry
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Ancient Poetry - The Pentateuch contains some of the earliest examples of Hebrew poetry in all the Old Testament. Careful analysis of the way words are spelled, of the meanings words are given, and of the way sentences are put together has demonstrated the antiquity of a number of poetic passages. Among these are Moses’ Song of the Sea (Exod. 15), the Balaam Oracles (Num. 23–24), Jacob’s Blessing (Gen. 49), and the Song and Blessing of Moses (Deut. 32–33). The dates for the current form of these poetic texts range from the thirteenth to the eleventh centuries BC according to this technical analysis.1 Specific poetic forms in the Pentateuch include
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Prophetic Revelation
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Prophetic Revelation - Prophetic literature in the Old Testament includes both foretelling (or divine revelation) and exposition (or interpretation) of Yahweh’s covenant-oriented revelation to Israel. The Pentateuch contains examples of both. Prophetic revelation in the Law occurs in prose narrative and poetic forms. For example, there is Yahweh’s revelation to Abram regarding the oppression and slavery of his descendants (Gen. 15:12–16) and Moses’ prosaic forecast about a prophet who will appear in Israel (Deut. 18:17–20; ultimately fulfilled in Jesus of Nazareth according to John 1:45). Examples of poetic prophecy in the Pentateuch include Jacob’s patriarchal blessing, which connects kingship with the tribe of Judah (Gen. 49:8–12), and Moses’ lyrical pronouncements over the tribes of Israel (Deut. 33). The clearest examples of prophetic-like commentary or interpretation of Yahweh’s divine revelation are Moses’ understanding of Israel’s earlier covenant history and God’s providential guidance and preservation of his people (in the so-called historical prologue of Deut. 1–4) and Moses’ pointed exposition of the stipulations by which Yahweh would enforce covenant keeping in Israel by means of blessings and curses. In each case, instruction to the Israelites is followed by admonitions to covenant obedience (Deut. 4:1–10; 29:9).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Law - The idea of law was not unique to the Hebrews in the ancient Near East. Law collections were published in Mesopotamia as early as 2000 bc, some five centuries (or more) before the time of Moses. The better known of these legal documents are the Sumerian Laws of Ur-Nammu (Ur III Dynasty, 2064–2046, or perhaps his son Shulgi, 2046–1999) and Lipit-Ishtar (king of Isin, 1875–1864), and the Old Babylonian Laws of Eshnunna (nineteenth century BC) and Hammurabi (or Hammurapi, king of Babylon, 1792–1750). The influence of the ancient Near Eastern legal tradition on the form and function of Hebrew law is undeniable and widely documented.2 Along with this contemporary cultural influence, the Old Testament affirms the divine origin of Hebrew law through Moses as Yahweh’s lawgiver. The Pentateuch is most often associated with Law, as many of the Hebrew titles for the five books attest. The English word law translates the Hebrew word torah, and Old Testament law includes commandments (Heb. miswah), statutes (Heb. hōq), and ordinances (Heb. mišpat). More than six hundred laws are contained in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The purpose of the biblical legislation was to order and regulate the moral, religious or ceremonial, and civil life of Israel in accordance with the holiness necessary for maintaining the covenant relationship with Yahweh. The purpose of Hebrew law also had implications for the literary form of Old Testament legislation. Old Testament law was covenant law; it was contractual law binding and obligating two separate parties. The covenant law paralleled the so-called suzerainty covenants of the ancient world, especially those of the Hittites. Most exemplary are the Covenant Code (Exod. 20–24) and the book of Deuteronomy.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Law - The suzerain covenants were granted by independent and powerful overlords to dependent and weaker vassals, guaranteeing them certain benefits including protection. In return, the vassal was obligated to keep specific stipulations certifying loyalty to the suzerain alone.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Law - The content of ancient Near Eastern law may be summarized under the traditional headings: civil law, ceremonial law, and cultic law.3 The subdivisions of civil law included marriage and family, inheritance, property, slaves, debt, taxes, and wages. Common subheadings under ceremonial law were murder, adultery and rape, theft, sexual deviation, false witness, assault, and liability. Cultic law organized legislation under four major ideas including sacrifices, purification, mode or object of worship, and festival observance.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Historical Background
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Historical Background - The five books of the Law narrate a time span from creation to the death of Moses at Mount Nebo in Moab just prior to the Israelite conquest of Canaan. Obviously, it is impossible to ascertain a date for the origin of our earth and its solar system. While estimates for the date of creation range from tens of thousands to billions of years, it seems best to leave the creation event an “undated mystery.” Roughly speaking, the Pentateuchal narratives from the call of Abram (Gen. 12) to the death of Moses (Deut. 34) may be assigned to the Middle Bronze and Late Bronze ages of ancient Near Eastern history. On a basic chronological continuum this means that the patriarchal period extended from approximately 2000 to 1600 BC, while Moses and the exodus date to about 1500 to 1200 BC (given the early [fifteenth century BC] and late date [twelfth century BC] options for the Israelite exodus from Egypt—see below under “Pentateuchal Chronology”). The patriarchs emerged from Mesopotamian culture founded by the Sumerians but reshaped by the Semitic dynasties of Sargon of Akkad that conquered and absorbed the decaying Sumerian civilization about 2400 BC. The later kingdoms of Sumer and Akkad were in turn influenced by the continuing infiltration of the Amorites from the north and west and the Elamites from the east. Palestine in the Middle Bronze Age was dominated by scattered Canaanite city-states much like Mesopotamia, though not as densely populated or as urban. According to the Egyptian story of Sinuhe, the fame of Palestine’s agricultural abundance was widespread. The Canaanites, Amorites, Jebusites, and non-Semitic Hurrians were among the more important people groups occupying Syro-Palestine during this period. Later both the Egyptians and the Hittites influenced Syro-Palestine as they vied for control of this key land bridge (as witnessed by the Amarna tablets and the Boghazköy tablets).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Historical Background
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Historical Background - The Egyptians were the most prominent people group shaping the historical background of Pentateuchal history. Abraham’s sporadic contact with the land of Egypt eventually gave way to the migration and settlement of Jacob’s entire clan in the region of the Nile delta. The Hebrews then resided in Egypt for several centuries, multiplying into a “great nation” while at the same time being thoroughly acculturated into Egyptian civilization. Examples of this acculturation are that not long after the exodus the Hebrews lapsed into worship of what may have been an Egyptian deity (Exod. 32:1–10); g during the trek the people clamored to return to Egypt (Num. 11:4–6); and the Pentateuch itself contains some forty-five Egyptian loan words. Ironically, the Exodus narrative pits Moses and Yahweh against the pharaoh and the gods of Egypt, with the central character, Moses, a former Egyptian courtier. (For more on Egyptian history, see “Historical Overview of Old Testament Times,” p. 181.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Pentateuchal Chronology
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Pentateuchal Chronology - Although most of Pentateuchal history may be assigned to the Middle Bronze and Late Bronze ages of ancient Near Eastern history, an exact chronology for the Hebrew patriarchs remains problematic. Some biblical scholars place the characters in a fixed chronological framework, dating Pentateuchal events precisely to the year. For example, Abram’s birth is dated to 2166 bc, he began his sojourn in Canaan in 2091, he offered the Mount Moriah sacrifice in 2056, and he died in 1991 BC Others place the Hebrew patriarchs on a relative chronological continuum, assigning them broadly to the four centuries between 2000 and 1600 BC. Given the scanty and sometimes ambiguous biblical data relating to Pentateuchal history and chronology, a relative time line for the Hebrew patriarchal period is preferable. However, even a relative chronological continuum for early Hebrew history is not without problems, as the comparison chart in figure 3.4 demonstrates. The discussion centers on two principal issues: the interpretation of biblical numerology and the role of archaeology and comparative historical and literary study in understanding biblical history. Scholars committed to a literal reading of the Old Testament date formulas affirm the historicity of the Genesis narratives and support an early date for the exodus from Egypt. Those who interpret the Old Testament date formulas figuratively or symbolically usually hold to a late date for the exodus but differ on their understanding of the historicity of the patriarchal narratives. Scholars assuming a skeptical stance toward the Old Testament narratives are regarded as “reconstructionists” because they reject a reading of the text at face value in order to retrieve or establish “real” Old Testament history through the application of historical-critical methodologies to the biblical text.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Pentateuchal Chronology
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Pentateuchal Chronology - A second chronological problem arising from the Pentateuchal narratives is the actual date of the Hebrew exodus from bondage in Egypt. The names of the pharaohs of the Hebrew oppression and exodus are not mentioned in the biblical text, and as a result of this ambiguity two distinct positions have emerged from scholarly debate. One position interprets the date formulas of Judges 11:26 and 1 Kings 6:1 literally and assigns the exodus to the fifteenth century BC (Early Date). The alternative view reads the same date formulas symbolically, places a priority on archaeological data and extrabiblical evidence, and dates the exodus to the thirteenth century BC (Late Date). (See further on this in chapter 5.)
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Historical Reliability
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Historical Reliability - The source analysis approach that gained prominence during the nineteenth century not only affected the way biblical scholars viewed the Pentateuch as a literary composition, but also had far-reaching implications for the historicity of the patriarchal narratives. Julius Wellhausen, the most influential of the “source critics,” asserted that the Pentateuch conveys no historicity for the patriarchs, but merely reflects patriarchal stories retold in a later age. It should be noted here that a skeptical stance toward the Old Testament record as history is not peculiar to source analysis. Many present-day scholars espousing the unity of the Pentateuch on the basis of literary criticism also deny the essential historicity of the biblical narratives. They speak of “sacred history” and “prose fiction,” affirming the theological truth of Scripture but denying that the message reflects historical reality or dismissing the question of historicity as irrelevant. Three primary reasons have been given for the source critic’s skepticism toward historicity: (1) It is assumed that the oral traditions on which the later written documents were based likely suffered from faulty transmission; (2) the historical distance between the actual events of Old Testament history and the documentation of those events seriously undermines the reliability of the written record; and (3) the historical events preserved in these later written documents were no doubt heavily edited by the Hebrew community for theological and political purposes.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Historical Reliability
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Historical Reliability - Today there are essentially three schools of thought on the historical reliability of the Pentateuchal (and other Old Testament) narratives. One, usually called the orthodox or traditional approach, assumes the supernatural origin of the Old Testament and the complete historical accuracy of the biblical record. The orthodox or conservative biblical scholar appeals to extrabiblical and archaeological resources only to support and elucidate the reliable history of Israel already provided in the Bible.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Historical Reliability
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - Historical Reliability - The third school of thought is that of the historical reconstructionist. This view takes a skeptical stance toward the biblical narratives on the grounds that they are the work of prescientific ancient and medieval historians. Generally, other ancient extrabiblical sources are considered more reliable than the Old Testament narratives since they are older documents and hence closer to the events they report. The historical-critical scholar uses a variety of methodologies including source, literary, form, and “tradition history” criticism to reconstruct the history of Israel in holding that the biblical accounts themselves cannot be taken at face value. Again, it is noteworthy that orthodox or conservative scholars may also use these critical methodologies while presupposing the supernatural origin and the historical reliability of the Old Testament.4 So finally, the issue of historical reliability of the Pentateuchal (and other Old Testament) narratives is one of preconvictions about the nature of the biblical text. Proponents of historical reliability are generally committed to the divine inspiration of the biblical narratives assuring an accurate history of Israel. Conversely, proponents of some form of a “reconstructionist” view of Old Testament history generally discount the divine or supernatural origin of the biblical narratives. This preconviction accounts for their critical stance toward the Old Testament as a flawed human and prescientific document and explains the need to reinterpret or recreate Hebrew history in light of extrabiblical literary and archaeological data and contemporary sociopolitical models.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - The Old Testament and the Christian Church
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - The Old Testament and the Christian Church - Ever since the time of the gnostic heretic Marcion (AD second century), the church has been confronted with the problem of determining the rightful place of the Old Testament in the Christian’s Bible. Marcion represents one extreme, namely, utter rejection of the Old Testament and its “inferior God.” Today the other extreme may be found among those groups who recognize the absolute authoritative nature of the Old Testament writings for the life and doctrine of the church. More recently this application of the authority of the Old Testament, especially the Law, to the life of Christians has witnessed a resurgence in the “theonomics” movement, or Dominion Theology.5 The problem of reconciling “law” and “grace” gave rise to multiple methods of interpretation of the Old Testament during the Middle Ages. Since it was believed that revelation was both expressed and hidden in the text of the Bible, several hermeneutical or interpretive approaches were used to understand the proper meaning of the Scriptures. Four basic methods emerged: (1) the literal or plain, taking the Bible at face value; (2) the allegorical or hidden meaning, uncovering “buried” meanings for personal faith; (3) the moral or didactic, directing Christian behavior; and (4) the anagogical, focusing on the consummation of faith and the ultimate hope of the Christian.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - The Old Testament and the Christian Church
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - The Old Testament and the Christian Church - Since the Reformation, Protestant churches have attempted to resolve the tension between the “law” of the old covenant and the “grace” of the new covenant by one of two basic approaches. The first heightens the discontinuity of the two covenants, in varying degrees, by means of a “dispensational” interpretation that identifies seven self-contained eras, or dispensations, of divine revelation. This approach draws sharp distinctions between Israel and the church and essentially constitutes a messianic suspension of Old Testament law. The second approach, covenant theology, emphasizes the continuity of the “covenant of works” and the “covenant of grace” and underscores their interrelationship.6
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - The Old Testament and the Christian Church
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - The Old Testament and the Christian Church - According to John Bright, only the approach that takes seriously the Old Testament as Scripture correctly understands the text and elevates the old covenant to its rightful place in the Christian’s Bible. There is a sense in which the other three approaches (the Old Testament as a way of life, as a witness to Christ, and as salvation history) reduce the old covenant to a second rank in comparison with the New Testament. For Bright, this reading of the Old Testament with “New Testament glasses” robs the former of its authority for the Christian church. Since the Old Testament is intrinsically authoritative by virtue of its canonical status in the Christian community, it too is binding on the church in what it teaches explicitly and affirms implicitly. This canonical status also means that the Old Testament is authoritative in its entirety and cannot be appealed to selectively. Only this biblical theological approach preserves the divine authority of the entire Old Testament for the community of the New Testament church. This makes Paul’s statement intelligible: “For everything that was written in the past was written to teach us” (Rom. 15:4; 1 Cor. 10: 11).8
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Jesus acknowledged that the law was “legalism” in the sense that it demanded obedience to detailed Old Testament prescriptions and stipulations instituted by Yahweh for Israel (e.g., tithing, Matt. 23:23a). But the true nature of law, according to Jesus, went far beyond the external behavior prescribed by the legal code. Old Testament law comprised essentially justice, mercy, and faithfulness (Matt. 23:23b). Paul affirmed the law as holy, spiritual, righteous, and good (Rom. 7:12–14). One of the functions of the Old Testament law was to point out sin in humanity for what it really was—rebellion and disobedience before God. While demonstrating that sin left all persons without excuse before the holy God, the law exposed the human need for divine redemption. It was intended to tutor Israel and thus prepare them (and the world) for the revelation of Jesus of Nazareth as the Christ (Gal. 3:24). Ultimately the sacrificial and ethical demands of Old Testament law foreshadowed the New Testament gospel: justification by faith in Jesus Christ.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - In one sense, the divinely revealed legal tradition of the Hebrews represents a continuum between the old and new covenants. Jesus fulfilled all the law in his very person and his special ministry as God’s Messiah (Matt. 5:17). By his teaching, Jesus not only certified the continuing authority of the Old Testament law, but also clarified and illuminated what had been implicit regarding human intent and motives. Biblical law was indeed more than external acts and rituals; it embodied the thoughts of the mind and the intents of the heart (e.g., Jesus’ teaching on anger and adultery, Matt. 5:21–32). That Old Testament law was “internal” every bit as much as it was “external” is seen in Jesus’ summary of the commandments: “Love the Lord your God with all your heart…. Love your neighbor as yourself “ (Matt. 22:37, 39; cf. Deut. 30:1–10). Finally, this love for God that prompts obedience to his commandments marks the true child of God (1 John 5:1–5).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Yet we must recognize the contrast or discontinuity between the Old and New Testaments. Their understanding of God, faith, and even law are not identical.9 Jesus specifically canceled the ceremonial food laws of Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14 in his teaching that all foods are “clean” (Mark 7:14–23; cf. Peter’s vision in Acts 10:9–23). Of even greater significance, the levitical legislation related to the office of priest and the institution of animal sacrifice is superseded in the person and work of Jesus Christ as a greater high priest and the “once-for-all” atoning sacrifice for human sin (Heb. 7:15–28; 9:11–14). However, the undergirding theological principles of Old Testament law remain intact apart from the functional abrogation of aspects of the civil and ceremonial law by New Testament teaching. As “God-breathed” revelation (2 Tim. 3:16), the Old Testament Scriptures are inherently authoritative, whether in explicit teaching or implicit theological idea. So while Jesus Christ is the Passover Lamb, rendering all further animal sacrifices obsolete and unnecessary (1 Cor. 5:7), the New Testament still admonishes all believers in Christ to present themselves as “living sacrifices” unto God (Rom. 12:1–2). Likewise, all believers are obligated to be holy even as God is holy (1 Peter 1:16) because they now constitute a royal priesthood in Christ Jesus (1 Peter 2:9). Blenkinsopp, J. The Pentateuch. New York: Doubleday, 1992. Bright, John. A History of Israel. 4th ed. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2000. Esp. 77–103. Informative section in support of patriarchal historicity. Carpenter, E. E. “Pentateuch.” ISBE. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986. 3:740–53. Clines, D. J. A. The Theme of the Pentateuch. JSOTSS 10. 2nd ed. Sheffield, England: JSOT Press, 1999. Classic monograph tracing the covenant theme unifying the literature and theology of Pentateuchal narratives.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Dyrness, William A. Themes in Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1979. Esp. 113–42.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Fretheim, Terence E. The Pentateuch. IBT. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1996. Hamilton, Victor. P. Handbook on the Pentateuch. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005. Practical exposition of Pentateuchal content, excluding discussion of issues related to critical study of Old Testament, but including extensive bibliographies. Harrison, R. K. Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969. Esp. 493–662. Now dated, but still the most comprehensive evangelical review of Old Testament studies, with exhaustive section on the Pentateuch. Hayes, John H. An Introduction to Old Testament Study. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1979. Esp. 83–198. A useful survey of the historical-critical study of the Old Testament, but giving scant attention to evangelical concerns and responses. Hayes, John H., and J. Maxwell Miller. A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2006. Esp. 70–212. Hoerth, Alfred J., Gerald L. Mattingly, and Edwin M. Yamauchi, eds. Peoples of Old Testament Times. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994. House, P. R. Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1998. Kitchen, K. A. On the Reliability of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. Knight, D. A., and G. M. Tucker, eds. The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Interpreters. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985. Livingston, G. H. The Pentateuch in Its Cultural Environment. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987. Well-researched introduction to the history and culture of ancient Israel prior to the conquest, with comparative study in ancient nonbiblical religious literature. Martens, E. A. God’s Design: A Focus on Old Testament Theology. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1997. Millard, Alan R., and Donald J. Wiseman, eds. Essays on the Patriarchal Narratives. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983. Evangelical reexamination of the historical reliability and theological teaching of the Old Testament patriarchal narratives in light of recent research.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Patrick, D. Old Testament Law. Atlanta: John Knox, 1985.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Literature of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Provan, I., V. P. Long, and T. Longman. A Biblical History of Israel. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2003. An evangelical and “maximalist” approach to Old Testament history. Sailhamer, John H. The Pentateuch as Narrative. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992. Sandy, D. Brent, and Ronald L. Giese, eds. Cracking Old Testament Codes. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995. A “how-to” guide to interpreting the literature of the Old Testament, including case studies. Schultz, Samuel J. The Gospel of Moses. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. Scobie, C. H. H. The Ways of Our God: An Approach to Biblical Theology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. Comprehensive synthesis of biblical themes discussed in the framework of promise and fulfillment. Sparks, Kenton L. Ancient Texts for the Study of the Hebrew Bible. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2005. Walton, John H. Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989. A survey of the parallels between the various literary genres common to the Bible and the literature of the ancient Near East. _____. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006. Walton, John H., Victor H. Matthews, and Mark Chavalas, Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2000. Social and cultural backgrounds of the Old Testament. Wenham, G. Exploring the Old Testament: A Guide to the Pentateuch. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2003. Helpful sections on the use of the Pentateuch in the New Testament. Wolf, Herbert M. An Introduction to the Old Testament Pentateuch. Chicago: Moody Press, 1991. Wright, C. J. H. Old Testament Ethics for the People of God. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2004.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Prose Narrative
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Prose Narrative - Most of the Pentateuchal literature is prose narrative. The narrative is simple but direct and forceful. The text is largely a third-person account of early Israelite history interspersed with prayers, speeches, and other types of direct discourse (e.g., Abraham’s intercessory prayer for Sodom in Gen. 18:22–33, Yahweh’s speech to Moses in Exod. 3:7–12, and the exchange between Pharaoh and Moses in Exod. 10:1–21). The narratives artfully blend historical reporting and theological interpretation. This makes the Pentateuch more than a mere register of chronologically ordered events yet something less than pointed religious propaganda serving to explain or justify certain actions, events, institutions, or theological teachings. Perhaps the best example of this blend of historical reporting and theological interpretation is the providential understanding of Joseph’s trials as benefiting all of Jacob’s family (Gen. 50:15–21). The language of the Pentateuch is simple and beautiful. It uses anthropomorphic language (i.e., ascribing human qualities to God), and frequent reference to theophany (i.e., a visible and/or audible manifestation of God to a human being). The detailed characterizations and repetitious plots in the stories have led some scholars to use terms like “myth” or “saga,” “folklore,” and “legend” for portions of the Pentateuchal narratives (especially Genesis). Traditionally, evangelical scholars have balked at employing such labels for the Pentateuchal narratives lest the accounts be thought of as fiction. The inability of modern scholarship to define these genres or literary categories carefully and clearly has also contributed to this reluctance to use these terms. Once again, belief in the historicity of the Old Testament make some scholars reluctant to include Genesis (and the rest of the Pentateuch) in these ill-defined genres. This historical aspect of the Pentateuchal prose narratives is discussed later on.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Ancient Poetry
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Ancient Poetry - The Pentateuch contains some of the earliest examples of Hebrew poetry in all the Old Testament. Careful analysis of the way words are spelled, of the meanings words are given, and of the way sentences are put together has demonstrated the antiquity of a number of poetic passages. Among these are Moses’ Song of the Sea (Exod. 15), the Balaam Oracles (Num. 23–24), Jacob’s Blessing (Gen. 49), and the Song and Blessing of Moses (Deut. 32–33). The dates for the current form of these poetic texts range from the thirteenth to the eleventh centuries BC according to this technical analysis.1 Specific poetic forms in the Pentateuch include
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Prophetic Revelation
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Prophetic Revelation - Prophetic literature in the Old Testament includes both foretelling (or divine revelation) and exposition (or interpretation) of Yahweh’s covenant-oriented revelation to Israel. The Pentateuch contains examples of both. Prophetic revelation in the Law occurs in prose narrative and poetic forms. For example, there is Yahweh’s revelation to Abram regarding the oppression and slavery of his descendants (Gen. 15:12–16) and Moses’ prosaic forecast about a prophet who will appear in Israel (Deut. 18:17–20; ultimately fulfilled in Jesus of Nazareth according to John 1:45). Examples of poetic prophecy in the Pentateuch include Jacob’s patriarchal blessing, which connects kingship with the tribe of Judah (Gen. 49:8–12), and Moses’ lyrical pronouncements over the tribes of Israel (Deut. 33). The clearest examples of prophetic-like commentary or interpretation of Yahweh’s divine revelation are Moses’ understanding of Israel’s earlier covenant history and God’s providential guidance and preservation of his people (in the so-called historical prologue of Deut. 1–4) and Moses’ pointed exposition of the stipulations by which Yahweh would enforce covenant keeping in Israel by means of blessings and curses. In each case, instruction to the Israelites is followed by admonitions to covenant obedience (Deut. 4:1–10; 29:9).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Law - The idea of law was not unique to the Hebrews in the ancient Near East. Law collections were published in Mesopotamia as early as 2000 bc, some five centuries (or more) before the time of Moses. The better known of these legal documents are the Sumerian Laws of Ur-Nammu (Ur III Dynasty, 2064–2046, or perhaps his son Shulgi, 2046–1999) and Lipit-Ishtar (king of Isin, 1875–1864), and the Old Babylonian Laws of Eshnunna (nineteenth century BC) and Hammurabi (or Hammurapi, king of Babylon, 1792–1750). The influence of the ancient Near Eastern legal tradition on the form and function of Hebrew law is undeniable and widely documented.2 Along with this contemporary cultural influence, the Old Testament affirms the divine origin of Hebrew law through Moses as Yahweh’s lawgiver. The Pentateuch is most often associated with Law, as many of the Hebrew titles for the five books attest. The English word law translates the Hebrew word torah, and Old Testament law includes commandments (Heb. miswah), statutes (Heb. hōq), and ordinances (Heb. mišpat). More than six hundred laws are contained in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The purpose of the biblical legislation was to order and regulate the moral, religious or ceremonial, and civil life of Israel in accordance with the holiness necessary for maintaining the covenant relationship with Yahweh. The purpose of Hebrew law also had implications for the literary form of Old Testament legislation. Old Testament law was covenant law; it was contractual law binding and obligating two separate parties. The covenant law paralleled the so-called suzerainty covenants of the ancient world, especially those of the Hittites. Most exemplary are the Covenant Code (Exod. 20–24) and the book of Deuteronomy.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Law - The suzerain covenants were granted by independent and powerful overlords to dependent and weaker vassals, guaranteeing them certain benefits including protection. In return, the vassal was obligated to keep specific stipulations certifying loyalty to the suzerain alone.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Law - The content of ancient Near Eastern law may be summarized under the traditional headings: civil law, ceremonial law, and cultic law.3 The subdivisions of civil law included marriage and family, inheritance, property, slaves, debt, taxes, and wages. Common subheadings under ceremonial law were murder, adultery and rape, theft, sexual deviation, false witness, assault, and liability. Cultic law organized legislation under four major ideas including sacrifices, purification, mode or object of worship, and festival observance.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Historical Background
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Historical Background - The five books of the Law narrate a time span from creation to the death of Moses at Mount Nebo in Moab just prior to the Israelite conquest of Canaan. Obviously, it is impossible to ascertain a date for the origin of our earth and its solar system. While estimates for the date of creation range from tens of thousands to billions of years, it seems best to leave the creation event an “undated mystery.” Roughly speaking, the Pentateuchal narratives from the call of Abram (Gen. 12) to the death of Moses (Deut. 34) may be assigned to the Middle Bronze and Late Bronze ages of ancient Near Eastern history. On a basic chronological continuum this means that the patriarchal period extended from approximately 2000 to 1600 BC, while Moses and the exodus date to about 1500 to 1200 BC (given the early [fifteenth century BC] and late date [twelfth century BC] options for the Israelite exodus from Egypt—see below under “Pentateuchal Chronology”). The patriarchs emerged from Mesopotamian culture founded by the Sumerians but reshaped by the Semitic dynasties of Sargon of Akkad that conquered and absorbed the decaying Sumerian civilization about 2400 BC. The later kingdoms of Sumer and Akkad were in turn influenced by the continuing infiltration of the Amorites from the north and west and the Elamites from the east. Palestine in the Middle Bronze Age was dominated by scattered Canaanite city-states much like Mesopotamia, though not as densely populated or as urban. According to the Egyptian story of Sinuhe, the fame of Palestine’s agricultural abundance was widespread. The Canaanites, Amorites, Jebusites, and non-Semitic Hurrians were among the more important people groups occupying Syro-Palestine during this period. Later both the Egyptians and the Hittites influenced Syro-Palestine as they vied for control of this key land bridge (as witnessed by the Amarna tablets and the Boghazköy tablets).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Historical Background
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Historical Background - The Egyptians were the most prominent people group shaping the historical background of Pentateuchal history. Abraham’s sporadic contact with the land of Egypt eventually gave way to the migration and settlement of Jacob’s entire clan in the region of the Nile delta. The Hebrews then resided in Egypt for several centuries, multiplying into a “great nation” while at the same time being thoroughly acculturated into Egyptian civilization. Examples of this acculturation are that not long after the exodus the Hebrews lapsed into worship of what may have been an Egyptian deity (Exod. 32:1–10); g during the trek the people clamored to return to Egypt (Num. 11:4–6); and the Pentateuch itself contains some forty-five Egyptian loan words. Ironically, the Exodus narrative pits Moses and Yahweh against the pharaoh and the gods of Egypt, with the central character, Moses, a former Egyptian courtier. (For more on Egyptian history, see “Historical Overview of Old Testament Times,” p. 181.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Pentateuchal Chronology
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Pentateuchal Chronology - Although most of Pentateuchal history may be assigned to the Middle Bronze and Late Bronze ages of ancient Near Eastern history, an exact chronology for the Hebrew patriarchs remains problematic. Some biblical scholars place the characters in a fixed chronological framework, dating Pentateuchal events precisely to the year. For example, Abram’s birth is dated to 2166 bc, he began his sojourn in Canaan in 2091, he offered the Mount Moriah sacrifice in 2056, and he died in 1991 BC Others place the Hebrew patriarchs on a relative chronological continuum, assigning them broadly to the four centuries between 2000 and 1600 BC. Given the scanty and sometimes ambiguous biblical data relating to Pentateuchal history and chronology, a relative time line for the Hebrew patriarchal period is preferable. However, even a relative chronological continuum for early Hebrew history is not without problems, as the comparison chart in figure 3.4 demonstrates. The discussion centers on two principal issues: the interpretation of biblical numerology and the role of archaeology and comparative historical and literary study in understanding biblical history. Scholars committed to a literal reading of the Old Testament date formulas affirm the historicity of the Genesis narratives and support an early date for the exodus from Egypt. Those who interpret the Old Testament date formulas figuratively or symbolically usually hold to a late date for the exodus but differ on their understanding of the historicity of the patriarchal narratives. Scholars assuming a skeptical stance toward the Old Testament narratives are regarded as “reconstructionists” because they reject a reading of the text at face value in order to retrieve or establish “real” Old Testament history through the application of historical-critical methodologies to the biblical text.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Pentateuchal Chronology
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Pentateuchal Chronology - A second chronological problem arising from the Pentateuchal narratives is the actual date of the Hebrew exodus from bondage in Egypt. The names of the pharaohs of the Hebrew oppression and exodus are not mentioned in the biblical text, and as a result of this ambiguity two distinct positions have emerged from scholarly debate. One position interprets the date formulas of Judges 11:26 and 1 Kings 6:1 literally and assigns the exodus to the fifteenth century BC (Early Date). The alternative view reads the same date formulas symbolically, places a priority on archaeological data and extrabiblical evidence, and dates the exodus to the thirteenth century BC (Late Date). (See further on this in chapter 5.)
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Historical Reliability
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Historical Reliability - The source analysis approach that gained prominence during the nineteenth century not only affected the way biblical scholars viewed the Pentateuch as a literary composition, but also had far-reaching implications for the historicity of the patriarchal narratives. Julius Wellhausen, the most influential of the “source critics,” asserted that the Pentateuch conveys no historicity for the patriarchs, but merely reflects patriarchal stories retold in a later age. It should be noted here that a skeptical stance toward the Old Testament record as history is not peculiar to source analysis. Many present-day scholars espousing the unity of the Pentateuch on the basis of literary criticism also deny the essential historicity of the biblical narratives. They speak of “sacred history” and “prose fiction,” affirming the theological truth of Scripture but denying that the message reflects historical reality or dismissing the question of historicity as irrelevant. Three primary reasons have been given for the source critic’s skepticism toward historicity: (1) It is assumed that the oral traditions on which the later written documents were based likely suffered from faulty transmission; (2) the historical distance between the actual events of Old Testament history and the documentation of those events seriously undermines the reliability of the written record; and (3) the historical events preserved in these later written documents were no doubt heavily edited by the Hebrew community for theological and political purposes.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Historical Reliability
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Historical Reliability - Today there are essentially three schools of thought on the historical reliability of the Pentateuchal (and other Old Testament) narratives. One, usually called the orthodox or traditional approach, assumes the supernatural origin of the Old Testament and the complete historical accuracy of the biblical record. The orthodox or conservative biblical scholar appeals to extrabiblical and archaeological resources only to support and elucidate the reliable history of Israel already provided in the Bible.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Historical Reliability
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - Historical Reliability - The third school of thought is that of the historical reconstructionist. This view takes a skeptical stance toward the biblical narratives on the grounds that they are the work of prescientific ancient and medieval historians. Generally, other ancient extrabiblical sources are considered more reliable than the Old Testament narratives since they are older documents and hence closer to the events they report. The historical-critical scholar uses a variety of methodologies including source, literary, form, and “tradition history” criticism to reconstruct the history of Israel in holding that the biblical accounts themselves cannot be taken at face value. Again, it is noteworthy that orthodox or conservative scholars may also use these critical methodologies while presupposing the supernatural origin and the historical reliability of the Old Testament.4 So finally, the issue of historical reliability of the Pentateuchal (and other Old Testament) narratives is one of preconvictions about the nature of the biblical text. Proponents of historical reliability are generally committed to the divine inspiration of the biblical narratives assuring an accurate history of Israel. Conversely, proponents of some form of a “reconstructionist” view of Old Testament history generally discount the divine or supernatural origin of the biblical narratives. This preconviction accounts for their critical stance toward the Old Testament as a flawed human and prescientific document and explains the need to reinterpret or recreate Hebrew history in light of extrabiblical literary and archaeological data and contemporary sociopolitical models.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - The Old Testament and the Christian Church
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - The Old Testament and the Christian Church - Ever since the time of the gnostic heretic Marcion (AD second century), the church has been confronted with the problem of determining the rightful place of the Old Testament in the Christian’s Bible. Marcion represents one extreme, namely, utter rejection of the Old Testament and its “inferior God.” Today the other extreme may be found among those groups who recognize the absolute authoritative nature of the Old Testament writings for the life and doctrine of the church. More recently this application of the authority of the Old Testament, especially the Law, to the life of Christians has witnessed a resurgence in the “theonomics” movement, or Dominion Theology.5 The problem of reconciling “law” and “grace” gave rise to multiple methods of interpretation of the Old Testament during the Middle Ages. Since it was believed that revelation was both expressed and hidden in the text of the Bible, several hermeneutical or interpretive approaches were used to understand the proper meaning of the Scriptures. Four basic methods emerged: (1) the literal or plain, taking the Bible at face value; (2) the allegorical or hidden meaning, uncovering “buried” meanings for personal faith; (3) the moral or didactic, directing Christian behavior; and (4) the anagogical, focusing on the consummation of faith and the ultimate hope of the Christian.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - The Old Testament and the Christian Church
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - The Old Testament and the Christian Church - Since the Reformation, Protestant churches have attempted to resolve the tension between the “law” of the old covenant and the “grace” of the new covenant by one of two basic approaches. The first heightens the discontinuity of the two covenants, in varying degrees, by means of a “dispensational” interpretation that identifies seven self-contained eras, or dispensations, of divine revelation. This approach draws sharp distinctions between Israel and the church and essentially constitutes a messianic suspension of Old Testament law. The second approach, covenant theology, emphasizes the continuity of the “covenant of works” and the “covenant of grace” and underscores their interrelationship.6
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - The Old Testament and the Christian Church
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - The Old Testament and the Christian Church - According to John Bright, only the approach that takes seriously the Old Testament as Scripture correctly understands the text and elevates the old covenant to its rightful place in the Christian’s Bible. There is a sense in which the other three approaches (the Old Testament as a way of life, as a witness to Christ, and as salvation history) reduce the old covenant to a second rank in comparison with the New Testament. For Bright, this reading of the Old Testament with “New Testament glasses” robs the former of its authority for the Christian church. Since the Old Testament is intrinsically authoritative by virtue of its canonical status in the Christian community, it too is binding on the church in what it teaches explicitly and affirms implicitly. This canonical status also means that the Old Testament is authoritative in its entirety and cannot be appealed to selectively. Only this biblical theological approach preserves the divine authority of the entire Old Testament for the community of the New Testament church. This makes Paul’s statement intelligible: “For everything that was written in the past was written to teach us” (Rom. 15:4; 1 Cor. 10: 11).8
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Jesus acknowledged that the law was “legalism” in the sense that it demanded obedience to detailed Old Testament prescriptions and stipulations instituted by Yahweh for Israel (e.g., tithing, Matt. 23:23a). But the true nature of law, according to Jesus, went far beyond the external behavior prescribed by the legal code. Old Testament law comprised essentially justice, mercy, and faithfulness (Matt. 23:23b). Paul affirmed the law as holy, spiritual, righteous, and good (Rom. 7:12–14). One of the functions of the Old Testament law was to point out sin in humanity for what it really was—rebellion and disobedience before God. While demonstrating that sin left all persons without excuse before the holy God, the law exposed the human need for divine redemption. It was intended to tutor Israel and thus prepare them (and the world) for the revelation of Jesus of Nazareth as the Christ (Gal. 3:24). Ultimately the sacrificial and ethical demands of Old Testament law foreshadowed the New Testament gospel: justification by faith in Jesus Christ.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - In one sense, the divinely revealed legal tradition of the Hebrews represents a continuum between the old and new covenants. Jesus fulfilled all the law in his very person and his special ministry as God’s Messiah (Matt. 5:17). By his teaching, Jesus not only certified the continuing authority of the Old Testament law, but also clarified and illuminated what had been implicit regarding human intent and motives. Biblical law was indeed more than external acts and rituals; it embodied the thoughts of the mind and the intents of the heart (e.g., Jesus’ teaching on anger and adultery, Matt. 5:21–32). That Old Testament law was “internal” every bit as much as it was “external” is seen in Jesus’ summary of the commandments: “Love the Lord your God with all your heart…. Love your neighbor as yourself “ (Matt. 22:37, 39; cf. Deut. 30:1–10). Finally, this love for God that prompts obedience to his commandments marks the true child of God (1 John 5:1–5).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Yet we must recognize the contrast or discontinuity between the Old and New Testaments. Their understanding of God, faith, and even law are not identical.9 Jesus specifically canceled the ceremonial food laws of Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14 in his teaching that all foods are “clean” (Mark 7:14–23; cf. Peter’s vision in Acts 10:9–23). Of even greater significance, the levitical legislation related to the office of priest and the institution of animal sacrifice is superseded in the person and work of Jesus Christ as a greater high priest and the “once-for-all” atoning sacrifice for human sin (Heb. 7:15–28; 9:11–14). However, the undergirding theological principles of Old Testament law remain intact apart from the functional abrogation of aspects of the civil and ceremonial law by New Testament teaching. As “God-breathed” revelation (2 Tim. 3:16), the Old Testament Scriptures are inherently authoritative, whether in explicit teaching or implicit theological idea. So while Jesus Christ is the Passover Lamb, rendering all further animal sacrifices obsolete and unnecessary (1 Cor. 5:7), the New Testament still admonishes all believers in Christ to present themselves as “living sacrifices” unto God (Rom. 12:1–2). Likewise, all believers are obligated to be holy even as God is holy (1 Peter 1:16) because they now constitute a royal priesthood in Christ Jesus (1 Peter 2:9). Blenkinsopp, J. The Pentateuch. New York: Doubleday, 1992. Bright, John. A History of Israel. 4th ed. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2000. Esp. 77–103. Informative section in support of patriarchal historicity. Carpenter, E. E. “Pentateuch.” ISBE. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986. 3:740–53. Clines, D. J. A. The Theme of the Pentateuch. JSOTSS 10. 2nd ed. Sheffield, England: JSOT Press, 1999. Classic monograph tracing the covenant theme unifying the literature and theology of Pentateuchal narratives.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Dyrness, William A. Themes in Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1979. Esp. 113–42.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Fretheim, Terence E. The Pentateuch. IBT. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1996. Hamilton, Victor. P. Handbook on the Pentateuch. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005. Practical exposition of Pentateuchal content, excluding discussion of issues related to critical study of Old Testament, but including extensive bibliographies. Harrison, R. K. Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969. Esp. 493–662. Now dated, but still the most comprehensive evangelical review of Old Testament studies, with exhaustive section on the Pentateuch. Hayes, John H. An Introduction to Old Testament Study. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1979. Esp. 83–198. A useful survey of the historical-critical study of the Old Testament, but giving scant attention to evangelical concerns and responses. Hayes, John H., and J. Maxwell Miller. A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2006. Esp. 70–212. Hoerth, Alfred J., Gerald L. Mattingly, and Edwin M. Yamauchi, eds. Peoples of Old Testament Times. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994. House, P. R. Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1998. Kitchen, K. A. On the Reliability of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. Knight, D. A., and G. M. Tucker, eds. The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Interpreters. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985. Livingston, G. H. The Pentateuch in Its Cultural Environment. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987. Well-researched introduction to the history and culture of ancient Israel prior to the conquest, with comparative study in ancient nonbiblical religious literature. Martens, E. A. God’s Design: A Focus on Old Testament Theology. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1997. Millard, Alan R., and Donald J. Wiseman, eds. Essays on the Patriarchal Narratives. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983. Evangelical reexamination of the historical reliability and theological teaching of the Old Testament patriarchal narratives in light of recent research.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Patrick, D. Old Testament Law. Atlanta: John Knox, 1985.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - The Pentateuch as History - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Provan, I., V. P. Long, and T. Longman. A Biblical History of Israel. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2003. An evangelical and “maximalist” approach to Old Testament history. Sailhamer, John H. The Pentateuch as Narrative. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992. Sandy, D. Brent, and Ronald L. Giese, eds. Cracking Old Testament Codes. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995. A “how-to” guide to interpreting the literature of the Old Testament, including case studies. Schultz, Samuel J. The Gospel of Moses. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. Scobie, C. H. H. The Ways of Our God: An Approach to Biblical Theology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. Comprehensive synthesis of biblical themes discussed in the framework of promise and fulfillment. Sparks, Kenton L. Ancient Texts for the Study of the Hebrew Bible. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2005. Walton, John H. Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989. A survey of the parallels between the various literary genres common to the Bible and the literature of the ancient Near East. _____. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006. Walton, John H., Victor H. Matthews, and Mark Chavalas, Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2000. Social and cultural backgrounds of the Old Testament. Wenham, G. Exploring the Old Testament: A Guide to the Pentateuch. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2003. Helpful sections on the use of the Pentateuch in the New Testament. Wolf, Herbert M. An Introduction to the Old Testament Pentateuch. Chicago: Moody Press, 1991. Wright, C. J. H. Old Testament Ethics for the People of God. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2004.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Prose Narrative
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Prose Narrative - Most of the Pentateuchal literature is prose narrative. The narrative is simple but direct and forceful. The text is largely a third-person account of early Israelite history interspersed with prayers, speeches, and other types of direct discourse (e.g., Abraham’s intercessory prayer for Sodom in Gen. 18:22–33, Yahweh’s speech to Moses in Exod. 3:7–12, and the exchange between Pharaoh and Moses in Exod. 10:1–21). The narratives artfully blend historical reporting and theological interpretation. This makes the Pentateuch more than a mere register of chronologically ordered events yet something less than pointed religious propaganda serving to explain or justify certain actions, events, institutions, or theological teachings. Perhaps the best example of this blend of historical reporting and theological interpretation is the providential understanding of Joseph’s trials as benefiting all of Jacob’s family (Gen. 50:15–21). The language of the Pentateuch is simple and beautiful. It uses anthropomorphic language (i.e., ascribing human qualities to God), and frequent reference to theophany (i.e., a visible and/or audible manifestation of God to a human being). The detailed characterizations and repetitious plots in the stories have led some scholars to use terms like “myth” or “saga,” “folklore,” and “legend” for portions of the Pentateuchal narratives (especially Genesis). Traditionally, evangelical scholars have balked at employing such labels for the Pentateuchal narratives lest the accounts be thought of as fiction. The inability of modern scholarship to define these genres or literary categories carefully and clearly has also contributed to this reluctance to use these terms. Once again, belief in the historicity of the Old Testament make some scholars reluctant to include Genesis (and the rest of the Pentateuch) in these ill-defined genres. This historical aspect of the Pentateuchal prose narratives is discussed later on.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Ancient Poetry
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Ancient Poetry - The Pentateuch contains some of the earliest examples of Hebrew poetry in all the Old Testament. Careful analysis of the way words are spelled, of the meanings words are given, and of the way sentences are put together has demonstrated the antiquity of a number of poetic passages. Among these are Moses’ Song of the Sea (Exod. 15), the Balaam Oracles (Num. 23–24), Jacob’s Blessing (Gen. 49), and the Song and Blessing of Moses (Deut. 32–33). The dates for the current form of these poetic texts range from the thirteenth to the eleventh centuries BC according to this technical analysis.1 Specific poetic forms in the Pentateuch include
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Prophetic Revelation
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Prophetic Revelation - Prophetic literature in the Old Testament includes both foretelling (or divine revelation) and exposition (or interpretation) of Yahweh’s covenant-oriented revelation to Israel. The Pentateuch contains examples of both. Prophetic revelation in the Law occurs in prose narrative and poetic forms. For example, there is Yahweh’s revelation to Abram regarding the oppression and slavery of his descendants (Gen. 15:12–16) and Moses’ prosaic forecast about a prophet who will appear in Israel (Deut. 18:17–20; ultimately fulfilled in Jesus of Nazareth according to John 1:45). Examples of poetic prophecy in the Pentateuch include Jacob’s patriarchal blessing, which connects kingship with the tribe of Judah (Gen. 49:8–12), and Moses’ lyrical pronouncements over the tribes of Israel (Deut. 33). The clearest examples of prophetic-like commentary or interpretation of Yahweh’s divine revelation are Moses’ understanding of Israel’s earlier covenant history and God’s providential guidance and preservation of his people (in the so-called historical prologue of Deut. 1–4) and Moses’ pointed exposition of the stipulations by which Yahweh would enforce covenant keeping in Israel by means of blessings and curses. In each case, instruction to the Israelites is followed by admonitions to covenant obedience (Deut. 4:1–10; 29:9).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Law - The idea of law was not unique to the Hebrews in the ancient Near East. Law collections were published in Mesopotamia as early as 2000 bc, some five centuries (or more) before the time of Moses. The better known of these legal documents are the Sumerian Laws of Ur-Nammu (Ur III Dynasty, 2064–2046, or perhaps his son Shulgi, 2046–1999) and Lipit-Ishtar (king of Isin, 1875–1864), and the Old Babylonian Laws of Eshnunna (nineteenth century BC) and Hammurabi (or Hammurapi, king of Babylon, 1792–1750). The influence of the ancient Near Eastern legal tradition on the form and function of Hebrew law is undeniable and widely documented.2 Along with this contemporary cultural influence, the Old Testament affirms the divine origin of Hebrew law through Moses as Yahweh’s lawgiver. The Pentateuch is most often associated with Law, as many of the Hebrew titles for the five books attest. The English word law translates the Hebrew word torah, and Old Testament law includes commandments (Heb. miswah), statutes (Heb. hōq), and ordinances (Heb. mišpat). More than six hundred laws are contained in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The purpose of the biblical legislation was to order and regulate the moral, religious or ceremonial, and civil life of Israel in accordance with the holiness necessary for maintaining the covenant relationship with Yahweh. The purpose of Hebrew law also had implications for the literary form of Old Testament legislation. Old Testament law was covenant law; it was contractual law binding and obligating two separate parties. The covenant law paralleled the so-called suzerainty covenants of the ancient world, especially those of the Hittites. Most exemplary are the Covenant Code (Exod. 20–24) and the book of Deuteronomy.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Law - The suzerain covenants were granted by independent and powerful overlords to dependent and weaker vassals, guaranteeing them certain benefits including protection. In return, the vassal was obligated to keep specific stipulations certifying loyalty to the suzerain alone.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Law - The content of ancient Near Eastern law may be summarized under the traditional headings: civil law, ceremonial law, and cultic law.3 The subdivisions of civil law included marriage and family, inheritance, property, slaves, debt, taxes, and wages. Common subheadings under ceremonial law were murder, adultery and rape, theft, sexual deviation, false witness, assault, and liability. Cultic law organized legislation under four major ideas including sacrifices, purification, mode or object of worship, and festival observance.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Historical Background
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Historical Background - The five books of the Law narrate a time span from creation to the death of Moses at Mount Nebo in Moab just prior to the Israelite conquest of Canaan. Obviously, it is impossible to ascertain a date for the origin of our earth and its solar system. While estimates for the date of creation range from tens of thousands to billions of years, it seems best to leave the creation event an “undated mystery.” Roughly speaking, the Pentateuchal narratives from the call of Abram (Gen. 12) to the death of Moses (Deut. 34) may be assigned to the Middle Bronze and Late Bronze ages of ancient Near Eastern history. On a basic chronological continuum this means that the patriarchal period extended from approximately 2000 to 1600 BC, while Moses and the exodus date to about 1500 to 1200 BC (given the early [fifteenth century BC] and late date [twelfth century BC] options for the Israelite exodus from Egypt—see below under “Pentateuchal Chronology”). The patriarchs emerged from Mesopotamian culture founded by the Sumerians but reshaped by the Semitic dynasties of Sargon of Akkad that conquered and absorbed the decaying Sumerian civilization about 2400 BC. The later kingdoms of Sumer and Akkad were in turn influenced by the continuing infiltration of the Amorites from the north and west and the Elamites from the east. Palestine in the Middle Bronze Age was dominated by scattered Canaanite city-states much like Mesopotamia, though not as densely populated or as urban. According to the Egyptian story of Sinuhe, the fame of Palestine’s agricultural abundance was widespread. The Canaanites, Amorites, Jebusites, and non-Semitic Hurrians were among the more important people groups occupying Syro-Palestine during this period. Later both the Egyptians and the Hittites influenced Syro-Palestine as they vied for control of this key land bridge (as witnessed by the Amarna tablets and the Boghazköy tablets).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Historical Background
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Historical Background - The Egyptians were the most prominent people group shaping the historical background of Pentateuchal history. Abraham’s sporadic contact with the land of Egypt eventually gave way to the migration and settlement of Jacob’s entire clan in the region of the Nile delta. The Hebrews then resided in Egypt for several centuries, multiplying into a “great nation” while at the same time being thoroughly acculturated into Egyptian civilization. Examples of this acculturation are that not long after the exodus the Hebrews lapsed into worship of what may have been an Egyptian deity (Exod. 32:1–10); g during the trek the people clamored to return to Egypt (Num. 11:4–6); and the Pentateuch itself contains some forty-five Egyptian loan words. Ironically, the Exodus narrative pits Moses and Yahweh against the pharaoh and the gods of Egypt, with the central character, Moses, a former Egyptian courtier. (For more on Egyptian history, see “Historical Overview of Old Testament Times,” p. 181.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Pentateuchal Chronology
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Pentateuchal Chronology - Although most of Pentateuchal history may be assigned to the Middle Bronze and Late Bronze ages of ancient Near Eastern history, an exact chronology for the Hebrew patriarchs remains problematic. Some biblical scholars place the characters in a fixed chronological framework, dating Pentateuchal events precisely to the year. For example, Abram’s birth is dated to 2166 bc, he began his sojourn in Canaan in 2091, he offered the Mount Moriah sacrifice in 2056, and he died in 1991 BC Others place the Hebrew patriarchs on a relative chronological continuum, assigning them broadly to the four centuries between 2000 and 1600 BC. Given the scanty and sometimes ambiguous biblical data relating to Pentateuchal history and chronology, a relative time line for the Hebrew patriarchal period is preferable. However, even a relative chronological continuum for early Hebrew history is not without problems, as the comparison chart in figure 3.4 demonstrates. The discussion centers on two principal issues: the interpretation of biblical numerology and the role of archaeology and comparative historical and literary study in understanding biblical history. Scholars committed to a literal reading of the Old Testament date formulas affirm the historicity of the Genesis narratives and support an early date for the exodus from Egypt. Those who interpret the Old Testament date formulas figuratively or symbolically usually hold to a late date for the exodus but differ on their understanding of the historicity of the patriarchal narratives. Scholars assuming a skeptical stance toward the Old Testament narratives are regarded as “reconstructionists” because they reject a reading of the text at face value in order to retrieve or establish “real” Old Testament history through the application of historical-critical methodologies to the biblical text.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Pentateuchal Chronology
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Pentateuchal Chronology - A second chronological problem arising from the Pentateuchal narratives is the actual date of the Hebrew exodus from bondage in Egypt. The names of the pharaohs of the Hebrew oppression and exodus are not mentioned in the biblical text, and as a result of this ambiguity two distinct positions have emerged from scholarly debate. One position interprets the date formulas of Judges 11:26 and 1 Kings 6:1 literally and assigns the exodus to the fifteenth century BC (Early Date). The alternative view reads the same date formulas symbolically, places a priority on archaeological data and extrabiblical evidence, and dates the exodus to the thirteenth century BC (Late Date). (See further on this in chapter 5.)
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Historical Reliability
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Historical Reliability - The source analysis approach that gained prominence during the nineteenth century not only affected the way biblical scholars viewed the Pentateuch as a literary composition, but also had far-reaching implications for the historicity of the patriarchal narratives. Julius Wellhausen, the most influential of the “source critics,” asserted that the Pentateuch conveys no historicity for the patriarchs, but merely reflects patriarchal stories retold in a later age. It should be noted here that a skeptical stance toward the Old Testament record as history is not peculiar to source analysis. Many present-day scholars espousing the unity of the Pentateuch on the basis of literary criticism also deny the essential historicity of the biblical narratives. They speak of “sacred history” and “prose fiction,” affirming the theological truth of Scripture but denying that the message reflects historical reality or dismissing the question of historicity as irrelevant. Three primary reasons have been given for the source critic’s skepticism toward historicity: (1) It is assumed that the oral traditions on which the later written documents were based likely suffered from faulty transmission; (2) the historical distance between the actual events of Old Testament history and the documentation of those events seriously undermines the reliability of the written record; and (3) the historical events preserved in these later written documents were no doubt heavily edited by the Hebrew community for theological and political purposes.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Historical Reliability
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Historical Reliability - Today there are essentially three schools of thought on the historical reliability of the Pentateuchal (and other Old Testament) narratives. One, usually called the orthodox or traditional approach, assumes the supernatural origin of the Old Testament and the complete historical accuracy of the biblical record. The orthodox or conservative biblical scholar appeals to extrabiblical and archaeological resources only to support and elucidate the reliable history of Israel already provided in the Bible.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Historical Reliability
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - Historical Reliability - The third school of thought is that of the historical reconstructionist. This view takes a skeptical stance toward the biblical narratives on the grounds that they are the work of prescientific ancient and medieval historians. Generally, other ancient extrabiblical sources are considered more reliable than the Old Testament narratives since they are older documents and hence closer to the events they report. The historical-critical scholar uses a variety of methodologies including source, literary, form, and “tradition history” criticism to reconstruct the history of Israel in holding that the biblical accounts themselves cannot be taken at face value. Again, it is noteworthy that orthodox or conservative scholars may also use these critical methodologies while presupposing the supernatural origin and the historical reliability of the Old Testament.4 So finally, the issue of historical reliability of the Pentateuchal (and other Old Testament) narratives is one of preconvictions about the nature of the biblical text. Proponents of historical reliability are generally committed to the divine inspiration of the biblical narratives assuring an accurate history of Israel. Conversely, proponents of some form of a “reconstructionist” view of Old Testament history generally discount the divine or supernatural origin of the biblical narratives. This preconviction accounts for their critical stance toward the Old Testament as a flawed human and prescientific document and explains the need to reinterpret or recreate Hebrew history in light of extrabiblical literary and archaeological data and contemporary sociopolitical models.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - The Old Testament and the Christian Church
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - The Old Testament and the Christian Church - Ever since the time of the gnostic heretic Marcion (AD second century), the church has been confronted with the problem of determining the rightful place of the Old Testament in the Christian’s Bible. Marcion represents one extreme, namely, utter rejection of the Old Testament and its “inferior God.” Today the other extreme may be found among those groups who recognize the absolute authoritative nature of the Old Testament writings for the life and doctrine of the church. More recently this application of the authority of the Old Testament, especially the Law, to the life of Christians has witnessed a resurgence in the “theonomics” movement, or Dominion Theology.5 The problem of reconciling “law” and “grace” gave rise to multiple methods of interpretation of the Old Testament during the Middle Ages. Since it was believed that revelation was both expressed and hidden in the text of the Bible, several hermeneutical or interpretive approaches were used to understand the proper meaning of the Scriptures. Four basic methods emerged: (1) the literal or plain, taking the Bible at face value; (2) the allegorical or hidden meaning, uncovering “buried” meanings for personal faith; (3) the moral or didactic, directing Christian behavior; and (4) the anagogical, focusing on the consummation of faith and the ultimate hope of the Christian.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - The Old Testament and the Christian Church
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - The Old Testament and the Christian Church - Since the Reformation, Protestant churches have attempted to resolve the tension between the “law” of the old covenant and the “grace” of the new covenant by one of two basic approaches. The first heightens the discontinuity of the two covenants, in varying degrees, by means of a “dispensational” interpretation that identifies seven self-contained eras, or dispensations, of divine revelation. This approach draws sharp distinctions between Israel and the church and essentially constitutes a messianic suspension of Old Testament law. The second approach, covenant theology, emphasizes the continuity of the “covenant of works” and the “covenant of grace” and underscores their interrelationship.6
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - The Old Testament and the Christian Church
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - The Old Testament and the Christian Church - According to John Bright, only the approach that takes seriously the Old Testament as Scripture correctly understands the text and elevates the old covenant to its rightful place in the Christian’s Bible. There is a sense in which the other three approaches (the Old Testament as a way of life, as a witness to Christ, and as salvation history) reduce the old covenant to a second rank in comparison with the New Testament. For Bright, this reading of the Old Testament with “New Testament glasses” robs the former of its authority for the Christian church. Since the Old Testament is intrinsically authoritative by virtue of its canonical status in the Christian community, it too is binding on the church in what it teaches explicitly and affirms implicitly. This canonical status also means that the Old Testament is authoritative in its entirety and cannot be appealed to selectively. Only this biblical theological approach preserves the divine authority of the entire Old Testament for the community of the New Testament church. This makes Paul’s statement intelligible: “For everything that was written in the past was written to teach us” (Rom. 15:4; 1 Cor. 10: 11).8
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Jesus acknowledged that the law was “legalism” in the sense that it demanded obedience to detailed Old Testament prescriptions and stipulations instituted by Yahweh for Israel (e.g., tithing, Matt. 23:23a). But the true nature of law, according to Jesus, went far beyond the external behavior prescribed by the legal code. Old Testament law comprised essentially justice, mercy, and faithfulness (Matt. 23:23b). Paul affirmed the law as holy, spiritual, righteous, and good (Rom. 7:12–14). One of the functions of the Old Testament law was to point out sin in humanity for what it really was—rebellion and disobedience before God. While demonstrating that sin left all persons without excuse before the holy God, the law exposed the human need for divine redemption. It was intended to tutor Israel and thus prepare them (and the world) for the revelation of Jesus of Nazareth as the Christ (Gal. 3:24). Ultimately the sacrificial and ethical demands of Old Testament law foreshadowed the New Testament gospel: justification by faith in Jesus Christ.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - In one sense, the divinely revealed legal tradition of the Hebrews represents a continuum between the old and new covenants. Jesus fulfilled all the law in his very person and his special ministry as God’s Messiah (Matt. 5:17). By his teaching, Jesus not only certified the continuing authority of the Old Testament law, but also clarified and illuminated what had been implicit regarding human intent and motives. Biblical law was indeed more than external acts and rituals; it embodied the thoughts of the mind and the intents of the heart (e.g., Jesus’ teaching on anger and adultery, Matt. 5:21–32). That Old Testament law was “internal” every bit as much as it was “external” is seen in Jesus’ summary of the commandments: “Love the Lord your God with all your heart…. Love your neighbor as yourself “ (Matt. 22:37, 39; cf. Deut. 30:1–10). Finally, this love for God that prompts obedience to his commandments marks the true child of God (1 John 5:1–5).
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Yet we must recognize the contrast or discontinuity between the Old and New Testaments. Their understanding of God, faith, and even law are not identical.9 Jesus specifically canceled the ceremonial food laws of Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14 in his teaching that all foods are “clean” (Mark 7:14–23; cf. Peter’s vision in Acts 10:9–23). Of even greater significance, the levitical legislation related to the office of priest and the institution of animal sacrifice is superseded in the person and work of Jesus Christ as a greater high priest and the “once-for-all” atoning sacrifice for human sin (Heb. 7:15–28; 9:11–14). However, the undergirding theological principles of Old Testament law remain intact apart from the functional abrogation of aspects of the civil and ceremonial law by New Testament teaching. As “God-breathed” revelation (2 Tim. 3:16), the Old Testament Scriptures are inherently authoritative, whether in explicit teaching or implicit theological idea. So while Jesus Christ is the Passover Lamb, rendering all further animal sacrifices obsolete and unnecessary (1 Cor. 5:7), the New Testament still admonishes all believers in Christ to present themselves as “living sacrifices” unto God (Rom. 12:1–2). Likewise, all believers are obligated to be holy even as God is holy (1 Peter 1:16) because they now constitute a royal priesthood in Christ Jesus (1 Peter 2:9). Blenkinsopp, J. The Pentateuch. New York: Doubleday, 1992. Bright, John. A History of Israel. 4th ed. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2000. Esp. 77–103. Informative section in support of patriarchal historicity. Carpenter, E. E. “Pentateuch.” ISBE. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986. 3:740–53. Clines, D. J. A. The Theme of the Pentateuch. JSOTSS 10. 2nd ed. Sheffield, England: JSOT Press, 1999. Classic monograph tracing the covenant theme unifying the literature and theology of Pentateuchal narratives.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Dyrness, William A. Themes in Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1979. Esp. 113–42.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Fretheim, Terence E. The Pentateuch. IBT. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1996. Hamilton, Victor. P. Handbook on the Pentateuch. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005. Practical exposition of Pentateuchal content, excluding discussion of issues related to critical study of Old Testament, but including extensive bibliographies. Harrison, R. K. Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969. Esp. 493–662. Now dated, but still the most comprehensive evangelical review of Old Testament studies, with exhaustive section on the Pentateuch. Hayes, John H. An Introduction to Old Testament Study. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1979. Esp. 83–198. A useful survey of the historical-critical study of the Old Testament, but giving scant attention to evangelical concerns and responses. Hayes, John H., and J. Maxwell Miller. A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2006. Esp. 70–212. Hoerth, Alfred J., Gerald L. Mattingly, and Edwin M. Yamauchi, eds. Peoples of Old Testament Times. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994. House, P. R. Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1998. Kitchen, K. A. On the Reliability of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. Knight, D. A., and G. M. Tucker, eds. The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Interpreters. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985. Livingston, G. H. The Pentateuch in Its Cultural Environment. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987. Well-researched introduction to the history and culture of ancient Israel prior to the conquest, with comparative study in ancient nonbiblical religious literature. Martens, E. A. God’s Design: A Focus on Old Testament Theology. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1997. Millard, Alan R., and Donald J. Wiseman, eds. Essays on the Patriarchal Narratives. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983. Evangelical reexamination of the historical reliability and theological teaching of the Old Testament patriarchal narratives in light of recent research.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Patrick, D. Old Testament Law. Atlanta: John Knox, 1985.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - Interpretation of the Pentateuch - New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law - Provan, I., V. P. Long, and T. Longman. A Biblical History of Israel. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2003. An evangelical and “maximalist” approach to Old Testament history. Sailhamer, John H. The Pentateuch as Narrative. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992. Sandy, D. Brent, and Ronald L. Giese, eds. Cracking Old Testament Codes. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995. A “how-to” guide to interpreting the literature of the Old Testament, including case studies. Schultz, Samuel J. The Gospel of Moses. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. Scobie, C. H. H. The Ways of Our God: An Approach to Biblical Theology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. Comprehensive synthesis of biblical themes discussed in the framework of promise and fulfillment. Sparks, Kenton L. Ancient Texts for the Study of the Hebrew Bible. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2005. Walton, John H. Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989. A survey of the parallels between the various literary genres common to the Bible and the literature of the ancient Near East. _____. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006. Walton, John H., Victor H. Matthews, and Mark Chavalas, Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2000. Social and cultural backgrounds of the Old Testament. Wenham, G. Exploring the Old Testament: A Guide to the Pentateuch. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2003. Helpful sections on the use of the Pentateuch in the New Testament. Wolf, Herbert M. An Introduction to the Old Testament Pentateuch. Chicago: Moody Press, 1991. Wright, C. J. H. Old Testament Ethics for the People of God. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2004.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - For Further Reading
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - For Further Reading - Blenkinsopp, J. The Pentateuch. New York: Doubleday, 1992. Bright, John. A History of Israel. 4th ed. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2000. Esp. 77–103. Informative section in support of patriarchal historicity. Carpenter, E. E. “Pentateuch.” ISBE. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986. 3:740–53. Clines, D. J. A. The Theme of the Pentateuch. JSOTSS 10. 2nd ed. Sheffield, England: JSOT Press, 1999. Classic monograph tracing the covenant theme unifying the literature and theology of Pentateuchal narratives. Dyrness, William A. Themes in Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1979. Esp. 113–42. Expositor’s Bible Commentary. Vol. 2. “Genesis–Numbers.” Ed. by Frank E. Gaebelein. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1990. Thoroughly evangelical analysis, including helpful bibliographies. Fretheim, Terence E. The Pentateuch. IBT. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1996. Hamilton, Victor. P. Handbook on the Pentateuch. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005. Practical exposition of Pentateuchal content, excluding discussion of issues related to critical study of Old Testament, but including extensive bibliographies. Harrison, R. K. Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969. Esp. 493–662. Now dated, but still the most comprehensive evangelical review of Old Testament studies, with exhaustive section on the Pentateuch. Hayes, John H. An Introduction to Old Testament Study. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1979. Esp. 83–198. A useful survey of the historical-critical study of the Old Testament, but giving scant attention to evangelical concerns and responses. Hayes, John H., and J. Maxwell Miller. A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2006. Esp. 70–212. Hoerth, Alfred J., Gerald L. Mattingly, and Edwin M. Yamauchi, eds. Peoples of Old Testament Times. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994. House, P. R. Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1998.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - For Further Reading
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - For Further Reading - Kitchen, K. A. On the Reliability of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - For Further Reading
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - For Further Reading - Livingston, G. H. The Pentateuch in Its Cultural Environment. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987. Well-researched introduction to the history and culture of ancient Israel prior to the conquest, with comparative study in ancient nonbiblical religious literature. Martens, E. A. God’s Design: A Focus on Old Testament Theology. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1997. Millard, Alan R., and Donald J. Wiseman, eds. Essays on the Patriarchal Narratives. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983. Evangelical reexamination of the historical reliability and theological teaching of the Old Testament patriarchal narratives in light of recent research. Patrick, D. Old Testament Law. Atlanta: John Knox, 1985. Pilch, John. Introducing the Cultural Context of the Old Testament. New York: Paulist Press, 1991. Provan, I., V. P. Long, and T. Longman. A Biblical History of Israel. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2003. An evangelical and “maximalist” approach to Old Testament history. Sailhamer, John H. The Pentateuch as Narrative. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992. Sandy, D. Brent, and Ronald L. Giese, eds. Cracking Old Testament Codes. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995. A “how-to” guide to interpreting the literature of the Old Testament, including case studies. Schultz, Samuel J. The Gospel of Moses. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. Scobie, C. H. H. The Ways of Our God: An Approach to Biblical Theology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. Comprehensive synthesis of biblical themes discussed in the framework of promise and fulfillment. Sparks, Kenton L. Ancient Texts for the Study of the Hebrew Bible. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2005. Walton, John H. Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989. A survey of the parallels between the various literary genres common to the Bible and the literature of the ancient Near East. _____. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006.
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A Survey of the Old Testament
Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - For Further Reading
CHAPTER 3INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH - For Further Reading - Walton, John H., Victor H. Matthews, and Mark Chavalas, Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2000. Social and cultural backgrounds of the Old Testament.
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