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1474_9 | Season 4
Pacey and Joey return from their summer at sea madly in love, however, Pacey becomes increasingly worried by Joeys eagerness to begin rebuilding her friendship with Dawson. Joey reaches out to Dawson with a symbolic present, and whilst it appears he is moving on from the incident, he isn’t sure whether he wants Joey in his life anymore, leaving her devastated and determined to fix it. |
1474_10 | Joey discovers Pacey has returned to academic probation after irresponsibly skipping summer school, while Joey dreams of admittance to the prestigious Worthington College in Boston. Joey and Pacey continue dating, although their relationship begins to become strained by Joeys determination to rebuild her friendship with Dawson and prioritize his feelings over her relationship. She struggles with watching Dawson move on romantically with Gretchen and continues reaching out to him in an attempt to heal their friendship. She is eventually relieved and delighted that he starts to soften his stance and confide in her again.
On a ski trip with the senior class, Pacey and Joey finally sleep together for the first time, which she struggles with emotionally. She runs into Dawson whilst walking through Capeside, and is delighted when he agrees to spend the night with her. However, she later lies to him about having slept with Pacey. |
1474_11 | Gretchen discovers the lie and confronts Joey over it, to which Joey reacts defensively and possessively, prioritizing her fragile friendship with Dawson over the Witters. Gretchen informs Pacey, leaving their relationship further strained.
Joey is admitted to Worthington but discovers she won’t receive enough financial aid, and confesses her lie to Dawson after he offers to front her a payment from Mr Brooks inheritance. She is beyond relieved when Dawson accepts her apology and reaffirms the survival and importance of their bond. She eventually accepts the money from Dawson to attend Worthington. |
1474_12 | After Joey returns from New York with Jen, she discovers from Gretchen that Pacey was arrested for public drunkenness and that she also believes she may be pregnant. Bessie soon finds out that Joey believes she may be pregnant at Gail's baby shower, and Bessie argues with her about not being ready to have a baby, and having an immature boyfriend who would never cope with a child. Joey later defends herself by saying that whatever happens in her life will be different. Joey does a test and finds out she is not pregnant, but the situation draws the sisters close together. When Joey finally reaches Pacey on the phone, she doesn’t tell him about the pregnancy scare and is disappointed that Pacey didn't tell her about his arrest. |
1474_13 | Pacey grows more and more frustrated by the belief that he’s holding her back and that he feels worthless in their relationship. After seeing Dawson and Joey dancing happily at prom, Pacey explodes at Joey in front of all their peers, leaving her crying and embarrassed. She and Pacey end their relationship. She seeks solace in her reignited friendship with Dawson, and is disappointed that Pacey runs away as a crew member in a boat on the Caribbean.
During the month after graduation, Joey and Dawson throw themselves back into their friendship in an attempt to heal their broken hearts. Joey begins to get over Pacey but becomes increasingly dismayed at Dawson’s impending departure.
On Dawson’s last night in Capeside, he and Joey both feel underwhelmed at their initial goodbye and seek each other out. |
1474_14 | After watching E.T. and reminiscing about the highs and lows of the last four years, Joey tearfully confesses her appreciation for Dawson and their friendship; somehow their bond survived everything and everyone else, including her failed relationship with Pacey. She declares him incredible, compares their friendship to magic, and asks him to stay. He gently reinforces his need to get out of his room and start living his life, and they share a goodbye kiss.
Season 5
Joey begins her first semester at Worthington University in Boston, where she meets and tolerates her new roommate Audrey Liddell. Joey and Dawson are in touch but struggling with interpreting their complicated friendship after their goodbye kiss. Dawson eventually drops out of U.S.C. to move to Boston, exciting Joey about the future. Meanwhile Joey discovers Pacey's presence in Boston and greets him, wanting to try to be friends again and reintegrate him into their friendship group. |
1474_15 | Throwing everyone for a loop, Mitch is killed in a car accident. Joey attempts to support a struggling Dawson as he makes arrangements and hold things together for his family. Joey’s attempts at comforting Dawson clash with his needs, and he asks to be alone. Upon returning to her dorm room in Boston, a crying Joey is comforted by Audrey.
Joey struggles to support Dawson in the coming months and becomes worried when he begins pulling away and leaning on Jen for support. Whilst Jen and Dawson are away for the weekend, Joey catches Jack in a 'bid' to get one of his frat brothers in bed with Audrey during the fraternity's Winter Formal. At a group dinner, she is shocked and secretly devastated when the gang catch Dawson and Jen returning from their weekend away blissfully together, and it becomes apparent they have slept together. Joey confronts Dawson over their failing friendship and is devastated when he confirms he needs space away from her. |
1474_16 | Joey later joins the band, Aggressive Mediocrity, as lead singer with Jen's cheating ex, Charlie Todd (Chad Michael Murray). They embark on a whirlwind romance before she tells him to leave to pursue his dream of being a touring musician. She has an unforgettable run-in with a mugger who gets hit by a car shortly after robbing her at gunpoint. However, when she is requested to be at his side in the hospital, Joey discovers that the mugger is also a drug addict, and has a young daughter, Sammie, with his wife, Grace. When the mugger dies with Joey at his side, she returns to the waiting room, all of her belongings returned, including the money. Thinking of Sammie, whose situation reminds her of the relationship she has with her own father, Joey leaves all the money hidden in Grace's backpack. |
1474_17 | In the aftermath of the incident, Joey is delighted when a concerned and terrified Dawson begins spending time with her again, and she eventually confides in him about her complicated relationship with her professor. Their friendship blooms further after his relationship with Jen ends, and she urges him to join her and their friends for spring break in Florida.
After the semester ends, Joey returns to Capeside with Audrey in tow, and is shocked to discover Dawson had traveled to Florida to reignite their romantic relationship over spring break. Her delight is mellowed by news that Dawson is returning to L.A, and when she confronts Dawson over Florida and he confesses to her that his feelings for her have returned, she rejects him out of fear of holding him back from his life. |
1474_18 | After reading a goodbye note Dawson left for her, she rushes to the airport to intercept him, declaring her love for him but convincing him to go start his life. She passionately kisses him and sends him off. As she goes to get a refund for her gate ticket, she is offered the chance to go to Paris, and the audience is left hanging.
Season 6
It is revealed that Joey didn't end up going to Paris, but went home to Capeside. She had a fling but ended it after he declared he liked her. She hangs out with her friends and is surprised that no one has remembered her birthday. After not talking all summer, she and Dawson meet up and have an incredibly romantic evening. After Dawson surprises her with a birthday present, they kiss and end up sleeping together multiple times over the next day. |
1474_19 | After spending the day together, Joey discovers Dawson has had a casual relationship whilst in California. Despite having her own summer fling, Joey freaks out and uses it as an excuse to push him away again, leaving them both devastated. She later caters his film set and nearly gets him fired. They tearfully part ways, hoping with time and space they will be able to salvage their friendship.
She takes a job as a waitress at Hell's Kitchen, with the help of aspiring drummer, Emma Jones. Joey eventually falls for the bartender, Eddie Doling (Oliver Hudson). They both have a love for writing and literature, but it turns out that he is not officially a student at Worthington, as his family was too poor to afford the tuition.
At Christmas, Joey brings Eddie to the Leery household, where an intoxicated Audrey calls out her, Dawson, and Pacey's complicated history. Dawson and Joey share their first conversation in months, finding solace in each other’s company. |
1474_20 | After Christmas, Eddie disappears without telling Joey, going back to Worcester to live with his parents. In trying to find him, Joey gets some help from Harley Hetson—the 15-year-old, alienated, headstrong daughter of her snobbish and somewhat misogynist English professor, Greg Hetson (Roger Howarth), whom Joey clashes with several times during the entire season. Harley lies, telling Eddie that Joey was pregnant with his child in order to lure him back to Boston. |
1474_21 | Joey and Pacey share a kiss at his apartment during a party. After being locked overnight in a K-Mart together, they discuss their past and current relationship. How they feel uncomfortable talking about sex with each other or how they never discuss their past and how the fact they never had closure impacts them. In an intimate moment Joey shaves his beard. When they go to sleep she tells him a fantasy she had when she was a teenager. In the fantasy they would be castaways in an idyllic island, living their love away from everyone. They share a bittersweet kiss after her confession. Each admits that they miss the other.
However, when Eddie returns from California, Joey ends things with Pacey and reunites with him. Soon, she realizes things are not working with Eddie and the best thing for her is to spend sometime alone thinking about her life. |
1474_22 | Joey returns to Capeside and is delighted to read Dawson’s new screenplay. She visits the Leery house and reignites her friendship with Dawson. After a great day together, she is devastated at Paceys revelation of losing Dawson’s money. She tries to keep them calm, but they explode at each other again, reigniting their years-old fued and leaving all three alone and devastated once again.
Joey takes it upon herself to pick up a devastated and despondent Dawson and manages to gather enough hands and equipment for him to begin production. When Pacey tries to use her as an in-between to give him money, Joey refuses to get in the middle again. She spends her last night in Capeside with Dawson, before finally flying to Paris. Before leaving she secretly schemes to get Pacey and Dawson together, hoping her absence will help them to finally repair their friendship without her in the middle.
Series finale |
1474_23 | The final two episodes are set approximately five years after the season finale. Joey is a junior editor living in New York with her writer boyfriend, Christopher (Jeremy Sisto). Joey returns to Capeside for Gail Leery's wedding to her new husband, which her old high school friends are attending, including her soulmate.
The five friends reunite at Pacey's restaurant to reminisce about the past. Afterwards, Joey once again finds herself at Dawson's house, feeling like she didn’t get enough alone time with her oldest friend. The two talk at length about their lives and relationships, cementing their friendship once again. She sleeps over, like she has so many times before, before leaving to prepare for the wedding. |
1474_24 | During Gail's wedding reception, Joey and Pacey kiss (reigniting lingering feelings between the two), but the moment is interrupted when Jen collapses. It is later discovered that Jen has a deadly heart condition. The night she finds out, she races over to find solace with Dawson.
Joey, Pacey and Dawson each play important roles in Jens last days. Joey comforts a distraught Dawson after he helps Jen film a video for her daughter Amy, whilst Jen insists Joey deal with her feelings and decide what she wants once and for all. Joey ends her relationship with Christopher. She finds herself at Paceys restaurant and the two have an honest conversation. Whilst he is prepared to let her go, she stops him. Joey tells him that she loves Dawson, she acknowledges that he is her soulmate, he is tied to her childhood, a love that is pure, eternally innocent and necessary to her life.
She also confesses her love for Pacey, which confuses him. They are interrupted before she can clarify... |
1474_25 | Joey visits Dawson at the Leery house, where he is crying whilst remembering Jen's first day in Capeside. The two discuss work, love, and life, and both verbalise the importance of their bond to their lives. Dawson acknowledges that whether or not they end up together - "In some ungodly way... its always gonna be you and me". Joey declares Dawson her soulmate, and as they watch their younger siblings play like Joey and Dawson did so many years ago, Joey tearfully tells him she loves him. He reciprocates, and through her tears she declares -
“You and me, always.”
They smile and cry, delighted that their childhood bond has survived the complications of growing up.
—EPILOGUE—
Weeks later, whilst watching the season finale of “The Creek” from Joey's New York apartment, it is revealed that Joey and Pacey have reconciled and are apparently living together. |
1474_26 | They call Dawson immediately after, having reconciled their friendships. Dawson reveals that tomorrow he is going to meet his hero, Steven Spielberg, and Pacey and Joey converse ecstatically with him as the camera pans to a photograph of Dawson, Joey, Jen and Pacey from Season 4. |
1474_27 | Notable relationships
Anderson Crawford
Fling
Beginning: "Kiss" (1.03)
Broke Up: "Kiss" (1.03)
Reason: They didn't continue because he went back to boarding school.
Dawson Leery
Kiss
"Detention" (1.07)
Reason: They were dared to kiss each other despite him being with Jen.
Kiss
‘’’”Boyfriend”’’’ (1.08)
Reason: Joey was drunk and laying down when she pulled Dawson in for a kiss while he was talking about their complicated relationship.
"Coda" (4.23)
Reason: They kiss to mark the beginning of the next phase of their lives.
"High Anxiety" (5.06)
Reason: Joey kiss him to show that she still believes they can find each other in the future.
Boyfriend
First Relationship:
Beginning: "Decisions" (1.13)
End: "The Dance" (2.06)
Reason: After Jack kisses her, she gets confused about who she really is and what she wants.
Second Relationship:
Beginning: "A Perfect Wedding" (2.18)
End: "Parental Discretion Advised" (2.22) |
1474_28 | Reason: Dawson convinced her to get her father to confess to burning down the ice house and she blames him for it.
Third Relationship:
Beginning: "The Kids Are Alright" (6.01)
End: "The Song Remains The Same" (6.02)
Reason: After they sleep together, she finds out he had a summer fling.
Jack McPhee
Kiss
"Full Moon Rising" (2.05)
Reason: She was still with Dawson.
Boyfriend
Beginning: "The Reluctant Hero" (2.08)
Broke Up: "...That Is The Question" (2.15)
Reason: He finds out after writing a poem that he's gay
A.J. Moller
Boyfriend
Beginning: "Northern Lights" (3.13)
Broke Up: "Cinderella Story" (3.17)
Reason: Didn't continue to be a couple because she finds out his best friend loves him and he loves her but doesn't know it yet.
Pacey Witter
Kissed
"Double Date" (1.10)
Reason: Joey was in love with Dawson.
Kissed
"Cinderella Story" (3.17)
"Neverland" (3.18)
Reason: She pulls away angrily that he has violated her boundaries.
Boyfriend
First Relationship: |
1474_29 | Beginning: "Stolen Kisses" (3.19)
End: "The Longest Day" (3.20)
Reason: Dawson gives her an ultimatum and she chooses their friendship.
Second Relationship:
Beginning: "True Love" (3.23)
End: "Promicide" (4.20)
Reason: Pacey evicerates Joey in front of their peers at the prom.
Third Relationship:
Beginning: Castaways" (6.15)
End: "Love Bites" (6.18)
Reason: Joey chooses her boyfriend over him.
Fourth Relationship:
Beginning: ...Must Come To An End" (6.24)
Note: Jen tells Joey her final wish is for Joey to stop running away. Jen's death motivates Joey to reunite with Pacey.
Drue Valentine
Kissed
Beginning: "The Tao of Dawson" (4.11)
End: "The Tao of Dawson" (4.11)
note: they got locked in a storage locker together, he caught her when she fell and kissed her. She pushed him away immediately, and punched him. She was in love with Pacey.
Charlie Todd
Kissed
Beginning: "Something wild" (5.11)
Broke Up: "Something wild" (5.11)
Reason: Because he cheated on Jen.
Fling |
1474_30 | Beginning: "100 Light Years From Home" (5.19)
Broke Up: "Separate Ways (Worlds Apart)" (5.20)
Reason: She tells him to go off and fulfill his dream of being a musician
Elliot
Almost Fling but never kissed
Beginning: "Sleeping Arrangements" (5.12)
Broke Up: "Guerrilla Filmmaking" (5.14)
Reason: She met him when she wasn't over Dawson. Then she thought he slept with Audrey, and after finding out he never slept with her, she gives him another second chance. But she later bails on a date with him (by claiming she was sick) to go to a thing with Wilder who she later kissed and the next day tells him she can't go out with him off-screen.
Professor David Wilder
Kissed/Almost Fling
Beginning: "Something Wilder" (5.13)
Broke Up: "In A Lonely Place" (5.16)
Reason: Joey inadvertently stands David up after getting mugged. This gives him the time to reflect upon the relationship and he realizes that he can't have an affair with a student.
Eddie Doling
First Kiss: |
1474_31 | "Instant Karma!" (6.04)
Eddie thinks she only kissed him to get back at Dawson; so it doesn't lead to anything until later episodes.
Boyfriend
First Relationship:
Beginning: "Ego Tripping At The Gates Of Hell" (6.07)
Broke Up: "Rock Bottom" (6.13)
Reason: He left without telling her
Second Relationship:
Beginning: "Love Bites" (6.18)
Broke Up: "Catch-22" (6.20)
Reason: They didn't see a future with each other
Christopher
Boyfriend
Beginning: About a year or two before "All Good Things..." (6.23)
End: "...Must Come To An End" (6.24)
Reason: Joey breaks up with him over the phone after having found a ring in his drawer back in New York. |
1474_32 | Holmes' thoughts on Joey Potter
"I'm a lot like Joey," said Holmes. "I think they saw that. I come from a small town. I was a tomboy. Joey tries to be articulate and deny that she doesn't have a lot of experience in life. Her life parallels mine, which is all about new everything—relationships, personal perceptions—and about being guarded." Holmes filmed the pilot of Dawson's Creek in Wilmington, North Carolina, during spring break of her senior year of high school in 1997. When the show was picked up by The WB, Holmes moved to Wilmington, where the show filmed.
Dawson's Creek ran from 1998 to 2003, and Holmes was the only actor to appear in all 128 episodes. "It was very difficult for me to leave Wilmington, to have my little glass bubble burst and move on. I hate change. On the other hand it was refreshing to play someone else," she said in 2004. Holmes confirmed that, as often happens on soaps, the character was a caricature of the actor:
Reception |
1474_33 | "Joey Potter is a headstrong, vibrant, wily, sultry, and determined go-getter. And yet, in a gloriously contradictory manner, in spite of her tough-as-nails exterior demeanor, Joey's also a frail, sometimes uncertain, emotionally sensitive, in-need-of-love person", said the show's official book. Joey, named for Jo in Little Women, for years had been climbing in Dawson's bedroom window and platonically sharing his bed. Joey's mother had died from cancer when Joey was thirteen and her father, Mike (Gareth Williams), was in prison for "conspiracy to traffic in marijuana in excess of 10,000 pounds." Her harried, unmarried, and very pregnant sister, Bessie (Nina Repeta), about ten years older than Joey, was raising her while running the Ice House restaurant, where Joey worked as a waitress. GQ described Joey as "kind of an uptight fussbudget—one who's always twisted up over doing the right thing and bungling-up ways to hook up with her crush and across the creek neighbor, Dawson." |
1474_34 | The tall brunette enchanted the press, writers of both sexes commenting how Holmes was the sort of girl one wants to bring home to meet the parents and to marry. "The Audrey Hepburn of her generation", was one typical comment. Time called her "impossibly lovely" and Entertainment Weekly said she was "next up for idolhood." Variety, reviewing the pilot, said Holmes "is a confident young performer who delivers her lines with slyness and conviction." Holmes made such an impression in Hollywood, The New York Times Magazine claimed everyone was seeking to cast a "Katie Holmes type", who, the reporter claimed, "is a throwback to the 1950s: she is a smart girl next door (as opposed to the babe-o-rama blondes)"—the sort represented by her Dawson's Creek co-star Michelle Williams. But her "type" was no less attractive, Arena magazine declaring her "the most coquettishly sexy woman on television. Anywhere." |
1474_35 | Holmes was soon on the covers of magazines such as Seventeen, TV Guide, and Rolling Stone. Jancee Dunn, an editor at Rolling Stone said she was chosen for the cover because "every time you mention Dawson's Creek you tend to get a lot of dolphin-like shrieks from teenage girls. The fact that she is drop-dead gorgeous didn't hurt either."
Reviews were mixed. The Blade said the characters "just talk like they came from a planet ruled by Manhattan psychologists, one where small talk is punishable by death." Holmes herself needed help with the dialogue. "Sometimes before we read a script, I have to get my dictionary and call people to make sure I'm pronouncing some of the words correctly." The show brought her national attention and many fans back home; Toledo's Thanksgiving Day parade in November 1998 had record attendance when Holmes was named grand marshal. |
1474_36 | "As Joey", said Life magazine, "Holmes has had seismic influences on teen life... Through it all, Joey has managed to hang on to her integrity... The show—and Katie's character in particular—has touched a nerve."
Her Season 3 arc with Pacey is often praised in pop culture. Jezebel said "their screwball dynamic, coupled with actors Katie Holmes and Joshua Jackson’s untapped chemistry and an intricately plotted courtship subverted everything expected of the show. It unsurprisingly still resonates with so many millennial women who grew up watching the series. There was a time when we had come for the angst, but now we were staying for the romance.". They were included in TV Guide's list of "The Best TV Couples of All Time". They are also in MsMojo's lists "Top 10 Cutest Teen Drama Couples" and "Top 10 Iconic TV Couples of the 2000s". And also featured on the Buzzfeed's "19 Friends-To-Lovers TV Couples That Stole Fans' Hearts" list.
Notes
References |
1474_37 | Fictional characters from Massachusetts
Dawson's Creek characters
Fictional writers
Television characters introduced in 1998
Teenage characters in television
pl:Jezioro marzeń#Joey Potter |
1475_0 | A campfire is a fire at a campsite that provides light and warmth, and heat for cooking. It can also serve as a beacon, and an insect and predator deterrent. Established campgrounds often provide a stone or steel fire ring for safety. Campfires are a popular feature of camping. At summer camps, the word campfire often refers to an event (ceremony, get together, etc.) at which there is a fire. Some camps refer to the fire itself as a campfire.
History |
1475_1 | First campfire
A new analysis of burned antelope bones from caves in Swartkrans, South Africa, confirms that Australopithecus robustus and/or Homo erectus built campfires roughly 1.6 million years ago. Nearby evidence within Wonderwerk Cave, at the edge of the Kalahari Desert, has been called the oldest known controlled fire. Microscopic analysis of plant ash and charred bone fragments suggests that materials in the cave were not heated above about . This is consistent with preliminary findings that the fires burned grasses, brush, and leaves. Such fuel would not produce hotter flames. The data suggests humans were cooking prey by campfire as far back as the first appearance of Homo erectus 1.9 million years ago.
Safety
Finding a site |
1475_2 | Ideally, campfires should be made in a fire ring. If a fire ring is not available, a temporary fire site may be constructed. Bare rock or unvegetated ground is ideal for a fire site. Alternatively, turf may be cut away to form a bare area and carefully replaced after the fire has cooled to minimize damage. Another way is to cover the ground with sand, or other soil mostly free of flammable organic material, to a depth of a few inches. A ring of rocks is sometimes constructed around a fire. Fire rings, however, do not fully protect material on the ground from catching fire. Flying embers are still a threat, and the fire ring may become hot enough to ignite material in contact with it, or the heat the water to a vapor thereby cracking the rocks. |
1475_3 | Safety measures
Campfires can spark wildfires. As such, it is important for the fire builder to take multiple safety precautions, including:
Avoiding building campfires under hanging branches or over steep slopes, and clear a ten-foot diameter circle around the fire of all flammable debris.
Having enough water nearby and a shovel to smother an out-of-control fire with dirt.
Minimizing the size of the fire to prevent problems from occurring.
Never leaving a campfire unattended.
When extinguishing a campfire, using plenty of water or dirt, then stirring the mixture and add more water, then check that there are no burning embers left whatsoever.
Never bury hot coals, as they can continue to burn and cause root fires or wildfires. Be aware of roots if digging a hole for your fire.
Making sure the fire pit is large enough for the campfire and there are no combustibles near the campfire, and avoiding the construction of the campfire on a windy day. |
1475_4 | Types of fuel
There are three types of material involved in building a fire without manufactured fuels or modern conveniences such as lighters. |
1475_5 | Tinder lights easily and is used to start an enduring campfire. It is anything that can be lit with a spark and is usually classified as being thinner than your little finger. The tinder of choice before matches and lighters was amadou next to flint and steel. A few decent natural tinders are cotton, birch bark, cedar bark, and fatwood, where available; followed by dead, dry pine needles or grass; a more comprehensive list is given in the article on tinder. Though not natural steel wool make excellent tinder and can be started with steel and flint, or a 9 volt battery without difficulty. |
1475_6 | Kindling wood is an arbitrary classification including anything bigger than tinder but smaller than fuel wood. In fact, there are gradations of kindling, from sticks thinner than a finger to those as thick as a wrist. A quantity of kindling sufficient to fill a hat may be enough, but more is better. A faggot is a related term indicating a bundle of small branches used to feed a small fire or continue developing a bigger fire out of a small one. |
1475_7 | Fuel wood can be different types of timber. Timber ranges from small logs two or three inches (76 mm) across to larger logs that can burn for hours. It is typically difficult to gather without a hatchet or other cutting tool. In heavily used campsites, fuel wood can be hard to find, so it may have to purchased at a nearby store or be brought from home. However, untreated wood should not be transported due to the probability that invasive species of bugs will be transported with it. Heat-treated wood such as kiln-dried lumber is safe to transport. |
1475_8 | In the United States, areas that allow camping, like State Parks and National Parks, often let campers collect firewood lying on the ground. Some parks do not do this for various reasons, e.g. if they have erosion problems from campgrounds near dunes. Parks almost always forbid cutting living trees, and may also prohibit collecting dead parts of standing trees.
In most realistic cases nowadays, non-natural additions to the fuels mentioned above will be used. Often, charcoal lighters like hexamine fuel tablets or ethyl alcohol will be used to start the fire, as well as various types of scrap paper. With the proliferation of packaged food, it is quite likely that plastics will be incinerated as well, a practice that not only produces toxic fumes but will also leave polluted ashes behind because of incomplete combustion at too-low open fire temperatures.
Construction styles |
1475_9 | There are a variety of designs to choose from in building a campfire. A functional design is important in the early stages of a fire. Most of them make no mention of fuelwood—in most designs, fuelwood is never placed on a fire until the kindling is burning strongly.
Teepee |
1475_10 | The tipi (or teepee) fire-build takes some patience to construct. First, the tinder is piled up in a compact heap. The smaller kindling is arranged around it, like the poles of a tipi. For added strength, it may be possible to lash some of the sticks together. A tripod lashing is quite difficult to execute with small sticks, so a clove hitch should suffice. (Synthetic rope should be avoided since it produces pollutants when it burns.) Then the larger kindling is arranged above the smaller kindling, taking care not to collapse the tipi. A separate tipi as a shell around the first one may work better. Tipi fires are excellent for producing heat to keep people warm. The gases from the bottom quickly come to the top as you add more sticks.
One downside to a Tipi fire is that when it burns, the logs become unstable and can fall over. This is especially concerning with a large fire. |
1475_11 | Log cabin
A log cabin fire-build likewise begins with a tinder pile. The kindling is then stacked around it, as in the construction of a log cabin. The first two kindling sticks are laid parallel to each other, on opposite sides of the tinder pile. The second pair is laid on top of the first, at right angles to it, and also on opposite sides of the tinder. More kindling is added in the same manner. The smallest kindling is placed over the top of the assembly. Of all the fire-builds, the log cabin is the least vulnerable to premature collapse, but it is also inefficient because it makes the worst use of convection to ignite progressively larger pieces of fuel. However, these qualities make the log cabin an ideal cooking fire as it burns for a long period of time and can support cookware. |
1475_12 | A variation on the log cabin starts with two pieces of fuelwood with a pile of tinder between them, and small kindling laid over the tops of the logs, above the tinder. The tinder is lit, and the kindling is allowed to catch fire. When it is burning briskly, it is broken and pushed down into the consumed tinder, and the larger kindling is placed over the top of the logs. When that is burning well, it is also pushed down. Eventually, a pile of kindling burns between two pieces of fuelwood, and soon the logs catch fire from it.
Another variation is called the funeral pyre method because it is used for building funeral pyres. Its main difference from the standard log cabin is that it starts with thin pieces and moves up to thick pieces. If built on a large scale, this type of fire-build collapses in a controlled manner without restricting the airflow.
Hybrid |
1475_13 | A hybrid fire combines the elements of both the tipi and the log cabin creating an easily lit yet stable fire structure. The hybrid is made by first erecting a small tipi and then proceeding to construct a log cabin around it. This fire structure combines benefits of both fire types: the tipi allows the fire to ignite easily and the log cabin sustains the fire for a long time.
Cross-fire
A cross-fire is built by positioning two pieces of wood with the tinder in between. Once the fire is burning well, additional pieces of wood are placed on top in layers that alternate directions. This type of fire creates coals suitable for cooking.
Lean-to
A lean-to fire-build starts with the same pile of tinder as the tipi fire-build. Then, a long, thick piece of kindling is driven into the ground at an angle, so that it overhangs the tinder pile. The smaller pieces of kindling are leaned against the big stick so that the tinder is enclosed between them. |
1475_14 | In an alternative method, a large piece of fuelwood or log can be placed on the ground next to the tinder pile. Then kindling is placed with one end propped up by the larger piece of fuelwood, and the other resting on the ground so that the kindling is leaning over the tinder pile. This method is useful in very high winds, as the piece of fuel wood acts as a windbreak.
Rakovalkea
The traditional Finnish rakovalkea (), or nying in Scandinavian languages, also called by English terms long log fire or gap fire, is constructed by placing one long and thick piece of fuelwood (log) atop another, parallel, and bolstering them in place with four sturdy posts driven into the ground. Traditionally, whole un-split tree trunks provide the fuelwood. Kindling and tinder are placed between the logs in sufficient quantity (while avoiding the very ends) to raise the upper log and allow ventilation. The tinder is always lit at the center so the bolstering posts near the ends do not burn prematurely. |
1475_15 | The rakovalkea has two significant features. First, it burns slowly but steadily when lit; it does not require arduous maintenance, but burns for a very long time. A well constructed rakovalkea of two thick logs of two meters in length can warm two lean-to shelters for a whole sleeping shift. The construction causes the logs themselves to protect the fire from the wind. Thus, exposure to smoke is unlikely for the sleepers; nevertheless someone should always watch in case of an emergency. Second, it can be easily scaled to larger sizes (for a feast) limited only by the length of available tree trunks. The arrangement is also useful as beacon fire, i.e. a temporary light signal for ships far in the sea.
Swedish torch
The Swedish torch (Schwedenfackel or Schwedenfeuer) is also known by other names, including Swedish (log) candle, and Swedish log stove. |
1475_16 | This fire is unique because it uses only one piece of fair-sized wood as its fuel. The log is either cut (usually only partially, but other variants do include totally splitting) and then set upright (ideally, the log needs to be cut evenly and on a level surface for stability). Tinder and kindling are added to the preformed chamber, from the initial cuts. Eventually, the fire is self-feeding. The flat, circular top provides a surface to place a kettle, or pan for cooking, boiling liquids, etc. The elevated position of the fire can serve as a better beacon than the typical ground-based campfire in some instances.
Keyhole fire
A keyhole fire is made in a keyhole-shaped fire ring, and is used in cooking. The large round area is used to build a fire to create coals. As coals develop, they are scraped into the rectangular area used for cooking. |
1475_17 | Top lighter
A "top lighter" fire is built similar to a log cabin or pyre, but instead of the tinder and kindling being placed inside the cabin, it is placed in a tipi on top. The small tipi is lighted on top, and the coals eventually fall down into the log cabin. Outdoor youth organizations often build these fires for "council fires" or ceremonial fires. They burn predictably, and with some practice a builder can estimate how long they will last. They also do not throw off much heat, which isn't needed for a ceremonial fire. The fire burns from the top down, with the layer of hot coals and burning stubs igniting the next layer down. |
1475_18 | Another variation to the top lighter, log cabin, or pyre is known by several names, most notably the pyramid, self-feeding, and upside-down [method]. The reasoning for this method are twofold. First, the layers of fuelwood take in the heat from the initial tinder/kindling, therefore, it is not lost to the surrounding ground. In effect, the fire is "off the ground", and burns its way down through its course. And secondly, this fire type requires minimal labor, thereby making it ideal as a fire of choice before bedding down for the evening without having to get up periodically to add fuelwood and/or stoke the fire to keep it going. Start by adding the largest fuelwood in a parallel "layer", then continue to add increasingly smaller and smaller fuelwood layers perpendicularly to the last layer. Once enough wood is piled, there should be a decent "platform" to make the tipi [tinder/kindling] to initiate the fire.
Dakota smokeless pit fire |
1475_19 | Dakota smokeless pit fire is a tactical fire used by the United States military as the flame produces a low light signature, reduced smoke, and is easier to ignite under strong wind conditions. Two small holes are dug in the ground: one vertical for the firewood and the other slanted to the bottom of the first hole to provide a draft of air for nearly complete combustion. Optional are flat stones to partially cover the first hole and provide support for cookery, and a tree over the pits to disperse the smoke.
Star Fire
A Star Fire, or Indian Fire, is the fire design often depicted as the campfire of the old West. Someone lays six or so logs out like the spokes of a wheel (star-shaped). They start the fire at the "hub," and push each log towards the center as the flames consume the ends.
Ignition |
1475_20 | Once the fire is built, the tinder is lighted, using one of several methods
smoking black powder produced by friction between a stick, or bow drill, or pump drill and a hole or crack on dry wood,
a magnifying glass focusing sunlight,
smoking material produced by a fire piston,
smoking black powder produced by a bamboo fire saw
smoking material produced by a fire roll (small amount of cotton mixed with ash or iron rust, rolled vigorously between two flat stones or planks, until it starts smoking),
smoking material produced by a piece of flint or ferro-rod struck against steel over amadou or other initial tinder, or
an ignition device, such as a match or a lighter.
A reasonably skilful fire-builder using reasonably good material only needs one match. The tinder burns brightly, but reduced to glowing embers within half a minute. If the kindling does not catch fire, the fire-builder must gather more tinder, determine what went wrong and try to fix it. |
1475_21 | One of five problems can prevent a fire from lighting properly: wet wood, wet weather, too little tinder, too much wind, or a lack of oxygen. Rain will douse a fire, but a combination of wind and fog also has a stifling effect. Metal fire rings generally do a good job of keeping out wind, but some of them are so high as to impede the circulation of oxygen in a small fire. To make matters worse, these tall fire rings also make it very difficult to blow on the fire properly.
A small, enclosed fire that has slowed down may require vigorous blowing to get it going again, but excess blowing can extinguish a fire. Most large fires easily create their own circulation, even in unfavourable conditions, but the variant log-cabin fire-build suffers from a chronic lack of air so long as the initial structure is maintained.
Once large kindling is burning, all kindling is placed in the fire, then the fuel wood is placed on top of it (unless, as in the rakovalkea fire-build, it is already there). |
1475_22 | Activities
Campfires have been used for cooking since time immemorial. Possibly the simplest method of cooking over a campfire and one of the most common is to roast food on long skewers that can be held above red glowing embers, or on the side near the flames (not over flames in order to avoid soot contamination and burnt food). This is a popular technique for cooking hot dogs or toasting marshmallows for making s'mores. This type of cooking over the fire typically consists of comfort foods that are easy to prepare. There is also no clean up involved unlike an actual kitchen. Another technique is to use pie irons—small iron molds with long handles. Campers put slices of bread with some kind of filling into the molds and put them over hot coals to cook. Campers sometimes use elaborate grills, cast iron pots, and fire irons to cook. Often, however, they use portable stoves for cooking instead of campfires. |
1475_23 | Other practical, though not commonly needed, applications for campfires include drying wet clothing, alleviating hypothermia, and distress signaling. Most campfires, though, are exclusively for recreation, often as a venue for conversation, storytelling, or song. Another traditional campfire activity involves impaling marshmallows on sticks or uncoiled wire coat hangers, and roasting them over the fire. Roasted marshmallows may also be used for s'mores.
Dangers |
1475_24 | Beside the danger of people receiving burns from the fire or embers, campfires may spread into a larger fire. A campfire may burn out of control in two basic ways: on the ground or in the trees. Dead leaves or pine needles on the ground may ignite from direct contact with burning wood, or from thermal radiation. If a root, particularly a dead one, is exposed to fire, it may smoulder underground and ignite the parent tree long after the original fire is doused and the campers have left the area. Alternatively, airborne embers (or their smaller kin, sparks) may ignite dead material in overhanging branches. This latter threat is less likely, but a fire in a branch is extremely difficult to put out without firefighting equipment, and may spread more quickly than a ground fire. |
1475_25 | Embers may simply fall off logs and float away in the air, or exploding pockets of sap may eject them at high speed. With these dangers in mind, some places prohibit all open fires, particularly at times prone to wildfires.
Many public camping areas prohibit campfires. Public areas with large tracts of woodland usually have signs that indicate the fire danger level, which usually depends on recent rain and the amount of deadfall or dry debris. Even in safer times, it is common to require registration and permits to build a campfire. Such areas are often kept under observation by rangers, who will dispatch someone to investigate any unidentified plume of smoke. |
1475_26 | Extinguishing the fire
Leaving a fire unattended can be dangerous. Any number of accidents might occur in the absence of people, leading to property damage, personal injury or possibly a wildfire. Ash is a good insulator, so embers left overnight only lose a fraction of their heat. It is often possible to restart the new day's fire using the embers.
To properly cool a fire, water is splashed on all embers, including places that are not glowing red. Splashing the water is both more effective and efficient in extinguishing the fire. The water boils violently and carries ash in the air with it, dirtying anything nearby but not posing a safety hazard. Water is continuously poured until the hissing stops, then the ashes are stirred to ensure that water reaches the entire fire, and more water is added if necessary. When the fire is fully extinguished, the ashes are cool to the touch. |
1475_27 | If water is scarce, sand is used to deprive the fire of oxygen. Sand works well, but is less effective than water at absorbing heat. Once the fire is covered thoroughly with sand, water is then added over the fire.
When winter or "snow" camping with an inch or more of snow on the ground, neither of the above protocols are necessary—simply douse visible flames before leaving. In lightly used wilderness areas, the area around the campfire is cleaned up to make it look untouched after the fire is extinguished.
Campfire ashes are sometimes used in ceremonies like the Scouting campfire ash ceremony.
Gallery
See also
Camping
Campfire story
Colored fire
Fire pan
Outdoor cooking
References
External links
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
Fireplaces
Camping
Procedural knowledge
Survival skills
Primitive technology
Types of fire
Light sources
Insect repellents |
1476_0 | Polycephaly is the condition of having more than one head. The term is derived from the Greek stems poly (Greek: "πολύ") meaning "many" and kephalē (Greek: "κεφαλή") meaning "head". A polycephalic organism may be thought of as one being with a supernumerary body part, or as two or more beings with a shared body.
Two-headed animals (called bicephalic or dicephalic) and three-headed (tricephalic) animals are the only type of multi-headed creatures seen in the real world, and form by the same process as conjoined twins from monozygotic twin embryos.
In humans, there are two forms of twinning that can lead to two heads being supported by a single torso. In dicephalus parapagus dipus, the two heads are side by side. In craniopagus parasiticus, the two heads are joined directly to each other, but only one head has a functional torso. Survival to adulthood is rare, but does occur in some forms of dicephalus parapagus dipus. |
1476_1 | There are many occurrences of multi-headed animals in mythology. In heraldry and vexillology, the double-headed eagle is a common symbol, though no such animal is known to have ever existed.
Occurrences
Two-headed people and animals, though rare, have long been known to exist and documented.
Occurrence in humans
In humans, as in other animals, partial twinning can result in formation of two heads supported by a single torso. Two ways this can happen are dicephalus parapagus, where there are two heads side by side, and craniopagus parasiticus, where the heads are joined directly. |
1476_2 | Dicephalus parapagus dipus
In dicephalus parapagus dipus, the two heads are side by side, on a torso with two legs, with varying levels of twinning of organs and structures within the torso. The shared body may have four arms altogether, or three arms, or two arms only. There are Greek-based medical terms for the variations, e.g. dibrachius means two-armed, tribrachius means three-armed. Both heads may contain a fully formed brain, or one may be anencephalic.
If carried to term, dicephalus parapagus twins are usually stillborn, or die soon after birth. Survival to adulthood does however occasionally occur in cases where the twins are born with three to four arms. Chances of survival are improved if two complete hearts are present. Separation surgery is contraindicated, except in cases where one of the twins is clearly dying. |
1476_3 | Giacomo and Giovanni Battista Tocci (born between 1875 and 1877), were dicephalus parapagus dipus twins who survived to adulthood. Each had his own pair of arms. They learned to speak several languages, but never learned to walk. Abigail and Brittany Hensel, born in 1990, are another instance of dicephalus parapagus dipus twins who grew up. They were born with two functional arms, plus a vestigial third arm, which was surgically removed. Each twin has her own complete head, heart and spine, and controls one arm and one leg. They developed good motor skills, and completed courses at school and university.
Craniopagus parasiticus |
1476_4 | Craniopagus parasiticus is an extremely rare condition in which the two heads are joined directly together, and one twin (known as the autosite) has a functioning torso, while the other (known as the parasite) has only a vestigial torso. The parasite is supported by blood supplied from the autosite head. This threatens the life of the autosite by placing an additional burden on the autosite's vital organs. Operations to separate the two heads have been performed in the hope of saving the autosite.
Occurrence in animals |
1476_5 | Polycephalic animals often make local news headlines when found. The most commonly observed two-headed animals are turtles and snakes. Other species with known two-headed occurrences include cattle, sheep, pigs, cats, dogs, and fish. In 1894, a two-headed partridge was reported in Boston, Massachusetts. It was notable as a dicephalic animal for surviving into adulthood with two perfect heads. Scientists have published in modern journals about dissecting such animals since at least the 1930s. A 1929 paper studied the anatomy of a two-headed kitten. |
1476_6 | Polycephalic animals, due to their rarity, are a subject of novelty. "We", a two-headed albino rat snake born in captivity in 2000 with both female and male genitalia, was scheduled to be auctioned on eBay with an expected price tag of $150,000 (£87,000), though their policy of not trading in live animals prevented the sale. On October 31, 2006, the World Aquarium announced that "We" was adopted by Nutra Pharma Corporation, a biotechnology company developing treatments using modified cobra venom and cobratoxin. "We" died of natural causes at age eight in June 2007, not long after being acquired by Nutra Pharma. |
1476_7 | Two-headed farm animals sometimes travel with animal side shows to county fairs. Most notably, The Venice Beach Freakshow supposedly houses the largest collection of two-headed specimens in the world, including over 20 two-headed animals that are alive. Many museums of natural history contain preserved two-headed animals. The Museum of Lausanne in Lausanne, Switzerland, and the Ripley's Believe It Or Not! museum in Gatlinburg, Tennessee, have collections of preserved two-headed animals. A very well preserved 2-headed lamb is on display in Llanidloes museum in Wales. A live two-headed turtle named Janus can be seen at the Natural History Museum in Geneva, Switzerland.
Anatomy and fitness |
1476_8 | In cases where multiple heads are fully developed and non-parasitic, they share control of the organs and limbs, though the specific structure of the connections varies. Animals often move in a disoriented and dizzy fashion, with the brains "arguing" with each other; some animals simply zig-zag without getting anywhere. Snake heads may attack and even attempt to swallow each other. Thus, polycephalic animals survive poorly in the wild compared to normal monocephalic animals.
Most two-headed snakes only live for a few months, though some have been reported to live a full life and even reproduced, with the offspring born normal. A two-headed black rat snake with separate throats and stomachs survived for 20 years. A two-headed albino rat snake named "We" survived in captivity for 8 years. There is some speculation that the inbreeding of snakes in captivity increases the chances of a two-headed birth.
One or two beings? |
1476_9 | It is difficult to draw the line between what is considered "one animal with two heads" or "two animals that share a body".
Abigail and Brittany Hensel were given two distinct names at birth. They identify as two people, and are recognised as two people legally and socially. On the other hand, Syafitri, born 2006 in Indonesia, were given one name by their parents because they only had one heart. In early Germany, conjoined twins that could not be separated were legally considered one person. Millie and Christine McKoy were often referred to in the singular, including by themselves, with the name "Millie-Christine", as well as plural. |
1476_10 | In Peter Mogila’s 17-century Catechism, the following instructions are given for baptism of polycephalic infants: should there be distinct heads and distinct chests, this means there are separate people each of whom must be baptised normally; if the heads and chests aren’t completely distinct from each other, however, one person must be baptised normally but baptism of the other(s) should be precluded by the formula "if not already baptised".
With other animals, polycephaly is usually described as "one animal with two heads". One of the heads, especially in three-headed animals, may be poorly developed and malformed, and not "participate" much.
Two faces on one head
Where twinning of the head itself is only partial, it can result in the condition known as diprosopus—one head with two faces.
Earliest known occurrence |
1476_11 | The February 22, 2007, issue of the journal Biology Letters detailed the discovery of a 122 million-year-old fossil of a two-headed Hyphalosaurus lingyuanensis, marking the earliest known occurrence of axial bifurcation.
List of recent occurrences
Humans |
1476_12 | Dicephalic conjoined twins (dicephalus parapagus dipus)
In 1990 Abigail and Brittany Hensel were born in Minnesota, United States.
In 2000 Ayse and Sema Tanrikulu were born in Kahramanmaraş, Turkey
In June 2000 Carmen and Lupita Andrade were born in Veracruz, Mexico. They later moved to the United States for healthcare with their parents.
In 2003 Sohna and Mohna were born in India
On June 13, 2003, twin girls named Huda and Manal Abdel Nasser Mohammed Mahmoud, were born in Asyut, Egypt
In 2006 Syafitri was born in Indonesia
In 2007 Mary Grace and Mary Divine Asis were born in the Philippines with only one heart. They died on April 30, 2008.
On August 25, 2008, a baby boy named Kiron was born with two heads in south-western Bangladesh. The baby was described by the gynaecologist present at the birth as having "one stomach and he is eating normally with his two mouths. He has one genital organ and a full set of limbs". He died on August 28, 2009. |
1476_13 | In July 2009, dicephalic twins were born in Indonesia with two hearts but sharing all other internal organs.
In 2011 Sueli Ferreira gave birth to a child with two heads in Campina in Paraiba state, Brazil, but the baby died a few hours later because of lack of oxygen to one of the heads.
On December 19, 2011, a pair of male twins, Emanoel and Jesus Nazare, were born in Marajó Island, Brazil. The children had two heads, two legs and two arms, sharing all the body below the neck. Each child had a separate spine, but shared a heart, liver, lungs and pelvis, and both brains functioned. The boys appeared on the Channel 4 programme Bodyshock on December 19, 2012, where it was reported they had died at six months.
In March 2014 dicephalic twin girls were delivered via caesarian section at Cygnus JK Hindu Hospital in Sonipat, Haryana, in northern India. The babies reportedly have two heads, two necks and two spinal columns but share all major organs. |
1476_14 | Craniopagus parasiticus
Craniopagus parasiticus is a condition in which a parasitic twin head with an undeveloped or underdeveloped body is attached to the head of a developed twin. Recorded cases include:
In 1783 the "Two-Headed Boy of Bengal" was born in India; the second head was joined roughly upside down on top of the developed twin's head. The boy survived until 1787 and was killed by a snakebite.
In 2003 Rebeca Martinez was born in the Dominican Republic with an extra head but died 7 hours after surgery at the age of 8 weeks.
In 2004 Egyptian Naglaa Mohamed gave birth to Manar Maged who had the head and undeveloped torso of another child attached. In 2005 the second head was removed and later that year Naglaa appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show with her surviving child. Manar died from a brain infection in 2006.
On January 20, 2021, a baby was born with two heads, at the Elias Hospital in Bucharest, Romania, but died some hours after it was born. |
1476_15 | Unconfirmed reports
In 2008 a female child named Lali Singh was born to Vinod and Sushma Singh of the Gautam Buddha Nagar district of Uttar Pradesh in India. The family refused special medical care, and later reports stated that the case was not one of polycephaly, but a condition called craniofacial duplication, a rare congenital disorder. The child died from a heart attack.
Non-human mammals
Cats |
1476_16 | There have been numerous reports of two-faced cats; most die soon after birth. Reports of two-headed kittens are common, relative to other animals, because of their status as household pets.
Recent two-headed kittens include:
On May 20, 2020, a two-faced kitten named Biscuits and Gravy was born in Oregon. He died after three days.
On June 11, 2013, a two-faced kitten named Deucy was born in Amity, Oregon. She died two days later.
In November 2008, a two-faced kitten was born in Perth, Australia.
In 2006, Tiger, a two-faced kitten, was born in Grove City, Ohio.
In March 2006, Deuce, a two-faced kitten, was born in Lake City, Florida, and was euthanized shortly thereafter, having come down with pneumonia.
In June 2006, Image, a two-faced kitten, was born on and died later that year in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
In June 2005, Gemini, a two-faced kitten, was born in Glide, Oregon. |
1476_17 | Polycephalic cats in museums include:
The Deformed Animals Museum of Llubí, Spain, preserves a two-headed kitten.
The Museum of Lausanne in Lausanne, Switzerland, preserves a two-headed kitten (pictured).
The Laing Museum in the small town of Newburgh, Fife, Scotland, preserves the stuffed body of a two-headed kitten born in the 19th century on Mugdrum Island.
The Georgia State Capitol in Atlanta, Georgia, has a full body taxidermy of a two-faced kitten.
Ripley's Believe It or Not! Museum on Clifton Hill in Niagara Falls, Ontario (Canada) has a full-body taxidermy of a two-faced kitten.
Eton College's Natural History Museum has a full-body taxidermy of a two-faced kitten.
London's Viktor Wynd Museum of Curiosities, Fine Art & Natural History has a skeleton of a two headed kitten, a two headed calf, a two headed (& 8 legged) lamb and others
Cattle |
1476_18 | A full body taxidermy of a two-headed calf is on display at the Garth and Jerri Frehner Museum of Natural History on the Southern Utah University campus in Cedar City, Utah. "The Dancing Calves" were born by natural delivery with considerable assistance from S. T. Nelson of Cedar City, Utah on Mother's Day, May 8, 1949, to a crossbred cow owned by Willard Lund of Paragonah, Utah. The "Father Bull" is unknown but must have been an outstanding Hereford. The double calf was alive and healthy but died during birth. This calf, or calves, joined from the beginning of the neck as far as the belly, with two complete, almost perfect body frames, had but one system of vital organs. Each of the two normal heads had a food channel to one stomach and a breathing channel, or windpipe, to the one set of lungs. The two briskets, or breasts, shared on each side by these calves, contained the one set of lungs on one side and the one heart on the other side. Branching off from the one stomach and |
1476_19 | digestive system were two channels of elimination. This calf weighed approximately 85 pounds at birth. The over-all measurements as it stands mounted are: 42.5 inches high, 20 inches from tail to tail, and 18 inches from side to side including the front legs. The "Mother Cow" lived and was sold as a "fat cow" in July 1949. This calf was stuffed by Mr. C. J. Sanders, taxidermist, 2631 South State Street, Salt Lake City 5, Utah, who stated that it is the most unusual monstrosity he has ever worked with. Dr. A. C. Johnson, of Cedar City, Utah, stated that this is the best specimen of monstrosity in animal life that he has ever seen or heard of in his 47 years of practice as a veterinarian. "The Dancing Calves" were owned by West and Gail Seegmiller who displayed them for many years at their Desert Pearl Cafe (no longer in existence), in Cedar City, Utah. Dr. A. C. Johnson, Dr. T. Donald Bell, William H. Lund, Dr. R. G. Williams, Dr. J. S. Prestwich, Dr. A. L. Graff, S. T. Nelson, and |
1476_20 | James Hoyle, Jr. all signed as witnesses that they saw the calf in the flesh soon after birth and knew it to be authentic. The calves and original document were donated to the Garth and Jerri Frehner Museum of Natural History on the Southern Utah University campus in Cedar City, Utah, where they are now on display. |
1476_21 | The Deformed Animals Museum of Llubí, Spain, preserves various two-headed specimens.
A head mount of a two-headed calf is on display in the Museum at the Georgia State Capitol Building in Atlanta, Georgia.
A two-faced calf is preserved at the Douglas County Museum in Waterville, Washington. The calf lived for ten days after birth.
The Ripley's Believe It or Not! museum in Gatlinburg, Tennessee, has full body taxidermy of a two-headed calf.
The Dalton Gang Museum, located in Meade, Kansas, also displays a full body taxidermy of a two-headed calf.
A two-headed calf mount can be found at the Old State House in Hartford, Connecticut |
1476_22 | A two-headed calf was born in Frankston, Texas, on February 13, 2009. Reportedly, the owner/rancher, J. R. Newman immediately took the calf to his local veterinarian for examination/treatment. The veterinarian, Dr. James Brown, was quoted by a local reporter as saying, "I've seen slight variations [of this condition] but nothing like this before. This is by no means normal."
A full taxidermy of a two headed calf can be found in Melton Mowbray museum, Leicestershire, UK.
A full taxidermy of a two headed calf can be found in the Museum of Marxell (in the Northern Black Forest in Germany). The calf was born by a local cow and died shortly after birth by natural causes.
A full taxidermy of a two-headed calf is on display at the Ohio Historical Society.
A taxidermy of a two-headed calf was previously on display at Hereford Museum and Art Gallery. |
1476_23 | A full body taxidermy of a two headed calf can be seen at the Grant County Historical Museum in Canyon City, Oregon. A card next to the specimen states the heifer was born on the Bob Sprout ranch near Mt. Vernon, and that the calf had 2 hearts, lungs, and 2 spinal columns. Also at the museum are the mounted heads of two diprosopus (two-faced) calves.
A full taxidermy of a two-headed calf is on display at the Haifa Zoo, in Haifa, Israel.
A Taxidermy specimen of a two headed calf can be seen at the Michigan State University museum in their Cabinet of Curiosities exhibit (not always available). the two-headed calf was born in Fowler, Michigan, in 1943 and is often paired with a dwarf calf that was born on a farm in Owendale, Michigan, in 1909.
A full taxidermy of a two-headed calf can be seen advertising ice cream for College of the Ozarks in Branson, Missouri, where it was delivered by the students. |
1476_24 | Two full body taxidermies of two-headed calves can be seen at the Huron County Museum in Goderich, Ontario.
A full taxidermy of a two-headed calf is on display at the Miami County Museum in Peru, Indiana
A full body taxidermy of a two-headed calf is on display at the Finnish Museum of Natural History in Helsinki
A taxidermy of a two-headed calf can be found in St. Petersburg, FL in the U.S. at the St. Petersburg Museum of History. |
1476_25 | Pigs
The Deformed Animals Museum of Llubí, Spain, preserves a two-headed pig.
A preserved two headed piglet can be seen at the Museum of Witchcraft, Boscastle, Cornwall, England.
A two-headed piglet can be found at the Old State House in Hartford, Connecticut.
In 1998, Rudy, a two-headed pig, was born in Iowa.
A two-headed piglet appeared on one episode of Oddities.
A two-headed piglet was a display at the Stearns County Museum in St. Cloud, Minnesota, until the mid-1970s, but cannot be confirmed; it may have been creative taxidermy.
Goats and sheep
Various two-headed sheep can be seen in the Bar Central Museum of Llubí, Spain,
In 2006, a two-headed lamb was born in Shandong, China.
The Ripley's Believe It Or Not! museum in Gatlinburg, Tennessee, has a mount.
The Llanidloes town museum in Powys, Wales, has an example of a 2-headed lamb.
The Liebig Extract of Meat Company factory (now a museum) in Fray Bentos, Uruguay, has a preserved 2-headed lamb.
Reptiles |
1476_26 | Snakes
Most polycephalic snakes do not live long, but some captive individuals do.
A two-headed black rat snake with separate throats and stomachs survived for 20 years.
There are several preserved two-headed snakes on display in the Museum at the Georgia State Capitol Building in Atlanta.
"We", the two-headed albino rat snake. See above.
A two-headed ladder snake, Elaphe scalaris, was discovered near the village of Pinoso, Spain.
A two-headed king snake lived for nearly 17 years at the Arizona State University.
A extremely rare two-headed albino Honduran milk snake named Medusa was bought by Todd Ray
Turtles |
1476_27 | Two-headed turtles and tortoises are rare but not unknown. Recent discoveries include:
In 1999, a three-headed turtle was discovered in Tainan, Taiwan, by a villager named Lin Chi-fa.
In 2003, a two-headed angulate tortoise was discovered in South Africa, with the only other known case in the region reported in the early 1980s.
In 2004, Solomon and Sheba, a two-headed Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise, was born in Dorchester, England.
In 2005, a two-headed olive ridley sea turtle was found in Costa Rica by the World Wildlife Fund.
In 2005, a baby turtle of unknown species was also reported in Havana, Cuba, in 2005.
In 2006, a two-headed, six-limbed soft-shell turtle in Singapore named "Double Happiness" was also featured on a local television program, and again on another program in late 2006.
As of December 2021, a living two-headed Greek tortoise named Janus born in 1997 is being displayed in the Museum of Natural History of Geneva. |
1476_28 | As of 2007, there is a fully preserved common snapping turtle named Emily with two heads at the Science Museum of Minnesota.
In February 2011, a two-headed turtle was uncovered in Garner, North Carolina.
A two-headed Florida redbelly turtle named Gege lived at the Homosassa Springs Wildlife State Park, transferred to a zoo where it spent the rest of its natural life until summer of 2008.
A two-headed turtle is currently on display at the Coex Aquarium in Seoul, South Korea.
A two-headed turtle was released into the ocean with about 50 other turtles as part of a Broward County, Florida hatching turtle rescue program on July 19, 2012.
A two-headed turtle named Thelma and Louise was born at the San Antonio Zoo on June 18, 2013.
A two-headed yellow-bellied slider lives at the Herpetarium in the Greensboro Science Center in North Carolina.
A two-headed red-eared slider is on display at the Sideshow Museum in Uranus, Missouri. |
1476_29 | Choristoderes
In 2006, the UK Royal Society announced that it had discovered a two-headed fossil of Hyphalosaurus, the first recorded time that such a reptile has been found fossilized.
Mythological occurrences
Mesopotamian mythology
Mušmaḫḫu, a seven headed serpent related to mythology of Ninurta, and Ningishzida. Sometimes related to Mušḫuššu.
Humbaba, the guardian of the Cedar Forest, where the gods lived. A description from Georg Burckhardt translation of Gilgamesh says, "he had the paws of a lion and a body covered in thorny scales; his feet had the claws of a vulture, and on his head were the horns of a wild bull; his tail and phallus each ended in a snake's head."
Greek mythology |
1476_30 | Greek mythology contains a number of multi-headed creatures. Typhon, a vast grisly monster with many snake heads, is often described as having several offspring with Echidna, a creature with the lower body of a serpent but the upper body of a beautiful woman. Their offspring, by one source or another, account for many of the major monsters of Greek mythos, including:
Cerberus – a monstrous multi-headed dog that guards the gate to Hades.
Ladon – a sometimes hundred-headed serpent-like dragon that guards the garden of the Hesperides and is overcome by Heracles.
Chimera – sometimes depicted with the heads of a goat and a lion.
The Lernaean Hydra – an ancient nameless serpent-like chthonic water beast that possessed numerous heads.
Orthrus – a two-headed dog owned by Geryon.
Scylla – sometimes described as a six-headed sea monster. |
1476_31 | Other multi-headed creatures in Greek mythology include:
The Hecatonchires – giants with fifty heads and one hundred arms. The word "Hecatonchire" means "hundred arms". They were the sons of Gaia, and Uranus.
Hecate – Greek goddess of witches, nightmares, crossroads, and one of the Moon deities; sometimes represented with three heads.
Iranian mythology
Zahhak, an evil figure in Iranian mythology - also evident in ancient Iranian folklore as Aži Dahāka (Azh dahak) - is the most significant and long-lasting of the ažis of the Avesta, the earliest religious texts of Zoroastrianism. He is described as a monster with three mouths, six eyes, and three heads (presumably meaning three heads with one mouth and two eyes each), cunning, strong and demonic. But in other respects Aži Dahāka has human qualities, and is never a mere animal.
Hinduism |
1476_32 | Hindu deities are often depicted with multiple arms or heads.
The fire-god Agni has two heads
Dattatreya: three
The creator-god Brahma: four
The goddess Gayatri: five
The war-god Kartikeya: six
Though usually depicted with one head, some deities like Ganesha (in Heramba form) and Shiva (Sadashiva) have aspects where they are depicted with multiple heads; five in this case. The Vishvarupa form of Vishnu is described as having infinite heads.
Besides deities, demons (asura and rakshasa) may be depicted with multiple heads. The demon-king Ravana Ravana is depicted and described as having ten heads, although sometimes he is shown with only nine heads because he has sacrificed a head to convince Shiva. Trishira his son is depicted with three heads. |
1476_33 | Animal races in Hindu mythology like Nāgas (serpents) may have multiple heads. The Naga Shesha is depicted with five or seven hoods, but said to have infinite hoods. Uchchaihshravas is a celestial seven-headed horse. The divine white elephant Airavata is depicted with multiple heads, trunks and tusks.
Taoism
Nezha, a god sometimes shown in "three heads and six arms" form
Occultism
Bune, a dragon with the heads of a dog, a griffin, and a man, in occultism
Ancient Mediterranean civilizations
Janus, a two- or four-faced god in Roman mythology
Nehebkau, a two-headed snake in Egyptian mythology
European culture
Various Ogres, Trolls, and Giants in European folklore and fairy tales
Double-headed eagle, a heraldic symbol
Lernaean Hydra, Greek Mythology |
1476_34 | Eastern Europe
Balaur, a dragon with three, seven or twelve heads, in Romanian mythology
Kucedra, with three, seven or nine heads in Albanian mythology
Svantevit, four-headed god of war and divination in Slavic mythology
Triglav (meaning "three headed") is a god or complex of gods in Slavic mythology
Zmey Gorynych, a dragon in Slavic mythology
Dragons in Hungarian folklore usually have three or seven heads
Northern Europe
Þrúðgelmir, a six-headed giant in Norse mythology
Japan
Yamata no Orochi, an eight-headed snake in Japanese mythology
Korea
Jihaguk Daejeok, a nine-headed giant in Korean mythology
Judaism
The Talmud (Brachot 61a) says that originally Adam was created as a single body with two faces (which were then separated into two bodies - male (Adam) & female (Eve)).
The Zohar (introduction 1:9B / p. 9B) speaks of descendants of Cain with 2 heads. |
1476_35 | The Talmud (Menachot 37a) records an incident in which Phlimo asked Judah the Prince, which head a two headed person should put on Tefillin. Judah was initially dismissive, but then another man came in saying that his wife had just given birth to a two headed baby, and asked a (different) halachic question.
Heraldry
Double-headed eagle
Triple-headed eagle
See also
Amphisbaena
Cephalic disorder
Chimera
Conjoined twins
The Corleck Head
Diprosopus
Janus
Abby and Brittany Hensel
Supernumerary body part
Three hares
Vladimir Demikhov
References
External links
Supernumerary body parts
Conjoined twins
Multiple births |
1477_0 | Kalam is a Kalam language of Papua New Guinea. It is closely related to Kobon, and shares many of the features of that language. Kalam is spoken in Middle Ramu District of Madang Province and in Mount Hagen District of Western Highlands Province.
Thanks to decades of studies by anthropologists such as Ralph Bulmer and others, Kalam is one of the best-studied Trans-New Guinea languages to date.
Dialects
There are two distinct dialects of Kalam that are highly distinguishable from each other.
Etp, with 20,000 speakers, is centered in the Upper Kaironk and Upper Simbai Valleys.
Ti, with 5,000 speakers is centered in the Asai Valley. It includes the Tai variety.
Kobon is closely related.
Kalam has an elaborate pandanus avoidance register used during karuka harvest that has been extensively documented. The Kalam pandanus language, called () or (), is also used when eating or cooking cassowary.
Phonology
Consonants
Vowels
Evolution |
1477_1 | Below are some Kalam reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea proposed by Pawley (2012, 2018). Data is from the Etp dialect unless otherwise noted. Data from Ti, the other one of the two major dialects is also given when noted.
Verbs
Kalam has eight tense-aspect categories. There are four past tenses, two present tenses, and two future tenses, which are all marked using suffixes:
past habitual
remote past (yesterday or earlier)
today’s past
immediate past
present habitual
present progressive
immediate future
future
Intransitive verbs in Kalam can be classified as either active or stative. Some active intransitive verbs are:
- ‘go’
- ‘sleep’
- ‘stand, dance’
- ‘die, cease to function’
Some stative verbs are:
- ‘(of things) break, be broken’
- ‘(of a fire) go out’
- ‘burn, be burnt, fully cooked’
- ‘(of solid objects and surfaces) crack, burst, shatter’
Serial verb constructions
Transitivity is derived using resultative or cause-effect serial verb constructions. |
1477_2 | (1)
{|
|pak || sug-
|-
|strike || extinguished
|}
‘put out a fire’
(2)
{|
|pak || wk-
|-
|strike || shattered
|}
‘knock something to bits, shatter something’
(3)
{|
|pug || sug-
|-
|blow || extinguished
|}
‘blow out a flame’
(4)
{|
|puŋi || ask-
|-
|pierce || opened
|}
‘prise something open’
(5)
{|
|puŋi || lak-
|-
|pierce || split
|}
‘split something by wedging or levering’
(6)
{|
|taw || pag || yok-
|-
|step.on || broken || displaced
|}
‘break something off by stepping on it’
(7)
{|
|tb || kluk || yok-
|-
|cut || gouge || displaced
|}
‘gouge something out’
Other serial verb constructions in Kalam include:
d ap (get come) ‘bring’
d am (get go) ‘take’
am d ap (go get come) ‘fetch’
d nŋ (touch perceive) ‘feel’
ñb nŋ (eat perceive) ‘taste’
tb tk (cut sever) ‘cut off’
Nouns
Compounds
Some examples of nominal compounds in Kalam: |
1477_3 | (1)
bin-b
woman-man
‘person, people’
(2)
ña-pañ
son-daughter
‘child, children’
(3)
aps-basd
grandmother-grandfather
‘grandparents’
(4)
ami-gon bapi-gon
mother-children father-children
‘nuclear family, parents and children’
(5)
kmn-as
game.mammal-small.wild.mammal
‘wild mammals’
(6)
kaj-kayn-kobti
pig-dog-cassowary
‘large animals’
(7)
kmn-kaj-kobti
game.mammal-pig-cassowary
‘animals that provide ceremonially valued meat’
(8)
mñ-mon
vine-tree
‘land, country, territory, world’
(9)
{|
|kneb || ameb || owep || wog || wati || gep
|-
|sleeping || going || coming || garden || fence || making
|}
‘everyday activities’ |
1477_4 | Animal names
Fauna classification (folk taxonomy) in the Kalam language has been extensively studied by Ralph Bulmer and others. Kalam speakers classify wild mammals into three major categories:
‘game mammals, larger wild mammals’: tree kangaroos, wallabies, cuscuses, ringtail possums, giant rats, and bandicoots
‘small wild mammals’: most bush-rats, sugar gliders, and pygmy possums (including Pogonomys spp., Melomys spp., and Phascolosorex dorsalis)
‘dirty rats’ (Rattus spp.)
Other animal categories are:
‘flying birds and bats’
‘cassowaries’
‘pigs’ (formerly including cattle, horses, and goats when first encountered by the Kalam)
‘dogs’
‘certain snakes’
‘skinks’ |
1477_5 | Rodent names include:
House Rat (Rattus exulans, Rattus niobe, Rattus ruber) – ~
Garden Rat (Rattus ruber) –
Long-snouted Rat (Rattus verecundus) –
Small Mountain Rat (Rattus niobe) –
Prehensile-tailed Rat (Bush-tailed Giant Rat) (Pogonomelomys sevia) – ~ , ,
Giant Bamboo Rat (Rothschild’s Woolly Rat) (Mallomys rothschildi) – ; , ,
Giant Cane Rat (Hyomys goliath) –
Grassland Melomys Rat (Melomys rufescens) –
Lorentz’s Rat (Melomys lorentzii, Melomys platyops) – ; (M. lorentzii spreads Pandanus julianettii () seeds, according to the Kalam)
rat that feeds on pandanus nuts (Anisomys imitator) – ~
Highland Giant Tree Rat (Uromys anak) –
Lowland Giant Tree Rat (Uromys caudimaculatus) –
Mountain Water-rat (Hydromys shawmayeri) –
Waterside Rat (Parahydromys asper) – ,
Earless Water Rat (Crossomys moncktoni) –
small rat, found near homesteads – |
1477_6 | Marsupial names include:
Pseudochirops corinnae (Golden or Stationary Ringtail) –
Pseudochirops cupreus (Copper Ringtail) –
Pseudochirulus forbesi – (Painted Ringtail) –
Cercartetus caudatus (Pygmy Possum) –
Dactylopsila palpator (Mountain striped possum, Long-fingered Triok) –
Echymipera sp. – ?
Phalanger carmelitae (Black Mountain Cuscus) –
Phalanger gymnotis (Ground Cuscus) –
Phalanger maculatus –
Phalanger orientalis – ?
Phalanger permixteo – ?
Phalanger sericeus (Silky Cuscus, Beech Cuscus) –
Phalanger sp. –
Spilocuscus maculatus –
Microperoryctes longicauda (Long-tailed Bandicoot) –
Peroryctes raffrayana (Hunting Bandicoot) –
Phascolosorex dorsalis – ; may also refer to Antechinus melanurus (Marsupial Rat)
Dasyurus albopunctatus (New Guinea Quoll, Marsupial Cat) –
Dendrolagus goodfellowi (Tree Kangaroo) -
Petaurus breviceps (Sugar Glider) –
Thylogale brunii (Bush Wallaby) –
Dorcopsulus vanheurni (Small Forest Wallaby, Common Mountain Forest Wallaby) - |
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