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1653_49	Notwithstanding, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 15 has a target to ensure the conservation, restoration, and sustainable use of ecosystem services. Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) Ecosystem-based adaptation or EbA is a strategy for community development and environmental management that seeks to use an ecosystem services framework to help communities adapt to the effects of climate change. The Convention on Biological Diversity defines it as "the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services to help people adapt to the adverse effects of climate change", which includes the use of "sustainable management, conservation and restoration of ecosystems, as part of an overall adaptation strategy that takes into account the multiple social, economic and cultural co-benefits for local communities".
1653_50	In 2001, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment announced that humanity's impact on the natural world was increasing to levels never before seen, and that the degradation of the planet's ecosystems would become a major barrier to achieving the Millennium Development Goals. In recognition of this fact, Ecosystem-Based Adaptation sought to use the restoration of ecosystems as a stepping-stone to improve the quality of life in communities experiencing the impacts of climate change. Specifically, it involved the restoration of such ecosystems that provide food and water and protection from storm surges and flooding. EbA interventions combine elements of both climate change mitigation and adaptation to global warming to help address the community's current and future needs.
1653_51	Collaborative planning between scientists, policy makers, and community members is an essential element of Ecosystem-Based Adaptation. By drawing on the expertise of outside experts and local residents alike, EbA seeks to develop unique solutions to unique problems, rather than simply replicating past projects. Land use change decisions
1653_52	Ecosystem services decisions require making complex choices at the intersection of ecology, technology, society, and the economy. The process of making ecosystem services decisions must consider the interaction of many types of information, honor all stakeholder viewpoints, including regulatory agencies, proposal proponents, decision makers, residents, NGOs, and measure the impacts on all four parts of the intersection. These decisions are usually spatial, always multi-objective, and based on uncertain data, models, and estimates. Often it is the combination of the best science combined with the stakeholder values, estimates and opinions that drive the process.
1653_53	One analytical study modeled the stakeholders as agents to support water resource management decisions in the Middle Rio Grande basin of New Mexico. This study focused on modeling the stakeholder inputs across a spatial decision, but ignored uncertainty. Another study used Monte Carlo methods to exercise econometric models of landowner decisions in a study of the effects of land-use change. Here the stakeholder inputs were modeled as random effects to reflect the uncertainty. A third study used a Bayesian decision support system to both model the uncertainty in the scientific information Bayes Nets and to assist collecting and fusing the input from stakeholders. This study was about siting wave energy devices off the Oregon Coast, but presents a general method for managing uncertain spatial science and stakeholder information in a decision making environment. Remote sensing data and analyses can be used to assess the health and extent of land cover classes that provide ecosystem
1653_54	services, which aids in planning, management, monitoring of stakeholders' actions, and communication between stakeholders.
1653_55	In Baltic countries scientists, nature conservationists and local authorities are implementing integrated planning approach for grassland ecosystems. They are developing an integrated planning tool based on GIS (geographic information system) technology and put online that will help for planners to choose the best grassland management solution for concrete grassland. It will look holistically at the processes in the countryside and help to find best grassland management solutions by taking into account both natural and socioeconomic factors of the particular site.
1653_56	History While the notion of human dependence on Earth's ecosystems reaches to the start of Homo sapiens existence, the term 'natural capital' was first coined by E.F. Schumacher in 1973 in his book Small is Beautiful. Recognition of how ecosystems could provide complex services to humankind date back to at least Plato (c. 400 BC) who understood that deforestation could lead to soil erosion and the drying of springs. Modern ideas of ecosystem services probably began when Marsh challenged in 1864 the idea that Earth's natural resources are unbounded by pointing out changes in soil fertility in the Mediterranean. It was not until the late 1940s that three key authors—Henry Fairfield Osborn, Jr, William Vogt, and Aldo Leopold—promoted recognition of human dependence on the environment.
1653_57	In 1956, Paul Sears drew attention to the critical role of the ecosystem in processing wastes and recycling nutrients. In 1970, Paul Ehrlich and Rosa Weigert called attention to "ecological systems" in their environmental science textbook and "the most subtle and dangerous threat to man's existence... the potential destruction, by man's own activities, of those ecological systems upon which the very existence of the human species depends". The term "environmental services" was introduced in a 1970 report of the Study of Critical Environmental Problems, which listed services including insect pollination, fisheries, climate regulation and flood control. In following years, variations of the term were used, but eventually 'ecosystem services' became the standard in scientific literature.
1653_58	The ecosystem services concept has continued to expand and includes socio-economic and conservation objectives, which are discussed below. A history of the concepts and terminology of ecosystem services as of 1997, can be found in Daily's book "Nature's Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems". While Gretchen Daily's original definition distinguished between ecosystem goods and ecosystem services, Robert Costanza and colleagues' later work and that of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment lumped all of these together as ecosystem services.
1653_59	Examples The following examples illustrate the relationships between humans and natural ecosystems through the services derived from them: The US military has funded research through the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, which claims that Department of Defense lands and military installations provide substantial ecosystem services to local communities, including benefits to carbon storage, resiliency to climate, and endangered species habitat. As of 2020, research from Duke University claims for example Eglin Air Force Base provides about $110 million in ecosystem services per year, $40 million more than if no base was present.
1653_60	In New York City, where the quality of drinking water had fallen below standards required by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), authorities opted to restore the polluted Catskill Watershed that had previously provided the city with the ecosystem service of water purification. Once the input of sewage and pesticides to the watershed area was reduced, natural abiotic processes such as soil absorption and filtration of chemicals, together with biotic recycling via root systems and soil microorganisms, water quality improved to levels that met government standards. The cost of this investment in natural capital was estimated between $1–1.5 billion, which contrasted dramatically with the estimated $6–8 billion cost of constructing a water filtration plant plus the $300 million annual running costs.
1653_61	Pollination of crops by bees is required for 15–30% of U.S. food production; most large-scale farmers import non-native honey bees to provide this service. A 2005 study reported that in California's agricultural region, it was found that wild bees alone could provide partial or complete pollination services or enhance the services provided by honey bees through behavioral interactions. However, intensified agricultural practices can quickly erode pollination services through the loss of species. The remaining species are unable to compensate this. The results of this study also indicate that the proportion of chaparral and oak-woodland habitat available for wild bees within 1–2 km of a farm can stabilize and enhance the provision of pollination services. The presence of such ecosystem elements functions almost like an insurance policy for farmers.
1653_62	In watersheds of the Yangtze River China, spatial models for water flow through different forest habitats were created to determine potential contributions for hydroelectric power in the region. By quantifying the relative value of ecological parameters (vegetation-soil-slope complexes), researchers were able to estimate the annual economic benefit of maintaining forests in the watershed for power services to be 2.2 times that if it were harvested once for timber.
1653_63	In the 1980s, mineral water company Vittel now a brand of Nestlé Waters) faced the problem that nitrate and pesticides were entering the company's springs in northeastern France. Local farmers had intensified agricultural practices and cleared native vegetation that previously had filtered water before it seeped into the aquifer used by Vittel. This contamination threatened the company's right to use the "natural mineral water" label under French law. In response to this business risk, Vittel developed an incentive package for farmers to improve their agricultural practices and consequently reduce water pollution that had affected Vittel's product. For example, Vittel provided subsidies and free technical assistance to farmers in exchange for farmers' agreement to enhance pasture management, reforest catchments, and reduce the use of agrochemicals, an example of a payment for ecosystem services program.
1653_64	In 2016, it was counted that to plant 15 000 ha new woodland in the UK, considering only the value of timber, it would cost £79 000 000, which is more than the benefit of £65 000 000. If, however, all other benefits the trees in lowland could provide (like soil stabilization, wind deflection, recreation, food production, air purification, carbon storage, wildlife habitat, fuel production, cooling, flood prevention) were included, the costs will increase due to displacing the profitable farmland (would be around £231 000 000) but would be overweight by benefits of £546 000 000. In Europe, various projects are implemented in order to define the values of concrete ecosystems and to implement this concept into decision making process. For example, "LIFE Viva grass" project aims to do this with grasslands in Baltics.
1653_65	See also Blue carbon Biodiversity banking Flood control by beavers Controlled Ecological Life Support System Diversity-function debate Earth Economics Ecological goods and services Ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction Environmental finance Existence value Forest farming Environmental and economic benefits of having indigenous peoples tend land Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Keystone species: i.e. wildfire risk reduction by grazers, ... Loess Plateau Watershed Rehabilitation Project Mitigation banking Natural Capital Non-timber forest product Oxygen cycle Panama Canal Watershed Rangeland Management Soil functions Spaceship Earth Nature Based Solutions Sources References Further reading
1653_66	External links Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Earth Economics Gund Institute for Ecological Economics The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity COHAB Initiative on Health and Biodiversity – Ecosystems and Human Well-being The ARIES Project Ecosystem Marketplace Plan Vivo: an operational model for Payments for Ecosystem Services Ecosystem services at Green Facts Water Evaluation And Planning (WEAP) system for modeling impacts on aquatic ecosystem services Project Life+ Making Good Natura GecoServ – Gulf of Mexico Ecosystem Services Valuation Database (includes studies from all over the world, but only coastal ecosystems relevant to the Gulf of Mexico) Ecosystem services in environmental accounting Regional Ecosystem Services at the US Forest Service GecoServ – Gulf of Mexico Ecosystem Services Valuation Database LIFE VIVA Grass – grassland ecosystems services in Baltic countries (assessment and integrated planning)
1653_67	Ecological restoration Ecological economics Systems ecology Social ecology Human ecology Forestry and the environment Environmental social science concepts
1654_0	Natalia Sergeevna Rotenberg (born 18 January 1981 in Kurgan, the RSFSR) is a Russian public figure and sponsor. Biography Natalia Rotenberg was born on 18 January 1981 in a large family in Kurgan, in her early years she did rhythmic gymnastics and graduated from Gromov School of Music Arts. Later she graduated from School of Art as a choreographer and worked as a choreography and ballet teacher for children aged 6-11. Natalia graduated from the State University of Management with a degree in Financial Risks Management. In 2020 she graduated from the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration with a degree in State and Municipal Enterprise Management.. In 2005 she married a businessman Arkady Rotenberg, who had been married before and had two children from the first marriage. The spouses signed a marriage contract before the marriage.
1654_1	In 2008, Natalia opened a Children's School of Arts Pokrov and a Russian Ballet School, and renovated classrooms in Kurgan School of Arts. Natalia has two children from the marriage with Arkady Rotenberg – a daughter, and a son. In 2012-2018, she resided with her children in London, where she was engaged in construction and design businesses and established her own clothing brand collections. The couple divorced in April 2013. The divorce proceedings began in March 2013, the decision to terminate the marriage was joint. Natalia tried to appeal the decision to the Tushinsky Court of Moscow, but the Court left the decision unchanged, and it became legally effective on 2 August 2013. After that, Natalia Rotenberg filed a claim asking to invalidate the marriage contract: In this case, all the property acquired in marriage would have been divided in half, but the Tushinsky District Court of Moscow dismissed the claim.
1654_2	In 2015, the mass media reported that Natalia had filed a lawsuit against her ex-husband in London in attempt to get a compensation from the billionaire. At that moment, Arkady Rotenberg was under the EU sanctions, which complicated the payment of alimony. The trial judge was Philip Moor, and the case was called "R V R". In September 2016, The Times filed a lawsuit to the High Court of London asking to give the names of a foreign businessman and his ex-wife engaged in lengthy court proceedings about financial issues. On 25 July 2017, the court decided to disclose the details of financial agreements between Arkady and Natalia Rotenbergs; after that, Arkady Rotenberg appealed to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom asking to keep the agreement details in secret. In February 2018, the Supreme Court took a decision to declassify the divorce procedure of the parties.
1654_3	In 2020, the High Court of London ruled that Arkady Rotenberg had to transfer a $36.2 mln worth Ribsden house near Bagshot village in Surrey County to his ex-wife Natalia; this decision was taken by judge Philip Moor. Arkady Rotenberg appealed this decision to the Court of Appeal; according to Rotenberg's lawyers, he has never been the owner of this house. In April 2020, the media reported that Natalia Rotenberg was going to marry Tigran Arzakantsyan, an Armenian businessman and ex-deputy of the Armenian Parliament; Tigran is the founder of a cognac production company Great Valley, he has three children from the first marriage. Charity, political and social activities In 2015, Natalia founded an eponymous charity fund NR. She participates as a speaker in various forums and conferences across Russia, and uses her charity fund to support children in art, sport and culture..
1654_4	In 2016, she supported a young pianist Milena Putilova by arranging classes with teachers and participation in musical festivals;, she became a guardian for Lidia Evdokimova, an orphan from Mogilev, Belarus, Natalia supported the international tour of The Shadow Show, and international competitions in rhythmic gymnastics in London., In 2017, The BOLSHOI was presented in London – it is a book in English by Natalia Rotenberg, that was supposed to tell Europe about the Russian ballet.. She gave support to the annual competition and junior boxing championship in Tyumen and Kirov, it hosted 150 young athletes from Russia and 5 from CIS. In Kirov, she helped to send 150 children to a summer camp. Natalia helped Sports Academy to arrange the rhythmic gymnastics competition London Cup UK 2017, she provided assistance in the international competition of young entrepreneurs Synergy Global Forum 2017 arranged by Synergy University, and supported a junior football team Dinamo in Kirov.
1654_5	In 2018-2020, she supported the girl boxing championship in Kirov and a junior team from Kirov in a popular TV show KVN. The children got a chance to go to Moscow and take part in semifinals of the TV show. Natalia assisted The Ministry of Social Development of Kirov region in arranging the Family Day event. She gifted an oboe, a rare and expensive musical instrument, to a young musician Vyacheslav Pershakov. Natalia regularly sponsors travelling of children to summer camps and junior boxing championships in Kirov. In 2018, British authorities closed Natalia's charity fund. In 2019, Natalia registered her own brands in various fields, hoping to use it in the future for production of perfume, clothes and shoes, food products, alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks and even teleshop programs. That said, in 2019, Russian Federal Service for Intellectual Property already registed 5 of 11 trademarks, including Natalia Rotenberg, The World of ARISTOCRATKA, Margo and The First Lady.
1654_6	In 2019, after getting married with Tigran Arzakatsan, she registered two wine production companies in Armenia. In 2020, she participated in the RF President Administration competition called Leaders of Russia. Politics. Awards In 2018, at the international conference Future is ours, Rotenberg was awarded with the «Gold Order Woman of the World and the international Award Woman's Pride». She was awarded with the prize Heritage of the Nation for service to the society and remarkable contribution to the heritage of the Nation. She has gratitudes for co-operation and active development of the physical education and sport in Kirov region. The government of Moscow has awarded her with the prize Hero of Moscow 2018 in the nomination Maecenas of the year. Rotenberg was awarded with a gold medal Peacemaker on The Fifth International Peace Forum in Crimea. References External links Natalia Rotenberg на Facebook Natalia Rotenberg в Instagram
1654_7	Russian businesspeople 1981 births Living people Russian businesspeople in the United Kingdom
1655_0	The Archaeology of Greece includes artificial remains, geographical landscapes, architectural remains, and biofacts (artefacts that were once living organisms). The history of Greece as a country and region is believed to have begun roughly 1–2 million years ago when Homo erectus first colonized Europe. From the first colonization, Greek history follows a sequential pattern of development alike to the rest of Europe. Neolithic, Bronze, Iron and Classical Greece are highlights of the Greek archaeological record, with an array of archaeological finds relevant to these periods. Hunter-gatherers of Greece inhabited the region during the Middle Paleolithic Age (55,000–30,000 BC). Franchthi cave, an archaeological site in Southern Greece, has uncovered evidence which demonstrates people hunting small and large game, gathering wild cereals and fishing in coastal waters, following the Ice Age.
1655_1	Neolithic Greece Succeeding the hunter-gatherers of Ancient Greece is the Neolithic Age. The Neolithic period (6500–3000 BC) was the beginning of agriculture and the domestication of livestock; archaeological remains of farming settlements are evident in tells (mounds composed of mudbrick used in the construction of houses) that protrude from the landscape. Tells are formed through remains of older structures being built upon with new structures; they dominate the Neolithic archaeological record in Greece as the Neolithic period saw to the introduction of agriculture and firmer community and settlement patterns.
1655_2	The beginning of agriculture within Greece is believed to have been a transition influenced by newcomers from western Anatolia. With human colonization occurring outside of Anatolia and the Levant, Greece was affected in economic and material means, adopting the structure of economic and material culture from Near Eastern neighbours. Northern Greece is home to Thessaly, where the majority of archaeological remains and information relevant to the Neolithic period of Greek history has been uncovered; around 120 sites, mostly tells, have been excavated in the whole of Thessaly. The region provides evidence of having been a significant agricultural centre with soils ideal for cultivation, and this evidence is further demonstrated in the number of tells and mounds bearing evidence of farming settlements within Thessaly. One tell that has been uncovered in Thessaly is Sesklo and comprises both a large lower town called a Polis, and a small upper town called an Acropolis; together the two
1655_3	sections of the settlement cover 13 ha of land. The houses within the acropolis of Sesklo were detached and spacious, compared to the houses within the polis, which formed tighter clusters over a larger space of land.
1655_4	Following the Last Ice Age, archaeological remains of the period disappeared due to the rising sea levels. Natural geological processes, such as glacial periods and interglacial periods, have inhibited archaeologists from uncovering material from Neolithic Greece through the destruction or consumption of archaeological remains Archaeologists use the European record as a whole, in order to understand more on this period of Greek history. Although the extremities of the environment have led to archaeological challenges, there have been discoveries relevant to the Neolithic period of the region.
1655_5	Pottery Following the introduction of agriculture, Neolithic Greece saw its first wave of Pottery; the vessels that have been uncovered are thus assumed to have been used for cooking, eating and storing the crop yields of farming settlements. Early Neolithic pottery shows no sign of burning (indicating food was instead cooked directly over a fire) and are simple in shape. Pottery of Middle Neolithic Greece does show signs of being used over a fire. Middle and Late Neolithic Greece shows signs of design transformation for pottery with more elaborately decorated tableware; an example of this 'new' pottery is Middle Neolithic Sesklo Ware (red geometric designs on a pale background). Pottery differs within regions of Greece but has also shown close links between regions and within close communities; similar shapes and styles of pottery from the Neolithic period have been uncovered in differing regions of Thessaly and the Peloponnese region.
1655_6	Bronze Age Greece Archaeology of Bronze Age Greece prominently features remains of two main civilizations that existed during the three thousand years from Early to Late Bronze Age Greece. The Minoan Civilization The Minoan civilization was one of the first group of people to form a community and operate in a democratic and economical manner within the geography of the Aegean Islands of Greece, and the continent of Europe. British archaeologist, Sir Arthur Evans, who was first to excavate the Palace of Knossos in the 1900s, uncovered much information relevant to the Minoan archaeological record. The Palace of Knossos is an archaeological site belonging to the Minoan civilization along with smaller palaces of Zakros and Phaistos.
1655_7	Palaces Palaces of the Minoan period were multi-functional; they were the religious, economic and political administrative centres for the whole of the Minoan society. Basic palace structures consisted of a Central court, which was the main focus of the palace, where most theatrical and political events took place. The Central court is also believed to be the room where the cultural or religious activity of bull-leaping, which is depicted in the Bull-leaping Fresco located in the Palace of Knossos on Crete, took place. Other rooms within the basic palace structure consisted of residential quarters, workshops and crafts rooms, storerooms for surplus foodstuffs, and rooms for religious practice. The Mycenaean Civilization
1655_8	The Mycenaean civilization succeeded that of the Minoan civilization and resided on mainland Greece. Prominent sites include Mycenae, Pylos, and Argos. The Palace of Pylos in Messenia has contributed a significant amount of Linear B tablets to the archaeological record of the Mycenaeans; it has also revealed evidence of a previous settlement area surrounding the palace, through a survey of the site. The Shaft Graves in Mycenae are also an archaeological discovery relevant to the Mycenaean period; it took place in the 1870s.
1655_9	Graves Shaft Grave Circle A was discovered by Heinrich Schliemann and has provided archaeologists with artificial remains, predominantly weaponry and warrior iconography. One of the graves discovered within the cemetery revealed five bodies in total: two women and three men. The grave contained many weapons and intricate jewellery with the materials used to make them coming from places such as Egypt, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and Syria. The Mycenaean record also has evidence of a different means of burial with a different style of tomb appearing before 1500; the tholos was a large stone chamber that was cut horizontally into a hillside.
1655_10	Iron Age Greece The Mycenaean civilization ended at the beginning of Iron Age Greece (1100 BC), which is also known as the Dark Age of Greek history. The Early Iron Age still bears evidence of Mycenaean presence through archaeological remains at sites of Tiryns, Argos, Midea and Asine. Archaeological remains prove an earthquake disrupted Mycenaean sites such as the ones mentioned, and this earthquake led to a series of fires and smaller earthquakes; during this environmentally unstable period, the Mycenaean civilization collapsed due to political circumstances and community pressures caused by the environmental destruction.
1655_11	Pottery The chronology of the Iron Age in Greece was navigated through analysing the differing pottery styles. There are five noted phases in the chronology of Iron Age pottery beginning with Submycenaean (1125–1050 BC) which still contains evidence of Mycenaean influence in design. The sequential phases are then Protogeometric (1050–900 BC), Early Geometric (900–850 BC), Middle Geometric (850–760 BC) and Late Geometric (760–700 BC). Pottery designs also soon featured designs of animals, humans, and major group scenes (battles, ritual processions) at the end of the 8th Century BC. Graves
1655_12	Burial plots (areas of landscape that have been assigned as ancient cemeteries) of the Early Iron Age period have been discovered in East Lokris. The modern town of Atalante within the eastern Lokris region has been excavated with discoveries of two large burial plots. Both burial plots were found in the southwest of Atalante, not too far from each other. One burial plot was found at a site called Karagiorgos and the other at a site called Gouras. Karagiorgos had ten graves in total; seven were cist tombs (an elaboration of a pit burial with four walls and a roof; cist is the Greek word for box) one was a pithoi burial (a burial practice originating on Crete during the Bronze Age where bodies were placed in the pithos storage containers) and the remaining two were sarcophagi burials. The other burial plot in Gouras had thirty-three located graves; seventeen were cist tombs, fourteen were pithoi burials, and two were simple pit burials (a simple hole in the ground).
1655_13	Across all the graves found at Karagiorgos and Gouras, burial offerings that were found in higher numbers were bronze dress-fasteners, fibulae, and necklaces made of faience beads. The Alphabet Increasing contact with the East influenced the creation of the Greek alphabet during the Iron Age; Greeks incorporated letters from the Phoenician alphabet to represent both consonant and vowel sounds in their own alphabet and created the first true phonetic alphabet. Linear B script that was introduced during the Bronze Age had eighty-seven syllables whereas the Greek alphabet introduced during the Iron Age had only twenty-four syllables; a significant advance in writing. Classical Period
1655_14	Classical Greek (510 BC – 323 BC) archaeology is dominated by art, religion, and war. During the Classical period, Greek cities were at war with one another and invading Persia until Athens and Sparta emerged as the superior cities following the Persian Wars (499–449 BC). Athens and Sparta rivalled for supreme power during the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC). The war situation across the region led to significant developments in settlements, architecture, and crafts.
1655_15	Settlements Field surveying techniques have been used to unearth material that identifies farming settlements belonging to the Classical period. Surveying techniques involve analysing the stratigraphy and their deposits. Archaeological remains of evening lamps, weaving equipment, and storage vessels holing agricultural surpluses have been discovered at a few sites suggested as farming settlements. The domestic debris that have been found surrounding assumed settlement sites also indicate a prolonged residence. Surveys have been taken of rural settlement areas of several regions of Greece, and results show rural sites only account for twenty percent of classical Boeotia, twenty-five percent for classical Kea and forty percent for Archaic-Classical Laconia; this archaeological analysis determines the high probability that people more often lived in cities during this period.
1655_16	Pottery Classical pottery depicted myths and legends, ritual processions and social activities between men and women. Scenes were predominantly painted on clay vessels using either Black-figure or Red-figure techniques; Black-figure and Red-figure pottery techniques were both used interchangeably up until the fifth century BC when Red-figure pottery became more widely used. Red-figure pottery was also out of use by the end of the fourth century BC after a decline in quality. During the sixth and fifth centuries BC, figure decoration lacked with vessels simply painted black with a metallic lustre. Archaeologists use the remains of art in Greece to formulate conclusions on topics such as societal norms, religion, culture, and political initiatives and/or structure.
1655_17	Recent discoveries In March 2021, archaeologists announced the discovery of a 2500 year-old unbroken bronze bull idol near to the temple of Greek deity Zeus in Olympia. According to archaeologist Zaharaoula Leventouri, one of the statue's horns stuck to the ground after the heavy rainfall and carefully removed from the area. Researchers also revealed fine pottery remains dated back to Greece's Geometric period. In 2020, archaeologists found a 4th century BC terracotta mask, representing the god Dionysus, in the city’s acropolis at Dascylium. In August 2021, archaeologists led by Kaan Iren have announced the discovery of Ancient relief described Greek-Persian wars at Dascylium. Explorer Kaan Iren said: "there are Greek soldiers fighting and Persians on horseback fighting them. Greek soldiers are depicted under the hoofs of Persian horses. There is a propaganda scene here under the pretext of war". Footnotes Works cited
1656_0	Kanlaon, also known as Mount Kanlaon and Kanlaon Volcano (; ; ), is an active stratovolcano and the highest mountain on the island of Negros in the Philippines, as well as the highest point in the Visayas, with an elevation of above sea level. Mount Kanlaon ranks as the 42nd-highest peak on an island in the world. The volcano straddles the provinces of Negros Occidental and Negros Oriental, approximately southeast of Bacolod, the capital and most populous city of Negros Occidental and whole island. It is one of the active volcanoes in the Philippines and part of the Ring of Fire. Physical features Kanlaon has a peak elevation of at its highest point, although it is in some sources, with a base diameter of and is dotted with pyroclastic cones and extinct craters lining to the north-northwest. Just below and north of the summit is the active Lugud crater. North of Lugud is a caldera known as Margaja Valley, with a small, often seasonal crater lake.
1656_1	The volcano has three hot springs on its slopes: Mambukal Hot Springs on the northwest, Bucalan Hot Spring and Bungol Hot Spring. Its adjacent volcanic edifices are Mount Silay and Mount Mandalagan, north of Kanlaon. Canlaon, the component city that has jurisdiction on the Negros Oriental side of the volcano, lies on its lower slope about ESE of the summit. Hiking Destination and Trails The volcano is a favorite spot for mountain climbers and is the centerpiece of Mount Kanlaon Natural Park, a national park originally established on August 8, 1934. The hiking trails usually start in the center of the Guintubdan village. Locals have been active in international cooperation working with several European institutions to introduce the pioneering Unified Hiking Marker System as the first inland tourist location in the Philippines. The system is unified across a number of countries. This makes the mountain more attractive for tourists in an ecologically responsible way.
1656_2	Trails & Hiking Markers System In 2016, first three hiking trails have been marked, with additional and more extensive trails added in 2017 from the center of the Guintubdan village including a trail to the top. The works have been implemented by the Mendel University, in cooperation with De La Salle University Bacolod and DENR. The project has been financed by the Embassy of the Czech Republic in Manila in the framework of Czech Aid Development program. Three color-coded trails using the colors of the Philippine flag were opened: Red Trail from Guintubdan to Buslugan Falls (marked in 2016) Yellow Trail from Guintubdan to Oro Falls (marked in 2016) Blue Trail from Guintubdan to Salas Park new Pavilion (marked in 2016) Red Trail from Guintubdan to Mt. Kanla-On Summit (marked in 2017) Adventure Trail and additional new trails (marked in 2017)
1656_3	Hiking Markers Standard on Mt. Kanla-on This system uses three bars – usually one color in between two white bars, with different meanings attached to different colors: red indicates the most difficult or summit trails, blue for difficult trails and yellow and green for easy or interconnecting trails. These marks may be posted on wooden boards or metallic plates. Basic trail markers are square, 10x10 cm in size. The volunteers marking these trails usually prepare sheet metal or cardboard matrices to keep the signs uniform in size. Any change of direction is marked with arrows of the same color and similar design.
1656_4	Eruptions The most active volcano in central Philippines, Kanlaon has erupted 30 times since 1819. Eruptions are typically phreatic of small-to-moderate size that produce minor ash falls around the volcano. In 1902, the eruption was classified as Strombolian, typified by the ejection of incandescent cinders, lapilli, lava bombs and gas fumes. However, its eruptive history has not yet been recorded and larger Vesuvian eruptions generated by this stratovolcano has not yet been known. Volcanic activity at Kanlaon is continuously monitored by the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), the government's bureau that monitors the volcanoes and earthquakes in the nation, although unlike Mayon and Pinatubo, the volcano has never been studied in-depth and its age is not yet accurately calculated. Kanlaon Volcano Observatory is located at the campus of La Carlota City College in the barangay of Cubay, La Carlota City in Negros Occidental.
1656_5	1996 Kanlaon Incident On August 10, 1996, 24 mountain climbers hiked the volcano when Kanlaon erupted without warning, killing British student Julian Green and Filipinos Jamrain Tragico and Neil Perez, who were trapped near the summit close to the crater. The local authorities rescued 17 others, including 10 Belgians, another British climber and six Filipinos while Edwin Ematong, a member of the Negros Mountaineering Club Inc. and who, along with his cousin Neil Perez, guided the British Nationals survived this eruption. He descended the volcano ahead of his group that fateful day. One of the rescued Belgians, Caroline Verlinde, said she and her group were about to leave a site near the crater rim when suddenly the volcano ejected ash, stones and hot gas. She ran to a tree for cover and saw her friends being hit by falling hot tephra. She said their Filipino guide told them the smoke billowing out from the crater "was just ordinary." Recent volcanic activity
1656_6	2001 PHIVOLCS noted in a March 22, 2001 report that since January 2001, earthquake clusters or occurrences had been recorded by the seismic monitoring network around the volcano. These earthquakes might had signified a reactivation of the volcanic system at depth and could be a precursor to more vigorous activity, such as ash explosions. This interpretation was based on similar earthquake clusters manifested prior to the August 10, 1996 phreatic explosion from the active summit crater of the volcano. In view of the possibility of a sudden ash ejection, PHIVOLCS recommended the immediate suspension of all treks to the summit crater until further notice. As an additional precaution, the pre-defined 4 kilometer radius permanent danger zone (PDZ) should be avoided at all times. 2002 An increase in seismic activity during February to April 2002 was followed by raising alert on the volcano. An ash eruption occurred on November 28, 2002.
1656_7	2003 On March 17, 2003, a gray plume was observed above Kanlaon Volcano. Small eruptions produced plumes that rose above the crater of the volcano. A total of 46 minor ash ejections were recorded. After July 23, 2003, only weak emission was noted and seismic activity returned to normal. 2005 A brief phreatic ash eruption occurred in the volcano on January 21, 2005, producing a high ash plume. A fine layer of ash fell on the town of Cabagnaan SW of the crater. Ash emissions began again on March 20 and caused minor ash fall in the municipality of Guintubdan W of the volcano. Until April 4, occasional ash eruptions reached 1 km above the volcano, and small ash fall was reported in the municipalities of La Castellana ( SW of the crater), Upper Sag-ang, Yubo ( SW), and Guintubdan ( WNW). Ash eruptions stopped after May 25, 2005.
1656_8	2006 On June 3, 2006, Kanlaon again exhibited restiveness and spewed steam and ash. Alert Level 1 was issued on June 12, 2006. Until July 25, a total of 23 ash eruptions were reported. All eruptions were phreatic (i.e. no fresh magma was ejected), and ejected ash and steam up to above the crater. No significant seismic activity had occurred before or after the ash emissions, indicating the explosions were near surface hydrothermal events.
1656_9	2008 On February 10, 2008, PHIVOLCS issued an alert stating that the seismic network at Kanlaon Volcano recorded a total of 21 low frequency volcanic earthquakes (LFVQ) during the past 24 hours. Due to the increasing number of recorded volcanic earthquakes, PHIVOLCS raised Kanlaon Volcano's alert status from Alert Level 0 to Alert Level 1, which means the volcano is at slightly elevated unrest and volcanic activity could lead to steam and ash ejections. A Permanent Danger Zone (PDZ) was maintained around the volcano, as sudden explosions may occur without warning, but no eruptions occurred.
1656_10	2009 In the 8 days from August 23 to September 1, 257 volcanic earthquakes were recorded. Usual seismic activity during quiet periods is 0 to 4 quakes in any 24-hour period. Epicenters of the recorded quakes were clustered at the north-west slope which may indicate movement of an active local fault at the slope induced by pressure beneath the volcano. Surface observations did not show any significant change in the steam emission from the crater. PHIVOLCS maintained the alert status at Level 0. 2015 On November 23, Kanlaon had a small, steam-driven explosion. PHIVOLCS raised the alert level to 1 (mild restiveness). On December 12, 2015, Kanlaon had two low energy ash eruption. The volcano is still in the state of unrest. The minor ash eruption of the volcano reached as high as . On December 27, 2015, an ash eruption occurred at Kanlaon's active crater. The eruption plume reached as high as . Light ashfall were reported in some barangays near Kanlaon Volcano.
1656_11	On January 2, people in Hinigaran got sick. Many suffered from a respiratory illness with cough and flu-like symptoms. 2016 On March 29 at 6:20 pm, Kanlaon erupted for 12 minutes which produced a volcanic plume above the crater and a "booming sound" was heard in some barangays near the volcano. According to the police department of Canlaon City, several fire balls, which were coming from the crater of the volcano, started to flow following a booming sound and causing a bush fire. PHIVOLCS issued alert level number 1. No casualties were reported.
1656_12	2020 On March 11, 2020, PHIVOLCS raised the volcano's alert level from 0 to 1 due to its abnormal activities since March 9, 2020. 80 volcanic earthquakes has been plotted since then. On June 21, 2020, the Kanlaon volcano showed some signs of increased unrest. By June 22, 2020, the Kanlaon volcano's activity continued, with a series of tectonic earthquakes ranging from M3.2 to M4.7. A total of 278 earthquakes was observed for a 72-hour period (from June 21, 8AM - June 24, 8AM), possibly related to the magmatic activity underneath the volcano. Earthquakes continued, with steam and fumarolic activity rising 200–300 meters above. PHIVOLCS reminded the public to stay away to the 4-km PDZ (Permanent Danger Zone) around the volcano, as abnormal conditions and sudden phreatic explosions might occur.
1656_13	Mythology Mount Kanlaon is surrounded by a variety of myths. A story states that its vicinity was home to a nation ruled by a datu (king or leader) named Laon. The volcano was said to be a former home to a dragon-like monster which was slain by the youthful epic hero, Kan, who was an intimate friend and lover of Laon. Together, Kan and Laon defeated the monster, utilizing strength and wit and Laon's magic birang, which can produce anything the wielder wants.
1656_14	In another story, after many years since the event of Kan and Laon, a king of smallfolk named Harisabóqued (Hiligaynon: Hari-sa-Bukid) was said to have ruled Mount Kanlaon. Harisabóqued is said to have an army of smallfolk, who aids him in tending a huge tobacco plantation around Mount Kanlaon. He also established the boundaries between the humans and the smallfolk, of which the sacred realms constitute the entire circumference of Mount Kanlaon. The king would eventually retreat himself inside the volcano after a series of events where the humans failed to keep their sacred vows.
1656_15	In another story, after the two events mentioned, the supreme goddess of the Hiligaynon people, Kanlaon (not to be confused with the names of the epic heroes Kan and Laon), chose to change her abode from Mount Madia-as into Mount Kanlaon. The goddess is said to come out from the mountain before, however, due to mankind's dreadful attitude towards the environment, she closed the divine portals which were the entrances of the volcano. She is believed to still reside within Kanlaon Volcano. In another account which combined the stories of Harisabóqued and Kanlaon, it is said that Kanlaon, who was depicted in the particular version as male, ruled over the smallfolk and set the boundaries between the volcano and the people. The people eventually disregarded the boundary and their sacred vow, which led to Kanlaon to withdraw himself inside the volcano. Since then, the volcano was protected by the magkupo, a huge serpent with a rooster's crown and powerful crow.
1656_16	See also List of active volcanoes in the Philippines List of protected areas of the Philippines References External links Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) — Kanlaon Volcano Page Volcanoes of Negros Island Landforms of Negros Occidental Landforms of Negros Oriental Active volcanoes of the Philippines Stratovolcanoes of the Philippines Subduction volcanoes Volcanic crater lakes Sacred mountains
1657_0	The Orleans Collection was a very important collection of over 500 paintings formed by Philippe d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans, mostly acquired between about 1700 and his death in 1723. Apart from the great royal-become-national collections of Europe it is arguably the greatest private collection of Western art, especially Italian, ever assembled, and probably the most famous, helped by the fact that most of the collection has been accessible to the public since it was formed, whether in Paris, or subsequently in London, Edinburgh and elsewhere.
1657_1	The core of the collection was formed by 123 paintings from the collection of Queen Christina of Sweden, which itself had a core assembled from the war booty of the sacks by Swedish troops of Munich in 1632 and Prague in 1648 during the Thirty Years War. After the French Revolution the collection was sold by Louis Philippe d'Orléans, Philippe Égalité, and most of it acquired by an aristocratic English consortium led by Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater. Much of the collection has been dispersed, but significant groups remain intact, having passed by inheritance. One such group is the Sutherland Loan or Bridgewater Loan, including sixteen works from the Orleans Collection, in the National Gallery of Scotland, and another is at Castle Howard, Yorkshire. There are twenty-five paintings formerly in the collection now in the National Gallery, London, which have arrived there by a number of different routes.
1657_2	The collection is of central interest for the history of collecting, and of public access to art. It figured in two of the periods when art collections were most subject to disruption and dispersal: the mid-17th century and the period after the French Revolution. Rudolf and Christina The paintings looted from Prague Castle had mostly been amassed by the obsessive collector Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor (1552–1612), whose own bulk purchases had included the famous collection of Emperor Charles V's leading minister Cardinal Granvelle (1517–86), which he had forced Granvelle's nephew and heir to sell to him. Granvelle had been the "greatest private collector of his time, the friend and patron of Titian and Leoni and many other artists", including his protégé Antonis Mor. The Swedes only skimmed the cream of the Habsburg collection, as the works now in Vienna, Madrid and Prague show.
1657_3	Most of the booty remained in Sweden after Christina's departure for exile: she only took about 70 to 80 paintings with her, including about 25 portraits of her friends and family, and some 50 paintings, mostly Italian, from the Prague loot, as well as statues, jewels, 72 tapestries, and various other works of art. She was concerned that the royal collections would be claimed by her successor, and prudently sent them ahead to Antwerp in a ship before she abdicated.
1657_4	Christina greatly expanded her collection during her exile in Rome, for example adding the five small Raphael predella panels from the Colonna Altarpiece, including the Agony in the Garden now reunited with the main panel in New York, which were bought from a convent near Rome. She was apparently given Titian's Death of Actaeon by the greatest collector of the age, Archduke Leopold William of Austria, Viceroy in Brussels - she received many such gifts from Catholic royalty after her conversion, and gave some generous gifts herself, notably Albrecht Dürer's panels of Adam and Eve to Philip IV of Spain (now Prado).
1657_5	On her death she left her collection to Cardinal Decio Azzolino, who himself died within a year, leaving the collection to his nephew, who sold it to Don Livio Odescalchi, commander of the Papal army, at which point it contained 275 paintings, 140 of them Italian. The year after Odescalchi's death in 1713, his heirs began protracted negotiations with the great French connoisseur and collector Pierre Crozat, acting as intermediary for Philippe, duc d'Orléans. The sale was finally concluded and the paintings delivered in 1721. The French experts complained that Christina had cut down several paintings to fit her ceilings, and had over-restored some of the best works, especially the Correggios, implicating Carlo Maratti. Royal owners Collection in Paris
1657_6	The Orleans collection was housed in the magnificent setting of the Palais-Royal, the Paris seat of the Dukes of Orléans. Only 15 paintings in the printed catalogue of 1727 had been inherited by Philippe II from his father, Philippe de France, Duke of Orléans, Monsieur (1640–1701); the "collection" as catalogued was by no means all the art owned by the Dukes, but recorded only that part kept together in the Palais-Royal for public viewing. He also inherited small but high quality collections from Henrietta Anne Stuart, his father's first wife, in 1701 and his father's lover, the Chevalier de Lorraine in 1702.
1657_7	According to Reitlinger, his most active phase of collecting began in about 1715, the year he became Regent on the death of his uncle Louis XIV, after which he no doubt acquired an extra edge in negotiations. He also began to be presented with many paintings, most notably the three of Titian's poesies, now in Boston and shared by Edinburgh and London, which were given by Philip V of Spain to the French ambassador, the Duc de Gramont, who in turn presented them to the Regent.
1657_8	Christina's collection only joined Philippe's shortly before the end of his life and most of the other works were bought in France, like the Sebastiano del Piombo Raising of Lazarus, with some from the Netherlands or Italy, like the Nicolas Poussin set of the Seven Sacraments, bought from a Dutch collection by Cardinal Dubois in 1716. Other sources included the heirs of Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, and Cardinal Dubois, with an especially important group from Colbert's heir the Marquis de Seignelay, and others from the Dukes of Noailles, Gramont, Vendôme and other French collectors.
1657_9	The paintings were housed in two suites of large rooms running side by side down the west or library wing of the palace, with the smaller Dutch and Flemish works in smaller rooms. The gallery suites of rooms still retained much of their original furniture, porcelain and wall-decorations from their use by Phillippe's father as grand reception rooms and according to a visitor in 1765 it was "impossible to imagine anything more richly furnished or decorated with more art and taste". Rearrangements had been made to accommodate the paintings; connoisseurs particularly praised the Galerie à la Lanterne, with its even, sunless top light diffused from the cupola overhead. For most of the 18th century it was easy to visit the collection, and very many people did so, helped by the printed catalogue of 1727, republished in 1737, Description des Tableaux du Palais Royal. This contained 495 paintings, though some continued to be added, and a few disposed of.
1657_10	Paintings were hung, not by 'schools' or by subject but in order to maximise their effects in juxtaposition, in the 'mixed school' manner espoused by Pierre Crozat for his grand private collection in his Parisian hôtel. The mixture on a wall of erotic and religious subjects was disapproved of by some visitors. The collection was most notable for Italian paintings of the High and Late Renaissance, especially Venetian works. The collection included no fewer than five of the poesies painted for Philip II of Spain, of which two are now shared between Edinburgh and London, two always in London (Wallace Collection and National Gallery), and one in Boston. A series of four mythological allegories by Veronese are now divided between the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, and the Frick Collection (with two, one illustrated above) and Metropolitan Museum in New York. Another Veronese series, the four Allegories of Love now in the National Gallery, hung as overdoors in the central salon, which
1657_11	also held the larger Veronese series, three of the Titian poesies and Correggios.
1657_12	The collection included (on the contemporary attributions) 28 Titians, most now regarded as workshop pieces but including several of his finest works, 12 Raphaels, 16 Guido Renis, 16 Veroneses, 12 Tintorettos, 25 paintings by Annibale Carracci and 7 by Lodovico Caracci, 3 major Correggios plus ten no longer accepted as by him, and 3 Caravaggios. Attributions no longer accepted, and probably regarded as dubious even then were 2 Michelangelos, and 3 Leonardos. There were few works from the 15th century, except for a Giovanni Bellini. The collection reflected the general contemporary confusion outside Spain as to what the works of the great Velázquez actually looked like; the works attributed to him were of high quality but by other artists such as Orazio Gentileschi.
1657_13	French works, of which the catalogued collection included relatively few, included a set of the Seven Sacraments and 5 other works by Poussin. There were paintings by Philippe de Champaigne now in the Wallace Collection and Metropolitan Museum, and a Eustache Le Sueur which turned up in 1997 over a door in the Naval & Military Club and is now in the National Gallery. The Flemish works were dominated by Rubens with 19 paintings, including a group of 12 studies now widely dispersed, van Dyck with 10 works and David Teniers with 9. The Dutch paintings included 6 Rembrandts, 7 works by Caspar Netscher (one now Wallace Collection) and 3 by Frans van Mieris (one now National Gallery) that were more highly regarded then than they are now. There were 3 Gerrit Dous and 4 Wouwermans.
1657_14	Philippe's son Louis d'Orléans, religious and somewhat neurotic, attacked with a knife one of the most famous works, Correggio's Leda and the Swan, now in Berlin, and ordered the painter Charles-Antoine Coypel to cut up all three of the great Correggio mythological works in the presence of his chaplain, which Coypel did, but saving and repairing the pieces. The Leda went to Frederick the Great of Prussia, the Danäe to Venice, where it was stolen and eventually sold to the English consul at Leghorn, and Jupiter and Io went to the Imperial collection in Vienna. Some of the Flemish paintings were sold at auction in Paris, June 1727.
1657_15	Beginning in 1785, a series of 352 engravings of the paintings were published on a subscription basis, until the series was abandoned during the Terror, by which time the paintings themselves had been sold. It was finally published in book form in 1806. These prints have greatly reduced the uncertainty that accompanies the identity of works in most dispersed former collections. There had already been many prints of the collection; the Seven Sacraments were especially popular among the middle classes of Paris in the 1720s. Gonzagas and Charles I
1657_16	Another famous collection whose history was entwined with the Orleans Collection was that assembled by the Gonzagas of Mantua, especially Francesco II (1466–1519) and his son Federico II (1500–1540). Their court artists included Mantegna and Giulio Romano, and they commissioned work directly from Titian, Raphael, Correggio and other artists, some of which were given as gifts to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, to whom Mantua was effectively a client state. The most important of these gifts were the mythological works by Correggio, later to be mutilated in Paris. By the early 17th century the dynasty was in terminal decline, and the bulk of their portable art collection was bought by the keen collector Charles I of England in 1625–27. Charles's other notable purchases included the Raphael Cartoons and volumes of drawings by Leonardo da Vinci, and his own most notable commissions were from Rubens and van Dyck. By the time his collection of paintings was seized and sold after his
1657_17	execution in 1649 by the English Commonwealth it was one of the finest outside Italy. Meanwhile, three years after the sale to Charles, Mantua was sacked by Imperial troops, who added much of what was left there to the Imperial collection in Prague, where they rejoined the diplomatic gifts of a century earlier.
1657_18	Some Mantuan paintings therefore passed from Prague via Christina to the Orleans Collection, while more were bought by French collectors in the London "Sale of the Late King's Goods" in 1650, and later found their way to the Palais-Royal. For example, an Infancy of Jupiter by Giulio Romano, bought from Mantua, left Charles' collection for France, passed to the Orleans Collection and the London sales, and after a spell back in France returned to England and was later bought by the National Gallery in 1859.
1657_19	Other paintings in the same series were recovered for the Royal Collection in 1660; Charles II was able to exert pressure on most English buyers of his father's collection, but those gone abroad were beyond his reach. One important Rubens of Charles', the Landscape with St George and the Dragon (of 1630 - St George has Charles's features, the rescued princess those of his Queen), which passed via the Ducs de Richelieu to the Palais-Royal and London, had always been recognised for what it was, and was bought back for the Royal Collection by George IV in 1814.
1657_20	Another picture commissioned by Charles, The Finding of Moses by Gentileschi, painted for the Queen's House, Greenwich, was returned to Charles' widow Henrietta Maria in France in 1660. By the time it entered the Orleans Collection a half-century later, it was regarded as by Velázquez. It then was one of the Castle Howard paintings, and was only correctly identified after the existence of Gentileschi's second version in the Prado became known in England. After a sale in 1995 it is now on loan to the National Gallery from the current owner. Phillippe's father's first wife, Henrietta Anne Stuart, was Charles I's daughter, and her small but select collection had been mostly given to her by her brother Charles II from the reclaimed royal collection on her marriage in 1661. On her death forty years later this was left to Phillippe. Dispersal in London
1657_21	In 1787 Louis Philippe d'Orléans, the Regent's great-grandson, whose huge income could not keep pace with his gambling habit, had sold his equally famous collection of engraved gems to Catherine the Great of Russia, and in 1788 he was in serious negotiations with a syndicate organized by James Christie, founder of Christie's, the London auctioneer, for the sale of the paintings. Christie got as far as arranging that the collection should be made over to him upon the deposit of 100,000 guineas in the Bank of England, before the negotiations collapsed when the Prince of Wales having subscribed his name in the book for 7,000 guineas, and his brothers the dukes of York and Clarence for 5,000 each, no further subscribers were to be found. It was Dawson Turner's opinion that the failure was owing to the general sense that at the division of the spoils the lion's share would go to the royals.
1657_22	In 1792 Philippe Égalité impulsively sold the collection en bloc to a banker of Brussels who immediately sold it at a huge profit to the enlightened connoisseur Jean-Joseph de Laborde de Méréville, who set about adding a gallery to house it attached to his hôtel in rue d'Artois. Ruined by events, he was forced to sell it once more.
1657_23	The 147 German, Dutch and Flemish paintings were sold by Orléans to Thomas Moore Slade, a British dealer, in a syndicate with two London bankers and the 7th Lord Kinnaird, for 350,000 livres in 1792, and taken to London for sale. There were protests from the French artists and public, and from the Duke's creditors, and Slade found it prudent to tell the French the pictures were going overland to Calais, but actually to sneak them onto a barge by night, and ship them down the Seine to Le Havre. These paintings were exhibited for sale in London's West End in April 1793 at 125 Pall Mall, where admissions at 1 shilling each reached two thousand a day, and sold to various buyers.
1657_24	Philippe Égalité, as he had renamed himself, was arrested in April 1793 and was guillotined 6 November, but in the meantime sale negotiations for the Italian and French paintings were renewed, and they were sold for 750,000 livres to Édouard Walkiers, a banker of Brussels, who soon after sold them on, unpacked, to his cousin, Count François-Louis-Joseph de Laborde-Méréville, who had hoped to use them to add to the French national collection. After the start of the Terror, and the execution of his father as well as the Duke of Orléans, Laborde-Méréville saw he had to escape France, and brought the collection to London in early 1793.
1657_25	The French and Italian paintings then spent five years in London with Laborde-Méréville, the subject of some complicated financial manoeuvres, including the failure of an attempt supported by King George III and the Prime Minister Pitt the Younger to buy them for the nation. They were finally bought in 1798 by a syndicate of the canal and coal-magnate Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater, his nephew and heir, Earl Gower, later 1st Duke of Sutherland, and the Earl of Carlisle. Gower, who was perhaps the prime mover and must have known the collection well from his time as British ambassador in Paris, contributed 1/8 of the £43,500 price, Carlisle a quarter, and Bridgewater the remaining 5/8s.
1657_26	The pictures were put on exhibition for seven months in 1798, with a view to selling at a least a part of them, in Bryan's Gallery in Pall Mall, with the larger ones at the Lyceum in the Strand; admission was 2/6d rather than the 1s. usual for such events. On first seeing the collection there, William Hazlitt wrote "I was staggered when I saw the works ... A new sense came upon me, a new heaven and a new Earth stood before me." In 1798, 1800 and 1802 there were auctions of those paintings not sold via the galleries, generally achieving rather low prices, but 94 out of 305 of the paintings were retained by the syndicate, as seems always to have been intended, and these largely remain in their families today. However these paintings represented over half of the valuations placed on the whole portion bought by the syndicate. Even at the often low prices realized, the sales to others, and entry receipts to the exhibitions, realized a total of £42,500, so even allowing for the
1657_27	expenses of the exhibitions and auctions, the syndicate got their works very cheaply. Castle Howard, home of the Earls of Carlisle, originally had fifteen works, now much reduced by sales, donations, and a fire, but the Bridgewater/Sutherland group remain intact to a large degree.
1657_28	The London market in these years was flooded by both other collections from France itself, and those dislodged by the French invasions of the Low Countries and Italy—by 1802 including Rome itself. As is often the case with old collectors, their choices of what to keep and what to sell seem in many cases very strange today: the two "Michelangelos" were only sold in the auctions, and for only 90 and 52 guineas. Many Titians were sold, but many Bolognese Baroque works, as well as most of the later (but not the earlier) Raphaels, were retained. The single Watteau went for only 11 gn, while one Carracci was valued at £4,000 for the galley sale, where all 33 Carraccis were sold, while works attributed to Giovanni Bellini and Caravaggio remained at the auction stage. The current location of many of the pictures can no longer be traced, and many are now attributed to lesser artists or copyists. Overall the prices realized for the better pictures were high, and in some cases their level
1657_29	would not be reached again for a century or longer. As an extreme case, a Ludovico Carracci valued at 60gn in 1798 was auctioned by the Duke of Sutherland in 1913 raising 2gn.
1657_30	An example of a work now only known from a replica (in the Galleria Borghese in Rome) and studies is Aeneas and his Family Fleeing Troy, the only secular history painting by Federico Barocci. The prime version was given in 1586 by Francesco Maria II, the last Duke of Urbino, to Rudolph II in Prague, and was later looted by the Swedes. It was taken to Rome by Queen Christina, passed to the Orleans collection, and finally sold at auction in London for 14 guineas in 1800 (the price probably reflecting the poor condition some sources mention), since when its whereabouts are unknown. The Rome version was painted in 1598, presumably for Cardinal Scipio Borghese.
1657_31	The paintings of both portions of the collection were bought by a wide range of wealthy collectors, the great majority English, as the wars with France made travelling to London difficult for others. Major buyers included Thomas Hope, a Dutch banker (distantly of Scottish extraction) sheltering in London from the Napoleonic Wars, who with his brother (of Hope Diamond fame) bought the two large Veronese allegories now in the Frick, and works by "Michelangelo", "Velásquez" and Titian, John Julius Angerstein, a Russian-German banker whose collection later became the foundation of the National Gallery, the Earl of Darnley, the Earl of Harewood, who bought Titian's The Death of Actaeon, and Earl FitzWilliam, whose collection was to found the Fitzwilliam Museum.
1657_32	An analysis by Gerard Reitlinger of "most" of the buyers (of the Italian and French pictures) divides them as follows: Nobility - 12, including the syndicate Merchants - 10, including 4 Members of Parliament and 3 knights; mostly as speculators according to Reitlinger - their purchases were mostly resold within a few years Dealers - 6, including Bryan, who handled matters for the syndicate Bankers - Hope and Angerstein (both foreign) Painters - 4: Walton, Udney, Cosway and Skipp Gentleman Amateurs - 6, including William Beckford and the critic Samuel Rogers. - a breakdown he describes as "quite unlike anything in Europe and grotesquely unlike pre-revolutionary France", where the main collectors were the tax farmers. Many of the same figures appear in the similar list of buyers of the Northern paintings.
1657_33	Much of our information about the sales comes from the Memoirs of Painting, with a Chronological History of the Importation of Pictures of Great Masters into England by the Great Artists since the French Revolution, by William Buchanan, published in 1824, of which the first 200 pages of Volume I are devoted to the Orleans sales, listing the works and most prices and buyers. Buchanan was himself involved in the import of art from 1802 onwards, and had his information from the dealers involved. He presents his own "exertions", and those of others, in the area in a thoroughly patriotic light, by implication as a part of the great national struggle with the French. Nicholas Penny notes the "somewhat comic" disparity between Buchanan's "sonorous words" on the subject and the "coarse and mercenary business letters" he reprints—many by himself. Bridgewater collection
1657_34	On Bridgewater's death five years after the purchase, he bequeathed his collection to Gower, who put it and his own paintings on at least semi-public display in Bridgewater House, Westminster; it has been on public display ever since. The collection contained over 300 paintings, including about 50 Orleans paintings, and was known as the "Stafford Galley" in Cleveland House until the house was rebuilt and renamed as Bridgewater House in 1854, and then as the "Bridgewater Gallery". It was opened in 1803, and could be visited on Wednesday afternoons over four, later three, months in the summer by "acquaintances" of a member of the family (in practice tickets could mostly be obtained by writing and asking for them), or artists recommended by a member of the Royal Academy. Angerstein's paintings were on display on similar terms in his house in Pall Mall, which from 1824 became the first home of the National Gallery.
1657_35	On the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, the collection was moved from London to Scotland. Since 1946 26 paintings, sixteen from the Orleans Collection, known collectively as "the Bridgewater loan" or "the Sutherland Loan" have been on loan to the National Gallery of Scotland in Edinburgh, though up to 2008 five from this group had been bought by the Gallery.
1657_36	The collection has passed by descent to the 7th Duke of Sutherland, (most of whose wealth is contained in the paintings collection), but in late August 2008 the 7th Duke announced that he wished to sell some of the collection in order to diversify his assets. He at first offered Diana and Callisto and Diana and Acteon, two works by Titian as a pair to the British national galleries at £100 m (a third of their overall estimated market price) over a period. The National Gallery of Scotland and the National Gallery in London announced they would combine forces to raise the sum, initially in the form of £50 m to purchase Diana and Actaeon paid over three years in instalments and then £50 m for Diana and Callisto paid for similarly from 2013. The campaign gained press support, though it received some criticism for the Duke's motives or (from John Tusa and Nigel Carrington of the University of the Arts) for distracting from funding art students In 2009 it was announced that the first £50M
1657_37	for Diana and Actaeon had been raised - the painting will rotate every five years between Edinburgh (first) and London. The sale of Diana and Callisto for £45M was announced in 2012.

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