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Captain Pike appears in the 2009 reboot Star Trek, this time portrayed by Bruce Greenwood. In the film, Pike encourages a young, directionless James T. Kirk (Chris Pine) to follow in the footsteps of his hero father and enlist in Starfleet. Pike is the first Captain of the USS Enterprise, with Kirk on board as a stowaway. During the Battle of Vulcan, Pike is taken prisoner by Nero (Eric Bana) and tortured for information about Earth's defenses. He is later rescued by Kirk, whom Pike also manages to save from an attack despite his wounds. At the end of the film, Pike is promoted to the rank of admiral and uses a wheelchair. Unlike his counterpart in "The Menagerie", however, Pike still retains the ability to speak and to use his upper body. He proudly yields command of the Enterprise to Kirk while he recovers from his injuries, stating that Kirk's father would be proud of his actions.
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Greenwood reprised his role as Pike in the next film, Star Trek Into Darkness. In the film, Pike has partially recovered from the trauma Nero inflicted, using a cane rather than a wheelchair. After Kirk violates the Prime Directive to rescue Spock (Zachary Quinto), Pike briefly retakes command of the Enterprise and warns Kirk that the Admiralty is threatening to put him back into the Academy. Pike confronts Kirk about his reckless behavior and how his own actions can get those nearest to him killed. Despite his anger at Kirk, however, Pike retains him as his First Officer, sparing him from having to return to the Academy. He later explains to Kirk that he still believes in him and that he also sees a "greatness" behind his recklessness. During a meeting with the Starfleet commanders, including veteran Admiral Marcus and Captain Kirk, Pike is killed in a terrorist attack on Starfleet by John Harrison. Pike's death incites a desire for revenge in Kirk, who seeks to hunt Harrison down,
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which nearly brings the Federation into a full-scale war with the Klingons. At the end of the film, a memorial service is held for Pike and all of the other people who died as a result of Admiral Marcus's and Harrison's actions.
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Star Trek: Discovery and Short Treks Prior to appearing on Star Trek: Discovery as a main character, Pike is referenced twice in the show's first season. The episode "Choose Your Pain" has Pike listed on the Starfleet Database as one of Starfleet's most decorated Captains as of 2256. (Also included in the list are Jonathan Archer, Matt Decker, Philippa Georgiou, and Robert April.) The season finale "Will You Take My Hand?" shows the Enterprise on-screen, with Pike sending a distress call to the Discovery. Anson Mount being cast as Captain Pike for the second season was announced on April 9, 2018.
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Captain Christopher Pike was introduced to Star Trek: Discovery in the second season premiere, "Brother", which first aired in the U.S. on January 17, 2019. Set in the years 2257-2258, the season-long story arc involves Pike assuming temporary command of the USS Discovery while the Enterprise is disabled, in order to investigate the mysterious "red signals" – temporal anomalies appearing throughout space that have some connection to the apparent breakdown and disappearance of Spock. The planet Talos IV reappears in the episode "If Memory Serves", which also has Pike and Vina once again making mental contact. In the episode "Through the Valley of Shadows", Pike receives a premonition of his own future including his injury and disfigurement. Pike departs the show in the season finale "Such Sweet Sorrow, Part 2", first aired 18th April, 2019, which shows him resuming command of the Enterprise.
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Anson Mount reprised his role as Pike in the first three episodes of the second season of the anthology series Star Trek: Short Treks. originally airing October 5 to November 14, 2019. Star Trek: Strange New Worlds After Anson Mount left Discovery following the second-season finale, fans of the series began calling for him to reprise his role of Christopher Pike in a spin-off set on the USS Enterprise, alongside Rebecca Romijn as Number One and Ethan Peck as Spock. Alex Kurtzman confirmed that development on such a series had begun in January 2020. Production began on the series in February 2021. Appearances in licensed media Novels and short stories Pike appears in the Pocket Books novels Enterprise: The First Adventure (Vonda N. McIntyre, 1986), Final Frontier (Diane Carey, 1988), Vulcan's Glory (D. C. Fontana, 1989), The Rift (Peter David, 1991), Burning Dreams (Margaret Wander Bonanno, 2006), and Child of Two Worlds (Greg Cox, 2015).
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A mirror-universe version of Pike (established in "Mirror, Mirror", as having been assassinated by the mirror James T. Kirk.) He also appears in the novel Dark Victory (William Shatner, 1999), and the short story "The Greater Good" (Margaret Wander Bonanno) in the anthology Star Trek: Mirror Universe: Shards and Shadows (2009). Dave Stern's 2010 original series novel The Children of Kings was set aboard Pike's Enterprise. Captain Pike has his own novel in "Captain's Table" series, Where Sea Meets Sky, written by Jerry Oltion and published in October 1998. Captain Pike and the Enterprise appear in the first Star Trek: Discovery novel Desperate Hours (David Mack, 2017) and feature prominently in the fifth novel The Enterprise War (John Jackson Miller, 2019), which chronicles the Enterprise'''s activities concurrent with the first season of that series.
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Comics Star Trek: Early Voyages In the Paramount-licensed Star Trek comic book series published by Marvel Comics, Star Trek: Early Voyages chronicled the adventures of the Enterprise under the command of Pike. The earliest issues lead up to the events seen in "The Cage", which was retold from Yeoman Colt's point of view. Although extremely popular, the comic series ended on a cliffhanger when Marvel lost the Star Trek license rights.
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Star Trek Annual #2 – "The Final Voyage" (DC comics, 1986)
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In this issue, the Enterprise tries to return home to Earth only to find itself around Talos IV. They discover that the Klingons have gone to the planet reasoning anything that scared the Federation enough to maintain the death penalty could be used as a weapon. While on the surface they also discover two Klingons torturing Pike, who is back in his chair due to the Klingons having partially mastered the Talosian's mind powers. One of the Klingons then tortures the crew of the Enterprise by making them live their worst fears. Kirk, forced to relive the death of Edith Keeler, goes berserk with rage and breaks the illusion. Kirk then beats the Klingon tormenting them to death with his bare hands. The crew quickly free the Talosians, who mentally imprison the Klingons in illusions of peaceful, tranquil settings as they purge their memories of Talos IV. The crew returns home with Pike remaining on Talos IV to continue his illusionary life.
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Starfleet Academy comic series In the Paramount-licensed Star Trek comic book series published by Marvel Comics, Starfleet Academy, Nog and some fellow cadets encounter a solid image of Pike on Talos IV. Star Trek Captain's Log: Pike (IDW Publishing, 2010)Captain's Log: Pike published by IDW details the events leading up to and including Pike becoming disabled from the baffle plate rupture aboard the USS Exeter (NCC-1788) under the watch of Captain Colt, Pike's former yeoman on the Enterprise. The story also reveals Colt's unrequited love for her former Captain. Star Trek: The New Voyages In an episode of the non-canon fan film series Star Trek: New Voyages, a time-traveling Kirk and Spock attempt to warn Pike not to attempt to rescue the trapped cadets. Pike attempts it, in spite of what future-Kirk and future-Spock say, causing him to be injured by the delta rays and subsequently transition to a life in the wheelchair and its light communication device.
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Reception In 2012, IGN ranked the character Christoper Pike, as depicted in the original series and the 2009 film Star Trek, as the 23rd top character of the Star Trek universe. In 2017, The Washington Post ranked Pike as the sixth best Captain of Star Trek, including the character's presentations in the Kelvin films (Bruce Greenwood) and the Star Trek pilot and original series (Jeffrey Hunter and Sean Kenney).Ahrens, Frank (2017-09-22). The ultimate ranking of the best ‘Star Trek’ captains. The Washington Post, 22 September 2017. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/comic-riffs/wp/2017/09/22/the-ultimate-ranking-of-the-best-star-trek-captains/?noredirect=on. In 2019, TV Guide called the Captain Pike (played by Anson Mount) featured in Star Trek: Discovery a "fan favorite", also noting Pike's Number One (played by Rebecca Romijn).
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In 2019, due to his inclusion in Star Trek: Discovery's second season, Screen Rant ranked Anson Mount's Pike as the second best Captain in Star Trek: "This guy saw his future as a disfigured hunk of meat on a wheelchair, and yet he still pressed on. That's what we call bravery." Due to the popularity of Anson Mount and Ethan Peck's portrayals in Star Trek: Discovery of Pike and Spock, respectively, fans started a Change.org petition for CBS to commission a Pike spin-off, focusing on Pike and Spock's adventures aboard the Enterprise''. As of November 2019, the petition had reached over 29,000 signatures. References External links Christopher Pike at Memory Beta, for the character in Star Trek novels and comics. Fictional characters from California Television characters introduced in 1966 Star Trek: Discovery characters Star Trek: The Original Series characters Star Trek (film franchise) characters Starfleet captains Starfleet admirals Fictional characters with disfigurements
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Multistable auditory perception is a cognitive phenomenon in which certain auditory stimuli can be perceived in multiple ways. While multistable perception has been most commonly studied in the visual domain, it also has been observed in the auditory and olfactory modalities. In the olfactory domain, different scents are piped to the two nostrils, while in the auditory domain, researchers often examine the effects of binaural sequences of pure tones. Generally speaking, multistable perception has three main characteristics: exclusivity, implying that the multiple perceptions cannot simultaneously occur; randomness, indicating that the duration of perceptual phases follows a random law, and inevitability, meaning that subjects are unable to completely block out one percept indefinitely. History
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While binocular rivalry has been studied since the 16th century, the study of multistable auditory perception is relatively new. Diana Deutsch was the first to discover multistability in human auditory perception, in the form of auditory illusions involving periodically oscillating tones. Experimental Findings Different experimental paradigms have since been used to study multistable perception in the auditory modality. One is auditory stream segregation, in which two different frequencies are presented in a temporal pattern. Listeners experience alternating percepts: one percept is of a single stream fluctuating between frequencies, and the alternative percept is of two separate streams repeating single frequencies each.
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Other experimental findings demonstrate the verbal transformation effect. In this paradigm, the input is a speech form repeated rapidly and continuously. The alternating percepts here are words—for example, continuous repetition of the word “life” results in the bistability of “life” and “fly.” Prefrontal activation is implicated with such fluctuations in percept, and not with changes in the physical stimulus, and there is also a possible inverse relationship between left inferior frontal and cingulate activation involved in this percept alternation. Principles of Perceptual Bistability
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The temporal dynamics observed in auditory stream segregation are similar to those of bistable visual perception, suggesting that the mechanisms mediating multistable perception, the alternating dominance and suppression of multiple competing interpretations of ambiguous sensory input, might be shared across modalities. Pressnitzer and Hupe analyzed results of an auditory streaming experiment and demonstrated that the perceptual experience that occurred exhibited all three properties of multistable perception found in the visual modality—exclusivity, randomness, and inevitability.
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Exclusivity was satisfied, as there was “spontaneous alternation between mutually exclusive percepts,” and very little time was spent in an “indeterminate” experience. Randomness also characterized the phenomenon, as the first phase of perception is longer in duration than subsequent phases, and then the “steady-state of the temporal dynamics of auditory streaming is purely stochastic with no long-term trend.” Lastly, the percept alternation was inevitable; even though volitional control did reduce suppression of the specified percept, it did not exclude perception of the alternative percept altogether.
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These similarities between perceptual bistability in the visual and auditory modalities raise the possibility of a common mechanism governing the phenomenon. In Pressnitzer and Hupe's subjects, the distributions of phase durations in the two modalities were not significantly different, and it has been speculated that the intraparietal sulcus, likely involved in crossmodal integration, could be responsible for bistability in both domains. However, the absence of subject-specific biases across the modalities contradicts the notion that a “single top-down selection mechanism were the sole determinant of the auditory and visual bistability.” This observation, along with evidence of neural correlates at different stages of processing, instead suggests that competition is distributed and “based on adaptation and mutual inhibition, at multiple neural processing stages.”
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Neural Correlates Place model When using a two stream tone test, specific populations of neurons activate, known as the place model. Event related potential (ERP) amplitude increases when the difference of the frequency of the two tones increase. This model hypothesizes that when this is happening, the distance between the two populations of neurons increase, so that the two populations will interact less with each other, allowing for easier tone segregation. fMRI results FMRI has been used to measure the correlation between listening to alternating tones compared to single stream of tones. The posterior regions of the left auditory cortex were modulated by the alternating tones, indicating that there may be areas of the brains responsible for stream segregation. Theoretical View Sequential grouping
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A problem of large behavioral importance is the question of how to group auditory stimuli. When a continuous stream of auditory information is received, numerous alternative interpretations are possible, but individuals are only consciously aware of one percept at a time. For this to occur, the auditory system must segregate and group incoming sounds, the goal being to “construct, modify, and maintain dynamic representations of putative objects within its environment”. It has been suggested that this process of binding sound events into groups is driven by different levels of similarities.
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One principle for binding is based on the perceptual similarity between individual events. Sounds that share many or all of their acoustic features are more likely to have been emitted by the same source, and thus are more likely to be linked to form a “proto-object”. The other principle for binding is based on the sequential predictability of sound events. If events reliably follow each other, it is also more likely that they have a common underlying cause.
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Competition
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A theory explaining the alternation of auditory percepts is that different interpretations are neurally represented simultaneously, but all but the dominant one at the time are suppressed. This idea of competition among parallel hypotheses might provide an explanation for the temporal dynamics observed in auditory stream segregation. The initial perceptual phase is held longer than the subsequent ones, “with the duration of the first phase being stimulus-parameter dependent and an order of magnitude longer in duration than parameter-independent subsequent phases”. At stimulus onset, the first percept might be that which is easiest to discover, based on featural proximity (and thus stimulus-parameter dependent), and it is held for relatively longer because time is required for other hypotheses to form. As more sensory information is received and processed, the “neural associations underlying the alternative sound organizations become strong and start to vie for dominance” and “the
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probabilities of perceiving different organizations tend to become more balanced with time”.
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References Auditory perception
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Ben Daniels (born 10 June 1964) is an English actor. Initially a stage actor, Daniels was nominated for an Olivier Award for Best Supporting Actor for Never the Sinner (1991), the Evening Standard Award for Best Actor for 900 Oneonta (1994), Best Actor in the M.E.N. Theatre Awards for Martin Yesterday (1998), and won the 2001 Olivier Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in the Arthur Miller play All My Sons. In 2008, Daniels made his Broadway début in a revival of Les Liaisons Dangereuses, for which he was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play. Daniels has also appeared on popular television series including Cutting It (2002–04), The Virgin Queen (2005), Law & Order: UK (2009–11), The Paradise (2013), House of Cards (2013–14), and The Exorcist (2016–17).
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On 1 April 2018 he appeared in the NBC live televised concert rendition of Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice's rock opera Jesus Christ Superstar as Pontius Pilate. Daniels played Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon in the third season of Netflix series The Crown. Currently, Daniels stars in the role of Walter Sampson in the Netflix superhero series, Jupiter's Legacy. Early life Daniels was born on 10 June 1964 in Nuneaton, Warwickshire. His father was an engineer at Rolls-Royce and later a grocer, while his mother owned a children's clothes shop. He has recalled: "I was quite a shy child, but quite disruptive as well. I was very sneaky and underhanded."
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Daniels was educated at Manor Park School, a state comprehensive school in Nuneaton, near Coventry, in Warwickshire (since closed). According to Daniels, drama lessons at O-levels gave him a voice, and when he attended sixth form studies at Stratford College between 1980 and 1982, doing A-levels in theatre studies and English literature, he attended Royal Shakespeare Company performances. A fellow student recalled that Daniels, whom he knew as Dave, "was very serious about his work, and struck me as incredibly intelligent... you got the sense his mind was working; the cogs were ticking over". Daniels subsequently trained at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (LAMDA) for three years.
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Career One of Daniels' earliest roles was as Justin Hayward, the lead singer of the Moody Blues, as a teenager in two of the band's music videos, "Your Wildest Dreams" (1986) and "I Know You're Out There Somewhere" (1988). In 1992, he made an appearance in the infamous plane crash episode "Cascade" of the television show Casualty, playing the co-pilot of the doomed plane. He has taken on parts in many British television dramas, such as Robin in The Lost Language of Cranes (1991), the Biblical character Jonathan in the 1997 Emmy-nominated TV film David, the philandering Finn Bevan in Cutting It (2002–2005), and Nicholas Brocklehurst in the BBC television miniseries The State Within (2006). The latter role was notable for an unexpected same-sex kiss between Daniels' character and another person. In 2008 he appeared in Lark Rise to Candleford, a BBC production based on three semi-autobiographical novels about the English countryside written by Flora Thompson.
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Daniels has also played a number of real-life characters, such as German State Secretary Dr. Josef Bühler in Conspiracy, a 2001 dramatisation of the Wannsee Conference at which the Final Solution was endorsed. He also played the author and journalist Ian Fleming, creator of James Bond, in Ian Fleming: Bondmaker (2005), as well as Sir Francis Walsingham in The Virgin Queen (2005) and English writer Saki in Who Killed Mrs De Ropp? (2007). In addition, he has made guest appearances in a number of British TV drama series, including Soldier Soldier (1992), A Touch of Frost (1992), Outside Edge (1994), Spooks (2005), and Merlin (2011). In 2017, Daniels made a guest appearance in a Treehouse of Horror episode of The Simpsons as a priest.
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Daniels may be most recognisable to American audiences for appearing in the 1996 gay film Beautiful Thing. Daniels portrayed Tony, boyfriend of Sandra, the protagonist Jamie's mother. In an independent film directed by Lavinia Currier titled Passion in the Desert (1997), Daniels played a French soldier named Augustin Robert. The film was nominated for a Golden Seashell award. Other feature films that Daniels has starred in are The Bridge (1992), I Want You (1998), Madeline (1998), and Doom (2005). He was offered roles in the 2000 releases The Patriot and Vertical Limit, but turned them down and stated that "the money was good, but it wasn't for me". Daniels had a brief appearance as General Antoc Merrick in the Star Wars film Rogue One: A Star Wars Story.
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Daniels has said that he loves acting on stage because "it's tough and keeps you on your toes as an actor". He appeared in All's Well That Ends Well and As You Like It (1999–2000), and played Mercutio in a 1994 TV adaptation of Romeo and Juliet. Other theatre credits include Waiting for Godot (1994) and 900 Oneonta (1994), which earned him a nomination for Best Actor at the Evening Standard Awards. He also acted in Martin Yesterday (1998), for which he was nominated as Best Actor in the Manchester Evening News Theatre Awards, Naked (1998), Tales From Hollywood (2001), Three Sisters (2003), Iphigenia at Aulis (2004), The God of Hell (2005), and The Wild Duck (2005–2006). In 2006, Daniels appeared in Thérèse Raquin as Laurent, for which a reviewer labelled his performance "riveting". On 1 April 2018, Daniels appeared as Pontius Pilate in the NBC live musical, Jesus Christ Superstar Live in Concert!.
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Daniels won the Best Supporting Actor award at the Whatsonstage.com Theatregoers' Choice Theatre Awards and the 25th Laurence Olivier Awards in 2001 for his performance in the Arthur Miller play All My Sons. He was first nominated for the latter award earlier in his career, in 1991, for his performance as murderer Richard Loeb in the play Never the Sinner at the Playhouse Theatre. In 2008, Daniels fulfilled a lifetime ambition when he made his Broadway début, headlining as the Vicomte de Valmont in a revival of Les Liaisons Dangereuses. The show opened on 1 May 2008. Daniels was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play for his role.
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Daniels played a reoccurring role in the Netflix series House of Cards (2013-2014) as prominent photographer Adam Galloway. He also played the role of lawyer Rory Murray in the second season of "Passenger List", a fictional podcast produced by Radiotopia Personal life Daniels has been in a relationship with actor Ian Gelder since 1993. They met during the production of Joe Orton's Entertaining Mr Sloane. The couple resides in South London Daniels was already sure of his orientation in his teens (He once remarked: "Out? I've never been in.") although he did not discuss the matter with his parents because they did not have a very close emotional relationship. He was "cautious about mentioning it when I left drama school, because AIDS was terrifying everyone and there was a huge homophobic backlash". He decided to reveal his homosexuality at the age of 24, while appearing in an all-star benefit performance of Martin Sherman's Bent.
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Daniels said in an interview in 2001: "Homophobia is still shockingly prevalent in film and TV. I know I've lost work because of being gay, and it is always an issue. Even on a serious BBC Two drama, there will be some suit in some office going, "Hmmm, isn't he a poof?" I don't consider myself politically gay, but whenever I catch a whiff of that now, I'm on it like a ton of bricks." In 2007, Daniels was ranked number 79 in the annual Pink List of 100 influential gay and lesbian people in Britain published by The Independent on Sunday, down from number 47 in 2006. In his spare time, he is an amateur painter and a practitioner of Ashtanga yoga. From a young age to his early forties, Daniels suffered from sleep paralysis. Filmography Film Television Theatre Awards and nominations Notes External links
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Ben Daniels at bbc.co.uk Drama Ben Daniels at the Royal National Theatre "Ben Daniels on IRC, the logfile..." – transcript of an online chat with Ben Daniels from the Official Dutch Beautiful Thing Fanclub 1964 births Living people 20th-century English male actors 21st-century English male actors Actors from Warwickshire Alumni of the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art English gay actors English male film actors English male stage actors English male television actors Laurence Olivier Award winners People from Nuneaton Theatre World Award winners
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Pre-test probability and post-test probability (alternatively spelled pretest and posttest probability) are the probabilities of the presence of a condition (such as a disease) before and after a diagnostic test, respectively. Post-test probability, in turn, can be positive or negative, depending on whether the test falls out as a positive test or a negative test, respectively. In some cases, it is used for the probability of developing the condition of interest in the future. Test, in this sense, can refer to any medical test (but usually in the sense of diagnostic tests), and in a broad sense also including questions and even assumptions (such as assuming that the target individual is a female or male). The ability to make a difference between pre- and post-test probabilities of various conditions is a major factor in the indication of medical tests.
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Pre-test probability The pre-test probability of an individual can be chosen as one of the following: The prevalence of the disease, which may have to be chosen if no other characteristic is known for the individual, or it can be chosen for ease of calculation even if other characteristics are known although such omission may cause inaccurate results The post-test probability of the condition resulting from one or more preceding tests A rough estimation, which may have to be chosen if more systematic approaches are not possible or efficient Estimation of post-test probability In clinical practice, post-test probabilities are often just roughly estimated or even guessed. This is usually acceptable in the finding of a pathognomonic sign or symptom, in which case it is almost certain that the target condition is present; or in the absence of finding a sine qua non sign or symptom, in which case it is almost certain that the target condition is absent.
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In reality, however, the subjective probability of the presence of a condition is never exactly 0 or 100%. Yet, there are several systematic methods to estimate that probability. Such methods are usually based on previously having performed the test on a reference group in which the presence or absence on the condition is known (or at least estimated by another test that is considered highly accurate, such as by "Gold standard"), in order to establish data of test performance. These data are subsequently used to interpret the test result of any individual tested by the method. An alternative or complement to reference group-based methods is comparing a test result to a previous test on the same individual, which is more common in tests for monitoring. The most important systematic reference group-based methods to estimate post-test probability includes the ones summarized and compared in the following table, and further described in individual sections below.
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By predictive values Predictive values can be used to estimate the post-test probability of an individual if the pre-test probability of the individual can be assumed roughly equal to the prevalence in a reference group on which both test results and knowledge on the presence or absence of the condition (for example a disease, such as may determined by "Gold standard") are available. If the test result is of a binary classification into either positive or negative tests, then the following table can be made: Pre-test probability can be calculated from the diagram as follows: Pretest probability = (True positive + False negative) / Total sample
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Also, in this case, the positive post-test probability (the probability of having the target condition if the test falls out positive), is numerically equal to the positive predictive value, and the negative post-test probability (the probability of having the target condition if the test falls out negative) is numerically complementary to the negative predictive value ([negative post-test probability] = 1 - [negative predictive value]), again assuming that the individual being tested does not have any other risk factors that result in that individual having a different pre-test probability than the reference group used to establish the positive and negative predictive values of the test. In the diagram above, this positive post-test probability, that is, the posttest probability of a target condition given a positive test result, is calculated as: Positive posttest probability = True positives / (True positives + False positives) Similarly:
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The post-test probability of disease given a negative result is calculated as: Negative posttest probability = False negatives / (False negatives + True negatives) The validity of the equations above also depend on that the sample from the population does not have substantial sampling bias that make the groups of those who have the condition and those who do not substantially disproportionate from corresponding prevalence and "non-prevalence" in the population. In effect, the equations above are not valid with merely a case-control study that separately collects one group with the condition and one group without it. By likelihood ratio
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The above methods are inappropriate to use if the pretest probability differs from the prevalence in the reference group used to establish, among others, the positive predictive value of the test. Such difference can occur if another test preceded, or the person involved in the diagnostics considers that another pretest probability must be used because of knowledge of, for example, specific complaints, other elements of a medical history, signs in a physical examination, either by calculating on each finding as a test in itself with its own sensitivity and specificity, or at least making a rough estimation of the individual pre-test probability. In these cases, the prevalence in the reference group is not completely accurate in representing the pre-test probability of the individual, and, consequently, the predictive value (whether positive or negative) is not completely accurate in representing the post-test probability of the individual of having the target condition.
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In these cases, a posttest probability can be estimated more accurately by using a likelihood ratio for the test. Likelihood ratio is calculated from sensitivity and specificity of the test, and thereby it does not depend on prevalence in the reference group, and, likewise, it does not change with changed pre-test probability, in contrast to positive or negative predictive values (which would change). Also, in effect, the validity of post-test probability determined from likelihood ratio is not vulnerable to sampling bias in regard to those with and without the condition in the population sample, and can be done as a case-control study that separately gathers those with and without the condition. Estimation of post-test probability from pre-test probability and likelihood ratio goes as follows:
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Pretest odds = (Pretest probability / (1 - Pretest probability) Posttest odds = Pretest odds * Likelihood ratio In equation above, positive post-test probability is calculated using the likelihood ratio positive, and the negative post-test probability is calculated using the likelihood ratio negative. Posttest probability = Posttest odds / (Posttest odds + 1) The relation can also be estimated by a so-called Fagan nomogram (shown at right) by making a straight line from the point of the given pre-test probability to the given likelihood ratio in their scales, which, in turn, estimates the post-test probability at the point where that straight line crosses its scale. The post-test probability can, in turn, be used as pre-test probability for additional tests if it continues to be calculated in the same manner.
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It is possible to do a calculation of likelihood ratios for tests with continuous values or more than two outcomes which is similar to the calculation for dichotomous outcomes. For this purpose, a separate likelihood ratio is calculated for every level of test result and is called interval or stratum specific likelihood ratios. Example An individual was screened with the test of fecal occult blood (FOB) to estimate the probability for that person having the target condition of bowel cancer, and it fell out positive (blood were detected in stool). Before the test, that individual had a pre-test probability of having bowel cancer of, for example, 3% (0.03), as could have been estimated by evaluation of, for example, the medical history, examination and previous tests of that individual. The sensitivity, specificity etc. of the FOB test were established with a population sample of 203 people (without such heredity), and fell out as follows:
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From this, the likelihood ratios of the test can be established: Likelihood ratio positive = sensitivity / (1 − specificity) = 66.67% / (1 − 91%) = 7.4 Likelihood ratio negative = (1 − sensitivity) / specificity = (1 − 66.67%) / 91% = 0.37 Pretest probability (in this example) = 0.03 Pretest odds = 0.03 / (1 - 0.03) = 0.0309 Positive posttest odds = 0.0309 * 7.4 = 0.229 Positive posttest probability = 0.229 / (0.229 + 1) = 0.186 or 18.6% Thus, that individual has a post-test probability (or "post-test risk") of 18.6% of having bowel cancer.
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The prevalence in the population sample is calculated to be: Prevalence = (2 + 1) / 203 = 0.0148 or 1.48% The individual's pre-test probability was more than twice the one of the population sample, although the individual's post-test probability was less than twice the one of the population sample (which is estimated by the positive predictive value of the test of 10%), opposite to what would result by a less accurate method of simply multiplying relative risks. Specific sources of inaccuracy Specific sources of inaccuracy when using likelihood ratio to determine a post-test probability include interference with determinants or previous tests or overlap of test targets, as explained below:
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Interference with test
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Post-test probability, as estimated from the pre-test probability with likelihood ratio, should be handled with caution in individuals with other determinants (such as risk factors) than the general population, as well as in individuals that have undergone previous tests, because such determinants or tests may also influence the test itself in unpredictive ways, still causing inaccurate results. An example with the risk factor of obesity is that additional abdominal fat can make it difficult to palpate abdominal organs and decrease the resolution of abdominal ultrasonography, and similarly, remnant barium contrast from a previous radiography can interfere with subsequent abdominal examinations, in effect decreasing the sensitivities and specificities of such subsequent tests. On the other hand, the effect of interference can potentially improve the efficacy of subsequent tests as compared to usage in the reference group, such as some abdominal examinations being easier when performed
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on underweight people.
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Overlap of tests
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Furthermore, the validity of calculations upon any pre-test probability that itself is derived from a previous test depend on that the two tests do not significantly overlap in regard to the target parameter being tested, such as blood tests of substances belonging to one and the same deranged metabolic pathway. An example of the extreme of such an overlap is where the sensitivity and specificity has been established for a blood test detecting "substance X", and likewise for one detecting "substance Y". If, in fact, "substance X" and "substance Y" are one and the same substance, then, making a two consecutive tests of one and the same substance may not have any diagnostic value at all, although the calculation appears to show a difference. In contrast to interference as described above, increasing overlap of tests only decreases their efficacy. In the medical setting, diagnostic validity is increased by combining tests of different modalities to avoid substantial overlap, for example
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in making a combination of a blood test, a biopsy and radiograph.
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Methods to overcome inaccuracy To avoid such sources of inaccuracy by using likelihood ratios, the optimal method would be to gather a large reference group of equivalent individuals, in order to establish separate predictive values for use of the test in such individuals. However, with more knowledge of an individual's medical history, physical examination and previous test etc. that individual becomes more differentiated, with increasing difficulty to find a reference group to establish tailored predictive values, making an estimation of post-test probability by predictive values invalid. Another method to overcome such inaccuracies is by evaluating the test result in the context of diagnostic criteria, as described in the next section.
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By relative risk Post-test probability can sometimes be estimated by multiplying the pre-test probability with a relative risk given by the test. In clinical practice, this is usually applied in evaluation of a medical history of an individual, where the "test" usually is a question (or even assumption) regarding various risk factors, for example, sex, tobacco smoking or weight, but it can potentially be a substantial test such as putting the individual on a weighing scale. When using relative risks, the resultant probability is usually rather related to the individual developing the condition over a period of time (similarly to the incidence in a population), instead of being the probability of an individual of having the condition in the present, but can indirectly be an estimation of the latter. Usage of hazard ratio can be used somewhat similarly to relative risk.
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One risk factor To establish a relative risk, the risk in an exposed group is divided by the risk in an unexposed group. If only one risk factor of an individual is taken into account, the post-test probability can be estimated by multiplying the relative risk with the risk in the control group. The control group usually represents the unexposed population, but if a very low fraction of the population is exposed, then the prevalence in the general population can often be assumed equal to the prevalence in the control group. In such cases, the post-test probability can be estimated by multiplying the relative risk with the risk in the general population.
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For example, the incidence of breast cancer in a woman in the United Kingdom at age 55 to 59 is estimated at approximately 280 cases per 100.000 per year, and the risk factor of having been exposed to high-dose ionizing radiation to the chest (for example, as treatments for other cancers) confers a relative risk of breast cancer between 2.1 and 4.0, compared to unexposed. Because a low fraction of the population is exposed, the prevalence in the unexposed population can be assumed equal to the prevalence in the general population. Subsequently, it can be estimated that a woman in the United Kingdom that is aged between 55 and 59 and that has been exposed to high-dose ionizing radiation should have a risk of developing breast cancer over a period of one year of between 588 and 1.120 in 100.000 (that is, between 0,6% and 1.1%).
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Multiple risk factors Theoretically, the total risk in the presence of multiple risk factors can be roughly estimated by multiplying with each relative risk, but is generally much less accurate than using likelihood ratios, and is usually done only because it is much easier to perform when only relative risks are given, compared to, for example, converting the source data to sensitivities and specificities and calculate by likelihood ratios. Likewise, relative risks are often given instead of likelihood ratios in the literature because the former is more intuitive. Sources of inaccuracy of multiplying relative risks include:
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Relative risks are affected by the prevalence of the condition in the reference group (in contrast to likelihood ratios, which are not), and this issue results in that the validity of post-test probabilities become less valid with increasing difference between the prevalence in the reference group and the pre-test probability for any individual. Any known risk factor or previous test of an individual almost always confers such a difference, decreasing the validity of using relative risks in estimating the total effect of multiple risk factors or tests. Most physicians do not appropriately take such differences in prevalence into account when interpreting test results, which may cause unnecessary testing and diagnostic errors.
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A separate source of inaccuracy of multiplying several relative risks, considering only positive tests, is that it tends to overestimate the total risk as compared to using likelihood ratios. This overestimation can be explained by the inability of the method to compensate for the fact that the total risk cannot be more than 100%. This overestimation is rather small for small risks, but becomes higher for higher values. For example, the risk of developing breast cancer at an age younger than 40 years in women in the United Kingdom can be estimated at approximately 2%. Also, studies on Ashkenazi Jews has indicated that a mutation in BRCA1 confers a relative risk of 21.6 of developing breast cancer in women under 40 years of age, and a mutation in BRCA2 confers a relative risk of 3.3 of developing breast cancer in women under 40 years of age. From these data, it may be estimated that a woman with a BRCA1 mutation would have a risk of approximately 40% of developing breast cancer at an
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age younger than 40 years, and woman with a BRCA2 mutation would have a risk of approximately 6%. However, in the rather improbable situation of having both a BRCA1 and a BRCA2 mutation, simply multiplying with both relative risks would result in a risk of over 140% of developing breast cancer before 40 years of age, which can not possibly be accurate in reality.
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The (latter mentioned) effect of overestimation can be compensated for by converting risks to odds, and relative risks to odds ratios. However, this does not compensate for (former mentioned) effect of any difference between pre-test probability of an individual and the prevalence in the reference group. A method to compensate for both sources of inaccuracy above is to establish the relative risks by multivariate regression analysis. However, to retain its validity, relative risks established as such must be multiplied with all the other risk factors in the same regression analysis, and without any addition of other factors beyond the regression analysis.
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In addition, multiplying multiple relative risks has the same risk of missing important overlaps of the included risk factors, similarly to when using likelihood ratios. Also, different risk factors can act in synergy, with the result that, for example, two factors that both individually have a relative risk of 2 have a total relative risk of 6 when both are present, or can inhibit each other, somewhat similarly to the interference described for using likelihood ratios.
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By diagnostic criteria and clinical prediction rules Most major diseases have established diagnostic criteria and/or clinical prediction rules. The establishment of diagnostic criteria or clinical prediction rules consists of a comprehensive evaluation of many tests that are considered important in estimating the probability of a condition of interest, sometimes also including how to divide it into subgroups, and when and how to treat the condition. Such establishment can include usage of predictive values, likelihood ratios as well as relative risks.
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For example, the ACR criteria for systemic lupus erythematosus defines the diagnosis as presence of at least 4 out of 11 findings, each of which can be regarded as a target value of a test with its own sensitivity and specificity. In this case, there has been evaluation of the tests for these target parameters when used in combination in regard to, for example, interference between them and overlap of target parameters, thereby striving to avoid inaccuracies that could otherwise arise if attempting to calculate the probability of the disease using likelihood ratios of the individual tests. Therefore, if diagnostic criteria have been established for a condition, it is generally most appropriate to interpret any post-test probability for that condition in the context of these criteria.
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Also, there are risk assessment tools for estimating the combined risk of several risk factors, such as the online tool from the Framingham Heart Study for estimating the risk for coronary heart disease outcomes using multiple risk factors, including age, gender, blood lipids, blood pressure and smoking, being much more accurate than multiplying the individual relative risks of each risk factor. Still, an experienced physician may estimate the post-test probability (and the actions it motivates) by a broad consideration including criteria and rules in addition to other methods described previously, including both individual risk factors and the performances of tests that have been carried out. Clinical use of pre- and post-test probabilities A clinically useful parameter is the absolute (rather than relative, and not negative) difference between pre- and post-test probability, calculated as: Absolute difference = | (pre-test probability) - (post-test probability) |
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A major factor for such an absolute difference is the power of the test itself, such as can be described in terms of, for example, sensitivity and specificity or likelihood ratio. Another factor is the pre-test probability, with a lower pre-test probability resulting in a lower absolute difference, with the consequence that even very powerful tests achieve a low absolute difference for very unlikely conditions in an individual (such as rare diseases in the absence of any other indicating sign), but on the other hand, that even tests with low power can make a great difference for highly suspected conditions. The probabilities in this sense may also need to be considered in context of conditions that are not primary targets of the test, such as profile-relative probabilities in a differential diagnostic procedure. The absolute difference can be put in relation to the benefit for an individual that a medical test achieves, such as can roughly be estimated as:
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, where: bn is the net benefit of performing a medical test Λp is the absolute difference between pre- and posttest probability of conditions (such as diseases) that the test is expected to achieve. ri is the rate of how much probability differences are expected to result in changes in interventions (such as a change from "no treatment" to "administration of low-dose medical treatment"). bi is the benefit of changes in interventions for the individual hi is the harm of changes in interventions for the individual, such as side effects of medical treatment ht is the harm caused by the test itself
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In this formula, what constitutes benefit or harm largely varies by personal and cultural values, but general conclusions can still be drawn. For example, if the only expected effect of a medical test is to make one disease more likely than another, but the two diseases have the same treatment (or neither can be treated), then ri = 0 and the test is essentially without any benefit for the individual.
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Additional factors that influence a decision whether a medical test should be performed or not include: cost of the test, availability of additional tests, potential interference with subsequent test (such as an abdominal palpation potentially inducing intestinal activity whose sounds interfere with a subsequent abdominal auscultation), time taken for the test or other practical or administrative aspects. Also, even if not beneficial for the individual being tested, the results may be useful for the establishment of statistics in order to improve health care for other individuals. Subjectivity Pre- and post-test probabilities are subjective based on the fact that, in reality, an individual either has the condition or not (with the probability always being 100%), so pre- and post-test probabilities for individuals can rather be regarded as psychological phenomena in the minds of those involved in the diagnostics at hand.
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See also Diagnostic test interpretation, including general sources of inaccuracy and imprecision References Medical statistics Evidence-based medicine Summary statistics for contingency tables
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The Mitsubishi Delica is a range of vans and pickup trucks designed and built by the Japanese automaker Mitsubishi Motors since 1968. It was originally based on a cabover van and pickup truck introduced the previous year, also called the Delica, its name a contraction of the English language phrase Delivery car. This pickup truck, and a commercial van derived from it has received many names in export markets, being sold as the L300 (later L400) in Europe, Jamaica (discontinued after the third generation) and New Zealand, Express and Starwagon in Australia, and plain Mitsubishi Van and Wagon in the United States. The passenger car versions were known as Delica Star Wagon from 1979 until the 1994 introduction of the Delica Space Gear, which became simply Space Gear in Europe at least. The most recent version (not available as a commercial vehicle) is called the Delica D:5. With the exception of the first, versions of all generations are still being sold in various international markets.
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In Japan, the Delica Cargo nameplate was used on rebadged Mazda Bongo Brawny between 1999 and 2010. Since 2011, the Delica D:3 name has been applied to the rebadged Nissan NV200, and since 2011, the Delica D:2 name has been applied to the rebadged Suzuki Solio. First generation (1968) The production of the Delica light commercial cab-over pickup began in July 1968. It received the chassis code T100, in line with the recently (January 1968) introduced "T90" Canter. Using a KE44 1,088 cc engine producing , its maximum payload was and had a top end speed of . A year later, in line with consumer needs, a cargo van and a passenger van were added to the line-up. The passenger van, discontinued in 1976, was called the 'Delica Coach' and could seat nine people in three rows of seats. The engine was upgraded to in 1969.
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In March 1971, a slightly facelifted version, called the Delica 75, arrived. This (the T120) received a small grille rather than the naked metal front of the earliest Delicas, and a new 1.4-liter Neptune (4G41) engine rated at was added to the line-up. The smaller 1.1-liter engine may have remained available in a version of the truck but if so, it soon vanished entirely. After a fall 1974 facelift, the Delica received a new nose with much plastic cladding and double headlights, now mounted beneath the swage line. It was now known only as the "Delica 1400", as this was the only engine with which it was available (mention of a Delica 1200 is most likely apocryphal, perhaps an issue of confusion arising from the "120" chassis code). A longer wheelbase (T121) one-ton truck was added in 1976.
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In export markets, this car was usually called simply the Colt T100/T120. It became a massive success in Indonesia, where "Colt" became synonymous with minibus. Mitsubishi dominated the market and the T120 remained in production until 1982. The nametag was revived in February 1991 with a rebadged version of the Suzuki Carry Futura. Record, a Greek manufacturer of agricultural vehicles, plagiarized the Delica T120 design (even using the same windshield) for their fibreglass-bodied "GS2000" truck. Second generation (1979)
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The Delica series was replaced in June 1979 by an all new design, bringing overall width up to the maximum dictated by Japanese regulations for "compact" vehicles. Suspended at the front by an independent wishbone construction and a leaf spring at the rear, the Delica also features sliding side doors and one-piece gas strut tailgate. The line-up was expanded to include ten model variations encompassing a wide variety of passenger (eight seats in a three/two/three configuration), cargo and recreational applications. A four-wheel drive option was made available in 1982, a first in the Japanese van market. Engines were all four-cylinders well known from MMC's passenger cars and included the 1,439 cc, Saturn (4G33) and 1.6-liter Saturn (4G32) engines. A 1.8-liter Sirius (4G62) version producing appeared in May 1980, and a 2.0-liter Sirius (4G63B) petrol version became optional in 4WD versions from November 1983. A 2.3-liter Astron (4D55) diesel appeared in October 1982 and was replaced
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by the larger 2.5-liter Astron (4D56) in 1986.
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The four-wheel drive version of the Delica was first introduced to the Japanese market in October 1982. This versatile vehicle utilized a modified version of the Mitsubishi Pajero's chassis, albeit usually with smaller engines (originally only the 1.8-liter petrol). After the introduction of the third generation Delica, the truck (separate cab) version of the second generation continued to be built until 1994. Japanese consumers were liable for higher amounts of annual road tax due to the larger engines installed in higher trim level packages. Markets
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Australia
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Chrysler Australia introduced the SA series Delica to the Australian market on 14 April 1980 under the name "Chrysler L300 Express" after debuting at the Adelaide Motor Show in 12 April. After acquiring control of the Chrysler Australia operations in the same month, Mitsubishi Motors renamed the firm Mitsubishi Motors Australia in October 1980. This resulted in the rebranding of the L300 Express as a Mitsubishi. Fitted with a 1.6-liter engine and four-speed manual, both van (three-seater commercial) and wagon (eight-seater) variants were offered, with the commercial (van) version available with or without side rear windows. The utility (pickup) version was not sold in Australia, as the L200 Express covered that segment of the market. In November 1981 the SB series was introduced, now fitted with radial ply tires on larger diameter wheels, thus increasing the payload capacity from . The following month, Mitsubishi introduced the high-roofed luxury "Deluxe" trim, fitted with electric
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sunroof and cloth upholstery. The next update to the SB series arrived in October 1982, resulting in the "Deluxe" trim being renamed "Starwagon" and gaining a larger 1.8-liter engine—offered with a five-speed overdrive manual or optional three-speed automatic. The "Star Wagon" (this was written either as one or as two words) moniker was also used on examples assembled by Todd Motors in New Zealand, albeit with the 1.6-liter engine. Mitsubishi extended the availability of the 1.8-liter engine to the lower-specification variants, albeit in automatic guise only. The 1.8 was also available in the long wheelbase, high roof, panel van version.
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From May 1983, the L300 Express received rectangular headlights in chrome surrounds as part of the SC iteration. The SC also featured newly designed black resin bumpers and adjustments to the front suspension spring rate to improve ride and handling. The four-wheel drive version, badged "4WD", came in October 1983 as a 1.8-liter model with floor-mounted five-speed manual only, therefore becoming a seven-passenger model by losing the front-row center seat. After another facelift in October 1984, the car became the SD series, introducing better equipment and black headlight surrounds along with a black trim piece between the headlights on "Starwagon" and "4WD" trims. The SD revision also upgraded the "4WD" to a 2.0-liter engine, with the 1.8-liter standard issue in a new long-wheelbase commercial (van) model. A final minor update, the SE series appeared in 1986.
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Asia Philippines
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This generation has been produced in the Philippines since 1987 as the "Mitsubishi L300 Versa Van" (discontinued in April 2012) as well as the Cab/Chassis variant where local coach builders assemble rear bodies for passenger and cargo hauling purposes. Variations such as the FB (family business), PET (personal and equipment transport), WT (water tight aluminum van) and DS (drop side) have been made to cater to those needs. In 2010, an extended rear body variant for the FB variant called the Exceed was added. In 2014, local truck body manufacturer Centro Manufacturing launched a minibus version of the L300 called the XV Mikrobus. It is built on the FB Exceed platform and is meant to be used as a public utility vehicle, a school bus, or an ambulance. It is also meant to revive the Versa Van and to be an alternative to the FB variant. In 2017, Mitsubishi Motors Philippines announced that the L300's diesel engine will be updated to comply with the Euro 4 standardization project of the
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DENR and the LTFRB. In April 2019, Mitsubishi Motors Philippines announced that the L300 would be fitted with the 4N14 CRDi engine. From 1987 to 2009, the design of the front fascia haven't changed much for 22 years (although there were minor changes to the interior). The L300 received a facelift in 2010 and was sold until 2017. Mitsubishi updated the styling of the L300 for the 2019 model year, now featuring the new horizontal chrome grille similar to the "Dynamic Shield" design language found on other Mitsubishi models like the Mitsubishi Xpander, Mitsubishi Montero Sport to distinguish it from older L300s.
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In 2020, the local production of the L300 reached 200,000 units, and exports has been said under consideration. Indonesia As of November 2021, this generation is still in production in Indonesia as the Colt L300, equipped with the 2.5-liter 4D56 diesel engine. The production started in 1981, the car was equipped with a 1.4-liter 4G33 petrol engine. Minor facelift occurred in 1984, the round shape headlights were replaced with square unit. The engine was also replaced with a more powerful 1.6-liter 4G32 petrol engine and also a 2.3-liter 4G55 diesel engine option. The second facelift occurred in 1986, it received garnish grille with big "MITSUBISHI" badge. The short lived 2.3-liter diesel engine was replaced in 1988 with the bigger 2.5-liter 4D56 unit. Due to lack of demand, the petrol engine was discontinued around 1996. The third facelift occurred in 2007 with new grille model and power steering.
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Since 2010, Isuzu Indonesia have sold this second generation Delica as the Isuzu Bison—available in pickup and minibus versions with an Isuzu Panther-sourced 4JA1L 2.5-litre diesel engine with . The Bison costs a bit more than a corresponding L300. The production of the L300 was moved from the former PT Krama Yudha Ratu Motor (KRM) plant in Pulo Gadung, East Jakarta to the new Mitsubishi Motors Cikarang plant in Bekasi, West Java beginning in April 2018. In April 2018, the Isuzu Bison was discontinued due to lack of demand and later replaced by Isuzu's fully developed Traga. On 20 November 2021, Mitsubishi Motors Krama Yudha Indonesia announced that they will stop production of the Colt L300 in 2022 and instead import the future Colt L300 cars from the Philippines as the Euro 4 emission standards in Indonesia will be fully in effect by April 2022 and the Philippine model had met the Euro 4 emission standards due to the newer 4N14 engine.
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South Korea In South Korea, Hyundai built the second generation Delica as the "Hyundai Porter", replacing an earlier model with the same name. South Korean production of this Porter continued alongside the third generation Delica, which was marketed by Hyundai as the "Grace". This Porter was replaced by an indigenously developed third generation Porter in March 1996. India From 1997 to 2000, the car was sold by Mahindra & Mahindra in India as the "Mahindra Voyager", but priced too high it was taken out of production after only a little over two years. The Voyager did meet with some success as an ambulance and as a cargo van, but this association only further prevented prospective private purchasers. Unique to the Mahindra Voyager is the fitment of PSA's 2.5-liter XD3P diesel engine, producing DIN at 4000 rpm. Third generation (1986)
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In June 1986, the Delica underwent its third full model change. More aerodynamic than previous versions, its monocoque body and extensive safety features proved very popular in Japan's fast-growing recreational vehicle market segment. The more rounded design was referred to as "soft cube" styling by Mitsubishi. Passenger versions continued to be sold as Delica Star Wagon, which became just plain "Starwagon" in Australia. The commercial version is called the "Express" in Australia. Two wheelbases have been offered. In 1990, the Australian market received the naturally aspirated diesel engine as an option; this was the first Delica so equipped in that market.
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Although the subsequent L400 Delica and Delica Space Gear were introduced in 1994, production of the Delica Starwagon continued for the Japanese market until 1998. The L300/Delica van versions also remained in production for export markets. These export markets received a facelift in 1999, released in September of that year in Australia. In Japan the commercial Delica range was replaced by a badge-engineered Mazda Bongo under an OEM deal which began in November 1999. In May 2013, Mitsubishi discontinued the commercial version of the third generation Delica in Australia—badged as the Mitsubishi Express—due to its inferior safety. The Express was the last new car to be sold in Australia with a one-star ANCAP rating. The Express had changed little since it received a minor model change in 2003.
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A large range of engines were available, from a 1.4-liter up to a 2.4-liter petrol, and also a 2.5-liter diesel and turbodiesel, plus a 2.6-liter naturally aspirated diesel. Rear- or four-wheel drive, several bodystyles and two different wheelbases made for a particularly extensive line-up. The four-wheel drive chassis was based on that of the contemporary Mitsubishi Pajero, although parts are seldom interchangeable. Late general export market versions received a carburetted 16-valve version of the 2.0-liter 4G63 four-cylinder, with at 6,000 rpm. Markets
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Asia
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Cargo versions are built by the China Motor Corporation in Taiwan. This generation Delica was also built under license by Hyundai of South Korea, where it was called the "Hyundai Grace" or "Hyundai H-100" in some Eurasian markets. Launched in December 1986, this version originally received the twin headlights as used in the US market versions, but after a front-end facelift the new more aerodynamic version received thinner and more rounded headlights. This version was called the "New Grace". Both the 2.4-liter petrol and 2.5-liter turbodiesel inline-four engines were available, both Mitsubishi designs. Hyundai terminology resulted in the 4D56 diesel engine being renamed D4BX / D4BA. It takes two more minor changes at each 1996 and 2002, production ended in end of 2003. In 1996, the Delica was also rebadged under the Soueast brand, which occurred through 2013. In the Philippines, this generation of the Delica was called the "L300 Exceed" to differentiate itself to the ageing second
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generation L300 Versa Van which was still being sold there at that time, and was introduced starting from 1997. Although prior to that, Hyundai has already been selling it's pre-facelift rebadged sibling, the Hyundai Grace since the start of the 1990s.
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North America From 1987 until 1990, Mitsubishi sold this model in small numbers in the United States as the "Wagon" for passenger versions and "Van" for windowless cargo versions. The US versions all received a version of the 2.4-liter 4G64 engine. For model years 1990 and 1991 an LS version of the Wagon was added. Taiwanese-produced CMC Delica vans are sold in Mexico as the Dodge 1000 as of July 2007. The Mitsubishi Expo LRV replaced the Van/Wagon in 1992. Once the fifteen-year minimum age threshold was reached, enthusiasts began importing Japanese domestic market Delicas to Canada. The 4WD turbo diesel van is also a common choice for Canadian postal workers who require a right-hand drive vehicle. The United States has a 25-year threshold for importing cars, and recently Japanese domestic market Delicas have begun to gain a following there as well. Since 2007, the Cargo versions built by the China Motor Corporation in Taiwan are being exported to Mexico wearing Dodge badges.
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The Maine Bureau of Motor Vehicles (BMV) is actively de-registering Delicas imported into the United States that were previously registered in Maine under the 25-year federal import rule. Europe Introduced for 1987, the British market received the L300 with either the 1.6- petrol or 2.5-liter diesel engine. Both wheelbases were available. In continental Europe the car was also sold as the L300, with engine options depending on local taxation and market conditions. Fourth generation (1994) 1994–1996 Released on 12 May 1994, the newest Delica received considerably more aerodynamic bodywork. No truck model was available of this generation, and passenger models were now called Delica Space Gear in the domestic Japanese market. Body specifications of the Space Gear in Japan ranged from XR, XG, Exceed, Super Exceed and Royal Exceed, and both long and short-wheelbase versions were available.
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The fourth generation Delica shares its engine and transmission with the Mitsubishi Pajero, but unlike the Pajero of its time it is of monocoque construction and lacks a separate chassis. The Delica 4WD still offers ample off-road capabilities, with four-wheel drive, high and low ratio gears and differential locking. It has engine variations from 2.5 liters through to a 2.8-liter intercooled turbodiesel. 2.4-liter and 3.0-liter V6 petrol engines with 12 or 24 valves are also offered. Apart from the 2.8-liter diesel model all are available as two- or four-wheel drive version. In many export markets, the cargo versions of the fourth generation were called the Mitsubishi L400 while the passenger versions were called Mitsubishi Space Gear – without using the Delica nameplate at all. In South Korea, Hyundai used the Mitsubishi Delica as the base vehicle for the Hyundai Starex (A1) manufactured between 1997 and 2007.
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In Australia, this generation, known as the WA series was available in both cargo (Mitsubishi Express) and passenger (Mitsubishi Starwagon) versions. The Starwagon was available between September 1994 and 2003. The Express launched at the same time, but continued on until 2005. To differentiate the semi-bonneted WA Express from the cheaper, previous generation SJ series that sold alongside it, the WA models were disambiguated with the "Walk-Thru" designation.