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B
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Bahanna Babylon Babra Bacanaria Bacatha in Arabia Bacatha in Palaestina Badiae Bagai Bagis Balneoregium Baia Balanea Balbura Balecium Baliana Bamaccora Bapara Bararus Barata Barbalissus Barca Barcusus Bardstown Bareta Bargala Bargylia Barica Baris in Hellesponto Baris in Pisidia Basilinopolis Bassiana Basti Batnae (Syriac Catholic Church) Bavagaliana Beatia Bela Belabitene Belali Bellicastrum Belesasa Bencenna Benda Benepota Beneventum Bennefa Beroea Berenice Berissa Beroë Berrhoea Betagbara Bethleem Bettonium Bethzabda Beverlacum Biccari Bida Bigastro Bilta Binda Birtha Bisarchio Bisica Bistue Bisuldino Bitettum Bitylius Bizya Bladia Blanda Iulia Blaundus Blera Bonitza Bononia Bonusta Boreum Bosana Bosporus Bostra Botrys Botriana Brixellum Bria Briancio Britonia Briula Bruzus Brysis Bubastis Bubon Bucellus Budua Buffada Buleliana Bulgarophygum Bulla Bulla Regia Bulna Burca Bure
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Buruni Busiris Buslacena Butus Buthrotum Buxentum Byblus
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C
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Cabarsussi Cabasa Cabellicum Cadi Caeciri Caelanum Caere Caesarea in Bithynia Caesarea in Cappadocia (Armenian Catholic Church and Melkite Catholic Church) Caesarea Philippi Caesarea in Mauretania Caesarea in Numidia Caesarea in Palaestina Caesarea in Thessalia Caesariana Caesaropolis Caffa Calama Caldas de Reyes Caliabria California Callinicum Callipolis Caloe Caltadria Calydon Calynda Camachus Campania Camplum Camuliana Canapium Canatha Candyba Cannae Canosa Cantanus Capitolias Capra Capreae Caprulae Capsa Capsus Caput Cilla Carac-Moba Carallia Cardabunta Cardicium Cariana Carini Carinola Carpasia Carpathus Carpentrassum Carrhae Carthage Cartennae Carystus Casae Calanae Casae in Numidia Casae in Pamphylia Casae Medianae Casae Nigrae Casius Cassandria Castabala Castello Castellum Iabar Castellum in Mauretania Castellum in Numidia Castellum Medianum Castellum Minus Castellum Ripae Castellum Tatroportus
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Castellum Tingitii Castellum Titulianum Castoria Castra Galbae Castra Martis Castra Nova Castra Severiana Castro di Puglia Castro di Sardegna Castrum Castulo Catabum Castra Cataquas Catrum Catula Caudium Caunus Cea Ceanannus Mór Cebarades Cedamusa Cediae Cefa Cefala Celerina Cellae in Mauretania Cellae in Proconsulari Cell Ausaille Cemerianus Cenae Cenculiana Centenaria Centuria Centuriones Ceramus Ceramussa Cerasa Cerasus Cerbali Cercina Ceretapa Cerynia Cernitza Cestrus Chaialum (Syro-Malabar Catholic Church) Chalcedonia Chalcis in Europa Chalcis in Graecia Chalcis in Syria Chariopolis Chelm Chersonesus in Creta Chersonesus in Europa Chersonesus in Zechia Chiemium Chimaera Choma Chonochora Chullu Chunavia Christianopolis Christopolis Chrysopolis in Arabia Chrysopolis in Macedonia Chusra Chytri Cibalae Cibaliana Cibyra Cidramus Cidyessus Cilibia Cillium Cincari Cinna Cinnaborium Cynopolis in Aegypto
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Cynopolis in Arcadia Circesium Cisamus Ciscissus Cissa Cissi Cissita Citharizum Citium Citrus Città Ducale Cius Civitate Claneus Claternae Claudiopolis in Honoriade Claudiopolis in Isauria Clazomenae Cleopatris Cluain Iraird Cluentum Clypia Clysma Cnidus Cnossus Codaca Codrula Coela Coeliana Colbasa Colophon Colonia in Armenia Colonia in Cappadocia Colossae Columnata Colybrassus Comama Comana Armeniae Comana Pontica Comba Conana Concordia in America Cone Constantia in Arabia Constantia in Thracia Constantina Coprithis Coptus Coracesium Corada Corbavia Corinthus Corna Corniculana Corone Coronea Coropissus Corycus Corydala Cos Cotenna Cotrada Cotyaeum Cova Cratia Cremna Crepedula Cresima Croae Cubda Cufruta Cucusus Cuicul Culusi Cuncacestre Cunga Féichin Cumae Curium Cursola Curubis Cures Sabinorum Cusae Cyanae Cybistra Cyme Cyparissia Cypsela Cyrene Cyrrhus Cyzicus
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D Dadibra Dadima Dagnum Daimlaig Daldis Dalisandus in Isauria Dalisandus in Pamphylia Damascus Damiata (Melkite Catholic Church) Danaba Daonium Daphnusia Daphnutium Dara (Syriac Catholic Church) Dardanus Darnis Dascylium Daulia Dausara Decoriana Demetrias Derbe Dercos Deultum Diana Dianum Dices Diocaesarea in Isauria Diocaesarea in Palaestina Dioclea Diocletiana Diocletianopolis in Palaestina Diocletianopolis in Thracia Diocletianopolis in Thebaide Dionysias Dionysiana Dionysiopolis Dioshieron Diospolis Inferior Diospolis in Thracia Diospolis Superior Dium Doara (Eastern Catholic Churches) Doberus Docimium Doclea Dodona Dolia Doliche Dometiopolis Domnach Sechnaill Dora Dorylaeum Dragobitia Dragonara Drivastum Drizipara Drua Drusiliana Dumium Dystis E
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Eanach Dúin Electa Ecdaumava Echinus Ecsalus Edessa in Macedonia Edessa in Osrhoëne (Melkite Catholic Church and Syriac Catholic Church Edistiana Egabro Egara Egnatia Egnazia Appula Eguga Elaea Elatea Elephantaria in Mauretania Elephantaria in Proconsulari Elepla Eleutherna Eleutheropolis in Macedonia Eleutheropolis in Palaestina Elicroca Elis Elmhama Elo Elusa Elvas Eminentiana Emmaüs Enera Ephesus Epidaurum Epiphania in Cilicia Epiphania in Syria Equilium Equizetum Eraclea Erdonia Eressus Eriza Erra Erythrae Erythrum Erzerum (Armenian Catholic Church) Esbus Etenna Euaza Euchaitae Eucarpia Eudocia Eudocias Eudoxias Eumenia Euroea in Epiro Euroea in Phoenicia Europus Eutyme Ezero F
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Falerii Falerone Fallaba Famagusta Fata Faustinopolis Febiana Feradi Maius Feradi Minus Ferentium Fesseë Ficus Fidenae Fidoloma Filaca Fiorentino Fissiana Flavias Flumenpiscense Flenucleta Floriana Flumenzer Foratiana Forconium Forma Formiae Forontoniana Forum Flaminii Forum Novum Forum Popilii Forum Traiani Fundi Frequentium Fronta Fuerteventura Furnos Maior Furnos Minor Fussala G
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Gabae Gabala Gabii Gabula Gadara Gadiaufala Gaguari Galazia in Campania Gallesium Galtelli Gangra Garba Gardar Garella Gargara Garriana Gaudiaba Gauriana Gaza Gazera Gegi Gemellae in Byzacena Gemellae in Numidia Gera Gerara Gerasa Gergis Germa in Hellesponto Germa in Galatia Germania in Dacia Germania in Numidia Germanicia Germaniciana Germanicopolis Germia Gibba Gigthi Gilba Gindarus Girba Giru Marcelli Giru Mons Girus Girus Tarasii Gisipa Giufi Giufi Salaria Glastonia Glavinitza Glenndálocha Gomphi Gor Gordus Gordoserba Gortyna Gradisca Gradum Grass Valley Gratiana Gratianopolis Gravelbourg Grumentum Guardialfiera Gubaliana Gummi in Byzacena Gummi in Proconsulari Gunela Gunugus Gurza Guzabeta H
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Hadrianae Hadriani ad Olympum Hadriania Hadrianopolis in Haemimonto Hadrianopolis in Epiro Hadrianopolis in Honoriade Hadrianopolis in Pisidia Hadrianotherae Hadrumetum Halicarnassus Harpasa Hebron Helenopolis in Bithynia Helenopolis in Palaestina Heliopolis in Augustamnica Heliopolis in Phoenicia Heliosebaste Helos Hemeria Hemesa Hephaestus Heraclea ad Latmum Heraclea in Europa Heraclea Pelagoniae Heraclea Pontica Heraclea Salbace Heracleopolis Magna Herdonia Hermiana Hermocapelia Hermonthis Hermopolis Parva Hexamilium Hierapolis in Isauria Hierapolis in Phrygia Hierapolis in Syria (Melkite Catholic Church and Syriac Catholic Church) Hierapytna Hierissus Hierocaesarea Hieron Hieropolis Hierpiniana Hilta Hippo Diarrhytus Hirina Hirta Hispellum Hodelm (Hoddam) Hólar Homona Horaea Horrea Horrea Aninici Horrea Coelia Horreomargum Horta Hortanum, Horta Hospita Hyccara Hyda in Lycaonia Hyllarima Hypaepa Hypselis Hyrcanis I
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Iabruda Iamnia Iasus Ibora Iconium Ida in Mauretania Idassa Idebessus Idicra Ierafi Ierichus Igilgilli Ilistra Iliturgi Ilium Illici Ingila Inis Cathaig Insula Intervallum Iomnium Ionopolis Ioppe Ios Iotapa in Isauria Iotapa in Palaestina Ipagro Ipsus Irenopolis in Cilicia Irenopolis in Isauria Iria Flavia Isauropolis Isba Isinda Ita Italica Iubaltiana Iucundiana Iuliopolis Iulium Carnicum Iunca in Byzacena Iunca in Mauretania Iziriana Izirzada J Jamestown Justiniana Prima Justinianopolis in Galatia K Kashkar (Chaldean Catholic Church) Kearney Kharput (Armenian Catholic Church) L
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Labicum Lacedaemonia Lacubaza Lagania Lagina La Imperial Lamasba Lambaesis Lambiridi Lamdia Lamia Lamiggiga Lamphua Lampsacus Lamsorti Lamus Lamzella Laodicea ad Libanum Laodicea Combusta Laodicea in Phrygia Laodicea in Syria Lapda Lapithus Lappa Laranda Lares Lari Castellum Larissa in Syria Larissa in Thessalia Latopolis Lauriacum Lauzadus Lavellum Lead Leavenworth Lebedus Lebessus Leges Legia Legis Volumni Lemellefa Lemfocta Lemnus Leontium Leontopolis in Augustamnica Leontopolis in Pamphylia Leptiminus Leptis Magna Lerus Lesina Lestrona Lesvi Lete Letopolis Leucas Leuce Liberalia Libertina Lidoricium Lilybaeum Limata Limisa Limnae Limyra Lindisfarne Linoë Lipara Lititza Litomyšl Litterae Livias Lizicus Lorium Loryma Lugmad Lugura Lunda Luni Lupadium Luperciana Luxemburgum Lycaonia Lydda Lyrbe Lysias Lysinia Lystra M
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Macomades Macomades Rusticiana Macon Macra Macri Macriana in Mauretania Macriana Maior Macriana Minor Mactaris Madarsuma Madaurus Mades Madytus Maeonia Magarmel Mageó Magnesia ad Maeandrum Magnesia ad Sipylum Magnetum Magydus Maillezais Maina Maiuca Maiumas Gazae Malliana Mallus Malus Manaccenser Maraguia Marasc (Armenian Catholic Church) Marazanae Marazanae Regiae Marcelliana Marciana Marcianopolis Marcopolis Mardin (Armenian Catholic Church, Chaldean Catholic Church, and Syriac Catholic Church) Mareotes Margum Mariamme Mariana in Corsica Marianopolis in Michigania (Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan) Marida Marmarizana Maronana Maronea Martanae Tudertinorum Martirano Martyropolis Masclianae Mascula Massa Lubrense Mastaura in Asia Mastaura in Lycia Masuccaba Materiana Mathara in Numidia Mathara in Proconsulari Matrega Mattiana Maturba Maura Mauriana Maximianae Maximiana in Byzacena Maximiana in Numidia
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Maximianopolis in Arabia Maximianopolis in Palaestina Maximianopolis in Pamphylia Maximianopolis in Rhodope Maximianopolis in Thebaide Maxita Maxula Prates Mazaca Medaba Medea Medeli Media Mediana Medianas Zabuniorum Megalopolis in Peloponneso Megalopolis in Proconsulari Megara Mela Melitene (Armenian Catholic Church and Latin Church) Meloë in Isauria Meloë in Lycia Melzi Membressa Memphis Menefessi Menelaites Menois Mentesa Mercia Merus Mesarfelta Mesembria Mesotymolus Messene Meta Metaba Metelis Metellopolis Methone Methymna Metrae Metropolis in Asia Metropolis in Pisidia Metropolis of Kastoria Mevania Mibiarca Midaëum Midica Mididi Midila Migirpa Miletopolis Miletus Milevum Mimiana Mina Minervium Minora Minturnae Misenum Missua Misthia Mitylene Mizigi Mnizus Mocissus Modra Modruš Moglaena Molicunza Monembasia Mons in Mauretania Mons in Numidia Montecorvino Montefiascone Monterano Monteverde Mopsuestia
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Mopta Morosbisdus Mossyna Mostene Mosynopolis Motula Moxori Mozotcori Mulia Mulli Munatiana Mundinitza Municipa Murcona Murthlacum Murustaga Musbanda Mush (Armenian Catholic Church) Musti Musti in Numidia Muteci Mutia Mutugenna Muzuca in Byzacena Muzuca in Proconsulari Mylasa Myndus Myra (Melkite Catholic Church and Latin Church) Myrica Myrina
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N
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Nabala Nachingwea Nacolia Naiera Naissus Nara Naraggara Naratcata Narona Nasai Nasala Nasbinca Natchesium Natchitoches Naucratis Nauplia Nazianzus Nationa Nea Aule Neapolis in Arabia Neapolis in Caria Neapolis in Cypro Neapolis in Isauria Neapolis in Palaestina Neapolis in Pisidia Neapolis in Proconsulari Nea Valentia Nebbi Neila Neocaesarea (episcopal see) Neocaesarea in Bithynia Neocaesarea in Ponto Neocaesarea in Syria Novae Patrae Nepeta Nepte Nesqually Neve Newport Nicaea Nicaea Parva Nicius Nicives Nicomedia Nicolopolis ad Iaterum Nicopolis ad Nestum Nicopolis in Armenia Nicopolis in Epiro Nicopsis Nicosia Nigizubi Nigrae Maiores Nilopolis Nisa in Lycia Nisibis (Chaldean Catholic Church and Maronite Catholic Church) Nisyrus Noba Nomentum Nona Nova Nova Barbara Nova Caesaris Nova Germania Novaliciana Nova Petra Nova Sinna Nova Sparsa Novae Novi Novica Nubia Numana or Humana Numericus Numida Numluli
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Nysa in Asia Nyssa
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O Oasis Magna Obba Obori Oca Octaba Octabia Octava Odessus Oëa Oenoanda Oescus Olba Olbia Olena Olympus Oliva Ombi Onchesmus Onuphis Opitergium Opus Oppidum Consillinum Oppidum Novum Orcistus Oregon City Oreus Oreto Orthosias in Caria Orthosias in Phoenicia Orymna Ostra Ostracine Othana Othona Otriculum Otrus Ottocium Oxyrhynchus P
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Pachnemunis Paestum Palaeopolis in Asia Palaeopolis in Pamphylia Palmyra Paltus Pamphilus Panatoria Penephysis Pandosia, Anglona Panemotichus Panium Panopolis Paphus Pappa Paraetonium Paralus Parembolae in Arabia Parembolae in Palaestina Paria Parium Parlais Parthenia Parus Patara Patrae Pausulae Pauzera Pedachtoë Pederodiana Pegae Pella Peltae Pelusium (Latin Church and Melkite Catholic Church) Penafiel Perdices Pergamum Perge Peristasis Peritheorium Perperene Perrhe Pertusa Pessinus Petina Petinessus Pednelissus Petra in Aegypto Petra in Lazica Petra in Palaestina Phacusa Phaena Pharan Pharbaetus Pharsalus Phaselis Phasis Phatanus Phelbes Phellus Philadelphia in Arabia Philadelphia in Lydia Philadelphia Minor Philae Philippi Philippopolis in Arabia Philippopolis in Thracia Philomelium Phoba Phocaea Phoenice Photice Phragonis Phulli Phytea Pia Pinara Pinhel Pionia Pisita Pitanae Plataea Platamon
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Plestia Ploaghe Plotinopolis Pocofeltus Podalia Poemanenum Poetovium Pogla Polemonium Polybotus Polinianum Polymartium Polystylus Pomaria Pompeiopolis in Cilicia Pompeiopolis in Paphlagonia Populonia Porphyreon Porthmus Potentiz in Piceno Praenetus Praesidium Precausa Preslavus Priene Privata Proconnesus Prostanna Prusa (Armenian Catholic Church and Latin Church) Prusias ad Hypium Prymnessus Pselchis Psibela Ptolemais in Libya Ptolemais in Phoenicia (Latin Church and Maronite Church) Ptolemais in Thebaide Pudentiana Pulcheriopolis Pumentum Pupiana Puppi Putia in Byzacena Putia in Numidia Pyrgos
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Q Quaestoriana, Byzacena (Tunisia) Quincy (Illinois, USA) Quiza (El-Benian, Algeria) R Rachlea Raphanea Raphia Ramsbiria Rapidum Ratiaria Rebellum Regiana Regiae Remesiana Reperi Respecta, Numidia Ressiana Rew-Ardashir (Chaldean Catholic Church) Rhaedestus Rhandus Rhasus Rhesaina Rhinocorura Rhizaeum Rhodiapolis Rhodopolis Rhoga Rhoina Rhosus Rhusium Risinium Ros Cré Rota Rossmarkaeum Rotaria Rotdon Rubicon Rufiniana Rusada Rusguniae Rusellae Rusicade Ruspae Rusubbicari Rusubisir Rusuca Rusuccuru (Titular See) Rutabo S
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Sabadia Sebana Sabrata Saepinum Saesina Saetabis Sagalassus Sagone Saia Maior Saint-Papoul Sais Saittae Sala Salamias Salamis Saldae Salona Salapia Samos Samosata Sanavus Sanctus Germanus Sanitium San Leone Santa Giusta Sarda Sardes Sarepta (Latin Church and Maronite Church) Sariphaea Sarsenterum Sasabe Sasima Sassura Sata Satafi Satafis Satala in Armenia Satala in Lydia Satrianum Sauatra Sbida Scala Scsampa Scardona Scarphea Scebatiana Scepsis Schedia Sciathus Scilium Scopelus in Haemimonto Scopelus in Thessalia Scutarium Scyrus Scythopolis Sebarga Sebaste (Armenian Catholic Church) Sebastea Sebaste in Cilicia Sebaste in Phrygia Sebaste in Palaestina Sebastopolis in Abasgia Sebastopolis in Armenia Sebastopolis in Thracia Sebela Sebennytus Seert (Chaldean Catholic Church) Segermes Segia Segisama Seina Sela Selemselae Selendeta Seleucia in Isauria Seleucia Ferrea Seleucia Pieria Seleuciana Seleucobelus
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Selge Selia Selinus Selsea Selymbria Semina Semnea Semta Serbia Sereddeli Sergentza Sergiopolis Serigene Serra Serrae Serta Sesta Setea Sethroë Septimunicia Severiana Sfasferia Sibidunda Siblia Sicca Veneria Siccenna Siccesi Sicilibba Syca Sicyon Side Sidnacestre Sidon Sidyma Sigus Sila Silandus Silli Silyum Simidicca Simingi Siminina Simitthu Sinda Siniandus Sinitis Sinna Sinnada in Mauretania Sinnipsa Sinnuara Sinope Sion Sita Sitifis Sitipa Skálholt Slebte Socia Soldaia Soli Sophene Sora Sorres Soteropolis Sozopolis in Haemimonto Sozopolis in Pisidia Sozusa in Libya Sozusa in Palaestina Stadia Stagnum Stagoi Stauropolis Stephaniacum Stectorium Stobi Strathernia Stratonicea in Caria Stratonicea in Lydia Strongoli Strongyle Strumnitza Suacia Suas Suava Subaugusta Subbar Subrita Sucarda Succuba Suelli Sufar Sufasar Sufes Sufetula Sugdaea Sulci Suliana Sullectum Summa Summula Sura
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Surista Sutrium Sutunura Sycomazon Syedra Syene Synaus Synnada in Phrygia
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T
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Tabae Tabaicara, Mauretania Caesariensis Tabala, Lydia Tabalta Tabbora Tabla, Mauretania Caesariensis Taborenta, Mauretania Caesariensis Tabuda, Numidia Tabunia, Mauretania Caesariensis Tacapae Tacarata, Numidia Tacia Montana, Africa (Roman province) Tadamata Taddua Taenarum, Laconia Tagarata Tagarbala Tagaria Tagase Tagritum (Syriac Catholic Church) Taium Talaptula Tamada Tamagrista Tamallula Tamalluma Tamascani Tamasus Tamata Tamazeni Tamazuca Tambeae Tamiathis Tanagra Tanais Tanaramusa Tanis Tanudaia Taparura Tapasa Taraqua Tarasa in Byzacena Tarasa in Numidia Tarsus (Latin Church, Maronite Church, and Melkite Catholic Church) Tasaccora Tatilti Taua Taurianum Tauromenium Tavium Tegea Teglata in Numidia Teglata in Proconsulari Tela Telde Tell-Mahrê Telmissus Temenothyrae Temnus Temuniana Tenedus Tentyris Teos Tepelta Terenuthis Termessus Ternobus Tetci Teuchira Thabraca Thagamuta Thagaste Thagora Thala
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Thamugadi Thapsus Tharros Thasbalta Thasus Thaumacus Thebae Thebae Phthiotides Thelepte Themisonium Thenae Thennesus Theodoropolis Theodosiopolis in Arcadia Theodosiopolis in Armenia Thermae Basilicae Thermae Himerae Thérouanne Thespiae Thessalonica Theudalis Theuzi Theveste Thiava Thibaris Thibica Thibilis Thibiuca Thibuzabetum Thiges Thignica Thimida Thimida Regia Thinis Thinisa in Numidia Thisiduo Thizica Thmuis Thois Thubunae in Numidia Thuburbo Maius Thuburbo Minus Thuburnica Thubursicum Thubursicum-Bure Thuccabora Thucca in Mauretania Thucca in Numidia Thucca Terebenthina Thugga Thunigaba Thunudruma Thunusuda Thurio Thyatira Thysdrus Tiberias Tiberiopolis Tiburnia Tiddi Tigamibena Tigava Tigias Tigillava Tigimma Tigisis in Mauretania (Taourga, Algeria) Tigisis in Numidia (Aïn el-Bordj, Algeria) Tiguala Timici Timidana Tingaria Tinis in Proconsulari Tinista Tinum Tipasa in Mauretania Tipasa in Numidia
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Tisedi Tisili Titiopolis Tituli in Numidia Tituli in Proconsulari Tityassus Tium Tlos Tokat (Armenian Catholic Church) Tomi Tongeren/Tongres Torcello Tortibulum Tracula Tragurium Traianopolis in Phrygia Traianopolis in Rhodope Traiectum ad Mosam Tralles in Asia Tralles in Lydia Transmarisca Trapezopolis Trapezus (Latin Church and Armenian Catholic Church) Treba Trebenna Trebia Trecalae Tremithus Tres Tabernae Trevico Tricca Tripolis in Lydia Tripolis in Phoenicia Trisipa Troas Trocmades Troezene Trofimiana Troyna Truentum Tubernuca Tubia Tubulbaca Tubunae in Mauretania Tubusuptu Tubyza Tucci Tulana Tullia Tunes (Tunis, Tunisia) Tunnuna Turres Ammeniae, Numidia Turres Concordiae, Numidia Turres in Byzacena, Byzacena Turres in Numidia, Numidia Turrisblanda, (Africa) Byzacena Turris in Mauretania, Mauretania Caesariensis Turris in Proconsulari, Africa Proconsularis Turris Rotunda Turris Tamalleni Turuda Turuzi Tuscamia
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Tuscania Tusuros Tyana Tymandus, Pisidia Tymbrias Tyndaris Tyriaeum, Pisidia Tyrus (Lebanon) Tzernicus
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U Ubaba Ubaza Uccula Uchi Maius Ucres Ulcinium Ulpiana Ululi Umbriatico Unizibira Uppenna Urbs Salvia Urci Urima Ursona Urusi Usinaza Usula Uthina Utica Utimma Utimmira Uzalis Uzippari Uzita V Vada Vadesi Vaga Vagadensi Vagal Vageata Vagrauta Vaison Valabria Valentiniana Valentia Valeria Valliposita Vallis Vamalia Vanariona Vannida Vardimissa Vartana Vasada Vassinassa Vatarba Vazari Vazari-Didda Vazi-Sarra Vegesela in Byzacena Vegesela in Numidia Velebusdus Velefi Velia Velicia Verbe Vergi Verinopolis Verissa Verrona Vertara Vescera Vibiana Vibo Vico Equense Voghenza Victoriana Vicus Aterii Vicus Augusti Vicus Caesaris Vicus Pacati Vicus Turris Villamagna in Proconsulari Villamagna in Tripolitania Villa Nova Villa Regis Viminacium Vina Vincennes Vinda Virunum Vissalsa Vita Voli Volsinium Volturnum Voncaria Voncariana Vulturaria Vulturia W Walla Walla Wiener Neustadt X
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Xanthe Xanthus Xois Y Ypres (Ieper) Z Zaba Zabi Zabulon Zagylis Zaliche Zallata Zama Major Zama Minor Zapara Zaraï Zaratovium Zarna Zarzela Zattara Zela Zella Zenobias Zenopolis in Isauria Zenopolis in Lycia Zephyrium Zerta Zeugma in Mesopotamia Zeugma in Syria Ziqua Zoara Zorava Zorolus Zucchabar Zuri Zygana Zygris See also For nearly all titular sees in partibus infidelium (formerly Roman/Byzantine, presently Islamic countries): List of Catholic dioceses in Algeria List of Catholic dioceses in Egypt List of Catholic dioceses in Iraq List of Catholic dioceses in Lebanon List of Catholic dioceses in Libya List of Catholic dioceses in Morocco, Mauretania and Western Sahara List of Catholic dioceses in Syria List of Catholic dioceses in Tunisia References
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Sources and external links GCatholic – titular Metropolitan sees GCatholic – titular Archiepiscopal sees GCatholic – titular Episcopal sees Catholic-hierarchy;org – List of titular sees Titular
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In the context of the American Civil War (1861–65), the border states were slave states that did not secede from the Union. They were Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, and after 1863, the new state of West Virginia. To their north they bordered free states of the Union and to their south they bordered slave states of the Confederacy, with Delaware being an exception to the latter.
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Of the 34 U.S. states in 1861, nineteen were free states and fifteen were slave including the four border states; each of the latter held a comparatively low percentage of slaves. Delaware never declared for secession. Maryland was largely prevented from seceding by local unionists and federal troops. Two others, Kentucky, and Missouri saw rival governments, although their territory mostly stayed in Union control. Four others did not declare for secession until after the Battle of Fort Sumter and were briefly considered to be border states: Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. They are referred to as the Upper South. A new border state was created during the war, West Virginia, which was formed from 50 counties of Virginia and became a new state in the Union in 1863.
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In civil war Kentucky, and Missouri, there were both pro-Confederate and pro-Union governments. West Virginia was formed in 1862–63 after Virginia Unionists from the northwestern counties of the state, then occupied by the Union Army consisting of many newly-formed West Virginia regiments, had set up a loyalist "restored" state government of Virginia. Lincoln recognized this government and allowed them to divide the state. Kentucky and Missouri had adopted secession ordinances by their pro-Confederate governments (see Confederate government of Kentucky and Confederate government of Missouri), but they never fully were under official Confederate control, though at various points Confederate armies did enter those states and controlled certain parts of them.
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Besides formal combat between regular armies, the border region saw large-scale guerrilla warfare and numerous violent raids, feuds, and assassinations. Violence was especially severe in West Virginia, eastern Kentucky and western Missouri. The single bloodiest episode was the 1863 Lawrence Massacre in Kansas, in which at least 150 civilian men and boys were killed. It was launched in retaliation for an earlier, smaller raid into Missouri by Union men from Kansas. Lincoln's 1863 Emancipation Proclamation did not apply to the border states. Of the states that were exempted from the proclamation, Maryland (1864), Missouri and Tennessee (January 1865), and West Virginia (February 1865) abolished slavery before the war ended. However, Delaware and Kentucky, while they saw a substantial reduction in slavery, did not see the abolition of slavery until December 1865, when the Thirteenth Amendment was ratified.
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With geographic, social, political, and economic connections to both the North and the South, the border states were critical to the outcome of the war. They are considered still to delineate the cultural border that separates the North from the South. Reconstruction, as directed by Congress, did not apply to the border states because they never seceded from the Union. They did undergo their own process of readjustment and political realignment after passage of amendments abolishing slavery and granting citizenship and the right to vote to freedmen. After 1880 most of these jurisdictions were dominated by white Democrats, who passed laws to impose the Jim Crow system of legal segregation and second-class citizenship for blacks. However, in contrast to the Confederate States, where almost all blacks were disenfranchised during the first half to two-thirds of the twentieth century, for varying reasons blacks remained enfranchised in the border states despite movements for
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disfranchisement during the 1900s.
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Background In the border states, slavery was already dying out in urban areas and the regions without cotton, especially in cities that were rapidly industrializing, such as Baltimore, Louisville, and St. Louis. By 1860, more than half of the African Americans in Delaware were free, as were a high proportion in Maryland.
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Some slaveholders made a profit by selling surplus slaves to traders for transport to the markets of the Deep South, where the demand was still high for field hands on cotton plantations. In contrast to the near-unanimity of voters in the seven cotton states in the lower South, which held the highest number of slaves, the border slave states were bitterly divided about secession and were not eager to leave the Union. Border Unionists hoped that a compromise would be reached, and they assumed that Lincoln would not send troops to attack the South. Border secessionists paid less attention to the slavery issue in 1861, since their states' economies were based more on trade with the North than on cotton. Their main concern in 1861 was federal coercion; some residents viewed Lincoln's call to arms as a repudiation of the American traditions of states' rights, democracy, liberty, and a republican form of government. Secessionists insisted that Washington had usurped illegitimate powers in
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defiance of the Constitution, and thereby had lost its legitimacy. After Lincoln issued a call for troops, Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina promptly seceded and joined the Confederacy. A secession movement began in western Virginia, where most farmers were yeomen and not slaveholders, to break away and remain in the Union.
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Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, which had many areas with much stronger cultural and economic ties to the South than the North, were deeply divided; Kentucky tried to maintain neutrality. Union military forces were used to guarantee that these states remained in the Union. The western counties of Virginia rejected secession, set up a loyal government of Virginia (with representation in the U.S. Congress), and created the new state of West Virginia (although it included many counties which had voted for secession).
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Divided loyalties Though every slave state except South Carolina contributed white battalions to both the Union and Confederate armies (South Carolina Unionists fought in units from other Union states), the split was most severe in these border states. Sometimes men from the same family fought on opposite sides. About 170,000 border state men (including African Americans) fought in the Union Army and 86,000 in the Confederate Army.
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Thirty-five thousand Kentuckians served as Confederate soldiers; an estimated 125,000 Kentuckians served as Union soldiers. By the end of the war in 1865, nearly 110,000 Missourians had served in the Union Army and at least 30,000 in the Confederate Army. Some 50,000 citizens of Maryland signed up for the military, with most joining the United States Army. Approximately a tenth as many enlisted to "go South" and fight for the Confederacy. It has been estimated that, of the state's 1860 population of 687,000, about 4,000 Marylanders traveled south to fight for the Confederacy. While the number of Marylanders in Confederate service is often reported as 20,000–25,000 based on an oral statement of General Cooper to General Trimble, other contemporary reports refute this number and offer more detailed estimates in the range of 3,500 (Livermore) to just under 4,700 (McKim). West Virginia was unique among the Union states in that it did not give most of its soldiers to the Union, they were
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about equally divided, and it was the only state to contain many counties that had formally voted to secede from the Union.
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The five border states Each of these five states shared a border with the free states and were aligned with the Union. All but Delaware also share borders with states that joined the Confederacy. Delaware By 1860 Delaware was integrated into the Northern economy, and slavery was rare except in the southern districts of the state; less than 2 percent of the population was enslaved. Both houses of the state General Assembly rejected secession overwhelmingly; the House of Representatives was unanimous. There was quiet sympathy for the Confederacy by some state leaders, but it was tempered by distance; Delaware was bordered by Union territory. Historian John Munroe concluded that the average citizen of Delaware opposed secession and was "strongly Unionist" but hoped for a peaceful solution even if it meant Confederate independence. Maryland
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Union troops had to go through Maryland to reach the national capital at Washington, D.C. Had Maryland also joined the Confederacy, Washington would have been surrounded. There was popular support for the Confederacy in Baltimore as well as in Southern Maryland and the Eastern Shore, where there were numerous slaveholders and slaves. Baltimore was strongly tied to the cotton trade and related businesses of the South. The Maryland Legislature rejected secession in the spring of 1861, though it refused to reopen rail links with the North. It requested that Union troops be removed from Maryland. The state legislature did not want to secede, but it also did not want to aid in killing southern neighbors in order to force them back into the Union. Maryland's wish for neutrality within the Union was a major obstacle given Lincoln's desire to force the South back into the Union militarily.
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To protect the national capital, Lincoln suspended habeas corpus and imprisoned without charges or trials one sitting U.S. congressman as well the mayor, police chief, entire Board of Police, and the city council of Baltimore. Chief Justice Roger Taney, acting only as a circuit judge, ruled on June 4, 1861, in Ex parte Merryman that Lincoln's suspension of habeas corpus was unconstitutional, but the president ignored the ruling in order to meet a national emergency. On September 17, 1861, the day the legislature reconvened, federal troops arrested without charge 27 state legislators (one-third of the Maryland General Assembly). They were held temporarily at Fort McHenry, and later released when Maryland was secured for the Union. Because a large part of the legislature was now imprisoned, the session was canceled and representatives did not consider any additional anti-war measures. The song "Maryland, My Maryland" was written to attack Lincoln's action in blocking pro-Confederate
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elements. Maryland contributed troops to both the Union (60,000) and the Confederate (25,000) armies.
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During the war, Maryland adopted a new state constitution in 1864 that prohibited slavery, thus emancipating all remaining slaves in the state. Kentucky Kentucky was strategic to Union victory in the Civil War. Lincoln once said: I think to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game. Kentucky gone, we cannot hold Missouri, nor Maryland. These all against us, and the job on our hands is too large for us. We would as well consent to separation at once, including the surrender of this capitol [Washington, which was surrounded by slave states: Confederate Virginia and Union-controlled Maryland]. Lincoln reportedly also declared, "I hope to have God on my side, but I must have Kentucky."
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Kentucky Governor Beriah Magoffin proposed that slave states such as Kentucky should conform to the US Constitution and remain in the Union. When Lincoln requested 1,000,000 men to serve in the Union army, however, Magoffin, a Southern sympathizer, countered, "Kentucky had no troops to furnish for the wicked purpose of subduing her sister Southern States." The Kentucky legislature did not vote on any bill to secede but passed two resolutions of neutrality, issuing a neutrality proclamation May 20, 1861, asking both sides to keep out of the state. In elections on June 20 and August 5, 1861, Unionists won enough additional seats in the legislature to overcome any veto by the governor. After the elections, the strongest supporters of neutrality were the Southern sympathizers. While both sides had already been openly enlisting troops from the state, after the elections the Union army established recruitment camps within Kentucky.
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Neutrality was broken when Confederate General Leonidas Polk occupied Columbus, Kentucky, in the summer of 1861. In response, the Kentucky legislature passed a resolution on September 7 that directed the governor to demand the evacuation of the Confederate forces from Kentucky soil. Magoffin vetoed the proclamation, but the legislature overrode his veto, and Magoffin issued the proclamation. The legislature decided to back General Ulysses S. Grant and his Union troops stationed in Paducah, Kentucky, on the grounds that the Confederacy voided the original pledge by entering Kentucky first. The General Assembly soon ordered for the Union flag be raised over the state capitol in Frankfort and declared its allegiance with the Union.
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Southern sympathizers were outraged at the legislature's decisions and stated that Polk's troops in Kentucky had been en route to counter Grant's forces. Later legislative resolutions passed by Unionists, such as inviting Union General Robert Anderson to enroll volunteers to expel the Confederate forces, requesting the governor to call out the militia, and appointing Union General Thomas L. Crittenden in command of Kentucky forces, incensed the Southerners. Magoffin vetoed the resolutions but was overridden each time. In 1862, the legislature passed an act to disenfranchise citizens who enlisted in the Confederate Army and so Kentucky's neutral status evolved into backing the Union. Most of those who had originally sought neutrality turned to the Union cause.
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During the war, a faction known as the Russellville Convention formed a Confederate government of Kentucky, which was recognized by the Confederate States as a member state. Kentucky was represented by the central star on the Confederate battle flag. When Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston occupied Bowling Green, Kentucky, in the summer of 1861, the pro-Confederates in western and central Kentucky moved to establish a Confederate state government in that area. The Russellville Convention met in Logan County on November 18, 1861. The 116 delegates from 68 counties elected to depose the current government and create a provisional government loyal to Kentucky's new unofficial Confederate governor, George W. Johnson. On December 10, 1861, Kentucky became the 13th state admitted to the Confederacy. Kentucky, along with Missouri, was a state with representatives in both Congresses and had regiments in both the Union and the Confederate Armies.
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Magoffin, still functioning as official governor in Frankfort, would not recognize the Kentucky Confederates or their attempts to establish a government in his state. He continued to declare Kentucky's official status in the war as a neutral state even though the legislature backed the Union. Fed up with the party divisions within the population and legislature, Magoffin announced a special session of the legislature and resigned his office in 1862.
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Bowling Green was occupied by the Confederates until February 1862, when General Grant moved from Missouri through Kentucky along the Tennessee line. Confederate Governor Johnson fled Bowling Green with the Confederate state records, headed south, and joined Confederate forces in Tennessee. After Johnson was killed fighting in the Battle of Shiloh, Richard Hawes was soon named Confederate governor of Kentucky. Shortly afterwards, and the Provisional Confederate States Congress was adjourned on February 17, 1862, on the eve of inauguration of a permanent Congress. However, as Union occupation dominated the state after the failure of the Confederate Heartland Offensive to take Kentucky firmly from August to October 1862, the Kentucky Confederate government, as of 1863, existed only on paper. Its representation in the permanent Confederate Congress was minimal. It was dissolved when the Civil War ended in the spring of 1865.
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By the end of the war more than 70% of the pre-war slaves in Kentucky had been freed by Union military measures or escape to Union lines. After the Emancipation Proclamation made the enrollment and freeing of slaves Union Army policy, commanders extended freedom to the Army recruit's entire family and granted liberty passes to freed slaves. When the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was sent to the states for ratification in February 1865, Kentucky's governor in presenting it to the legislature admitted that the continuation of slavery in the state was hopeless. While notices of slave sales continued, prices fell dramatically. But the legislature refused to ratify, leaving the last approximately 65,000 slaves out of a pre-war total 225,483 slaves to await freedom when the amendment became part of the U.S. Constitution in December 1865, without Kentucky's support. Missouri
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After the secession of Southern states began, the newly elected governor of Missouri, Claiborne F. Jackson, called upon the legislature to authorize a state constitutional convention on secession. A special election approved of the convention, and delegates to it. This Missouri Constitutional Convention voted to remain within the Union, but rejected coercion of the Southern states by the United States. Jackson, who was pro-Confederate, was disappointed with the outcome. He called up the state militia to their districts for annual training. Jackson had designs on the St. Louis Arsenal, and had been in secret correspondence with Confederate President Jefferson Davis to obtain artillery for the militia in St. Louis. Aware of these developments, Union Captain Nathaniel Lyon struck first, encircling the camp and forcing the state militia to surrender. While his troops were marching the prisoners to the arsenal, a deadly riot erupted (the Camp Jackson Affair).
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These events resulted in greater Confederate support within the state among some factions. The already pro-Southern Missouri State Legislature passed the governor's military bill creating the Missouri State Guard. Governor Jackson appointed Sterling Price, who had been president of the convention, as major general of this reformed militia. Price, and Union district commander Harney, came to an agreement known as the Price–Harney Truce, which calmed tensions in the state for several weeks. After Harney was removed, and Lyon placed in charge, a meeting was held in St. Louis at the Planters' House among Lyon, his political ally Francis P. Blair Jr., Price, and Jackson. The negotiations went nowhere. After a few fruitless hours, Lyon declared, "this means war!" Price and Jackson rapidly departed for the capital.
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Jackson, Price, and the pro-Confederate portions of the state legislature were forced to flee the state capital of Jefferson City on June 14, 1861, in the face of Lyon's rapid advance against the state government. In the absence of most of the now exiled state government, the Missouri Constitutional Convention reconvened in late July. On July 30, the convention declared the state offices vacant, and appointed a new provisional government with Hamilton Gamble as governor. President Lincoln's administration immediately recognized the legitimacy of Gamble's government, which provided both pro-Union militia forces for service within the state, and volunteer regiments for the Union Army.
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Fighting ensued between Union forces and a combined army of General Price's Missouri State Guard and Confederate troops from Arkansas and Texas, under General Ben McCulloch. After a string of victories in Cole Camp, Carthage, Wilson's Creek, Dry Wood Creek, Liberty and going up as far north as Lexington (located in the Missouri River Valley region of western Missouri), the secessionist forces retreated to southwestern Missouri, as they were under pressure from Union reinforcements. On October 30, 1861, in the town of Neosho, Jackson called the supporting parts of the exiled state legislature into session, where they enacted a secession ordinance. It was recognized by the Confederate Congress, and Missouri was admitted into the Confederacy on November 28. The exiled state government was forced to withdraw into Arkansas. For the rest of the war, it consisted of several wagon loads of civilian politicians attached to various Confederate armies. In 1865, it vanished.
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Missouri abolished slavery during the war in January 1865. Guerrilla warfare Regular Confederate troops staged several large-scale raids into Missouri, but most of the fighting in the state for the next three years consisted of guerrilla warfare. The guerrillas were primarily Southern partisans, including William Quantrill, Frank and Jesse James, the Younger brothers, and William T. Anderson, and many personal feuds were played out in the violence. Small-unit tactics pioneered by the Missouri Partisan Rangers were used in occupied portions of the Confederacy during the Civil War. The James' brothers outlawry after the war has been seen as a continuation of guerrilla warfare. Stiles (2002) argues that Jesse James was an intensely political postwar neo-Confederate terrorist, rather than a social bandit or a plain bank robber with a hair-trigger temper.
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The Union response was to suppress the guerrillas. It achieved that in western Missouri, as Brigadier General Thomas Ewing issued General Order No. 11 on 25 August 1863 in response to Quantrill's raid on Lawrence, Kansas. The order forced the total evacuation of four counties that fall within the area of modern-day Kansas City, Missouri. These had been centers of local support for the guerrillas. Lincoln approved Ewing's plan beforehand. About 20,000 civilians (chiefly women, children, and old men) had to leave their homes. Many never returned, and the counties were economically devastated for years.
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According to Glatthaar (2001), Union forces established "free-fire zones". Union cavalry units would identify and track down scattered Confederate remnants, who had no places to hide and no secret supply bases. To gain recruits, and to threaten St. Louis, Confederate General Sterling Price raided Missouri with 12,000 men in September/October 1864. Price coordinated his moves with the guerrillas, but was nearly trapped, escaping to Arkansas with only half his force after a decisive Union victory at the Battle of Westport. The battle, which took place in the modern-day Westport neighborhood of Kansas City, is identified as the "Gettysburg of the West"; it marked a definitive end to organized Confederate incursions inside Missouri's borders. The Republicans made major gains in the fall 1864 elections on the basis of Union victories and Confederate ineptness. Quantrill's Raiders, after raiding Kansas in the Lawrence Massacre on August 21, 1863, killing 150 civilians, broke up in
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confusion. Quantrill and a handful of followers moved on to Kentucky, where he was ambushed and killed.
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West Virginia
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The serious divisions between the western and eastern sections of Virginia had been simmering for decades, related to class and social differences. The western areas were growing and were based on subsistence farms by yeomen; its residents held few slaves. The planters of the eastern section were wealthy slaveholders who dominated state government. By December 1860 secession was being publicly debated throughout Virginia. Leading eastern spokesmen called for secession, while westerners warned they would not be legislated into treason. A statewide convention first met on February 13; after the attack on Fort Sumter and Lincoln's call to arms, it voted for secession on April 17, 1861. The decision was dependent on ratification by a statewide referendum. Western leaders held mass rallies and prepared to separate, so that this area could remain in the Union. Unionists met at the Wheeling Convention with four hundred delegates from twenty-seven counties. The statewide vote in favor of
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secession was 132,201 to 37,451. An estimated vote on Virginia's ordinance of secession for the 50 counties that became West Virginia is 34,677 to 19,121 against secession, with 24 of the 50 counties favoring secession and 26 favoring the Union.
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The Second Wheeling Convention opened on June 11 with more than 100 delegates from 32 western counties; they represented nearly one-third of Virginia's total voting population. It announced that state offices were vacant and chose Francis H. Pierpont as governor of Virginia (not West Virginia) on June 20. Pierpont headed the Restored Government of Virginia, which granted permission for the formation of a new state on August 20, 1861. The new West Virginia state constitution was passed by the Unionist counties in the spring of 1862, and this was approved by the restored Virginia government in May 1862. The statehood bill for West Virginia was passed by the United States Congress in December and signed by President Lincoln on December 31, 1862.
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The ultimate decision about West Virginia was made by the armies in the field. The Confederates were defeated, the Union was triumphant, so West Virginia was born. In late spring 1861 Union troops from Ohio moved into western Virginia with the primary strategic goal of protecting the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. General George B. McClellan destroyed Confederate defenses in western Virginia. Raids and recruitment by the Confederacy took place throughout the war. Current estimates of soldiers from West Virginia are 20,000-22,000 men each to the Union and the Confederacy. West Virginia was required as part of its admission as a state in 1863 to have a gradual emancipation clause in the new state's constitution. Children were born free or as they came of age, and no new slaves could be brought into the state. About 6,000 would remain enslaved. West Virginia later completely abolished slavery in February 1865, before the end of the war.
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The unique conditions attendant to the creation of the state led the Federal government to sometimes regard West Virginia as differing from the other border states in the post-war and Reconstruction Era. The terms of surrender granted to the Confederate army at Appomattox applied to the soldiers of the 11 Confederate states and West Virginia only. Returning Confederate soldiers from the other border states were required to obtain special permits from the War Department. Similarly, the Southern Claims Commission was originally designed to apply only to the 11 Confederate states and West Virginia, though claims from other states were sometimes honored. Other border areas Tennessee
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Though Tennessee had officially seceded and West Tennessee and Middle Tennessee had voted overwhelmingly in favor of joining the Confederacy, East Tennessee in contrast was strongly pro-Union and had mostly voted against secession. The state even went as far as sending delegates for the East Tennessee Convention attempting to secede from the Confederacy and join the Union; however, the Confederate legislature of Tennessee rejected the convention and blocked its secession attempt. Jefferson Davis arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union and held them without trial. Tennessee came under control of Union forces in 1862 and was occupied to the end of the war. It abolished slavery in January 1865 before the war ended. For this reason, it was omitted from the Emancipation Proclamation. After the war, Tennessee was the first Confederate state to have its elected members readmitted to the US Congress.
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Restored Virginia With the creation of West Virginia in 1863, the Union supporting Restored Government of Virginia took up residence in Alexandria, Virginia, while much of its claimed territory was still held by the Confederacy. It called a state constitutional convention to make reforms in the state's pre-war constitution. In 1864, it adopted a new state constitution abolishing slavery, which in 1865 came to cover the entire state as the war ended. Indian Territory In the Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), most Indian tribes owned black slaves and sided with the Confederacy, which had promised them an Indian state after it won the war. However, some tribes and bands sided with the Union. A bloody civil war resulted in the territory, with severe hardships for all residents. Kansas
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After years of small-scale civil war, Kansas was admitted into the Union as a free state under the "Wyandotte Constitution" on January 29, 1861. Most people gave strong support to the Union cause. However, guerrilla warfare and raids from pro-slavery forces, many spilling over from Missouri, occurred during the Civil War. Although only one battle of official forces occurred in Kansas, there were 29 Confederate raids into the state during the war and numerous deaths caused by the guerrillas. Lawrence came under attack on August 21, 1863, by guerrillas led by William Clarke Quantrill. He was retaliating for "Jayhawker" raids against pro-Confederate settlements in Missouri. His forces left more than 150 people dead in Lawrence. New Mexico/Arizona Territory
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At the time the Civil War broke out, the present-day states of New Mexico and Arizona did not yet exist. There were various proposals, however, to create a new territory within the southern half of the New Mexico Territory prior to the war. The southern half of the territory was pro-Confederate while the northern half was pro-Union. The southern half was also a target of Confederate Texan forces under Charles L. Pyron and Henry Hopkins Sibley, who attempted to establish control there. They had plans to attack the Union states of California and Colorado Territory (both of which also had Southern sympathizers) as well as the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains, Fort Laramie, and Nevada Territory, followed by an invasion of the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Sonora, and Lower California. Ultimately their defeat at the Battle of Glorieta Pass prevented these plans from fruition and Sibley's Confederates fled back to East Texas. See also
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Constitutional Union Party (United States) Central Confederacy Deep South History of slavery in Kentucky History of slavery in Maryland History of slavery in Missouri History of slavery in West Virginia Missouri Constitutional Convention (1861–63) Missouri secession Old South Slave and free states Southern Unionist References
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Further reading Brownlee, Richard S. Gray Ghosts of the Confederacy: Guerrilla Warfare in the West, 1861–1865 (1958) online Crofts, Daniel W. Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis. (1989). Dew, Charles B. Apostles of disunion: Southern secession commissioners and the causes of the Civil War (U of Virginia Press, 2017). Harris, William C. Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union (University Press of Kansas; 2011) 416 pages Nevins, Allan. The War for the Union: The Improvised War 1861–1862. (1959). Phillips, Christopher. The Rivers Ran Backward: The Civil War and the Remaking of the American Middle Border (Oxford UP, 2016). Robinson, Michael D. A Union Indivisible: Secession and the Politics of Slavery in the Border South (2017) Sutherland, Daniel E. A Savage Conflict: The Decisive Role of Guerrillas in the American Civil War (U. of North Carolina Press, 2008) 456 pp
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External links Mr. Lincoln and Freedom: Border States Thomas, William G., III. “The Border South”. Southern Spaces, April 16, 2004. American Civil War by location Former regions and territories of the United States Regions of the Southern United States Politics of the American Civil War
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Genuardi's Family Markets L.P. was a chain of supermarkets located in the Northeastern United States. Family-owned until purchased by Safeway in 2000, Genuardi's had its headquarters in the Bentwood Executive Campus in East Norriton Township, Pennsylvania in Greater Philadelphia. After many of its remaining stores were sold or closed, there was a Safeway-owned store under the former chain's name located in Audubon, Pennsylvania that remained open until May 2015. History Beginning In 1920, Gaspare and Josephine Genuardi owned a farm near Norristown, Pennsylvania and grew fruits and vegetables. The couple went around to their neighbors delivering produce to them. Gaspare and Josephine were the parents of nine children. Of the nine were Charlie, Frank, Tom, Joe, and Jim who helped out with the business. The five sons soon became known as the "Genuardi brothers" by the customers.
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The Genuardi family opened its first supermarket in Norristown in 1954, which until its closure was the oldest surviving Genuardi's in operation. Relatives of the Genuardi family also maintain a nursery and florist in Norristown. 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s The five Genuardi brothers expanded their supermarkets throughout the western Philadelphia suburbs, spanning Bucks, Delaware, Chester, and Montgomery counties. The company has never had any stores within Philadelphia city limits. In 1975, it acquired some former Pantry Pride (originally known as Food Fair) and A&P stores, and more ex-A&P properties rejected by Super Fresh in 1985.
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1980s and 1990s The chain's first surviving stores outside Norristown opened in the 1980s. As the 1990s approached, the five brothers decided to transfer ownership of the stores to a third generation of family, which consisted of Jim Jr., Joe Jr., Charles A., Larry, Tom Jr., Michael, Anthony, Skip, and David Genuardi. Charles A. was named President/CEO of Genuardi's Family Markets. Also during this time, it owned a discount grocery chain called Mad Grocer. In the late 1990s, the company expanded into Delaware and New Jersey. The name of the supermarkets was generally pronounced as by the English speakers of the region, including in TV and radio commercials, regardless of any Italian pronunciation that the founding family's surname may originally have had in Italy; thus, , despite being reasonable with respect to an Italian original, was not the usual sound.
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Safeway buyout of Genuardi's Family Markets In February 2001, the Genuardi family sold the chain to Safeway. In the summer of 2004, all Genuardi's stores in Delaware were converted to the Safeway banner when they were unionized. Safeway already had stores of its own in southern Delaware. There were issues and local outrage over the Safeway takeover due to claims of price increases, the changeover of many products to Safeway's own brands, and the use of a loyalty card, which was not needed under Genuardi's previous ownership. Except for the Safeway conversions, Genuardi's remained non-union, despite heavy unionization in Safeway's other chains. 2000s and early 2010s downfall
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In 2005, grocery delivery was added to select Genuardi's stores. This allowed customers to order groceries via the Genuardi's/Safeway websites and have it delivered by truck in a set time frame. Later on in the year, Genuardi’s closed two underperforming stores in East Windsor, New Jersey and Bensalem, Pennsylvania, the latter of which was converted to a ShopRite. During 2010, underperforming Genuardi's stores did not have their leases renewed and Safeway closed store locations in Newtown Square (Edgmont), Glen Mills, Chesterbrook, and Lansdale in Pennsylvania, and Voorhees in New Jersey. In September 2011, Safeway was looking to sell all or part of Genuardi's. Later that month, a sale of several of Genuardi's locations to Giant-Carlisle appeared to be imminent.
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On January 5, 2012, Giant announced its deal to acquire 15 Genuardi's Family Markets across the Philadelphia area in a $106 million deal. For three weeks in July 2012, Giant opened 5 of the former Genuardi's stores each week. Weis Markets announced on February 13, 2012, the purchase of three stores in Montgomery and Bucks counties. The three Weis stores opened on June 16, 2012. Although it was initially to be acquired by Giant, it was announced on June 6, 2012, that the Newtown store would instead become a McCaffrey's store. The Newtown store became a McCaffrey's on July 15. After failing to find a buyer for the location, the Cherry Hill store closed on August 4, 2012, and later became Whole Foods Market.
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The Barnegat and Egg Harbor Township/Northfield stores closed on December 12, 2012, the Barnegat store was to re-open as Safeway's sister chain Acme in 2016 and the Egg Harbor Township/Northfield store became JR's Fresh Market in 2015 but that closed in 2018 and became Lidl in 2021. The Marlton store closed on February 12, 2013. The Audubon store, the last remaining store, closed on May 27, 2015. Acme Markets, the chain's long-time rival, announced in late 2015 it would reopen the closed Barnegat location as an Acme; this was made possible when Albertsons (Acme's parent firm) merged with Safeway earlier in the year, and Safeway continued to hold the location's lease long after it closed. The store reopened as an Acme on February 5, 2016. References Sources Genuardi Family Markets Employee Handbook, 1995. External links (Archive)
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Defunct supermarkets of the United States Safeway Inc. Defunct companies based in Pennsylvania American companies established in 1920 Food and drink companies established in 1920 Retail companies established in 1920 Food and drink companies disestablished in 2012 Retail companies disestablished in 2012 1920 establishments in Pennsylvania 2012 disestablishments in Pennsylvania Family-owned companies of the United States
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A hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle (HICEV) is a type of hydrogen vehicle using an internal combustion engine. Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles are different from hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (which use electrochemical use of hydrogen rather than combustion). Instead, the hydrogen internal combustion engine is simply a modified version of the traditional gasoline-powered internal combustion engine. The absence of carbon means that no CO2 is produced, which eliminates the main greenhouse gas emission of a conventional petroleum engine.
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Hydrogen does not contain carbon. That means, that there are no carbon based pollution in the exhaust like carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide () and hydrocarbons (HC). However, hydrogen combustion with air produces oxides of nitrogen, known as NOx, against emission regulations. In this way, the combustion process is much like other high temperature combustion fuels, such as kerosene, gasoline, diesel or natural gas. As such hydrogen combustion engines are not considered zero emission. The downside is that hydrogen is difficult to handle. Due to the very small molecular size of the hydrogen atom, hydrogen is able to leak through many apparently solid materials. Escaped hydrogen gas mixed with air is potentially explosive.
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History Francois Isaac de Rivaz designed in 1806 the De Rivaz engine, the first internal combustion engine, which ran on a hydrogen/oxygen mixture. Étienne Lenoir produced the Hippomobile in 1863. Paul Dieges patented in 1970 a modification to internal combustion engines which allowed a gasoline-powered engine to run on hydrogen. Tokyo City University have been developing hydrogen internal combustion engines from 1970. They recently developed a hydrogen fueled Bus and Truck. Mazda has developed Wankel engines that burn hydrogen. The advantage of using ICE (internal combustion engine) such as Wankel and piston engines is that the cost of retooling for production is much lower. Existing-technology ICE can still be used to solve those problems where fuel cells are not a viable solution as yet, for example in cold-weather applications.
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Between 2005 - 2007, BMW tested a luxury car named the BMW Hydrogen 7, powered by a hydrogen ICE, which achieved 301 km/h (187 mph) in tests. At least two of these concepts have been manufactured. HICE forklift trucks have been demonstrated based on converted diesel internal combustion engines with direct injection. In the year 2000, a Shelby Cobra was converted to run on hydrogen in a project led by James W. Heffel (principal engineer at the time for the University of California, Riverside CE-CERT). The hydrogen conversion was done with the aim of making a vehicle capable of beating the current land speed record for hydrogen powered vehicles. It achieved a respectable 108.16 mph, missing the world record for hydrogen powered vehicles by 0.1 mph.
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Alset GmbH developed a hybrid hydrogen systems that allows vehicle to use petrol and hydrogen fuels individually or at the same time with an internal combustion engine. This technology was used with Aston Martin Rapide S during the 24 Hours Nürburgring race. The Rapide S was the first vehicle to finish the race with hydrogen technology. Hydrogen internal combustion engine development has been receiving more interest recently, particularly for heavy duty commercial vehicles. Part of the motivation for this is as a bridging technology to meet future climate emission goals, and as technology more compatible with existing automotive knowledge and manufacturing.
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In May 2021, Toyota Corolla Sport, which is equipped with hydrogen engine entered the Super Taikyu Series race round 3 "NAPAC Fuji Super TEC 24 Hours", and completed the 24 hours race. Toyota intends to apply its safety technologies and know-how that it has accumulated through the development of fuel cell vehicles and the commercialization of the Mirai. In November 2021, five automotive manufacturers in Japan (Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Subaru, Toyota, Mazda and Yamaha Motor) jointly announced that they will take on the challenge of expanding fuel options through the use of internal combustion engines to achieve carbon neutrality, at the (three-hour) Super Taikyu race Round 6 held at Okayama International Circuit. Their common view is that the enemy is not internal combustion engines, and we need diverse solutions toward challenging carbon neutrality. At the event, Yamaha Motor unveiled 5.0-liter V8 Hydrogen engine which is based on Lexus 2UR engine.
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Efficiency Since hydrogen internal combustion engines are heat engines, their maximum efficiency is limited by the Carnot efficiency. In comparison, the efficiency of a fuel cell is limited by the Gibbs free energy, which is typically higher than that of Carnot. Hydrogen combustion engines are particularly sensitive to transients in load, in terms of efficiency, and therefore more suited to constant load operations. Pollutant emissions The combustion of hydrogen with oxygen produces water vapor as its only product: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O However, within air hydrogen combustion can produce oxides of nitrogen, known as NOx. In this way, the combustion process is much like other high temperature combustion fuels, such as kerosene, gasoline, diesel or natural gas. As such hydrogen combustion engines are not considered zero emission.
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Hydrogen has a wide flammability range in comparison with other fuels. As a result, it can be combusted in an internal combustion engine over a wide range of fuel-air mixtures. An advantage here is it can thus be on a lean fuel-air mixture. Such a mixture is one in which the amount of fuel is less than the theoretical, stoichiometric or chemically ideal amount needed for combustion with a given amount of air. Fuel economy is then greater and the combustion reaction is more complete. Also, the combustion temperature is usually lower, which reduces the amount of pollutants (nitrogen oxides, ...) emitted through the exhaust. The European emission standards measure emissions of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon, non-methane hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides (NOx), atmospheric particulate matter, and particle numbers. Although is produced, hydrogen internal combustion generates little or no CO, , , HC or PM emissions.
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Tuning a hydrogen engine in 1976 to produce the greatest amount of emissions possible resulted in emissions comparable with consumer operated gasoline engines from that period. More modern engines however often come equipped with exhaust gas recirculation. Equation when ignoring EGR: H2 + O2 + N2 → H2O + NOx This technology potentially benefits hydrogen combustion also in terms of emissions. Since hydrogen combustion is not zero emission but has zero CO2 emissions, it is attractive to consider hydrogen internal combustion engines as part of a hybrid powertrain. In this configuration, the vehicle is able to offer short term zero emission capabilities such as operating in city zero emission zones.
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Adaptation of existing engines The differences between a hydrogen ICE and a traditional gasoline engine include hardened valves and valve seats, stronger connecting rods, non-platinum tipped spark plugs, a higher voltage ignition coil, fuel injectors designed for a gas instead of a liquid, larger crankshaft damper, stronger head gasket material, modified (for supercharger) intake manifold, positive pressure supercharger, and high temperature engine oil. All modifications would amount to about one point five times (1.5) the current cost of a gasoline engine. These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner that gasoline engines do.
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The theoretical maximum power output from a hydrogen engine depends on the air/fuel ratio and fuel injection method used. The stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for hydrogen is 34:1. At this air/fuel ratio, hydrogen will displace 29% of the combustion chamber leaving only 71% for the air. As a result, the energy content of this mixture will be less than it would be if the fuel were gasoline. Since both the carbureted and port injection methods mix the fuel and air prior to it entering the combustion chamber, these systems limit the maximum theoretical power obtainable to approximately 85% of that of gasoline engines. For direct injection systems, which mix the fuel with the air after the intake valve has closed (and thus the combustion chamber has 100% air), the maximum output of the engine can be approximately 15% higher than that for gasoline engines.