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One area of the brain most strongly associated with addiction is the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) and striatum while other structures that project to and from the NAcc also play a critical role. Though many other changes occur, addiction is often characterized by the reduction of dopamine D2 receptors in the NAcc. In addition to low NAcc D2 binding, cocaine is also known to produce a variety of changes to the primate brain such as increases prodynorphin mRNA in caudate putamen (striatum) and decreases of the same in the hypothalamus while the administration of a KOR agonist produced an opposite effect causing an increase in D2 receptors in the NAcc.
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Additionally, while cocaine overdose victims showed a large increase in KORs (doubled) in the NAcc, KOR agonist administration is shown to be effective in decreasing cocaine seeking and self-administration. Furthermore, while cocaine abuse is associated with lowered prolactin response, KOR activation causes a release in prolactin, a hormone known for its important role in learning, neuronal plasticity and myelination.
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It has also been reported that the KOR system is critical for stress-induced drug-seeking. In animal models, stress has been demonstrated to potentiate cocaine reward behavior in a kappa opioid-dependent manner. These effects are likely caused by stress-induced drug craving that requires activation of the KOR system. Although seemingly paradoxical, it is well known that drug taking results in a change from homeostasis to allostasis. It has been suggested that withdrawal-induced dysphoria or stress-induced dysphoria may act as a driving force by which the individual seeks alleviation via drug taking. The rewarding properties of drug are altered, and it is clear KOR activation following stress modulates the valence of drug to increase its rewarding properties and cause potentiation of reward behavior, or reinstatement to drug seeking. The stress-induced activation of KORs is likely due to multiple signaling mechanisms. The effects of KOR agonism on dopamine systems are well documented,
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and recent work also implicates the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade and pCREB in KOR-dependent behaviors.
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While the predominant drugs of abuse examined have been cocaine (44%), ethanol (35%), and opioids (24%). As these are different classes of drugs of abuse working through different receptors (increasing dopamine directly and indirectly, respectively) albeit in the same systems produce functionally different responses. Conceptually then pharmacological activation of KOR can have marked effects in any of the psychiatric disorders (depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, etc.) as well as various neurological disorders (i.e. Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease). Not only are genetic differences in dynorphin receptor expression a marker for alcohol dependence but a single dose of a KOR antagonist markedly increased alcohol consumption in lab animals. There are numerous studies that reflect a reduction in self-administration of alcohol, and heroin dependence has also been shown to be effectively treated with KOR agonism by reducing the immediate rewarding effects and by causing the
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curative effect of up-regulation (increased production) of MORs that have been down-regulated during opioid abuse.
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The anti-rewarding properties of KOR agonists are mediated through both long-term and short-term effects. The immediate effect of KOR agonism leads to reduction of dopamine release in the NAcc during self-administration of cocaine and over the long term up-regulates receptors that have been down-regulated during substance abuse such as the MOR and the D2 receptor. These receptors modulate the release of other neurochemicals such as serotonin in the case of MOR agonists and acetylcholine in the case of D2. These changes can account for the physical and psychological remission of the pathology of addiction. The longer effects of KOR agonism (30 minutes or greater) have been linked to KOR-dependent stress-induced potentiation and reinstatement of drug seeking. It is hypothesized that these behaviors are mediated by KOR-dependent modulation of dopamine, serotonin, or norepinephrine and/or via activation of downstream signal transduction pathways.
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Of significant note, while KOR activation blocks many of the behavioral and neurochemical responses elicited by drugs of abuse as stated above. These results are indicative of the KOR induced negative affective states counteracting the rewarding effects of drugs of abuse. Implicating the KOR/dynorphin system as an anti-reward system, supported by the role of KOR signaling and stress, mediating both stress-induced potentiation of drug reward and stress-induced reinstatement of seeking behavior. This in turn addresses what was thought to be paradoxical above. That is, rather, KOR signaling is activated/upregulated by stress, drugs of abuse and agonist administration - resulting in negative affective state. As such drug addiction is maintained by avoidance of negative affective states manifest in stress, craving, and drug withdrawal. Consistent with KOR induced negative affective states and role in drug addiction, KOR antagonists are efficacious at blocking negative affect induced by
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drug withdrawal and at decreasing escalated drug intake in pre-clinical trial involving extended drug access. Clinically there has been little advancement to evaluate the effects of KOR antagonists due to adverse effects and undesirable pharmacological profiles for clinical testing (i.e. long half-life, poor bioavailability). More recently, a selective, high-affinity KOR antagonist LY2456302 was well-tolerated in CUD patients. Showing feasibility a subsequent proof-of-mechanism trial evaluated JNJ-67953964 (previously LY2456302) potential for treating anhedonia in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial in patients with anhedonia and a mood or anxiety disorder. The KOR antagonist significantly increased fMRI ventral striatum activation during reward anticipation while accompanied by therapeutic effects on clinical measures of anhedonia, further reinforces the promise of KOR antagonism and proceeding assessment of clinical impact. Additionally a positron emission
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tomography (PET) study in cocaine use disorder (CUD) patients utilizing a KOR selective agonist [11C]GR103545 radioligand showed CUD individuals with higher KOR availability were more prone to stress-induced relapse. A subsequent PET scan following a three-day cocaine binge showed a decrease in KOR availability, interpreted as increased endogenous dynorphin competing with the radioligand at the KOR binding sites. Taken together these findings are in support of the negative affect state and further implicate the KOR/dynorphin system clinically and therapeutically relevant in humans with CUD.
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Taken together, in drug addiction the KOR/dynorphin system is implicated as a homeostatic mechanism to counteract the acute effects of drugs of abuse. Chronic drug use and stress up-regulate the system in turn leading to a dysregulated state which induces negative affective states and stress reactivity.
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Interactions
KOR has been shown to interact with sodium-hydrogen antiporter 3 regulator 1, ubiquitin C, 5-HT1A receptor, and RGS12.
See also
δ-opioid receptor
μ-opioid receptor
Nociceptin receptor
References
External links
Opioid receptors
Kappa-opioid receptor agonists
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Hurricane Maria was a Category 1 hurricane that made landfall on the island of Newfoundland during September 2011. Originating from a tropical wave over the central Atlantic on September 6, Maria moved toward the west and slowly strengthened. While approaching the northern Leeward Islands, however, the system entered a region of higher vertical wind shear and cooler sea surface temperatures, causing it to degenerate into a low-pressure area. It slowly curved toward the north and northeast around the western periphery of the subtropical ridge, and regained tropical storm status on September 10. Maria further strengthened to attain hurricane status while making its closest approach to Bermuda. The cyclone attained peak winds of 80 mph (130 km/h) on September 16, but weakened thereafter because of an increase in wind shear and cooler sea surface temperatures. Maria made landfall on the southeastern coast of Newfoundland during the afternoon hours of September 16 before becoming absorbed
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by a frontal system later on that same day.
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Despite its poor organization, Maria brought heavy rainfall to portions of the east Caribbean, notably Puerto Rico. Numerous roadways and homes were flooded, and as the storm passed through the extreme northeastern Caribbean, over 15,000 people went without power. In addition, tropical storm-force winds were observed on many of the U.S. Virgin Islands. As the system passed west of Bermuda, brief tropical storm-force sustained winds were recorded, along with higher gusts; rainfall on the island, however, was minimal. In Newfoundland, strong winds were recorded, but rainfall totals were relatively minimal. There were no deaths reported in association with Maria, although the storm caused $1.3 million (2011 USD) in damage.
Meteorological history
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The origins of Hurricane Maria can be traced back to a tropical wave—an elongated trough of low pressure oriented north to south—that moved westward from Nigeria to Senegal on September 1. The wave entered the eastern tropical Atlantic early the following day and slowly strengthened. By September 6, it had developed a sufficient amount of convection to be designated as Tropical Depression Fourteen, while it was about 700 mi (1100 km) west-southwest of the southern Cape Verde Islands. By this time, it had also developed well-established outflow within the western semicircle of the low-pressure center. The depression continued to increase in strength, and it was upgraded to a tropical storm six hours after formation, receiving the name Maria.
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Early on September 7, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) noted that although Maria was in an area of favorable atmospheric conditions, most intensity guidance models did not anticipate any strengthening. The system changed little in organization over the next 24 hours as it moved rapidly toward the west-northwest around the southern periphery of the subtropical ridge. Though visible satellite imagery depicted a well-organized circulation center, it was displaced from the strongest convection due to increased vertical wind shear. The system reached an initial peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph (85 km/h) on September 8 before the unfavorable environment began to impede the system's organization. Following a reconnaissance flight into the system early on September 9, it was noted that Maria had degenerated into a tropical disturbance, despite reports of tropical storm-force winds in the northern Leeward Islands. Operationally, however, the NHC kept the system
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classified as a tropical cyclone and never downgraded it to a disturbance. When the system approached the northern Leeward Islands on September 10, satellite imagery and surface observations revealed an increase in its organization; a subsequent reconnaissance aircraft into the disturbance revealed that the remnants of Maria had regenerated into a tropical cyclone about 40 mi (65 km) east-southeast of Antigua.
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After reaching the southwestern periphery of the subtropical ridge, Maria turned to the north as its forward motion slowed considerably. Strong vertical wind shear over the system began to relax by September 14, allowing Maria to slowly restrengthen as the convection redeveloped near its center. At 1800 UTC on September 15, Maria reached Category 1 hurricane status on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale while located roughly 135 mi (215 km) northwest of Bermuda. Embedded within increasing atmospheric flow, the hurricane's forward motion accelerated towards the northeast. At 0000 UTC on September 16, Maria attained its peak intensity with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 983 mbar (29.03 inHg). Continuing on a northeastward course, Maria began to move over an area with cooler sea surface temperatures and higher vertical wind shear. Around 1800 UTC, Maria weakened to a tropical storm and made landfall near Cape St. Mary's, Newfoundland at 1830 UTC with winds
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of 70 mph (110 km/h). Shortly thereafter, the cyclone's circulation was absorbed by a frontal system over the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland, on September 18.
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Preparations and impact
Caribbean
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Before Maria's arrival, tropical storm watches were issued for most of the Lesser Antilles on September 8; the watches were upgraded to tropical storm warnings at 2230 UTC. On the following day, Puerto Rico and many of the U.S. Virgin Islands and British Virgin Islands were placed under a tropical storm watch. The watches and warnings for the islands were discontinued around 1500 UTC on September 10, after the strong thunderstorms diminished from Maria's center. The storm's effects on the island of Puerto Rico were primarily in the form of heavy rainfall. Flood waters near Patillas, Puerto Rico, destroyed several homes and bridges, causing $1.3 million (2011 USD) in damage. In the surrounding city of Yabucoa, Puerto Rico, heavy rainfall flooded and damaged around 150 homes. Many people were forced to relocate after rainfall and mud filled their homes. Near the city of Naguabo, Puerto Rico, the car of a 60-year-old woman was swept away by flood waters on a road. After becoming tangled
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in bushes, the woman was able to get out of her car and pulled to safety. Nearly a month after the storm, U.S. president Barack Obama announced that federal disaster aid would be available to the island due to Maria.
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Bermuda
Following Maria's regeneration into a tropical cyclone, a tropical storm watch was issued for the island of Bermuda on September 13. The watch was upgraded to a warning later that day, and at 1200 UTC the following day, it was replaced by a hurricane watch. All watches and warnings for the island were discontinued by September 15. When Maria bypassed Bermuda on September 15, its outer bands briefly produced tropical storm-force winds across the island. At Commissioners Point, sustained winds reached 52 mph (83 km/h), with gusts as high as 69 mph (111 km/h), and winds of 36 mph (60 km/h) were reported at L.F. Wade International Airport at 1500 UTC on September 15.
Newfoundland
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In anticipation of Maria, Environment Canada declared a tropical storm watch for the coast of Newfoundland on September 15, which stretched from Arnolds Cove to Brigus South. Three hours later, it was upgraded to a hurricane watch, while a tropical storm watch was put into effect from Arnolds Cove to Jones Harbor. At 0600 UTC the following day, the watches and warnings were replaced by a hurricane warning, and areas between Brigus South and Charlottestown, Newfoundland were placed under a tropical storm warning. All tropical cyclone watches and warnings were discontinued at 2100 UTC on September 16. While becoming absorbed by a front on September 16, Maria made landfall on the southern tip of the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland, where winds of 64 mph (103 km/h) were recorded. Offshore, winds reached up to 77 mph (124 km/h). The capital city of St. John's experienced heavy rain, though not to the extent that had been forecast, as the storm moved through the peninsula faster than
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predicted.
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See also
Other storms with the same name
Hurricane Igor
Hurricane Leslie (2012)
List of Bermuda hurricanes
List of Canada hurricanes
List of Newfoundland hurricanes
References
External links
Maria (2011)
Maria (2011)
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
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Yttrium is a chemical element with the symbol Y and atomic number 39. It is a silvery-metallic transition metal chemically similar to the lanthanides and has often been classified as a "rare-earth element". Yttrium is almost always found in combination with lanthanide elements in rare-earth minerals, and is never found in nature as a free element. 89Y is the only stable isotope, and the only isotope found in the Earth's crust.
The most important uses of yttrium are LEDs and phosphors, particularly the red phosphors in television set cathode ray tube displays. Yttrium is also used in the production of electrodes, electrolytes, electronic filters, lasers, superconductors, various medical applications, and tracing various materials to enhance their properties.
Yttrium has no known biological role. Exposure to yttrium compounds can cause lung disease in humans.
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The element is named after ytterbite, a mineral first identified in 1787 by the chemist Arrhenius. He named the mineral after the village of Ytterby, in Sweden, where it had been discovered. When one of the chemicals in ytterbite was later found to be the previously unidentified element, yttrium, the element was then named after the mineral.
Characteristics
Properties
Yttrium is a soft, silver-metallic, lustrous and highly crystalline transition metal in group 3. As expected by periodic trends, it is less electronegative than its predecessor in the group, scandium, and less electronegative than the next member of period 5, zirconium; additionally, it is more electronegative than lanthanum, but less electronegative than lutetium due to the lanthanide contraction. Yttrium is the first d-block element in the fifth period.
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The pure element is relatively stable in air in bulk form, due to passivation of a protective oxide () film that forms on the surface. This film can reach a thickness of 10 µm when yttrium is heated to 750 °C in water vapor. When finely divided, however, yttrium is very unstable in air; shavings or turnings of the metal can ignite in air at temperatures exceeding 400 °C. Yttrium nitride (YN) is formed when the metal is heated to 1000 °C in nitrogen.
Similarity to the lanthanides
The similarities of yttrium to the lanthanides are so strong that the element has historically been grouped with them as a rare-earth element, and is always found in nature together with them in rare-earth minerals. Chemically, yttrium resembles those elements more closely than its neighbor in the periodic table, scandium, and if physical properties were plotted against atomic number, it would have an apparent number of 64.5 to 67.5, placing it between the lanthanides gadolinium and erbium.
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It often also falls in the same range for reaction order, resembling terbium and dysprosium in its chemical reactivity. Yttrium is so close in size to the so-called 'yttrium group' of heavy lanthanide ions that in solution, it behaves as if it were one of them. Even though the lanthanides are one row farther down the periodic table than yttrium, the similarity in atomic radius may be attributed to the lanthanide contraction.
One of the few notable differences between the chemistry of yttrium and that of the lanthanides is that yttrium is almost exclusively trivalent, whereas about half the lanthanides can have valences other than three; nevertheless, only for four of the fifteen lanthanides are these other valences important in aqueous solution (CeIV, SmII, EuII, and YbII).
Compounds and reactions
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As a trivalent transition metal, yttrium forms various inorganic compounds, generally in the oxidation state of +3, by giving up all three of its valence electrons. A good example is yttrium(III) oxide (), also known as yttria, a six-coordinate white solid.
Yttrium forms a water-insoluble fluoride, hydroxide, and oxalate, but its bromide, chloride, iodide, nitrate and sulfate are all soluble in water. The Y3+ ion is colorless in solution because of the absence of electrons in the d and f electron shells.
Water readily reacts with yttrium and its compounds to form . Concentrated nitric and hydrofluoric acids do not rapidly attack yttrium, but other strong acids do.
With halogens, yttrium forms trihalides such as yttrium(III) fluoride (), yttrium(III) chloride (), and yttrium(III) bromide () at temperatures above roughly 200 °C. Similarly, carbon, phosphorus, selenium, silicon and sulfur all form binary compounds with yttrium at elevated temperatures.
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Organoyttrium chemistry is the study of compounds containing carbon–yttrium bonds. A few of these are known to have yttrium in the oxidation state 0. (The +2 state has been observed in chloride melts, and +1 in oxide clusters in the gas phase.) Some trimerization reactions were generated with organoyttrium compounds as catalysts. These syntheses use as a starting material, obtained from and concentrated hydrochloric acid and ammonium chloride.
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Hapticity is a term to describe the coordination of a group of contiguous atoms of a ligand bound to the central atom; it is indicated by the Greek character eta, η. Yttrium complexes were the first examples of complexes where carboranyl ligands were bound to a d0-metal center through a η7-hapticity. Vaporization of the graphite intercalation compounds graphite–Y or graphite– leads to the formation of endohedral fullerenes such as Y@C82. Electron spin resonance studies indicated the formation of Y3+ and (C82)3− ion pairs. The carbides Y3C, Y2C, and YC2 can be hydrolyzed to form hydrocarbons.
Isotopes and nucleosynthesis
Yttrium in the Solar System was created through stellar nucleosynthesis, mostly by the s-process (≈72%), but also by the r-process (≈28%). The r-process consists of rapid neutron capture by lighter elements during supernova explosions. The s-process is a slow neutron capture of lighter elements inside pulsating red giant stars.
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Yttrium isotopes are among the most common products of the nuclear fission of uranium in nuclear explosions and nuclear reactors. In the context of nuclear waste management, the most important isotopes of yttrium are 91Y and 90Y, with half-lives of 58.51 days and 64 hours, respectively. Though 90Y has a short half-life, it exists in secular equilibrium with its long-lived parent isotope, strontium-90 (90Sr) with a half-life of 29 years.
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All group 3 elements have an odd atomic number, and therefore few stable isotopes. Scandium has one stable isotope, and yttrium itself has only one stable isotope, 89Y, which is also the only isotope that occurs naturally. However, the lanthanide rare earths contain elements of even atomic number and many stable isotopes. Yttrium-89 is thought to be more abundant than it otherwise would be, due in part to the s-process, which allows enough time for isotopes created by other processes to decay by electron emission (neutron → proton). Such a slow process tends to favor isotopes with atomic mass numbers (A = protons + neutrons) around 90, 138 and 208, which have unusually stable atomic nuclei with 50, 82, and 126 neutrons, respectively. This stability is thought to result from their very low neutron-capture cross-section. . Electron emission of isotopes with those mass numbers is simply less prevalent due to this stability, resulting in them having a higher abundance. 89Y has a mass
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number close to 90 and has 50 neutrons in its nucleus.
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At least 32 synthetic isotopes of yttrium have been observed, and these range in atomic mass number from 76 to 108. The least stable of these is 106Y with a half-life of >150 ns (76Y has a half-life of >200 ns) and the most stable is 88Y with a half-life of 106.626 days. Apart from the isotopes 91Y, 87Y, and 90Y, with half-lives of 58.51 days, 79.8 hours, and 64 hours, respectively, all the other isotopes have half-lives of less than a day and most of less than an hour.
Yttrium isotopes with mass numbers at or below 88 decay primarily by positron emission (proton → neutron) to form strontium (Z = 38) isotopes. Yttrium isotopes with mass numbers at or above 90 decay primarily by electron emission (neutron → proton) to form zirconium (Z = 40) isotopes. Isotopes with mass numbers at or above 97 are also known to have minor decay paths of β− delayed neutron emission.
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Yttrium has at least 20 metastable ("excited") isomers ranging in mass number from 78 to 102. Multiple excitation states have been observed for 80Y and 97Y. While most of yttrium's isomers are expected to be less stable than their ground state, 78mY, 84mY, 85mY, 96mY, 98m1Y, 100mY, and 102mY have longer half-lives than their ground states, as these isomers decay by beta decay rather than isomeric transition.
History
In 1787, part-time chemist Carl Axel Arrhenius found a heavy black rock in an old quarry near the Swedish village of Ytterby (now part of the Stockholm Archipelago). Thinking it was an unknown mineral containing the newly discovered element tungsten, he named it ytterbite and sent samples to various chemists for analysis.
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Johan Gadolin at the University of Åbo identified a new oxide (or "earth") in Arrhenius' sample in 1789, and published his completed analysis in 1794. Anders Gustaf Ekeberg confirmed the identification in 1797 and named the new oxide yttria. In the decades after Antoine Lavoisier developed the first modern definition of chemical elements, it was believed that earths could be reduced to their elements, meaning that the discovery of a new earth was equivalent to the discovery of the element within, which in this case would have been yttrium.
Friedrich Wöhler is credited with first isolating the metal in 1828 by reacting a volatile chloride that he believed to be yttrium chloride with potassium.
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In 1843, Carl Gustaf Mosander found that samples of yttria contained three oxides: white yttrium oxide (yttria), yellow terbium oxide (confusingly, this was called 'erbia' at the time) and rose-colored erbium oxide (called 'terbia' at the time). A fourth oxide, ytterbium oxide, was isolated in 1878 by Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac. New elements were later isolated from each of those oxides, and each element was named, in some fashion, after Ytterby, the village near the quarry where they were found (see ytterbium, terbium, and erbium). In the following decades, seven other new metals were discovered in "Gadolin's yttria". Since yttria was found to be a mineral and not an oxide, Martin Heinrich Klaproth renamed it gadolinite in honor of Gadolin.
Until the early 1920s, the chemical symbol Yt was used for the element, after which Y came into common use.
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In 1987, yttrium barium copper oxide was found to achieve high-temperature superconductivity. It was only the second material known to exhibit this property, and it was the first-known material to achieve superconductivity above the (economically important) boiling point of nitrogen.
Occurrence
Abundance
Yttrium is found in most rare-earth minerals, it is found in some uranium ores, but is never found in the Earth's crust as a free element. About 31 ppm of the Earth's crust is yttrium, making it the 28th most abundant element, 400 times more common than silver. Yttrium is found in soil in concentrations between 10 and 150 ppm (dry weight average of 23 ppm) and in sea water at 9 ppt. Lunar rock samples collected during the American Apollo Project have a relatively high content of yttrium.
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Yttrium has no known biological role, though it is found in most, if not all, organisms and tends to concentrate in the liver, kidney, spleen, lungs, and bones of humans. Normally, as little as is found in the entire human body; human breast milk contains 4 ppm. Yttrium can be found in edible plants in concentrations between 20 ppm and 100 ppm (fresh weight), with cabbage having the largest amount. With as much as 700 ppm, the seeds of woody plants have the highest known concentrations.
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there are reports of the discovery of very large reserves of rare-earth elements on a tiny Japanese island. Minami-Torishima Island, also known as Marcus Island, is described as having "tremendous potential" for rare-earth elements and yttrium (REY), according to a study published in Scientific Reports.
"This REY-rich mud has great potential as a rare-earth metal resource because of the enormous amount available and its advantageous mineralogical features," the study reads. The study shows that more than of rare-earth elements could be "exploited in the near future." Including yttrium (Y), which is used in products like camera lenses and mobile phone screens, the rare-earth elements found are europium (Eu), terbium (Tb), and dysprosium (Dy).
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Production
As yttrium is chemically similar to lanthanides, it occurs in the same ores (rare-earth minerals) and is extracted by the same refinement processes. A slight distinction is recognized between the light (LREE) and the heavy rare-earth elements (HREE), but the distinction is not perfect. Yttrium is concentrated in the HREE group because of its ion size, though it has a lower atomic mass.
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Rare-earth elements (REEs) come mainly from four sources:
Carbonate and fluoride containing ores such as the LREE bastnäsite ([(Ce, La, etc.)(CO3)F]) contain an average of 0.1% of yttrium compared to the 99.9% for the 16 other REEs. The main source for bastnäsite from the 1960s to the 1990s was the Mountain Pass rare earth mine in California, making the United States the largest producer of REEs during that period. The name "bastnäsite" is actually a group name, and the Levinson suffix is used in the correct mineral names, e.g., bästnasite-(Y) has Y as a prevailing element.
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Monazite ([(Ce, La, etc.)PO4]), which is mostly phosphate, is a placer deposit of sand created by the transportation and gravitational separation of eroded granite. Monazite as a LREE ore contains 2% (or 3%) yttrium. The largest deposits were found in India and Brazil in the early 20th century, making those two countries the largest producers of yttrium in the first half of that century. Of the monazite group, the Ce-dominant member, monazite-(Ce), is the most common one.
Xenotime, a REE phosphate, is the main HREE ore containing as much as 60% yttrium as yttrium phosphate (YPO4). This applies to xenotime-(Y). The largest mine is the Bayan Obo deposit in China, making China the largest exporter for HREE since the closure of the Mountain Pass mine in the 1990s.
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Ion absorption clays or Lognan clays are the weathering products of granite and contain only 1% of REEs. The final ore concentrate can contain as much as 8% yttrium. Ion absorption clays are mostly in southern China. Yttrium is also found in samarskite and fergusonite (which also stand for group names).
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One method for obtaining pure yttrium from the mixed oxide ores is to dissolve the oxide in sulfuric acid and fractionate it by ion exchange chromatography. With the addition of oxalic acid, the yttrium oxalate precipitates. The oxalate is converted into the oxide by heating under oxygen. By reacting the resulting yttrium oxide with hydrogen fluoride, yttrium fluoride is obtained. When quaternary ammonium salts are used as extractants, most yttrium will remain in the aqueous phase. When the counter-ion is nitrate, the light lanthanides are removed, and when the counter-ion is thiocyanate, the heavy lanthanides are removed. In this way, yttrium salts of 99.999% purity are obtained. In the usual situation, where yttrium is in a mixture that is two-thirds heavy-lanthanide, yttrium should be removed as soon as possible to facilitate the separation of the remaining elements.
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Annual world production of yttrium oxide had reached by 2001; by 2014 it had increased to . Global reserves of yttrium oxide were estimated in 2014 to be more than . The leading countries for these reserves included Australia, Brazil, China, India, and the United States. Only a few tonnes of yttrium metal are produced each year by reducing yttrium fluoride to a metal sponge with calcium magnesium alloy. The temperature of an arc furnace of greater than 1,600 °C is sufficient to melt the yttrium.
Applications
Consumer
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The red component of color television cathode ray tubes is typically emitted from an yttria () or yttrium oxide sulfide () host lattice doped with europium (III) cation (Eu3+) phosphors. The red color itself is emitted from the europium while the yttrium collects energy from the electron gun and passes it to the phosphor. Yttrium compounds can serve as host lattices for doping with different lanthanide cations. Tb3+ can be used as a doping agent to produce green luminescence. As such yttrium compounds such as yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG) are useful for phosphors and are an important component of white LEDs.
Yttria is used as a sintering additive in the production of porous silicon nitride.
Yttrium compounds are used as a catalyst for ethylene polymerization. As a metal, yttrium is used on the electrodes of some high-performance spark plugs. Yttrium is used in gas mantles for propane lanterns as a replacement for thorium, which is radioactive.
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Currently under development is yttrium-stabilized zirconia as a solid electrolyte and as an oxygen sensor in automobile exhaust systems.
Garnets
Yttrium is used in the production of a large variety of synthetic garnets, and yttria is used to make yttrium iron garnets (, also "YIG"), which are very effective microwave filters which were recently shown to have magnetic interactions more complex and longer-ranged than understood over the previous four decades. Yttrium, iron, aluminium, and gadolinium garnets (e.g. Y3(Fe,Al)5O12 and Y3(Fe,Ga)5O12) have important magnetic properties. YIG is also very efficient as an acoustic energy transmitter and transducer. Yttrium aluminium garnet ( or YAG) has a hardness of 8.5 and is also used as a gemstone in jewelry (simulated diamond). Cerium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG:Ce) crystals are used as phosphors to make white LEDs.
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YAG, yttria, yttrium lithium fluoride (), and yttrium orthovanadate () are used in combination with dopants such as neodymium, erbium, ytterbium in near-infrared lasers. YAG lasers can operate at high power and are used for drilling and cutting metal. The single crystals of doped YAG are normally produced by the Czochralski process.
Material enhancer
Small amounts of yttrium (0.1 to 0.2%) have been used to reduce the grain sizes of chromium, molybdenum, titanium, and zirconium. Yttrium is used to increase the strength of aluminium and magnesium alloys. The addition of yttrium to alloys generally improves workability, adds resistance to high-temperature recrystallization, and significantly enhances resistance to high-temperature oxidation (see graphite nodule discussion below).
Yttrium can be used to deoxidize vanadium and other non-ferrous metals. Yttria stabilizes the cubic form of zirconia in jewelry.
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Yttrium has been studied as a nodulizer in ductile cast iron, forming the graphite into compact nodules instead of flakes to increase ductility and fatigue resistance. Having a high melting point, yttrium oxide is used in some ceramic and glass to impart shock resistance and low thermal expansion properties. Those same properties make such glass useful in camera lenses.
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Medical
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The radioactive isotope yttrium-90 is used in drugs such as Yttrium Y 90-DOTA-tyr3-octreotide and Yttrium Y 90 ibritumomab tiuxetan for the treatment of various cancers, including lymphoma, leukemia, liver, ovarian, colorectal, pancreatic and bone cancers. It works by adhering to monoclonal antibodies, which in turn bind to cancer cells and kill them via intense β-radiation from the yttrium-90 (see monoclonal antibody therapy).<ref>{{cite journal|journal = Cancer Research|volume =64|pages = 6200–6206|date =2004|title = A Single Treatment of Yttrium-90-labeled CHX-A–C6.5 Diabody Inhibits the Growth of Established Human Tumor Xenografts in Immunodeficient Mice|author1 = Adams, Gregory P.|doi = 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-03-2382|pmid = 15342405|issue = 17|author2 =Shaller, C. C.|author3 =Dadachova, E.|author4 =Simmons, H. H.|author5 =Horak, E. M.|author6 =Tesfaye, A.|author7 =Klein-Szanto A. J.|author8 =Marks, J. D.|author9 =Brechbiel, M. W.|author10 =Weiner, L. M.|s2cid
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=34205736|display-authors=1}}
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</ref>
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A technique called radioembolization is used to treat hepatocellular carcinoma and liver metastasis. Radioembolization is a low toxicity, targeted liver cancer therapy that uses millions of tiny beads made of glass or resin containing radioactive yttrium-90. The radioactive microspheres are delivered directly to the blood vessels feeding specific liver tumors/segments or lobes. It is minimally invasive and patients can usually be discharged after a few hours. This procedure may not eliminate all tumors throughout the entire liver, but works on one segment or one lobe at a time and may require multiple procedures.
Also see radioembolization in the case of combined cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma.
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Needles made of yttrium-90, which can cut more precisely than scalpels, have been used to sever pain-transmitting nerves in the spinal cord, and yttrium-90 is also used to carry out radionuclide synovectomy in the treatment of inflamed joints, especially knees, in sufferers of conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis.
A neodymium-doped yttrium-aluminium-garnet laser has been used in an experimental, robot-assisted radical prostatectomy in canines in an attempt to reduce collateral nerve and tissue damage, and erbium-doped lasers are coming into use for cosmetic skin resurfacing.
Superconductors
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Yttrium is a key ingredient in the yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7, aka 'YBCO' or '1-2-3') superconductor developed at the University of Alabama and the University of Houston in 1987. This superconductor is notable because the operating superconductivity temperature is above liquid nitrogen's boiling point (77.1 K). Since liquid nitrogen is less expensive than the liquid helium required for metallic superconductors, the operating costs for applications would be less.
The actual superconducting material is often written as YBa2Cu3O7–d, where d must be less than 0.7 for superconductivity. The reason for this is still not clear, but it is known that the vacancies occur only in certain places in the crystal, the copper oxide planes, and chains, giving rise to a peculiar oxidation state of the copper atoms, which somehow leads to the superconducting behavior.
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The theory of low temperature superconductivity has been well understood since the BCS theory of 1957. It is based on a peculiarity of the interaction between two electrons in a crystal lattice. However, the BCS theory does not explain high temperature superconductivity, and its precise mechanism is still a mystery. What is known is that the composition of the copper-oxide materials must be precisely controlled for superconductivity to occur.
This superconductor is a black and green, multi-crystal, multi-phase mineral. Researchers are studying a class of materials known as perovskites that are alternative combinations of these elements, hoping to develop a practical high-temperature superconductor.
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Lithium batteries
Yttrium is used in small quantities in cathodes of some Lithium iron phosphate battery (LFP), and then called commonly LiFeYPO4 chemistry, or LYP. Similar to LFP, LYP batteries offer high energy density, good safety and long life. But LYP, offer higher cathode stability, and prolong life of battery, by protecting physical structure of the cathode, especially at higher temperatures and higher charging / discharge current. LYP batteries do find use in stationary applications (off-grid solar systems), electric vehicles (some cars), as well other applications (submarines, ships), similar to LFP batteries, but often at improved safety and cycle life time. LYP cells have essentially same nominal voltage as LFP, of 3.25V, but the maximum charging voltage is 4.0V, and very similar charging and discharge characteristic.
Major manufacturer of LFP batteries is Shenzhen Smart Lion Power Battery Limited, with brands Winston and Thunder Sky.
Other applications
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In 2009, Professor Mas Subramanian and associates at Oregon State University discovered that yttrium can be combined with indium and manganese to form an intensely blue, non-toxic, inert, fade-resistant pigment, YInMn blue, the first new blue pigment discovered in 200 years.
Precautions
Yttrium currently has no known biological role, and it can be highly toxic to humans, animals and plants.
Water-soluble compounds of yttrium are considered mildly toxic, while its insoluble compounds are non-toxic. In experiments on animals, yttrium and its compounds caused lung and liver damage, though toxicity varies with different yttrium compounds. In rats, inhalation of yttrium citrate caused pulmonary edema and dyspnea, while inhalation of yttrium chloride caused liver edema, pleural effusions, and pulmonary hyperemia.
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Exposure to yttrium compounds in humans may cause lung disease. Workers exposed to airborne yttrium europium vanadate dust experienced mild eye, skin, and upper respiratory tract irritation—though this may be caused by the vanadium content rather than the yttrium. Acute exposure to yttrium compounds can cause shortness of breath, coughing, chest pain, and cyanosis. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) limits exposure to yttrium in the workplace to over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommended exposure limit (REL) is over an 8-hour workday. At levels of , yttrium is immediately dangerous to life and health. Yttrium dust is highly flammable.
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Yttrium by Paul C.W. Chu at acs.org
Yttrium at The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)
Encyclopedia of Geochemistry - Yttrium
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Chemical elements
Transition metals
Deoxidizers
Chemical elements with hexagonal close-packed structure
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The 2006 season was the St. Louis Rams' 69th in the National Football League and their 12th in St. Louis. The season began with the Rams trying to improve on their 6–10 record from 2005 under new head coach Scott Linehan. This was the Rams last non-losing season in St. Louis as the franchise would go on a ten-season losing record streak until 2017 in Los Angeles.
Offseason
Scott Linehan was named head coach of the St. Louis Rams on January 19, 2006. He previously served as the offensive coordinator for the Miami Dolphins. On January 24, Jim Haslett, the former head coach of the New Orleans Saints, signed a three-year deal to become the Rams new defensive coordinator.
On March 17, 2006, the Rams signed former Miami Dolphins QB Gus Frerotte to a three-year deal.
During the free agency period, the Rams signed DT La'Roi Glover, LB Will Witherspoon and S Corey Chavous.
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In the 2006 NFL Draft, the Rams used their first pick on Clemson CB Tye Hill. They used the next pick on Colorado TE Joe Klopfenstein. The remaining picks were LSU DT Claude Wroten, USC TE Dominique Byrd, Stanford LB Jon Alston, Indiana DE Victor Adeyanju, Virginia WR Marques Hagans, Northwestern LB Tim McGarigle, Minnesota Guard Mark Setterstrom, and Missouri Guard Tony Palmer.
On Friday, September 1, 2006, the Rams signed former Carolina Panthers RB Stephen Davis a one-year contract.
The Rams also signed defensive tackle Jason Fisk to pair with La'Roi Glover.
Staff
Roster
Schedule
In the 2006 regular season, the Rams’ non-divisional, conference opponents were primarily from the NFC North, although they also played the Washington Redskins from the NFC East, and the Carolina Panthers from the NFC South. Their non-conference opponents were from the AFC West.
Note: Intra-division opponents are in bold text.
Standings
Regular season
Week 1: vs. Denver Broncos
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at Edward Jones Dome, St. Louis, Missouri
The Rams opened the regular season at home against the Denver Broncos on September 10 with a Rams' 18–10 win. Jeff Wilkins scored all of the Rams' points by kicking six field goals, a franchise record for a single game (from 51, 48, 26, 38, 29 and 24 yards), and became the first Ram player to score 1000 points in a career. Wilkins also tied a franchise record of seven field goal attempts in one game which was first accomplished by Bob Waterfield on December 9, 1951. The Rams were unable to score a touchdown all game and went 0 for 5 in the red zone.
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The defense allowed just one touchdown and forced five turnovers. Three of these turnovers were interceptions, from a team that only allowed seven interceptions all of last season. First round draft pick Tye Hill intercepted a pass by Jake Plummer with 12:02 in the second quarter. It was his first in his NFL career. The defense also sacked Jake Plummer four times in the game, with Leonard Little accounting for two of them.
Isaac Bruce passed Henry Ellard and Shannon Sharpe for 11th most receptions in an NFL career with his five receptions for 64 yards.
Center Andy McCollum injured his left knee with 7:39 left in the second quarter and was out for the rest of the game. On September 11, 2006 it was announced that McCollum will miss the entire season and will undergo knee surgery. With the win, the Rams began their season 1–0.
Week 2: at San Francisco 49ers
at Monster Park, San Francisco, California
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The Rams visited division rival San Francisco 49ers on September 17 for their home opener. The 49ers increased their winning streak against the Rams to three, beating the Rams 20–13.
With 11:10 left in the first quarter, Alex Smith completed a 56-yard pass to Arnaz Battle, setting up a 32-yard field goal by Joe Nedney. At the beginning of the second quarter, Corey Chavous recovered a Frank Gore fumble at the Rams 3-yard line. The Rams moved the ball sixty yards down the field setting up a 49-yard Jeff Wilkins field goal. The Rams scored their first touchdown of the season with a 3-yard pass from Marc Bulger to Torry Holt with 2:21 left in the half, giving the Rams a 10–3 lead going into the half.
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With 14:12 left in the third quarter, the 49ers tied the game at ten with a Gore 32-yard touchdown run. The 49ers took the lead at 10:54 in the third quarter with a 72-yard pass from Smith to Antonio Bryant. Each team had a field goal in the fourth quarter. Wilkins hit a 40-yard field goal with 11:06 in the fourth, and Nedney had a 20-yard field goal with 5:23 in the fourth.
Bulger was sacked six times in the game and completed 19 of 34 attempts for 147 yards. Steven Jackson had 103 yards on the ground on 22 carries, along with 2 receptions for 21 yards. Will Witherspoon also had a good game making 13 tackles and forcing one fumble. The Rams had 118 total yards during the second half.
Left tackle Orlando Pace left the game at the half with a concussion. He was taken to a hospital in the bay area where a CAT scan turned up negative. Linebacker Pisa Tinoisamoa dislocated his elbow in the third quarter, and missed the rest of the game. With the loss, the Rams fell to 1–1.
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Week 3: at Arizona Cardinals
at University of Phoenix Stadium, Glendale, Arizona
The Rams traveled to Glendale, Arizona for their first game in the new Cardinals Stadium.
With 11:28 left in the first quarter of play, Matt Turk kicked a 31-yard punt giving the Cardinals the ball on the Saint Louis 45. Nine plays later, Kurt Warner threw a 12-yard touchdown pass to Larry Fitzgerald. This gave the Cardinals a 7–0 lead with 7:04 left in the quarter.
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With 11:28 left in the second quarter, Jeff Wilkins hit a 26-yard field goal to put the Rams on the board 7–3. On the Cardinals next drive, Warner was intercepted by O.J. Atogwe giving the Rams the ball on their own 6-yard line. Marc Bulger hit Torry Holt for gains of 42, 26 and 9 yards during the drive, with the final catch ending in a touchdown. It was the second touchdown for Holt and the Rams for the 2006 season. The very first play of the next Cardinals drive, Warner was intercepted again by Fakhir Brown. The Rams drove the ball down the field for 16 yards setting up a Wilkins 47-yard field goal to end the half, giving the Rams a 13–7 lead. Wilkins kicked another field goal with 8:08 left in the third quarter increasing the Rams lead 16–7.
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With 4:13 left in the fourth quarter, the Cardinals ended a 16-play, 87-yard drive with a 9-yard Edgerrin James run for a touchdown cutting the Rams lead 16–14. With 1:58 left to play, Bulger fumbled the ball at the Saint Louis 30. It was recovered by Arizona's Antonio Smith. Yet, on the third play of the drive, Warner fumbled the snap and the Rams' Will Witherspoon recovered the ball. The Rams ran the clock out and won the game 16–14.
Rookie Victor Adeyanju got his first start in the game, replacing Anthony Hargrove who did not show up for meetings and practices. With the win, the Rams improved to 2–1.
Week 4: vs. Detroit Lions
at Edward Jones Dome, St. Louis, Missouri
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Hoping to build on their road win over the Cardinals, the Rams returned home for a match-up with the Detroit Lions and their offensive coordinator, former Rams head coach Mike Martz. In the first quarter, the Rams kicker Jeff Wilkins kicked a 42-yard and a 19-yard field goal to begin the game. The Lions kicker Jason Hanson kicked a 29-yard field goal. St. Louis distanced themselves, as QB Marc Bulger completed a 16-yard TD pass to rookie TE Joe Klopfenstein. In the second quarter, Lions QB Jon Kitna and WR Mike Furrey hooked up with each other on two touchdown passes (a 1-yarder and a 10-yarder), but the Rams retook the lead with Wilkins completing a 46-yard field goal. In the third quarter, St. Louis gained even more points, as Bulger connected with WR Torry Holt on a 16-yard TD strike. Detroit got a 20-yard field goal from Hanson and RB Kevin Jones ran 35 yards for a touchdown, but the Rams had their RB, Steven Jackson, get a 1-yard TD run to add to their lead. In the fourth
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quarter, Jones ran for a 7-yard TD strike. The Rams closed out the game with a win, as Wilkins completed a 47-yard field goal and Bulger completed a 5-yard TD pass to WR Isaac Bruce. With the win, the Rams improved to 3–1.
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Week 5: at Green Bay Packers
at Lambeau Field, Green Bay, Wisconsin
First-year coaches Scott Linehan and Mike McCarthy faced off against each other in Lambeau Field on October 8, 2006.
On the Packers’ first possession of the game, Vernand Morency fumbled the ball and it was recovered by rookie Victor Adeyanju. This gave the Rams the ball at the Packers' 37. Six plays later, Marc Bulger passed the ball to Torry Holt for a 6-yard touchdown pass. Jeff Wilkins hit the extra point giving the Rams the lead with 9:49 left in the first quarter. The Packers answered with a 15-play 80-yard touchdown drive that ended in a Noah Herron 1-yard touchdown run. Dave Rayner made the extra point tying the game at seven.
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One the first possession of the second quarter, Dave Rayner connected on a 27-yard field goal, giving the Packers a 10–7 lead with 13:12 left in the quarter. Marc Bulger completed a 3-yard pass to Kevin Curtis for a touchdown with 3:33 left in the quarter. Jeff Wilkins made the extra point giving the Rams a 14–10 lead. The Packers connected on a 32-yard field goal with 0:03 left in the quarter cutting the lead down to one.
The only points in the third quarter were on a 31-yard field goal by Wilkins, increasing the Rams lead to 17–13.
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Jeff Wilkins made two more field goals in the fourth quarter, one with 14:57 remaining in the quarter and another with 9:27 remaining, which gave the Rams a 23–13 lead. Brett Favre completed a 46-yard touchdown pass to Greg Jennings with 6:42 left in the game. The extra point was good. The Packers attempted a late comeback, but Favre fumbled the ball on the Rams' 13-yard line. It was recovered by Jerametrius Butler. The Rams took a knee ending the game with the Rams winning, 23–20, and improving to 4–1.
Steven Jackson ended the game with 98 yards on the ground on 23 carries. Bulger completed 18 passes on 28 attempts for 220 yards and two touchdowns.
Week 6: vs. Seattle Seahawks
at Edward Jones Dome, St. Louis, Missouri
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Hoping to keep their three-game winning streak going, the Rams returned home for an NFC West fight with the Seattle Seahawks. The Rams struck first, as QB Marc Bulger completed a 9-yard TD pass to WR Torry Holt. Yet, the Seahawks responded with QB Matt Hasselbeck completing a 14-yard TD pass to WR Deion Branch. In the second quarter, St. Louis began pulling away, as RB Steven Jackson ran 2 yards for a touchdown and the duo of Bulger and Holt hooked up again with a 10-yard TD pass. In the third quarter, the Seahawks started to creep back as Hasselbeck completed a 42-yard TD pass to WR Darrell Jackson. In the fourth quarter, Seattle managed to take the lead with kicker Josh Brown nailing a 49-yard field goal, Hasselbeck throwing a 19-yard TD pass to Branch, and Brown kicking another 49-yard field goal. The Rams responded with Bulger and Holt completing a 67-yard TD pass. The Seahawks won as Brown kicked a 54-yard field goal as time ran out, giving Seattle a three-game winning streak
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against St. Louis. This game was marred by controversy as the 10-second run-off rule did not apply on the last play of the game, giving Josh Brown the chance to win the game. With the loss, the Rams headed into their bye week 4–2.
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Week 8: at San Diego Chargers
at Qualcomm Stadium, San Diego, California
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Coming off of their bye week, the Rams flew to Qualcomm Stadium for their Week 8 match-up with the San Diego Chargers. From the get-go, St. Louis trailed as RB LaDainian Tomlinson got a 2-yard TD run and a 38-yard TD run in the first quarter. In the second quarter, the Rams started to retaliate as RB Steven Jackson got a 3-yard TD run for the only score of the period. In the third quarter, things started to get ugly for St. Louis as Chargers free safety Marlon McCree returned a fumble 79 yards for a touchdown. The Rams responded with kicker Jeff Wilkins nailing a 34-yard field goal, yet Chargers kicker Nate Kaeding made a 31-yard field goal. In the fourth quarter, it was back and forth with touchdowns. San Diego RB Michael Turner got a 14-yard TD run, while Rams QB Marc Bulger completed a 7-yard TD pass to WR Shaun McDonald. Afterwards, Chargers QB Philip Rivers completed a 25-yard TD pass to Tomlinson, while Bulger completed a 6-yard TD pass to WR Kevin Curtis. However, San Diego got
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the win, as St. Louis fell to 4–3.
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Week 9: vs. Kansas City Chiefs
at Edward Jones Dome, St. Louis, Missouri
Hoping to rebound from the road loss to the Chargers, the Rams went home for Week 9, as they fought the Kansas City Chiefs in a “Show Me State Showdown”. The Chiefs struck first as RB Larry Johnson got a 1-yard TD run for the only score of the period. In the second quarter, things got worse for the Rams as QB Damon Huard completed a 3-yard TD pass to TE Tony Gonzalez, while kicker Lawrence Tynes nailed a 42-yard field goal. St. Louis got on the board with RB Steven Jackson getting a 2-yard TD run, yet Huard and Gonzalez hooked up with each other again on a 25-yard TD strike. Rams kicker Jeff Wilkins made a 41-yard field goal to end the half. In the third quarter, QB Marc Bulger completed a 2-yard TD pass to WR Kevin Curtis for the only score of the period, yet the only score of the fourth quarter came from Huard completing an 11-yard TD pass to TE Kris Wilson. With the loss, the Rams fell to 4–4.
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Week 10: at Seattle Seahawks
at Qwest Field, Seattle
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Trying to end their three-game skid, the Rams flew to Qwest Field for an NFC West rematch with the Seattle Seahawks. In the first quarter, the Rams struck first with rookie DE Victor Adeyanju returning a fumble 89 yards for a touchdown. Afterwards, the Seahawks responded with QB Seneca Wallace completing a 3-yard TD pass to WR Darrell Jackson. Then, St. Louis had kicker Jeff Wilkins nail a 40-yard field goal. In the second quarter, Seattle took the lead with Wallace completing a 15-yard TD pass to TE Jerramy Stevens. The Rams responded with Wilkins's 42-yard field goal. In the third quarter, Wilkins gave St. Louis a 35-yard field goal for the only score of the period and the lead. In the fourth quarter, the Seahawks responded with WR Nate Burleson returning a punt 90 yards for a touchdown. The Rams retook the lead with RB Steven Jackson’s 14-yard TD run, yet it was followed up with a failed two-point conversion. However, just like earlier in the year, Seahawks kicker Josh Brown came
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out with the win, as he kicked a 38-yard field goal. With the loss, the Rams fell to 4–5.
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Week 11: at Carolina Panthers
at Bank of America Stadium, Charlotte, North Carolina
Trying to end a four-game skid, the Rams flew to Bank of America Stadium for a Week 11 fight with the Carolina Panthers. After a scoreless first quarter, the Panthers took control for the rest of the game. In the second quarter, Carolina kicker John Kasay made a 40-yard field goal, while QB Jake Delhomme completed a 62-yard TD pass to WR Steve Smith. In the third quarter, Kasay improved the Panthers’ lead with a 34-yard field goal for the only score of the period. In the fourth quarter, Carolina wrapped up the game with DE Mike Rucker sacking QB Marc Bulger in the Rams end zone for a safety. With St. Louis’ fifth-straight loss, the Rams fell to 4–6.
Week 12: vs. San Francisco 49ers
at Edward Jones Dome, St. Louis, Missouri
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Trying to end a five-game skid, the Rams went home for an NFC West rematch with their historic rival, the San Francisco 49ers. After a scoreless first quarter, the Rams drew first blood in the second quarter with kicker Jeff Wilkins' 24-yard field goal and RB Steven Jackson’s 36-yard TD run. he 49ers responded with RB Frank Gore's 12-yard TD run, yet St. Louis got Wilkins to kick a 51-yard field goal as time ran out on the half. In the third quarter, the 49ers took the lead with QB Alex Smith completing a 1-yard TD pass to TE Eric Johnson for the only score of the period. In the fourth quarter, the 49ers increased its lead with kicker Joe Nedney nailing a 24-yard field goal. The Rams got the win with QB Marc Bulger completing a 5-yard TD pass to WR Kevin Curtis. Not only did St. Louis improve its record to 5–6, but they also snapped a five-game losing streak.
Week 13: vs. Arizona Cardinals
at Edward Jones Dome, St. Louis, Missouri
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Coming off their victory over the 49ers, the Rams stayed at home for an NFC West rematch with the Arizona Cardinals. In the first quarter, the Rams trailed early as Cardinals RB Marcel Shipp got a 1-yard TD run. St. Louis responded with kicker Jeff Wilkins. In the second quarter, the Rams continued to struggle as QB Matt Leinart completed an 11-yard TD pass to WR Larry Fitzgerald, while kicker Neil Rackers nailed a 23-yard field goal. In the third quarter, St. Louis tried to retaliate with QB Marc Bulger completing a 15-yard TD pass to WR Torry Holt, yet the Cards responded with Shipp's 6-yard TD run. In the fourth quarter, the Rams had Wilkins kick a 37-yard field goal. However, the Big Red pulled away with Shipp's 9-yard TD run and Rackers' 20-yard TD run. Even though St. Louis made another TD, with Bulger completing a 1-yard pass to WR Isaac Bruce, Arizona held on to win. With the loss, the Rams fell to 5–7.
Week 14: vs. Chicago Bears
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at Russell Athletic Field, St. Louis, Missouri
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Coming off their loss to the Cardinals, the Rams stayed at home for a Monday Night fight with the current NFC North champion Chicago Bears. After a scoreless first quarter, the Rams struck first with QB Marc Bulger completing a 1-yard TD pass to WR Torry Holt, yet the PAT attempt had a botched snap, making it no good. However, immediately following St. Louis's first score, the Bears took the lead with DB Devin Hester returning a kickoff 94 yards for a touchdown. Fortunately, the Rams responded with RB Steven Jackson's 2-yard TD run, yet Chicago responded with QB Rex Grossman's 34-yard TD pass to WR Bernard Berrian. St. Louis tried to get a 48-yard field goal in before halftime, yet it just went wide right. In the third quarter, the Rams' recent struggles continued with RB Thomas Jones's 30-yard TD run, while Grossman completed a 14-yard TD pass to WR Muhsin Muhammad. In the fourth quarter, the Bears dominance continued with RB Adrian Peterson's 1-yard TD run. St. Louis tried to come
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back with Bulger completing a 6-yard TD pass to Holt, yet Hester immediately followed that up with a 96-yard kickoff return for a touchdown, which gave him the single-season record for the most returns for a touchdown with six. The only thing remaining within St. Louis was Jackson's 2-yard TD run. With their second-straight loss, the Rams fell to 5–8.
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Week 15: at Oakland Raiders
at McAfee Coliseum, Oakland, California
The Rams flew to McAfee Coliseum to take on the Oakland Raiders, who, just like the Rams, used to play in the city of Los Angeles.
After a scoreless first quarter, St. Louis struck first in the second quarter with kicker Jeff Wilkins nailing a 24-yard and a 34-yard field goal. In the third quarter, the Rams increased their lead with RB Steven Jackson's 4-yard TD run. In the fourth quarter, St. Louis wrapped up the win with Jackson's 19-yard TD run. With the win, the Rams improved their record to 6–8. It was the first Rams shutout win since 2003.
Week 16: vs. Washington Redskins
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at Edward Jones Dome, St. Louis, Missouri
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Coming off their dominating road win over the Raiders, the Rams played their last home game of the year as they took on the Washington Redskins. In the first quarter, the Redskins struck first with RB T. J. Duckett getting a 5-yard TD run for the only score of the period. In the second quarter, St. Louis took the lead with QB Marc Bulger completing a 10-yard TD pass to WR Isaac Bruce and a 27-yard TD pass to rookie TE Dominique Byrd. However, Washington responded with RB Ladell Betts getting a 6-yard TD run and QB Jason Campbell completing a 9-yard TD pass to TE Chris Cooley. In the third quarter, the Redskins increased their lead with Betts getting a 7-yard TD run. The Rams responded with Bulger completing a 64-yard TD pass to RB Stephen Jackson and a 10-yard TD pass to RB Stephen Davis. In the fourth quarter, St. Louis took the lead with kicker Jeff Wilkins getting a 21-yard field goal, yet Washington managed to tie the game with kicker Shaun Suisham getting a 52-yard field goal. In
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overtime, the Rams won with Jackson getting a 21-yard TD run. With the win, St. Louis improved to 7–8.
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However, because the New York Giants won a Week 17 match-up against the Redskins, it ended any chance for the Rams to get into the playoffs.
Week 17: at Minnesota Vikings
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