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1471_21 | July two PAVN graves were located and a further five PAVN/VC killed. |
1471_22 | On 16 July at 14:40 Company B, 1/501st found a PAVN base camp and one dead soldier. At 19:05 Company A, 1/502nd engaged three PAVN, killing one. On 17 July Brigade LOHs killed two PAVN/VC, Company D, 1/501st killed one PAVN. Company B, 2/17th Cavalry killed two VC and Company A, 1/46th found two VC graves. On 18 July Brigade LOHs killed two VC. At 10:30 a Troop B, 2/17th Cavalry LOH was shot down and aero-rifle platoon landed to support its recovery found four individual weapons in the area. At 14:00 Company B, 1/501st found a base and hospital complex with 15 graves. On 19 July helicopter crews killed two PAVN and two VC in three separate engagements. On 20 July in a series of small engagements three PAVN/VC and one U.S. soldier were killed. |
1471_23 | On 21 July at 11:30 Company C, 1/46th engaged five PAVN, killing three, Recon Company, 1/46th located two PAVN graves and a Brigade LOH killed one VC. On 22 July Company D, 1/501st found one grave, Company B, 2/17th Cavalry killed one PAVN and Company A, 1/46th observed 60 PAVN and called in artillery strikes killing six. On 23 July Recon Company, 1/46th found one VC grave. On 24 July 1/502nd returned to Hill 376 finding two dead PAVN, Company B, 2/17th Cavalry reported two dead PAVN from an airstrike and Company B, 1/502nd killed two VC in a brief skirmish. On 25 July at 11:00 Company B, 1/46th engaged a PAVN/VC unit capturing seven weapons. At 13:00 Company A, 1/502nd found two VC killed by airstrikes. At 14:03 a Marine F-4C suffered a mechanical failure, the crew ejected and were rescued by Troop B, 2/17th Cavalry. On 26 July Company A, 1/502nd found a PAVN grave, the Provisional Reserve Company, 1/46th killed one PAVN, Company B, 1/502nd killed one PAVN. A Brigade UH-1 was hit by |
1471_24 | ground fire which forced it to land. At 15:30 Troop B, 2/17th Cavalry killed one PAVN and later that day Brigade units found six dead PAVN. |
1471_25 | On 27 July a USAF FAC directed artillery fire onto four VC killing one. On 28 July Brigade reconnaissance teams killed two PAVN/VC outside bunkers and captured two female VC. On 30 July 3 Troop B, 2/17th Cavalry LOHs were damaged by ground fire. At 11:56 the aero-rifle platoon engaged PAVN in bunkers killing five and a later airstrike killed another. At 17:05 Recon Company, 1/502nd fired on 10 VC killing one. On 31 July a large bunker complex was located and searched and 42 Vietnamese were detained, an airstrike destroyed nine bunkers and killed two PAVN. |
1471_26 | On 1 August Recon Company, 1/502nd killed one VC, a Brigade LOH killed one VC and Troop B, 2/17th Cavalry killed one VC. A new plan for operations in the Song Than and Song Vang Valleys was formulated with operations to begin the following day. On 2 August two companies from 1/501st air assaulted into the Song Than Valley, at 14:00 Company B, 1/501st was hit by heavy machine gun fire losing five killed. Company A 1/501st found two VC graves and a Brigade LOH killed one VC. |
1471_27 | On 3 August Company D, 1/501st killed three VC, Company B, 1/501st found two graves and Company B, 1/502nd killed one PAVN. On 4 August three PAVN/VC were killed in several skirmishes and two graves found. On 5 August helicopter units killed five PAVN/VC and an LOH was forced to crash-land. On 6 August 1/502nd killed three PAVN and Troop B, 2/17th Cavalry found two graves. On 7 August Company A, 1/502nd killed one PAVN, Recon Company, 1/46th captured a VC medic and Company A, 1/502nd found a hut complex and two weapons. At 13:10 a Troop B, 2/17th Cavalry LOH received ground fire and crash-landed, the aero-rifle platoon was inserted to secure the area and found two weapons. At 15:30 Company B, 1/502nd captured two 12.7mm machine guns and found three PAVN graves. A Brigade LOH killed one PAVN. At 17:00 Troop B, 2/17th Cavalry LOH was shot down and the aero-rifle platoon landed and was engaged by three PAVN in a bunker losing two killed, while one PAVN was killed. |
1471_28 | On 8 August Company D, 1/501st found five VC bodies killed by artillery fire. On 9 August Company B, 1/502nd found one PAVN grave. Also this day plans were issued to begin the withdrawal of the 1st Brigade by air to Camp Eagle. On 10 August Company A, 1/502nd found one PAVN grave and 1/46th units killed two PAVN/VC in two separate engagements. On 11 August Brigade units began withdrawing from the operational area. A USAF forward air controller directed fire killing one VC. On 12 August Company B, 1/46th engaged four VC capturing one weapon. |
1471_29 | Aftermath
The operation terminated on 14 August 1969. US losses were 116 killed and one missing while PAVN losses were 524 killed and 21 captured and 256 individual and 62 crew-served weapons captured.
References
1969 in Vietnam
Lamar Plain
Battles and operations of the Vietnam War in 1969
History of Quảng Nam Province |
1472_0 | Olav Meisdalshagen (17 March 1903 – 21 November 1959) was a Norwegian politician for the Labour Party best known for serving as the Norwegian Minister of Finance from December 1947 to November 1951 and as the Norwegian Minister of Agriculture from January 1955 to May 1956. He was also a Member of Parliament for a long time, being elected for the first time in parliamentary election of 1936 and serving until his death, except for the period between 1940 and 1945 when the Parliament of Norway was de facto defunct due to the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany. His death in 1959 came halfway through his fifth term in Parliament, and shortly after a parliamentary speech. |
1472_1 | A jurist by profession, Meisdalshagen came from a humble family background, growing up at a former crofter's farm in rural Nord-Aurdal, and losing his father in the 1920s. After studying he moved back to Nord-Aurdal, worked as an attorney and built the Labour Party organization in the region. The background formed him in that his main political goal was to improve the economy of dwellers in rural farming districts. He was a proponent of economic regulation, which marked his period as Minister of Finance. However, his period was also marked by the dominance of Erik Brofoss and the Ministry of Trade in deciding the country's overall financial policy. When Trygve Bratteli succeeded Meisdalshagen as Minister of Finance, the ministry regained its dominance, but also set out on a gradual deregulation. This, in addition to Meisdalshagen's discontent with increased spendings on defence, made him an oppositional figure within the Labour Party. He did return briefly to cabinet as Minister of |
1472_2 | Agriculture, and also cooperated with the government through the position as chairman of Norges Kooperative Landsforening, a national association of consumer co-operatives. However his oppositional tendencies grew stronger in his later life. He was a part of the "Easter Uprising" in 1958, and in 1958 and 1959 there were rumours of Meisdalshagen worked behind the scene to facilitate a change of personnel—and policy—in the Labour Party. His death came in this period. |
1472_3 | Early life and career
Early life and education
Meisdalshagen was born on 17 March 1903 in Nord-Aurdal as a son of smallholder and joiner Ole Meisdalshagen and Marit Myren. The family lived at the former crofter's farm Hagen in Skrautvål. Meisdalshagen attended Valdres Folk High School from 1920 to 1921, and took secondary education at Voss between 1921 and 1925 with financial support from his brothers; his father died in 1924. Meisdalshagen took the examen artium in 1925, and enrolled in law studies at the Royal Frederick University (now: University of Oslo). While studying he was involved in the students' branch of Noregs Mållag. He came also under the influence of the revolutionary group Mot Dag, though he was never a member. He graduated from university with a cand.jur. degree in 1932. |
1472_4 | Pre-war political career
Meisdalshagen became involved in politics while attending school in Voss, and chaired the Labour Party chapter in Nord-Aurdal from 1927 to 1940. He also chaired the local chapters of Valdres, from 1930 to 1932, and Fagernes, from 1931 to 1934. From 1931 to 1940 he was a board member of the Labour Party county chapter. He was elected as a member of Nord-Aurdal municipal council in 1931, and was re-elected to serve until 1940. From 1934 he served in the council's executive committee. He spent his professional life in Fagernes, where he had opened an attorney's office in 1933. He also headed the municipal board of arbitration in debt matters, from 1935 to 1940. This had a significant influence on his further political career, in that he sought to improve the economy of rural Norwegian districts, especially through a centralized increase of farmers' income. He also favoured ensuring a low interest, preferably at 2,5%. |
1472_5 | During the term 1934–1936 he served as a deputy representative to the Parliament of Norway from the constituency Oppland; in the election of 1936, he was elected to a regular seat in the parliament. He was the youngest member of Parliament at the time. |
1472_6 | World War II |
1472_7 | As the Parliament amended the Constitution in 1938 to introduce four-year terms instead of three-year terms, the representatives elected in 1936 were still active in 1940. On 9 April that year, Norway was invaded and occupied by Germany as a part of World War II. With the German invasion, a radio broadcast coup d'état by Vidkun Quisling followed, and German diplomat Curt Bräuer was sent to Norway to demand the abdication of the Norwegian King Haakon VII and Nygaardsvold's Cabinet. This was initially refused, as the Parliament, meeting at Elverum on 9 April, issued the Elverum Authorization where it empowered the King and government to continue representing Norway. Norway and Germany was at war that time, and fighting continued for some months. However, when mainland Norway capitulated on 10 June 1940, new negotiations with Nazi Germany were opened, resulting in a request being submitted from the Presidium of the Parliament of Norway to the now-exiled King and government to abdicate. |
1472_8 | The case had been controversial, splitting the parliamentary group of the Labour Party. Olav Meisdalshagen agreed that the King should abdicate, as did the majority of the parliamentary group. When the King broadcast his refusal to abdicate via BBC Radio on 8 July 1940, this became famous as "The King's No". |
1472_9 | Germany gradually tightened the grip of Norwegian society, and the Parliament became defunct during the rest of the German occupation of Norway. In 1941 Meisdalshagen became a prominent figure in the Norwegian resistance movement against German rule, in the position of district leader of Milorg in Valdres. In 1944 he left Norway and fled to Sweden, where he was a secretary at Flyktningskontoret in Stockholm until 1945. Briefly in 1945 he served as an advisor in London for the coordination of Milorg cells.
Post-war career |
1472_10 | First post-war years
In the first parliamentary election after the war, in 1945, Meisdalshagen was re-elected for a second term in Parliament. It was not clear that he would be nominated for the ballot, as this was not at all usual for those Labour Party members who in the summer of 1940 had agreed to the King's abdication. However, Meisdalshagen's service in Milorg probably tipped the scales in his favour. He was a member of the Standing Committee on Finance and Customs and secretary of the Preparatory Credentials Committee, and also became a member of the Standing Committee on Justice in December 1946. Meisdalshagen was also board chairman of the Norwegian State Housing Bank from 1946 to 1953. |
1472_11 | Minister of Finance
Midway through his four-year term, Meisdalshagen was appointed Minister of Finance in Gerhardsen's Second Cabinet. He served from 6 December 1947 to 19 November 1951, when Torp's Cabinet was formed. Prime Minister Einar Gerhardsen and former party secretary Martin Tranmæl were the architects behind his appointment. Ultimately, Meisdalshagen's opposition to the Labour Party's foreign and defence policy in general, and extraordinary monetary grants for defence measures specifically, was cited as the reason for his resignation from the cabinet, and even for the entire cabinet shift. During his period as minister, Meisdalshagen's parliamentary seat was occupied by Gunnar Kalrasten until June 1948 and then by Thorvald Ulsnæs. He was succeeded as Minister of Finance by Trygve Bratteli; other candidates were discussed but rejected, including Meisdalshagen's old acquaintance Klaus Sunnanå. |
1472_12 | As a politician, Meisdalshagen has been noted as being an opposite figure to his predecessor as Minister of Finance, Erik Brofoss. Still, earlier in 1947 he had argued strongly in favour of "Lex Brofoss", the law proposed by Brofoss which meant that the elected politicians gave temporary authority to the Norwegian Price Directorate to regulate the economy. Meisdalshagen even stated that a majority in Parliament probably agreed that such a law should have permanent effect, not be renewed from time to time. Historian Einar Lie has stated that Brofoss left Meisdalshagen in charge of the price policy with a "very easy heart". On the other hand, the new Ministry of Trade, where Brofoss was appointed as Minister, clearly became more important than the Ministry of Finance in this period. The higher importance of the Ministry of Trade ended after 1951, and Meisdalshagen's period was thus an exception in the history of the Ministry of Finance. Meisdalshagen was ultimately criticized by Brofoss |
1472_13 | for "lack of economical insight", and he also ran afoul with Central Bank of Norway Governor Gunnar Jahn. |
1472_14 | According to Prime Minister Einar Gerhardsen, it took long to persuade Meisdalshagen to even take the post as Minister of Finance, and he was more interested in agro-economical questions than traditional planning of the economy. It was even said that Gerhardsen's Cabinet had an interest in luring Meisdalshagen away from the Parliament, where he had driven through significant increases in farmer's income, threatening the overall balance and planning of the state finances. In fact the income from farming, measured in the amount of money earned per decare, was doubled between the war's end in 1945 and 1950, when the Main Agreement for Agriculture, , was introduced. It regulated future price negotiations, and institutionalized the negotiating partners: the state on one side of the table, the Norwegian Agrarian Association and the Norwegian Farmers and Smallholders Union on the other. |
1472_15 | During Meisdalshagen's time the lines between various parts of government were somewhat blurred. When the state budget was presented by the cabinet, and subsequently treated by the standing committees of the Parliament, committee members would contact the Ministry of Finance directly to ask whether a proposed budgetary change was feasible (after Meisdalshagen's resignation this practice was altered, in that the contact was initiated by the Labour Party committee fraction, not by the committee as a whole). Meisdalshagen also became known for nontraditional arrangements when it came to the Ministry's bureaucrats: assistant secretary Egil Lothe, who had a "very good relationship" with Meisdalshagen, doubled as assistant secretary and State Secretary from 1948 until Meisdalshagen's resignation in 1951. Such a double role, where a person was both bureaucrat and politician at the same time, was very uncommon, probably unique. Lothe was not formally appointed, either, and thus does not |
1472_16 | appear on historical lists of state secretaries. According to Einar Lie, there was no clear division of tasks between Meisdalshagen and Lothe when it came to the Ministry's daily work. In addition to Lothe, the consultant Karl Trasti, another friend of Meisdalshagen, had influence in this period, especially in budgetary questions. |
1472_17 | Return to Parliament |
1472_18 | Since 1913, parliamentarians who are appointed to the cabinet may return to Parliament later, provided that the four-year term has not expired. After leaving as Minister of Finance, Meisdalshagen returned to Parliament as a member of the Standing Committee on Finance and Customs, which he even chaired from January 1952 to January 1953. While being Minister of Finance, Meisdalshagen had been re-elected on the Labour Party parliamentary ticket in 1949, and was elected for a fourth time in 1953. He was still a member of the Standing Committee on Finance and Customs. On 22 January 1955 the Gerhardsen's Third Cabinet was formed, and Meisdalshagen served as Minister of Agriculture until 14 May 1956. During this period his parliamentary seat was occupied by Per Mellesmo. Meisdalshagen then returned to Parliament, this time as a member of the now-defunct Standing Committee on Agriculture. He was elected for a fifth time in 1957. This time, he became a member of the Standing Committee on |
1472_19 | Foreign Affairs and Defence as well as the Enlarged Committee on Foreign Affairs and Defence. From 1957 to 1959 he was also a member of the Labour Party's central committee (). |
1472_20 | Meisdalshagen was also chairman of the Norges Kooperative Landsforening (NKL) from 1952 to his death. NKL was the national association of consumer co-operatives. This way, he represented trade interests in meetings with the government, at the same time as being a parliament member. |
1472_21 | Internal opposition |
1472_22 | Meisdalshagen was regarded as an internal opponent of the Labour Party's foreign affairs and defence policy. His obituarist in Verdens Gang writes that he was "more controversial in his own party than outside of it". This tendency had surfaced already in the 1940s, when he very reluctantly accepted the Norwegian signing of the North Atlantic Treaty. Meisdalshagen remained skeptic to a non-neutral foreign policy in the 1950s, and in February 1951 a conflict with Minister of Defence Jens Chr. Hauge arose. Meisdalshagen formally dissented against a proposal to grant an extra to the Norwegian Armed Forces for the years 1951 and 1952, and he became furious when he entered a budgetary debate without being notified of a certain press release, issued by Jens Chr. Hauge, where another grant of NOK 125 million was declared. According to Haakon Lie, Meisdalshagen influenced persons in the newspaper Oppland Arbeiderblad to write and print an editorial titled ("Let Hauge Go"). Meisdalshagen was |
1472_23 | a member of the board of Oppland Arbeiderblad from 1945 to 1957, and had spent some time working there before the war. |
1472_24 | Meisdalshagen was also discontented with the deregulation policy to which the Labour Party gradually adhered in the 1950s. Trygve Bratteli, on the other hand, was viewed as a proponent of gradual deregulation. In November 1958 there were rumours that Meisdalshagen would return to the cabinet, probably as Minister of Transport of Communications. Some believed that Meisdalshagen worked together with Karl Trasti to have Trygve Bratteli removed from the cabinet; Trasti would succeed Bratteli as Minister of Finance, according to the rumour, with was told to Bratteli by Meisdalshagen's predecessor as Minister of Agriculture, Rasmus Nordbø. At the time Karl Trasti was a member of the ad-hoc Paulson Committee, which worked with questions regarding the Ministry of Finance's policy. It was thought that some of the committee's policy proposals could be undesirable to Bratteli, and thereby compromise his minister position. This information was given to Trygve Bratteli from parliamentary secretary |
1472_25 | Haakon Bingen in January 1959. Binge had heard it from Egil Lothe, at the time a deputy under-secretary of state in the Ministry of Finance. A friend of Meisdalshagen, Lothe was thereby tied to the alleged intriguers. Jens Haugland noted the scheme of Trasti and Meisdalshagen in his diary, and that this caused Bratteli to keep himself "in the background". This was a part of a broader schism in the party, where Meisdalshagen was the "strongest man in the group" consisting of parliamentarians who deviated in questions of foreign policy: Finn Moe, Trygve Bull, Hans Offerdal, Sverre Løberg and Meisdalshagen. Meisdalshagen had been a supporter of the "Easter Uprising" of 1958, a voicing of dissent within the Labour Party, where the socialist students' association gained the signatures of Labour MPs on a NATO-critical resolution. In Meisdalshagen's obituary, he was likened to Olav Oksvik, another NATO-critical Labour politician. |
1472_26 | Halfway through his fifth term in Parliament, on 21 November 1959, Meisdalshagen suffered from a sudden indisposition after a parliamentary speech. He was hospitalized, but died later that same day. The cause of death was intracranial hemorrhage. In Parliament he was replaced by Per Mellesmo, who advanced from deputy to regular representative. He was biographized in 1982 by Nils Oddvar Bergheim.
References
Citations
Bibliography
1903 births
1959 deaths
People from Nord-Aurdal
Labour Party (Norway) politicians
Noregs Mållag leaders
Norwegian lawyers
University of Oslo alumni
Oppland politicians
Members of the Storting
Ministers of Finance of Norway
Ministers of Agriculture and Food of Norway
Cooperative organizers
Norwegian resistance members
Norwegian expatriates in Sweden
Norwegian expatriates in the United Kingdom
20th-century Norwegian politicians
20th-century lawyers |
1473_0 | Religious antisemitism is aversion to or discrimination against Jews as a whole, based on religious doctrines of supersession that expect or demand the disappearance of Judaism and the conversion of Jews, and which figure their political enemies in Jewish terms. This often has led to false claims against Judaism and religious antisemitic canards. It is sometimes called theological antisemitism.
Some scholars have argued that modern antisemitism is primarily based on nonreligious factors, John Higham being emblematic of this school of thought. However, this interpretation has been challenged. In 1966 Charles Glock and Rodney Stark first published public option polling data showing that most Americans based their stereotypes of Jews on religion. Further opinion polling since in America and Europe has supported this conclusion. |
1473_1 | Origins |
1473_2 | Father Edward Flannery, in his The Anguish of the Jew: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism, traces the first clear examples of specific anti-Jewish sentiment back to Alexandria in the third century BCE. Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." Manetho, an Egyptian historian, wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian lepers who had been taught by Moses "not to adore the gods". The same themes appeared in the works of Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and in Apion and Tacitus. Agatharchides of Cnidus wrote about the "ridiculous practices" of the Jews and of the "absurdity of their Law", and how Ptolemy Lagus was able to invade Jerusalem in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the |
1473_3 | Sabbath. David Nirenberg also charts this history in Antijudaism: The Western Tradition |
1473_4 | Christian antisemitism
Christian religious antisemitism is often expressed as anti-Judaism, i.e., it is argued that the antipathy is to the practices of Judaism. As such, it is argued, antisemitism would cease if Jews stopped practicing or changed their public faith, especially by conversion to Christianity, the official or right religion. However, there have been times when converts were also discriminated against, as in the case of liturgical exclusion of Jewish converts in the case of Christianized Marranos or Iberian Jews in the late 15th century and 16th century accused of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs.
New Testament and antisemitism |
1473_5 | Frederick Schweitzer and Marvin Perry write that the authors of the gospel accounts sought to place responsibility for the Crucifixion of Jesus and his death on Jews, rather than the Roman emperor or Pontius Pilate. As a result, Christians for centuries viewed Jews as "the Christ Killers". The destruction of the Second Temple was seen as judgment from God to the Jews for that death, and Jews were seen as "a people condemned forever to suffer exile and degradation". According to historian Edward H. Flannery, the Gospel of John in particular contains many verses that refer to Jews in a pejorative manner. |
1473_6 | In , Paul states that the Churches in Judea had been persecuted by the Jews who killed Jesus and that such people displease God, oppose all men, and had prevented Paul from speaking to the gentile nations concerning the New Testament message. Described by Hyam Maccoby as "the most explicit outburst against Jews in Paul's Epistles", these verses have repeatedly been employed for antisemitic purposes. Maccoby views it as one of Paul's innovations responsible for creating Christian antisemitism, though he notes that some have argued these particular verses are later interpolations not written by Paul. Craig Blomberg argues that viewing them as antisemitic is a mistake, but "understandable in light of [Paul's] harsh words". In his view, Paul is not condemning all Jews forever, but merely those he believed had specifically persecuted the prophets, Jesus, or the 1st-century church. Blomberg sees Paul's words here as no different in kind than the harsh words the prophets of the Old Testament |
1473_7 | have for the Jews. |
1473_8 | The Codex Sinaiticus contains two extra books in the New Testament – the Shepherd of Hermas and the Epistle of Barnabas. The latter emphasizes the claim that it was the Jews, not the Romans, who killed Jesus, and is full of antisemitism. The Epistle of Barnabas was not accepted as part of the canon; Professor Bart Ehrman has stated "the suffering of Jews in the subsequent centuries would, if possible, have been even worse had the Epistle of Barnabas remained".
Early Christianity
A number of early and influential Church works — such as the dialogues of Justin Martyr, the homilies of John Chrysostom, and the testimonies of church father Cyprian — are strongly anti-Jewish. |
1473_9 | During a discussion on the celebration of Easter during the First Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, Roman emperor Constantine said, ... it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are, therefore, deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul. ... Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way. |
1473_10 | Prejudice against Jews in the Roman Empire was formalized in 438, when the Code of Theodosius II established Christianity as the only legal religion in the Roman Empire. The Justinian Code a century later stripped Jews of many of their rights, and Church councils throughout the 6th and 7th century, including the Council of Orleans, further enforced anti-Jewish provisions. These restrictions began as early as 305, when, in Elvira, (now Granada), a Spanish town in Andalucia, the first known laws of any church council against Jews appeared. Christian women were forbidden to marry Jews unless the Jew first converted to Catholicism. Jews were forbidden to extend hospitality to Catholics. Jews could not keep Catholic Christian concubines and were forbidden to bless the fields of Catholics. In 589, in Catholic Iberia, the Third Council of Toledo ordered that children born of marriage between Jews and Catholic be baptized by force. By the Twelfth Council of Toledo (681) a policy of forced |
1473_11 | conversion of all Jews was initiated (Liber Judicum, II.2 as given in Roth). Thousands fled, and thousands of others converted to Roman Catholicism. |
1473_12 | Accusations of deicide
Although never a part of Christian dogma, many Christians, including members of the clergy, held the Jewish people under an antisemitic canard to be collectively responsible for deicide, the killing of Jesus, who they believed was the son of God. According to this interpretation, the Jews present at Jesus' death as well as the Jewish people collectively and for all time had committed the sin of deicide, or God-killing. The accusation has been the most powerful warrant for antisemitism by Christians. |
1473_13 | Passion plays are dramatic stagings representing the trial and death of Jesus and they have historically been used in remembrance of Jesus' death during Lent. These plays historically blamed the Jews for the death of Jesus in a polemical fashion, depicting a crowd of Jewish people condemning Jesus to death by crucifixion and a Jewish leader assuming eternal collective guilt for the crowd for the murder of Jesus, which, The Boston Globe explains, "for centuries prompted vicious attacks — or pogroms — on Europe's Jewish communities".
Blood libel
Blood libels are false accusations that Jews use human blood in religious rituals. Historically these are accusations that the blood of Christian children is especially coveted. In many cases, blood libels served as the basis for a blood libel cult, in which the alleged victim of human sacrifice was elevated to the status of a martyr and, in some cases, canonized. |
1473_14 | Although the first known instance of a blood libel is found in the writings of Apion, who claimed that the Jews sacrificed Greek victims in the Temple, no further incidents are recorded until the 12th century, when blood libels began to proliferate. These libels have persisted from then through the 21st century.
In the modern era, the blood libel continues to be a major aspect of antisemitism. It has extended its reach to accuse Jews of many different forms of harm that can be carried out against other people.
Medieval and Renaissance Europe
Antisemitism was widespread in Europe during the Middle Ages. In those times, a main cause of prejudice against Jews in Europe was the religious one. Although not part of Roman Catholic dogma, many Christians, including members of the clergy, held the Jewish people collectively responsible for the death of Jesus, a practice originated by Melito of Sardis. |
1473_15 | Among socio-economic factors were restrictions by the authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed the doors for many professions to the Jews, pushing them into occupations considered socially inferior such as accounting, rent-collecting and moneylending, which was tolerated then as a "necessary evil". During the Black Death, Jews were accused as being the cause, and were often killed. There were expulsions of Jews from England, France, Germany, Portugal and Spain during the Middle Ages as a result of antisemitism. |
1473_16 | German for "Jews' sow", Judensau was the derogatory and dehumanizing imagery of Jews that appeared around the 13th century. Its popularity lasted for over 600 years and was revived by the Nazis. The Jews, typically portrayed in obscene contact with unclean animals such as pigs or owls or representing a devil, appeared on cathedral or church ceilings, pillars, utensils, etchings, etc. Often, the images combined several antisemitic motifs and included derisive prose or poetry. |
1473_17 | "Dozens of Judensaus... intersect with the portrayal of the Jew as a Christ killer. Various illustrations of the murder of Simon of Trent blended images of Judensau, the devil, the murder of little Simon himself, and the Crucifixion. In the 17th-century engraving from Frankfurt... a well-dressed, very contemporary-looking Jew has mounted the sow backward and holds her tail, while a second Jew sucks at her milk and a third eats her feces. The horned devil, himself wearing a Jewish badge, looks on and the butchered Simon, splayed as if on a cross, appears on a panel above." |
1473_18 | In Shakespeare's "Merchant of Venice", considered to be one of the greatest romantic comedies of all time, the villain Shylock was a Jewish moneylender. By the end of the play he is mocked on the streets after his daughter elopes with a Christian. Shylock, then, compulsorily converts to Christianity as a part of a deal gone wrong. This has raised profound implications regarding Shakespeare and antisemitism.
During the Middle Ages, the story of Jephonias, the Jew who tried to overturn Mary's funeral bier, changed from his converting to Christianity into his simply having his hands cut off by an angel. |
1473_19 | On many occasions, Jews were subjected to blood libels, false accusations of drinking the blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian Eucharist.
Jews were subject to a wide range of legal restrictions throughout the Middle Ages, some of which lasted until the end of the 19th century. Jews were excluded from many trades, the occupations varying with place and time, and determined by the influence of various non-Jewish competing interests. Often Jews were barred from all occupations but money-lending and peddling, with even these at times forbidden.
19th century |
1473_20 | Throughout the 19th century and into the 20th, the Roman Catholic Church still incorporated strong antisemitic elements, despite increasing attempts to separate anti-Judaism, the opposition to the Jewish religion on religious grounds, and racial antisemitism. Pope Pius VII (1800–1823) had the walls of the Jewish Ghetto in Rome rebuilt after the Jews were released by Napoleon, and Jews were restricted to the Ghetto through the end of the Papal States in 1870.
Additionally, official organizations such as the Jesuits banned candidates "who are descended from the Jewish race unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great-grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church" until 1946. Brown University historian David Kertzer, working from the Vatican archive, has further argued in his book The Popes Against the Jews that in the 19th century and early 20th century the Church adhered to a distinction between "good antisemitism" and "bad antisemitism". |
1473_21 | The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc. Many Catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing Jews on such grounds, and, when accused of promoting hatred of Jews, would remind people that they condemned the "bad" kind of antisemitism. Kertzer's work is not, therefore, without critics; scholar of Jewish-Christian relations Rabbi David G. Dalin, for example, criticized Kertzer in the Weekly Standard for using evidence selectively.
The Holocaust |
1473_22 | The Nazis used Martin Luther's book, On the Jews and Their Lies (1543), to claim a moral righteousness for their ideology. Luther even went so far as to advocate the murder of those Jews who refused to convert to Christianity, writing that "we are at fault in not slaying them" |
1473_23 | Archbishop Robert Runcie has asserted that: "Without centuries of Christian antisemitism, Hitler's passionate hatred would never have been so fervently echoed...because for centuries Christians have held Jews collectively responsible for the death of Jesus. On Good Friday Jews, have in times past, cowered behind locked doors with fear of a Christian mob seeking 'revenge' for deicide. Without the poisoning of Christian minds through the centuries, the Holocaust is unthinkable." The dissident Catholic priest Hans Küng has written in his book On Being a Christian that "Nazi anti-Judaism was the work of godless, anti-Christian criminals. But it would not have been possible without the almost two thousand years' pre-history of 'Christian' anti-Judaism..." |
1473_24 | The document Dabru Emet was issued by many American Jewish scholars in 2000 as a statement about Jewish-Christian relations. This document states,Nazism was not a Christian phenomenon. Without the long history of Christian anti-Judaism and Christian violence against Jews, Nazi ideology could not have taken hold nor could it have been carried out. Too many Christians participated in, or were sympathetic to, Nazi atrocities against Jews. Other Christians did not protest sufficiently against these atrocities. But Nazism itself was not an inevitable outcome of Christianity. |
1473_25 | According to American historian Lucy Dawidowicz, antisemitism has a long history within Christianity. The line of "antisemitic descent" from Luther, the author of On the Jews and Their Lies, to Hitler is "easy to draw". In her The War Against the Jews, 1933-1945, she contends that Luther and Hitler were obsessed by the "demonologized universe" inhabited by Jews. Dawidowicz writes that the similarities between Luther's anti-Jewish writings and modern antisemitism are no coincidence, because they derived from a common history of Judenhass, which can be traced to Haman's advice to Ahasuerus. Although modern German antisemitism also has its roots in German nationalism and the liberal revolution of 1848, Christian antisemitism she writes is a foundation that was laid by the Roman Catholic Church and "upon which Luther built". Dawidowicz' allegations and positions are criticized and not accepted by most historians however. For example, in Studying the Jew Alan Steinweis notes that, |
1473_26 | "Old-fashioned antisemitism, Hitler argued, was insufficient, and would lead only to pogroms, which contribute little to a permanent solution. This is why, Hitler maintained, it was important to promote 'an antisemitism of reason,' one that acknowledged the racial basis of Jewry." Interviews with Nazis by other historians show that the Nazis thought that their views were rooted in biology, not historical prejudices. For example, "S. became a missionary for this biomedical vision... As for anti-Semitic attitudes and actions, he insisted that 'the racial question... [and] resentment of the Jewish race... had nothing to do with medieval anti-Semitism...' That is, it was all a matter of scientific biology and of community." |
1473_27 | Post-Holocaust
The Second Vatican Council, the Nostra aetate document, and the efforts of Pope John Paul II helped reconcile Jews and Catholicism in recent decades, however. According to Catholic Holocaust scholar Michael Phayer, the Church as a whole recognized its failings during the council, when it corrected the traditional beliefs of the Jews having committed deicide and affirmed that they remained God's chosen people.
In 1994, the Church Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the largest Lutheran denomination in the United States and a member of the Lutheran World Federation publicly rejected Luther's antisemitic writings.
Islamic antisemitism |
1473_28 | With the origin of Islam in the 7th century AD and its rapid spread through the Arabian peninsula and beyond, Jews (and many other peoples) became subject to the will of Muslim rulers. The quality of the rule varied considerably in different periods, as did the attitudes of the rulers, government officials, clergy and general population to various subject peoples from time to time, which was reflected in their treatment of these subjects. |
1473_29 | Various definitions of antisemitism in the context of Islam are given. The extent of antisemitism among Muslims varies depending on the chosen definition:
Scholars like Claude Cahen and Shelomo Dov Goitein define it to be the animosity specifically applied to Jews only and do not include discriminations practiced against Non-Muslims in general. For these scholars, antisemitism in Medieval Islam has been local and sporadic rather than general and endemic [Shelomo Dov Goitein], not at all present [Claude Cahen], or rarely present. |
1473_30 | According to Bernard Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil". For Lewis, from the late 19th century, movements appear among Muslims of which for the first time one can legitimately use the technical term antisemitic. However, he describes demonizing beliefs, anti-Jewish discrimination and systematic humiliations, as an "inherent" part of the traditional Muslim world, even if violent persecutions were relatively rare. |
1473_31 | Pre-modern times
According to Jane Gerber, "the Muslim is continually influenced by the theological threads of anti-Semitism embedded in the earliest chapters of Islamic history." In the light of the Jewish defeat at the hands of Muhammad, Muslims traditionally viewed Jews with contempt and as objects of ridicule. Jews were seen as hostile, cunning, and vindictive, but nevertheless weak and ineffectual. Cowardice was the quality most frequently attributed to Jews. Another stereotype associated with the Jews was their alleged propensity to trickery and deceit. While most anti-Jewish polemicists saw those qualities as inherently Jewish, Ibn Khaldun attributed them to the mistreatment of Jews at the hands of the dominant nations. For that reason, says Ibn Khaldun, Jews "are renowned, in every age and climate, for their wickedness and their slyness". |
1473_32 | Muhammad's attitude towards Jews was basically neutral at the beginning. During his lifetime, Jews lived on the Arabian Peninsula, especially in and around Medina. They refused to accept Muhammad's teachings. Eventually he fought them, defeated them, and most of them were killed. The traditional biographies of Muhammad describe the expulsion of the Banu Qaynuqa in the post Badrperiod, after a marketplace quarrel broke out between the Muslims and the Jews in Medina and Muhammad's negotiations with the tribe failed. |
1473_33 | Following his defeat in the Battle of Uhud, Muhammad said he received a divine revelation that the Jewish tribe of the Banu Nadir wanted to assassinate him. Muhammad besieged the Banu Nadir and expelled them from Medina. Muhammad also attacked the Jews of the Khaybar oasis near Medina and defeated them, after they had betrayed the Muslims in a time of war, and he only allowed them to stay in the oasis on the condition that they deliver one-half of their annual produce to Muslims. |
1473_34 | Anti-Jewish sentiments usually flared up during times of Muslim political or military weakness or when Muslims felt that some Jews had overstepped the boundaries of humiliation prescribed to them by Islamic law. In Spain, ibn Hazm and Abu Ishaq focused their anti-Jewish writings on the latter allegation. This was also the chief motivating factor behind the massacres of Jews in Granada in 1066, when nearly 3,000 Jews were killed, and in Fez in 1033, when 6,000 Jews were killed. There were further massacres in Fez in 1276 and 1465. |
1473_35 | Islamic law does not differentiate between Jews and Christians in their status as dhimmis. According to Bernard Lewis, the normal practice of Muslim governments until modern times was consistent with this aspect of sharia law. This view is countered by Jane Gerber, who maintains that of all dhimmis, Jews had the lowest status. Gerber maintains that this situation was especially pronounced in the latter centuries in the Ottoman Empire, where Christian communities enjoyed protection from the European countries, which was unavailable to the Jews. For example, in 18th-century Damascus, a Muslim noble held a festival, inviting to it all social classes in descending order, according to their social status: the Jews outranked only the peasants and the prostitutes. |
1473_36 | Jews in Islamic texts
Leon Poliakov, Walter Laqueur, and Jane Gerber, suggest that later passages in the Quran contain very sharp attacks on Jews for their refusal to recognize Muhammad as a prophet of God. There are also Quranic verses, particularly from the earliest Quranic surahs, showing respect for the Jews (e.g. see , ) and preaching tolerance (e.g. see ). This positive view tended to disappear in the later Surahs. Taking it all together, the Quran differentiates between "good and bad" Jews, Poliakov states. Laqueur argues that the conflicting statements about Jews in the Muslim holy text have defined Arab and Muslim attitudes towards Jews to this day, especially during periods of rising Islamic fundamentalism. |
1473_37 | Differences with Christianity
Bernard Lewis holds that Muslims were not antisemitic in the way Christians were for the most part because:
The Gospels are not part of the educational system in Muslim societies and therefore, Muslims are not brought up with the stories of Jewish deicide; on the contrary, the notion of deicide is rejected by the Quran as a blasphemous absurdity.
Muhammad and his early followers were not Jews and therefore, they did not present themselves as the true Israel or feel threatened by the survival of the old Israel.
The Quran was not viewed by Muslims as a fulfillment of the Hebrew Bible, but rather as a restorer of its original messages that had been distorted over time. Thus no clash of interpretations between Judaism and Islam could arise.
Muhammad was not killed by the Jewish community and he was ultimately victorious in his clash with the Jewish community in Medina. |
1473_38 | Muhammad did not claim to be either the Son of God or the Messiah. Instead, he claimed that he was only a prophet; a claim which Jews repudiated less.
Muslims saw the conflict between Muhammad and the Jews as something of minor importance in Muhammad's career. |
1473_39 | Status of Jews under Muslim rule
Traditionally Jews living in Muslim lands, known (along with Christians) as dhimmis, were allowed to practice their religion and to administer their internal affairs, subject to certain conditions. They had to pay the jizya (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to Muslims. Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal disabilities such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims. The most degrading one was the requirement of distinctive clothing, not found in the Quran or hadith but invented in early medieval Baghdad; its enforcement was highly erratic. Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession. |
1473_40 | The notable examples of massacre of Jews include the 1066 Granada massacre, when a Muslim mob stormed the royal palace in Granada, crucified Jewish vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela and massacred most of the Jewish population of the city. "More than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day." This was the first persecution of Jews on the Peninsula under Islamic rule. There was also the killing or forcibly conversion of them by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in Al-Andalus in the 12th century. Notable examples of the cases where the choice of residence was taken away from them includes confining Jews to walled quarters (mellahs) in Morocco beginning from the 15th century and especially since the early 19th century. Most conversions were voluntary and happened for various reasons. However, there were some forced conversions in the 12th century under the Almohaddynasty of North Africa and al-Andalus as well as in Persia. |
1473_41 | Pre-modern times
The portrayal of the Jews in the early Islamic texts played a key role in shaping the attitudes towards them in the Muslim societies. According to Jane Gerber, "the Muslim is continually influenced by the theological threads of anti-Semitism embedded in the earliest chapters of Islamic history." In the light of the Jewish defeat at the hands of Muhammad, Muslims traditionally viewed Jews with contempt and as objects of ridicule. Jews were seen as hostile, cunning, and vindictive, but nevertheless weak and ineffectual. Cowardice was the quality most frequently attributed to Jews. Another stereotype associated with the Jews was their alleged propensity to trickery and deceit. While most anti-Jewish polemicists saw those qualities as inherently Jewish, Ibn Khaldun attributed them to the mistreatment of Jews at the hands of the dominant nations. For that reason, says ibn Khaldun, Jews "are renowned, in every age and climate, for their wickedness and their slyness". |
1473_42 | Some Muslim writers have inserted racial overtones in their anti-Jewish polemics. Al-Jahiz speaks of the deterioration of the Jewish stock due to excessive inbreeding. Ibn Hazm also implies racial qualities in his attacks on the Jews. However, these were exceptions, and the racial theme left little or no trace in the medieval Muslim anti-Jewish writings.
Anti-Jewish sentiments usually flared up at times of the Muslim political or military weakness or when Muslims felt that some Jews had overstepped the boundary of humiliation prescribed to them by the Islamic law. In Moorish Iberia, ibn Hazm and Abu Ishaq focused their anti-Jewish writings on the latter allegation. This was also the chief motivation behind the 1066 Granada massacre, when "[m]ore than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day", and in Fez in 1033, when 6,000 Jews were killed. There were further massacres in Fez in 1276 and 1465. |
1473_43 | Islamic law does not differentiate between Jews and Christians in their status as dhimmis. According to Bernard Lewis, the normal practice of Muslim governments until modern times was consistent with this aspect of sharia law. This view is countered by Jane Gerber, who maintains that of all dhimmis, Jews had the lowest status. Gerber maintains that this situation was especially pronounced in the latter centuries, when Christian communities enjoyed protection, unavailable to the Jews, under the provisions of Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire. For example, in 18th century Damascus, a Muslim noble held a festival, inviting to it all social classes in descending order, according to their social status: the Jews outranked only the peasants and prostitutes. In 1865, when the equality of all subjects of the Ottoman Empire was proclaimed, Ahmed Cevdet Pasha, a high-ranking official observed: "whereas in former times, in the Ottoman State, the communities were ranked, with the Muslims first, |
1473_44 | then the Greeks, then the Armenians, then the Jews, now all of them were put on the same level. Some Greeks objected to this, saying: 'The government has put us together with the Jews. We were content with the supremacy of Islam.'" |
1473_45 | Some scholars have questioned the correctness of the term "antisemitism" to Muslim culture in pre-modern times. Robert Chazan and Alan Davies argue that the most obvious difference between pre-modern Islam and pre-modern Christendom was the "rich melange of racial, ethic, and religious communities" in Islamic countries, within which "the Jews were by no means obvious as lone dissenters, as they had been earlier in the world of polytheism or subsequently in most of medieval Christendom." According to Chazan and Davies, this lack of uniqueness ameliorated the circumstances of Jews in the medieval world of Islam. According to Norman Stillman, antisemitism, understood as hatred of Jews as Jews, "did exist in the medieval Arab world even in the period of greatest tolerance". Also see Bostom, Bat Ye'or, and the CSPI issued text, supporting Stillman and cited in the bibliography. |
1473_46 | Nineteenth century
Historian Martin Gilbert writes that in the 19th century the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries.
There was a massacre of Jews in Baghdad in 1828 and in 1839, in the eastern Persian city of Meshed, a mob burst into the Jewish Quarter, burned the synagogue, and destroyed the Torah scrolls. It was only by forcible conversion that a massacre was averted. There was another massacre in Barfurush in 1867. |
1473_47 | In 1840, the Jews of Damascus were falsely accused of having murdered a Christian monk and his Muslim servant and of having used their blood to bake Passover bread or Matza. A Jewish barber was tortured until he "confessed"; two other Jews who were arrested died under torture, while a third converted to Islam to save his life. Throughout the 1860s, the Jews of Libya were subjected to what Gilbert calls punitive taxation. In 1864, around 500 Jews were killed in Marrakech and Fez in Morocco. In 1869, 18 Jews were killed in Tunis, and an Arab mob looted Jewish homes and stores, and burned synagogues, on Jerba Island. In 1875, 20 Jews were killed by a mob in Demnat, Morocco; elsewhere in Morocco, Jews were attacked and killed in the streets in broad daylight. In 1891, the leading Muslims in Jerusalem asked the Ottoman authorities in Constantinople to prohibit the entry of Jews arriving en masse from Russia. In 1897, synagogues were ransacked and Jews were murdered in Tripolitania. |
1473_48 | Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."
According to Mark Cohen in The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies, most scholars conclude that Arab antisemitism in the modern world arose in the 19th century, against the backdrop of conflicting Jewish and Arab nationalism, and was imported into the Arab world primarily by nationalistically minded Christian Arabs (and only subsequently was it "Islamized").
Modern Islamic antisemitism |
1473_49 | The massacres of Jews in Muslim countries continued into the 20th century. Martin Gilbert writes that 40 Jews were murdered in Taza, Morocco in 1903. In 1905, old laws were revived in Yemen forbidding Jews from raising their voices in front of Muslims, building their houses higher than Muslims, or engaging in any traditional Muslim trade or occupation. The Jewish quarter in Fez was almost destroyed by a Muslim mob in 1912. |
1473_50 | Antagonism and violence increased still further as resentment against Zionist efforts in the British Mandate of Palestine spread. The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Mohammad Amin al-Husayni, played a key role in violent opposition to Zionism and closely allied himself with the Nazi regime.<ref>Pappe, Ilan (2002) 'The Rise and Fall of a Palestinian Dynasty. The Husaynis 1700-1948. AL Saqi edition 2010. . pp.309,321</ref> From 1941 al-Husayni was based in Germany from where he urged attacks on Jews. There were Nazi-inspired pogroms in Algeria in the 1930s, and massive attacks on the Jews in Iraq and Libya in the 1940s (see Farhud). Pro-Nazi Muslims slaughtered dozens of Jews in Baghdad in 1941. |
1473_51 | Holocaust denial and Holocaust minimization efforts have found increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries."Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism in Iran" by R Jaspal, 2013. Arabic and Turkish editions of Hitler's Mein Kampf and The Protocols of the Elders of Zion have found an audience in the region with limited critical response by local intellectuals and media.
According to Robert Satloff, Muslims and Arabs were involved both as rescuers and as perpetrators of the Holocaust during pro-Nazi rule of Vichy in French North Africa, and during Italian and German Nazi occupation of Tunisia and Libya. |
1473_52 | According to a Pew Global Attitudes Project report released on August 14, 2005, Anti-Jewish sentiment was endemic. Of six Muslim majority countries surveyed, all have high percentages of their populations with unfavorable views of Jews. Turkey reported that 60% had unfavorable views of Jews, Pakistan reported 74%, Indonesia reported 76%, and Morocco reported 88%. 99% of Lebanese Muslims viewed Jews unfavorably, as did 99% of the Jordanian people. |
1473_53 | George Gruen attributes the increased animosity towards Jews in the Arab world to several factors, including the breakdown of the Ottoman Empire and traditional Islamic society; domination by Western colonial powers under which Jews gained a larger role in the commercial, professional, and administrative life of the region; the rise of Arab nationalism, whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local Jews through government channels; resentment against Jewish nationalism and the Zionist movement; and the readiness of unpopular regimes to scapegoat local Jews for political purposes.
See also
Anti-Judaism
Christianity and Judaism
Christian Zionism
Criticism of Judaism
History of the Jews in Europe
History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union
Islamic–Jewish relations
Judaizers
Philo-Semitism
Timeline of antisemitism
Notes
References |
1473_54 | Abulafia, Anna Sapir (ed.)(1998). Christians and Jews in Dispute: Disputational Literature and the Rise of Anti-Judaism in the West (c. 1000-1150) (Variorum Collected Studies Series). Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate. .
Langmuir, Gavin (1971). "Anti-Judaism as the necessary preparation for anti-Semitism". Viator'', 2: p. 383.
Modras, Ronald E. The Catholic Church and Antisemitism Poland, 1933-1939
External links
Was St. John Chrysostom Anti-Semitic?
Anti-Semitism or anti-Judaism?
The Spanish Inquisition - Presentation with images and videos
Christianity and antisemitism
Islam and antisemitism |
1474_0 | Josephine Lynn Potter (previously thought to be born May 13, 1983, however there are conflicting opinions as in Season 6 her birthday is after they return from Summer break, which usually occurs in August in the USA) is a principal character from the WB television drama Dawson's Creek, portrayed by Katie Holmes since the pilot. Joey appeared in all episodes of the series, which ran from 1998–2003.
Joey, created by Kevin Williamson based on his childhood friend, is a tomboyish teenager growing up in the fictional town of Capeside. The series chronicles her journey from adolescence into adulthood, focusing in particular on her complex and evolving relationship with childhood friend Dawson Leery (James Van Der Beek).
Fictional biography |
1474_1 | Background
Joey has been best friends with Dawson Leery since they were in 3rd grade, and considers him 'her family'. She spent much of her early childhood at the Leery house, and Dawson was a constant comforting presence during traumatic events in her childhood. They spend many nights bonding over films and tv shows in his bedroom.
She has also known Pacey Witter her whole life, though they tolerate each other due to their friendships with Dawson until high school.
She lives with her older sister, Bessie, Bessie's son Alexander and (sometimes) boyfriend, Bodie. Her father, Mike, is in and out of prison for drug trafficking. Her mother, Lillian, died of breast cancer when Joey was thirteen.
Season 1
In season one, Joey is the "girl next door." She is confused by her growth into a teenager and her developing feelings for her longtime best friend Dawson, who believes is her soulmate. |
1474_2 | She immediately becomes jealous when Jen Lindley arrives and steals Dawson's attention. She is intimidated by Jen, who grew up in New York and does not know how to compete. She lives with her pregnant sister Bessie, and she works for her at the Ice House, the Potter family restaurant. She is frustrated with having to deal with work and taking care of her sister along with significant helpings of teenage angst. Nonetheless, Joey manages to be helpful with the birth of Bessie's son, Alexander, as does their critical neighbor, Evelyn Ryan. One day she is convinced to compete in the beauty pageant, which she does so that she can win the cash prize. But instead of winning the contest, she wins Dawson's heart, as he finally sees past his best friend image, and realizes that he has strong romantic feelings towards her. At the end of the season, she finds herself with the opportunity of going to Paris for a year, but rejects it in favor of staying in Capeside with Dawson after she and Dawson |
1474_3 | kiss. |
1474_4 | Season 2
At the start of the season, she and Dawson begin dating and things start out well, but Joey struggles with figuring out her identity independently from their relationship. During a full moon, her co-worker Jack McPhee kisses her. Dawson finds out during a school dance and punches Jack. Distraught, Joey seeks Dawson out to apologize but decides she needs to take a break from him to "find herself".
Joey immediately throws herself into a relationship with Jack, which becomes confusing when Jack is eventually outed as being potentially gay. Joey begins to lean on Dawson for support as Jack struggles and eventually confirms his sexuality to Joey. Joey struggles with readjusting to single life. Joey's father is released from prison and comes back into her life. At first, this change is uneasy, but they heal the rift between them. |
1474_5 | After Dawson supports Joey through this uneasy period, she apologizes to him, thanks him for putting up with her, and kisses him. Their reignited relationship is put at risk, however, when Dawson finds out that Joey's father is dealing cocaine. After a fire at the restaurant which was started by rivals of Joey's father, Dawson tells his parents who advise him he needs to go to the police. He tells Joey instead. He convinces her to work with the police, and she eventually agrees and get a confession from her father so that nothing like the fire will happen again.
Knowing that she had betrayed her father, she lashes out at Dawson. She breaks up with him and tells him she doesn't even want to know him and that she will never forgive him. |
1474_6 | Season 3
After Dawson returns from visiting his mom over the summer, Joey regrets breaking up with him and offers herself to him. Sensing his hesitancy, she attempts to manipulate him into reigniting the relationship, but Dawson rejects her, fearing another blowout will destroy their friendship permanently. Joey flees and Dawson asks Pacey Witter to keep an eye on her.
Joey takes a job at a Logan's Marina, where she receives unwanted sexual advances from her supervisor, Rob Logan.
Joey struggles with Dawson keeping his distance, and attempts to heal the rift in their shaky friendship. Meanwhile, she finds herself spending more and more time with Pacey. Joey has a brief relationship with a college student, A.J. Moller (Robin Dunne). This relationship makes Pacey jealous, and after she breaks up with A.J., Pacey kisses Joey. Joey is initially angry when Pacey kisses her; however, later forgives him after he apologizes for putting their friendships at risk. |
1474_7 | During a trip to the home of Dawson's aunt, Gwen (Gail's sister), Pacey continues to put himself in Joeys path, trying to convince her she might have feelings for him too. Joey feels a spark after he touches her and Pacey kisses her again. Pacey tells Joey she needs to figure out what she wants and leaves. Joey stops him and pulls Pacey into a kiss, but Dawson's aunt Gwen sees this happen and warns her not to be careless with Dawson’s heart. After this realization, they begin a secret romantic relationship.
Joey grows more anxious the longer she keeps their relationship secret. When Jen accidentally tells Dawson first, he reacts furiously. Dawson confronts the two over their secrets, ends his friendship with Pacey and gives Joey an ultimatum between dating Pacey and saving their friendship. Joey tearfully ends things with Pacey in an effort to cling on to her lifelong friendship with Dawson, leaving all three alone and devastated. |
1474_8 | Dawson and Joey begin to converse again, however, Joey is dismayed that Dawson considers his friendship with Pacey forever destroyed. Dawson decides to win Joey back, including competing in a sailing race with Pacey and throwing an alternative prom with Joey as his date. However, when Dawson witnesses Joey and Pacey share a romantic dance, he leaves devastated. Joey once again chooses her friendship with Dawson and climbs back through his window.
In the season finale, Joey confesses to Dawson that whilst she considers their friendship her first priority, if she thought he might forgive her then she might have continued to pursue a romantic relationship with Pacey. Dawson eventually urges Joey to follow her heart, and with his urging, Joey rushes off to tell Pacey that she is in love with him before he departs for a summer at sea on his boat. She joins Pacey on his boat, the True Love, and the two then sail off into the sunset. |
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