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620_6 | There are a variety of methods used to attach the cranks to the bottom bracket spindle (or axle).
Older cranks use a wedge-shaped pin, called a cotter, for attachment to the bottom bracket spindle.
Newer cranks slide onto
a square tapered spindle. The taper is 2 degrees with respect to the centerline. There are at least two non-interchangeable dimensions (e.g. Shimano and Campagnolo use competing standards in square taper, viz. JIS and ISO respectively, where the ISO spindle is longer and its taper end is slightly smaller. Most parts made by European manufacturers are to the ISO standard, and most Asian manufacturers use the JIS (Shimano) standard), and two orientations: diamond and horizontal square. The hole in the crank in which one screws a crank puller almost always has a diameter of 22 mm, though some old French cranks (Stonglight and T.A.) require a different puller.
a hexagonal tapered spindle (Tune components cranks are an example) |
620_7 | a splined bottom bracket spindle with two prominent specifications, and numerous uncommon ones. The ISIS spline may be the most common splined standard as it was decided on and supported by several companies. Shimano's Octalink is a common proprietary standard that comes in two forms: version one for XTR, 105, Ultegra and Dura Ace; and version two for every other groupset such as XT, LX and Deore. Truvativ and DMR also have their own proprietary spline interface standards. A 48 splined spindle, such as from Profile Racing, Demolition, and Eighth Inch, is mostly used for BMX, unicycles, and fixed-gear Freestyle. |
620_8 | The cranks are pressed into place and prevented from squirming off via fretting by a bolt or nut installed into or onto the bottom bracket spindle. The head of the bolt or the nut sits inside a counterbore that is also threaded to accept a crank puller tool. The counterbore is often covered with a dust cover.
One solution to the issue of fretting is to use a metal based anti-seize lubricant between the mating parts. Composed of assorted mixtures of aluminum, copper, graphite and nickel powders in a grease base, such lubrication allows repeated assembly and disassembly without wear and the elimination of fretting corrosion during use. |
620_9 | Even newer designs have the bottom bracket spindle, usually hollow and larger diameter than is possible for bottom brackets with bearings held inside the bottom bracket shell of a bike frame, for reduced weight and increased stiffness, permanently attached to the right crank (Shimano and others) or the left crank (Race Face). The left crank slides onto a spline and is tightened with one or more pinch bolts (Shimano) or is pressed onto a spline by a bolt on the bottom bracket spindle (Race Face).
The latest from Campagnolo, called Ultra-Torque, has each crank permanently attached to one half of the spindle (called semi-axles) which then join in the middle of the bottom bracket with a Hirth joint and a bolt. |
620_10 | Certain companies such as Cannondale (BB30 open standard, introduced in 2000) have made their own unique bottom bracket standards requiring changes in the bottom bracket shell of the bicycle frame in order to accommodate the bottom bracket/crank design. The open BB30 standard is gaining popularity on high end bicycle and component manufacturers (Zipp, Specialized, FSA).
Finally, many children's bikes and older, or less-expensive bikes have one-piece ("Ashtabula") cranks where the two cranks and bottom bracket spindle are forged as one piece of steel (see photograph above). |
620_11 | See the bottom bracket article for more details.
To the pedals
Crank arms have a threaded hole (or "eye") at their outboard end to accommodate the pedal spindle. Adult or multi-piece cranks have a 9/16 inch hole with 20 TPI (a combination that appears to be unique to this application). One-piece or children's cranks use a 1/2 inch hole. Some cranks on children's bikes have more than one pedal hole so that the pedal can be moved to accommodate growth.
The right-side (usually the chain side) hole is right-hand threaded, and the left-side hole is left-hand (reverse) threaded to help prevent it from becoming unthreaded by an effect called precession. |
620_12 | Pedal spindles are hard steel, and gradually fret and erode the crankarm where the two meet. This can eventually be a cause of crank breakage, which commonly occurs at the pedal eye. Some manufacturers advise the use of a thin steel washer between the pedal and crank, but this is ineffective because the hard washer frets against the crank instead. A solution, suggested by Jobst Brandt, is to use a 45 degree taper at the surface where crank and pedal meet, as this would eliminate precession-induced fretting and loosening (it is already done for most automobile lug nuts for the latter reason). However, this would require manufacturers to change a well-established standard which currently allows most pedals to be fitted to most cranks. |
620_13 | The solution to the issue of fretting is to use a metal based anti-seize lubricant; being composed of assorted mixtures of aluminium, copper, graphite and nickel powders in a grease base – that allows repeated assembly and disassembly without wear and the elimination of fretting corrosion during use.
Spider
On older styles, the spider—the multi-armed piece that connects the chainring to the bottom bracket axle—was a separate piece from the crank arm. The most common modern cranks have an integrated spider on the drive-side crank arm. However, Middleburn, TA, and Surly currently produce cranks with separate detachable spiders, enabling a wide variety of chainring patterns to be used with the same cranks.
Spiders usually have 4 or 5 arms, although some models have had as few as 3 and many as 10 arms with 6 having been popular in the past.
Bolt circle diameter (BCD) |
620_14 | Many modern bicycles have removable chainrings, to allow for replacement when worn, or to change the gear ratio provided (although the change is limited).
The holes on the spider arms used for attaching a chainring can have a variety of dimensions, referred to as the bolt circle diameter, commonly abbreviated as BCD. This measurement is sometimes referred to as pitch-circle diameter (PCD). Cranks designed to mount one or two chainrings will almost always use a single bolt circle diameter. Cranks designed to mount three chainrings will almost always use two different bolt circle diameters; the larger to mount the two outer rings and the smaller to mount the inner ring. Most modern two-chainring cranks use either a 110 mm or 130 mm bolt circle diameter. |
620_15 | Bolt circle diameters of common cranks:
vintage single 151 BCD
vintage double 144 BCD
Single 130, 135, or 144 BCD
Road double 130 BCD (Shimano and others), 135 (Campagnolo), or 122 (others)
Road triple 130/74 BCD (Shimano and others), or 135/74 BCD (Campagnolo)
Cyclocross/compact/touring double 110 BCD or (Campagnolo carbon 4×110/1×113 BCD)
Mountain bike(5 arm)/compact/touring triple 110/74 BCD
Mountain bike (4 arm) 104/64 BCD
Mountain bike (5 arm compact) 94/58 BCD
Single, double or triple (3 arm) 70 BCD (René Herse/Compass Bicycles)
Chainrings (also called "chain rings", "chainwheels" or "sprockets", although sprocket is used this way mostly in the BMX community) engage the chain to transfer power to the (usually rear) wheel. They usually have teeth spaced to engage every link of the chain as it passes over; however, in the past, some designs (called skip-tooth or inch-pitch) have had one tooth for every other link of the chain. |
620_16 | Sizes
By convention, the largest chainring is outboard and the smallest is inboard. Chainrings vary in size from as few as 20 teeth to as many as 60 and potentially more.
Chainrings also come in several nominal widths:
3/16" (4.76 mm) for old-time bikes (especially skip-tooth or inch-pitch), heavy duty BMX, Worksman, and exercise bikes
1/8" (3.18 mm) for track, BMX, cruiser bikes, one-speed, three-speeds, and the rare older 3 or 4 speed derailleur bike.
3/32" (2.38 mm) for road, hybrid, mountain bikes, single-speed and 5-, 6-, 7- and 8 speed freewheels or cassettes.
5/64" (1.98 mm) for any bike with 9- or 10-speed cassettes
Materials
Chainrings are constructed of either an aluminum alloy, titanium, steel, or carbon fiber.
Construction
Cheaper cranksets may have the chainrings welded or riveted directly to the crank arm or spider. More expensive sets have the chainrings bolted on so that they can be replaced if worn or damaged, or to provide different gearing. |
620_17 | Replacement chainrings must be chosen with a bolt-hole count and spacing that matches the spider.
Chainrings designed for use with multi-chainring crank arms may have ramps or pins to aid in shifting. The middle chainring, in the case of a triple crankset, usually has the most shaping to aid in shifting up and down. The smallest chainring usually has the least, if any shaping.
Variations
Tandem cranksets
On tandem bicycles the pedalling contribution of both riders is often combined and coordinated by the crank arms. There may be a second set of chainrings, often on the opposite side from the regular drive train, one on each crank set and connected by a separate chain. The most common implementation has both cyclists pedaling at exactly the same pace and usually in phase, although it is possible to configure the system for out-of-phase pedaling. |
620_18 | The most common tandem crankset is a set of four cranks. Both left cranks have spiders and chainrings to be connected by a timing chain, and only one of the right cranks has a spider for the drive chain.
There are tandem cranksets available called independent pedaling system cranksets, which allow each cyclist to pedal, or not, at their own pace.
Chain guards
Some chainrings can be outfitted with a chain guard — a plastic or metal ring slightly larger in diameter than the chainring. Its purpose is mostly to help prevent the chain from touching or catching clothing. Chain guard is usually mounted on the outboard side of the chainring or, in case of multi-sprocket chainring, on the outboard side of the largest chainring. Single-sprocket chainrings may have chain guards on both inboard and outboard sides, helping keeping the chain on the chainring; this is common on multi-speed juvenile bicycles. |
620_19 | Bicycles that are going to be used in abusive applications, such as freeride and BMX, will often incorporate a very heavy-duty chain guard that is designed to protect the chainrings from physical damage caused by impact with fixed objects; also called 'bashguards', these commonly replace a third (large) chainring. |
620_20 | Chainguides
Some cranksets used for freeride and downhill mountain biking have a chainguide installed. A chainguide is a metal or plastic housing that keeps the chain on the chainrings over rough terrain and during technical riding. Most chainguides are designed for only one front chainring, but there are a few dual-ring chainguides available such as the E13 DRS and MRP LRP. Chainguides include a channel on the top of the chainring to keep the chain in line (for models designed for one front chainring) and a roller or sprocket on the bottom to help keep the chain engaged with the chainring. These are almost always used in conjunction with bashguards. Exceptions including the E.thirteen LG-1 and the MRP G2 (and now the G2 SL) do exist which use integrated skid plates, removing impact forces from the crank's spider and transferring them to the frame. |
620_21 | Freewheeling cranksets
Some cranksets have been produced that incorporate a ratcheting mechanism to accommodate coasting. In this case, the chain continues to rotate with the rear wheel when the rider stops pedaling. The ultimate goal of freewheeling cranks is to allow the rider to shift the chain while coasting. Shimano's discontinued FF system (Front Freewheeling) is one of the more commonly seen examples.
Left-side-drive
This configuration consists of a left crank arm with a spider and chainring, and a right crank arm without a spider, the opposite of a normal configuration. If used with a screw-on freewheel, a special hub with a left hand thread for a special freewheel must be used, which is also threaded left hand and ratchets the opposite direction of a normal freewheel. If the freewheel and hub were threaded with right hand threads, the torque applied by pedaling would loosen and unthread the freewheel from the hub. |
620_22 | Left-side-drive is sometimes done with a fixed gear drivetrain. Because the lock ring prevents the sprocket from unscrewing, it can be used for left-side drive without requiring special left hand threaded parts.
Note that if a normal right-side-drive crankset is installed backwards to create a left-side-drive bicycle, the threaded pedal holes at the end of the crank arms would be reversed. In this configuration, precession may loosen the pedals over time, causing the pedals to become detached and/or damaging the pedal threading in the crank arms. A front crankset designed for tandem use is a commercially available option, since this has a chainring for the timing chain on the left side, though choice of chainring sizes may be limited. |
620_23 | Independent crank arms
At least one manufacturer offers a crankset in which the crank arms may rotate independently. This is supposed to aid in training by requiring each leg to move its own pedal in a full circle. One independent study has demonstrated training with these cranks can improve cycling efficiency. The manufacturer also claims that this change can also be useful to aid in running improvement, help prevent injuries in runners, improve core strength development, and are useful for the rehabilitation of lower extremity injuries, especially in the athlete. The manufacturer claims these cranks have been used as a training tool by several World and Olympic Champions in both cycling and triathlon and several professional sports teams including MLB and NFL teams, and other uses.
Non-round chainrings |
620_24 | After a first product commercialized in the late 1970s by Edmond Polchlopek, several manufacturers have tried non-round chainrings, such as Shimano's Biopace, Rotor's Q-Rings, Ridea's PowerRing and Osymetric's Harmonic ring. These are designed to provide varying mechanical advantage at different points in the pedal stroke, effectively changing the gear ratio at different angles of rotation with the intention to be more ergonomic. Non-round chainrings can sometimes cause problems in front shifting. Though the benefits of oval chainrings are still disputed in the press and among manufacturers, one study claimed significant benefits, namely that the rider would gain an additional 8 watts of power. |
620_25 | Their popularity in the late eighties to early nineties is best reflected in their widespread use by professional cyclists of that time. However, one hold-out has been Team CSC Saxo Bank veteran Bobby Julich, and there are still a couple of pro riders using them as late as 2011. Notably Bradley Wiggins of Team Sky, David Millar of Team Garmin Transitions and Agritubel's Geoffrey Lequatreall riding the Osymetric brand and Team CSC Saxo Bank's Carlos Sastre with Rotor's Q-Rings from his native Spain. Sastre won the 2008 Tour de France with Q-rings. Bradley Wiggins has used an elliptical chainring from Osymetric since at least 2009,
including in his victory of the 2012 Tour de France. |
620_26 | In the 2010 Giro d'Italia, and David Millar used them in his 2011 victory in the final TT of the 2011 Giro. Several Pro-Tour teams were using Osymetric and Q-Rings elliptical chainrings for road racing and time trialing. In the 2013 Tour, Chris Froome drew attention with his oval chainring, manufactured by Osymetric. |
620_27 | Compact crankset
In the context of mountain biking the term compact crankset, or micro drive, refers to smaller triple cranksets, giving a small benefit in weight at the expense of increased wear and also giving the bike better clearance over obstacles. Typical ratios would be 22/32/44 teeth as opposed to 28/38/48 or 24/36/46 teeth. These would be used with smaller cassettes (Generally cassettes are available with 11 tooth minimum gear sizes for compact chainsets while standard chainsets were designed for cassettes with a 13 or 14 tooth top gear), giving the same overall ratio. Compact chainrings have been the dominant standard for mountain bike cranks since the mid nineties. |
620_28 | In the context of road cycling, compact drivetrain typically refers to double cranksets with a smaller (usually 110 mm) bolt circle diameter than the standard 130 mm or Campagnolo's 135 mm. As of 2006, all of the major component manufacturers such as Shimano and Campagnolo offer compact cranks in their midrange and high-end product lines. The compact crankset provides a compromise between the standard road double crankset (with 39/52 or 39/53 tooth chainrings) and the road triple (with 30/42/52 or 30/39/53 tooth chainrings). The compact crankset has two chainrings and typical ratios are 34/48, 34/50 and 36/50. This provides nearly the same lower gear ratios as a triple but without the need for a third chainring, a triple front derailleur and a long cage rear derailleur. Both Shimano and Campagnolo recommend and sell front derailleurs specifically designed for compact cranksets, claiming better shifting. |
620_29 | Compact gearing is not necessarily lower than standard gearing if cassettes with smaller sprockets (such as 11–23) are used. A high gear of 50×11 on a compact drivechain is actually slightly higher than the 53×12 of a standard set.
Compact gearing usually has a large percentage jump between the two chainrings. In balance, it may also allow small jumps in the rear by allowing a closer ratio cassette to be used, except for the 9% jump at the high end between the 11 and 12 tooth sprockets.
Bent crankarms
Marketed and known by a variety of names (Z-cranks, P.M.P cranks, etc.) non-straight crank arms have been introduced several times. However, "as long as the distance from crank axle to pedal is fixed, there is no pedaling advantage in using bent crank arms". Possible disadvantages from comparable straight crank arms include more weight and more flex. |
620_30 | Rotor Box System
Rotor is a trade name of a type of crank used in the transmission system of a bicycle. The Rotor crank was developed by Aeronautic Engineering School students in Madrid, Spain in 1995 and was later commercialised. While Rotor Box found success with recreational road and mountain cyclists, many competitive cyclists continue to use the traditional fixed system as offered by major manufacturers Campagnolo and Shimano, amongst others. One major factor is weight— the Rotor Box System is 50%–75% heavier than most competitive cranks. Other negative factors include higher purchase cost than other fine cranksets, and increased maintenance due to the complexity of the system. These cranksets are no longer in production, and availability of some parts is problematic. However the bearings are standard parts. A few parts, like links, are still distributed. |
620_31 | This system originated as a cog-driven internal mechanism inside a purpose built bicycle's bottom bracket. In this first "ROTOR Box" design, the drive-side crank had an offset chainring spider with round rings. The drive side crank's gear ratio varied during the pedalling cycle by moving the round chainring upward and downward in regards to the crank's axle. The non-drive side crank was accelerated and decelerated by a gearing mechanism inside the bottom bracket to mimic the gear ratio variation the drive side crank went through, at an exact 180 degree phase-offset. While highly effective mechanically, these bicycles were costly and the significant movement of the chainring made shifting quality problematic.Later generation ROTOR System cranks moved the mechanism into an orbital chainring spider with a fixed rotational axis. These "ROTOR System" cranksets fit into classic BSA and ITA bicycle frames. Unlike a standard pair of cranks that always remain at 180 degrees relative to each |
620_32 | other, the ROTOR system varies this angle through the circle of motion. The left and right crank arms speed up and slow down independently, relative to the chainrings during the pedalling cycle. The mechanism causing this is designed by ofsetting the axis of rotation of the crank spindle and spider, then connecting the spider to the individual crank arms via two independent links. |
620_33 | As the crank rotates, the distance between the axle and spider varies. By placing a pivot point on the crank arm and the spider and connecting these via linkages, the varying axle to spider distance pivots the linkages up and down, pushing the cranks forward and pulling them backward relative to the chainrings during the rotation. This increases and decreases the effective gear the cyclists' two legs push as the crankset rotates. The effect of these movements eliminates the dead spot (where little power is produced) at the top and bottom of the pedaling cycle, and reduces knee strain. The manufacturer claims that power output relative to heart rate is increased, amongst other claimed benefits. |
620_34 | It takes a couple of weeks of regular use to become accustomed to the unusual feel of the Rotor linkage cranksets. After becoming accustomed to it, most riders prefer it. However, there is no difficulty in switching between ordinary cranksets and Rotor linkage cranksets. Once a rider has learned to use Rotor linkage cranksets the adaption when switching back and forth between crankset types only takes a minute or two.
Many competitive cyclists, including the Cervélo TestTeam, use Rotor's Q-rings which mimic the fluctuation in gear size without the added weight. However Rotor Q-rings and other non-round rings cannot duplicate the crank arm movements that allow application of power through the dead spots of the pedaling cycle. Non-round rings also increase the difficulty of setting up the front derailleur, while Rotor linkage cranksets present no extra difficulty in that regard. |
620_35 | Planetary-drive
A planetary-gear crankset offers two different gear ratios with just one chainring. This can have at least two advantages: shifting while not pedaling and fewer chances for the chain to come off the chainring. The Mountain Drive & Speed-Drive by Schlumpf Innovations and the Hammerschmidt are examples.
See also
Bicycle gearing
Bicycle pedal
Biopace
Bottom bracket
Gearbox bicycle
References
External links
Bicycle drivetrains |
621_0 | Las Américas International Airport (, or AILA) is an international airport located in Punta Caucedo, near Santo Domingo and Boca Chica in the Dominican Republic. The airport is run by Aeropuertos Dominicanos Siglo XXI (AERODOM), a private corporation based in the Dominican Republic, under a 25-year concession to build, operate, and transfer (BOT) six of the country's airports. Las Américas usually receives a wide variety of long-, mid- and short-haul aircraft. Santo Domingo's other airport, La Isabela, is much smaller and used by light aircraft only.
The airport is the second-busiest in the country, after Punta Cana International Airport, and one of the largest in the Caribbean, handling 3.5 million passengers in 2015. It is also the busiest cargo hub in the Caribbean and Central America, with 355,000,000 lbs of cargo transported in 2019. |
621_1 | History
Las Américas Airport opened in 1959 as the official airport of Ciudad Trujillo, the capital of the Dominican Republic with the city subsequently changing its name to Santo Domingo. The official name of the airport was changed in 2002 to "Aeropuerto Internacional Las Américas- José Francisco Peña Gómez (AIJFPG)" but is known as "Las Américas International Airport", or locally, "Las Américas Airport" or "El Aeropuerto". |
621_2 | In 1954, U.S. based Delta Air Lines (which was known as "Delta C&S" at the time following its acquisition and merger with Chicago and Southern Air Lines) was serving the Dominican Republic on a daily basis via the then-named General Andrews Airport in Ciudad Trujillo with nonstop flights to San Juan, Puerto Rico and Port au Prince, Haiti operated with Convair 340 twin prop aircraft. The eastbound Delta flights operated a daily routing of Houston - New Orleans - Havana, Cuba - Port au Prince - Ciudad Trujillo - San Juan and the westbound Delta flights operated a daily routing of San Juan - Ciudad Trujillo - Port au Prince - Havana - New Orleans. Also during the mid 1950s, U.S. based Pan American World Airways (Pan Am) was serving Ciudad Trujillo with nonstop flights to New York City, Miami and Port au Prince operated with Douglas DC-6 four engine propliners (which the airline called the "Super-6 Clipper"). In 1960, locally-based Dominicana de Aviacion, the former flag carrier of the |
621_3 | Dominican Republic, was operating scheduled international passenger service nonstop between the airport and Miami with Douglas DC-4 four engine propliners and also nonstop between the airport and San Juan, Puerto Rico with Douglas DC-3 and Curtiss C-46 twin prop aircraft. By the early and mid 1960s, several airlines were operating international jet service from the airport including Pan Am with Boeing 707 service nonstop to New York City, Miami, San Juan, Puerto Rico, Kingston, Jamaica and Curacao as well as direct, no change of plane 707 service to Montego Bay, Caracas, Port of Spain, Georgetown, Guyana and Paramaribo, and Brazil based VARIG with Sud Aviation Caravelle and Convair 990 jetliner flights nonstop to New York City and Miami as well as direct, no change of plane jet service to Port of Spain, Belem, Fortaleza, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Porto Alegre. |
621_4 | By 1976, the airport was being served by American Airlines with nonstop Boeing 707 and Boeing 747 service from New York City, Dominicana de Aviacion with nonstop Boeing 727-100 and Boeing 727-200 service from New York City, Miami and San Juan, Puerto Rico, Eastern Airlines with nonstop Boeing 727-100 service from San Juan, Puerto Rico as well as direct, no change of plane 727 flights from Cleveland and Miami, Pan Am with nonstop Boeing 707 service from Port au Prince as well as direct, one stop 707 service from Miami, ALM Antillean Airlines with nonstop and direct one stop McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30 service from Curacao, Viasa with nonstop Douglas DC-8 service from Curacao and direct one stop DC-8 flights from Caracas, and locally-based Aerovias Quisqueyana with nonstop Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 service from Miami and San Juan, Puerto Rico. Also in 1976, Aerovias Quisqueyana was operating nonstop Boeing 707 transatlantic service from the airport to Madrid with this flight also |
621_5 | providing direct one stop service to Rome. |
621_6 | According to the Official Airline Guide (OAG), in 1996 a number of European based airlines were operating transatlantic flights from the airport including Air France with nonstop Boeing 747 service to Paris, Alitalia with nonstop Boeing 767-300 service to Rome, Condor Airlines with nonstop Boeing 767-300 service to both Cologne/Bonn and Frankfurt, Iberia Airlines with nonstop McDonnell Douglas DC-10 service to Madrid, LTU International Airways with nonstop McDonnell Douglas MD-11 service to Dusseldorf, Martinair with nonstop Boeing 767-300 service to Amsterdam, and TAP Air Portugal with direct one stop Airbus A310 service to Lisbon. Airline service from the airport to South America in 1996 included nonstop Boeing 727-200 flights to Bogota operated by ACES Colombia as well as nonstop McDonnell Douglas DC-10 flights to Lima operated by Iberia Airlines in addition to direct, no change of plane Boeing 737-200 flights also to Lima operated by Copa Airlines via a stop at this air carrier's |
621_7 | hub in Panama City, Panama. |
621_8 | Also according to the OAG, other airlines operating flights into the airport in 1996 included American Airlines with nonstop Airbus A300-600R, McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and McDonnell Douglas MD-11 service from New York City as well as nonstop Airbus A300-600R and Boeing 727-200 service from Miami in addition to direct one stop Airbus A300-600R service from both Boston and Orlando, Continental Airlines with nonstop Boeing 727-200 service from Newark, Trans World Airlines (TWA) with nonstop Boeing 767-200 and Lockheed L-1011 service from New York City, and locally-based APA International Air with nonstop Airbus A300 service from both New York City and Miami. |
621_9 | Las Américas was the hub for Dominicana de Aviación, APA International Air, PAWA Dominicana, and a number of other, smaller airlines. Currently SAP Air is based there.
Las Américas also has served as a hub for airlines such as Aeromar Líneas Aéreas Dominicanas, Aero Continente Dominicana and Queen Air. |
621_10 | Recently, the expressway leading from Santo Domingo to the airport (roughly 20 km east of the city center) was expanded and modernised. The airport was also modernised, and two more terminals were added, including 20 more gates. The new expressway crosses a new suspension bridge which spans the Ozama River, connecting traffic into the city's Elevated Freeway and Tunnel system onto the city's main street, Av. 27 de Febrero. A more scenic route following the coastal shore provides beautiful views of the Caribbean Sea and of the city. This secondary road crosses the Ozama River by means of a floating bridge, connecting traffic onto the Av. George Washington (el Malecón) which leads into the heart of the colonial city. |
621_11 | Addition of northern terminal
On 18 April 2007, a new terminal was completed and opened for operations. It can accommodate four Boeing 747s simultaneously. This new terminal has four gates with boarding bridges, an air-conditioning system, and maintenance facilities for aircraft.
Runway
Las Américas Airport's runway direction is north–south (designated 17–35). This runway is the largest in the country, and one of the largest in the Caribbean. With a length of 3,355 m, it is able to support a Boeing 747. The runway of SDQ was last renovated in June 2008. The old taxi-way was also renovated and converted into a full runway while the old runway was being renovated, then it was converted back into a taxiway after the normal runway was finished. The runway accommodated the Antonov An-225 to supply goods after the 2010 Haiti earthquake. |
621_12 | Concourses
Las Américas has five gates on the main satellite concourse (A), A2 through A6. Other gate facilities are for the flights departing from a parking in the taxiway. back in the 1960s and 70s the airport used to be much smaller, The original building was half the size of today's newest structure but with a still modern look.
Concourse B has four gates (B1 through B4) and remote stand (P8). Terminal B now features a co-branded Copa Club operated jointly by United Airlines and Copa Airlines, and a Private Lounge exclusive to members and business people.
The average number of daily flights in and out of Las Américas ranges between 68 and 84 flights. JetBlue is the largest airline operating at Las Américas.
Airlines and destinations
Passenger
Cargo
Statistics |
621_13 | Accidents and incidents
On February 15, 1970, a Dominicana de Aviación DC-9 flying to Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in San Juan, Puerto Rico, crashed, killing all 102 people on board. See the Dominicana DC-9 air disaster.
On 30 January 1975, Douglas DC-3 HI-222 of LANSA crashed on take-off, killing one of the 30 people on board. The aircraft was on an international scheduled passenger flight to Mais Gate Airport, Port-au-Prince, Haiti.
On December 15, 2021 a Gulfstream IV business jet, registered as HI1050, departed Santo Domingo’s La Isabella International Airport, en route to Orlando, Florida, before diverting to Las Americas International airport where the aircraft crashed during an attempted landing. Nine casualties were reported with no survivors. The incident is pending investigation.
See also
List of the busiest airports in Dominican Republic
List of the busiest airports in the Caribbean
References
External links
Aeropuerto Internacional Las Américas-JFPG |
621_14 | Airports in the Dominican Republic
Buildings and structures in Santo Domingo Province
Airports established in 1959
1959 establishments in North America |
622_0 | Cento Vergilianus de laudibus Christi (; A Virgilian Cento Concerning the Glory of Christ) is a Latin poem arranged by Faltonia Betitia Proba ( AD 352384) after her conversion to Christianity. A cento is a poetic work composed of verses or passages taken from other authors and re-arranged in a new order. This poem reworks verses extracted from the work of Virgil to tell stories from the Old and New Testament of the Christian Bible. Much of the work focuses on the story of Jesus Christ. |
622_1 | While scholars have proposed a number of hypotheses to explain why the poem was written, a definitive answer to this question remains elusive. Regardless of Proba's intent, the poem would go on to be widely circulated, and it eventually was used in schools to teach the tenets of Christianity, often alongside Augustine of Hippo's De doctrina Christiana. But while the poem was popular, critical reception was more mixed. A pseudonymous work purportedly by Pope Gelasius I disparaged the poem, deeming it apocryphal, and many also believe that St. Jerome wrote negatively of Proba and her poem. Other thinkers like Isidore of Seville, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio wrote highly of Proba, and many praised her ingenuity. During the 19th and 20th centuries the poem was criticized as being of poor quality, but recent scholars have held the work in higher regard.
Origin and style |
622_2 | The author of the poem, Faltonia Betitia Proba, was born AD 322. A member of an influential, aristocratic family, she eventually married a prefect of Rome named Clodius Celsinus Adelphius. Proba wrote poetry, and according to contemporary accounts, her first work was titled Constantini bellum adversus Magnentium; this poem, which is now lost, recounted the war between Roman Emperor Constantius II and the usurper Magnentius that occurred between AD 35053. At some point, Proba converted from paganism to Christianity, and De laudibus Christi, which was probably written AD 352384, was her attempt to "turn away from battle and slayings in order to write holy things". |
622_3 | With the exception of the proem and invocation of the poem, the entirety of De laudibus Christi is a cento (i.e. a patchwork poem) made up of rearranged verses extracted from the works of the Roman poet Virgil. Proba's choice to rework Virgil seems to have been made for two reasons: First, Virgil was an influential poet who had been commissioned by Caesar Augustus, the first Roman emperor, to write the mytho-historical epic Aeneid. Arguably the most influential Roman poet, Virgil's artistic clout was immense, being felt well into late antiquity, and he was imitated by Late Latin poets like Juvencus and Prudentius. The respect given to Virgil often manifested in the form of centos, which reached peak popularity in the fourth century AD. Second, Virgil was often seen as a pre-Christian prophet due to a popular interpretation of his fourth Eclogue, which many believed foretold the birth of Jesus. |
622_4 | Hardly any names are present in De laudibus Christi. This is because Virgil never used Hebrew names like "Jesus" and "Mary", and thus Proba was limited in terms of what she was able to work with. To compensate, Proba used vague words like mater ("mother"), pater ("father"), deus ("god"), and vates ("poet" or "priest") to refer to key Judeo-Christian figures. In places, this handicap interferes with readability (according to G. Ronald Kastner and Ann Millin, "Necessary passives and circumlocutions brought about by the ... absences in [Virgil] of appropriate terminology render the text impassable at times"). An exception to the poem's lack of names is found in a reference to Moses, whom Proba refers to by invoking the name "Musaeus". According to the classicist Sigrid Schottenius Cullhed, "Proba [probably] used the name Musaeus for the Judeo-Christian prophet, since it was often believed from the Hellenistic era onward that Mousaios was the Greek name for Moses".
Contents
Summary |
622_5 | The cento's 694 lines are divided into a proem and invocation (lines 155), select stories from the Old Testament books of Genesis (lines 56318) and Exodus (lines 31932), select stories from the New Testament Gospels (lines 333686), and an epilogue (lines 68794). At the beginning of the poem, Proba references her earlier foray into poetry before rejecting it in the name of Christ. This section also serves as an inversion and thus rejection of the Virgilian tradition: whereas Virgil opened the Aeneid by proclaiming that he will "sing of weapons and a man" (arma virumque cano), Proba rejects warfare as a subject worthy of Christian poetry. Proba then describes herself as a prophet (vatis Proba) and calls upon God and the Holy Spirit (eschewing the traditional invocation of the Muses) to aid her in her work. At the end of the invocation, Proba states her poem's main purpose: to "tell how Virgil sang the offices of Christ." |
622_6 | The passages focusing on the Old Testament concern the creation of the world, the Fall of Man, the Great Flood, and the Exodus from Egypt. Proba's presentation of the Creationlargely based on rewordings of Virgil's Georgicsreorganizes the Genesis narrative to better align it with contemporary Greco-Roman beliefs about the origin of the world. Cullhed argues that certain aspects of the creation story are "abbreviated ... amplified or even transposed" so that Proba can avoid repetitive passages, such as the double creation of man (Genesis 1:25–27 and Genesis 2:18–19). In the events leading to the Fall of Man, Eve's actions are largely based on the story of Dido from Book IV of the Aeneid, thereby "repeatedly foreshadowing ... the imminent disaster of the Fall". The Serpent is described with lines that detail Laocoön's death (from Book II, Aeneid) and the snake sent by the fury Alecto to enrage Amata (from Book VII, Aeneid). Proba relies on the first two books of the Georgics |
622_7 | (specifically, the sections that discuss the Iron Age of Man) to describe human life after Adam and Eve eat the fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil; in this way, she connects the Greco-Roman concept of the Ages of Man with the Judeo-Christian concept of the Fall of Man. |
622_8 | After the story of Creation, Proba briefly references the Great Flood by making use of lines from the fourth book of the Georgics that originally discussed the death of a beehive and the necessity of laws after the end of the Golden Age, respectively. According to the classicist Karla Pollmann, by using lines that concern destruction and the establishment of law, Proba is able to convey the traditional idea that Noah's survival represents the dawning of a "second creation and a new order" (that is, the Patriarchal age). Proba dedicates only a few lines to Exodus before moving onto the New Testament. Cullhed reasons that this is because the Book of Exodus and the remaining Old Testament is replete with violence and warfare that is stylistically too close to the tradition of pagan epic poetrya tradition that Proba expressly rejects in the proem of De laudibus Christi. In the transitional section between the Old and New Testaments, Proba appropriates the invocation of the Muses of war |
622_9 | that immediately precedes the Catalogue of Italians (from Book VII, Aeneid) and verses that originally described Aeneas's prophetic shield (from Book VIII, Aeneid). According to Culhed, these verses originally functioned as poetic devices, enabling Virgil to move from the "Odyssean" first half of the poem to the "Iliadic" latter half. Proba likewise has re-purposed these verses to aid in her transition from the Old Testament into the New. |
622_10 | The portion of De laudibus Christi that focuses on the New Testament recounts the birth of Jesus, his life and deeds, his crucifixion, and the advent of the Holy Spirit. Although Jesus and Mary are featured, Joseph is omitted. Jesus is often described by language befitting a Virgilian hero, and Mary is depicted by lines originally relating to Venus and Dido. Proba's Sermon on the Mount begins by borrowing the Sibyl of Cumae's description of punishment for the unrighteous (from Book VI, Aeneid), and some scholars contend that this portion of De laudibus Christi is the first description of hell in Christian poetry. Christ's deeds are reduced to three events: calming the sea, walking on water, and the call of the disciples. To describe Christ's crucifixion, Proba uses several lines that originally related to warfare, destruction, and death, such as the battle between Aeneas and the Rutuli (from Book XII, Aeneid), the Sack of Troy (from Book II), and the suffocation of Laocoön by giant |
622_11 | serpents (from Book II). Notably, Christ is crucified not on a cross, but an oak tree, which Cullhed argues "synthesizes Jewish, Roman and Christian religious codes", as the species of tree was associated in the Greco-Roman world with Jupiter, and in the Judeo-Christian tradition with the Binding of Isaac. After covering Christ's death, Proba borrows lines referring to the erotic love between Dido and Aeneas to represent the decidedly more spiritual love that Christ shares with his disciples. The end of the poem focuses on Christ describing the world to come and his ascension into Heaven; Proba conveys the former via the prophecy made by both Celaeno and the Oracle of Delos (both from Book III, Aeneid), and the latter with language that originally described the god Mercury. |
622_12 | Characterization of Jesus |
622_13 | Due to her borrowing from Virgil, Proba's Christ is very similar to the Virgilian epic hero. Parallels between the two include both seeking a goal greater than their own happiness, initiating realms "without end", and projecting auras of divinity. According to the early Christian specialist Elizabeth A. Clark and the classicist Diane Hatch, Proba's purpose was to "imbue the Christ with heroic virtues" akin to the Virgilian hero. The poet does this in three major ways: First, she describes Jesus as remarkably beautiful, with "a magnificent and commanding presence" similar to that of Aeneas. Second, during the Crucifixion, Jesus does not go meekly to his death, but aggressively lashes out at his persecutors. Her reconfiguration of Jesus's crucifixion is thus in line with Aeneas' vindictive slaying of Turnus described at the very end of the Aeneid. Finally, Proba transfers to Jesus portions of prophecies scattered throughout the Aeneid that detail Rome's glorious future, thus recasting |
622_14 | pagan oracles in a Christian light. |
622_15 | Characterization of Mary
The characterization of Mary has caused much scholarly debate. The historian Kate Cooper sees Mary as a courageous, intelligent materfamilias. Clark and Hatch write that Proba stresses Mary's maternity by omitting Joseph and presenting Mary as Jesus's sole human parent. Conversely, the Latinist Stratis Kyriakidis argues that despite Mary's presence in the poem, she lacks feminine attributes, and is thus "impersonal". According to Kyriakidis, this is intentional on Proba's part, as it draws attention to Christ's divinityan aspect that "would be incompatible with a human, feminine mother." |
622_16 | Cullhed writes that the most scholarly views of Mary in the poem are inadequate, and that Proba made Mary "the twofold fulfillment and antitype of both Eve and Dido." Cullhed bases this on the fact that line 563 of the fourth book of the Aeneid (from Mercury's speech to Aeneas, in which the god admonishes the hero for lingering with Dido in Carthage) is used in two of the sections of the cento: once, in which Adam admonishes Eve for sinning, and again, in which Mary learns that Herod wants to kill her child. According to Cullhed, the "negative characterization" of the original verse and its reuse in the Old Testament portion of the cento is transformed into a "positively charged ability" allowing Mary and Jesus to escape Herod's wrath. Because Mary can foretell the future, she is compared (through the use of Virgilian language) to Greco-Roman goddesses and prophets.
Proba's character and motivation |
622_17 | Because historical information about Proba is limited, many scholars have taken to analyzing De laudibus Christi to learn more about her. According to the classicist Bernice Kaczynski, "Scholars have seen traces of Proba's own character in her emphasis on the beauty of the natural world, readily apparent in her account of the creation." The cento suggests that Proba had great regard for "domestic matters, for marriage and the family, for marital devotion and [for] filial piety". While the New Testament stresses asceticism, Proba seems to de-emphasize its importance, given that topics like virginity and poverty are not stressed in her poem. In regards to issues of finance, Proba reinterprets a number of the New Testament episodes in which Jesus urges his followers to eschew wealth as passages suggesting that Christians should simply share wealth with their families. These changes illustrate Proba's historical context, her socio-economic position, and the expectations of her class. |
622_18 | As to why Proba arranged in the poem in the first place, scholars are still divided. The Latinist R. P. H. Green argues that the work was a reaction to the Roman emperor Julian's law forbidding Christians from teaching literature that they did not believe to be true (which is to say, classical Greek and Latin mythology). Proba's goal, Green writes, was to present Virgil "without [pagan] gods, and [thus] a [Virgil] no longer vulnerable to Christian criticism". In this way, a Christian teacher could use the text to discuss Virgil without compromising their religious and moral integrity. Clark and Hatch, on the other hand, postulate that Jesus's Virgilian nature in the cento may have been Proba's attempt to rebut the unflattering, demonizing descriptions of Jesus in Julian's Caesares and Contra Galilaeos. They conclude that the hypothesis is intriguing but unverifiable due to the lack of information about Proba, the date of the cento's creation, and her intentions. Finally, the |
622_19 | classicist Aurelio Amatucci suggests that Proba composed the cento to teach her children stories from the Bible, although there is no solid evidence that the poem was ever intended to be a teaching tool. |
622_20 | Reception |
622_21 | In the late-4th and early-5th centuries, the work began to receive a more mixed response. Many scholars hold that the Church Father Jerome was a critic of the work; in a letter written from Bethlehem to Paulinus of Nola castigating Virgilian centos, he warned against following an "old chatterbox" (garrula anus) and those who think of calling "the Christless Maro [i.e. Virgil] a Christian" (non ... Maronem sine Christo possimus dicere Christianum). According to the historian James Westfall Thompson, Jerome "strongly inveighed against this method of destroying the sense of a pagan author", and that "his love of the classics and his Christian piety were alike offended" by Proba's actions. Conversely, Roman Emperor Arcadius (who reigned from AD 395–408) received a copy of the poem, and his version has a fifteen-line dedication contending that Proba's work is "Maro changed for the better in sacred meaning" (Maronem mutatum in melius divino ... sensu). The work was also presented to |
622_22 | Empress Aelia Eudocia, the wife of Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II (who reigned from AD 408–450). |
622_23 | During late antiquity, a pseudonymous document known as the Decretum Gelasianumwhich was long believed to have been issued by Pope Gelasius I (who held the papacy from AD 492–496)declared De laudibus Christi to be apocryphal and a "reprehensible work of poetry". But almost a century later, Archbishop Isidore of Seville (AD 560–636) called Proba the "only woman to be ranked among the men of the church" (Proba ... femina inter viros ecclesiasticos ... posita sola). In regards to De laudibus Christi, Isidore wrote that "it is not the work which should be admired, but [Proba's] ingenuity" in compiling the poem (Cuius quidem non miramur studium sed laudamus ingenium). |
622_24 | During the Renaissance, Proba and her work were praised as examples of studiousness and scholarship. In a 1385 letter to Anna von Schweidnitz (the wife of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV), the Italian poet and scholar Petrarch referenced Proba and her work while discussing female geniuses, and in 1374 the humanist Giovanni Boccaccio included Proba in his biographical collection of historical and mythological women entitled De mulieribus claris. In 1474, the poem was published by the Swiss printer Michael Wenssler, which likely made Proba the first female author to have had her work reproduced by a printing press. In 1518, Proba's work was once again being used in an educational setting, this time by John Colet of St Paul's School, who believed that Proba "wrote ... wysdom with clene and chast Latin". |
622_25 | Scholarship in the 19th and early 20th century was more critical of De laudibus Christi. Some classicists and philologists of the era cite the work as an example of late antiquity's "poverty of ideas". In 1849, William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology called the poem "trash" worthy of "no praise", and in 1911, P. Lejay of The Catholic Encyclopedia wrote that "the action of the poem is constrained and unequal, the manner absurd, [and] the diction frequently either obscure or improper". Despite these rather negative appraisals, contemporary scholars have taken a renewed interest in the poem, and many see it as worthy of study. Cullhed, in particular, considers the work "of considerable historical and cultural importance [for] it belongs to the small number of ancient texts with a female author and stands out as one of our earliest extant Christian Latin poems." The first English-language work dedicated in its entirety to Proba and her poem was the 2015 |
622_26 | monograph, Proba the Prophet, written by Cullhed. |
622_27 | Authorship controversy |
622_28 | The poem is traditionally attributed to Faltonia Betitia Proba largely on the assertion of Isidore, who wrote in his Etymologiae that De laudibus Christi was the product of a woman named Proba who was the wife of a man named Adelphus (Proba, uxor Adelphi, centonem ex Vergilio ... expressit). But the classicist and medievalist Danuta Shanzer has argued that the poem was not the work of Faltonia Betitia Proba, but rather her granddaughter, Anicia Faltonia Proba, who lived in the late-fourth and early-fifth centuries. Shanzerwho is of the opinion that Faltonia Betitia Proba likely died in AD 351bases much of her assertion on supposed date inconsistencies and anachronisms within the text. For instance, Shanzer points out that lines 13–17 of De laudibus Christi strongly resemble lines 20–24 of the poem Carmen contra paganos, which was written sometime after Faltonia Betitia Proba's death. Shanzer also claims that De laudibus Christi alludes to a notable debate about the date of Easter that |
622_29 | took place in AD 387, thereby suggesting that the poem must date from the latter part of the fourth century. Finally, Shanzer argues that the reference to the war between Magnentius and Constantius in the work's proem precludes the possibility that Faltonia Betitia Proba arranged De laudibus Christi, due to the fact that the war took place in the same year as her supposed death. Shanzer rounds out her hypothesis by also invoking a textual argument, noting that the author of De laudibus Christi is often referred to in later manuscripts by titles that only Anicia Proba would have received, such as "mother of the Anicians" or the "eminent Roman Mistress". |
622_30 | In her 2015 book Proba the Prophet, Cullhed counters Shanzer's claims, first by noting that there is no definitive evidence that Faltonia Betitia Proba died in AD 351 and that such an assertion remains speculative at best. Cullhed also argues that "there are no 'grounds for determining priority of the poem's opening lines, and that the supposed reference to the AD 387 debate about Easter could have likely referred to an earlier, perhaps less famous dispute. As to the titles found in later manuscripts, Cullhed writes that it is likely that they were erroneously inserted during the Middle Ages by scribes who had understandably confused the two Probas. Cullhed also reasons that if Anicia Proba had written De laudibus Christi, the Latin poet Claudian would have almost certainly praised her poetic abilities in his AD 395 panegyric celebrating the joint consulship of her sons Anicius Hermogenianus Olybrius and Anicius Probinus. Cullhed concludes: "The evidence for discrediting Isidore's |
622_31 | attribution [of Faltonia Betitia Proba as the author of the cento] is not sufficient, and so, I will assume that the cento was written in the mid-fourth century by Faltonia Betitia Proba." Today, the general consensus among classicists and scholars of Latin is that De laudibus Christi was indeed written by Faltonia Betitia Proba. |
622_32 | See also
Interpretatio Christiana, the adaptation of non-Christian elements of culture or historical facts to the worldview of Christianity
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
English translations
Secondary sources
4th-century Christian texts
4th-century Latin books
4th-century manuscripts
4th-century poems
Christian manuscripts
Christian poetry
Italian manuscripts
Jerome
Latin poetry
Works based on the Aeneid
Works based on Georgics
Poetry based on works by Virgil |
623_0 | Firehose (stylized as fIREHOSE) was an American alternative rock band consisting of Mike Watt (bass, vocals), Ed Crawford (guitar, vocals), and George Hurley (drums). They were initially active from 1986 to 1994, and briefly reunited in 2012. |
623_1 | History |
623_2 | Firehose was formed in the spring of 1986 shortly after the accidental death of D. Boon brought an end to Watt and Hurley's previous band, Minutemen. Crawford, a then 21-year-old Ohio State student and Minutemen fan was invited up on the roof of Camper Van Beethoven's van in Columbus, Ohio. The members of Camper Van Beethoven told Crawford a false rumor that Watt and Hurley were auditioning guitarists for the band. Crawford, having found Watt's phone number in the phone book, called him up and expressed his desire to come out to California and play with them. Still mourning the loss of his friend Boon, Watt initially was not interested and had lost much of his desire to play music, however Crawford's persistence eventually paid off when he showed up unannounced in San Pedro and asked Watt for the chance to come over and play for him. Watt eventually agreed and the two met with Crawford "auditioning" for Watt by playing him The Who's "I'm One," as well as a few Minutemen songs. |
623_3 | Impressed with Crawford's passion and enthusiasm, Watt and Hurley agreed to give the inexperienced "kid" from Ohio a shot and the band was formed. Crawford quickly relocated to San Pedro where he became known as ed fROMOHIO and spent nine months sleeping under a desk in Watt's one bedroom apartment. The name of the band was taken from a short film of Bob Dylan doing "Subterranean Homesick Blues" as Watt thought it was funny when Dylan held up a cue card for the lyric that said "firehose". The name is stylized as "fIREHOSE" with a lowercase f as a subtle tribute to the Minutemen whose logo was an all caps MINUTEMEN. |
623_4 | The band played their first gig in June 1986 and by the end of the year released their debut album, Ragin', Full On via the independent label, SST. That same year, they also supported Sonic Youth on their "Flaming Telepaths Tour". The band quickly gained a loyal fanbase especially among the underground skateboarding crowd thanks in part to the inclusion of some of their early material in several key skateboarding videos from the late 1980s. "Brave Captain" from Ragin', Full On, as well as "Sometimes", "Hear Me", and "Windmilling" from their sophomore release, If'n were all featured in the Santa Cruz Skateboards video series, "Streets on Fire". |
623_5 | Over the course of seven and a half years, the band developed their own musical identity apart from Minutemen while still maintaining the same dynamic synthesis of punk, funk, and free jazz. They toured non-stop and consistently played to packed audiences. All in all, Firehose played 980 gigs, released five full-length albums and two EPs before disbanding in 1994. They played their final gig on February 12, 1994 at the Warner Grand Theatre in San Pedro, California.
In an interview with Billboard Watt declared "Most bands tour to promote records. We make records to promote tours." |
623_6 | After Firehose (1994–2012)
Since disbanding, Mike Watt has released four solo albums and been involved in numerous musical projects including the longstanding bass duo, Dos (with ex-Black Flag bassist and wife, Kira Roessler), FITTED (with Graham Lewis of Wire), Banyan (with Jane's Addiction drummer, Stephen Perkins), J Mascis + The Fog, The Stooges and Unknown Instructors (along with George Hurley). He also hosts The Watt from Pedro Show on Internet radio. Mike Watt, a San Pedro, Los Angeles, California resident since 1967, still resides there.
George Hurley has been involved in several musical projects and bands as well including Vida (with ex-Black Flag member, Dez Cadena), Red Krayola and Tripod (both with Tom Watson) and the Unknown Instructors. Like Watt, George Hurley also resides in San Pedro, Los Angeles, California. |
623_7 | Ed Crawford has also been involved in a handful of musical projects including fronting the North Carolina trio, Grand National (not to be confused with the UK band) and playing guitar and touring with the now defunct alt-country band, Whiskeytown. He currently resides in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and fronts the alt/rock trio, FOOD.
Reunion
It was announced in early 2012 that the band would be reuniting for their first live shows in over eighteen years. A compilation album chronicling their major label albums entitled lowFLOWS: The Columbia Anthology ('91–'93) was released to coincide with the reunion. The new album features Flyin' the Flannel, Live Totem Pole EP, Mr. Machinery Operator, as well as bonus material, including live cuts and instrumentals. |
623_8 | On January 4, 2012, Verbicide posted an article detailing that according to a reader's tip, an announcement was made at Harlow's in Sacramento, CA on December 29, 2011 that Firehose would be performing at the venue on April 5, 2012. Shortly after, Firehose were also confirmed as part of the line-up for the 2012 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival. in Indio, CA. A small west coast tour christened, "smokin' on the ol' pink pole" kicked off on April 5, 2012 at Harlow's and included 14 dates including two at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival.
When asked if Firehose was planning to make a new album, Mike Watt replied, "When Edward was asking me about doing new gigs, he also said he wanted to write... he has a band called Food, and said he's been writing songs. For these two weeks of gigs, we're just going to try and play some of the old ones. But he was talking about writing songs. So, I don't know – maybe down the road."
Discography |
623_9 | Studio albums
Ragin', Full On (1986, SST)
If'n (1987, SST)
Fromohio (1989, SST)
Flyin' the Flannel (1991, Columbia Records)
Mr. Machinery Operator (1993, Columbia Records)
EPs and singles
Sometimes (EP, 1988, SST)
"Time With You" (promo single, 1989, SST) No. 26 Billboard Modern Rock Tracks
Live Totem Pole (EP, 1992, Columbia)
"Big Bottom Pow Wow" (promo single, 1993, Columbia)
"Red & Black" (live, single, 1995, Sony)
Compilations
lowFLOWs: The Columbia Anthology ('91–'93) (2012)
References
External links
[| Allmusic biography]
Firehose collection at the Internet Archive's live music archive
Firehose discography by John Relph
Mike Watt's Hoot Page
Alternative rock groups from California
American musical trios
Mike Watt
Musical groups established in 1986
Musical groups disestablished in 1994
Musical groups reestablished in 2012
SST Records artists
Columbia Records artists
1986 establishments in California |
624_0 | Sara Yorke Stevenson (February 19, 1847 – November 14, 1921) was an American archaeologist specializing in Egyptology, one of the founders of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, suffragist and women's rights activist, and a columnist for the Philadelphia Public Ledger. |
624_1 | As a scholar, Stevenson published books and articles on Egyptology and the material culture of the ancient Near East, as well as a memoir about the reign of Maximilian I of Mexico. She was the first curator of the Egyptian Collection at the Penn Museum and played an important role in acquiring much of the collection itself. As a women's rights activist, she served as the first president of the Equal Franchise Society and the Civic Club of Philadelphia. She was the first woman to receive an honorary degree from the University of Pennsylvania, the first woman to lecture at the Peabody Museum at Harvard University, and the first female member of the Jury of Awards for Ethnology at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago.
Personal life |
624_2 | Childhood and early life
Sara Yorke Stevenson's parents were Edward Yorke (December 20, 1798 – 1868) and Sarah Hanna Yorke, who married in New Orleans, Louisiana in 1834 and who moved to Paris during the 1840s. They both came from established families: her mother's family owned a large cotton plantation and her father was a cotton broker.
Edward Yorke was born in Philadelphia and moved to New Orleans to represent the Yorke & Macalister law firm. In Louisiana he was involved in the establishment of the public school system in New Orleans. He became interested in business ventures, including the introduction of gas to Paris, and a trans-isthmian railway in Tehuantepec. He died of paralysis in Vermont in 1868. Sarah Hanna was born in Alabama and moved with her family to New Orleans.
In addition to Sara, their youngest child, Edward and Sarah Hanna Yorke had four other children: |
624_3 | Edward Yorke: born in New Orleans; educated in engineering at the École Centrale in Paris; married Jane Heard; died by drowning in 1884.
Ellen Yorke: born in New Orleans, married Captain Charles Blanchot in 1865.
Ogden Yorke: born in New Orleans; educated in engineering at the École Centrale in Paris; killed by brigands while working on the Isthmian Railway in 1862.
Mary Yorke: born in Paris, France; married Maurice Kingsley. |
624_4 | France
Sara Letitia Yorke was born in the Rue de Courcelles in Paris on February 19, 1847. Sara's parents moved back to the States when she was only ten, leaving their daughters to attend boarding school in France. She lived in Paris from 1858 through 1862 under the guardianship of M. Achille Jubinal, who inspired Stevenson's early interest in archaeology and Egyptology. During this time she met the Duke of Morny, half-brother of Napoleon and prominent figure in the French Intervention in Mexico, a conflict with which she would soon become profoundly familiar. In 1862, Sara departed France for Mexico by sea, about which she wrote: |
624_5 | There were only forty passengers on board, and, comparatively speaking, little of the animation that usually precedes the outgoing of an ocean steamer. I found without difficulty the French banker and his Mexican wife who had kindly consented to chaperon me during my lonely journey; and I soon discovered that she and I were the only women passengers on board. |
624_6 | Mexico
In 1862 the Yorke family moved to Tacubaya, a suburb of Mexico City, following the murder of Sara's brother Ogden. In Mexico she attended many social gatherings of the newly appointed Empress of Mexico Charlotte of Belgium and her husband Maximilian. Stevenson's first-hand account of the Second Mexican Empire, Maximilian in Mexico: A Woman's Reminiscences of the French Intervention 1862-1867 (New York, 1899), gave great insight into the inner workings of court life during that time. C.M. Mayo commented on this book was the "most lucid, informed, and balanced...of all the English language memoirs of the Second Empire/French Intervention. Sara Yorke Stevenson and her mother, Sarah Hanna Yorke, appear in Mayo's novel The Last Prince of the American Empire. |
624_7 | United States
In 1867, the Yorke family relocated to Vermont. Sara's father died only a year later, in 1868, and soon afterwards, at the age of twenty-one, Sara Yorke moved to Philadelphia to live with two of her uncles and an aunt on the Yorke side of her family.
Marriage and family
Sara Yorke married Cornelius Stevenson, a Philadelphia lawyer, on June 30, 1870. Cornelius Stevenson was born in Philadelphia on January 14, 1842, the only son of Adam May and Anna Smith (Philips) Stevenson. He served as a private in the First Troop, Philadelphia City Cavalry during the Civil War.
Sara Yorke Stevenson and Cornelius Stevenson had one child, William Yorke Stevenson (1878-1922) who married Christine Wetherill Rice.
Death |
624_8 | Sara Yorke Stevenson died on November 14, 1921. In February 1922, a tribute to Stevenson was included in the Pennsylvania Museum Bulletin that described her as follows:To us there will always rise, at the mention of Mrs. Stevenson's name, the dignified little figure with the black bag out of which she brought, like the unexpected mother in the Swiss Family Robinson, precisely the thing needed at the moment. For wise counsel, for tolerance, for understanding sympathy, we all of us came to her and never were refused. Her counsel was based on an experience of the world which included half a century of real intimacy with brilliant and wise people who sought her as a companion; it was poignant with interludes of the Mexican capital, Parisian days and Egyptian excavations. It was invariably moral and direct, but tempered with a worldliness that was never the counsel of the fear of consequences. Her tolerance, while it seemed almost universal, balked at glossing over a sham or condoning |
624_9 | insincerity. If she did not always suffer fools gladly she was generally able to contrive some amusement from them to shorten their discourse by a quick turn of wit.The Sara Yorke Stevenson papers were removed from the home of Frances Anne Wister and donated to LaSalle University's Connelly Library as a part of the Owen Wister Collection by the David Prince Estate. She is buried at the Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia. |
624_10 | Professional and civic life
Civic societies
Stevenson played a leading role in several local civic societies (aka civil societies, or groups of community of citizens often linked by collective interests and activities) including serving as the founder and first president of the Equal Franchise Society of Philadelphia, co-founder and two-term president of the Civic Club of Philadelphia (a group of women who advocated for civic reform and improvement), the president of the Acorn Club for 25 years, president of the Contemporary Club, and chair of the French War Relief Committee of the Emergency Aid of Pennsylvania. She also served on the Women's Centennial Committee of the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition of 1876, which created an exhibition known as the "Women's Building" that showcased "for the first time, at an international exposition, the intimate bonds, shared values, and material achievements of women" and was hailed as a milestone in the women's movement of the 19th century. |
624_11 | The Furness-Mitchell Coterie
Stevenson was part of a group of internationally known Philadelphia elite scholars, known as the Furness-Mitchell Coterie, who were a driving force in many areas, especially anthropology, during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The group included musicians, physicians, writers, scholars, anthropologists, and educators and was "unusual in its acceptance of accomplished women as intellectual equals". Because of her involvement in the coterie, Stevenson was able to form close relationships and work collaboratively with other members of the group, including Horace Howard Furness, Owen Wister, S. Weir Mitchell, Talcott Williams, and Agnes Irwin.
The Equal Franchise Society of Philadelphia |
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