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1956_12	African Americans in the Confederate military A small number of free persons of color in New Orleans formed the 1st Louisiana Native Guard (CSA) as part of the Louisiana militia. The unit temporarily disbanded on February 15, 1862, after Louisiana law stated the militia could only be made up of white men. They were recalled to service during the Union invasion of New Orleans and permanently disbanded on April 25, 1862. Some of the soldiers later joined the Union Army.
1956_13	"Nearly 40% of the Confederacy's population were unfree ... the work required to sustain the same society during war naturally fell disproportionately on black shoulders as well. By drawing so many white men into the army, indeed, the war multiplied the importance of the black work force." Even Georgia's governor Joseph E. Brown noted that "the country and the army are mainly dependent upon slave labor for support." Slave labor was used in a wide variety of support roles, from infrastructure and mining, to teamster and medical roles such as hospital attendants and nurses.
1956_14	The idea of arming slaves for use as soldiers was speculated on from the onset of the war, but not seriously considered by Davis or others in his administration. Though an acrimonious and controversial debate was raised by a letter from Patrick Cleburne urging the Confederacy to raise black soldiers by offering emancipation, it would not be until Robert E. Lee wrote the Confederate Congress urging them that the idea would take serious traction. On March 13, 1865, the Confederate Congress passed General Order 14, and President Davis signed the order into law. The order was issued March 23, but only a few black companies were raised. Two companies were armed and drilled in the streets of Richmond, Virginia, shortly before the besieged southern capital fell. However, President Davis considered it imperative that blacks be offered freedom in exchange for military service under terms of the act passed through Congress. Therefore, he waited for Congress to adjourn and then stipulated by
1956_15	executive order that any African-Americans accepted as soldiers under terms of the act must be volunteers and be accompanied by manumission papers.
1956_16	Supply
1956_17	Much like the Continental Army in the American Revolution, state governments were supposed to supply their soldiers. The supply situation for most Confederate Armies was dismal even when victorious. The lack of central authority and effective transportation infrastructure, especially the railroads, combined the frequent unwillingness or inability of Southern state governments to provide adequate funding, were key factors in the Army's demise. Individual commanders had to "beg, borrow or steal" food and ammunition from whatever sources were available, including captured Union depots and encampments, and private citizens regardless of their loyalties. Lee's campaign against Gettysburg and southern Pennsylvania (a rich agricultural region) was driven in part by his desperate need of supplies, namely food. Not surprisingly, in addition to slowing the Confederate advance such foraging aroused anger in the North and led many Northerners to support General Sherman's total warfare tactics as
1956_18	retaliation. Scorched earth policies especially in Georgia, South Carolina and the Virginian Shenandoah Valley proved far more devastating than anything Pennsylvania had suffered and further reduced the capacity of the increasingly effectively blockaded Confederacy to feed even its civilian population, let alone its Army. At many points during the war, and especially near the end, Confederate Armies were described as starving and, indeed, many died from lack of food and related illnesses. Towards more desperate stages of the war, the lack of food became a principal driving force for desertion.
1956_19	Uniforms See article: Uniforms of the Confederate Military The Uniforms of the Confederate States military forces were the uniforms used by the Confederate Army and Navy during the American Civil War from 1861 to 1865. The uniform varied greatly due to a variety of reasons, such as location, limitations on the supply of cloth and other materials, and the cost of materials during the war. Confederate forces were often poorly supplied with uniforms, especially late in the conflict. Servicemen sometimes wore combinations of uniform pieces combined with captured Union uniforms and items of personal clothing. They sometimes went without shoes altogether, and broad felt or straw hats were worn as often as kepis or naval caps. Statistics Total Service members – 1,050,000 (Exact number is unknown. Posted figure is average of estimated range from 600,000 – 1,500,000) Battle Deaths (Death figures are based on incomplete returns) – 74,524 Other Deaths (In Theater) – 59,297
1956_20	Died in Union prisons – 26,000 to 31,000 Non-mortal Woundings – Unknown At the end of the war 174,223 men surrendered to the Union Army. See also Conclusion of the American Civil War List of Confederate Regular Army officers Confederate Government Civil War units References External links
1956_21	The McGavock Confederate Cemetery at Franklin, TN Confederate offices Index of Politicians by Office Held or Sought Civil War Research & Discussion Group -*Confederate States of Am. Army and Navy Uniforms, 1861 The Countryman, 1862–1866, published weekly by Turnwold, Ga., edited by J.A. Turner The Federal and the Confederate Constitution Compared The Making of the Confederate Constitution, by A. L. Hull, 1905. Confederate Currency Photographs of the original Confederate Constitution and other Civil War documents owned by the Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library at the University of Georgia Libraries. Photographic History of the Civil War, 10 vols., 1912. DocSouth: Documenting the American South – numerous online text, image, and audio collections. Confederate States of America: A Register of Its Records in the Library of Congress Confederate and State Uniform Regulations
1956_22	1861 establishments in North America 1865 disestablishments in North America Military units and formations established in 1861 Military units and formations disestablished in 1865
1957_0	Dioscorea is a genus of over 600 species of flowering plants in the family Dioscoreaceae, native throughout the tropical and warm temperate regions of the world. The vast majority of the species are tropical, with only a few species extending into temperate climates. It was named by the monk Charles Plumier after the ancient Greek physician and botanist Dioscorides. Description They are tuberous herbaceous perennial lianas, growing to or more tall. The leaves are spirally arranged, mostly broad heart-shaped. The flowers are individually inconspicuous, greenish-yellow, with six petals; they are mostly dioecious, with separate male and female plants, though a few species are monoecious, with male and female flowers on the same plant. The fruit is a capsule in most species, a soft berry in a few species.
1957_1	Cultivation and uses Several species, known as yams, are important agricultural crops in tropical regions, grown for their large tubers. Many of these are toxic when fresh, but can be detoxified and eaten, and are particularly important in parts of Africa, Asia, and Oceania (see yam article). One class of toxins found in many species is steroidal saponins, which can be converted through a series of chemical reactions into steroid hormones for use in medicine and as contraceptives. The 1889 book "The Useful Native Plants of Australia" records that Dioscorea hastifolia is "One of the hardiest of the yams. The tubers are largely consumed by the local aborigines for food. (Mueller)." Accepted species (613), subspecies, and varieties The genus includes the following species and subspecies:
1957_2	A Dioscorea abysmophila Maguire & Steyerm. Dioscorea abyssinica Hochst. ex Kunth Dioscorea acanthogene Rusby Dioscorea acerifolia Phil. Dioscorea acuminata Baker Dioscorea adenantha Uline Dioscorea aesculifolia R.Knuth Dioscorea aguilarii Standl. & Steyerm. Dioscorea alata L. Dioscorea alatipes Burkill & H.Perrier Dioscorea althaeoides R.Knuth Dioscorea altissima Lam. Dioscorea amaranthoides C.Presl Dioscorea amazonum Mart. ex Griseb. Dioscorea amazonum var. klugii (R.Knuth) Ayala Dioscorea amoena R.Knuth Dioscorea analalavensis Jum. & H.Perrier Dioscorea ancachsensis R.Knuth Dioscorea andina Phil. Dioscorea andromedusae O.Téllez Dioscorea angustifolia Rusby Dioscorea anomala Griseb. Dioscorea antaly Jum. & H.Perrier Dioscorea antucoana Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea arachidna Prain & Burkill Dioscorea araucana Phil. Dioscorea arcuatinervis Hochr. Dioscorea argyrogyna Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea arifolia C.Presl Dioscorea aristolochiifolia Poepp.
1957_3	Dioscorea arnensis R. Knuth Dioscorea asclepiadea Prain & Burkill Dioscorea aspera Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. Dioscorea aspersa Prain & Burkill Dioscorea asperula Pedralli Dioscorea asteriscus Burkill Dioscorea atrescens R.Knuth Dioscorea auriculata Poepp.
1957_4	B Dioscorea bahiensis R.Knuth Dioscorea bako Wilkin Dioscorea balcanica Košanin Dioscorea bancana Prain & Burkill Dioscorea banzhuana S.J.Pei & C.T.Ting Dioscorea bartlettii C.V.Morton Dioscorea basiclavicaulis Rizzini & A.Mattos Dioscorea baya De Wild. Dioscorea beecheyi R.Knuth Dioscorea belophylla (Prain) Voigt ex Haines Dioscorea bemandry Jum. & H.Perrier Dioscorea bemarivensis Jum. & H.Perrier Dioscorea benthamii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea berenicea McVaugh Dioscorea bermejensis R.Knuth Dioscorea bernoulliana Prain & Burkill Dioscorea besseriana Kunth Dioscorea beyrichii R.Knuth Dioscorea bicolor Prain & Burkill Dioscorea biformifolia S.J.Pei & C.T.Ting Dioscorea biloba (Phil.) Caddick & Wilkin Dioscorea biplicata R.Knuth Dioscorea birmanica Prain & Burkill Dioscorea birschelii Harms ex R.Knuth Dioscorea blumei Prain & Burkill Dioscorea bolivarensis Steyerm. Dioscorea bonii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea bosseri Haigh & Wilkin Dioscorea brachybotrya Poepp.
1957_5	Dioscorea brachystachya Phil. Dioscorea bradei R.Knuth Dioscorea brandisii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea brevipetiolata Prain & Burkill Dioscorea bridgesii Griseb. ex Kunth Dioscorea brownii Schinz Dioscorea bryoniifolia Poepp. Dioscorea buchananii Benth. Dioscorea buckleyana Wilkin Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscorea bulbotricha Hand.-Mazz. Dioscorea burchellii Baker Dioscorea burkilliana J.Miège
1957_6	C Dioscorea cachipuertensis Ayala Dioscorea calcicola Prain & Burkill Dioscorea caldasensis R.Knuth Dioscorea calderillensis R.Knuth Dioscorea callacatensis R.Knuth Dioscorea cambodiana Prain & Burkill Dioscorea campanulata Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea campestris Griseb. Dioscorea campos-portoi R.Knuth Dioscorea carionis Prain & Burkill Dioscorea carpomaculata O.Téllez & B.G.Schub. Dioscorea carpomaculata var. cinerea (Uline ex R.Knuth) O.Téllez & B.G.Schub. Dioscorea castilloniana Hauman Dioscorea catharinensis R.Knuth Dioscorea caucasica Lipsky Dioscorea cavenensis Lam. Dioscorea cayennensis Lam. Dioscorea cayennensis subsp. rotundata (Poir.) J.Miège; syn.: D. rotundata Poir. Dioscorea ceratandra Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea chacoensis R.Knuth Dioscorea chagllaensis R.Knuth Dioscorea chancayensis R.Knuth Dioscorea chaponensis R.Knuth Dioscorea chiapasensis Matuda Dioscorea chimborazensis R.Knuth Dioscorea chingii Prain & Burkill
1957_7	Dioscorea choriandra Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea chouardii Gaussen Dioscorea cienegensis R.Knuth Dioscorea cinnamomifolia Hook. Dioscorea cirrhosa Lour. Dioscorea cissophylla Phil. Dioscorea claessensii De Wild. Dioscorea claussenii Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea claytonii Ayala Dioscorea cochleariapiculata De Wild. Dioscorea collettii Hook.f. Dioscorea collettii var. hypoglauca (Palib.) S.J.Pei & C.T.Ting Dioscorea communis (L.) Caddick & Wilkin Dioscorea commutata R.Knuth Dioscorea comorensis R.Knuth Dioscorea composita Hemsl. Dioscorea contracta R.Knuth Dioscorea convolvulacea Cham. & Schltdl. Dioscorea convolvulacea subsp. grandifolia (Schltdl.) Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea conzattii R.Knuth Dioscorea cordifolia Laness. Dioscorea coreana (Prain & Burkill) R.Knuth Dioscorea coriacea Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. Dioscorea coripatenis J.F.Macbr. Dioscorea coronata Hauman Dioscorea cotinifolia Kunth Dioscorea craibiana Prain & Burkill Dioscorea crateriflora R.Knuth
1957_8	Dioscorea crotalariifolia Uline Dioscorea cruzensis R.Knuth Dioscorea cubensis R.Knuth Dioscorea cumingii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea curitybensis R.Knuth Dioscorea cuspidata Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. Dioscorea cuyabensis R.Knuth Dioscorea cyanisticta J.D.Sm. Dioscorea cymosula Hemsl. Dioscorea cyphocarpa C.B.Rob. ex Knuth
1957_9	D Dioscorea daunea Prain & Burkill Dioscorea davidsei O.Téllez Dioscorea de-mourae Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea debilis Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea decaryana H.Perrier Dioscorea decipiens Hook.f. Dioscorea decorticans C.Presl Dioscorea deflexa Griseb. Dioscorea delavayi Franch. Dioscorea delicata R.Knuth Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. Dioscorea dendrotricha Uline Dioscorea densiflora Hemsl. Dioscorea depauperata Prain & Burkill Dioscorea diamantinensis R.Knuth Dioscorea dicranandra Donn.Sm. Dioscorea dielsii R.Knuth Dioscorea dissimulans Prain & Burkill Dioscorea divaricata Blanco Dioscorea diversifolia Griseb. Dioscorea dodecaneura Vell. Dioscorea dregeana (Kunth) T.Durand & Schinz Dioscorea duchassaingii R.Knuth Dioscorea dugesii C.B.Rob. Dioscorea dumetorum (Kunth) Pax Dioscorea dumetosa Uline ex R.Knuth
1957_10	E Dioscorea ekmanii R.Knuth Dioscorea elegans Ridl. ex Prain & Burkill Dioscorea elephantipes (L'Hér.) Engl. Dioscorea entomophila Hauman Dioscorea epistephioides Taub. Dioscorea escuintlensis Matuda Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burkill Dioscorea esquirolii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea exalata C.T.Ting & M.C.Chang F Dioscorea fandra H.Perrier Dioscorea fasciculocongesta (Sosa & B.G.Schub.) O.Téllez Dioscorea fastigiata Gay Dioscorea fendleri R.Knuth Dioscorea ferreyrae Ayala Dioscorea filiformis Blume Dioscorea flabellifolia Prain & Burkill Dioscorea flaccida R.Knuth Dioscorea floribunda M.Martens & Galeotti Dioscorea floridana Bartlett Dioscorea fodinarum Kunth Dioscorea fordii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea formosana R.Knuth Dioscorea fractiflexa R.Knuth Dioscorea fuliginosa R.Knuth Dioscorea furcata Griseb. Dioscorea futschauensis Uline ex R.Knuth
1957_11	G Dioscorea galeottiana Kunth Dioscorea galiiflora R.Knuth Dioscorea gallegosi Matuda Dioscorea garrettii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea gaumeri R.Knuth Dioscorea gentryi O.Téllez Dioscorea gillettii Milne-Redh. Dioscorea glabra Roxb. Dioscorea glandulosa (Griseb.) Klotzsch ex Kunth Dioscorea glandulosa var. calcensis (R.Knuth) Ayala Dioscorea glomerulata Hauman Dioscorea gomez-pompae O.Téllez Dioscorea gracilicaulis R.Knuth Dioscorea gracilipes Prain & Burkill Dioscorea gracilis Hook. ex Poepp. Dioscorea gracillima Miq. Dioscorea grandiflora Mart. ex Griseb. Dioscorea grandis R.Knuth Dioscorea grata Prain & Burkill Dioscorea gribinguiensis Baudon Dioscorea grisebachii Kunth Dioscorea guerrerensis R.Knuth Dioscorea guianensis R.Knuth
1957_12	H Dioscorea haenkeana C.Presl Dioscorea hamiltonii Hook.f. Dioscorea hassleriana Chodat Dioscorea hastata Mill. Dioscorea hastatissima Rusby Dioscorea hastifolia Nees Dioscorea hastiformis R.Knuth Dioscorea haumanii Xifreda Dioscorea havilandii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea hebridensis R.Knuth Dioscorea hemicrypta Burkill Dioscorea hemsleyi Prain & Burkill Dioscorea heptaneura Vell. Dioscorea herbert-smithii Rusby Dioscorea herzogii R.Knuth Dioscorea heteropoda Baker Dioscorea hexagona Baker Dioscorea hieronymi Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea hintonii R.Knuth Dioscorea hirtiflora Benth. Dioscorea hirtiflora subsp. orientalis Milne-Redh. Dioscorea hispida Dennst. Dioscorea holmioidea Maury Dioscorea hombuka H.Perrier Dioscorea hondurensis R.Knuth Dioscorea howardiana O.Téllez, B.G.Schub. & Geeta Dioscorea humifusa Poepp. Dioscorea humilis Bertero ex Colla Dioscorea humilis subsp. polyanthes (F.Phil.) Viruel, Segarra & Villar Dioscorea hunzikeri Xifreda
1957_13	I Dioscorea igualamontana Matuda Dioscorea incayensis R.Knuth Dioscorea inopinata Prain & Burkill Dioscorea insignis C.V.Morton & B.G.Schub. Dioscorea intermedia Thwaites Dioscorea ionophylla Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea iquitosensis R.Knuth Dioscorea irupanensis R.Knuth Dioscorea itapirensis R.Knuth Dioscorea itatiensis R.Knuth J Dioscorea jaliscana S.Watson Dioscorea jamesonii R.Knuth Dioscorea japonica Thunb. - Shan yao in Chinese () Dioscorea javariensis Ayala Dioscorea juxtlahuacensis (O.Téllez & Dávila) Caddick & Wilkin
1957_14	K Dioscorea kalkapershadii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea kamoonensis Kunth Dioscorea keduensis Burkill ex Backer Dioscorea kerrii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea killipii R.Knuth Dioscorea kimiae Wilkin Dioscorea kingii R.Knuth Dioscorea kituiensis Wilkin & Muasya Dioscorea kjellbergii R.Knuth Dioscorea knuthiana De Wild. Dioscorea koepperi Standl. Dioscorea koyamae Jayas. Dioscorea kratica Prain & Burkill Dioscorea kunthiana Uline Dioscorea kuntzei Uline ex Kuntze
1957_15	L Dioscorea lacerdaei Griseb. Dioscorea laevis Uline Dioscorea lamprocaula Prain & Burkill Dioscorea lanata Bail Dioscorea larecajensis Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea laurifolia Wall. ex Hook.f. Dioscorea lawrancei R.Knuth Dioscorea laxiflora Mart. ex Griseb. Dioscorea lehmannii Uline Dioscorea lepcharum Prain & Burkill Dioscorea lepida C.V.Morton Dioscorea leptobotrys Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea liebmannii Uline Dioscorea lijiangensis C.L.Long & H.Li Dioscorea linearicordata Prain & Burkill Dioscorea lisae Dorr & Stergios Dioscorea listeri Prain & Burkill Dioscorea litoralis Phil. Dioscorea loefgrenii R.Knuth Dioscorea loheri Prain & Burkill Dioscorea longicuspis R.Knuth Dioscorea longipes Phil. Dioscorea longirhiza Caddick & Wilkin Dioscorea longituba Uline Dioscorea lundii Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea luzonensis Schauer
1957_16	M Dioscorea macbrideana R.Knuth Dioscorea maciba Jum. & H.Perrier Dioscorea macrantha Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea macrothyrsa Uline Dioscorea macvaughii B.G.Schub. Dioscorea madecassa H.Perrier Dioscorea madiunensis Prain & Burkill Dioscorea maianthemoides Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea mamillata Jum. & H.Perrier Dioscorea mandonii Rusby Dioscorea mangenotiana J.Miège Dioscorea mantigueirensis R.Knuth Dioscorea margarethia G.M.Barroso, E.F.Guim. & Sucre Dioscorea marginata Griseb. Dioscorea martensis R.Knuth Dioscorea martiana Griseb. Dioscorea martini Prain & Burkill Dioscorea matagalpensis Uline Dioscorea matudae O.Téllez & B.G.Schub. Dioscorea mayottensis Wilkin Dioscorea megacarpa Gleason Dioscorea megalantha Griseb. Dioscorea melanophyma Prain & Burkill Dioscorea melastomatifolia Uline ex Prain Dioscorea membranacea Pierre ex Prain & Burkill Dioscorea menglaensis H.Li Dioscorea meridensis Kunth Dioscorea merrillii Prain & Burkill
1957_17	Dioscorea mesoamericana O.Téllez & Mart.-Rodr. Dioscorea mexicana Scheidw. Dioscorea microbotrya Griseb. Dioscorea microcephala Uline Dioscorea microura R.Knuth Dioscorea mindanaensis R.Knuth Dioscorea minima C.B.Rob. & Seaton Dioscorea minutiflora Engl. Dioscorea mitis C.V.Morton Dioscorea mitoensis R.Knuth Dioscorea modesta Phil. Dioscorea mollis Kunth Dioscorea monadelpha (Kunth) Griseb. Dioscorea × monandra Hauman Dioscorea morelosana (Uline) Matuda Dioscorea moritziana (Kunth) R.Knuth Dioscorea mosqueirensis R.Knuth Dioscorea moultonii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea moyobambensis R.Knuth Dioscorea mucronata Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea multiflora Mart. ex Griseb. Dioscorea multiloba Kunth Dioscorea multinervis Benth. Dioscorea mundii Baker
1957_18	N Dioscorea nako H.Perrier Dioscorea namorokensis Wilkin Dioscorea nana Poepp. Dioscorea nanlaensis H.Li Dioscorea natalensis R.Knuth Dioscorea natalia Hammel Dioscorea neblinensis Maguire & Steyerm. Dioscorea nelsonii Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea nematodes Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea nervata R.Knuth Dioscorea nervosa Phil. Dioscorea nicolasensis R.Knuth Dioscorea nieuwenhuisii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea nipensis R.A.Howard Dioscorea nipponica Makino Dioscorea nitens Prain & Burkill Dioscorea nuda R.Knuth Dioscorea nummularia Lam. Dioscorea nutans R.Knuth
1957_19	O Dioscorea oaxacensis Uline Dioscorea obcuneata Hook.f. Dioscorea oblonga Gleason Dioscorea oblongifolia Rusby Dioscorea obtusifolia Hook. & Arn. Dioscorea olfersiana Klotzsch ex Griseb. Dioscorea oligophylla Phil. Dioscorea omiltemensis O.Téllez Dioscorea opaca R.Knuth Dioscorea oppositiflora Griseb. Dioscorea oppositifolia L. - Shan yao in Chinese () Dioscorea orangeana Wilkin Dioscorea orbiculata Hook.f. Dioscorea orbiculata var. tenuifolia (Ridl.) Thapyai Dioscorea oreodoxa B.G.Schub. Dioscorea organensis R.Knuth Dioscorea orientalis (J.Thiébaut) Caddick & Wilkin Dioscorea orizabensis Uline Dioscorea orthogoneura Uline ex Hochr. Dioscorea oryzetorum Prain & Burkill Dioscorea ovalifolia R.Knuth Dioscorea ovata Vell. Dioscorea ovinala Baker
1957_20	P Dioscorea palawana Prain & Burkill Dioscorea paleata Burkill Dioscorea pallens Schltdl. Dioscorea pallidinervia R.Knuth Dioscorea palmeri R.Knuth Dioscorea panamensis R.Knuth Dioscorea panthaica Prain & Burkill Dioscorea pantojensis R.Knuth Dioscorea paradoxa Prain & Burkill Dioscorea pavonii Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea pedicellata Phil. Dioscorea pencana Phil. Dioscorea pendula Poepp. ex Kunth Dioscorea pentaphylla L. Dioscorea peperoides Prain & Burkill Dioscorea perdicum Taub. Dioscorea perenensis R.Knuth Dioscorea perpilosa H.Perrier Dioscorea petelotii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea philippiana Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea piauhyensis R.Knuth Dioscorea pierrei Prain & Burkill Dioscorea pilcomayensis Hauman Dioscorea pilgeriana R.Knuth Dioscorea pilosiuscula Bertero ex Spreng. Dioscorea pinedensis R.Knuth Dioscorea piperifolia Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. Dioscorea piscatorum Prain & Burkill Dioscorea pittieri R.Knuth Dioscorea planistipulosa Uline ex R.Knuth
1957_21	Dioscorea plantaginifolia R.Knuth Dioscorea platycarpa Prain & Burkill Dioscorea platycolpota Uline ex B.L.Rob. Dioscorea plumifera C.B.Rob. Dioscorea pohlii Griseb. Dioscorea pohlii var. luschnathiana (Kunth) Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea poilanei Prain & Burkill Dioscorea polyclados Hook.f. Dioscorea polygonoides Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. Dioscorea polystachya Turcz. (also: Dioscorea batatas Decne) Dioscorea pomeroonensis R.Knuth Dioscorea potarensis R.Knuth Dioscorea praehensilis Benth. Dioscorea prainiana R.Knuth Dioscorea prazeri Prain & Burkill Dioscorea preslii Steud. Dioscorea preussii Pax Dioscorea preussii subsp. hylophila (Harms) Wilkin Dioscorea pringlei C.B.Rob. Dioscorea proteiformis H.Perrier Dioscorea psammophila R.Knuth Dioscorea pseudomacrocapsa G.M.Barroso, E.F.Guim. & Sucre Dioscorea pseudorajanioides R.Knuth Dioscorea pseudotomentosa Prain & Burkill Dioscorea pteropoda Boivin ex H.Perrier Dioscorea pubera Blume Dioscorea pubescens Poir.
1957_22	Dioscorea pumicicola Uline Dioscorea pumilio Griseb. Dioscorea puncticulata R.Knuth Dioscorea purdiei R.Knuth Dioscorea putisensis R.Knuth Dioscorea putumayensis R.Knuth Dioscorea pynaertii De Wild. Dioscorea pyrenaica Bubani & Bordère ex Gren. Dioscorea pyrifolia Kunth
1957_23	Q Dioscorea quartiniana A.Rich. Dioscorea quaternata J.F. Gmel. Dioscorea quinquelobata Thunb. Dioscorea quispicanchensis R.Knuth R Dioscorea racemosa (Klotzsch) Uline Dioscorea regnellii Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea remota C.V.Morton Dioscorea remotiflora Kunth Dioscorea reticulata Gay Dioscorea retusa Mast. Dioscorea reversiflora Uline Dioscorea ridleyi Prain & Burkill Dioscorea riedelii R.Knuth Dioscorea rigida R.Knuth Dioscorea rimbachii R.Knuth Dioscorea rockii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea rosei R.Knuth Dioscorea rumicoides Griseb. Dioscorea rupicola Kunth Dioscorea rusbyi Uline
1957_24	S Dioscorea sabarensis R.Knuth Dioscorea sagittata Poir. Dioscorea sagittifolia Pax Dioscorea sagittifolia var. lecardii (De Wild.) Nkounkou Dioscorea salicifolia Blume Dioscorea salvadorensis Standl. Dioscorea sambiranensis R.Knuth Dioscorea sanchez-colini Matuda Dioscorea sandiensis R.Knuth Dioscorea sandwithii B.G.Schub. Dioscorea sanpaulensis R.Knuth Dioscorea sansibarensis Pax Dioscorea santanderensis R.Knuth Dioscorea santosensis R.Knuth Dioscorea sarasinii Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea saxatilis Poepp. Dioscorea scabra Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. Dioscorea schimperiana Hochst. ex Kunth Dioscorea schubertiae Ayala Dioscorea schunkei Ayala & T.Clayton Dioscorea schwackei Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea scortechinii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea secunda R.Knuth Dioscorea sellowiana Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea semperflorens Uline Dioscorea septemloba Thunb. Dioscorea septemnervis Vell. Dioscorea sericea R.Knuth Dioscorea seriflora Jum. & H.Perrier
1957_25	Dioscorea serpenticola Hoque & P.K.Mukh. Dioscorea sessiliflora McVaugh Dioscorea sexrimata Burkill Dioscorea simulans Prain & Burkill Dioscorea sincorensis R.Knuth Dioscorea sinoparviflora C.T.Ting, M.G.Gilbert & Turland Dioscorea sinuata Vell. Dioscorea sitamiana Prain & Burkill Dioscorea skottsbergii R.Knuth Dioscorea smilacifolia De Wild. & T.Durand Dioscorea sonlaensis R.Knuth Dioscorea sororopana Steyerm. Dioscorea soso Jum. & H.Perrier Dioscorea soso var. trichopoda (Jum. & H.Perrier) Burkill & H.Perrier Dioscorea spectabilis R.Knuth Dioscorea spicata Roth Dioscorea spiculiflora Hemsl. Dioscorea spiculoides Matuda Dioscorea spongiosa J.Q.Xi, M.Mizuno & W.L.Zhao Dioscorea sprucei Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea standleyi C.V.Morton Dioscorea stegelmanniana R.Knuth Dioscorea stellaris R.Knuth Dioscorea stemonoides Prain & Burkill Dioscorea stenocolpus Phil. Dioscorea stenomeriflora Prain & Burkill Dioscorea stenopetala Hauman Dioscorea stenophylla Uline
1957_26	Dioscorea sterilis O.Weber & Wilkin Dioscorea stipulosa Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea subcalva Prain & Burkill Dioscorea subhastata Vell. Dioscorea sublignosa R.Knuth Dioscorea submigra R.Knuth Dioscorea subtomentosa Miranda Dioscorea sumatrana Prain & Burkill Dioscorea sumiderensis B.G.Schub. & O.Téllez Dioscorea suratensis R.Knuth Dioscorea sylvatica Eckl. Dioscorea synandra Uline Dioscorea syringifolia (Kunth) Kunth & R.H.Schomb. ex R.Knuth
1957_27	T Dioscorea tabatae Hatus. ex Yamashita & M.N.Tamura Dioscorea tacanensis Lundell Dioscorea tamarisciflora Prain & Burkill Dioscorea tamoidea Griseb. Dioscorea tamshiyacuensis Ayala Dioscorea tancitarensis Matuda Dioscorea tarijensis R.Knuth Dioscorea tarmensis R.Knuth Dioscorea tauriglossum R.Knuth Dioscorea tayacajensis R.Knuth Dioscorea temascaltepecensis R.Knuth Dioscorea tenebrosa C.V.Morton Dioscorea tenella Phil. Dioscorea tentaculigera Prain & Burkill Dioscorea tenuipes Franch. & Sav. Dioscorea tenuiphyllum R.Knuth Dioscorea tenuis R.Knuth Dioscorea tequendamensis R.Knuth Dioscorea ternata Griseb. Dioscorea therezopolensis Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea togoensis R.Knuth Dioscorea tokoro Makino ex Miyabe Dioscorea toldosensis R.Knuth Dioscorea tomentosa J.Koenig ex Spreng. Dioscorea torticaulis R.Knuth Dioscorea trachyandra Griseb. Dioscorea trachycarpa Kunth Dioscorea traillii R.Knuth Dioscorea transversa R.Br. Dioscorea triandria Sessé & Moc.
1957_28	Dioscorea trichantha Baker Dioscorea trichanthera Gleason Dioscorea trifida L.f. Dioscorea trifoliata Kunth Dioscorea trifurcata Hauman Dioscorea trilinguis Griseb. Dioscorea trimenii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea trinervia Roxb. ex Prain & Burkill Dioscorea trisecta Griseb. Dioscorea trollii R.Knuth Dioscorea truncata Miq. Dioscorea tsaratananensis H.Perrier Dioscorea tubiperianthia Matuda Dioscorea tubuliflora Uline ex R.Knuth Dioscorea tubulosa Griseb.
1957_29	U Dioscorea uliginosa Phil. Dioscorea ulinei Greenm. ex R.Knuth Dioscorea undatiloba Baker Dioscorea urceolata Uline Dioscorea urophylla Hemsl. Dioscorea uruapanensis Matuda V Dioscorea valdiviensis R.Knuth Dioscorea vanvuurenii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea variifolia Bertero Dioscorea velutipes Prain & Burkill Dioscorea vexans Prain & Burkill Dioscorea vilis Kunth Dioscorea villosa L. Dioscorea volckmannii Phil. W Dioscorea wallichii Hook.f. Dioscorea warburgiana Uline ex Prain & Burkill Dioscorea warmingii R.Knuth Dioscorea wattii Prain & Burkill Dioscorea weberbaueri R.Knuth Dioscorea widgrenii R.Knuth Dioscorea wightii Hook.f. Dioscorea wittiana R.Knuth Dioscorea wrightii Uline ex R.Knuth X Dioscorea xizangensis C.T.Ting Y Dioscorea yunnanensis Prain & Burkill Z Dioscorea zingiberensis C.H.Wright
1957_30	The closely related genus Tamus is included in Dioscorea by some sources, but is maintained as distinct by others. For Dioscorea communis (L.) Caddick & Wilkin, see Tamus communis. See also Yams Mexican barbasco trade References Bibliography Flora Europaea: Dioscorea Flora of Pakistan: Dioscorea Schols, P. 2004. Contributions to the palynology and phylogeny of Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae). PhD thesis KU Leuven. Dioscoreales genera Tubers Dioecious plants
1958_0	Egocentric bias is the tendency to rely too heavily on one's own perspective and/or have a higher opinion of oneself than reality. It appears to be the result of the psychological need to satisfy one's ego and to be advantageous for memory consolidation. Research has shown that experiences, ideas, and beliefs are more easily recalled when they match one's own, causing an egocentric outlook. Michael Ross and Fiore Sicoly first identified this cognitive bias in their 1979 paper, "Egocentric biases in availability and attribution". Egocentric bias is referred to by most psychologists as a general umbrella term under which other related phenomena fall.
1958_1	The effects of egocentric bias can differ based on personal characteristics, such as age and the number of languages one speaks. Thus far, there have been many studies focusing on specific implications of egocentric bias in different contexts. Research on collaborative group tasks have emphasized that people view their own contributions differently than they view that of others. Other areas of research have been aimed at studying how mental health patients display egocentric bias, and at the relationship between egocentric bias and voter distribution. These types of studies surrounding egocentric bias usually involve written or verbal questionnaires, based on the subject's personal life or their decision in various hypothetical scenarios.
1958_2	History and analysis The term "egocentric bias" was first coined in 1980 by Anthony Greenwald, a psychologist at Ohio State University. He described it as a phenomenon in which people skew their beliefs so that what they recall from their memory or what they initially understood is different than what actually occurred. He cites research by Rogers, Kuiper, and Kirker, who explain that the self-reference effect is the ability of people to recall information better if they think about how the information will affect them during the encoding process (recording memories in their brain). Greenwald argues that the self-reference effect causes people to exaggerate their role in a situation. Furthermore, information is better encoded, and thus people are more likely to suffer from egocentric bias, if they produce information actively rather than passively, such as by having a direct role in the outcome of a situation.
1958_3	Egocentric bias occurs when people fail to consider situations from other people's perspectives. Egocentric bias has influenced ethical judgements to the point where people not only believe that self-interested outcomes are preferential but are also the morally sound way to proceed. People are more inclined to be aware of their own behaviors since they can use their thoughts and emotions to gain more information about themselves. These thoughts and emotions can affect how people view themselves in relation to others in specific situations. A common example arises when people are asked to explain how much credit should be given to each person in a collaborative project. Daniel Schacter, a psychology professor at Harvard University, considers egocentric bias as one of the "seven sins" of memory and essentially reflects the prominent role played by the self when encoding and retrieving episodic memories. As such, people often feel that their contributions to a collaborative project
1958_4	are greater than those of other members, since people tend to focus more on how much they have done.
1958_5	In social context, egocentric bias influences people to choose a social circle that is capable of maintaining one's positive traits. Studies show that one's choice of friend or social circle is likely to be dependent on the amount of positive feedback received. Examples In a 1993 study conducted in Japan, subjects were asked to write down fair or unfair behaviors that they themselves or others did. When writing about fair behavior, they tended to start with the word "I" rather than "others". Likewise, they began unfair behaviors with "others" rather than "I". This demonstrates that people tend to attribute successes and positive behaviors to themselves, while placing the burden of failures and negative behaviors on others. Furthermore, in this study there were gender differences detected; Japanese women, compared to men, remembered the behaviors of others more than their own, and were also more probable to characterize fair or unfair behavior to others compared to themselves.
1958_6	Another study found that egocentric bias influences perceived fairness. Subjects felt that overpayment to themselves were more fair than overpayment to others; by contrast, they felt the underpayment to themselves were less fair than underpayment to others. Greenberg's studies showed that this egocentrism was eliminated when the subjects were put in a self-aware state, which was applied in his study with a mirror being placed in front of the subjects. When a person is not self-aware, they perceive that something can be fair to them but not necessarily fair to others. Therefore, fairness was something biased and subjective. When a person is self-aware, there is a uniform standard of fairness and there is no bias. When made self-aware, subjects rated overpayment and underpayment to both themselves and to others as equally unfair. It is believed that these results were obtained because self-awareness elevated subjects' concerns about perceived fairness in payment, thereby overriding
1958_7	egocentric tendencies.
1958_8	The egocentric bias can also be clearly observed in young children, especially those who have not yet developed theory of mind, or the ability to understand concrete situations from the perspective of others. In one study by Wimmer and Perner, a child and a stuffed animal were presented with two differently colored boxes and both are shown that one contains an object of interest. The experimenter then removed the stuffed animal from the room and moved the object into the other box. When asked where the stuffed animal should search for the object, the children overwhelmingly tended to point to the box that they knew the object was in. Rather than thinking about the animal's perspective, the children displayed an egocentric bias in assuming that the animal would share their point of view, even though the animal had no way of knowing the same information as them.
1958_9	Causes
1958_10	The causes and motivations for egocentric bias were investigated in a 1983 journal entry by Brian Mullen of Murray State University. Inspired by the study by Ross et al. demonstrating the false consensus effect, Mullen's paper focused on the overestimation of consensus. Mullen analyzed the NBC television show "Play the Percentages" to determine whether egocentric bias was rooted in a perceptual and unintentional distortion of reality versus a conscious, intentional motivation to appear normalized. Subjects in this analysis were contestants from the show, 20–30 year old middle class married couple with equal gender distribution. At the start of each show, studio audiences were asked several trivia questions, and the percentage of correct answers was recorded for later use in the game. During each round of the game, opposing contestants estimated the percentage of correct answers. The contestant who had a closer estimate wins the percentage of correct answer as a score, and then if
1958_11	they answer said trivia question correctly, wins the remaining percentage for a maximum possible 100 points. The first couple to win 300 points received a cash prize, with the opportunity to win more prizes in bonus rounds. Thus, the show provided incentive for unbiased estimates of consensus. Statistical analysis of the collected data showed that the "egocentric bias of false consensus was observed in spite of the potent incentive for unbiased estimates of consensus." This analysis ultimately supports the hypothesis that egocentric bias is a result of unintentional perceptual distortion of reality rather than a conscious, intentional motivation to appear normalized.
1958_12	From a psychological standpoint, memories appear to be stored in the brain in an egocentric manner: the role of oneself is magnified in one's experiences to make them more personally relevant and thereby easier to recall. Early childhood memories, therefore, may be more difficult to recall since one's sense of self is less developed, so old memories do not connect as strongly to oneself as newer ones. Moreover, egocentric bias may have evolved from hunter-gatherer times, in which communities were small and interdependent enough that individuals could assume that others around them had very similar outlooks. An egocentric view would have reduced cognitive load and increased communication efficiency. Effects of personal characteristics
1958_13	Age A 2016 study published by Riva, Triscoli, Lamm, Carnaghi, and Silani found that egocentric bias tends to be experienced in a much greater degree by adolescents and older adults than by young and middle aged adults. They examined the emotional effect of visuo-tactile stimulation on pairs of participants from a population of 114 female of varying ages. The varying degree of egocentric bias with age was attributed to the developmental cycle of the right supramarginal gyrus (rSMG) of the parietal lobe, which finishes developing at the end of adolescence and decays early. Bilingualism Recent studies of egocentric bias have been done in many different subgroups of people, such as bilingual people. A study done by Paula Rubio-Fernández and Sam Glucksberg found that bilingual people are less prone to egocentric bias because they have grown to pay more attention to others' thoughts. Thus, it is less difficult for them to differentiate between their own opinions and those of others.
1958_14	Related phenomena False-consensus effect Considered to be a facet of egocentric bias, the false-consensus effect states that people believe their thoughts, actions, and opinions are much more common than they are in reality. When people are asked to make an estimate of a population's statistic, they often only have data from themselves and tend to assume that others in the population are similar to them due to egocentric bias. In turn, people tend to overestimate the extent to which their opinion is shared by the rest of the population. Moreover, people tend to believe that those who differ in opinion must be part of a minority and that the majority actually agrees with them. Therefore, the false-consensus effect, or the tendency to deduce judgements from one's own opinions, is a direct result of egocentric bias.
1958_15	A well known example of false-consensus effect is a study published by Ross, Greene and House in 1977. Students are asked to walk around a campus with a sandwich board that bearing the word "repent". People who agreed to do so (50%) estimated that most of their peers would also agree to do so (average estimation 63.5%). Conversely, those who refused to do the experiment reported that most of their peers would refuse as well.
1958_16	People who exhibit the false consensus effect take egocentric bias a step further: they not only forgo thinking of other perspectives, but they believe that their viewpoints are those accepted by the majority of people. Nevertheless, some psychologists do not distinguish between egocentric bias and the false consensus effect. For example, in the paper published by Ross, Greene, and House, the terms "false consensus" and "egocentric attribution bias" are used interchangeably. In the second part of their study, they gave out a questionnaire which asked participants which option (out of two choices) they would choose in specified situations, and what percentage of the population would choose which option. In all four scenarios that were given, subjects rated the option that they chose as the most probable. Ross, Greene, and House conclude that their results support the false consensus hypothesis, and that "intuitive estimates of deviance and normalcy, and the host of social
1958_17	inferences and interpersonal responses that accompany such estimates, are systematically and egocentrically biased in accord with his own behavioral choices."
1958_18	Self-serving bias A related concept to egocentric bias is self-serving bias, in which one takes undue credit for achievements and blames failures on external forces. However, egocentric bias differs from self-serving bias in that egocentric bias is rooted in an erroneous assumption of other's perception of reality, while self-serving bias is an erroneous perception of one's own reality. For example, consider a student who earns a low grade in a class. Self-serving bias would result in the assumption that the student's low grade is a result of poor teaching, which would direct the fault of one's reality away from one's own actions. Egocentric bias might also result in an overestimation of the number of students that received low grades in the class for the purpose to normalize these students' performance. However, similar to the false-consensus effect, the self-serving bias and the egocentric bias have also been used as interchangeable terms.
1958_19	Both concepts may be the product of individualistic cultures that usually stress independence and personal achievement over group-oriented success. Cross-cultural studies have found a strong presence of the egocentric bias in the primarily individualistic American, South African, and Yugoslavian communities, but noted the opposite effect in the collectivistic Japanese, Nepali, and Indian societies. People from these cultures tend to demonstrate a bias toward modesty, in which success is attributed to external or group-related factors and failures are seen as the result of personal shortcomings.
1958_20	Bayesian inference
1958_21	Bayesian reasoning is a form of statistical inference that relies on Bayes' rule to make probability prediction based on given information. In Bayesian updating, people use prior probabilities to make estimates, and then gradually change these probabilities as they gain more information. Bayesian inference is often used by psychologists to determine whether subjects who exhibit the false-consensus effect have a rational thought process. To understand Bayes' rule, consider an example from an experiment by Kreuger and Clement: there is an urn with 100 chips, some blue and some red, and then subjects are told that the first chip drawn from the urn is blue. Subjects are asked to estimate the probability that the urn contains predominantly blue chips. Using Bayes' rule, the probability that a blue chip is drawn given that the urn contains predominantly blue chips is equal to the probability of the urn being predominantly blue multiplied by the probability of the urn being predominantly
1958_22	blue given that a blue chip was drawn, all divided by the probability that the urn is predominantly blue. Most participants overestimated the requested probability. Data shows that subjects tend not to pay attention to sample size when making probability predictions. For example, although it has statistically been proven by the law of large numbers that larger samples have less variability, people tend to claim that large and small samples have the same amount of variability. Studies like the urn experiment above provide evidence that the false-consensus effect is not entirely rational, and that egocentric viewpoints tend to be predominant.
1958_23	Real-world implications
1958_24	Collaboration
1958_25	Egocentric bias can lead to the devaluation of peer contributions and the amplification of one's own work when in a collaborative setting. For example, when group members have been asked to report what percentage of the output they created, the total summed to greater than 100%. Usually, individuals are more easily able to recall their personal contributions and thus believe them to greater or more important. This applies to both positive and negative inputs: in a study of married couples, each spouse rated themselves as more responsible for helpful (cleaning) and detractive activities (causing arguments). Research has shown that feelings of sibling caregivers and their siblings depend on the contact between siblings and their feelings of closeness. Each of these two groups believed that their siblings contributed less to the needs of their family than themselves, and were more resistant to increasing these types of contributions. The closer that siblings were to each other,
1958_26	measured through observation and self reports, the smaller the extent of egocentric bias they felt in reporting each sibling's contribution.
1958_27	Mental health An overly exaggerated or extremely low demonstration of egocentric bias could be an indicator of mental illness. Those with anxiety tend to view themselves as the center of all events around them, regardless of their nature or how unrelated they are to oneself. On the other hand, people suffering from depression may have a lower tendency towards egocentricity, as evidenced by the fact that they tend to more realistically rate their contributions to group work, while non-depressed participants often overreport their additions.
1958_28	Voting The egocentric bias has also been shown to contribute to a citizen's decision to vote in elections. Firstly, people tend to view their personal choice between voting and abstinence as a reflection of those who support the same candidates and issues. Secondly, although each individual vote has very little power in large-scale elections, those who vote overestimate the significance of their ballot. Moreover, citizens demonstrate egocentric bias, in conjunction with the false-consensus effect, in their predictions of election outcomes. A study examining the 2008 American presidential election found that the more strongly people favor a certain candidate, the higher they estimate that candidate's likelihood of winning the election. For instance, those who strongly preferred Barack Obama predicted that he had a 65% chance of becoming the president, while those who preferred another candidate approximated that he only had a 40% chance of victory. Notes References Further reading
1958_29	Cognitive biases
1959_0	A pan-Slavic language is a zonal auxiliary language for communication among the Slavic peoples. There are approximately 400 million speakers of the Slavic languages. In order to communicate with each other, speakers of different Slavic languages often resort to international lingua francas, primarily English, or Russian in East Slavic zonal cases. But since Slavic languages are closely related lexically and grammatically and are comparatively easier to learn when another Slavic language is already known, there have been numerous attempts to construct a more neutral auxiliary language that could act as a common language for slavophones. The earliest pan-Slavic linguistic efforts preceded academic knowledge and reconstruction of Proto-Slavic, which was likely spoken between 2nd century BCE and 6th century CE, from which all Slavic languages developed in following centuries. History
1959_1	The history of zonal Slavic languages is closely connected with Pan-Slavism, an ideology that endeavors cultural and political unification of all Slavs, based on the conception that all Slavic people are part of a single Slavic nation. Along with this belief came also the need for an umbrella Slavic language. The strongest candidate for that position among modern languages is Russian, the language of the largest (and, during most of the 19th century, the only) Slavic state, and mother tongue of more than half of Slavs. This option enjoys most of its popularity in Russia itself, but has also been favoured by Pan-Slavists abroad, for example the Slovak Ľudovít Štúr. Others have proposed that Old Church Slavonic would be a better and more neutral solution. In previous centuries, Old Church Slavonic had served as an administrative language across a large part of the Slavic world, and it is still used on a large scale in Eastern Orthodox liturgy, where it plays a role similar to Latin in
1959_2	the West. Old Church Slavonic has the additional advantage of being similar to the common ancestor of the Slavic languages, Proto-Slavic. However, it has several practical disadvantages as well: its grammar is complex, and its vocabulary is characterized by many words that have been lost from the modern languages, as well as an absence of words for modern concepts. Hence, early pan-Slavic language projects aimed at modernizing Old Church Slavonic and adapting it to the needs of everyday communication.
1959_3	Early projects The first pan-Slavic grammar, Gramatíčno izkâzanje ob rúskom jezíku by the Croatian priest Juraj Križanić, was written in 1665. He referred to the language as Ruski jezik ("Russian language"), but in reality it was mostly based on a mixture of the Russian edition of Church Slavonic and his own Southern Chakavian dialect of Croatian. Križanić used it not only for this grammar, but also in other works, including the treatise Politika (1663–1666). According to an analysis of the Dutch Slavist Tom Ekman, 59% of the words used in Politika are of common Slavic descent, 10% come from Russian and Church Slavonic, 9% from Croatian and 2.5% from Polish. Križanić was not the first who attempted writing in a language understandable to all Slavs. In 1583 another Croatian priest, Šime Budinić, had translated the Summa Doctrinae Christanae by Petrus Canisius into Slovignsky, in which he used both the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets.
1959_4	After Križanić, numerous other efforts have been made to create an umbrella language for the speakers of Slavic languages. A notable example is Universalis Lingua Slavica by the Slovak attorney Ján Herkeľ (1786–1853), published in Latin in 1826. Unlike Križanić' project, this project was closer to the West Slavic languages.
1959_5	During the second half of the 19th century Pan-Slavic language projects were mostly the domain of Slovenes and Croats. In this era of awakening national consciousness, the Russians were the only Slavs who had their own state; other Slavic peoples inhabited large, mostly non-Slavic states, and clear borders between the various nations were mostly lacking. Among the numerous efforts at creating written standards for the South Slavic languages there were also efforts at establishing a common South Slavic language, Illyrian, that might also serve as a literary language for all Slavs in the future. Of special importance is the work of Matija Majar (1809–1892), a Slovenian Austroslavist who later converted to Pan-Slavism. In 1865 he published Uzajemni Pravopis Slavjanski ("Mutual Slavic Orthography"). In this work, he postulated that the best way for Slavs to communicate with other Slavs was by taking their own language as a starting point and then modifying it in steps. First, he proposed
1959_6	changing the orthography of each individual language into a generic ("mutual") Pan-Slavic orthography, subsequently he described a grammar that was based on comparing five major Slavic languages of his days: Old Church Slavonic, Russian, Polish, Czech and Serbian. Apart from a book about the language itself, Majar also used it for a biography of Cyril and Methodius and for a magazine he published in the years 1873–1875, Slavjan. A fragment in the language can still be seen on the altar of Majar's church in Görtschach. Other Pan-Slavic language projects were published in the same period by the Croatian Matija Ban, the Slovenes and , as well as the Macedonian Bulgarian Grigor Parlichev – all based on the idea of combining Old Church Slavonic with elements from the modern South Slavic languages.
1959_7	All authors mentioned above were motivated by the belief that all Slavic languages were dialects of one single Slavic language rather than separate languages. They deplored the fact that these dialects had diverged beyond mutual comprehensibility, and the Pan-Slavic language they envisioned was intended to reverse this process. Their long-term objective was that this language would replace the individual Slavic languages. Majar, for example, compared the Pan-Slavic language with standardized languages like Ancient Greek and several modern languages: Consequently, these authors did not consider their projects constructed languages at all. In most cases they provided grammatical comparisons between the Slavic languages, sometimes but not always offering solutions they labelled as "Pan-Slavic". What their projects have in common that they neither have a rigidly prescriptive grammar, nor a separate vocabulary. The twentieth century
1959_8	In the early 20th century it had become clear that the divergence of the Slavic languages was irreversible and the concept of a Pan-Slavic literary language was no longer realistic. The Pan-Slavic dream had lost most of its power, and Pan-Slavists had to satisfy themselves with the formation of two multinational Slavic states, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. However, the need for a common language of communication for Slavs was still felt, and due to the influence of constructed languages like Esperanto, efforts were made to create a language that was no longer supposed to replace the individual Slavic languages, but to serve as an additional second language for pan-Slavic communication.
1959_9	In the same period, the nexus of pan-Slavic activity shifted to the North, especially to the Czech lands. In 1907 the Czech dialectologist Ignác Hošek (1852–1919) published a grammar of Neuslavisch, a proposal for a common literary language for all Slavs within the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Five years later another Czech, Josef Konečný, published Slavina, a "Slavic Esperanto", which however had very little in common with Esperanto, but instead was mostly based on Czech. Whereas these two projects were naturalistic, the same cannot be said about two other projects by Czech authors, Slovanština by Edmund Kolkop and Slavski jezik by Bohumil Holý. Both projects, published in 1912 and 1920 respectively, show a clear tendency towards simplification, for example by eliminating grammatical gender and cases, and schematicism.
1959_10	During the 1950s the Czech poet and former Esperantist (1920–2000), also known under his pseudonym Jiří Karen, worked for several years with a team of prominent interlinguists on an elaborate project, Mežduslavjanski jezik ("Interslavic language"). Among other things, they wrote a grammar, an Esperanto–Interslavic word list, a dictionary, a course and a textbook. Although none of those were ever published, the project gained some attention of linguists from various countries. Probably due to the political reality of those days, this language was primarily based on Russian. The digital age
1959_11	Although Pan-Slavism has not played a role of any significance since the collapse of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, globalization and new media like the Internet have led to a renewed interest in a language that would be understandable for all Slavs alike. After the fall of the USSR, the role of the Russian language as a lingua franca in Eastern Europe and the Balkans diminished, also because many inhabitants of other countries in the region perceived it as the language of their former oppressor. Older projects were largely forgotten, but as it became relatively easy for authors to publish their work, several new projects emerged, mostly in Slavic émigrée circles. Thus, during the first years of the 21st century projects appeared under names like Slovo, Glagolica, Proslava and Ruslavsk. Most of them were incomplete and abandoned by their authors after a while.
1959_12	The only project that acquired some fame in the same period was Slovio of the Slovak Mark Hučko. Unlike most previous projects it was not a naturalistic, but a schematic language, its grammar being based almost entirely on Esperanto. In addition, it was a fully functional language, and it became the first pan-Slavic language with a small user community. Slovio was not only intended to serve as an auxiliary language for Slavs, but also for use on a global scale like Esperanto. For that reason it gained little acceptance among Slavs: a high degree of simplification, characteristic for most international auxiliary languages, makes it easier to learn for non-Slavs, but widens the distance with the natural Slavic languages and gives the language an overly artificial character, which by many is considered a disadvantage. Hučko maintained a proprietary hold on Slovio, and since 2011 the language is no longer being developed and is effectively defunct.
1959_13	Partly in response to the problems of Slovio, a more naturalistic and community-based project was started in 2006 under the name Slovianski by a group of people from different countries. Initially, it was being developed in three grammar versions: a naturalistic version by Jan van Steenbergen, a more simplified, pidgin-like version by Ondrej Rečnik and a schematic version by Gabriel Svoboda, but in 2009 it was decided that only the naturalistic version would be continued under the name Slovianski. Slovianski was mostly used in Internet traffic and in a news letter, Slovianska Gazeta. In 2012, its user community numbered several hundreds of people.
1959_14	An effort to bring Slovianski and Slovio together resulted in Slovioski in 2009. Its original purpose was to provide Slovio with a more naturalistic grammar, but gradually it developed into a separate language project. Like Slovianski, it was a collaborative project that existed in two variants: a "full" and a simplified version. Another project that saw the light in the same period was Novoslověnsky ("Neoslavonic") by the Czech Vojtěch Merunka, based on Old Church Slavonic grammar but using part of Slovianski's vocabulary. In 2011, Slovianski, Slovioski and Novoslověnsky were merged under the name Interslavic (Medžuslovjanski). In 2017 en 2018 Interslavic conferences took place in the Czech Republic, and in 2019 the language was featured in Václav Marhoul's movie The Painted Bird. By July 2021, its user community on Facebook had grown to over 15,000 people. Individual projects Early Modern Šime Budinić
1959_15	As early as 1583, the Venetian-Croatian priest writer Šime Budinić from Zadar translated Petrus Canisius' Summa doctrinae christinae into a language he called Slovignsky or Slouignsky iazik ("Slavic language"), using both the Latin and the Cyrillic alphabets. Budinić did not actually give a description of this language, but according to some authors it was a mixture of Serbo-Croatian, Church Slavonic, Czech, and Polish. However, Nicolina Trunte argues that Church Slavonic, Polish or Czech were not used in the work at all, and that the language Budinić used was merely Shtokavian-Ijekavian with a number of hyper-Ijekavisms and Chakavisms. Sample: Koie iz Vlasskoga, illi Latinskoga iazika, v Slouignsky Iazik protumačio iest pop Ssimvn Bvdineo Zadranin. "Translated from the Italian or Latin language into the Slavic Language by father Šimun Budinić from Zadar."
1959_16	Juraj Križanić In Siberia in 1666, the Croat Juraj Križanić wrote Gramatíčno izkâzanje ob rúskom jezíku (Граматично исказанје об руском језику "Grammatical overview of the Russian Language"). In this work he described in fact not the Russian language but a Common Slavonic language based on different Slavic languages, mostly on Russian and Chakavian Croatian. The author used it not only for this grammar, but also in other works, including the treatise Politika (1663–1666). According to an analysis of the Dutch Slavist Tom Ekman, 59% of the words used in Politika are of common Slavic descent, 10% come from Russian and Church Slavonic, 9% from Croatian and 2.5% from Polish.
1959_17	Sample (Romanized, original in Cyrillic): Iazika sowerszenost iest samo potrebno orudie k mudrosti, i iedwa ne stanowito iee zname. Czim kiu narod imaet izradney iazik, tim prigodnee i witwornee razprawlyaet remestwa i wsakije umitelyi i promisli. Obilie besedi i legota izgowora mnogo pomagaet na mudrich sowetow izobretenie i na wsakich mirnich i ratnich del leznee obwerszenie. Modern
1959_18	Ján Herkeľ Another early example of a zonal language for Slavs was Universalis Lingua Slavica ("Universal Slavic language" or "All-Slavic language"). It was created and published by the Slovak attorney Ján Herkeľ (1786–1853) in his work Elementa universalis linguae Slavicae in 1826. Unlike languages like Esperanto, it had no well-defined grammar and no vocabulary of its own. Like many other pan-Slavists in the 19th century, Herkeľ considered the Slavic languages dialects of a single Slavic language, and his book is mostly a comparative grammar of these dialects, in which he sometimes offered grammatical solutions explicitly characterized by him as "Universal Slavic". Although Herkeľ found Cyrillic more suitable for the Slavic languages, he nevertheless chose the Latin alphabet for his project, with the addition of a few Cyrillic letters: ч and ш for č and š (remarkably, for ž he preferred ƶ, although he explicitly did not exclude Cyrillic ж either), as well as x for h/ch.
1959_19	Near the end of his book, Herkeľ gave a few examples of his Stylus Universalis, applied to the "Pannonian" (Slovak) dialect: Za starego vieku byla jedna kralica, koja mala tri prelepije dievice: milicu, krasicu a mudricu; vse tri byle bogate, okrem bogatstva milica byla pokorna, krasica uctiva, a mudrica umena. "In olden times there was a queen who had three very beautiful girls: Kindness, Beauty, and Wisdom; all three were rich, in addition to being rich Kindness was humble, Beauty was polite, and Wisdom was wise."
1959_20	SlavinaSlavina was created by Josef Konečný in 1912 in Prague and published in the same year in a booklet titled Mluvnička slovanského esperanta "Slavina". According to the author, its main purpose was to serve as a communication tool in trade and industry. The subtitle of the language, "a Slavic Esperanto" (or its Esperanto translation "Slava Esperanto"), is sometimes erroneously cited as the name of the language, but in reality the language had very little in common with Esperanto. Instead, it was a clear example of a naturalistic language, with three grammatical genders, seven noun cases and five verbal tenses. Although Konečný claimed his language was based on all Slavic languages, it bore a striking similarity to his native Czech, both orthographically, phonologically, lexically and morphologically. Particularly unusual for a pan-Slavic language project was the distinction between long and short consonants.
1959_21	The first sentence from the song Hey, Slavs:Hej, Slované, naši lepo slovanó rěč máme, dokud naše věrné srece pro náš národ dáme."Hey, Slavs, we will have our beautiful Slavic language, as long as we give our faithful heart for our people."
1959_22	SlovanštinaSlovanština (Czech for "Slavic language") is the oldest example of a schematic language for pan-Slavic use. It was published in 1912 by the Czech linguist and esperantist Edmund Kolkop (1877-1915) in his booklet Pokus o dorozumívací jazyk slovanský. Kolkop had no political, pan-Slavic ambitions but felt frustrated by the fact that Slavs had to resort to German for their communication and believed that they would be helped with a simple, artificially created Slavic language, for which he took Esperanto as an example. The language had no grammatical gender and no cases, all nouns and adjectives ended in a consonant, plurals were formed with -a for nouns and -i for adjectives, and verbs were conjugated only for tense. Slavic word roots were derived regularly from Church Slavonic, and international vocabulary was used when a Slavic word was hard to find. The language was written in the Latin alphabet with a few unusual additions: ſ for š, з for ž, ч for č, y for j, j for ť, ϑ
1959_23	for ď and ι for ň.
1959_24	The Gospel of Matthew, 3:1-2:Ve tamji dιa priideo Yan Krestar, kazaya na puſj ve zem Yudesk; i rekaya: Pokayaιiy nehaj vi чiιi, bo pribliзio sa carstviy nebesk."In those days John the Baptist came, preaching in the wilderness of Judea; and saying: Repent, for the kingdom of heaven has come near." NeposlavaNeposlava was an unpublished project, created by the Russian writer, publicist and music critic Vsevolod Yevgrafovich Cheshikhin (Всеволод Евграфович Чешихин) in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia. It was based on a system created by him in 1913 to construct zonal languages based on Esperanto affixes which are used with national roots and called it Nepo. According to that principle, he created Neposlava ("Slavic Nepo"), a Nepo-language based on Russian, Polish, Czech and Serbian lexicon, in 1915 or 1916. It is unknown how elaborated this language project really was. He also used this system to construct other "new Esperantoes" based on Latin-Romance and Germanic languages.
1959_25	A fragment from the Lord's Prayer:Vatero nia, kotoryja estas in la njebov, heiligia estu nomo via."Our father, who art in heaven, hallowed be thy name."
1959_26	Mežduslavjanski jezikMežduslavjanski jezik ("Interslavic language") was an elaborate project worked on during the years 1954-1958 in Czechoslovakia by a group of interlinguists, led by the poet Ladislav Podmele a.k.a. Jiří Karen (1920-2000) and the pedagogue Jaroslav Podobský (1895-1962), both of whom were prominent members of the Occidental movement. Their idea was that four zonal languages (an inter-Germanic, an inter-Romance, an inter-Slavic and an inter-Indic language) together would enable two thirds of the world's population to communicate with each other. The language they created used grammatical and lexical features of various Slavic languages, primarily Russian and Czech, and may be viewed as a naturalistic planned language. They wrote a grammar (Kratka grammatika mežduslavjanskego jezika), an Esperanto–Interslavic word list, a dictionary, a course, a textbook and a few longer texts, practically none of which were ever published. Nevertheless, the project gained some
1959_27	attention of linguists from various countries.

Subsets and Splits