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478_11	South African Labour Party - SALP (1911-1915) In 1911, Jones welcomed the creation of the "South African Native National Congress", later becoming the African National Congress (ANC), viewing its creation as a step towards 'national self-consciousness'. Despite his sympathetic views for black Africans and the ANC, David Ivon Jones was at this point in his life a Liberal Christian activist, and in 1911 Jones joined a pro-segregationist political party called the "South African Labour Party" (SALP). Although not yet an anti-capitalist and supporter of Communism, Jones held a deep hatred towards South Africa's Randlords, the capitalists who monopolised the gold and diamond industries.
478_12	The Witwatersrand uprising (1913)
478_13	During his time in the SALP, many events in South African politics would force him to reconsider his Liberal and Christian beliefs, and pushed him to become a revolutionary communist and an atheist. In May/June 1913 the British military crushed an uprising of white workers near Witwatersrand, plunging the province into a civil war. The strike started as a peaceful event at the New Kleinfontein mine, with miners angry and bitter over issues of work time and deaths by disease. Soon afterwards, martial law was declared to stop attempts by workers to start a general strike, events that further pushed Jones's political beliefs towards Marxist socialism. The government immediately sent troops to crush the strike and using dragoons to indiscriminately fire their guns towards fleeing civilians, killing 20 and wounding 200–400. The government's murder of unarmed and innocent civilians would plunge Johannesburg into further chaos, crowds rioted and burnt down the railway station and the Star
478_14	newspaper. Rioters also looted the city centre, and anti-Indian violence began spreading across South Africa. Hearing of these events, Jones left his job as a clerk in a power station and dedicated himself to supporting unionised miners. The SALP also became a target of government oppression, with the party's printing machines destroyed and their offices raided by government troops. During this time Jones barely escaped being arrested and deported.
478_15	Turn towards communism and atheism (1914-1915) In August 1914 Jones was elected the SALP's general secretary, during a time when its membership and popular support was rapidly expanding. The large increase in membership and support transformed the SALP, and the wave of new overwhelmingly white working-class members brought with them bigoted views towards black Africans, with many of these new members arguing that they should be paid more than black people. Many older SALP members agreed and the party stuck to its racist and pro-segregationist beliefs. While many of these new members moved further politically right-wing, some veterans of the party including Jones himself began moving further left-wing.
478_16	Come 1914, Jones underwent a personal crisis, he became depressed and stopped attending church as often. He began collecting left-wing political and philosophical publications from Britain, including works by Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Karl Kautsky, H. G. Wells, Leo Tolstoy, Ramsay MacDonald, and began studying a vast range of political philosophies, including Marxism. When he emerged from his depression, he found a new enthusiasm for political work and had completely abandoned his previous Christian beliefs.
478_17	Come the outbreak of the First world war, the SALP membership was split over whether or not to support the war, with many of those opposing WWI then co-founding the "War on War League" in September 2014. The War on War League claimed to be an independent body of anti-war activists that worked within the SALP, and although Jones did not join them he did share their views. Jones's firm opposition to WWI, along with his growing socialist and atheist beliefs heavily influenced by British socialist publications, led to him resigning as the SALP general secretary in September 1915 and became the leader of a breakaway group called the International Socialist League (ISL). After leaving the SALP, Jones dedicate the remainder of his life to promoting racial equality and fighting against both colonialism and capitalism.
478_18	Jones became the first editor of the ISL's weekly newspaper titled The International which he used to support Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks and to later in his life use to explain the importance of Russia's 1917 February and October revolutions. The ISL would later become the nucleus of the Communist Party of South Africa, which would recognise David Ivon Jones as a founding member.
478_19	Support for black Africans (1915-1920) After leaving the South African Labour Party (SALP) in 1915, David Ivon Jones dedicated the remainder of his life to supporting both communism and supporting racial equality between black and white workers. In 1917 Jones became the moving figure in establishing South Africa's first-ever all-black trade union, a short-lived organisation known as the Industrial Workers of Africa (IWA). Jones wrote agitation leaflets for the IWA addressed to the Bantu calling for racial equality and proletarian solidarity, however when he could not find a translator the work of translating the leaflets fell upon undercover police spies who had been sent to infiltrate the IWA. The IWA took part in many strikes and industrial disputes in 1918, however the organisation was crushed via a combination of government repression and police infiltration.
478_20	Becoming increasingly aware of the potential of black South Africans in the labour movement, Jones prompted the International Socialist League (ISL) to start publishing socialist works in native African languages, demanding equal status for Black Africans in South African workplaces, and challenging colonial racism. During this time in his life, the importance of racial equality between the black and white proletariat became the central focus of his writings. Statements such as the following published by Jones in The International became common sights within his writings."An Internationalism which does not concede the fullest rights which the Native working class is capable of claiming will be a sham. One of the justifications for our withdrawal from the Labour Party is that it gives us untrammelled freedom to deal, regardless of political fortunes, with the great and fascinating problem of the Native."Due to ill health, Jones resigned from his position in the ISL in 1919 and briefly
478_21	worked in Mozambique where he contracted malaria.
478_22	The Bolsheviks are Coming! (1919) In 1919 David Ivon Jones, working alongside activist LHH Greene, co-authored a leaflet promoting both communism and racial equality. This leaflet titled The Bolsheviks are Coming! was written and distributed in Pietermaritzburg, and was addressed to 'to the workers of South Africa, Black as well as White'. Written in English, Zulu, and Sotho, The Bolsheviks are Coming! declared that: "While the Black worker is oppressed, the white worker cannot be free."The publishing of this leaflet would gain the attention of the South African government, which sought to censor its spread and punish the authors for promoting communism and racial equality. Both Jones and Greene were arrested, fined, and sentenced to four months in prison for the crime of publishing "The Bolsheviks are Coming!". However, this sentence was quashed on appeal. This court case is notable for being the first major court case against communism in South African history.
478_23	Departure from Africa to Europe (1920-1924) In 1920 before permanently departing from South Africa later that year, one of the last major actions David Ivon Jones did was to co-found communist themed night schools for black workers in South Africa, along with famous botanist Eddie Roux. These night schools became some of the first recorded instances of night schools for black workers in the history of South Africa.
478_24	In November 1920, David Ivon Jones left South Africa for Europe, but due to his declining health stayed in Nice. In March 1921 while still living in Nice, Jones wrote a report for the executive committee of the Communist International (ECCI) titled Communism in South Africa. This report was a highly detailed and erudite survey of the complex political, social and economic conditions of South Africa, with a heavy emphasis on analysing the country's racial and class divisions. It is believed by researchers of communist history that Jones's survey had a major impact on Vladimir Lenin.
478_25	Life in Russia
478_26	After briefly visiting his home country of Wales, Jones was invited to the 1921 Third Congress of the Communist International held in Moscow, as a delegate from South Africa, alongside political activist Sam Barlin. On 12 July at the Third Congress of the Communist International, Jones proposed that the congress:"resolves to further the movement among the working masses of Africa ... and desires the Executive to take a direct initiative in promoting the awakening of the African Negroes as a necessary step to the world revolution".Further elaborating on his views on communism and black Africans, Jones said:"They (black Africans) are ripe for communism. They are absolutely propertyless. They are stripped of every vestige of property and caste prejudice. The African natives are a labouring race, still fresh from ancestral communal traditions. I will not say that the native workers are well organised, or have a great conception of communism or even trade unionism, as yet. But they have
478_27	made several attempts at liberation by way of industrial solidarity. They only need awakening. They know they are slaves, but lack the knowledge how to free themselves ... The solution of the problem, the whole world problem is being worked out in South Africa on the field of the working-class movement".After hearing Jones's speech, the congress agreed that he should represent South Africa as a consultant to the Comintern executive committee. Due to his failing health, Jones remained in Moscow and was not able to attend the founding congress of the Communist Party of South Africa (SACP) near the end of July. Despite not being present at the founding congress to his failing health, the party still recognised Jones as a founding member. Distancing himself from frontline political activism due to his failing health, Jones dedicated his time to learning Russian and became one of the first people to translate much of Lenin's writings into English. He also wrote many articles for
478_28	publications in Britain, America, and for South African communists. Writing for The Communist Review in February 1922, the journal of the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB), Jones expressed his support for the Bolshevik's support for radical peasants in the fight against the Russian Orthodox Church. Jones's writings in 1924 show that he was actively encouraging English speaking socialists to read and study the works of Vladimir Lenin, alongside other Russian political figures including Martov and Plekhanov. The years of political turmoil had taken a toll on Jones's health, and so the Comintern dispatched him to Yalta to recover from another tuberculosis attack. Writing to South African communist leader WH Bill Andrews, Jones wrote: "We stand for Bolshevism, and in all minds Bolshevism stands for the Native worker".
478_29	In July 1923 Jones wrote an article titled "Africa Awakening" in support of the creation of a "World Negro Congress", and further urged white activists in Belgium, Britain and America to put special emphasis on the liberation of African people from racism and capitalism. In a final political testament written on his deathbed, David Ivon Jones urged his fellow communists to continue supporting revolution against imperialism and capitalism, and to "carry out the great revolutionary mission imposed on colonies in general and South Africa in particular with revolutionary devotion and dignity, concentrating on shaking the foundations of world capitalism and British imperialism". Soon afterwards, Jones died on 13 April 1924 from tuberculosis.
478_30	Death and legacy (1924-present) After his death from tuberculosis on 13 April 1924, David Ivon Jones was buried in Moscow's famous Novodevichy Cemetery, as a reward by Russian communists for his commitment to socialism. Later buried alongside him were two former leaders of the Communist Party of South Africa, JB Marks and Moses Kotane. There is also a memorial dedicated to David Ivon Jones in Aberystwyth's Unitarian chapel. In 2005 a motion was put forward to the UK Parliament to recognise David Ivon Jones's dedication to improving the working conditions of South African workers. This motion was signed by 33 Members of Parliament, including Jeremy Corbyn. Shortly after Nelson Mandela's death in 2013, a remembrance service was held for David Ivon Jones, praising him for his fight against apartheid and recognising that Nelson Mandela's struggle against apartheid was a continuation of Jones's struggle for racial equality in South Africa.
478_31	In 2015 a delegation of 20 representatives of the South African embassy and government visited Novodevichy cemetery to return the remains of Marks and Kotane back to South Africa, as requested by their surviving families. While in the cemetery, the delegation also paid their respects to the grave of David Ivon Jones. In 2015, Jones was voted 30th of the "50 most influential Welsh politicians of all time" in a poll by readers of Wales Online. His legacy is highly regarded by both the African National Congress, and the Communist Party of South Africa. Jones's biography was written by Professor Gwyn Alf Williams and Baruch Hirson, and published in 1995. Archival papers relevant to the study of David Ivon Jones can be found at Swansea University. Works The Bolsheviks are Coming! (1919) Bolshevism and Church Property (1922) Africa Awakening (1923) Lenin's First Book (1924) See also Claudia Jones Vic Allen Paul Robeson Kwame Nkrumah Harry Pollitt Nelson Mandela
478_32	References Apartheid in South Africa Anti-apartheid activists Welsh communists Human rights activists Socialist politicians South African communists Welsh Marxist writers 1883 births 1924 deaths Tuberculosis deaths in the Soviet Union People from Aberystwyth South African expatriates in the Soviet Union Tuberculosis deaths in Russia
479_0	A shield volcano is a type of volcano named for its low profile, resembling a warrior's shield lying on the ground. It is formed by the eruption of highly fluid (low viscosity) lava, which travels farther and forms thinner flows than the more viscous lava erupted from a stratovolcano. Repeated eruptions result in the steady accumulation of broad sheets of lava, building up the shield volcano's distinctive form. Shield volcanoes are found wherever fluid low-silica lava reaches the surface of a rocky planet. However, they are most characteristic of ocean island volcanism associated with hot spots or with continental rift volcanism. They include the largest volcanoes on earth, such as Tamu Massif and Mauna Loa. Giant shield volcanoes are found on other planets of the Solar System, including Olympus Mons on Mars and Sapas Mons on Venus.
479_1	Etymology The term 'shield volcano' is taken from the German term Schildvulkan, coined by the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess in 1888 and which had been calqued into English by 1910. Geology Structure
479_2	Shield volcanoes are distinguished from the three other major volcanic types—stratovolcanoes, lava domes, and cinder cones—by their structural form, a consequence of their particular magmatic composition. Of these four forms, shield volcanoes erupt the least viscous lavas. Whereas stratovolcanoes and lava domes are the product of highly viscous flows, and cinder cones are constructed of explosively eruptive tephra, shield volcanoes are the product of gentle effusive eruptions of highly fluid lavas that produce, over time, a broad, gently sloped eponymous "shield". Although the term is generally applied to basaltic shields, it has also at times been applied to rarer scutiform volcanoes of differing magmatic composition—principally pyroclastic shields, formed by the accumulation of fragmental material from particularly powerful explosive eruptions, and rarer felsic lava shields formed by unusually fluid felsic magmas. Examples of pyroclastic shields include Billy Mitchell volcano in
479_3	Papua New Guinea and the Purico complex in Chile; an example of a felsic shield is the Ilgachuz Range in British Columbia, Canada. Shield volcanoes are similar in origin to vast lava plateaus and flood basalts present in various parts of the world. These are eruptive features which occur along linear fissure vents and are distinguished from shield volcanoes by the lack of an identifiable primary eruptive center.
479_4	Active shield volcanoes experience near-continuous eruptive activity over extremely long periods of time, resulting in the gradual build-up of edifices that can reach extremely large dimensions. With the exclusion of flood basalts, mature shields are the largest volcanic features on Earth. The summit of the largest subaerial volcano in the world, Mauna Loa, lies above sea level, and the volcano, over wide at its base, is estimated to contain about of basalt. The mass of the volcano is so great that it has slumped the crust beneath it a further . Accounting for this subsidence and for the height of the volcano above the sea floor, the "true" height of Mauna Loa from the start of its eruptive history is about . Mount Everest, by comparison, is in height. In September 2013, a team led by the University of Houston's William Sager announced the discovery of Tamu Massif, an enormous extinct submarine shield volcano of previously unknown origin which, approximately in area, dwarfs all
479_5	previously known volcanoes on the planet. However, the extents of the volcano have not been confirmed.
479_6	Shield volcanoes feature a gentle (usually 2° to 3°) slope that gradually steepens with elevation (reaching approximately 10°) before flattening near the summit, forming an overall upwardly convex shape. In height they are typically about one twentieth their width. Although the general form of a "typical" shield volcano varies little worldwide, there are regional differences in their size and morphological characteristics. Typical shield volcanoes found in California and Oregon measure in diameter and in height, while shield volcanoes in the central Mexican Michoacán–Guanajuato volcanic field average in height and in width, with an average slope angle of 9.4° and an average volume of .
479_7	Rift zones are a prevalent feature on shield volcanoes that is rare on other volcanic types. The large, decentralized shape of Hawaiian volcanoes as compared to their smaller, symmetrical Icelandic cousins can be attributed to rift eruptions. Fissure venting is common in Hawaii; most Hawaiian eruptions begin with a so-called "wall of fire" along a major fissure line before centralizing to a small number of points. This accounts for their asymmetrical shape, whereas Icelandic volcanoes follow a pattern of central eruptions dominated by summit calderas, causing the lava to be more evenly distributed or symmetrical. Eruptive characteristics
479_8	Most of what is currently known about shield volcanic eruptive character has been gleaned from studies done on the volcanoes of Hawaii Island, by far the most intensively studied of all shields because of their scientific accessibility; the island lends its name to the slow-moving, effusive eruptions typical of shield volcanism, known as Hawaiian eruptions. These eruptions, the least explosive of volcanic events, are characterized by the effusive emission of highly fluid basaltic lavas with low gaseous content. These lavas travel a far greater distance than those of other eruptive types before solidifying, forming extremely wide but relatively thin magmatic sheets often less than thick. Low volumes of such lavas layered over long periods of time are what slowly constructs the characteristically low, broad profile of a mature shield volcano.
479_9	Also unlike other eruptive types, Hawaiian eruptions often occur at decentralized fissure vents, beginning with large "curtains of fire" that quickly die down and concentrate at specific locations on the volcano's rift zones. Central-vent eruptions, meanwhile, often take the form of large lava fountains (both continuous and sporadic), which can reach heights of hundreds of meters or more. The particles from lava fountains usually cool in the air before hitting the ground, resulting in the accumulation of cindery scoria fragments; however, when the air is especially thick with pyroclasts, they cannot cool off fast enough because of the surrounding heat, and hit the ground still hot, accumulating into spatter cones. If eruptive rates are high enough, they may even form splatter-fed lava flows. Hawaiian eruptions are often extremely long-lived; Puʻu ʻŌʻō, a cinder cone of Kīlauea, erupted continuously from January 3, 1983, until April 2018.
479_10	Flows from Hawaiian eruptions can be divided into two types by their structural characteristics: pāhoehoe lava which is relatively smooth and flows with a ropey texture, and ʻaʻā flows which are denser, more viscous (and thus slower moving) and blockier. These lava flows can be anywhere between thick. Aā lava flows move through pressure— the partially solidified front of the flow steepens because of the mass of flowing lava behind it until it breaks off, after which the general mass behind it moves forward. Though the top of the flow quickly cools down, the molten underbelly of the flow is buffered by the solidifying rock above it, and by this mechanism, aā flows can sustain movement for long periods of time. Pāhoehoe flows, in contrast, move in more conventional sheets, or by the advancement of lava "toes" in snaking lava columns. Increasing viscosity on the part of the lava or shear stress on the part of local topography can morph a pāhoehoe flow into an ʻaʻā one, but the reverse
479_11	never occurs.
479_12	Although most shield volcanoes are by volume almost entirely Hawaiian and basaltic in origin, they are rarely exclusively so. Some volcanoes, such as Mount Wrangell in Alaska and Cofre de Perote in Mexico, exhibit large enough swings in their historical magmatic eruptive characteristics to cast strict categorical assignment in doubt; one geological study of de Perote went so far as to suggest the term "compound shield-like volcano" instead. Most mature shield volcanoes have multiple cinder cones on their flanks, the results of tephra ejections common during incessant activity and markers of currently and formerly active sites on the volcano. An example of these parasitic cones is at Puʻu ʻŌʻō on Kīlauea—continuous activity ongoing since 1983 has built up a tall cone at the site of one of the longest-lasting rift eruptions in known history.
479_13	The Hawaiian shield volcanoes are not located near any plate boundaries; the volcanic activity of this island chain is distributed by the movement of the oceanic plate over an upwelling of magma known as a hotspot. Over millions of years, the tectonic movement that moves continents also creates long volcanic trails across the seafloor. The Hawaiian and Galápagos shields, and other hotspot shields like them, are constructed of oceanic island basalt. Their lavas are characterized by high levels of sodium, potassium, and aluminium. Features common in shield volcanism include lava tubes. Lava tubes are cave-like volcanic straights formed by the hardening of overlaying lava. These structures help further the propagation of lava, as the walls of the tube insulate the lava within. Lava tubes can account for a large portion of shield volcano activity; for example, an estimated 58% of the lava forming Kīlauea comes from lava tubes.
479_14	In some shield volcano eruptions, basaltic lava pours out of a long fissure instead of a central vent, and shrouds the countryside with a long band of volcanic material in the form of a broad plateau. Plateaus of this type exist in Iceland, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho; the most prominent ones are situated along the Snake River in Idaho and the Columbia River in Washington and Oregon, where they have been measured to be over in thickness. Calderas are a common feature on shield volcanoes. They are formed and reformed over the volcano's lifespan. Long eruptive periods form cinder cones, which then collapse over time to form calderas. The calderas are often filled up by progressive eruptions, or formed elsewhere, and this cycle of collapse and regeneration takes place throughout the volcano's lifespan.
479_15	Interactions between water and lava at shield volcanoes can cause some eruptions to become hydrovolcanic. These explosive eruptions are drastically different from the usual shield volcanic activity and are especially prevalent at the waterbound volcanoes of the Hawaiian Isles. Distribution
479_16	Shield volcanoes are found worldwide. They can form over hotspots (points where magma from below the surface wells up), such as the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain and the Galápagos Islands, or over more conventional rift zones, such as the Icelandic shields and the shield volcanoes of East Africa. Although shield volcanoes are not usually associated with subduction, they can occur over subduction zones. Many examples are found in California and Oregon, including Prospect Peak in Lassen Volcanic National Park, as well as Pelican Butte and Belknap Crater in Oregon. Many shield volcanoes are found in ocean basins, such as Tamu Massif, the world's largest, although they can be found inland as well—East Africa being one example of this.
479_17	Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain The largest and most prominent shield volcano chain in the world is the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, a chain of hotspot volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean. The volcanoes follow a distinct evolutionary pattern of growth and death. The chain contains at least 43 major volcanoes, and Meiji Seamount at its terminus near the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench is 85 million years old. The youngest part of the chain is Hawaii, where the volcanoes are characterized by frequent rift eruptions, their large size (thousands of km3 in volume), and their rough, decentralized shape. Rift zones are a prominent feature on these volcanoes and account for their seemingly random volcanic structure. They are fueled by the movement of the Pacific Plate over the Hawaii hotspot and form a long chain of volcanoes, atolls, and seamounts long with a total volume of over .
479_18	The chain includes Mauna Loa, a shield volcano which stands above sea level and reaches a further below the waterline and into the crust, approximately of rock. Kīlauea, another Hawaiian shield volcano, is one of the most active volcanoes on Earth, with its most recent eruption occurring in 2021.
479_19	Galápagos Islands The Galápagos Islands are an isolated set of volcanoes, consisting of shield volcanoes and lava plateaus, about west of Ecuador. They are driven by the Galápagos hotspot, and are between approximately 4.2 million and 700,000 years of age. The largest island, Isabela, consists of six coalesced shield volcanoes, each delineated by a large summit caldera. Española, the oldest island, and Fernandina, the youngest, are also shield volcanoes, as are most of the other islands in the chain. The Galápagos Islands are perched on a large lava plateau known as the Galápagos Platform. This platform creates a shallow water depth of at the base of the islands, which stretch over a diameter. Since Charles Darwin's visit to the islands in 1835 during the second voyage of HMS Beagle, there have been over 60 recorded eruptions in the islands, from six different shield volcanoes. Of the 21 emergent volcanoes, 13 are considered active.
479_20	Cerro Azul is a shield volcano on the southwestern part of Isabela Island and is one of the most active in the Galapagos, with the last eruption between May and June 2008. The Geophysics Institute at the National Polytechnic School in Quito houses an international team of seismologists and volcanologists whose responsibility is to monitor Ecuador's numerous active volcanoes in the Andean Volcanic Belt and the Galapagos Islands. La Cumbre is an active shield volcano on Fernandina Island that has been erupting since April 11, 2009.
479_21	The Galápagos islands are geologically young for such a big chain, and the pattern of their rift zones follows one of two trends, one north-northwest, and one east–west. The composition of the lavas of the Galápagos shields are strikingly similar to those of the Hawaiian volcanoes. Curiously, they do not form the same volcanic "line" associated with most hotspots. They are not alone in this regard; the Cobb–Eickelberg Seamount chain in the North Pacific is another example of such a delineated chain. In addition, there is no clear pattern of age between the volcanoes, suggesting a complicated, irregular pattern of creation. How the islands were formed remains a geological mystery, although several theories have been proposed. Iceland
479_22	Located over the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a divergent tectonic plate boundary in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, Iceland is the site of about 130 volcanoes of various types. Icelandic shield volcanoes are generally of Holocene age, between 5,000 and 10,000 years old. The volcanoes are also very narrow in distribution, occurring in two bands in the West and North Volcanic Zones. Like Hawaiian volcanoes, their formation initially begins with several eruptive centers before centralizing and concentrating at a single point. The main shield then forms, burying the smaller ones formed by the early eruptions with its lava.
479_23	Icelandic shields are mostly small (~), symmetrical (although this can be affected by surface topography), and characterized by eruptions from summit calderas. They are composed of either tholeiitic olivine or picritic basalt. The tholeiitic shields tend to be wider and shallower than the picritic shields. They do not follow the pattern of caldera growth and destruction that other shield volcanoes do; caldera may form, but they generally do not disappear. East Africa
479_24	In East Africa, volcanic activity is generated by the development of the East African Rift and from nearby hotspots. Some volcanoes interact with both. Shield volcanoes are found near the rift and off the coast of Africa, although stratovolcanoes are more common. Although sparsely studied, the fact that all of its volcanoes are of Holocene age reflects how young the volcanic center is. One interesting characteristic of East African volcanism is a penchant for the formation of lava lakes; these semi-permanent lava bodies, extremely rare elsewhere, form in about 9% of African eruptions.
479_25	The most active shield volcano in Africa is Nyamuragira. Eruptions at the shield volcano are generally centered within the large summit caldera or on the numerous fissures and cinder cones on the volcano's flanks. Lava flows from the most recent century extend down the flanks more than from the summit, reaching as far as Lake Kivu. Erta Ale in Ethiopia is another active shield volcano and one of the few places in the world with a permanent lava lake, which has been active since at least 1967, and possibly since 1906. Other volcanic centers include Menengai, a massive shield caldera, and Mount Marsabit in Kenya. Extraterrestrial shield volcanoes Shield volcanoes are not limited to Earth; they have been found on Mars, Venus, and Jupiter's moon, Io.
479_26	The shield volcanoes of Mars are very similar to the shield volcanoes on Earth. On both planets, they have gently sloping flanks, collapse craters along their central structure, and are built of highly fluid lavas. Volcanic features on Mars were observed long before they were first studied in detail during the 1976–1979 Viking mission. The principal difference between the volcanoes of Mars and those on Earth is in terms of size; Martian volcanoes range in size up to high and in diameter, far larger than the high, wide Hawaiian shields. The highest of these, Olympus Mons, is the tallest known mountain on any planet in the solar system. Venus has over 150 shield volcanoes which are much flatter, with a larger surface area than those found on Earth, some having a diameter of more than . Although the majority of these are long extinct it has been suggested, from observations by the Venus Express spacecraft, that many may still be active. References External links
479_27	Volcanic landforms
480_0	Percy Wyndham Lewis (18 November 1882 – 7 March 1957) was a British writer, painter, and critic. He was a co-founder of the Vorticist movement in art and edited BLAST, the literary magazine of the Vorticists. His novels include Tarr (1918) and The Human Age trilogy, composed of The Childermass (1928), Monstre Gai (1955) and Malign Fiesta (1955). A fourth volume, titled The Trial of Man, was unfinished at the time of his death. He also wrote two autobiographical volumes: Blasting and Bombardiering (1937) and Rude Assignment: A Narrative of my Career Up-to-Date (1950). Biography
480_1	Early life Lewis was born on 18 November 1882, reputedly on his father's yacht off the Canadian province of Nova Scotia. His English mother, Anne Stuart Lewis (née Prickett), and American father, Charles Edward Lewis, separated about 1893. His mother subsequently returned to England. Lewis was educated in England at Rugby School and then Slade School of Fine Art, University College London. He spent most of the 1900s travelling around Europe and studying art in Paris. While in Paris, he attended lectures by Henri Bergson on process philosophy. Early work and development of Vorticism (1908–1915) In 1908, Lewis moved to London, where he would reside for much of his life. In 1909, he published his first work, accounts of his travels in Brittany, in Ford Madox Ford's The English Review. He was a founding member of the Camden Town Group, which brought him into close contact with the Bloomsbury Group, particularly Roger Fry and Clive Bell, with whom he soon fell out.
480_2	In 1912, Lewis exhibited his work at the second Postimpressionist exhibition: Cubo-Futurist illustrations to Timon of Athens and three major oil paintings. In 1912, he was commissioned to produce a decorative mural, a drop curtain, and more designs for The Cave of the Golden Calf, an avant-garde cabaret and nightclub on Heddon Street.
480_3	From 1913 to 1915, Lewis developed the style of geometric abstraction for which he is best known today, which his friend Ezra Pound dubbed "Vorticism." Lewis sought to combine the strong structure of Cubism, which he found was not "alive," with the liveliness of Futurist art, which lacked structure. The combination was a strikingly dramatic critique of modernity. In his early visual works, Lewis may have been influenced by Bergson's process philosophy. Though he was later savagely critical of Bergson, he admitted in a letter to Theodore Weiss (19 April 1949) that he "began by embracing his evolutionary system." Nietzsche was an equally important influence.
480_4	Lewis had a brief tenure at Roger Fry's Omega Workshops, but left after a quarrel with Fry over a commission to provide wall decorations for the Daily Mail Ideal Home Exhibition, which Lewis believed Fry had misappropriated. He and several other Omega artists started a competing workshop called the Rebel Art Centre. The Centre operated for only four months, but it gave birth to the Vorticist group and its publication, BLAST. In BLAST, Lewis formally expounded the Vorticist aesthetic in a manifesto, distinguishing it from other avant-garde practices. He also wrote and published a play, Enemy of the Stars. It is a proto-absurdist, Expressionist drama. Lewis scholar Melania Terrazas identifies it as a precursor to the plays of Samuel Beckett. World War I (1915–1918)
480_5	In 1915, the Vorticists held their only U.K. exhibition before the movement broke up, largely as a result of World War I. Lewis himself was posted to the western front and served as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery. Much of his time was spent in Forward Observation Posts looking down at apparently deserted German lines, registering targets and calling down fire from batteries massed around the rim of the Ypres Salient. He made vivid accounts of narrow misses and deadly artillery duels. After the Third Battle of Ypres, Lewis was appointed as an official war artist for both the Canadian and British governments. For the Canadians, he painted A Canadian Gun-pit (1918) from sketches made on Vimy Ridge. For the British, he painted one of his best-known works, A Battery Shelled (1919), drawing on his own experience at Ypres. Lewis exhibited his war drawings and some other paintings of the war in an exhibition, "Guns", in 1918.
480_6	Although the Vorticist group broke up after the war, Lewis's patron, John Quinn, organized a Vorticist exhibition at the Penguin Club in New York in 1917. His first novel, Tarr, was serialized in The Egoist during 1916–17 and published in book form in 1918. It is widely regarded as one of the key modernist texts. Lewis later documented his experiences and opinions of this period of his life in the autobiographical Blasting and Bombardiering (1937), which covered his life up to 1926. Tyros and writing (1918–1929)
480_7	After the war, Lewis resumed his career as a painter with a major exhibition, Tyros and Portraits, at the Leicester Galleries in 1921. "Tyros" were satirical caricatures intended to comment on the culture of the "new epoch" that succeeded the First World War. A Reading of Ovid and Mr Wyndham Lewis as a Tyro are the only surviving oil paintings from this series. Lewis also launched his second magazine, The Tyro, of which there were only two issues. The second (1922) contained an important statement of Lewis's visual aesthetic: "Essay on the Objective of Plastic Art in our Time". It was during the early 1920s that he perfected his incisive draughtsmanship.
480_8	By the late 1920s, he concentrated on writing. He launched yet another magazine, The Enemy (1927–1929), largely written by himself and declaring its belligerent critical stance in its title. The magazine and other theoretical and critical works he published from 1926 to 1929 mark a deliberate separation from the avant-garde and his previous associates. He believed that their work failed to show sufficient critical awareness of those ideologies that worked against truly revolutionary change in the West, and therefore became a vehicle for these pernicious ideologies. His major theoretical and cultural statement from this period is The Art of Being Ruled (1926).
480_9	Time and Western Man (1927) is a cultural and philosophical discussion that includes penetrating critiques of James Joyce, Gertrude Stein and Ezra Pound that are still read. Lewis also attacked the process philosophy of Bergson, Samuel Alexander, Alfred North Whitehead, and others. By 1931 he was advocating the art of ancient Egypt as impossible to surpass. Fiction and political writing (1930–1936) In 1930 Lewis published The Apes of God, a biting satirical attack on the London literary scene, including a long chapter caricaturing the Sitwell family, which may have harmed his position in the literary world. In 1937 he published The Revenge for Love, set in the period leading up to the Spanish Civil War and regarded by many as his best novel. It is strongly critical of communist activity in Spain and presents English intellectual fellow travellers as deluded.
480_10	Despite serious illness necessitating several operations, he was very productive as a critic and painter. He produced a book of poems, One-Way Song, in 1933, and a revised version of Enemy of the Stars. An important book of critical essays also belongs to this period: Men without Art (1934). It grew out of a defence of Lewis's satirical practice in The Apes of God and puts forward a theory of 'non-moral', or metaphysical, satire. The book is probably best remembered for one of the first commentaries on Faulkner and a famous essay on Hemingway. Return to painting (1936–1941)
480_11	After becoming better known for his writing than his painting in the 1920s and early 1930s, he returned to more concentrated work on visual art, and paintings from the 1930s and 1940s constitute some of his best-known work. The Surrender of Barcelona (1936–37) makes a significant statement about the Spanish Civil War. It was included in an exhibition at the Leicester Galleries in 1937 that Lewis hoped would re-establish his reputation as a painter. After the publication in The Times of a letter of support for the exhibition, asking that something from the show be purchased for the national collection (signed by, among others, Stephen Spender, W. H. Auden, Geoffrey Grigson, Rebecca West, Naomi Mitchison, Henry Moore and Eric Gill) the Tate Gallery bought the painting, Red Scene. Like others from the exhibition, it shows an influence from Surrealism and de Chirico's Metaphysical Painting. Lewis was highly critical of the ideology of Surrealism, but admired the visual qualities of some
480_12	Surrealist art.
480_13	During this period, Lewis also produced many of his most well-known portraits, including pictures of Edith Sitwell (1923–1936), T. S. Eliot (1938 and 1949), and Ezra Pound (1939). His 1938 portrait of Eliot was rejected by the selection committee of the Royal Academy for their annual exhibition and caused a furore, when Augustus John resigned in protest. World War II and North America (1941–1945) Lewis spent World War II in the United States and Canada. In 1941, in Toronto, he produced a series of watercolor fantasies centered on themes of creation, crucifixion and bathing.
480_14	He grew to appreciate the cosmopolitan and "rootless" nature of the American melting pot, declaring that the greatest advantage of being American was to have "turned one's back on race, caste, and all that pertains to the rooted state." He praised the contributions of African-Americans to American culture, and regarded Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and José Clemente Orozco as the "best North American artists," predicting that when "the Indian culture of Mexico melts into the great American mass to the North, the Indian will probably give it its art." He returned to England in 1945.
480_15	Later life and blindness (1945–1951) By 1951, he was completely blinded by a pituitary tumor that placed pressure on his optic nerve. It ended his artistic career, but he continued writing until his death. He published several autobiographical and critical works: Rude Assignment (1950), Rotting Hill (1951), a collection of allegorical short stories about his life in "the capital of a dying empire"; The Writer and the Absolute (1952), a book of essays on writers including George Orwell, Jean-Paul Sartre and André Malraux; and the semi-autobiographical novel Self Condemned (1954).
480_16	The BBC commissioned Lewis to complete his 1928 work The Childermass, which was published as The Human Age and dramatized for the BBC Third Programme in 1955. In 1956, the Tate Gallery held a major exhibition of his work, "Wyndham Lewis and Vorticism", in the catalogue to which he declared that "Vorticism, in fact, was what I, personally, did and said at a certain period"—a statement which brought forth a series of "Vortex Pamphlets" from his fellow "BLAST" signatory William Roberts. Personal life From 1918 to 1921, Lewis lived with Iris Barry, with whom he had two children. He is said to have shown little affection for them. In 1930, Lewis married Gladys Anne Hoskins (1900–1979), eighteen years his junior and affectionately known as Froanna. They lived together for ten years before marrying and never had children.
480_17	Lewis kept Froanna in the background, and many of his friends were simply unaware of her existence. It seems that Lewis was extraordinarily jealous and protective of his wife, owing to her youth and beauty. Froanna was patient and caring toward her husband through financial troubles and his frequent illnesses. She was the model for some of Lewis's most tender and intimate portraits, as well as a number of characters in his fiction. In contrast to his earlier, impersonal portraits, which are purely concerned with external appearance, the portraits of Froanna show a preoccupation with her inner life. Always interested in Roman Catholicism, he never converted. He died in 1957. By the time of his death, Lewis had written 40 books in all.
480_18	Political views In 1931, after a visit to Berlin, Lewis published Hitler (1931), a book presenting Adolf Hitler as a "man of peace" whose party-members were threatened by communist street violence. His unpopularity among liberals and anti-fascists grew, especially after Hitler came to power in 1933. Following a second visit to Germany in 1937, Lewis changed his views and began to retract his previous political comments. He recognized the reality of Nazi treatment of Jews after a visit to Berlin in 1937. In 1939, he published an attack on anti-semitism, The Jews, Are They Human?, which was favorably reviewed in The Jewish Chronicle. He also published The Hitler Cult (1939), which firmly revoked his earlier support for Hitler.
480_19	Politically, Lewis remained an isolated figure through the 1930s. In Letter to Lord Byron, W. H. Auden called Lewis "that lonely old volcano of the Right." Lewis thought there was what he called a "left-wing orthodoxy" in Britain in the 1930s. He believed it was against Britain's self-interest to ally with the Soviet Union, "which the newspapers most of us read tell us has slaughtered out-of-hand, only a few years ago, millions of its better fed citizens, as well as its whole imperial family."
480_20	In Anglosaxony: A League that Works (1941), Lewis reflected on his earlier support for fascism:Fascism – once I understood it – left me colder than communism. The latter at least pretended, at the start, to have something to do with helping the helpless and making the world a more decent and sensible place. It does start from the human being and his suffering. Whereas fascism glorifies bloodshed and preaches that man should model himself upon the wolf.His sense that America and Canada lacked a British-type class structure had increased his opinion of liberal democracy, and in the same pamphlet, Lewis defends liberal democracy's respect for individual freedom against its critics on both the left and right. In America and Cosmic Man (1949), Lewis argued that Franklin Delano Roosevelt had successfully managed to reconcile individual rights with the demands of the state.
480_21	Legacy In recent years, there has been renewed critical and biographical interest in Lewis and his work, and he is now regarded as a major British artist and writer of the twentieth century. Rugby School hosted an exhibition of his works in November 2007 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of his death. The National Portrait Gallery in London held a major retrospective of his portraits in 2008. Two years later, held at the Fundación Juan March (Madrid, Spain), a large exhibition (Wyndham Lewis 1882–1957) featured a comprehensive collection of Lewis's paintings and drawings. As Tom Lubbock pointed out, it was "the retrospective that Britain has never managed to get together.".
480_22	In 2010, Oxford World Classics published a critical edition of the 1928 text of "Tarr", edited by Scott W. Klein of Wake Forest University. The Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University held an exhibition entitled "The Vorticists: Rebel Artists in London and New York, 1914–18" from 30 September 2010 through 2 January 2011. The exhibition then travelled to the Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice (29 January – 15 May 2011: "I Vorticisti: Artisti ribellia a Londra e New York, 1914–1918") and then to Tate Britain under the title "The Vorticists: Manifesto for a Modern World" between 14 June and 4 September 2011. Several readings by Lewis are collected on The Enemy Speaks, an audiobook CD published in 2007 and featuring extracts from "One Way Song" and "The Apes of God", as well as radio talks titled "When John Bull Laughs" (1938), "A Crisis of Thought" (1947) and "The Essential Purposes of Art" (1951).
480_23	A blue plaque now stands on the house in Kensington, London, where Lewis lived, No. 61 Palace Gardens Terrace. Critical reception In his essay "Good Bad Books", George Orwell presents Lewis as the exemplary writer who is cerebral without being artistic. Orwell wrote, "Enough talent to set up dozens of ordinary writers has been poured into Wyndham Lewis's so-called novels ... Yet it would be a very heavy labour to read one of these books right through. Some indefinable quality, a sort of literary vitamin, which exists even in a book like [1922 melodrama] If Winter Comes, is absent from them." In 1932, Walter Sickert sent Lewis a telegram in which he said that Lewis's pencil portrait of Rebecca West proved him to be "the greatest portraitist of this or any other time."
480_24	Anti-semitism For many years, Lewis's novels have been criticised for their satirical and hostile portrayals of Jews. Tarr was revised and republished in 1928, giving a new Jewish character a key role in making sure a duel is fought. This has been interpreted as an allegorical representation of a supposed Zionist conspiracy against the West. His literary satire The Apes of God has been interpreted similarly, because many of the characters are Jewish, including the modernist author and editor Julius Ratner, a portrait which blends anti-semitic stereotype with historical literary figures John Rodker and James Joyce. A key feature of these interpretations is that Lewis is held to have kept his conspiracy theories hidden and marginalized. Since the publication of Anthony Julius's T. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Literary Form (1995), where Lewis's anti-semitism is described as "essentially trivial", this view is no longer taken seriously.
480_25	Books Tarr (1918) (novel) The Caliph's Design : Architects! Where is Your Vortex? (1919) (essay) The Art of Being Ruled (1926) (essays) The Wild Body: A Soldier of Humour And Other Stories (1927) (short stories) The Lion and the Fox: The Role of the Hero in the Plays of Shakespeare (1927) (essays) Time and Western Man (1927) (essays) The Childermass (1928) (novel) Paleface: The Philosophy of the Melting Pot (1929) (essays) Satire and Fiction (1930) (criticism) The Apes of God (1930) (novel) Hitler (1931) (essay) The Diabolical Principle and the Dithyrambic Spectator (1931) (essays) Doom of Youth (1932) (essays) Filibusters in Barbary (1932) (travel; later republished as Journey into Barbary) Enemy of the Stars (1932) (play) Snooty Baronet (1932) (novel) One-Way Song (1933) (poetry) Men Without Art (1934) (criticism) Left Wings over Europe; or, How to Make a War about Nothing (1936) (essays) Blasting and Bombardiering (1937) (autobiography) The Revenge for Love (1937) (novel)
480_26	Count Your Dead: They are Alive!: Or, A New War in the Making (1937) (essays) The Mysterious Mr. Bull (1938) The Jews, Are They Human? (1939) (essay) The Hitler Cult and How it Will End (1939) (essay) America, I Presume (1940) (travel) The Vulgar Streak (1941) (novel) Anglosaxony: A League that Works (1941) (essay) America and Cosmic Man (1949) (essay) Rude Assignment (1950) (autobiography) Rotting Hill (1951) (short stories) The Writer and the Absolute (1952) (essay) Self Condemned (1954) (novel) The Demon of Progress in the Arts (1955) (essay) Monstre Gai (1955) (novel) Malign Fiesta (1955) (novel) The Red Priest (1956) (novel) The Letters of Wyndham Lewis (1963) (letters) The Roaring Queen (1973; written 1936 but unpublished) (novel) Unlucky for Pringle (1973) (short stories) Mrs Duke's Million (1977; written 1908–10 but unpublished) (novel) Creatures of Habit and Creatures of Change (1989) (essays)
480_27	Paintings
480_28	The Theatre Manager (1909), watercolour The Courtesan (1912), pen and ink, watercolour Indian Dance (1912), chalk and watercolour Russian Madonna (also known as Russian Scene) (1912), pen and ink, watercolour Lovers (1912), pen and ink, watercolour Mother and Child (1912), oil on canvas, now lost The Dancers (study for Kermesse) (1912), black ink and watercolour, (image) Composition (1913), pen and ink, watercolour, (image) Plan of War (1913–14), oil on canvas Slow Attack (1913–14), oil on canvas New York (1914), pen and ink, watercolour Argol (1914), pen and ink, watercolour The Crowd (1914–15), oil paint and graphite on canvas, (image) Workshop (1914–15), oil on canvas, (image) Vorticist Composition (1915), gouache and chalk, (image) A Canadian Gun-pit (1919), oil on canvas, (image) A Battery Shelled (1919), oil on canvas, (image) Mr Wyndham Lewis as a Tyro (1920–21), oil on canvas, (image) A Reading of Ovid (Tyros) (1920–21), oil on canvas, (image) Seated Figure (c.1921) (image)
480_29	Mrs Schiff (1923–24), oil on canvas, (image) Edith Sitwell (1923–1925), oil on canvas, (image) Bagdad (1927–28), oil on wood, (image} Three Veiled Figures (1933), oil on canvas, (image) Creation Myth (1933–1936, oil on canvas, (image) Red Scene (1933–1936), oil on canvas, (image) One of the Stations of the Dead (1933–1837), oil on canvas, (image} The Surrender of Barcelona (1934–1937), oil on canvas, (image) Panel for the Safe of a Great Millionaire (1936–37), oil on canvas, (image) Newfoundland (1936–37), oil on canvas, (image) Pensive Head (1937), oil on canvas, (image) La Suerte (1938), oil on canvas, (image) John Macleod (1938), oil on canvas (image) Ezra Pound (1939), oil on canvas, (image) Mrs R.J. Sainsbury (1940–41), oil on canvas, (image)A Canadian War Factory (1943), oil on canvas, (image)Nigel Tangye (1946), oil on canvas, (image)
480_30	Notes and references
480_31	Further reading Ayers, David. (1992) Wyndham Lewis and Western Man. Basingstoke and London: Macmillan. Chaney, Edward (1990) "Wyndham Lewis: The Modernist as Pioneering Anti-Modernist", Modern Painters (Autumn, 1990), III, no. 3, pp. 106–09. Edwards, Paul. (2000) Wyndham Lewis, Painter and Writer. New Haven and London: Yale U P. Edwards, Paul and Humphreys, Richard. (2010) "Wyndham Lewis (1882–1957)". Madrid: Fundación Juan March Gasiorek, Andrzej. (2004) Wyndham Lewis and ModernismWyndham Lewis and Modernism. Tavistock: Northcote House. Gasiorek, Andrzej, Reeve-Tucker, Alice, and Waddell, Nathan. (2011) Wyndham Lewis and the Cultures of Modernity. Aldershot: Ashgate. Grigson, Geoffrey (1951) 'A Master of Our Time', London: Methuen. Hammer, Martin (1981) Out of the Vortex: Wyndham Lewis as Painter, in Cencrastus No. 5, Summer 1981, pp. 31–33, .
480_32	Jaillant, Lise. "Rewriting Tarr Ten Years Later: Wyndham Lewis, the Phoenix Library and the Domestication of Modernism." Journal of Wyndham Lewis Studies 5 (2014): 1–30. Jameson, Fredric. (1979) Fables of Aggression: Wyndham Lewis, the Modernist as Fascist. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press. Kenner, Hugh. (1954) Wyndham Lewis. New York: New Directions. Klein, Scott W. (1994) The Fictions of James Joyce and Wyndham Lewis: Monsters of Nature and Design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Leavis, F.R. (1964). "Mr. Eliot, Mr. Wyndham Lewis and Lawrence." In The Common Pursuit, New York University Press. Michel, Walter. (1971) Wyndham Lewis: Paintings and Drawings. Berkeley: University of California Press. Meyers, Jeffrey. (1980) The Enemy: A Biography of Wyndham Lewis. London and Henley: Routledge & Keegan Paul. Morrow, Bradford and Bernard Lafourcade. (1978) A Bibliography of the Writings of Wyndham Lewis. Santa Barbara: Black Sparrow Press.
480_33	Normand, Tom. (1993) Wyndham Lewis the Artist: Holding the Mirror up to Politics. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. O'Keeffe, Paul. (2000) Some Sort of Genius: A Biography of Wyndham Lewis. London: Cape. Orage, A. R. (1922). "Mr. Pound and Mr. Lewis in Public." In Readers and Writers (1917–1921), London: George Allen & Unwin, Ltd. Rothenstein, John (1956). "Wyndham Lewis." In Modern English Painters. Lewis To Moore, London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. Rutter, Frank (1922). "Wyndham Lewis." In Some Contemporary Artists, London: Leonard Parsons. Rutter, Frank (1926). Evolution in Modern Art: A Study of Modern Painting, 1870–1925, London: George G. Harrap. Schenker, Daniel. (1992) Wyndham Lewis: Religion and Modernism. Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama Press. Spender, Stephen (1978). The Thirties and After: Poetry, Politics, People (1933–1975), Macmillan.
480_34	Stevenson, Randall (1982), The Other Centenary: Wyndham Lewis, 1882–1982, in Hearn, Sheila G. (ed.), Cencrastus No. 10, Autumn 1982, pp. 18–21, Waddell, Nathan. (2012) Modernist Nowheres: Politics and Utopia in Early Modernist Writing, 1900–1920. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Wagner, Geoffrey (1957). Wyndham Lewis: A Portrait of the Artist as the Enemy, New Haven: Yale University Press. Woodcock, George, ed. Wyndham Lewis in Canada''. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Publications, 1972.
480_35	External links "“Long Live the Vortex!” and “Our Vortex” (1914) by Lewis at the Poetry Foundation Website of the Wyndham Lewis Society Biography of Wyndham Lewis at Encyclopaedia Britannica Portraits at the National Portrait Gallery, London. "Time and Western Man" essay from Yale "Self Condemned," essay about Lewis and Canada in The Walrus, October 2010 "The Enemy Speaks" audiobook CD by Lewis Wyndham Lewis Collection at the Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library Wyndham Lewis's Art Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at The University of Texas at Austin Wyndham Lewis collection at University of Victoria, Special Collections Art and Literary Works by Wyndham Lewis from the C. J. Fox Collection at University of Victoria, Special Collections Wyndham Lewis Collection (archival) and (book collection) at Clara Thomas Archives & Special Collections at York University
480_36	1882 births 1957 deaths People born at sea 20th-century English painters English male painters 20th-century English novelists English satirists Vorticists British war artists Alumni of the Slade School of Fine Art Royal Artillery officers British Army personnel of World War I Blind people from England People educated at Rugby School English magazine editors Artists from Nova Scotia Post-impressionist painters Golders Green Crematorium World War I artists English male novelists 20th-century English male writers Group X English people of American descent
481_0	The atypical antipsychotics (AAP), also known as second generation antipsychotics (SGAs) and serotonin–dopamine antagonists (SDAs), are a group of antipsychotic drugs (antipsychotic drugs in general are also known as major tranquilizers and neuroleptics, although the latter is usually reserved for the typical antipsychotics) largely introduced after the 1970s and used to treat psychiatric conditions. Some atypical antipsychotics have received regulatory approval (e.g. by the FDA of the US, the TGA of Australia, the MHRA of the UK) for schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, irritability in autism, and as an adjunct in major depressive disorder.
481_1	Both generations of medication tend to block receptors in the brain's dopamine pathways. Atypicals are less likely than haloperidol — the most widely used typical antipsychotic — to cause extrapyramidal motor control disabilities in patients such as unsteady Parkinson's disease-type movements, body rigidity, and involuntary tremors. However, only a few of the atypicals have been demonstrated to be superior to lesser-used, low-potency first-generation antipsychotics in this regard.
481_2	As experience with these agents has grown, several studies have questioned the utility of broadly characterizing antipsychotic drugs as "atypical/second generation" as opposed to "first generation," noting that each agent has its own efficacy and side-effect profile. It has been argued that a more nuanced view in which the needs of individual patients are matched to the properties of individual drugs is more appropriate. Although atypical antipsychotics are thought to be safer than typical antipsychotics, they still have severe side effects, including tardive dyskinesia (a serious movement disorder), neuroleptic malignant syndrome, and increased risk of stroke, sudden cardiac death, blood clots, and diabetes. Significant weight gain may occur. Critics have argued that "the time has come to abandon the terms first-generation and second-generation antipsychotics, as they do not merit this distinction."
481_3	Medical uses Atypical antipsychotics are typically used to treat schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. They are also frequently used to treat agitation associated with dementia, anxiety disorder, autism spectrum disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (an off-label use). In dementia, they should only be considered after other treatments have failed and if the patient is a risk to themselves and/or others. Schizophrenia The first-line psychiatric treatment for schizophrenia is antipsychotic medication, which can reduce the positive symptoms of schizophrenia in about 8–15 days. Antipsychotics only appear to improve secondary negative symptoms of schizophrenia in the short term and may worsen negative symptoms overall. Overall there is no good evidence that atypical antipsychotics have any therapeutic benefit for treating the negative symptoms of schizophrenia.
481_4	There is very little evidence on which to base a risk and benefit assessment of using antipsychotics for long-term treatment. The choice of which antipsychotic to use for a specific patient is based on benefits, risks, and costs. It is debatable whether, as a class, typical or atypical antipsychotics are better. Both have equal drop-out and symptom relapse rates when typicals are used at low to moderate dosages. There is a good response in 40–50% of patients, a partial response in 30–40%, and treatment resistance (failure of symptoms to respond satisfactorily after six weeks to two of three different antipsychotics) in the remaining 20%. Clozapine is considered a first choice treatment for treatment resistant schizophrenia, especially in the short term; in the longer-terms the risks of adverse effects complicate the choice. In turn, risperidone, olanzapine, and aripiprazole have been recommended for the treatment of first-episode psychosis.
481_5	Efficacy in the treatment of schizophrenia
481_6	The utility of broadly grouping the antipsychotics into first generation and atypical categories has been challenged. It has been argued that a more nuanced view, matching the properties of individual drugs to the needs of specific patients is preferable. While the atypical (second-generation) antipsychotics were marketed as offering greater efficacy in reducing psychotic symptoms while reducing side effects (and extrapyramidal symptoms in particular) than typical medications, the results showing these effects often lacked robustness, and the assumption was increasingly challenged even as atypical prescriptions were soaring. In 2005 the US government body NIMH published the results of a major independent (not funded by the pharmaceutical companies) multi-site, double-blind study (the CATIE project). This study compared several atypical antipsychotics to an older, mid-potency typical antipsychotic, perphenazine, among 1,493 persons with schizophrenia. The study found that only
481_7	olanzapine outperformed perphenazine in discontinuation rate (the rate at which people stopped taking it due to its effects). The authors noted an apparent superior efficacy of olanzapine to the other drugs in terms of reduction in psychopathology and rate of hospitalizations, but olanzapine was associated with relatively severe metabolic effects such as a major weight gain problem (averaging 9.4 lbs over 18 months) and increases in glucose, cholesterol, and triglycerides. No other atypical studied (risperidone, quetiapine, and ziprasidone) did better than the typical perphenazine on the measures used, nor did they produce fewer adverse effects than the typical antipsychotic perphenazine (a result supported by a meta-analysis by Leucht et al. published in The Lancet), although more patients discontinued perphenazine owing to extrapyramidal effects compared to the atypical agents (8% vs. 2% to 4%, P=0.002). A phase 2 part of this CATIE study roughly replicated these findings.
481_8	Compliance has not been shown to be different between the two types. Overall evaluations of the CATIE and other studies have led many researchers to question the first-line prescribing of atypicals over typicals, or even to question the distinction between the two classes.
481_9	It has been suggested that there is no validity to the term "second-generation antipsychotic drugs" and that the drugs that currently occupy this category are not identical to each other in mechanism, efficacy, and side-effect profiles.
481_10	Bipolar disorder In bipolar disorder, SGAs are most commonly used to rapidly control acute mania and mixed episodes, often in conjunction with mood stabilizers (which tend to have a delayed onset of action in such cases) such as lithium and valproate. In milder cases of mania or mixed episodes, mood stabilizer monotherapy may be attempted first. SGAs are also used to treat other aspects of the disorder (such as acute bipolar depression or as a prophylactic treatment) as adjuncts or as a monotherapy, depending on the drug. Both quetiapine and olanzapine have demonstrated significant efficacy in all three treatment phases of bipolar disorder. Lurasidone (trade name Latuda) has demonstrated some efficacy in the acute depressive phase of bipolar disorder. Major depressive disorder In non-psychotic major depressive disorder (MDD), some SGAs have demonstrated significant efficacy as adjunctive agents; and, such agents include:
481_11	Aripiprazole Brexpiprazole Olanzapine Quetiapine Ziprasidone whereas only quetiapine has demonstrated efficacy as a monotherapy in non-psychotic MDD. Olanzapine/fluoxetine is an efficacious treatment in both psychotic and non-psychotic MDD. Aripiprazole, brexpiprazole, olanzapine, and quetiapine have been approved as adjunct treatment for MDD by the FDA in the United States. Quetiapine and lurasidone have been approved, as monotherapies, for bipolar depression, but as of present, lurasidone has not been approved for MDD. Autism Both risperidone and aripiprazole have received FDA approval for irritability in autism.
481_12	Dementia and Alzheimer's disease Between May 2007 and April 2008, Dementia and Alzheimer's together accounted for 28% of atypical antipsychotic use in patients aged 65 or older. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration requires that all atypical antipsychotics carry a black box warning that the medication has been associated with an increased risk of mortality in elderly patients. In 2005, the FDA issued an advisory warning of an increased risk of death when atypical antipsychotics are used in dementia. In the subsequent 5 years, the use of atypical antipsychotics to treat dementia decreased by nearly 50%. Comparison table of efficacy

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