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1666_9 | From 1967 to 1975, Coyote was a prominent member of the San Francisco Haight-Ashbury counterculture community and a founding member, along with Emmett Grogan, Peter Berg, Judy Goldhaft, Kent Minault, Nina Blasenheim, David Simpson, Jane Lapiner, and Billy Murcott, of the Diggers, an anarchist group known for operating anonymously and without money. They created provocative "theater" events designed to heighten awareness of problems associated with the notion of private property, consumerism, and identification with one's work. They fed nearly 600 people a day for "free", asking only that people pass through a six-foot by six-foot square known as The Free Frame of Reference. They ran a Free Store, (where not only the goods, but the management roles were free), a Free Medical Clinic, and even a short-lived Free Bank. The Diggers evolved into a group known as the Free Family, which established chains of communes around the Pacific Northwest and Southwest. Coyote was the best known |
1666_10 | resident of the Black Bear Ranch commune in Siskiyou County, California. |
1666_11 | He was a friend of Rolling Thunder, a purported Paiute-Shoshone Medicine man. He has also been a friend and advisor of Leonard Peltier, a Native American activist and member of the American Indian Movement (AIM) since the 1960s and, along with author Peter Mathiessen, is one of Peltier's two non-native advisers.
Of this period of his life, Coyote wrote in Sleeping Where I Fall, The failure to curb personal indulgence was a major collective error. Our journeys down the path along with Verlaine and Rimbaud, disordered our senses, senselessly wasted young lives, and often sabotaged what we labored so diligently to construct... It is the artist's responsibility to manifest sanity and health—something we did not fully understand.
Discovering Zen
Coyote had first discovered Zen in his teens via the works of Jack Kerouac, Gary Snyder, and other Beats. Coyote met Snyder with the Diggers and was impressed with Snyder's "gravitas and elegance, his care and deliberation". |
1666_12 | Beginning in 1975, Coyote undertook meditation practice and eventually became a dedicated practitioner of American Zen Buddhism, moving into the San Francisco Zen Center. He was later ordained a lay priest in the Sōtō tradition and was ordained as a Zen Priest in 2015.
Coyote performed audiobook recordings of Shunryu Suzuki's Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind and Paul Reps's Zen Flesh, Zen Bones as well as narrating the documentary Inquiry into the Great Matter: A History of Zen Buddhism. |
1666_13 | San Francisco Arts Commission and the California Arts Council |
1666_14 | In keeping with his dedication to community-based art, Peter Coyote was employed in the early 1970s by the San Francisco Arts Commission in the historical Neighborhood Arts Program (NAP), with funding from the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA, Pub.L. 93–203), a United States federal law enacted by Congress, signed into law by President Richard Nixon in 1973, to train workers and provide them with jobs in the public service. The San Francisco Arts Commission's Neighborhood Arts/CETA Program was the first in the country to use CETA funds to hire artists to work in service to a city. From this position, Coyote was appointed by Governor Jerry Brown to be a member of the California Arts Council, the state agency that determines art policy for the state. He served on the CAC from 1975 to 1983. After his first year, Coyote was elected chairman by his peers three years in a row. During his tenure as chairman, the council's overhead expenses dropped from 50% to 15%, the lowest |
1666_15 | in the state, and the arts council budget rose from $1 million to $16 million. His council introduced the idea of artists as "creative problem solvers." By paying artists to "solve problems for the state" rather than to make art, they bypassed the objections of many conservative lawmakers. Coyote engineered relationships with 14 departments of the state of California, which began to use artists in a variety of capacities, paying 50 cents on the dollar for it. The policy and the council were an immense success, giving Coyote the confidence (after 12 years in the counterculture) to try his hand at mainstream film-acting. |
1666_16 | Film and television acting |
1666_17 | In 1978, Coyote began acting again ("to shake the rust out") appearing in plays at San Francisco's award-winning Magic Theatre. While playing the lead in the world premiere of Sam Shepard's True West, a Hollywood agent approached him, and his film career began with Die Laughing (1980). He gave supporting performances in Tell Me a Riddle (1980), Southern Comfort (1981), and as the mysterious scientist "Keys" in E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982). He was seriously considered for the role of Indiana Jones in Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), and auditioned for the part. Coyote's first starring role was in the science fiction adventure Timerider: The Adventure of Lyle Swann (1982). He also starred in Jagged Edge (1985) and Outrageous Fortune (1987). Since then, he has made more than 120 films for theaters and television and has played starring roles for many directors, including Roman Polanski (Bitter Moon), Pedro Almodóvar (Kika), Martin Ritt (Cross Creek), Jean-Paul Rappeneau (Bon Voyage), |
1666_18 | Diane Kurys (A Man in Love), and Walter Salles (Exposure). For his 1990 guest appearance on the television series Road to Avonlea, he received his first Primetime Emmy Award nomination. |
1666_19 | Leonard Maltin once wrote, "Coyote's no rubber-stamp leading man", but he seems comfortable with that. "I'm a Zen Buddhist student first, actor second", Coyote has said. "If I can't reconcile the two lives, I'll stop acting. I spend more time off-screen than on." In addition to his movie work in more recent films such as Sphere, A Walk to Remember, and Erin Brockovich, Coyote has also appeared in many made-for-television movies and miniseries, and he does commercial voice-overs. Coyote was cast in lead roles on several television series: The 4400 in 2004 and The Inside in 2005. After The Inside was canceled, Coyote returned to The 4400 as a special guest star for their two-part season finale, then joined the cast of ABC's series Commander in Chief as the Vice President of the United States, and the next year did a four episode turn as Sally Field's disreputable boyfriend in Brothers & Sisters. |
1666_20 | Narration |
1666_21 | In 2005, Coyote served as the narrator for several prominent projects including the documentary film Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room and the National Geographic-produced PBS documentary based on Jared Diamond's Guns, Germs, and Steel. He also narrated an episode of the series Lost in April 2006. In 2008, he narrated Torturing Democracy, a documentary produced by PBS which details the George W. Bush administration's use of "enhanced interrogation techniques" in the War on Terror. He also narrated the 12-hour Ken Burns series on the National Parks, and 15 episodes for the National Geographic Explorer series. In 2010 he narrated the documentary Solitary Confinement on the effect of long-term isolation, with footage taken from Colorado State Penitentiary where all prisoners are held this way. In 2014, he appeared in the TNT television series Perception, as the father of the main character, Dr. Daniel Pierce, and narrated Burns' The Roosevelts: An Intimate History; the latter saw him |
1666_22 | win his first Primetime Emmy Award. In 2019, he narrated Burns' PBS documentary Country Music (miniseries). |
1666_23 | Writing
Coyote's left-wing politics are evident in his articles for Mother Jones magazine, some of which he wrote as a delegate to the 1996 Democratic National Convention; in his disagreements with David Horowitz; and in his autobiography Sleeping Where I Fall. In 2006, Coyote developed a political television show for Link TV called "The Active Opposition" and in 2007 created Outside the Box with Peter Coyote starting on Link TV's special, Special: The End of Oil – Part 2. |
1666_24 | Many of Coyote's stories from the 1967 to 1975 counter-culture period are included in his memoir, Sleeping Where I Fall, published by Counterpoint Press in April 1998. One of the stories incorporated into his book is "Carla's Story," about a 16-year-old mother who lived communally with Coyote, and who, after learning of her husband's murder, became a drug addict, then a prostitute, had her children stolen, and continued to spiral downhill until she turned her life around. This story was published in Zyzzyva, and awarded the 1993–1994 Pushcart Prize. He also states he was a close friend of singer Janis Joplin. Coyote has a website, which features the titles of all his movies and extended samples of much of his writing. He is a member at RedRoom.com, a website for authors. |
1666_25 | In April 2015, his memoir The Rainman's Third Cure: An Irregular Education was released, where he "provides portraits of mentors that shaped him—including his violent, intimidating father, a bass player, a Mafia Consiglieri, and beat poet Gary Snyder, who introduced him to the practice of Zen."
In September 2021, Four Way Books released a collection of Coyote's poetry entitled Tongue of a Crow. The poems span five decades and cover his life as "an activist, actor and Zen Buddhist priest."
Filmography
Actor |
1666_26 | Alcatraz: The Whole Shocking Story (1980) as Lt. Micklin
Die Laughing (1980) as Davis
Southern Comfort (1981) as Sergeant Poole
Isabel's Choice (1981 TV film) as Wynn Thomas
Timerider: The Adventure of Lyle Swann (1982) as Porter Reese
E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) as Keys
Endangered Species (1982) as Steele
Strangers' Kiss (1983) Stanley, the Director
Cross Creek (1983) as Norton Baskin
Slayground (1983) as Stone
Heartbreakers (1984) as Arthur Blue
The Legend of Billie Jean (1985) as Det. Larry Ringwald
Jagged Edge (1985) as Thomas Krasny
The Blue Yonder (1985) as Max Knickerbocker
Outrageous Fortune (1987) as Michael Sanders
Un homme amoureux (1987) as Steve Elliott
Echoes in the Darkness (1987 TV mini-series) as William Bradfield Jr.
Heart of Midnight (1988) as Sharpe/Larry
The Man Inside (1990) as Henry Tobel
A Grande Arte - American title is Exposure (1991) as Mr. Peter Mandrake
Keeper of the City (1991) as Frank Nordhall
Road to Avonlea (1991) as Romney Penhallow |
1666_27 | Bitter Moon (1992) as Oscar
Kika (1993) as Nicholas
That Eye, the Sky (1994) as Henry Warburton
Breach of Conduct (1994) as Col. Andrew Case
Moonlight and Valentino (1995) as Paul
Buffalo Girls (1995) as Buffalo Bill Cody
Unforgettable (1996) as Don Bresler
Murder in My Mind (1997) as Arthur Lefcourt
Road Ends (1997) as Gene Gere
Sphere (1998) as Captain Harold C. Barnes
Two for Texas (1998 TNT movie for TV) as Jim Bowie
Patch Adams (1998) as Bill Davis
Route 9 (1998) as Sheriff Dwayne Hogan
Random Hearts (1999) as Cullen Chandler
Execution of Justice (1999) as Harvey Milk
More Dogs Than Bones (2000) as Det. Darren Cody
Erin Brockovich (2000) as Kurt Potter
Jack the Dog (2001) as Alfred Stieglitz
Midwives (2001) as Stephen Hastings
Femme Fatale (2002) as Watts
A Walk to Remember (2002) as Rev. Sullivan
Bon Voyage (2003) as Alex Winckler
The Hebrew Hammer (2003) as JJL Chief Bloomenbergensteinenthal
Deadwood (2004) as General Crook
Law & Order: Trial by Jury (2005) as Mike LaSalle |
1666_28 | Independent Lens (2005–2009) as Narrator
The Inside (2005) as Special Agent Webster
Deepwater (2005) as Herman Finch
A Little Trip to Heaven (2005) as Frank
Return of the Living Dead: Necropolis (2005) as Uncle Charles
Return of the Living Dead: Rave to the Grave (2005) as Uncle Charles
Commander in Chief (2005–2006) as Warren Keaton
The 4400 (2004–2006) as Dennis Ryland
Behind Enemy Lines II: Axis of Evil (2006) as President Manning
Law & Order: Criminal Intent (2001–2011). Episode aired 15 November 2007, Season 07, Episode 07 as Lionel Shill
Brothers & Sisters (2007) as Mark August
Five Dollars a Day (2008) as Bert Kruger
Dr. Dolittle: Tail to the Chief as President Sterling
All Roads Lead Home (2008) as Hock
NCIS (2008) as Ned Quinn
The Lena Baker Story (2008) as Elliot Arthur
FlashForward (2009) as President Dave Segovia
This Is Not a Movie (2010) as CEO of Propaganda / screenwriter
Law & Order: Los Angeles (2010-2011) as District Attorney Jerry Hardin |
1666_29 | Last Will (2011) as Judge Garner
The Gundown (2011) as Tom Morgan
Stage Left: A Story of Theater in the Bay Area (2011) as Himself
La Rançon de la gloire (2014) as John Crooker
Good Kill (2014) as Langley (voice)
Blue Bloods (2015) as Senator McCreary
Eva & Leon (2015) as Le père d'Eva
No Deposit (2015) as Police Chief Williams
The Disappearance (2017) as Henry Sullivan
1 Mile to You (2017) as Prin. Umber
The Comey Rule (2020) as Robert Mueller
The Real Activist (2020) as Himself
The Girl Who Believes in Miracles (2021) as Sam Donovan |
1666_30 | Narrator |
1666_31 | The UFO Experience, a television documentary directed by Ronald K. Lakis in which Coyote appeared and also narrated (1982)
Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind (1988)
Waldo Salt: A Screenwriter's Journey (1990)
Hatchet by Gary Paulsen
The Education of Little Tree by Forrest Carter
Contrary Warriors
The Breathtaker by Alice Blanchard
The Teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui Way of Knowledge by Carlos Castaneda
The Studio System, American Cinema, New York Center for Visual History (1994)
National Geographic: Cyclone! (1995)
The West Produced by Ken Burns and directed by Stephen Ives (1996)
21st Century Jet: The Building of the Boeing 777 (1996)
Survivors of the Skeleton Coast (1997)
Video Justice: Crime Caught on Tape (1997)
World's Scariest Police Chases Pilot episode (1997)
TITANIC: Breaking New Ground (1998)
The History of Sex (1999)
Rome: Power & Glory (1999)
National Geographic: The Battle For Midway produced by Michael Rosenfeld (1999)
In the Light of Reverence (2001)
Color of War |
1666_32 | Out of the Blue (2002)
The Shapes of Life: Origins (2002)
The Four Agreements: A Practical Guide to Personal Freedom by Don Miguel Ruiz
The Fifth Agreement: A Practical Guide to Self-Mastery by Don Miguel Ruiz
Oil on Ice (2004)
The Voice of Knowledge : A Practical Guide to Inner Peace (Toltec Wisdom) by Don Miguel Ruiz (2004)
Kursk: A Submarine In Troubled Waters by Jean-Michel Carré (2004)
National Geographic: Surviving Everest (Peter Coyote, Liesl Clark, 2004)
National Geographic: Guns, Germs, and Steel (Jared Diamond, 2005)
Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room (2005)
Understanding: Extraterrestrials
The Tribe (2005)
National Geographic Explorer – Journey to an Alien Moon produced by Mark Mannucci
National Geographic: Lost Treasures of Afghanistan produced by James Barrat (2006)
National Geographic: The Gospel of Judas produced by James Barrat (2006)
The War Prayer (2006)
Fog City Mavericks (2007)
Hippies (2007)
Stealing America: Vote by Vote (2008)
Torturing Democracy (2008) |
1666_33 | What If Cannabis Cured Cancer
Illicit: The Dark Trade (2008)
National Geographic Explorer: Congo Bush Pilots producer/director/writer by Tony Gerber (2008)
Gray Eagles (2009)
National Geographic Explorer: (2009)
National Geographic Explorer : The Virus Hunters (2009)
National Geographic Explorer : Inside Guantanamo Bay (2009)
The National Parks: America's Best Idea directed by Ken Burns (2009)
Full Color Football: The History of the American Football League (2009)
Reclaiming Their Voice: The Native American Vote in New Mexico & Beyond (2009)
For the Rights of All: Ending Jim Crow in Alaska
The Top 100: NFL's Greatest Players (2010)
Connected: An Autoblogography About Love, Death, & Technology (2011)
I Am Fishead: Are Corporate Leaders Psychopaths?
NHL 36: Patrick Kane (2011)
NHL 36: Patrice Bergeron (2011)
Prohibition by Ken Burns (2011)
White Water, Black Gold (2011)
NHL 36: Niklas Lidstrom (2012)
NHL 36: Mike Richards (2012)
NHL 36: James Neal (2012) |
1666_34 | The Dust Bowl (2012) Host and narrator of PBS miniseries directed by Ken Burns
PBS: The Ghost Army (2013)
Oregon Experience: Hanford Oregon Public Broadcasting (2013)
Big Bend: Life on the Edge (2013)
PBS: The Roosevelts: An Intimate History by Ken Burns (2014)
Pretty Slick by James Fox (2014)
Sands of War (2015)
The Illusionists by Elena Rossini (2015)
PBS (KUED): Unspoken: America's Native American Boarding Schools (2016)
The Vietnam War by Ken Burns and Lynn Novick (2017)
PBS: Moscone: A Legacy of Change (2018) |
1666_35 | The Etruscan Smile (2018)
25 Steps (2018)
PBS: Country Music by Ken Burns (2019)
PBS: Hemingway by Ken Burns (2021)
Bibliography
Corrigan, Michael (2008). A Year and a Day: A Grief Journal. Idaho State University. . Includes Peter Coyote's emails to Michael Corrigan after Corrigan lost his wife.
Illustrator
Emmett Grogan (1990) Ringolevio: A Life Played for Keeps, autobiography
References
External links
Interview with Peter Coyote (1989) in The Diggers Archives
The Free-Fall Chronicles excerpts from Sleeping Where I Fall
Heyoka Magazine Interview with John LeKay
Peter Coyote (Aveleyman)
Interview with Peter Coyote at Eurochannel
with Peter Coyote by Stephen McKiernan, Binghamton University Libraries Center for the Study of the 1960s, July 22, 2010 |
1666_36 | 1941 births
American people of Jewish descent
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American anarchists
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American pacifists
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American Sephardic Jews
American Zen Buddhists
Audiobook narrators
Buddhist pacifists
Diggers (theater)
Dwight Morrow High School alumni
Emmy Award winners
Grinnell College alumni
Jewish American male actors
Living people
Male actors from New Jersey
Male actors from New York City
Outstanding Narrator Primetime Emmy Award winners
People from Englewood, New Jersey
Primetime Emmy Award winners
San Francisco State University alumni
Theatre in the San Francisco Bay Area |
1667_0 | This is a list of Judo organizations.
The International Budo Federation Judo Department Oceania
Worldwide governing bodies
International Judo Federation
Kodokan Judo Institute in Japan is the governing body of the art of judo.
World Judo Federation
International Budo Federation - Judo Department
Continental bodies
African Judo Union
Pan American Judo Confederation
Judo Union of Asia
European Judo Union
Oceania Judo Union
National bodies
Andorra
Judo Club Hantei
Austria
Österreichischer Judoverband
Australia
In Australia, the Judo Federation of Australia (JFA) is the largest judo association, and the only national body affiliated with the IJF. The Australian Kodokan Judo Association (AKJA) is affiliated with the WJF.
Judo Federation of Australia - JFA
Australian Kodokan Judo Association - AKJA
Australian Judo Union - AJU
International Budo Federation - Judo Department (IBFJD)
Canada
Judo Canada
Finland
Finnish Judo Federation |
1667_1 | France
FFJDA is affiliated with the European Judo Union, and with the International Judo Federation.
Fédération Française de Judo, Jujitsu et Disciplines Associées - FFJDA (French Federation of Judo, Jujitsu and Related Disciplines)
Collège Indépendant de Judo traditionnel et d’Arts Martiaux - CIJAM ( Independent College of traditional Judo and Martial Arts)
École Française de Judo/Jujutsu Traditionnel - EFJJT (French School (in French Ecole) of Traditional Judo/Jujutsu )
Fédération Internationale Autonome de Junomichi - FIAJ ( Federation International Autonomous Junomichi )
Georgia
Georgian Judo Federation
Germany
German Judo Association, Deutscher Judobund (IJF)
German Dan Colleague, Deutsches Dan-Kollegium
Deutsche Judo Föderation (WJF)
Iceland
Iceland judo (WJF)
Ireland
Judo Ireland
Irish Judo Association
Northern Ireland Judo Federation
Italy
Federazione Italiana Judo Lotta Karate Arti Marziali (IJF)
Federazione Italiana Judo Tradizionale (WJF) |
1667_2 | Japan
All Japan Judo Federation
Kodokan Judo Institute
Luxembourg
Judo Federation in Luxemburg
Netherlands
Judo Bond Nederland (JBN)
Norway
Norwegian Judo Federation
Philippines
Judo Filipinas
Scotland
Judo Scotland - JudoScotland is the national governing body for judo in Scotland.
Spain
Real Federación Española de Judo y Deportes Asociados - RFEJYDA (Royal Spanish Federation of Judo and Related Sports)
RFEJYDA is affiliated with the European Judo Union, and with the International Judo Federation.
Sweden
Swedish Judo Federation (IJF)
Traditional kodokan Judo Sweden (WJF) |
1667_3 | United Kingdom
In the UK, the British Judo Association (BJA) is the largest judo association, and is part of the EJU and IJF. In Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, the BJA is represented by JudoScotland, the Welsh Judo Association and the Northern Ireland Judo Federation respectively. The British Judo Council (BJC) and the Amateur Judo Association(AJA) are both affiliated to the BJA. A number of smaller organisations exist, including the British Judo Council - Martial Arts Circle (BJC-MAC) and the Judo For All UK (JFA-UK) which is affiliated with the WJF.
All England Judo Federation - AEJF
Seishin Budo Founded by Alan Fromm (former BJC member) in 1984.
Bushido Za Zen - Formed by Arnold Davies in 1969 and merged with the Dutch Zazen organisation in 1971
Universal Budo Association - group formed by John Goldman in the early 1980s
There are also a number of organisations derived from George Mayo's Kyushindo organisation and Zen judo |
1667_4 | Kyushindo International Association - KIA Formed by George Mayo in 1960 and named after Kenshiro Abbe's philosophy.
Mayoshindo - Split from KIA, initiated by Mayo in 2001.
Zen Judo Family - ZJF Dominic "Mac" McCarthy was a member of the Kyushindo International Association, but left to form his own organisation, the Zen Judo Family, in 1974
British Zen Judo Family Association - BZJFA split from the ZJF, run by Gordon Lawson
Shin Judo - small Zen Judo derived organisation
Kenshindo Ryu
Traditional Judo UK
International Gentle Art Society
There are other less classifiable organisations
International Budo Federation - IBF
Tokushima Budo Council International - TBCI
Bushi Karate Jitsu Association - BKJA
International Martial Arts Federation - IMAF
British Judo Society - BJS
Sho Shin Budo Kwai |
1667_5 | United States |
1667_6 | In the United States, the United States Judo, Inc. (USAJ), is the national governing body of judo pursuant to the Ted Stevens Olympic and Amateur Sports Act (36 U.S. Code § 220501 et seq). A member organization of the U.S. Olympic Committee, USAJ is responsible for the development, support and selection of Olympic, Pan American and World Championship Teams, and is affiliated to the Pan American Judo Confederation and International Judo Federation. The two largest national grassroots judo organizations in the United States are the United States Judo Federation (USJF) and the United States Judo Association (USJA), both of whom are the parent organizations of the USAJ. The USJA and USJF together form Grassroots Judo™, whose aim is to grow judo, to train in the sport and recreational (technical) aspects of judo and enable people to contribute to society. Also there are the USA Traditional Kodokan Judo Association (USA-TKJA) and Amateur Athletic Union-Judo (AAU-Judo), which are |
1667_7 | affiliated with the Pan American Judo Union and World Judo Federation, the American Judo and Jujitsu Federation(AJJF) and the American Traditional Jujutsu Association (ATJA). |
1667_8 | Vietnam
Vietnam Judo Association
See also
List of boxing organisations
List of kickboxing organizations
References
Judo
Judo-related lists
Judo organizations |
1668_0 | Charlotta Amanda Spears Bass (February 14, 1874 – April 12, 1969) was an American educator, newspaper publisher-editor, and civil rights activist. She also focused on various other issues such as housing rights, voting rights, and labor rights, as well as police brutality and harassment. Bass is believed to be the first African-American woman to own and operate a newspaper in the United States; she published the California Eagle from 1912 until 1951. In 1952, Bass became the first African-American woman nominated for Vice President, as a candidate of the Progressive Party.
Due to her activities, Bass was repeatedly accused of being part of the Communist Party, for which there was no evidence and which Bass herself repeatedly denied. She was monitored by the FBI, who continued to view her as a potential security threat up until she was in her nineties.
Background |
1668_1 | Charlotta Amanda Spears was born on February 14, 1874, to Hiram and Kate Spears. Some sources give her birthplace as in Sumter, South Carolina, while other sources suggest she was born in Little Compton, Rhode Island. She was the sixth child of eleven. She received an education from public schools and one semester at Pembroke College in Brown University. When she was twenty years old, she moved to live with her brother Ellis in Providence, Rhode Island, where she worked selling subscriptions for the Providence Watchman, a local Black newspaper. Spears worked for the Providence Watchman for about ten years. |
1668_2 | She moved to California at age 36 for her health and ended up working at the California Eagle. Her first job at the California Eagle consisted of selling subscriptions. When its founder John Neimore died, she assumed the role of editor for the paper. She later became the owner of the California Eagle after purchasing it in auction for fifty dollars. At this time she took courses at Columbia University and University of California. In 1912, a new editor, Joseph Bass joined the Eagle. Bass had been one of the founders of the Topeka Plaindealer. He shared his concern with Spears about the injustice and racial discrimination in society.
Marriage and family
Charlotta Spears married Joseph Bass, and they ran the Eagle together. She had no children.
California Eagle |
1668_3 | The Eagle developed a large black readership. By 1925, the Eagle employed a staff of twelve and published twenty pages a week. The Eagles circulation of 60,000 made it the largest African-American newspaper on the West Coast. It is credited as pioneering multiethnic politics, advocating Asian-American and Mexican-American civil rights in the 1940s, during which time the California Eagle, along with other African-American presses, were under investigation by the Office of the Secretary of War, who viewed it as a threat to national security. The Department of Justice interrogated Bass in 1942 over claims that the paper was funded by Japan and Germany. |
1668_4 | When the editor John J. Neimore became ill, he turned the operations of the Eagle over to Spears. After Neimore's death, "it turned out, this Black-founded newspaper was owned by a white man, who offered his support only if [Spears] would become his 'sweetheart.' 'Get out, you dirty dog!' she told him. She borrowed $50 from a local store owner to purchase the deed." She renamed the newspaper company to the California Eagle due to increasing social and political issues.
Her purpose for the California Eagle was to write about the wrongs of society. The newspaper served as a source of both information and inspiration for the black community, which was often ignored or negatively portrayed by the predominant white press. As publisher, Bass was committed to producing a quality periodical. In her weekly column "On the Sidewalk", begun in 1927, she drew attention to unjust social and political conditions for all Los Angeles minority communities and campaigned vigorously for reform. |
1668_5 | Bass published the California Eagle from 1912 until 1951. Bass and her husband combated such issues as the derogatory images in D. W. Griffith's film, The Birth of a Nation; Los Angeles' discriminatory hiring practices; the revival of the Ku Klux Klan; police brutality; and restrictive housing covenants. In her pursuit against the Ku Klux Klan Bass received threatening phone calls and at one point was confronted by eight men robed in white, who she scared off after displaying a firearm. She was also unsuccessfully sued for libel by Klan leader G.W. Price after Bass published a letter from the clan which detailed plans to exterminate black leaders.
The Basses championed the black soldiers of the Twenty-Fourth Infantry who were unjustly sentenced in the 1917 Houston race riot. They also covered the case and supported the "Scottsboro Boys," nine young men who were framed and convicted of rape in Scottsboro, Alabama, in 1931. |
1668_6 | In 1934, Joseph Bass died and Charlotta Bass assumed control of the paper. During this time period the California Eagle, along with other African-American presses, were under investigation by the Office of the Secretary of War, who viewed it as a threat to national security. The Department of Justice interrogated Bass in 1942 over claims that the paper was funded by Japan and Germany. The FBI continued to monitor Bass, as they deemed her actions as advocating the Communist Party despite a lack of evidence and Bass herself denying any assertions of the kind. In 1943, the Department of Justice was asked by the Post Office Department to revoke her mailing permit. The Post Office Department argued that the newspaper could not be mailed due to sensitive and illegal material within the paper. Bass again won the case, and the Department of Justice said her mailing permit would not be revoked. |
1668_7 | Bass continued to use the paper as a way of raising awareness of various issues facing African-Americans and other minorities such as restrictive covenants in housing, which the United States Supreme Court found to be unconstitutional in 1948.
Bass continued to run the California Eagle on her own until selling it in 1951 and moving to New York City, where she focused on politics. Her activism and political activities would result in continued belief that she was a communist, which she continued to deny.
Political activities |
1668_8 | During the 1920s, Bass became co-president of the Los Angeles chapter of the Universal Negro Improvement Association, founded by Marcus Garvey. Bass formed the Home Protective Association to defeat housing covenants in all-white neighborhoods. She helped found the Industrial Business Council, which fought discrimination in employment practices and encouraged black people to go into business. As editor and publisher of the California Eagle, the oldest black newspaper on the West Coast, Charlotta Bass fought against restrictive covenants in housing and segregated schools in Los Angeles. She campaigned to end job discrimination at the Los Angeles General Hospital, the Los Angeles Rapid Transit Company, the Southern Telephone Company, and the Boulder Canyon Project. |
1668_9 | During the Great Depression of the 1930s, she continued to encourage black businesses with the campaign known as "Don't Buy Where You Can't Work". A longtime Republican, she voted for President Franklin D. Roosevelt, a Democrat, in 1936.
As a leader of both the NAACP and the UNIA, Bass spanned the divide between integrationist and separatist black politics. She was the director of the Youth Movement of the NAACP. It had 200 members, including some actors and actresses, such as Lena Horne, Hattie McDaniel, and Louise Beavers. |
1668_10 | In 1940, the Republican Party chose Bass as western regional director for Wendell Willkie's presidential campaign. Three years later, she became the first African-American grand jury member for the Los Angeles County Court. Also in 1943, Bass led a group of black leaders to the office of the Mayor of Los Angeles, Fletcher Bowron's office. They demanded an expansion of the Mayor's Committee on American Unity, more public mass meetings to promote interracial unity, and an end to the discriminatory hiring practices of the privately owned Los Angeles Railway Company. The mayor listened, but agreed to do no more than to expand his committee. Then later in the 1940s, Bass left the Republican Party and joined the Progressive Party because she believed neither of the major parties was committed to civil rights.
Bass also ran for the Los Angeles City Council in the 1940s using the song-title slogan “Don’t Fence Me In” to highlight her condemnation of housing discrimination. |
1668_11 | Bass served in 1952 as the National Chairman of the Sojourners for Truth and Justice, an organization of black women set up to protest racial violence in the South. That year, she was nominated for vice president of the United States by the Progressive Party. She was the running mate of lawyer Vincent Hallinan. Bass became the first African-American woman to run for vice president of the United States. Her platform called for civil rights, women's rights, an end to the Korean War, and peace with the Soviet Union. Bass's slogan during the vice presidential campaign was, "Win or lose, we win by raising the issues." She was endorsed by Paul Robeson, W.E.B. DuBois and Ada B. Jackson in campaign material during her run. She began the campaign on her own as Hallinan served out a six-month contempt of court sentence arising from his legal defense of union leader Harry Bridges. |
1668_12 | Bass worked on issues that also attracted Luisa Moreno, who was active in Afro-Chicano politics in Los Angeles during the 1930s-1950. No record shows that the two women ever met, but in 1943 both served on the Sleepy Lagoon Defense Committee, a multiracial group that fought for the release of several Chicanos convicted of murder by an all-white jury making Bass and Moreno part of the same "constellation" of struggle.
Bass wrote her last column for the California Eagle on April 26, 1951, and sold the paper soon after. Considering the sum of her career as she was completing her autobiography, Forty Years (1960), Bass wrote:
In 1966, Bass had a stroke and afterwards retired to a Los Angeles nursing home.
In 1967, at age ninety-one the FBI still classified Charlotta Bass as a potential security threat. |
1668_13 | During her years of retirement, she maintained a library in her garage for the young people in her neighborhood. It was a continuation of her long fight to give all people opportunities and education. She died in Los Angeles on April 12, 1969 from a cerebral hemorrhage. She is buried alongside her husband in Evergreen Cemetery, Boyle Heights, East Los Angeles, California. The grave marker only names her husband. |
1668_14 | Inter-racial political activities
Gaye Johnson's essay, Constellations of Struggle (2008) examines Charlotta Bass and Luisa Moreno's significance on political activism and how it relates to the history of struggle communities of color have faced. Both Charlotta Bass and Luisa Moreno shared a "mutual struggle" and were active in fighting for civil rights through organizations together and through their own pursuits. Charlotta Bass primarily focused on the African American community and Luisa Moreno on the Chicano community but both supported a variety of civil rights. Both women were active in the Sleepy Lagoon Defense Committee, labor rights, and civil rights throughout their lives. Both women also used a technique of influencing one community at a time, employing antiracist activism, and bringing awareness. |
1668_15 | Through the California Eagle Charlotta Bass was able to have readers recognize the struggles of communities of color. Even when Charlotta Bass was faced with her own struggles with United States officials she used it as opportunities to further the influence of her paper. This can be seen after her detainment by United States officials caused her to miss her flight to China for a conference, where afterwards she continued to work on the next issue of the paper. Charlotta Bass was able to strengthen the community by pointing out the issues in Los Angeles, bringing the African American community together. With the strategy of one community at a time she was able to publicize the unequal treatment in a majority of issues from housing to police brutality. Through the newspaper she was able reverse the long used tactic of blaming people of color to shift the blame onto white officials who were responsible for the unequal treatment continued to be perpetuated in various areas such as |
1668_16 | housing and police brutality. |
1668_17 | Gaye Johnson's book, Spaces of Conflict, Sounds of Solidarity (2013) furthers this concept of "constellations of struggle" by looking at the "history of resistance" where communities have fought back and how they have reclaimed space. The work of Charlotta Bass and Luisa Moreno represents an interracial struggle and moments of solidarity. These moments of solidarity between African Americans and Mexicans was a way of reclaiming space through not only political means but through leisure spaces like music. When communities of color were violently attacked by whites it brought these communities together to further resist by unifying their forces together. |
1668_18 | The California Eagle was utilized as a tool to change the communities ideology by challenging the police even comparing their tactics to Hitler's tactics, challenging the assumption criminal behavior was biological in people of color, and linked fascism to racism. The California Eagle was a way of reaching global attention to the issues of people of color. Charlotta Bass was able to promote the creation of "spatial entitlement" by bringing communities together through her work with organizations and the newspaper. |
1668_19 | Legacy
Charlotta Bass is known for her work as owner and editor of the California Eagle from the 1912 to 1951. The California Eagle was used as a platform for publicizing the issues of the African American community and later included the issues of a variety of civil rights. She worked to improve the conditions of people of color through a multitude of civil rights such as housing rights, labor rights, voting rights, and police brutality. She was the first African American woman to be a jury member in the Los Angeles County Court and to run for Vice President of the United States.
See also
List of Los Angeles municipal election returns, 1945, for the results of her bid for City Council
Notes
References
Further reading
John M. Findlay. Power and Place in the North American West by Richard White. University of Washington Press, 1999.
Obituary: Los Angeles Sentinel, 17 April 1969
External links |
1668_20 | Charlotta Bass and the California Eagle, Southern California Library for Social Studies & Research
"Charlotta A. Bass Collection, 1924-77", Southern California Library for Social Studies & Research
Charlotta Bass / California Eagle Photograph Collection, 1870-1960 at the University of Southern California Libraries
Charlotta A. Bass, Black Past
Charlotta Bass at the California Museum |
1668_21 | 1874 births
1969 deaths
African-American candidates for Vice President of the United States
American civil rights activists
Women civil rights activists
American newspaper publishers (people)
People from Sumter, South Carolina
Progressive Party (United States, 1948) politicians
1952 United States vice-presidential candidates
Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League members
Women in California politics
Female candidates for Vice President of the United States
Burials at Evergreen Cemetery, Los Angeles
Writers from California
Writers from South Carolina
Activists from California
20th-century American women politicians
20th-century American politicians |
1669_0 | {{infobox war faction
| name = Jaysh al-Islam
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = Arabic
| war = the Syrian Civil War
| image = Logo of Jaysh al-Islam
| caption =
| active = 2011–2013 (as Liwa al-Islam)2013–present (as Jaysh al-Islam)
| ideology = Salafi IslamistSyrian nationalism (since 2016)
| clans = Eastern Ghouta (until 14 April 2018)
Military Council of Damascus and its Suburbs
Eastern Qalamoun Mountains (until 25 April 2018)8th Brigade
Lions of the Asima Brigade
7th Group
Southern Damascus
17th Brigade
| bullets = yes
| title =
| leaders =
| headquarters = *Eastern Ghouta, in the Damascus suburb of Otaybah (until April 2018)
Douma (until April 2018)
Jarabulus (since April 2018)
| area = *Turkish-occupied areas in the Aleppo Governorate (since April 2018)
Eastern Ghouta (until 14 April 2018)
Southern Damascus
Greater Daraa area until 7 May 2018 |
1669_1 | Eastern Qalamoun Mountains (until 25 April 2018)
| size = 17,000–25,000 (May 2015)
12,000 (December 2016)10-15,000 fighters in GhoutaExplainer: Who's fighting whom in Syria's Ghouta? , BBC Monitoring, 22 February 2018 (February 2018)
| partof = Islamic Front (2013–2016) Mujahideen Shura Council (2014–2015) Syrian Revolutionary Command Council (2014–2015)Unified Military Command of Eastern Ghouta (2014–2015)
| predecessor = Brigade of Islam ()
| successor =
| allies = * |
1669_2 | Free Syrian Army
Ahrar al-Sham
al-Rahman Legion (sometimes)
1st Brigade of Damascus (sometimes)
Al-Nusra Front (formerly)
Saraya Ahl al-Sham
Aknaf Bait al-Maqdis
| opponents = * Syrian Armed Forces
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
al-Rahman Legion (sometimes)
1st Brigade of Damascus (sometimes)
Tahrir al-Sham
Jaysh al-Ummah
| battles =
| url =
| status =
| founding_leader = Zahran Alloush
| military_leader = Essam al-Buwaydhani (2015–2019)
Abu Jamal (military chief)
| political_leader = Mohammed Alloush
| spokesman = Islam Alloush (former)
| groups =
| designated_as_terror_group_by =
}}Jaysh al-Islam (, meaning Army of Islam), formerly known as Liwa al-Islam (, Brigade of Islam'), is a coalition of Islamist rebel units involved in the Syrian Civil War. |
1669_3 | The group was part of the Free Syrian Army's Supreme Military Council until December 2013, but in November 2013 started the Syrian Islamic Front and the next month broke with the SMC and the Free Syrian Army.
Its primary base of operations was the Damascus area, particularly the city of Douma and the rest of the region of Eastern Ghouta, where Jaysh al-Islam was the largest rebel faction, as was Liwa al-Islam before. Following the fall of Ghouta to Assad’s forces, Jaysh al-Islam retreated to areas controlled by the Turkish Backed Free Syrian Army, where it reportedly joined the FSA, after years of separation from FSA command.
The group along with Ahrar al-Sham is among the main rebel groups supported by Saudi Arabia. The group has promoted an Islamic state under Sharia law. In 2015, its then leader claimed in an interview to be seeking for the Syrian government to be replaced by a “technocratic body that represents the diversity of the Syrian people.”. |
1669_4 | History
Liwa al-Islam
Liwa al-Islam was established by Zahran Alloush, the son of Saudi-based religious scholar Abdullah Mohammed Alloush, after Syrian authorities released him from prison in mid-2011, where he had been serving time for his Salafist activism. The group claimed responsibility for carrying out the July 2012 Damascus bombing that killed Defense Minister Dawoud Rajiha, Deputy Defense Minister Asef Shawkat, and Assistant Vice President Hassan Turkmani. Liwa al-Islam was a driving force behind actions in the Damascus region. It cooperated and conducted joint operations with the al-Nusra Front.
Merger to form Jaysh al-Islam |
1669_5 | On 29 September 2013, 50 rebel factions operating mostly around Damascus announced their merger into a new group called Jaysh al-Islam. Liwa al-Islam was the dominant faction in this merger, and its leader Zahran Alloush was announced as the leader of Jaysh al-Islam. Thirty-eight of the original groups listed as joining the merger were already members of, or affiliated with, Liwa al Islam. In September or earlier, Jaysh spokesman Islam Alloush had criticized the Syrian National Coalition, stating that the SNC should be led by those who are fighting in Syria rather than leaders in exile, but felt not (yet) inclined to outright break with the SNC.
By November 2013, 60 groups had merged into Jaysh al-Islam, and more than 175 rebel groups around Syria expressed a desire to join it. |
1669_6 | The new group's creation was said to have been negotiated and spearheaded by Saudi Arabia, who believed that al-Nusra Front was gaining too much strength. After the merger, The Guardian reported that Saudi Arabia was preparing to give the group millions of dollars to "arm and train" its fighters, and use instructors from Pakistan to help train the group. |
1669_7 | Break from SMC, founding the Syrian Islamic Front
While previously having been part of the Free Syrian Army's Supreme Military Council (SMC), in December 2013 Zahran Alloush announced his departure from that SMC, saying: "our affiliation to the Council came when it was coordinating operations against the Assad regime without being dependent on any other party, and when it had signed no pledges as to the makeup of a future state. However, when the FSA had come under the aegis of the Syrian National Coalition (in October 2013) which was committed to a democratic, pluralist state, Alloush – who had started the new Syrian Islamic Front of Islamist factions in November 2013 – decided he would no longer be part of the Supreme Military Council.
In March 2015, Jaysh al-Islam and the Unified Military Command of Eastern Ghouta formed the "Military Council of Damascus and its Suburbs", under the direct command of Zahran Alloush. |
1669_8 | On 26 April 2015, they established the Fatah Halab joint operations room along with other major Aleppo based groups.
Until late 2015, Jaysh al-Islam at times cooperated with the Al-Nusra Front.
Death of leader Zahran Alloush
On 25 December 2015, the group's founder Zahran Alloush was killed, along with several other leaders of the group, in a Syrian air strike on the suburbs of Damascus. Abu Hammam Bouwaidani succeeded him as leader.
Developments 2016-18
Since the death of Zahran Alloush late 2015, there have been conflicts between Jaysh al-Islam and other members of the Unified Military Command of Eastern Ghouta, along with associated groups such as Al-Nusra Front and its Jaish al-Fustat operations room. Ahrar al-Sham have remained neutral. Intra-rebel fighting in Ghouta took place in May 2016, with 300 deaths. On 24 May 2016, leaders of Jaysh al-Islam and al-Rahman Legion met to sign a peace deal to end hostilities. |
1669_9 | On 25 January 2017, Jaysh al-Islam's Idlib branch joined Ahrar al-Sham.
In April 2017 a coalition of the Al-Rahman Legion and Tahrir al-Sham encroached on the area of Eastern Ghouta controlled by Jaysh, which launched a campaign to drive them out, resulting in 95 casualties between 26 April and 1 May. The clashes enabled the Syrian Army to make advances in eastern Damascus. Demonstrators called for an end to the fighting; video footage circulated at the end of April appeared to show Jaysh al-Islam fighters opening fire on demonstrators who called for an end to the rebel infighting.
On 12 April 2018, some 13,000 Jaysh al-Islam fighters with their families have evacuated the town of Douma in buses, thus surrendering that town to the Assad government. Jaysh fighters and their families have resettled in northern Syria, in the Aleppo countryside, where they operate under the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army. |
1669_10 | Ideology
Since 2015, Jaysh al-Islam has called for the Syrian government to be replaced by a technocratic body that represents the diversity of the Syrian people.In 2016, Jaysh al-Islam's ideology was described as a "mixture" of Salafism, Syrian nationalism, "and at least in the past, a significant dose of Sunni sectarianism":
Zahran Alloush initially called for the establishment of an Islamic state in Syria but later renounced his previous positions, expressed support for an elected government, boasted about the protection his organization offers to Christians under its rule and even defined the Alawi sect as a victim of the Assad regime. |
1669_11 | As an example of the earlier sectarianism, in 2013 or earlier, Alloush in a speech suggested that "Sham" or Bilad al-Sham (the Levant or specifically Damascus) should be "cleansed of the filth" of the Shi'ites (whom he called "Rafida" = rejectionists) and Alawites (whom he called "Nusayris" or "Majous" = Zoroastrians, pre-Islamic Persians): "And I give you the news, oh unclean Rafida: Just as the Umayyads crushed your heads in the past, the people of Ghouta and Sham will crush them soon, they will make you taste a painful torment in this world, before God makes you taste it in the hereafter". |
1669_12 | In that early period, Alloush condemned democracy and called for an Islamic state to succeed the tyrant Assad. However, in a May 2015 interview with McClatchy journalists, Alloush used less debatable rhetoric, claiming that Syrians should decide what sort of state they wanted to live under and that Alawites were "part of the Syrian people" and only those with blood on their hands should be held accountable. His spokesman went on to claim that the sectarian and Islamist rhetoric Alloush had previously made was only intended for internal consumption and to rally his fighters.
Notable incidents |
1669_13 | Reported capture of sophisticated equipment from the Syrian government
On 6 October 2012, Liwa al-Islam captured two 9K33 Osa SAM systems in Eastern Ghouta with at least 12 missiles total. A video was posted on 29 July 2013, depicting some of the missiles being used to shoot down a Syrian government Mil Mi-8. In November 2013, the group captured two training-jets (L-39s used by the government as jet fighters) from the Syrian Air Force and showed them on the runway. But so far, they haven't been used in combat.
Torture of prisoners
In March 2016, Syria Deeply reported: "...the leader of Jaysh al-Islam, or "Army of Islam" was killed in December last year in a government air strike. His death, however, did nothing to stop to the group's totalitarian rule in Eastern Ghouta, where residents say torture and imprisonment without trial occur routinely in the name of "liberation" and Sharia law."
Filmed execution of ISIL members |
1669_14 | From approximately January 2014 until July 2015, Jaysh was fiercely fighting ISIL, especially in the Ghouta belt around Damascus. In revenge for ISIL's beheading of Jaysh members and releasing a video recording of the event in June 2015, Jaysh al-Islam's website published a video that showed its fighters executing 18 alleged ISIL militants by shotgun. The video mimics the imagery that ISIL has used for similar filmed executions; however, it reversed the imagery by having the executioners wearing orange prisoner outfits (reminiscent of the jumpsuits victims of ISIS would wear before their untimely executions) and the victims being dressed in black robes. ‘Qariban qariba’, a song used by ISIS in many of their videos played throughout the execution, albeit the lyrics altered to denounce the group (for example, it says “With the accusations of apostasy they shed blood” in reference to ISIS killing innocents and civilians) The video included some English subtitles.The Australian: "Syrian |
1669_15 | rival jihadi group, Jaysh al-Islam, execute ISIS fighters in brutal role reversal video" 5 July 2015 |
1669_16 | Attack on Adra Prison
In August and September 2015, Jaysh al-Islam shelled and stormed Adra Prison in north-east Damascus. As of 12 September 2015, it had taken control of two buildings. |
1669_17 | Use of captives as human shields
On 1 November 2015, an opposition media outlet, Shaam News Network, posted a video showing Jaysh al-Islam militants had locked people in cages and spread out 100 cages containing about 7 captives each through Eastern Ghouta, northeast of Damascus, to use them as human shields against Syrian government air raids. According to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, the caged people being used as human shields were captured Alawite military officers and their families who had been kidnapped by Jaysh al-Islam two years ago outside Adra al-Ummaliyah, a government-held neighbourhood in Eastern Ghouta. However, Jaysh al-Islam has not yet claimed responsibility for either of these alleged actions and The New York Times has suggested the possibility that these 'hostages on public display' were a mere show, to sway public opinion against further government and Russian bombardments on Eastern Ghouta.
Alleged use of chemical weapons |
1669_18 | On 7 April 2016, the Sheikh Maqsood neighborhood in Aleppo was shelled with mortars that may have contained chemical agents. On 8 April, a spokesman for the rebel group said that "weapons not authorized for use in these types of confrontations" had been used against Kurdish militia and civilians in Aleppo. He stated that "One of our commanders has unlawfully used a type of weapon that is not included in our list". He did not specify what substances were used but, according to Kurdish Red Crescent, the symptoms were consistent with the use of chlorine gas or other agents. Welat Memo, a physician with the Kurdish Red Crescent, said that the people affected are "vomiting and having difficulty in breathing." Spokesperson for the Kurdish People's Protection Units (YPG) said that Jaysh al-Islam's "statement came after many conclusive evidences and reports of chemical gas being used in shelling Aleppo's Sheikh Maqsoud district". He also said that the group has attacked the Kurdish |
1669_19 | neighborhood of Aleppo with "forbidden weapons" many times since the war's start. Jaysh al-Islam subsequently clarified that it was referring to "modified Grad rockets," not chemical weapons. |
1669_20 | Foreign reactions
Egypt, Iran, Russia
Stanford University's Mapping Militant Organizations project records that Jaysh al-Islam is not designated as a terrorist organization by any major national government or international body. However, it notes that Russia, Lebanon, and Egypt have supported classifying it as such since the end of 2015. Later, however, JaI was designated "moderate opposition" in a December 2016 list released by the Russian defence ministry, and participated in the Russian-backed Astana talks. |
1669_21 | U.S. (Obama administration) |
1669_22 | Jaysh al-Islam's relationship with the United States has remained mixed, though the group has been generally supportive of the U.S. presence in Syria. Former U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry, in a speech in Aspen, Colorado on 28 June 2016, mentioned Jaysh al-Islam and Ahrar al-Sham as "subgroups" of "the terrorists" ISIL and Jabhat al-Nusra. US Obama administration officials disapproved this mention and told The Washington Post, who speculated that Kerry's comment may have been accidental, that it was inaccurate and could harm U.S. government efforts to convince the Russian and the Syrian governments not to attack Jaysh al-Islam and Ahrar al-Sham. The Post'' also reported that "Syrian [opposition] groups" saw Kerry's comments as an example of how the Obama administration has slowly moved toward the Russian view of Syria, which includes painting all opposition groups as terrorist organizations in order to justify attacking them. The US State Department in July 2016 confirmed that the |
1669_23 | US administration's policy with regard to Jaysh al-Islam had not changed: Jaysh was and is not a UN-designated terrorist group, is opposed to ISIL, and is not allied to Nusra. |
1669_24 | See also
Douma massacre (2015)
List of armed groups in the Syrian Civil War
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
2013 establishments in Syria
Anti-government factions of the Syrian civil war
Anti-ISIL factions in Syria
Organizations designated as terrorist by Russia
Organisations designated as terrorist by Iran
Salafi groups
Sunni Islamist groups |
1670_0 | Tocopherols (; TCP) are a class of organic chemical compounds (more precisely, various methylated phenols), many of which have vitamin E activity. Because the vitamin activity was first identified in 1936 from a dietary fertility factor in rats, it was named tocopherol, from Greek τόκος tókos 'birth' and φέρειν phérein 'to bear or carry', that is 'to carry a pregnancy', with the ending -ol signifying its status as a chemical alcohol.
α-Tocopherol is the main source found in supplements and in the European diet, where the main dietary sources are olive and sunflower oils, while γ-tocopherol is the most common form in the American diet due to a higher intake of soybean and corn oil.
Tocotrienols, which are related compounds, also have vitamin E activity. All of these various derivatives with vitamin activity may correctly be referred to as "vitamin E". Tocopherols and tocotrienols are fat-soluble antioxidants but also seem to have many other functions in the body. |
1670_1 | Forms
Vitamin E exists in eight different forms, four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. All feature a chromane ring, with a hydroxyl group that can donate a hydrogen atom to reduce free radicals and a hydrophobic side chain that allows for penetration into biological membranes. Both the tocopherols and tocotrienols occur in α (alpha), β (beta), γ (gamma), and δ (delta) forms, determined by the number and position of methyl groups on the chromanol ring.
The tocotrienols have the same methyl structure at the ring and the same Greek letter-methyl-notation, but differ from the analogous tocopherols by the presence of three double bonds in the hydrophobic side chain. The unsaturation of the tails gives tocotrienols only a single stereoisomeric carbon (and thus two possible isomers per structural formula, one of which occurs naturally), whereas tocopherols have three centers (and eight possible stereoisomers per structural formula, again, only one of which occurs naturally). |
1670_2 | Each form has a different biological activity.
In general, the unnatural l-isomers of tocotrienols lack almost all vitamin activity, and half of the possible 8 isomers of the tocopherols (those with 2S chirality at the ring-tail junction) also lack vitamin activity. Of the stereoisomers that retain activity, increasing methylation, especially full methylation to the alpha-form, increases vitamin activity. In tocopherols, this is due to the preference of the tocopherol binding protein for the α-tocopherol form of the vitamin.
As a food additive, tocopherol is labeled with these E numbers: E306 (tocopherol), E307 (α-tocopherol), E308 (γ-tocopherol), and E309 (δ-tocopherol). All of these are approved in the US, EU, and Australia and New Zealand for use as antioxidants.
α-Tocopherol |
1670_3 | α-Tocopherol is the form of vitamin E that is preferentially absorbed and accumulated in humans. The measurement of "vitamin E" activity in international units (IU) was based on fertility enhancement by the prevention of miscarriages in pregnant rats relative to α-tocopherol.
Although the mono-methylated form ddd-γ-tocopherol is the most prevalent form of vitamin E in oils, there is evidence that rats can methylate this form to the preferred α-tocopherol, since several generations of rats retained α-tocopherol tissue levels, even when those generations were fed only γ-tocopherol through their lives. |
1670_4 | There are three stereocenters in α-tocopherol, so this is a chiral molecule. The eight stereoisomers of α-tocopherol differ in the arrangement of groups around these stereocenters. In the image of RRR-α-tocopherol below, all three stereocenters are in the R form. However, if the middle of the three stereocenters were changed (so the hydrogen was now pointing down and the methyl group pointing up), this would become the structure of RSR-α-tocopherol. These stereoisomers also may be named in an alternative older nomenclature, where the stereocenters are either in the d or l form. |
1670_5 | 1 IU of tocopherol is defined as ⅔ milligrams of RRR-α-tocopherol (formerly named d-α-tocopherol or sometimes ddd-α-tocopherol). 1 IU is also defined as 1 milligram of an equal mix of the eight stereoisomers, which is a racemic mixture called all-rac-α-tocopheryl acetate. This mix of stereoisomers is often called dl-α-tocopheryl acetate, even though it is more precisely ). However, 1 IU of this racemic mixture is not now considered equivalent to 1 IU of natural (RRR) α-tocopherol, and the Institute of Medicine and the USDA now convert IU's of the racemic mixture to milligrams of equivalent RRR using 1 IU racemic mixture = 0.45 "milligrams α-tocopherol". |
1670_6 | Tocotrienols
Tocotrienols, although less commonly known, also belong to the vitamin E family. Tocotrienols have four natural 2' d-isomers (they have a stereoisomeric carbon only at the 2' ring-tail position). The four tocotrienols (in order of decreasing methylation: d-α-, d-β-, d-γ-, and d-δ-tocotrienol) have structures corresponding to the four tocopherols, except with an unsaturated bond in each of the three isoprene units that form the hydrocarbon tail, whereas tocopherols have a saturated phytyl tail (the phytyl tail of tocopherols gives the possibility for 2 more stereoisomeric sites in these molecules that tocotrienols do not have). Tocotrienol has been subject to fewer clinical studies and seen less research as compared to tocopherol. However, there is growing interest in the health effects of these compounds.
Function and dietary recommendations |
1670_7 | Mechanism of action
Tocopherols are radical scavengers, delivering an H atom to quench free radicals. At 323 kJ/mol, the O-H bond in tocopherols is approximately 10% weaker than in most other phenols. This weak bond allows the vitamin to donate a hydrogen atom to the peroxyl radical and other free radicals, minimizing their damaging effect. The thus generated tocopheryl radical is relatively unreactive, but reverts to tocopherol by a redox reaction with a hydrogen donor such as vitamin C. As they are fat-soluble, tocopherols are incorporated into cell membranes, which are protected from oxidative damage. |
1670_8 | Dietary considerations
The U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for adults is 15 mg/day. The RDA is based on the α-tocopherol form because it is the most active form as originally tested. Vitamin E supplements are absorbed best when taken with meals. The U.S. Institute of Medicine has set an upper tolerable intake level (UL) for vitamin E at 1,000 mg (1,500 IU) per day. The European Food Safety Authority sets UL at 300 mg α-tocopherol equivalents /day. |
1670_9 | α-Tocopherol equivalents
For dietary purposes, vitamin E activity of vitamin E isomers is expressed as α-tocopherol equivalents (a-TEs). One a-TE is defined by the biological activity of 1 mg (natural) d-α-tocopherol in the resorption-gestation test. According to listings by FAO and others β-tocopherol should be multiplied by 0.5, γ-tocopherol by 0.1, and α-tocotrienol by 0.3. The IU is converted to aTE by multiplying it with 0.67. These factors do not correlate with the antioxidant activity of vitamin E isomers, where tocotrienols show even much higher activity in vivo.
Sources |
1670_10 | The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Services, maintains a food composition database. The last major revision was Release 28, September 2015. In general, food sources with the highest concentrations of vitamin E are vegetable oils, followed by nuts and seeds. Adjusting for typical portion sizes, however, for many people in the United States the most important sources of vitamin E include fortified breakfast cereals.
Deficiency
Vitamin E deficiency is rare, and in almost all instances caused by an underlying disease rather than a diet low in vitamin E. Vitamin E deficiency causes neurological problems due to poor nerve conduction. These include neuromuscular problems such as spinocerebellar ataxia and myopathies. Deficiency also may cause anemia, due to oxidative damage to red blood cells. |
1670_11 | Supplements
Commercial vitamin E supplements may be classified into several distinct categories:
Fully synthetic vitamin E, "dl-α-tocopherol", the most inexpensive, most commonly sold supplement form usually as the acetate ester
Semi-synthetic "natural source" vitamin E esters, the "natural source" forms used in tablets and multiple vitamins; these are highly fractionated d-α-tocopherol or its esters, often made by synthetic methylation of gamma and beta vitamers extracted from plant oils.
Less fractionated "natural mixed tocopherols" and high d-γ-tocopherol fraction supplements
Synthetic all-racemic
Synthetic vitamin E derived from petroleum products is manufactured as all-racemic α-tocopheryl acetate with a mixture of eight stereoisomers. In this mixture, one α-tocopherol molecule in eight molecules are in the form of RRR-α-tocopherol (12.5% of the total). |
1670_12 | The 8-isomer all-rac vitamin E is always marked on labels simply as dl-tocopherol or dl-tocopheryl acetate, even though it is (if fully written out) . The present largest manufacturers of this type are DSM and BASF. |
1670_13 | Natural α-tocopherol is the RRR-α (or ddd-α) form. The synthetic ("dl-α") form is not so active as the natural ddd-α ("d-α") tocopherol form. This is mainly due to reduced vitamin activity of the four possible stereoisomers that are represented by the l or S enantiomer at the first stereocenter (an S or l configuration between the chromanol ring and the tail, i.e., the SRR, SRS, SSR, and SSS stereoisomers). The three unnatural "2R" stereoisomers with natural R configuration at this 2' stereocenter, but S at one of the other centers in the tail (i.e., RSR, RRS, RSS), appear to retain substantial RRR vitamin activity, because they are recognized by the alpha-tocopherol transport protein, and thus maintained in the plasma, where the other four stereoisomers (SRR, SRS, SSR, and SSS) are not. Thus, the synthetic all-rac-α-tocopherol, in theory, would have approximately half the vitamin activity of RRR-α-tocopherol in humans. Experimentally, the ratio of activities of the 8 stereoisomer |
1670_14 | racemic mixture to the natural vitamin, is 1 to 1.36 in the rat pregnancy model (suggesting a measured activity ratio of 1/1.36 = 74% of natural, for the 8-isomer racemic mix). |
1670_15 | Although it is clear that mixtures of stereoisomers are not so active as the natural RRR-α-tocopherol form, in the ratios discussed above, specific information on any side effects of the seven synthetic vitamin E stereoisomers is not readily available.
Esters
Manufacturers also commonly convert the phenol form of the vitamins (with a free hydroxyl group) to esters, using acetic or succinic acid. These tocopheryl esters are more stable and are easy to use in vitamin supplements. α-Tocopheryl esters are de-esterified in the gut and then absorbed as the free tocopherol. Tocopheryl nicotinate, tocopheryl linolate, and tocopheryl palmitate esters are also used in cosmetics and some pharmaceuticals.
Mixed tocopherols
"Mixed tocopherols" in the USA contain at least 20% w/w other natural R, R,R- tocopherols, i.e. R, R,R-α-tocopherol content plus at least 25% R, R,R-β-, R, R,R-γ-, R, R,R-δ-tocopherols. |
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