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1596_11 | Therefore, depending on how the fuel is metered, the maximum output for a hydrogen engine can be either 15% higher or 15% less than that of gasoline if a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio is used. However, at a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, the combustion temperature is very high and as a result it will form a large amount of nitrogen oxides (NOx), which is a criteria pollutant. Since one of the reasons for using hydrogen is low exhaust emissions, hydrogen engines are not normally designed to run at a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio. |
1596_12 | Typically hydrogen engines are designed to use about twice as much air as theoretically required for complete combustion. At this air/fuel ratio, the formation of is reduced to near zero. Unfortunately, this also reduces the power output to about half that of a similarly sized gasoline engine. To make up for the power loss, hydrogen engines are usually larger than gasoline engines, and/or are equipped with turbochargers or superchargers. A small amount of hydrogen can be burned outside the combustion chamber and reach into the air/fuel mixture in the chamber to ignite the main combustion.
In the Netherlands, research organisation TNO has been working with industrial partners for the development of hydrogen internal combustion engines. |
1596_13 | See also
Bi-fuel vehicle: a possible solution to overcome the lack of H2 stations
Classic car fuel conversions
Fuel gas-powered scooter
Formic acid
Hydrogen fuel enhancement
Home hydrogen fueling station
Liquid nitrogen vehicle
List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles
Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles
Timeline of hydrogen technologies
References
External links
EERE-Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle |
1597_0 | Ukhrul District (Pron:/ˈuːkˌɹəl or ˈuːkˌɹʊl/) is an administrative district of the state of Manipur in India with its headquarters at Ukhrul, that is Hunphun. The district occupies the north-eastern corner of the state and it extends between latitudes of 24° 29′ and 25° 42′ N and longitudes 94° 30′ and 94° 45′ E approximately (including Kamjong district). It shares an international boundary with Myanmar (Burma) on its eastern side and is bounded by Nagaland state in the north, Senapati district and Kangpokpi district in the west and Kamjong district in the south. It has the distinction of being the highest hill station of Manipur. The terrain of the district is hilly with a varying heights of 913 m to 3114 m (MSL). Ukhrul, the district HQ., at an altitude of 2020 m (MSL) is linked with Imphal, the state capital by NH 202 which is about 84 kilometres apart. The district covers an area of 4,544 square kilometres (1,754 sq mi) including Kamjong district making it the second largest |
1597_1 | district of the state after Churachandpur district and has a population of almost 1,83,998 according to Census of India 2011 comprising about 6.44 per cent of the total state population. The Tangkhul Naga tribe constitute the major bulk of the population with other communities such as Kukis, Nepalese and other non-tribals constituting a small percentage of the district population. Administratively, the district which comprises around 200 villages was divided into five sub-divisions, where their boundaries were coterminous with that of the Tribal Development Blocks. There was no statutory town in the district except one census town which was formed in 2011 Census. Recently, Kamjong district was carved out from Ukhrul District as a separate district. Ukhrul District has three assembly constituencies before the bifurcation of the district which are Phungyar Assembly Constituency (43-ST), Ukhrul Assembly Constituency (44-ST) and Chingai Assembly Constituency. |
1597_2 | The district is best introduced by its rare Shirui Lily, (Lilium mackliniae). Also, the district has provided two of Manipur's chief ministers and the only from amongst the hill districts of Manipur, Yangmaso Shaiza the first tribal chief minister of Manipur and Rishang Keishing who is also the first MP from Outer Manipur (Lok Sabha constituency). William Pettigrew (missionary), an educationist and a Scottish-British Christian Missionary pioneered the western system of education and introduced the Christianity faith among the Tangkhal Naga tribe. Phungyo Baptist Church, Tangrei, Ukhrul, the oldest and the first Christian church of Manipur which still stands today is a testament to his passion for missionary work. |
1597_3 | History
It was marked out first as a sub-division in 1919 during the British Raj. It was later upgraded to a full-fledged district, bearing the nomenclature of Manipur East District in November 1969 by the Government of India. |
1597_4 | Linguistically, the Tangkhuls belong to a large language family called Sino-Tibetan, and within that family to the sub-family Tibeto-Burman. In general this points towards an origin in the north, that is south-west China and Tibet. The earliest home of the Tangkhuls was the upper reaches of the Huang heo and Yangtze Rivers which lies in the Zinjiang province of China. Like the other desert areas of the world, the people including the Tangkhuls, due to hardship of life, dispersed from this place to different directions. One group moved towards the east and southeast to become known as Chinese, and another group moved southward to become the tribes of Tibeto-Burman, which includes the Tangkhuls and other tribes. That was between c, 10,000 B.C. to 8000 B.C. This movement has continued into recent historic times. S.K. Chatterjee noted that from 2000 B.C. onwards, Sino-Tibetan speakers from China pushed south and west and entered India. According to W.I. Singh, in his The History of |
1597_5 | Manipur, the Tangkhuls settled in the Samshok (Thuangdut) area in Myanmar. They belong to the Yakkha tribe in China. The Tangkhuls were first noticed in Manipur by Poireiton, one of the earliest kings of a principality in Manipur valley. |
1597_6 | The Tangkhuls and other Naga tribes came to Manipur, Nagaland, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh through Myanmar. Some of them also settled down in Myanmar and did not venture further. However, their movement over Myanmar and into India was spread over a period of time. They entered the present habitat in waves following one another and in some cases in close succession. The Tangkhuls came together with the Zeliangrongs, Maos, Poumeis, Marams and Thangals because all of them have references to their dispersal from Makhel, a Mao village in Senapati district. They had also erected megaliths at Makhel in memory of their having dispersed from there to various directions.
The Tangkhuls point to the association of their forefathers with the seashore. Most of the ornaments of the Tangkhuls such as kongsang and huishon were made of sea shells. Cowrie and conch shells are prominent features of the people who live on the shore. |
1597_7 | By the 2nd century AD the Tangkhuls were living in Samshok (Thuangdut) in Myanmar. Ptolemy, a Greek astronomer and geographer of Alexandria, in his Geography of Further India c. 140 AD, referred to the Tangkhul (Nangalogue) at Triglypton (Thuangdut). The Tangkhuls began to disperse from Samshok after the invasion of Ko-lo-feng and his successor I-mau-shun the king of Nan-chao in the closing part of the 8th century AD and beginning of the 9th century AD. They were further driven towards the north-west of Myanmar by the Shan people.
Thus, the Tangkhuls as also other Naga tribes travelled from China to Myanmar, and from there finally they came into their present land traversing through innumerable snow-covered landscapes, mountains and wild forests, confronting wild beasts and wild tribes. The exodus of the Tangkhuls from China to Myanmar and finally to India is a story of heroism of human migration, courage and endurance. |
1597_8 | In course of time every Tangkhul village became a small republic like the Greek city states. Every village had an unwritten constitution made up of age-old conventions and traditions. The Tangkhul villages were self-sufficient except for salt, and self-governing units ruled by a hereditary or elected chief assisted by a council of elders. The chief was a judge, administrator and commander rolled into one. However, the absence of a national government was disastrous for them in the mediaeval period as the small village states were unable to withstand the onslaught of the organised army invasion like Khagi (Chinese), Awa (Burmese), etc. The Kangleipak king or Meitei king always protects his people from foreign invasion. Some examples of historic events like during the reign of King Telheiba 1335-1355 AD protected from Khagi Army (Chinese) and Awa Army (Burmese) invasion. During the reign of King Khagemba 1596-1651 AD of Kangleipak Kingdom, he just not only protected Chinese invasion but |
1597_9 | even defeated and conquered a Chinese Chieftain rule town somewhere in the present Yunan provinces of China. |
1597_10 | The ancient Tangkhul history is hitherto an unrecorded past. History however became more enlightened by the beginning of the 13th century owing to the cultural, trade and sometimes turbulent relations which had grown up with the people of the valley. There is a reference to the Tangkhuls as early as the 13th century during the reign of Thawanthaba (1195-1231 AD) of Kangleipak Kingdom. The chronicles refer to the punishment in some hill tribe villages for not giving their protection tax to their king. The most severe punishment was for cutting down a tree unnecessarily. The Kangleipak King had a strict rule against deforestation. For example, a law said that if one cuts a tree, he must plant a tree somewhere around. The Meitei believed that cutting down excess trees cause floods in the valley and landslides in the hills area country road, which make the army patrol team difficult to keep an eye of protection for their capital kingdom within the nine mountain ranges. The particular |
1597_11 | village's chief had to pay the price as a punishment for disturbing mother nature if he was found guilty in trial. Even in many a case the hierarchy Chieftain Hood position was alter with their sibling if a particular village chief act against the king's order. So there was a growth of anti-Meitei sentiment since early days. A historical proof of separatist rebellion when King Tabungba (1359-1394) was assassinated by Chingdai village chieftain while he was there for taking direct consent from the village chief for not showing up in the religious ancestral festival of Mera Hou Chongba for Kangleicha (people of Kangleipak). It was well known that Chingdai village chief wife (daughter of Chingsong village chief) was a childhood lover of King Tabungba while they were young, before he took the throne in 1359. |
1597_12 | There has always been some form of relationship between the Tangkhuls and the Meiteis in terms of political alliances and trade relations. Some items of Hao (Highlander of Kangleipak Kingdom) material - culture indicate a long history of contact between the plain and hills. The "Elephant Cloth" (Leirungphi), for instance, resplendent with complex animal designs, worn by the Hao of Manipur, has its origin in the wish of the ruler of Manipur in the mid-seventeenth to present his village's chief with a special cloth. The Tangkhul shawl "changkhom" is also known as "karaophi" in Manipur. The Tangkhul dance (pheichak) was known as "chingkheirol" in Manipur, from the fact that it came from Chingkhei (north east of Imphal). |
1597_13 | During the reign of the most powerful Meitei King Pamheiba a.k.a. Garib Nawaz (1709–1748) for the first time, the heartland rebellion area of the Tangkhul villages was brought under peace. In 1716, the king's forces invaded the great Tangkhul village of Hundung and 68 prisoners were captured. In 1733, the king sent a military expedition to Ukhrul to destroy the rebellion force. The outcome of the expeditions incurred heavy casualty on the King's forces; the royal chronicles record the death of 70 Meitei soldiers. The Ningek inscription of King Garib Nawaz refers to the Khullakpa of Okhrul (Ukhrul). Ukhrul was the headquarters of the Tangkhul Long (Tangkhul Assembly), as well as the Tangkhul annual fair locally known as "Leh Khangapha" used to be held at Somsai in Ukhrul. |
1597_14 | A more significant relationship between the hills and the valley took place during the reign of Bhagyachandra (1759–1762 and 1763–1798). In 1779 King Bhagyachandra established a new capital at Langthabal about seven kilometers south east of Imphal. For the next 17 years Langthabal remained as the capital. He employed many Tangkhul and Kabui Nagas in the digging of moats around the new capital of Langthabal. Of the Tangkhul chiefs, Khullakpa of Hungpung and Hunphun made friendship with the king.
The relationship between the Tangkhuls and the Meiteis during the mediaeval period was not only of wars and conquests. They also carried out trade and commerce. The Tangkhuls supplied cotton to the valley. They also sold and purchased in the Sanakeithel, the principal market in Imphal. The Tangkhuls used Manipuri coins of bell-metal locally called "sel" as a medium of exchange which was first introduced during the reign of Khagemba (1597–1652). |
1597_15 | The boundary of Manipur and Burma (Myanmar) was laid down by an agreement signed between the British authorities (East India Company) and Burma on 9 January 1834 on the river bank of Nighthee (Chindwin). The Article No.4 (iii) of this agreement relates to the Tangkhul villages. In the period of World War II, the Ukhrul area was also affected by war. Gnanpeeth awardee recorded about this area that in the 1950s the highway between Imphal and Ukhrul was partially demolished, and hill areas in Ukhrul had signs of war attacks. People and their hearts also seem to be wounded out of war. "Fourth (iii) - On the north, the line of boundary will begin at the foot of the same hills at the northern extremity of the Kabo Valley and pass due north up to the first range of hills, east of that upon which stand the villages of Chortor (Choithar), Noongbee (Nungbi), Nonghar (Nunghar), of the tribe called by the Munepooriis (Manipuris) Loohooppa (Tangkhul), and by the Burmahs Lagwensoung, now tributary |
1597_16 | of Manipoor." |
1597_17 | As a result of this boundary demarcation without the knowledge let alone consent of the Tangkhuls, many Tangkhul villages situated in Somrah hills are included under Burma. Later, when India and Burma attained national independence, the Tangkhuls found themselves totally dismembered belonging to two different countries. |
1597_18 | Geography
Ukhrul District occupying the northeastern corner of the state lies between latitudes of 24° 29′ and 25° 42′ N and longitudes 94° 30′ and 94° 45′ E approximately (including Kamjong district). Nagaland bounds the district on the north, Kamjong District on the south, Myanmar (Burma) on the east and Senapati and Kangpokpi Districts on the west. The north-south extension is longer than the east-west. The total area of the district is 4,544 square kilometres (1,754 sq mi) including Kamjong District. It has the distinction of being the highest hill station of Manipur. The terrain of the district is hilly with varying heights of 913 m to 3114 m (MSL). The highest peak is the Khayang Peak, at 3114 m (MSL), though the more popularly known peak is the Shirui Kashong Peak, at 2,835 m (MSL). Most of the major rivers originate from the crevices and slopes of this Shirui Peak. The terrain of the district is rippled with small ranges and striped by few rivers. |
1597_19 | The northern hilly region occupies the northern portion of the district and lies between the Akhong Lok or Laini Lok river and Chammu river. A big range stretches from north to south starting from near Jessami to Shirui Kashong as high as 2,568 metres above the MSL. The eastern hilly region occupies the eastern part of the district that lies east of the Chammu and Maklangkhong rivers. The Gamgimol or Nehdoh Lhang range forms an International boundary with Myanmar. The southern hilly region is situated at the southwestern corner of the district, which divides the Maklangkhong and Taret rivers. The district is drained by the two river systems, the Chindwin River system in the north and the Manipur river system in the south-west. |
1597_20 | Flora and fauna |
1597_21 | The district is home to hundreds of varieties of trees and flowering plants, orchids, epiphytic ferns, varied species of plants and shrubs. Some of the best known species of plants and trees includes Alder (Alnus nepalensis), Prunus cerasoides, Acacia auriculiformis, Parkia javanica, Paraserianthes falcataria, Michelia, Gmelina arborea, Pinus kesiya, Robinia pseudoacacia, besides various Iris (plant) species, wild roses, red and white rhododendrons etc. The district being covered with a wide dense of forest is a habitat of wild animals such as Elephant, Leopard, Tiger, Bear, Bison, Gaur, Crested porcupine, Pangolin, Jungle cat, Wild boar, Deer, Monkey etc. The state flower of Manipur, Shirui Lily, also called Shirui Lily or Lilium Macklinae is a rare pinkish white flower found only in the Shirui Hill Range in the Ukhrul District of Manipur. It is named after Jean Macklin, the wife of Dr. Frank Kingdon-Ward who spotted the flower in 1946 while collecting botanical specimens. The Royal |
1597_22 | Horticultural Society (RHS), London, United Kingdom, one of the world's leading horticultural organizations honoured the Shirui Lily with its prestigious merit award at its Flower Show in London in 1948. The local name of the flower is KASHONGWON. According to legend, the Kashongwon is also the protective spirit which resides on the Shirui Peak. HORAMWON is also another flower which is snow-white. It takes its name HORAMWON (snow-white) from the snow that falls on Shongrei Peak where the flower blooms. Other names of flowers worth mentioning are Chamtheiwon, Nulsiwon, Shiriwon, Sikreiwon, Shilungwon, Kokruiwon (Rhododendron arboreum), Khayawon, and Muivawon (Ref: A Tourist guide to Shirui Lily). The evergreen forest presents the district with a sylvan landscape. Some commonly found trees are Pine, Albizia, Castanopsis, Mesua, Mangifera indica, Phoebe hainesiana, Albizia lebbeck, Teak, Oak etc. The forests are also interspersed with multi-bamboos especially in the southern portions. |
1597_23 | Though the State Flower, Shirui Lily have attracted many tourists and botanists from around the world, it now faces a crisis of possible extinction in the near future and has been categorized as an Endangered species due to climate change, deforestation, wildfire, poor conservation approaches, intrusion of other plants and bushes, over exploitation etc. Scientists and experts have advocated for the Shirui Lily to be left as it is in nature, and assured us that nature is capable of healing it without human interruptions caused by a forest fire and unguided tourists. They have also suggested number of steps and measures that can be taken up by the centre and state government and participation of various research institutions to raise awareness of protection of Shirui Lily and implementation of conservative initiatives. |
1597_24 | Climate
The climate of Ukhrul district is sub-tropical monsoon type. The climate of the district is of temperate nature with a minimum and maximum degrees of 3 °C to 33 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1,763.7 mm (1991). As the district headquarter lies on the top of the high hills, it is very cold throughout the year. It is always covered by the clouds. Regarding weather of the District Headquarter, the sudden changes of the position of clouds are openly seen within a few moments but in other places outside the District Headquarter, it is hot in summer and very cold in winter. However, the district as a whole have a moderate temperature. |
1597_25 | The hill ranges that lies in the District Headquarter and Ukhrul Central sub-division got very cold climate during the winter while other parts of the vast hilly areas of the district has moderate climate throughout the year. The coldest months of the district are December and January. During this period, the temperature at the Ukhrul District Headquarter use to come down to as low as 3 °C and even 0 °C. |
1597_26 | Administrative divisions |
1597_27 | The present district was made a full fledged district as Manipur East District in 1969. The village, Ukhrul, became its headquarters comprising Ukhrul North, Ukhrul Central, Phungyar Phaisat, Kamjong Chassad, Ukhrul South as sub-divisions. Under Manipur Gazette Notification No.174 dated August 5, 1983, the name of the district came to be known as Ukhrul District after the name of the District Headquarters as in the case of other districts. Recently, Kamjong District has been carved out as a separate district from Ukhrul District with Kamjong, Phungyar, Kasom khullen and Sahamphung as Sub-divisions and Blocks. Presently, Ukhrul District has four Sub-divisions, Ukhrul, Jessami, Chingai and Lungchong Maiphei. The Sub-Divisional boundary is coterminous with that of Rural Development Block and each Sub-Divisional Officer acts as Block Development Officer in his respective jurisdiction. The District administration is headed by a Deputy commissioner or District magistrate who is assisted by |
1597_28 | an Additional Deputy Commissioner and Sub-Divisional Officers respectively in-charge of each Sub-divisions. The Deputy Commissioner (DC) or District magistrate (DM) is the head of the revenue administration. The DC is required to be an Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer who is in charge of governmental assets in the district of jurisdiction. The DC is responsible for collecting revenue within the district, as it pertains to various governmental enactments such as Stamp and Registration Act, Land Reforms Act, Irrigation Act, Excise Act and Public Health Act. When executing duties with regard to revenue collection, the DC can exercise quasi-judicial functions. |
1597_29 | The District Police is headed by a Superintendent of Police assisted by his Deputy Superintendent of Police (SDPO), and there are 9 (nine) Police Stations in the district. The Judicial/Judiciary administration is looked after by a Chief Judicial Magistrate.
Ukhrul District has three assembly constituencies before the bifurcation of the district into Ukhrul and Kamjong Districts. The constituencies are:
Phungyar Assembly Constituency (43-ST).
Ukhrul Assembly Constituency (44-ST).
Chingai Assembly Constituency (45-ST).
The Ukhrul District Autonomous Council (UADC) was instituted in the year 1971 under the Manipur (Hill Areas) District Council Act, 1971. Elections of twenty four (24) Members are held every 5 years. Two Members are nominated by the Government of Manipur. The Chief Executive Officer is the Administrative Head of the District Council. Under the Council there are 1318 staff including teachers and 158 schools ranging from Primary Schools to Upper Primary Schools. |
1597_30 | Transport
The district headquarters, Ukhrul, is linked with Imphal, the state capital, by national highway 150. This highway also links Ukhrul with Kohima via Jessami. It has the distinction of being the highest hill station of Manipur. There are also many district roads and village roads. Ukhrul-Kamjong, and Ukhrul-Phungyar Road are the main metalled roads of the district. The Tampak-Ngashan (Mahadev)- Pfutsero road connects the western part of the district with the district headquarters.
Demographics
According to the 2011 census Ukhrul district has a population of 183,998, roughly equal to the nation of Sao Tome and Principe. This gives it a ranking of 593rd in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of . Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 30.07%. Ukhrul has a sex ratio of 948 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 81.87%. |
1597_31 | The Tangkhul form the majority ethnic group in this district, around 87%. According to oral tribal legend whenever a robust, strong, fair child is born in a Meitei family the elders of the family praise god for sending a Tangkhul in the family. This legend is strongly supported by the cultural relation of the Meitei and the Tangkhul. |
1597_32 | The district is the home town to two Manipuri chief ministers, Yangmaso Shaiza and Rishang Keishing. It is also the home town of the first Indian ambassador from the north-east region, Bob Khathing. The district has also produced the first vice Chancellor from the North-East, Prof. Darlando Khathing, presently the VC of Central University of Jharkhand. The district has also produced the first IAS and IFS officers of the state – Christianson Chibber and PrimRose R Sharma. Besides Ameising Luikham, who is an IAS officer from the hill district of the state, Dr. Pam Shaiza, the first female tribal doctor, and Siraphui Marinao, the first tribal engineer of the state, also hail from Ukhrul.
Ukhrul district is the home of the Tangkhuls. They are a highly cultured people. The name Tangkhul was given to them by their neighbours, the Meiteis. The northern Tangkhuls were also called the Luhupas.
Languages
Tangkhul language
Sorbung language
Pochuri language
Tarao language
Thadou language |
1597_33 | Culture
Places of interest
Besides the Shirui lily, the district is known for many natural wonders like the Khangkhui Mangsor, Mova (cave) which is one of the oldest archeological cave of India. Ukhrul town, the headquarters of the district, has also many scenic places like the Duncan park, the Japanese pond, and Elshadai park. At the southern part of the town, about 22 km lies the majestic Phangrei (bone of contention between two villages) which is an ideal picnic spot. The district is also home to many waterfalls, including Khayang waterfall, which is about 20 km from Ukhrul. There is also another picnic spot for youngsters called KNC river (Khangkhui, Nungshong Choithar). In the past this spot was called Saibai Kong; the title was given by Choithar Headman during kingship period. |
1597_34 | Ukhrul is also a tourist hotspot of Manipur state. It is known for its hospitality and festivals. Almost every month festivals are celebrated by different villages and towns. The chief festivals of the Tangkhuls are Luira (seed sowing festival), Mangkhap (resting feast), Thisham (feast for the departed), and Thareo (harvest festival). Longpi village is known for its authentic Tangkhul cuisine during the Luira festival. While Ringui village is known for its celebration of Luira festival, during the festival the village comes alive with the traditional dances (bridal dance, parade of the virgin dance, festive dance and war dance) and songs. A war dance is performed during this festival. Ringui village is also known for production of films, music and plays of the Tangkhuls. |
1597_35 | Education |
1597_36 | In earlier days when education was sparse and primitive, Ukhrul was a well sought after place for the different tribes of the north east. The first school was set up by the then missionary Rev. William Pettigrew in 1896. Since then, not only has the place increased in the number of schools and colleges but it has produced many scholars and professionals in various fields. The first tribal person from the north east to teach in the prestigious Delhi University hails from the district (Prof. Horam). Today, with more than 90% literate population, Ukhrul is considered as the most educated town of the state next to the capital city Imphal. Some of the well known schools of the town are Sacred Heart Higher Secondary School, Alice Christian Higher Secondary School, Ktl Excel Higher Secondary School, Little Angels School, Savio School, Blesso Montessori School, Holy Spirit School, Patkai Academy, Juniors Academy, Sentinel College, Saint John School and Pettigrew College, Kendriya Vidyalaya |
1597_37 | and Jawahar Novadaya Vidyalaya . |
1597_38 | Though the Tangkhuls are a highly educated community, hardly have they abandoned the traditional way of life. In many villages, to the delights of the tourist, one still sees the enchanting traditional lives of the past. The highest cultural and judicial institution of the Tangkhuls is the Tangkhul Naga Long, which was established in 1929 under the name all Tangkhul students conference. Realising the need of an organization that covers the whole community the organisation was changed to the Tangkhul Long in 1936. To this day all the disputes within the community is settled through the court of the LONG (organisation).
See also
List of Naga people
List of Naga tribes
List of Naga ethnic groups
List of Naga languages
References
External links
Ukhrul District of Manipur
Ukhrul, India page at Falling Rain Genomics
1969 establishments in Manipur
Districts of Manipur
Minority Concentrated Districts in India |
1598_0 | In audio engineering, a fade is a gradual increase or decrease in the level of an audio signal. The term can also be used for film cinematography or theatre lighting in much the same way (see fade (filmmaking) and fade (lighting)). |
1598_1 | A recorded song may be gradually reduced to silence at its end (fade-out), or may gradually increase from silence at the beginning (fade-in). Fading-out can serve as a recording solution for pieces of music that contain no obvious ending. Both fades and cross-fades are very valuable since they allow the engineer to quickly and easily make sure that the beginning and the end of any audio is smooth, without any prominent glitches. It is necessary that there is a clear section of silence prior to the audio. Fade-ins and -outs can also be used to change the characteristics of a sound, such as to soften the attack in vocals where very plosive (‘b’, ‘d’, and ‘p’) sounds occur. It can also be used to soften up the attack of the drum and/or percussion instruments. A cross-fade can be manipulated through its rates and coefficients in order to create different styles of fading. Almost every fade is different; this means that the fade parameters must be adjusted according to the individual |
1598_2 | needs of the mix. |
1598_3 | Professional turntablists and DJs in hip hop music use faders on a DJ mixer, notably the horizontal crossfader, in a rapid fashion while simultaneously manipulating two or more record players (or other sound sources) to create "scratching" and develop beats. Club DJs in house music and techno use DJ mixers, two or more sound sources (two record players, two iPods, etc.) along with a skill called beatmatching (aligning the beats and tempos of two records) to make seamless dance mixes for dancers at raves, nightclubs and dance parties. |
1598_4 | Though relatively rare, songs can fade out then fade back in. Some examples of this are "Helter Skelter" and "Strawberry Fields Forever" by The Beatles, "Suspicious Minds" by Elvis Presley, "Shine On Brightly" by Procol Harum, "Sunday Bloody Sunday" by John Lennon and Yoko Ono, "That Joke Isn't Funny Anymore" by The Smiths, "Thank You" by Led Zeppelin, "It's Only Money, Pt. 2" by Argent, "The Great Annihilator" by Swans, "(Reprise) Sandblasted Skin" by Pantera, "Illumination Theory" and "At Wit's End" by Dream Theater, "Future" by Paramore, "Doomsday" by MF Doom, "Outro" by M83, "Cold Desert" by Kings of Leon, and "The Edge Of The World" by DragonForce.
History |
1598_5 | Origins and early examples
Possibly the earliest example of a fade-out ending can be heard in Joseph Haydn's Symphony No. 45, nicknamed the "Farewell" Symphony on account of the fade-out ending. The symphony which was written in 1772 used this device as a way of courteously asking Haydn's patron Prince Nikolaus Esterházy, to whom the symphony was dedicated, to allow the musicians to return home after a longer than expected stay. This was expressed by the players extinguishing their stand candles and leaving the stage one by one during the final adagio movement of the symphony, leaving only two muted violins playing. Esterhazy appears to have understood the message, allowing the musicians to leave. |
1598_6 | Gustav Holst's "Neptune, the mystic", part of the orchestral suite The Planets written between 1914 and 1916, is another early example of music to have a fade-out ending during performance. Holst stipulates that the women's choruses are "to be placed in an adjoining room, the door of which is to be left open until the last bar of the piece, when it is to be slowly and silently closed", and that the final bar (scored for choruses alone) is "to be repeated until the sound is lost in the distance". Although commonplace today, the effect bewitched audiences in the era before widespread recorded sound—after the initial 1918 run-through, Holst's daughter Imogen (in addition to watching the charwomen dancing in the aisles during "Jupiter") remarked that the ending was "unforgettable, with its hidden chorus of women's voices growing fainter and fainter ... until the imagination knew no difference between sound and silence". |
1598_7 | The technique of ending a spoken or musical recording by fading out the sound goes back to the earliest days of recording. In the era of mechanical (pre-electrical) recording, this could only be achieved by either moving the sound source away from the recording horn, or by gradually reducing the volume at which the performer/s were singing, playing or speaking. With the advent of electrical recording, smooth and controllable fadeout effects could be easily achieved by simply reducing the input volume from the microphones using the fader on the mixing desk. The first experimental study on the effect of a fade-out showed that a version of a musical piece with fade-out in comparison to the same piece with a cold end prolonged the perceived duration by 2.4 seconds. This is called the “Pulse Continuity Phenomenon" and was measured by a tapping-along task to measure participants’ perception of pulsation. |
1598_8 | An 1894 78 rpm record called "The Spirit of '76" features a narrated musical vignette with martial fife-and-drum that gets louder as it 'nears' the listener, and quieter as it 'moves away'. There are early examples that appear to bear no obvious relationship to movement. One is "Barkin' Dog" (1919) by the Ted Lewis Jazz Band. Another contender is "America" (1918), a patriotic piece by the chorus of evangelist Billy Sunday. By the early 1930s longer songs were being put on both sides of records, with the piece fading out at the end of Side One and fading back in at the beginning of Side Two. Records at the time held only about two to five minutes of music per side. The segue allowed for longer songs (such as Count Basie's "Miss Thing"), symphonies and live concert recordings. |
1598_9 | However, shorter songs continued to use the fade-out for unclear reasons—for example, Fred Astaire's movie theme "Flying Down to Rio" (1933). Even using fade-out as a segue device does not seem obvious, though we certainly take it for granted today. It is possible that movies were an influence here. Fade-ins and fade-outs are often used as cinematic devices that begin and end scenes; film language that developed at the same time as these early recordings. The term 'fade-out' itself is of cinematic origin, appearing in print around 1918. And jazz, a favorite of early records, was a popular subject of early movies too. The same could be said for radio productions. Within a single programme of a radio production, many different types of fade can be applied. When mixing from speech to music, there are a few ways that fade can be used. Here are three examples. |
1598_10 | Types
Straight: the introduction has become a musical link between the music/speech that follows, additionally the first notes of the intro can be emphasized to make it ‘pop’ out more.
Cutting the introduction: Since the first word of the vocals has to follow promptly after the cue light, it could be used to move the recording onward.
Introduction under speech: The music is placed at the specified time on the cue, the level must be low in order for the vocals to be audible. Here the fade-up generally occurs just before the final words in order for the cue to be given. In stage productions the closing music is played from a predetermined time and fades up at the closing words in order to fit in exactly with the remaining program time.
Contemporary
No modern recording can be reliably identified as "the first" to use the technique. In 2003, on the (now-defunct) website Stupid Question, John Ruch listed the following recordings as possible contenders: |
1598_11 | More recently: "At the meta-song level, the prevalence of pre-taped sequences (for shops, pubs, parties, concert intervals, aircraft headsets) emphasizes the importance of flow. The effect on radio pop programme form [is] a stress on continuity achieved through the use of fades, voice-over links, twin-turntable mixing and connecting jingles." |
1598_12 | Fade |
1598_13 | A fade can be constructed so that the motion of the control (linear or rotary) from its start to end points affects the level of the signal in a different manner at different points in its travel. If there are no overlapping regions on the same track, regular fade (pre-fade / post-fade) should be used. A smooth fade is one that changes according to the logarithmic scale, as faders are logarithmic over much of their working range of 30-40 dB. If the engineer requires one region to gradually fade into another on the same track, a cross-fade would be more suitable. If however the two regions are on different tracks, fade-ins and fade-outs will be applied. A fade-out can be accomplished without letting the sound's distance increase, however this is also something it can do. The perceived distance increase can be attributed to a diminishing level of timbral detail, not the result of a decreasing dynamic level. A listener's interest can be withdrawn from a sound that is faded at the lower |
1598_14 | end since the ear accepts a more prompt rounding off. The fade-in can be used as a device that separates the listener from the scene. |
1598_15 | An example of a mini fade out, of about a second or two, is a sustained bass note left to die down. |
1598_16 | Shapes
The shape of a regular fade and a cross-fade can be shaped by an audio engineer. Shape implies that you can change the rate at which the level change occurs over the length of the fade. Different types of preset fades shapes include linear, logarithmic, exponential and S-curve.
Linear |
1598_17 | The simplest of fade curves is the linear curve and it is normally the default fade. It takes a straight line and introduces a curve. This curve represents an equal degree by which the gain increases or decreases during the length of the fade. A linear fade-in curve makes it sound as though the volume increases sharply at the beginning, and more gradually towards the end. The same principle applies on a fade-out where a gradual drop in volume can be perceived in the beginning, and the fade gets more abrupt towards the end. If in your audio there is a natural ambience or reverb present that one would like to reduce, the linear shape would be ideal because of the initial drop in perceived volume. When applied it shortens the ambience. Also if the music requires an accelerating effect, this linear curve can also be applied. This type of fade is not very natural sounding. The principle of a linear cross-fade is: at the beginning of the fade the perceived volume drops more quickly, one can |
1598_18 | see at the halfway point (in the middle of the crossfade) that the perceived volume drops below 50%. This is a very noticeable drop in volume. Also if the control can move from position 0 to 100, and the percentage of the signal that is allowed to pass equals the position of the control (i.e. 25% of the signal is allowed to pass when the control is 25% of the physical distance from the 0 point to the 100 point). At the midpoint of the fade the effect of a linear cross-fade is that both the sounds are below half of their maximum perceived volume; and as a result the sum of the two fades will be below the maximum level of either. This is not applicable when the two sounds are on different levels and the cross-fade time is long enough. In turn if the crossfade is short (for example on a single note) the dip of the volume in the middle of the cross-fade can be quite noticeable. |
1598_19 | Logarithmic |
1598_20 | Another type of curve is called the logarithmic ratio (also known as "audio taper", or an inverse-logarithmic ratio. the log/audio-taper more closely matches human hearing, with finer control at lower levels, increasing dramatically past the 50% point. Importantly, the perceived volume of a sound has a logarithmic relationship with its level in decibels. A fade that works on a logarithmic scale would thus counteract the curve of a linear fade. In fade-ins the shape of the perceived volume curve looks like the level in decibels pulled towards the middle part of the line to the bottom right corner. The fade-out in turn looks like it has been pulled toward the bottom-left corner. A logarithmic fade takes a line that has already been curved and straightens it out [15]. The logarithmic fade sounds consistent and smooth since the perceived volume is increased over the whole duration of the fade. This makes this curve very handy for fading standard pieces of music. It is best used on a long |
1598_21 | fade-out since the fade has a perceived linear nature. Also a fade-out sounds very neutral when incorporated to parts of music with natural ambience. In cross-fades this type of curve sounds very natural. When this curve is applied the perceived volume of the fade's midpoint is at about 50% of the maximum – when the two sections are summed the output volume is fairly constant. |
1598_22 | Exponential |
1598_23 | The exponential curve shape is in many ways the precise opposite of the logarithmic curves. The fade-in works as follows: it increases in volume slowly and then it shoots up very quickly at the end of the fade. The fade-out drops very quickly (from the maximum volume) and then declines slowly again over the duration of the fade. Simply stated a linear fade could thus be seen as an exaggerated version of an exponential fade in terms of the apparent volume. Thus the impression that would be gathered from an exponential curve's fade would sound as though the sound was rapidly accelerating towards the listener. Natural ambience can also be repressed by using an exponential fade-out. A cross-fade, in the exponential shape, will have a perceivable dip in the middle, which is very undesirable in music and vocals. This depends largely on the length of the cross-fade, a long cross-fade on ambient sounds can sound perfectly satisfactory (the dip can add a little breath to the music). |
1598_24 | Exponential crossfades (or a curve with a similar shape) have a smaller drop in the middle of the fade. |
1598_25 | S-curve
The S-curve shape is interesting since it has qualities that correlate with the previously mentioned curves. The level of the sound is 50% at the midpoint, but before and after the midpoint the shape is not linear. There are also two types of S-curves. Traditional S-curve fade-in has attributes of the exponential curve can be seen at the beginning; at the midpoint to the end it is more logarithmic in nature. A traditional S-curve fade-out: is logarithmic from the beginning up to the midpoint, then its attributes are based on the exponential curve from the midpoint to the end. This is true for the situation in reverse as well (for both fade-in and fade-out). Cross-fading S-curves works as follows; it diminishes the amount of time that both sounds are playing simultaneously. This ensures that the edits sound like a direct cut when the two edits meet - this adds an extra smoothness to the edited regions. |
1598_26 | The second type of S-curve is more apt for longer cross-fades, since they are smooth and have the ability to have both of the crossfades in the overall level; so that they are audible for as long as possible. There is a short period at the start of each of the cross-fades where the outgoing sound drops toward 50% quickly (with the incoming sound rising just as fast to 50%). This acceleration of sound slows and both sounds will appear as if they are at the same level for most of the cross-fade (in the middle) before the changeover happens. |
1598_27 | DAW's gives one the ability to change the shape of logarithmic, exponential, and S-curve fades and cross-fades. Changing the shape of a logarithmic fade will change how soon the sound will rise above 50%, and then how long it takes for the end of the fade-out to drop below 50% once again. With exponential fades the shape change will affect the shape in reverse, to the shape of the logarithmic fade. In the S-curve's traditional form the shape determines how quickly the change can occur and in the type 2 curve the change can determine the time it takes for both the sounds to get to a nearly equal level. |
1598_28 | Fade times
It is also possible to apply different fade times to the out and in portions; which a standard cross-fade would not allow you to apply. Appropriate fade-in time for a linear fade can be around 500ms; for the fade-out 500ms would also be affective. By having this longer fade it makes sure that everything is gentle as it gives the fade time to blend in and be less abrupt. To clear up plosive sounds created through vocals a fade-in can be used, but now it has to have a very short time of around 10ms. The fade time can always be adjusted by the engineer in order to locate the best time. It is important that the fade does not change the intelligibility or character of the sound too much. When the crossfade is longer than 10ms the standard linear fades are not always the best choice for music editing.
Crossfading |
1598_29 | A crossfader on a DJ mixer essentially functions like two faders connected side-by-side, but in opposite directions. A crossfader is typically mounted horizontally, so that the DJ can slide the fader from the extreme left (this provides 100% of sound source A) to the extreme right (this provides 100% of sound source B), move the fader to the middle (this is a 50/50 mix of sources A and B), or adjust the fader to any point in between. It allows a DJ to fade one source out while fading another source in at the same time. This is extremely useful when beatmatching two sources of audio (or more, where channels can be mapped to one of the two sides of the crossfader individually) such as phonograph records, compact discs or digital sources. The technique of cross-fading is also used in audio engineering as a mixing technique, particularly with instrumental solos. A mix engineer will often record two or more takes of a vocal or instrumental part and create a final version which is a |
1598_30 | composite of the best passages of these takes by cross-fading between each track. In the perfect case, the cross-fade would keep a constant output level, an important quality for a club DJ who is creating a seamless mix of dance tracks for dancers or a radio DJ seeking to avoid "dead air" (silence) between songs, an error that can cause listeners to change channels. However, there is no standard on how this should be achieved. |
1598_31 | There are many software applications that feature virtual cross-fades, for instance, burning-software for the recording of audio-CDs. Also many DAW's (Pro Tools, Logic exc.) have this function. Cross-fade is normally found on samplers and usually based on velocity. The purpose of a cross-fade it to utilize a smooth changeover between two cut pieces of audio. Velocity cross-fading can be incorporated through a MIDI transformation device and where more than one note can be assigned to a given pad (note) on the MIDI keyboard; velocity cross-fading may be available.
These types of cross-fades (those that are based on note velocity) allow two (even more) samples to be assigned to one note or range of notes. This requires both a loud and soft sample; the reason for this is Timbre change. This type of cross-fade is quite subtle depending on the proportion of the received note velocity value of the loud and soft sample. |
1598_32 | Cross-fading usually involves the sounding of a combination of one or two sounds at the same time. While cross-fading one does not want the second part of the fade to start playing before the first part is finished; one wants the overlapping parts to be as short as possible. If edit regions are not trimmed to a zero-crossing point one will get unwelcome pops in the middle. A sound at the lowest velocity can fade into a sound of a higher velocity, in the order of: first the first sound then the second. All possible without fading out the sounds that are already present. This in turn is a form of Layering that can be used in the mix. The same effect (as was created with velocity) can be applied to a controller. This allows continued monitored control; the cross-fading function can also be controlled on some instruments by the keyboard position. These sounds on the MIDI keyboard can be programmed. |
1598_33 | A cross-fade can either be used between two unrelated pieces of music or between two sounds that are similar; in both of these cases, one would like the sound to be one continuous sound without any bumps. When applying a cross-fade between two very different pieces of music (relating to both tone and pitch), one could simply use a cross-fade between the two pieces, make a few minor adjustments. This is because the two sounds are different from one another. In the case of a cross-fade between two sounds, that are similar, phase-cancellation can become an issue. The two sounds that are cross-faded should be brought into comparison with one another. If both sounds are moving upward they will have a cumulative effect - when added together, this is what one wants. What is not desirable is when both sounds are moving in a different direction, since this can lead to cancelations. This leads to no sound on areas where the amplitudes cancel out one another; there will thus be silence in the |
1598_34 | middle of the cross-fade. This occurrence is rare though since the parameters have to be the same. Commonly a cross-fade will result in a gradual reduction in the amount of the sample whose pitch is lower, and an increase will be found on the pitch that is higher. The longer a cross-fade, the more likely a problem will occur. One also does not want the effect of the cross-fade to be very prominent in the middle of the notes, since if different notes are between the edit point there will be a time when both of the sounds can be heard simultaneously. This overlapping is not expected from a normal singing voice, no reference to Overtone singing. |
1598_35 | Cross-fades can either be applied to a piece of music in real time, or it can be pre-calculated.
Grandmaster Flash has been credited with the invention of the first cross-fade by sourcing parts from a junkyard in the Bronx. It was initially an on/off toggle switch from an old microphone that he transformed into a left/right switch which allowed him to switch from one turntable to another, thereby avoiding a break in the music. However the earliest commercial documented example was designed by Richard Wadman, one of the founders of the British company Citronic. It was called the model SMP101, made about 1977, and had a crossfader that doubled as a L/R balance control or a crossfade between two inputs.
Fader |
1598_36 | A fader is any device used for fading, especially when it is a knob or button that slides along a track or slot. It is principally a variable resistance or potentiometer also called a ‘pot’. A contact can move from one end to another. As this movement takes place the resistance of the circuit can either increase or decrease. At one end the resistance of the scale is at 0 and at the other side it is infinite. A. Nisbett explains the fader law as follows in his book called The Sound studio:"The ‘law’ of the fader is near-logarithmic over much of its range, which means that a scale of decibels can be made linear (or close to it) over a working range of perhaps 60 dB. If the resistance were to increase according to the same law beyond this, it would be twice as long before reaching a point where the signal is negligible. But the range below -50 dB is of little practical use, so here the rate of fade increases rapidly to the final cut-off". |
1598_37 | A knob which rotates is usually not considered a fader, although it is electrically and functionally equivalent. Some small mixers use knobs rather than faders, as do a small number of DJ mixers designed for club DJs who are creating seamless mixes of songs. A fader can be either analogue, directly controlling the resistance or impedance to the source (e.g. a potentiometer); or digital, numerically controlling a digital signal processor (DSP). Analogue faders are found on mixing consoles. A fader can also be used as a control for a voltage controlled amplifier, which has the same effect on the sound as any other fader, but the audio signal does not pass through the fader itself. |
1598_38 | Digital
Digital faders are also referred to as virtual faders, since they can be viewed on the screen of a digital audio workstation. Modern high end digital mixers often feature "flying faders", faders with piezo-electric actuators attached; such faders can be multi-use and will jump to the correct position for a selected function or saved setting. Flying faders can be automated, so that when a timecode is presented to the equipment, the fader will move according to a previously performed path. Also called an automated fader, as it recalls the movement of the channel faders in time. A full-function automation system will continuously scan the console, many times per second, in order to incorporate new settings. While this scan is in progress, the stored representation of the previous scan will be compared to that of the fader's current position. If the fader's position has changed, the new position will be identified, thus resulting in a spurt of data. |
1598_39 | The console's computer will update the console's controls on playback. This will be done from memory at the same speed. The advantage of working with mix automation is that only one engineer can perform the job with minimal effort; it can be set up or recorded beforehand to make it even simpler. An example of this is when Ken Hamman installed linear faders that made it possible for him to alter several channels with one hand while mixing, thus he assumed an interactive role in the process of recording. This type of fader level adjustment is also called ‘riding’ the fader.
Types
Many DJ equipment manufacturers offer different mixers for different purposes, with different fader styles, e.g., "scratching", beatmixing, and cut mixing. High-priced mixers often have crossfade curve switches allowing the DJ to select the type of crossfade necessary. Experienced DJs are also able to crossfade between tracks using the channel faders.
Pre-fader, post-fader |
1598_40 | On a mixer with auxiliary send mixes, the send mixes are configured pre-fader or post-fader. If a send mix is configured pre-fader, then changes to the main channel strip fader does not affect the send mix. In live sound reinforcement, this is useful for stage monitor mixes where changes in the Front of House channel levels would distract the musicians. In recording and post production, configuring a send to be pre-fader allows the amount of audio sent to the aux bus to remain unaffected by the individual track fader, thus not disturbing the stability of the feed that is being sent to the musicians. If a send mix is configured post-fader, then the level sent to the send mix follows changes to the main channel strip fader. This is useful for reverberation and other signal processor effects. An example of this is when an engineer would like to add some delay to the vocals – the fader can thus be used to adjust the amount of delay added. |
1598_41 | Pre-fader listen (PFL), after-fader listen (AFL)
These functions will be found on a primary monitor function. This pre-fade listen is valuable since it allows one to listen through headphones in order to hear what the pre-faded part sounds like, while the studio loudspeaker is being used to monitor the rest of the program. |
1598_42 | Pre-fade listen can also be used for talkback as well as to listen to channels before they have been faded. After-fade listen only gets its information later. The choice of listen or level will depend on the user's interest: either with the quality and/or content of the signal or with the signal's level. PFL takes place just before the fader and has a joint channel and monitoring function. PFL sends the channel's signal path to the pre-fade bus. The bus is picked up in the monitor module and made accessible as a substitute signal that is sent to the mixer output. Automatic PFL has been made available, almost universally, and no longer needs to be selected beforehand. |
1598_43 | Pre-fade listen can also be incorporated in radio stations and serves as a vital tool. This function allows the radio presenter to listen to the source before it is faded on air; allowing the presenter to check the source's incoming level and make sure it is accurate. It is also valuable since live radio broadcasts can fall apart without it as they will not be able to monitor the sound. After-fader listen is not as useful in live programs.
See also
Beatmatching
Beatmixing
Harmonic mixing
References
Audio mixing
Audio engineering
Sound recording
DJing
Articles containing video clips |
1599_0 | Spiez is a town and municipality on the shore of Lake Thun in the Bernese Oberland region of the Swiss canton of Bern. It is part of the Frutigen-Niedersimmental administrative district. Besides the town of Spiez, the municipality also includes the settlements of Einigen, Hondrich, Faulensee, and Spiezwiler.
The official language of Spiez is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect.
History
Spiez is first mentioned around 761-62 as Spiets. |
1599_1 | The area between the Kander and Lake Thun in modern Spiez was home to several large Bronze and Iron Age settlements. Three separate Bronze Age cemeteries with numerous graves contained a wealth of bronze axes, knives and cloak pins from 1750 to 1500 BC. On a nearby hill, the Bürg site is slightly younger and contained knives, arrow and spear heads, a horse's bridle and a razor. The Eggli hill top was apparently a religious site during the Bronze and Iron Ages. The center of the religious site was a granite block surrounded by ash from fires and thousands of shattered ceramic fragments. The Eggli site was probably used from about 1500 until 500 BC. Celtic graves from the 4th to 2nd century BC contained gold, amber and glass ornaments which were imported from over the Alps. A rare funerary urn was buried at Faulensee during the 1st century BC. |
1599_2 | During the Roman era there was no permanent settlement in the area, but some Roman coins and Roman graves have been discovered. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages the Spiez area was home to several scattered settlements. According to Elogius Kiburger, the author of the Strättliger Chronicle, in 933 the King of Burgundy, Rudolph II, built Spiez Castle. Shortly thereafter, the Freiherr von Strättligen settled in the castle. Portions of the current castle shield walls and main tower were built during the 12th century and by the 13th century the town of Spiez existed outside the castle walls. By 1280 the castle was listed as an Imperial fief under Vogt Richard von Corbières. In 1289 the Freiherr von Strättligen was co-owner of the castle along with a succession of other noble families. In 1308 King Albert I of Habsburg was murdered at Windisch on the Reuss, by his nephew Duke John Parricida. As part of their retaliation for the murder, the Habsburgs |
1599_3 | withdrew half of the Spiez fief from Thüring von Brandis and granted the whole fief to Johannes von Strättligen. Thirty years later, in 1338, Johannes sold the castle, town, church and surrounding villages to Johann II von Bubenberg who was the Schultheiss of Bern. By 1340, the Bubenberg appointed vogt took orders from Bern, but was obligated to raise troops for the Habsburgs. As Bern was de facto independent from their former overlords, the Habsburgs, this created an unstable situation which remained for over 40 years. After the Bernese and Swiss Confederation victory over the Habsburgs in the Battle of Sempach in 1386, the Habsburgs gave up their land claims west of the Aare, which included Spiez. |
1599_4 | The former Church of St. Laurentius, next to the castle, was first mentioned in 761–62, when the patronage rights over the church were given to Ettenheim Monastery in Breisgau. The church was one of the twelve Lake Thun churches in the Strättliger Chronicle. The current early Romanesque building was built during the 7th or 8th century, while the crypt dates from about 1000. Outside the church, a number of graves from the 7th and 8th centuries have also been discovered. It was the parish church for a parish that included Spiez, Spiezwiler, Einigen, Faulensee and Hondrich. When Bern adopted the new faith of the Protestant Reformation in 1528, the church became the center of the new Reformed parish. |
1599_5 | The castle and surrounding land remained with the Bubenberg family until their extinction in 1506, when it was acquired by Ludwig von Diesbach. Von Diesbach held it for ten years before Ludwig von Erlach acquired the castle and lands. The von Erlach family ruled the town and villages until the 1798 French invasion.
The town charter was first documented in 1406, however there were citizens of Spiez with some codified rights as far back as 1312. A town wall was built early in Spiez's history. However, it fell into disrepair and was destroyed in a fire in 1600. Over time the surrounding villages came to be included in the town charter and their residents became citizens of Spiez. After the 1798 French invasion and the creation of the Helvetic Republic, the von Erlach family lost their land rights and jurisdiction over the village, but retained ownership of the castle until 1875. |
1599_6 | Historically the residents of Spiez and the surrounding villages raised orchards and vineyards on along the lake, fished in the lake and shipped goods along the lake or raised crops in the valleys. The vineyards of Spiez were first mentioned in 1338 and remained in operation until an outbreak of disease destroyed the plants in 1900. An attempt in 1927 to restart the wine industry on Spiez mountain and at Faulensee was fairly successful. The villages along the Kander were often threatened by flooding, until the Kander was diverted into the lake in 1711–13. The construction of the Lake Thun road in 1844 and steam ship docks in 1835, 1876 and 1926 helped open the town to the rest of the country. Due to the mild climate and transportation links, Spiez became a popular health and spa town in the 19th century. Beginning in 1856 resorts and hotels, including the Schonegg, Spiezerhof and Faulensee-Bad, opened along the lake shore. The Thun-Spiez-Interlaken (1893), Spiez-Zweisimmen-Montreux |
1599_7 | (1897-1905) and Spiez-Frutigen-Lötschberg-Simplon (1901–13) railroads all helped the tourist industry and the rest of the town to grow. The growing population led to the construction of a secondary school and seven primary schools around the municipality. In the 1980s the A6 and A8 motorways further connected Spiez and the surrounding villages. In 1990 the Kander Tunnel opened, which helped reduce noise and pollution in the municipality. |
1599_8 | Geography
Spiez is located on the south shore of Lake Thun, stretching along a ridge that separates the lake front from the Kander that runs parallel and to the south. From its lowest point on the lake, at above sea level, it reaches a height of on the ridge at Hondrichhügel.
The municipality comprises five villages (Bäuerte): Spiez, Einigen, Hondrich, Faulensee and Spiezwiler (formerly Wyler). It has an area of . As of 2012, a total of or 36.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 29.9% is forested. The rest of the municipality is or 31.6% is settled (buildings or roads), or 2.0% is either rivers or lakes and or 0.9% is unproductive land. |
1599_9 | During the same year, industrial buildings made up 2.6% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 17.3% and transportation infrastructure made up 9.5%. while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 1.4%. A total of 28.8% of the total land area is heavily forested and 1.1% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 5.5% is used for growing crops and 28.0% is pasturage, while 2.6% is used for orchards or vine crops. Of the water in the municipality, 1.0% is in lakes and 1.0% is in rivers and streams.
On 31 December 2009 Amtsbezirk Niedersimmental, the municipality's former district, was dissolved. On the following day, 1 January 2010, it joined the newly created Verwaltungskreis Frutigen-Niedersimmental.
Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Argent three Piles Azure issuing from the base
Demographics |
1599_10 | Spiez has a population () of . , 8.4% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2001-2011) the population has changed at a rate of -0.5%. Migration accounted for -0.7%, while births and deaths accounted for 0%.
Most of the population () speaks German (11,302 or 94.0%) as their first language, Serbo-Croatian is the second most common (135 or 1.1%) and French is the third (101 or 0.8%). There are 100 people who speak Italian and 5 people who speak Romansh.
, the population was 48.5% male and 51.5% female. The population was made up of 5,521 Swiss men (44.3% of the population) and 533 (4.3%) non-Swiss men. There were 5,905 Swiss women (47.3%) and 516 (4.1%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 3,135 or about 26.1% were born in Spiez and lived there in 2000. There were 5,220 or 43.4% who were born in the same canton, while 2,014 or 16.7% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 1,198 or 10.0% were born outside of Switzerland. |
1599_11 | , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 18.8% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 59.2% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 22%.
, there were 4,678 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 5,862 married individuals, 840 widows or widowers and 647 individuals who are divorced.
, there were 1,924 households that consist of only one person and 275 households with five or more people. , a total of 5,109 apartments (83.7% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 795 apartments (13.0%) were seasonally occupied and 200 apartments (3.3%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 2 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.51%. In 2011, single family homes made up 52.3% of the total housing in the municipality.
The historical population is given in the following chart: |
1599_12 | Sights
The medieval castle in the town dates from the 15th and 16th Centuries. Visitors can visit the grand halls within the castle, including the Baroque banquet hall built in 1614.
The Hotel Belvédère in Spiez accommodated the German national football team during the 1954 FIFA World Cup held in Switzerland. "The Spirit of Spiez", developed there among the players, is regarded as important factor that helped the German team to win the world championship.
Heritage sites of national significance
The Bürg archeological site with prehistoric and medieval settlement ruins, the Swiss Reformed castle church, Spiez Castle and the Weinbauernhof are listed as Swiss heritage site of national significance. |
1599_13 | Politics
In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the Swiss People's Party (SVP) which received 26% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the Social Democratic Party (SP) (18.3%), the Conservative Democratic Party (BDP) (16.7%) and the FDP.The Liberals (8.1%). In the federal election, a total of 5,127 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 53.3%.
Economy
, Spiez had an unemployment rate of 1.37%. , there were a total of 4,649 people employed in the municipality. Of these, there were 155 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 48 businesses involved in this sector. 1,220 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 95 businesses in this sector. 3,274 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 399 businesses in this sector. There were 5,928 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 43.3% of the workforce. |
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