chunk_id
stringlengths 5
8
| chunk
stringlengths 1
1k
|
|---|---|
1385_96 | enigmatic "Arkham Knight" character would be revealed to be Anarky in adult form.. In warning readers to avoid spoiling potential surprises for their experience in playing Batman: Arkham Origins, Eric Holmes specifically referenced the Wikipedia article on the character as a resource to avoid: "You know what? If you want to enjoy the game, don't bother reading up on him, because there are a few surprises about him which will turn up in the game, and if you go read Wikipedia or something like that, it'll rob you a little bit on some of the stuff in the game, because there are some surprises about Anarky.".''' Following Anarky's debut in "Anarky in Gotham City", the character's design incorporated the head extender in Robin Annual #1 (1992), Green Arrow #89 (August 1994), and The Batman Adventures #31 (April 1995). The head extender was not included in Batman: Shadow of The Bat #18 (October 1993), and The Batman Chronicles'' #1 (Summer, 1995). |
1385_97 | References
External links
Anarky on the Unofficial Guide to the DC Universe website.
DC Comics supervillains
Anarchist comics
Batman characters
Characters created by Norm Breyfogle
Comics characters introduced in 1989
DC Comics martial artists
Fictional anarchists
Fictional hackers
Fictional inventors
Fictional outlaws
Fictional revolutionaries
Fictional terrorists
Supervillains with their own comic book titles
Video game bosses
Vigilante characters in comics
DC Comics male supervillains |
1386_0 | The MATA Trolley is a heritage streetcar transit system operating in Memphis in the U.S. state of Tennessee. It began operating on April 29, 1993. Service was suspended in June 2014, following fires on two cars. After nearly four years and repeated postponements, the reopening of the Main Street Line took place on April 30, 2018.
The last line of Memphis’ original streetcar network closed on June 15, 1947.
Since opening the system has been extended twice and now consists of three lines, operated by the Memphis Area Transit Authority (MATA). These lines are the Main Street Line, the Riverfront Loop and the Madison Avenue Line; however, service on the last two lines remains indefinitely suspended in 2021. In the 2011–12 fiscal year, 1.34 million trips were made on the system, a 23.1% year-on-year growth the highest of any light rail system in the contiguous United States.
History |
1386_1 | Originally proposed as a line along the Mississippi River, the Memphis City Council voted 9-4 in January 1990 to build the , $33 million Main Street route. After multiple delays, construction of the line commenced in February 1991 for completion by December 1992. However, due to the longer-than-anticipated restoration of the vintage streetcars, the opening of the line was delayed until spring 1993. After further delay, testing of the first of the restored cars began on March 10, 1993, and the system opened to the public on April 29, 1993.
On October 1, 1997, the Riverfront line opened. The system's third line, running east from Main Street along Madison Avenue for about , opened on March 15, 2004. It was completed at a cost of about $56 million, which was approximately 25 percent below the original budget forecast for the project. |
1386_2 | On November 3, 2021, MATA announced a plan to test a modern streetcar from San Diego on the Madison Avenue Line, on which rail service has been suspended since 2014. The vehicle is light rail car 1035 from the San Diego Trolley light rail system. MATA acquired the 1988-built Siemens–Duewag U2 from San Diego in fall 2020, and the car arrived in Memphis in April 2021.
Rolling stock
The trolleys used are almost all restored, vintage streetcars. The original three cars in operation on opening day were all formerly used in Porto, Portugal, and are Car 187, circa 1927; Car 194, circa 1935; and Car 204, circa 1940. These cars are each long,
wide and weigh without passengers. The cars were restored by Kerns-Wilcheck Associates of Memphis. Three additional ex-Porto cars (156, 164 and 180) joined them within weeks, and the fleet had six cars (all ex-Porto single-truckers) by May 1993. |
1386_3 | Between the mid-1990s and 2003, the fleet expanded considerably in both number and capacity with the arrival of ten reconditioned Melbourne, Australia W2-class cars, all but one (Car 417) supplied by Gomaco Trolley Company. Other additions were single-truck Car 1979 that was built new by Gomaco in 1993, as a demonstrator; double-truck Car 1794 that was originally an open-sided car from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, but was heavily rebuilt and enclosed before entering service in Memphis, and, in early 2004, a replica Birney Safety Car – again, manufactured by Gomaco, similar to those used on the TECO Line Streetcar in Tampa, Florida, and the Metro Streetcar in Little Rock, Arkansas.
The fleet and overhead wires were converted from trolley pole to pantograph current collection in early 2003, during a three-month suspension of service which started on January 5, 2003. |
1386_4 | An eleventh reconditioned Melbourne car, W5-class 799, was purchased in 2006 by MATA with a view toward eventual restarting of trolley service.
In late 2020, MATA acquired three more Gomaco-built replica Birney streetcars, secondhand from the Charlotte Area Transit System, which had used them from 2004 to 2019 on its Charlotte Trolley System and CityLynx Gold Line. After a planned refurbishment, they are projected to enter service by late 2022.
Lines
The MATA Trolley network consists of three lines. There are stations at 24 locations (inbound and outbound stations are counted as a single location), and 35 of the stations are sheltered and ADA-accessible.
Accidents and incidents
On June 1, 2011, two trolleysa Melbourne W2-class and Porto number 194traveling on Main Street collided due to a power failure. |
1386_5 | Two of the Melbourne cars caught fire, in December 2013 and April 2014. Both incidents occurred along the Madison Avenue line. In May 2014, the line was shut down in order to conduct an investigation, since the speeds along it are higher. On June 10, the suspension was expanded to include all MATA trolley lines after it was determined that much of the fleet would need to be renovated. At that time, the suspension was expected to last at least six months until a feasible solution could be found. Options included restoring the existing fleet at a cost of $6 million, or replacing them with new heritage streetcars at a cost of $40 million. After thorough inspection of the fleet, MATA decided to overhaul several cars rather than purchase new ones, and to eventually reinstate service using only overhauled cars. In December 2014, MATA announced that it was not yet able to give an estimated date for the resumption of service. In March 2015, it was announced that limited trolley service |
1386_6 | might be possible in May or June, but there was still no timetable for full restoration of service. In October 2016, Memphis Mayor Jim Strickland said trolleys would not be back in service before 2017. |
1386_7 | Reopening
Service on the Main Street Line restarted April 30, 2018. At that time, the other two lines were forecast to reopen within two years, but as of 2021 they both remained indefinitely suspended (routes served by buses). As of September 2021, the Riverfront Loop was planned to reopen when three used Birney-replica cars acquired from Memphis in late 2020 were ready to enter service, circa late 2022.
See also
Memphis Area Transit Authority
Memphis Suspension Railway
List of heritage railroads in the United States
List of rail transit systems in the United States
Streetcars in North America
References
External links
MATA: Trolley Lines
A Coordinated Human Services Transportation Plan for the Memphis Area - MATA
Heritagetrolley.org page on Memphis (APTA)
Railwaypreservation.com page on Memphis (with many photos)
Memphis Main Street Trolley (page by Jon Bell)
Map |
1386_8 | Heritage railroads in Tennessee
Heritage streetcar systems
Trolley
Streetcars in Tennessee
Electric railways in Tennessee
1993 establishments in Tennessee
600 V DC railway electrification
Railway lines opened in 1993 |
1387_0 | Psychometric software is software that is used for psychometric analysis of data from tests, questionnaires, or inventories reflecting latent psychoeducational variables. While some psychometric analyses can be performed with standard statistical software like SPSS, most analyses require specialized tools.
Sources
There exist many free tools developed by researchers and educators. Important websites for free psychometric software include:
CASMA at the University of Iowa, USA
REMP at the University of Massachusetts, USA
Software from Harold Doran
Software from Brad Hanson
Software from John Uebersax
Software from J. Patrick Meyer
Software directory at the Institute for Objective Measurement
Software from Lihua Yao
Software from Larry Nelson
Software from Matthew Courtney, Kevin Chang, Eric Mei, Kane Meissel, Luke Rowe, and Laila Issayeva
In addition, there is an increasing number of packages for R that can be found in the CRAN Task View: Psychometric Models and Methods |
1387_1 | Classical test theory
Classical test theory is an approach to psychometric analysis that has weaker assumptions than item response theory and is more applicable to smaller sample sizes.
autopsych
autopsych
autopsych is a free and open-source web app with multiple features for conducting Classical Test Theory (CTT) and Rasch modelling. CTT functions include percentage correct, observed scores for each item category, item-total correlations, item-rest correlations (with user-specified confidence intervals), item-rest point biserial/polyserial correlations, Cronbach’s alpha, alpha-if-deleted, and full Pearson correlation matrix (item matrix) with levels of statistical significance. The autopsych app also performs multiple Rasch-based functions including basic Rasch many-facets analysis for DIF, fixed item equating for dichotomous item-response matrices, one-way ANOVA, and inter-rater reliability analysis. |
1387_2 | CITAS
CITAS (Classical Item and Test Analysis Spreadsheet) is a free Excel workbook designed to provide scoring and statistical analysis of classroom tests. Item responses (ABCD) and keys are typed or pasted into the workbook, and the output automatically populates; unlike some other programs, CITAS does not require any "running" or experience in psychometric analysis, making it accessible to school teachers and professors. |
1387_3 | jMetrik |
1387_4 | jMetrik is free and open source software for conducting a comprehensive psychometric analysis. It was developed by J. Patrick Meyer at the University of Virginia. Current methods include classical item analysis, differential item functioning (DIF) analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, item response theory, IRT equating, and nonparametric item response theory. The item analysis includes proportion, point biserial, and biserial statistics for all response options. Reliability coefficients include Cronbach's alpha, Guttman's lambda, the Feldt-Gilmer Coefficient, the Feldt-Brennan coefficient, decision consistency indices, the conditional standard error of measurement, and reliability if item deleted. The DIF analysis is based on nonparametric item characteristic curves and the Mantel-Haenszel procedure. DIF effect sizes and ETS DIF classifications are included in the output. Confirmatory factor analysis is limited to the common factor model for congeneric, tau-equivalent, and parallel |
1387_5 | measures. Fit statistics are reported along with factor loadings and error variances. IRT methods include the Rasch, partial credit, and rating scale models. IRT equating methods include mean/mean, mean/sigma, Haebara, and Stocking-Lord procedures. |
1387_6 | jMetrik also includes IRT illustrator, a basic descriptive statistics and a graphics facility that produces bar charts, pie chart, histograms, kernel density estimates, and line plots.
jMetrik is a pure Java application that runs on 32-bit and 64-bit versions of Windows, Mac, and Linux operating systems. jMetrik requires Java 1.6 on the host computer.
Iteman
Iteman is a commercial Windows program specifically designed for classical test analysis. It is unique in that it produces tech reports ub Microsoft Word rather than ASCII output, with graphics, narratives, and embedded tables. It calculates the proportion and point biserial of each item, as well as high/low subgroup proportions, and detailed graphics of item performance. It also calculates typical descriptive statistics, including the mean, standard deviation, reliability, and standard error of measurement, for each domain and the overall tests. It is only available from Assessment Systems Corporation. |
1387_7 | Lertap
Lertap5 (the 5th version of the Laboratory of Educational Research Test Analysis Program) is a comprehensive software package for test and survey analyses, developed for use on Windows and Macintosh computers with Microsoft Excel. It includes test, item, and option statistics, classification consistency and mastery test analysis, procedures for cheating detection, and extensive graphics (e.g., trace lines for item options, conditional standard errors of measurement, scree plots, boxplots of group differences, histograms, scatterplots). While having particularly extensive support for classical test theory methods (CTT), Lertap5 also has a Rasch item analysis capability for dichotomous test items.
DIF, differential item functioning, is supported. Mantel-Haenszel methods are used; graphs of results are provided, including empirical DIF plots. DIF support modules include scripts for use with both R and R Studio. |
1387_8 | Users of IRT, item response theory, may make use of four special options: one will produce the data and item control files required by Xcalibre; another sets up an ASCII file for Bilog MG; a third prepares data for processing with SAS, and will write suitable lines of SAS code for use with SAS IRT modules; a fourth interfaces with the Excel version of an R package called "RIRT", allowing users to calibrate items without leaving Excel.
Several sample datasets for use with Lertap and/or other item and test analysis programs are available; these involve both cognitive tests, and affective (or rating) scales. Technical papers related to the application of Lertap5 are also available.
Lertap5 was developed by Larry Nelson at Curtin University and is available from
Lertap5.com. |
1387_9 | TAP
TAP (the Test Analysis Program) is free a Windows 9x/NT/2000/XP/7 program written in Delphi Pascal that performs test analyses and item analyses based on classical test theory. TAP is a classical test and item analysis program. It provides reports for examinee total scores, item statistics ('e.g.' item difficulty, item discrimination, point-biserial), options analyses, and other useful information. TAP also provides individual examinee reports of total scores and item responses.
ViSta-CITA
ViSta-CITA (Classical Item and Test Analysis) is a module included in the Visual Statistics System (ViSta) that focuses on graphical-oriented methods applied to psychometric analysis. It was developed by Ruben Ledesma, J. Gabriel Molina, Pedro M. Valero-Mora, and Forrest W. Young. ViSta has not been updated since 2014 |
1387_10 | psych
R package. A number of routines for personality, psychometrics and experimental psychology. Functions are primarily for scale construction using factor analysis, cluster analysis and reliability analysis, although others provide basic descriptive statistics. Item Response Theory is done using factor analysis of tetrachoric and polychoric correlations. Functions for simulating particular item and test structures are included. Several functions serve as a useful front end for structural equation modeling. Graphical displays of path diagrams, factor analysis and structural equation models are created using basic graphics. Some of the functions are written to support a book on psychometrics as well as publications in personality research. For more information, see the personality-project.org/r webpage. |
1387_11 | Item response theory calibration
Item response theory (IRT) is a psychometric approach which assumes that the probability of a certain response is a direct function of an underlying trait or traits. Various functions have been proposed to model this relationship, and the different calibration packages reflect this. Several software packages have been developed for additional analysis such as equating; they are listed in the next section. |
1387_12 | autopsych
autopsych |
1387_13 | autopsych is an open-source software program for performing uni-dimensional Rasch analysis. The app can handle both dichotomous and polytomous data via the application of Master’s partial credit model. The app adopts marginal maximum likelihood estimation and leverages off a total 31 open-source R packages (including TAM, psych, knitr, etc.). Users upload item-response matrices (.csv files), customize settings for Rasch analysis, and the app automatically generates PDF with embedded narration for methodology and results. Excel files include outputs for all analyses performed including plausible values. Users can also perform basic many-facets Rasch analysis for an examination of item DIF, fixed anchor equating for two dichotomous matrices, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) of EAP theta estimates for examining the effect of group effects, and inter-rater reliability analysis for the examination of examiner consistency. A full exposition of the web app is provided in the journal, PLOS ONE |
1387_14 | SCIENCE. |
1387_15 | BILOG-MG
BILOG-MG is a software program for IRT analysis of dichotomous (correct/incorrect) data, including fit and differential item functioning. It is commercial, and only available from Scientific Software International. |
1387_16 | dexter |
1387_17 | dexter, first published February 2017, is an R package intended as a robust and fairly comprehensive system for managing and analyzing test data organized in booklets. The package includes facilities for importing and managing test data, assessing and improving the quality of data through basic test-and-item analysis, fitting an IRT model, and computing various estimates of ability. Many psychometric methods not found elsewhere are provided, such as Haberman’s (2007) interaction model generalized for polytomous items, efficient generation of plausible values or scores, new methods for exploratory and confirmatory DIF analysis, support for the 3DC method of standard setting, and many more. The central IRT model is a polytomous generalization of the extended marginal Rasch model. Estimation is by CML or Bayesian techniques. There are two companion packages: dextergui, first published June 2018, and providing an easy graphical interface to the most widely used functions in dexter; and |
1387_18 | dexterMST, first published July 2018, for managing and analyzing data from multi-stage test designs. All packages are extensively documented both for the beginner as for the professional (see also the blog). |
1387_19 | Facets
Facets is a software program for Rasch analysis of rater- or judge-intermediated data, such as essay grades, diving competitions, satisfaction surveys and quality-of-life data. Other applications include rank-order data, binomial trials and Poisson counts.
flexMIRT
flexMIRT IRT software is a multilevel, multiple group software package for item analysis, item calibration, and test scoring. The flexMIRT IRT software package fits a variety of unidimensional and multidimensional item response theory models (also known as item factor analysis models) to single-level and multilevel data in any number of groups. |
1387_20 | irtoys
irtoys is an R package first published in 2007 and supporting almost everything in the book but limited to one booklet of dichotomous items. It is good for teaching, smaller projects, as a psychometrician's Swiss knife
and as a source of building stones for other projects. The simple syntax files for ICL and BILOG-MG it writes can be studied and modified to handle more complicated problems.
ICL
ICL (IRT Command Language) performs IRT calibrations, including the 1, 2, and 3 parameter logistic models as well as the partial credit model and generalized partial credit model. It can also generate response data. As the name implies, it is completely command code driven, with no graphical user interface. |
1387_21 | jMetrik |
1387_22 | jMetrik is free and open source software for conducting a comprehensive psychometric analysis. It was developed by J. Patrick Meyer at the University of Virginia. Current methods include classical item analysis, differential item functioning (DIF) analysis, item response theory, IRT equating, and nonparametric item response theory. The item analysis includes proportion, point biserial, and biserial statistics for all response options. Reliability coefficients include Cronbach's alpha, Guttman's lambda, the Feldt-Gilmer Coefficient, the Feldt-Brennan coefficient, decision consistency indices, the conditional standard error of measurement, and reliability if item deleted. The DIF analysis is based on nonparametric item characteristic curves and the Mantel-Haenszel procedure. DIF effect sizes and ETS DIF classifications are included in the output. IRT methods include the Rasch, partial credit, and rating scale models estimated via JMLE. jMetrik also provides the 3PL, 4PL, and generalized |
1387_23 | partial credit models estimated via MMLE. Person scoring methods include MLE, MAP, and EAP. IRT equating methods include mean/mean, mean/sigma, Haebara, and Stocking-Lord procedures. |
1387_24 | jMetrik also include basic descriptive statistics and a graphics facility that produces bar charts, pie chart, histograms, kernel density estimates, and line plots.
jMetrik is a pure Java application that runs on 32-bit and 64-bit versions of Windows, Mac, and Linux operating systems. jMetrik requires Java 1.6 on the host computer.
Lertap5
While basically a classical test theory program, Lertap5 has support for users of Xcalibre, Bilog-MG, the IRT routines in SAS, and "EIRT", the Excel equivalent of the "RIRT" package. Lertap5 runs an Excel "app", as does EIRT. These two programs combined make item calibration very feasible using just Excel.
MULTILOG
MULTILOG is an extension of BILOG to data with polytomous (multiple) responses. It is commercial, and only available from Scientific Software International. |
1387_25 | BMIRT
BMIRT is a free Java multi-purpose application program that conducts item calibrations and ability estimation in a multidimensional, multi-group item response theory (IRT) model framework; it can fit dichotomous or polytomous models, along with mixed models. It supports both exploratory and confirmatory and for both compensatory and noncompensatory MIRT models.
PARSCALE
PARSCALE is a program designed specifically for polytomous IRT analysis. It is commercial, and only available from Scientific Software International.
PARAM-3PL
PARAM-3PL is a free program for the calibration of the 3-parameter logistic IRT model. It was developed by Lawrence Rudner at the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC). The latest release was version 0.93 in August 2012. |
1387_26 | TESTFact
Testfact features - Marginal maximum likelihood (MML) exploratory factor analysis and classical item analysis of binary data
- Computes tetrachoric correlations, principal factor solution, classical item descriptive statistics, fractile tables and plots
- Handles up to 10 factors using numerical quadrature: up to 5 for non-adaptive and up to 10 for adaptive quadrature
- Handles up to 15 factors using Monte Carlo integration techniques
- Varimax (orthogonal) and PROMAX (oblique) rotation of factor loadings
- Handles an important form of confirmatory factor analysis known as "bifactor" analysis: Factor pattern consists of one main factor plus group factors
- Simulation of responses to items based on user specified parameters
- Correction for guessing and not-reached items
- Allows imposition of constraints on item parameter estimates
- Handles omitted and not-presented items
- Detailed online HELP documentation includes syntax and annotated examples. |
1387_27 | WINMIRA 2001
WINMIRA 2001 is a program for analyses with the Rasch model for dichotomous and polytomous ordinal responses, with the latent class analysis, and with the Mixture Distribution Rasch model for dichotomous and polytomous item responses. The software provides conditional maximum likelihood (CML) estimation of item parameters, as well as MLE and WLE estimates of person parameters, and person- and item-fit statistics as well as information criteria (AIC, BIC, CAIC) for model selection. The software also performs a parametric bootstrap procedure for the selection of the number of mixture components. A free student version is available from Matthias von Davier's webpage and a commercial version is available. |
1387_28 | Winsteps
Winsteps is a program designed for analysis with the Rasch model, a one-parameter item response theory model which differs from the 1PL model in that each individual in the person sample is parameterized for item estimation and it is prescriptive and criterion-referenced, rather than descriptive and norm-referenced in nature. It is commercially available from Winsteps, Inc. A previous DOS-based version, BIGSTEPS, is also available.
Xcalibre
Xcalibre is a commercial program that performs marginal maximum likelihood estimation of both dichotomous (1PL-Rasch, 2PL, 3PL) and all major polytomous IRT models. The interface is point-and-click; no command code required. Its output includes both spreadsheets and a detailed, narrated report document with embedded tables and figures, which can be printed and delivered to subject matter experts for item review. It is only available from Assessment Systems Corporation. |
1387_29 | IATA
IATA is a software package for analysing psychometric and educational assessment data. The interface is point-and-click, and all functionality is delivered through wizard-style interfaces that are based on different workflows or analysis goals, such as pilot testing or equating. IATA reads and writes csv, Excel and SPSS file formats, and produces exportable graphics for all statistical analyses. Each analysis also includes heuristics suggesting appropriate interpretations of the numerical results. IATA performs factor analysis, (1PL-Rasch, 2PL, 3PL) scaling and calibration, differential item functioning (DIF) analysis, (basic) computer aided test development, equating, IRT-based standard setting, score conditioning, and plausible value generation. It is available for free from Polymetrika International. |
1387_30 | mirt
R package. Analysis of dichotomous and polytomous response data using unidimensional and multidimensional latent trait models under the Item Response Theory paradigm. Exploratory and confirmatory models can be estimated with quadrature (EM) or stochastic (MHRM) methods. Confirmatory bi-factor and two-tier analyses are available for modeling item testlets. Multiple group analysis and mixed effects designs also are available for detecting differential item functioning and modelling item and person covariates.
ltm
R package. Analysis of multivariate dichotomous and polytomous data using latent trait models under the Item Response Theory approach. It includes the Rasch, the Two-Parameter Logistic, the Birnbaum's Three-Parameter, the Graded Response, and the Generalized Partial Credit Models. |
1387_31 | TAM
R package. The package includes marginal and joint maximum likelihood estimation of uni- and multidimensional item response models (Rasch, 2PL, Generalized Partial Credit, Rating Scale, Multi Facets), fit statistics, standard error estimation, as well as plausible value imputation and weighted likelihood estimation of ability.
ACER ConQuest
ACER ConQuest is a computer program for fitting both unidimensional and multidimensional item response and latent regression models. It provides data analysis based on a comprehensive and flexible range of item response models (IRM), allowing examination of the properties of performance assessments, traditional assessments and rating scales. ACER ConQuest 4 also offers wider measurement and research community analysis procedures based on the most up-to-date psychometric methods of multifaceted item response models, multidimensional item response models, latent regression models and drawing plausible values. |
1387_32 | irtplay
R package. Fit unidimensional item response theory (IRT) models to mixture of dichotomous and polytomous data, calibrate online item parameters, estimate examinees' latent abilities, and examine the IRT model-data fit on item-level in different ways as well as provide useful functions related to unidimensional IRT.
MIRT
A general, open-source program for item-response analysis developed at Educational Testing Service. The program can handle independent variables, multidimensional ability parameters, incomplete data, and complex sampling. Ability variables can be polytomous or multivariate normal, and items can be dichotomous or polytomous.
Additional item response theory software
Because of the complexity of IRT, there exist few software packages capable of calibration. However, many software programs exist for specific ancillary IRT analyses such as equating and scaling. Examples of such software follow. |
1387_33 | LinkMIRT
LinkMIRT is a free Java application program that links two sets of item parameters in a multidimensional IRT (MIRT) framework. The software can implement the Stocking and Lord method, the mean/mean method, and the mean/sigma method. Linking by comment-person and by random equivalent-groups design are supported. |
1387_34 | PACER
PACER (Psychometric Analysis and Computing Environment for Researchers) is a free web-based application for psychometricians and data scientists developed by Harold Doran. The software offers IRT-based test scoring with MLE, MAP, EAP, TCC, and bifactor models, six test equating approaches based on common-item designs, error-in-variables linear regressions including fixed and mixed effects models, item mapping procedures, interactive data exploration and basic statistical analysis, computation of reliability using Cronbach's alpha, stratified alpha, and Feldt-Raju along with jackknife variances, classical item analysis of test items, IRT-based fit statistics including item fit plots, Yen's Q1 and Q3 statistics, classification consistency and classification accuracy methods, and direct estimation procedures as used in NAEP-style analyses. |
1387_35 | SimuMIRT
SimuMIRT is a program that simulates multidimensional data (examinee ability and item responses) for a fixed form (i.e., paper and pencil) test, from a user-specified set of parameters. The rater-effect model is supported. |
1387_36 | SimuMCAT |
1387_37 | SimuMCAT is a free Java application program that simulates a multidimensional computer adaptive test (MCAT). The user can select from five different MCAT item selection procedures (Volume, Kullback-Leibler information, Minimize the error variance of the linear combination, Minimum Angle, and Minimize the error variance of the composite score with the optimized weight). Two exposure control approaches are possible: the traditional Sympson-Hetter approach and a maximum exposure control approach. It is also possible to implement content constraints using the Priority Index method. Different stopping rules are implemented with fixed-length test and varying-length test. The user specifies true examinee ability, item pools, and item selection procedures, and the program outputs selected items with item responses and ability estimates. Bayesian and non-Bayesian methods can be specified by the user. The examinees’ ability and item pools can also be created from the program by the user |
1387_38 | specified distributions. |
1387_39 | IRTEQ
IRTEQ is a freeware Windows GUI application that implements IRT scaling and equating developed by Kyung (Chris) T. Han. It implements IRT scaling/equating methods that are widely used with the “Non-Equivalent Groups Anchor Test” design: Mean/Mean, Mean/Sigma, Robust Mean/Sigma, and TCC methods. For TCC methods, IRTEQ provides the user with the option to choose various score distributions for incorporation into the loss function. IRTEQ supports various popular unidimensional IRT models: Logistic models for dichotomous responses (with 1, 2, or 3 parameters) and the Generalized Partial Credit Model (GPCM) (including Partial Credit Model (PCM), which is a special case of GPCM) and Graded Response Model (GRM) for polytomous responses. IRTEQ can also equate test scores on the scale of a test to the scale of another test using IRT true score equating. |
1387_40 | ResidPlots-2
ResidPlots-2 is a free program for IRT graphical residual analysis. It was developed by Tie Liang, Kyung (Chris) T. Han, and Ronald K. Hambleton at the University of Massachusetts Amherst.
WinGen
WinGen is a free Windows-based program that generates IRT parameters and item responses. Kyung (Chris) T. Han at the University of Massachusetts Amherst.
ST
ST conducts item response theory (IRT) scale transformations for dichotomously scored tests.
POLYST
POLYST conducts IRT scale transformations for dichotomously and polytomously scored tests.
STUIRT
STUIRT conducts IRT scale transformations for mixed-format tests (tests that include some multiple choice items and some polytomous items). |
1387_41 | plink |
1387_42 | R package. This package uses item response theory methods to compute linking constants and conduct chain linking of unidimensional or multidimensional tests for multiple groups under a common item design. The unidimensional methods include the Mean/Mean, Mean/Sigma, Haebara, and Stocking-Lord methods for dichotomous (1PL, 2PL and 3PL) and/or polytomous (graded response, partial credit/generalized partial credit, nominal, and multiple-choice model) items. The multidimensional methods include the least squares method and extensions of the Haebara and Stocking-Lord method using single or multiple dilation parameters for multidimensional extensions of all the unidimensional dichotomous and polytomous item response models. The package also includes functions for importing item and/or ability parameters from common IRT software, conducting IRT true score and observed score equating, and plotting item response curves/surfaces, vector plots, and comparison plots for examining parameter drift. |
1387_43 | Decision consistency
Decision consistency methods are applicable to criterion-referenced tests such as licensure exams and academic mastery testing.
Iteman
Iteman provides an index of decision consistency as well as a classical estimate of the conditional standard error of measurement at the cutscore, which is often requested for accreditation of a testing program.
jMetrik
jMetrik is free and open source software for conducting a comprehensive psychometric analysis. Detailed information is listed above. jMetrik includes Huynh's decision consistency estimates if cut-scores are provided in the item analysis. |
1387_44 | Lertap
Lertap calculates several statistics related to decision and classification consistency, including Livingston's coefficient, the Brennan-Kane dependability index, kappa, and an estimate of p(0), number of correct classifications as a proportion, derived by using the Peng-Subkoviac adaptation of Huynh's method. More detailed information concerning Lertap is provided above, under 'Classical test theory'.
Other analyses
Most psychometric software is designed to analyze response data to evaluate item and test performance; most of the software above focuses on this. Some software is intended for other psychometric analyses.
SIFT
SIFT is designed for data forensics, namely, finding evidence of cheating or other behavior that threatens the validity and integrity of the test. It is a Windows program with a point-and-click user interface and Microsoft Excel output. |
1387_45 | Copy Detect
CopyDetect is an R package that is designed for data forensics, namely, finding evidence of cheating or other behavior that threatens the validity and integrity of the test.
TestAssembler
TestAssembler is a Windows program that performs automated test assembly.
ATA
ATA is an R package for automated test assembly.
General statistical analysis software
Software designed for general statistical analysis can often be used for certain types of psychometric analysis. Moreover, code for more advanced types of psychometric analysis is often available.
R
R is a programming environment designed for statistical computing and production of graphics. Basic R functionality can be extended through installing contributed 'packages', and a list of psychometric related packages is maintained on the CRAN website.
SAS
SAS is a commercially available package for statistical analysis and manipulation of data. It is also command-based. |
1387_46 | SPSS
SPSS, originally called the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, is a commercial general statistical analysis program where the data is presented in a spreadsheet layout and common analyses are menu driven.
S-Plus
S-Plus is a commercial analysis package based on the programming language S.
Stata
Stata is a commercial package. Stata's implementation of IRT includes 1, 2 and 3 parameter logistic models, graded response models, partial credit and generalized partial credit models, rating scale models, and a nominal response model for unordered categorical responses. It is driven by a control panel that allows the user to specify the model, examine fit numerically and graphically and investigate differential item functioning from a single interface.
See also
Psychological Testing
Automatic Item Generation
References
Psychometrics
Educational software
Data analysis software |
1388_0 | The 10th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam () was held in Ba Đình Hall, Hanoi from 18 to 25 April 2006. The congress occurs every five years. 1,176 delegates represented the party's 3 million members. At the 13th plenum of the Central Committee, held before the congress, it was decided that eight members of the Communist Party's 9th Politburo had to retire. While certain segments within and outside the Politburo were skeptical, the decision was implemented. Because of party rules, the congress was not empowered to elect the general secretary, and it held a survey on whom the delegates wanted to be appointed General Secretary. The first plenum of the Central Committee, held in the immediate aftermath of the congress, re-elected Nông Đức Mạnh as general secretary. |
1388_1 | The congress is noteworthy because of the extent of democratization which took place within the party. The role of the Central Committee in decision-making was strengthened, and the role of the Politburo as a supreme organ was weakened. Inner-party accountability was strengthened. The Eighth Five-Year Plan of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was approved at the congress, renewed its Marxist–Leninist credentials and emphasized the need to continue to improve the socialist-oriented market economy.
Preparations |
1388_2 | Preparations for the 10th Congress were led by the Personnel Appointments subcommittee of the 9th Central Committee, probably chaired by General Secretary Nông Đức Mạnh. Mạnh worked closely with the Head of the Commission for Organization and Personnel to prepare a list of nominees for the election of the Central Committee at the upcoming congress. The 12th plenum of the 9th Central Committee, held in July 2005, laid down the principles for the Personnel Appointments subcommittee to work within:
(i) quality of candidates in terms of qualifications and a "clean" CV
(ii) reasonable distribution of candidates among different sectors and representations from among the population to ensure total Party leadership in all areas. |
1388_3 | After the 12th plenum, the Personnel Appointments subcommittee began discussions with important organizations and individuals within the Party, most notably with the Central Commission for Inspection (which investigates complaints against Party members), party elders Đỗ Mười, Lê Đức Anh, Võ Văn Kiệt, Võ Nguyên Giáp and Nguyễn Đức Tâm, and with the 9th Politburo. The nomination list created in these discussions had to be voted on by the 9th Central Committee. At its 13th plenum, the 9th Central Committee, several changes to the nomination list recommended by Personnel Appointments subcommittee were made; the Central Committee decided to retire 8 out of 14 Politburo members, the largest number of en masse retirements in the history of the Politburo. However, in official pronouncements, this decision was referred to as a "survey", and not an election. Even so, the majority believed the eight people mentioned would retire rather than stay for another term. The retirements of Chairman of |
1388_4 | the National Assembly Nguyễn Văn An, who was considered a strong contender for the general secretaryship at the 11th Congress, and two leading proteges of Mạnh; the unofficial deputy general secretary Phan Diễn, and the Head of the Commission for Organization and Personnel Trần Đình Hoan, were unexpected. |
1388_5 | Some party elders were seeking the removal of Mạnh as general secretary. While Đỗ Mười and Lê Đức Anh supported Mạnh's re-election, Võ Văn Kiệt and Võ Nguyên Giáp opposed him. However, all four of them agreed on retaining Nguyễn Văn An in the 10th Politburo. One point in Mạnh's favour was his lack of grave mistakes during his first tenure, and the lack of a credible opponent. Võ Văn Kiệt supported Nguyễn Minh Triết's candidacy for the general secretaryship, while the retiring prime minister Phan Văn Khải supported a possible candidacy by Nguyễn Văn An, even if the Central Committee had voted for his Politburo retirement in the "survey". Those who supported Mạnh's removal based their campaign on the fact that his son-in-law had worked at PMU 18 Department of the Ministry of Transport during the PMU 18 scandal. A more damaging rumour was that Mạnh had included Nguyễn Việt Tiến, the Deputy Minister of Transport who was implicated in the scandal, on the Central Committee nominee |
1388_6 | list.Also, Dao Đào Đình Bình, the Minister of Transport, was a close associate of Mạnh. Mạnh was accused of nepotism and of establishing a patronage system for himself within the party and state; his son Nông Quốc Tuấn was elected as Head of Youth Organizations in March 2005, and was thus entitled to attend the 10th Congress. At a meeting with some veteran politicians, Mạnh was asked by Lê Khả Phiêu and Võ Nguyên Giáp to resign from his post and not to run for a seat in the 10th Central Committee – Mạnh, however, refused to resign. |
1388_7 | In a proposal to the 11th plenum of the 9th Central Committee, Võ Văn Kiệt suggested democratizing the political system by giving the delegates to a party congress the power to elect the general secretary, the Central Committee and the Central Commission for Inspection, and giving congress delegates ultimate power on all matters put before them at the congress. He called for the reduction of the Central Committee from one-fourth to one-third, holding the elections of state leaders at the National Assembly in the immediate aftermath of a congress (and not a year later), secret ballots for elections, empowering delegates to self-nominate to the Central Committee and merging the offices of President and General Secretary into one. These suggestions, with the exception of holding the National Assembly elections earlier, were rejected at the 11th plenum of the 9th Central Committee in January 2005. |
1388_8 | At the 14th plenum of the 9th Central Committee, the Politburo proposed that Mạnh would be appointed president and resign from his post as general secretary to be succeeded by Nguyễn Văn An, while Phan Diễn would be retained for the sake of stability. The proposal was rejected in a formal vote by the 9th plenum, and the Central Committee upheld the results of the "survey". At the unplanned 15th plenum held 14–16 April, which was held due to pressure by Nguyễn Minh Triết, Nguyễn Văn An and Phan Văn Khải, it was decided that delegates at the upcoming congress had the right of self-nomination and that there would competing elections for the posts of general secretary, prime minister and chairman of the National Assembly. The loser of the contest for general secretary would be appointed president. Mạnh and Nguyễn Minh Triết were candidates for the general secretaryship, Nguyễn Tấn Dũng and Nguyễn Sinh Hùng for the prime ministership and Nguyễn Phú Trọng and Trương Tấn Sang for the |
1388_9 | National Assembly chairmanship. For the first time in the party's history, competing elections were held for offices of power. |
1388_10 | Delegates |
1388_11 | 1,176 delegates participated at the 10th Congress. These candidates were accepted on the basis of the Working Regulations of the party. 146 (12.37 percent) of the delegates were members of the 9th Central Committee. 1,025 (86.87 percent) of the delegates were elected by provincial and local subunits of the party. 9 (0.76 percent) of the delegates represented the party's overseas branches. 136 (11.56 percent) delegates were women, and 154 (13.10 percent) came from ethnic minorities. There were 18 (1.53 percent) delegates who had been awarded the Hero of the People's Armed Forces, 7 (0.60 percent) who had been awarded Hero of Labor, 4 (0.34 percent) who had been awarded the title People's Teacher, 13 (1.11 percent) who had been given the title Meritorious Teacher, 4 (0.34 percent) with the title of Meritorious Doctor, 27 (2.30 percent) with the honorary title 40 years of Party membership, 2 (0.17 percent) with the honorary title of 50 years of Party membership. 81.29 percent of the |
1388_12 | delegates had graduated from either college or university, and 16.59 percent of these had received PhD or had worked as professors or assistant professors. 96.52 percent of the delegates had received a bachelor's degree in political training courses. The average age of the delegates was 52.92 years – Dinh Huy (30 years of age) was the youngest delegate, and Do Quang Hung (77 years of age) was the oldest delegate. |
1388_13 | The Congress and the 1st plenum |
1388_14 | The elected 10th Central Committee comprised 81 (52.5 percent) members from the 9th Central Committee, and 79 (47.5 percent) new members were elected. The candidate with the highest vote received 97.88 percent, while the candidate with the lowest vote received 63.41 percent. All the provinces, with the exception of Đắk Nông Province, elected officials to the 10th Central Committee. A number of surprises occurred during the election process; six ministers were not re-elected. Another surprise was that no officials from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs were elected as full members. However, Phạm Bình Minh, the Director of the International Organizations Directorate of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, was elected as an alternate member. None of the 34 self-nominated candidates at the congress were elected to the 10th Central Committee. It is unknown whether any of the self-nominees for alternate membership in the 10th Central Committee were elected. There was an increase in Central |
1388_15 | Committee officials working in the central government, the provinces, military and defence officials, public security officials and officials from mass organizations, but there was a decrease in officials from the sectors of information, social and cultural affairs, economics, business and financial affairs, and others. |
1388_16 | As the meeting progressed, some delegates publicly demanded that the congress should be given the authority to elect the general secretary and the head of the Central Commission for Inspection. This was approved and a survey form which listed four possible candidates; Mạnh, Nguyễn Minh Triết, Nguyễn Văn An and Nguyễn Phú Trọng was created. Nguyễn Văn An withdrew his candidacy, knowing he would not be elected to the 10th Politburo because he was not elected to the 10th Central Committee. However, because of party rules which stated that the Central Committee after the congress elected the general secretary, the vote at the congress was considered a survey. Another version of the proceedings, that given by Mạnh at the press conference after the congress, was that the 1,176 congress delegates were given a list of the elected members of the 10th Central Committee, and were given a free choice of electing any of them to the general secretaryship. After the congress, on 25 April, the 1st |
1388_17 | plenum of the Central Committee convened to elect the general secretary. The two leading candidates at the congress survey, Mạnh and Nguyễn Minh Triết, stood for election at the plenum. Mạnh was elected and Nguyễn Minh Triết was appointed state president. However, rumours that Mạnh won narrowly over his rival, and that Nguyễn Minh Triết withdrew his candidature following the party tradition of appointing the general secretary, circulated after the congress. |
1388_18 | The 10th Politburo comprised 14 members. As was decided at the first plenum, the ranking given to Politburo members was to be decided by the number of approval votes the official earned during the election. Lê Hồng Anh, the Minister of Public Security, was ranked second in the Politburo because he received the second-most approval votes for his candidacy. Of the 14 members of the Politburo, five were concurrently members of the 10th Secretariat. The Secretariat comprised eight members, amongst whom the highest rank was general secretary. |
1388_19 | Policy enactments |
1388_20 | The official Congress communique set 2020 as a date on which Vietnam would reach the status of a modern, industrial society. To reach this goal, the targeted growth for gross domestic product (GDP) was set at 7.5–8 percent for 2006–2011. The congress promised to renew the socialist-oriented market economy, and step up its fight against political corruption. The communique emphasized the party's goal of a future society without exploitation, based on the ideology of Marxism–Leninism. The Political Report, the Eighth Five-Year Plan (2006–2010)officially titled the Five Year Socio-economic Development Plan, the report on Party building and the amendment and revision to the Party's charter, were approved. Mạnh said that the approval of these documents were "the results of the intellect and the will of our entire Party and people, the in-depth practical and theoretical summation of 20 years of Renovation [Đổi Mới] and the improvement and development of the policy and philosophy of |
1388_21 | renovations in the current period of our country's revolution." |
1388_22 | The Eighth Five-Year Plan is subordinate to the Ten Year Socio-economic Development Strategy (2001–2010) which aims to continue comprehensive reform and achieve fast, sustainable growth rates. The main goal of the Ten Year Plan is to lift Vietnam out of the category of underdeveloped countries and to reach the status of a modern-industrial nation by 2012. The Eighth Five-Year Plan, while approved by the Congress, had to earn the approval of the National Assembly before being implemented. |
1388_23 | The delegates approved the general secretary's Political Report, Report on Orientations and Tasks for Socio-Economic Development for the 2006–10 Period, and the Report on Party building and amendments made to the party statute. These reports' main objectives were to accelerate the reform process and strengthen the socialist-oriented market economy. The congress allowed existing party members to engage in private ownership. This was a controversial amendment and was a break with the theory of exploitation of man by man. While the amendment was approved, the third plenum of the 10th Central Committee restricted the change to party members who had worked in state-owned enterprises which have been privatized. |
1388_24 | Democratization
An important characteristic of the 10th Congress was the internal democratization of the party leadership, most notably seen in the Politburo's willingness to follow the "survey" voted by the 13th plenum of the Central Committee. The top five members of the "survey" were rewarded with the five highest government positions in Vietnam. While the leadership selection process was not dramatically altered, the Central Committee as a collective unit was strengthened, and the Central Committee acquired control over personnel appointments and policy-making. In effect, these changes have reduced the roles of powerful individuals, who may be seen as taking too much control.
Acknowledgement |
1388_25 | 35 foreign parties congratulated the CPV on holding its 10th Congress. Among these were ruling parties of the remaining socialist states, the Communist Party of Cuba, the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the Lao People's Revolutionary Party. Hu Jintao, the former CPC General Secretary of the Central Committee, personally congratulated Nguyen Van Son, the Chairman of the CPV Commission for External Relations, on the CPV's holding of the 10th National Congress. Not all the parties which congratulated the CPV were communists, for example the Cambodian People's Party, the Workers' Party of Korea, the Social Democratic Party of Germany, the Uri Party and the Bulgarian Socialist Party. |
1388_26 | The French Communist Party congratulated the CPV on holding its 10th National Congress, and stated that it "was a milestone and an occasion for the Party to reiterate its orientations and its determination to implement objectives as well as open new visions for the 21st century." In an official communique from the Central Committee of the Japanese Communist Party (JCP) to the CPV 10th Central Committee, the JPC Central Committee stated "The Communist Party of Viet Nam is advancing on the chosen path of building socialism through the market economy. This is a new discovery in the history of mankind." The Communist Party of India sent its "warmest fraternal greetings to the leadership and delegates to the 10th Congress of the Communist Party of Viet Nam." The Communist Party USA sent a "warm revolutionary greetings to the delegates and members of the Communist Party of Viet Nam on the occasion of your 10th National Party Congress. We wish you much success in your deliberations at this |
1388_27 | important event." The Communist Party of the Russian Federation stated, "Under the leadership of the Communist Party of Viet Nam, the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam has successfully carried out adopted policies. The industrious Vietnamese people have created favourable conditions for progress. The CPV has displayed a creative and principled approach to solving important and sophisticated problems, while remaining persistent in its socialist ideology." |
1388_28 | The Portuguese Communist Party said, "The Tenth Party Congress and the objectives your congress was striving towards, given the present international situation, constitute something significant." The Communist Party of Brazil said, "We are very impressed by the efforts exerted by the Vietnamese people and Communists in building socialism in line with national development. The renewal process in Viet Nam has helped the country attain great achievements in modernization, industrialization and international integration." Mahmoud Abbas, Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization extended his greetings, and said "We are proud of our friendship and relationship, and once again reaffirm our determination to strengthen ties and solidarity for the mutual benefit of both our nations".
Notes
References
Bibliography
National Congresses of the Communist Party of Vietnam
2006 in Vietnam |
1389_0 | In music, metre (Commonwealth spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) refers to the regularly recurring patterns and accents such as bars and beats. Unlike rhythm, metric onsets are not necessarily sounded, but are nevertheless implied by the performer (or performers) and expected by the listener.
A variety of systems exist throughout the world for organising and playing metrical music, such as the Indian system of tala and similar systems in Arabic and African music.
Western music inherited the concept of metre from poetry, where it denotes: the number of lines in a verse; the number of syllables in each line; and the arrangement of those syllables as long or short, accented or unaccented. The first coherent system of rhythmic notation in modern Western music was based on rhythmic modes derived from the basic types of metrical unit in the quantitative metre of classical ancient Greek and Latin poetry. |
1389_1 | Later music for dances such as the pavane and galliard consisted of musical phrases to accompany a fixed sequence of basic steps with a defined tempo and time signature. The English word "measure", originally an exact or just amount of time, came to denote either a poetic rhythm, a bar of music, or else an entire melodic verse or dance involving sequences of notes, words, or movements that may last four, eight or sixteen bars.
Metre is related to and distinguished from pulse, rhythm (grouping), and beats:
Metric structure |
1389_2 | The term metre is not very precisely defined. Stewart MacPherson preferred to speak of "time" and "rhythmic shape", while Imogen Holst preferred "measured rhythm". However, Justin London has written a book about musical metre, which "involves our initial perception as well as subsequent anticipation of a series of beats that we abstract from the rhythm surface of the music as it unfolds in time". This "perception" and "abstraction" of rhythmic bar is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, as when we divide a series of identical clock-ticks into "tick–tock–tick–tock". "Rhythms of recurrence" arise from the interaction of two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups. In his book The Rhythms of Tonal Music, Joel Lester notes that, "[o]nce a metric hierarchy has been established, we, as listeners, will maintain that organization as long as minimal evidence is present". |
1389_3 | "Meter may be defined as a regular, recurring pattern of strong and weak beats. This recurring pattern of durations is identified at the beginning of a composition by a meter signature (time signature). ... Although meter is generally indicated by time signatures, it is important to realize that meter is not simply a matter of notation". A definition of musical metre requires the possibility of identifying a repeating pattern of accented pulses – a "pulse-group" – which corresponds to the foot in poetry. Frequently a pulse-group can be identified by taking the accented beat as the first pulse in the group and counting the pulses until the next accent.
Frequently metres can be subdivided into a pattern of duples and triples. For example, a metre consists of three units of a pulse group, and a metre consists of two units of a pulse group. In turn, metric bars may comprise 'metric groups' - for example, a musical phrase or melody might consist of two bars x . |
1389_4 | The level of musical organisation implied by musical metre includes the most elementary levels of musical form. Metrical rhythm, measured rhythm, and free rhythm are general classes of rhythm and may be distinguished in all aspects of temporality:
Metrical rhythm, by far the most common class in Western music, is where each time value is a multiple or fraction of a fixed unit (beat, see paragraph below), and normal accents reoccur regularly, providing systematic grouping (bars, divisive rhythm).
Measured rhythm is where each time value is a multiple or fraction of a specified time unit but there are not regularly recurring accents (additive rhythm).
Free rhythm is where there is neither. |
1389_5 | Some music, including chant, has freer rhythm, like the rhythm of prose compared to that of verse. Some music, such as some graphically scored works since the 1950s and non-European music such as Honkyoku repertoire for shakuhachi, may be considered ametric. The music term senza misura is Italian for "without metre", meaning to play without a beat, using time to bar how long it will take to play the bar. |
1389_6 | Metric structure includes metre, tempo, and all rhythmic aspects that produce temporal regularity or structure, against which the foreground details or durational patterns of any piece of music are projected. Metric levels may be distinguished: the beat level is the metric level at which pulses are heard as the basic time unit of the piece. Faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels. A rhythmic unit is a durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a pulse or pulses on an underlying metric level.
Frequently encountered types of metre
Metres classified by the number of beats per measure
Duple and quadruple metre
In duple metre, each measure is divided into two beats, or a multiple thereof (quadruple metre).
For example, in the time signature , each bar contains two (2) quarter-note (4) beats. In the time signature , each bar contains two dotted-quarter-note beats.
{|
|
|
|} |
1389_7 | Corresponding quadruple metres are , which has four quarter-note beats per measure, and , which has four dotted-quarter-note beats per bar.
{|
|
|
|}
Triple metre
Triple metre is a metre in which each bar is divided into three beats, or a multiple thereof. For example, in the time signature , each bar contains three (3) quarter-note (4) beats, and with a time signature of , each bar contains three dotted-quarter beats.
{|
|
|
|}
More than four beats
Metres with more than four beats are called quintuple metres (5), sextuple metres (6), septuple metres (7), etc. |
1389_8 | In classical music theory it is presumed that only divisions of two or three are perceptually valid, so in metres not divisible by 2 or 3, such as quintuple metre, say , is assumed to either be equivalent to a measure of followed by a measure of , or the opposite: then . Higher metres which are divisible by 2 or 3 are considered equivalent to groupings of tuple or triple metre measures, thus, , for example, is rarely used because it is considered equivalent to two measures of . See: hypermetre and additive rhythm and divisive rhythm.
Higher metres are used more commonly in analysis, if not performance, of cross-rhythms, as lowest number possible which may be used to count a polyrhythm is the lowest common denominator (LCD) of the two or more metric divisions. For example, much African music is recorded in Western notation as being in , the LCD of 4 and 3.
Metres classified by the subdivisions of a beat |
1389_9 | Simple metre and compound metre are distinguished by the way the beats are subdivided.
Simple metre
Simple metre (or simple time) is a metre in which each beat of the bar divides naturally into two (as opposed to three) equal parts. The top number in the time signature will be 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.
For example, in the time signature , each bar contains three quarter-note beats, and each of those beats divides into two eighth notes, making it a simple metre. More specifically, it is a simple triple metre because there are three beats in each measure; simple duple (two beats) or simple quadruple (four) are also common metres.
{|
|
|
|
|}
Compound metre
Compound metre (or compound time), is a metre in which each beat of the bar divides naturally into three equal parts. That is, each beat contains a triple pulse. The top number in the time signature will be 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 24, etc. |
1389_10 | Compound metres are written with a time signature that shows the number of divisions of beats in each bar as opposed to the number of beats. For example, compound duple (two beats, each divided into three) is written as a time signature with a numerator of six, for example, . Contrast this with the time signature , which also assigns six eighth notes to each measure, but by convention connotes a simple triple time: 3 quarter-note beats.
Examples of compound metre include (compound duple metre), (compound triple metre), and (compound quadruple metre).
{|
|
|
|
|}
Although and are not to be confused, they use bars of the same length, so it is easy to "slip" between them just by shifting the location of the accents. This interpretational switch has been exploited, for example, by Leonard Bernstein, in the song "America": |
1389_11 | Compound metre divided into three parts could theoretically be transcribed into musically equivalent simple metre using triplets. Likewise, simple metre can be shown in compound through duples. In practice, however, this is rarely done because it disrupts conducting patterns when the tempo changes. When conducting in , conductors typically provide two beats per bar; however, all six beats may be performed when the tempo is very slow.
Compound time is associated with "lilting" and dancelike qualities. Folk dances often use compound time. Many Baroque dances are often in compound time: some gigues, the courante, and sometimes the passepied and the siciliana.
Metre in song |
1389_12 | The concept of metre in music derives in large part from the poetic metre of song and includes not only the basic rhythm of the foot, pulse-group or figure used but also the rhythmic or formal arrangement of such figures into musical phrases (lines, couplets) and of such phrases into melodies, passages or sections (stanzas, verses) to give what calls "the time pattern of any song". |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.