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3,254,495	Euclid Avenue station (IND Fulton Street Line)	1,163,409,491	New York City Subway station in Brooklyn	[ "1948 establishments in New York City", "East New York, Brooklyn", "IND Fulton Street Line stations", "New York City Subway stations in Brooklyn", "New York City Subway terminals", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 1948" ]	The Euclid Avenue station is an express station on the IND Fulton Street Line of the New York City Subway, located at the intersection of Euclid and Pitkin Avenues in East New York, Brooklyn. It is served by the A train at all times and is the southern terminal for the C train at all times except nights. During nights, this is the northern terminal for the Lefferts Boulevard shuttle train from Ozone Park, Queens. Construction on the Euclid Avenue station started in 1938, but this part of the Fulton Street Line did not open until 1948. The Fulton Street Line was extended to the east in 1956, connecting to the Fulton Street Elevated via a branch line that runs through the Grant Avenue station. Elevators were installed at Euclid Avenue circa 2000. The station has four tracks and two island platforms. In terms of railroad directions, this is the southernmost station on the Fulton Street Line. The line was originally planned to extend further east as a four-track underground line; however, the four-track extension was never built. East of the station, there are connections to the Pitkin Yard as well as to the Fulton Street Elevated. The tracks themselves dead-end after the Fulton Street elevated spur diverges. ## History Euclid Avenue was part of a four-station extension of the Fulton Street subway along Pitkin Avenue, past its original planned terminus at Broadway Junction. Construction of the extension began in 1938. Work on the section of the line between Crystal Street and Grant Avenue, which included the Euclid Avenue station and the Pitkin Yard, began in late 1940. On August 26, 1941, lightning from a severe thunderstorm damaged the temporary timber roofing over the construction site at Pitkin Avenue and Autumn Avenue just east of the station. The lighting also ruptured a gas main at the site creating a fire and causing damage to an adjacent building, while two automobiles fell into the exposed tunnel cavern. Construction of the extension was halted in December 1942 due to material shortages caused by World War II. At the time, the section of tunnel between Crystal Street and Grant Avenue was 96% complete. Other parts of the extension were more than 99% complete, but vital equipment had yet to be installed, precluding these stations' openings. Construction resumed on the extension in November 1946. The delay meant the station received different design features than the rest of the stations along the line, including a slightly different tiling, fluorescent lighting instead of then-standard incandescent lights, and improved restroom and phone booth facilities. The station also featured a then-modern interlocking technology, known as the "NX" system, wherein train operators would press buttons that automatically adjusted the corresponding switches. In older interlockings throughout the subway system, workers in a separate control tower had to manually adjust the switches using a series of levers within the tower. After several test runs, the station opened to the public in the early morning of November 28, 1948. It became the new terminal of the Fulton Street Line, replacing the former terminal at Broadway–East New York (now Broadway Junction). It later became the replacement for the elevated BMT Fulton Street Line's Chestnut Street and Crescent Street stations, which closed on April 26, 1956 when the connection to the eastern Fulton elevated was opened. In 2002, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority announced that elevators would be installed at the Euclid Avenue station. By the middle of the decade, an elevator to the street and elevators between the mezzanine and each platform had been installed, making the station ADA-accessible. ## Station layout This station has four tracks and two island platforms. It is the easternmost express station on the IND Fulton Street Line in terms of geographic directions. In terms of railroad directions, Euclid Avenue is the line's southernmost express station. The C train stops here at all times except late nights, while the A serves the station at all times, running express during the day and local during late nights. Euclid Avenue is the southern terminus for C trains; the next stop to the east (railroad south) for A trains is Grant Avenue. The next stop to the west (railroad north) is Shepherd Avenue for local trains and Broadway Junction for express trains. During late nights, Euclid Avenue is also the northern terminus for shuttle trains to Ozone Park–Lefferts Boulevard, one of the three southern termini of the daytime A train. The track walls have the same rectangular eggshell-beige wall tiles as the next three stations west, in contrast to the typical square white tiles seen in the rest of the IND. The tile band, however, is a delicate shade of lilac with a violet border. The I-beam columns are tiled the same way, along with mini-vertical name tablets reading "EUCLID" along with the two-tone border motif. These columns are in pairs at the center of the platforms, though towards each end where the platforms narrow there's only a single row of columns. A crew quarters room is over the railroad south end of both platforms. The station has a crossover in the mezzanine along with an active newsstand and elevators to both platforms. The station has a control tower at the eastern end of the southbound platform, which monitors trains between Broadway Junction and the station, and controls the interlockings east of Euclid Avenue. The tower was the first in the subway system to use the "NX" or "Entrance-Exit" system. In this system, the tower utilizes a 12-foot (3.7 m) wide, 3.3-foot (1.0 m) tall electric light signal board which features a diagram of the nearby stations and track layout. It operates on direct current and consists of simple knobs and push buttons to control track switches, as opposed to the previous system which ran on alternating current and required a complicated series of levers. ### Exits Stairways are present from each platform to the mezzanine above the tracks. Fare control is located in the mezzanine. Outside fare control is a street elevator leading to the northeast corner of Pitkin and Euclid Avenues. Street stairs also lead to all four corners of the intersection. The bus routes stop outside the station. ## East of the station The next station east (railroad south) for IND Fulton Street service is Grant Avenue, located in City Line, Brooklyn. However, an unfinished station is rumored to exist at 76th Street in nearby Ozone Park, Queens, just four blocks east of Grant Avenue. The track work near Euclid Avenue is intricate, allowing trains to enter the Pitkin Yard from both the express and local tracks (where C trains relay to get from the southbound to the northbound local track), and with connections to the two-track Grant Avenue station from both the express and local tracks; the Grant Avenue spur then veers northeast towards Liberty Avenue. All four mainline tracks continue below the Grant Avenue connection, used only to store trains, east under Pitkin Avenue until approximately Eldert Lane (just south of the Grant Avenue station). It was planned that these tracks would continue under Pitkin Avenue to Cross Bay Boulevard, as part of a never-built system expansion which would have extended the Fulton Street Subway to the Rockaways and to Cambria Heights near the Queens-Nassau County border. On the electric light signal board in the control room at Euclid Avenue, there is a taped-over section of the board that hides the 76th Street station. There are also two tracks coming from the Pitkin Yard heading towards the planned 76th Street station site. These tracks would have merged with the mainline tracks just before 76th Street station. When Pitkin Yard originally opened, the yard leads toward 76th Street were usable to relay short trains on. Today, those two tracks are no longer connected via switches. Parts of the trackways still exist, but the switches were removed and the tunnel ends in a cinderblock wall. As late as 1951, the mainline and relay tracks were still planned to be extended as far as 105th Street (the modern location of Aqueduct Racetrack), with a connection to the then-recently abandoned Rockaway Beach Branch of the Long Island Rail Road east of Cross Bay Boulevard. The extension of the subway, however, was never built; instead the line was connected to the former Fulton Street elevated on Liberty Avenue and the former LIRR Rockaway branch (now the IND Rockaway Line), both via the Grant Avenue station, which opened in 1956. Rumors that the proposed station was actually constructed, at least partially, are prevalent. Evidence supporting the existence of the station includes the signal board, the cinderblock wall at the end of the tunnel (cinderblock, brick, and wooden partitions are used in other parts of the subway to seal potential expansion sites) and several signals for trains running from the station into Euclid Avenue facing the wall, including one directly in front of the wall. On online transit forums, such as the website SubChat, some have claimed to have known people who have seen the station. The New York Times, referring to the rumor as the "transit Atlantis", has likened it to the Roswell UFO incident or the Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories. Steve Krokowski, a retired transit worker and police officer, was quoted by the Times in reference to the station, mentioning: - The taped-over portion of the signal board which covers a label for the 76th Street station. (This control board actually exists, and has indeed been taped over.) - The remnants of the Pitkin Yard leads that head northeast and then stop near the aforementioned cinder-block wall. Krokowski tried to dig under the wall, and found a track tie, but stopped when the hole caved in. - A retired police officer claimed that the cinder-block wall previously had a door, and that in the 1960s he walked through it, and saw a station complete with everything except for turnstiles and token booths. Other "colleagues", all supposedly dead, also claimed to have seen the station, though whether anyone else actually made such claims is unknown. However, there is also significant evidence against the existence of the station, including a lack of newspaper coverage, the lack of subway infrastructure such as ventilation grates or skylights on Pitkin Avenue in the area, and the absence of documentation of the work from the Board of Transportation or the Board of Estimate.	[ "## History", "## Station layout", "### Exits", "## East of the station" ]	2,156	26,571
7,483,052	Lisa Hannigan	1,168,619,178	Irish musician	[ "1981 births", "21st-century Irish women singers", "ATO Records artists", "Actors from County Meath", "Actresses from County Dublin", "Alumni of Trinity College Dublin", "Irish folk singers", "Irish pop singers", "Irish singer-songwriters", "Irish voice actresses", "Irish women singer-songwriters", "Living people", "Musicians from County Dublin", "Musicians from County Meath", "PIAS Recordings artists" ]	Lisa Margaret Hannigan (born 12 February 1981) is an Irish musician, singer, composer, and voice actress. She began her musical career as a member of Damien Rice's band. Since beginning her solo career in 2007 she has released three albums: Sea Sew (2008), Passenger (2011), and At Swim (2016). Hannigan's music has received award nominations both in Ireland and the United States. Hannigan also received attention in North America for her role as Blue Diamond in Steven Universe, an American animated television series created by Rebecca Sugar. ## Early life and education Hannigan was born in Dublin but grew up in Kilcloon, County Meath, Ireland. She attended primary school at Scoil Oilibhéir Naofa in Kilcloon and enrolled at Trinity College Dublin to study French and art history. ## Career While still in college, Hannigan met Damien Rice at a concert in Dublin in early 2001. Rice enlisted Hannigan to sing on his 2002 album O and his later album 9, featured in the hit "9 Crimes". She toured with Rice as part of his band during that period, lending vocal support and occasionally playing guitar, bass or drums. In 2007, Hannigan returned to Dublin and began a solo career. Some of Hannigan's live recordings were made available through trading networks radio shows. These recordings included: "Willy" by Joni Mitchell, "Be My Husband" by Nina Simone (from the 1965 album Pastel Blues), "Mercedes Benz" by Janis Joplin and "Love Hurts" by Boudleaux Bryant. Hannigan also performed live with her own band, called The Daisy Okell Quartet and contributed guest vocals to the recordings of Mic Christopher, The Frames and Herbie Hancock. ### Sea Sew Lisa Hannigan's debut solo album, titled Sea Sew, was rehearsed in a barn in Thomastown and recorded in Dublin before being released in Ireland in September 2008. The lead single, "Lille", was made available as a free Internet download and other tracks were available for preview on her Myspace page. The sleeve featured needle-work by Hannigan. Some music critics called the recording one of the best Irish albums of the year. Sea Sew received favourable reviews in the Los Angeles Times and The New York Times. The single "Lille" was released in August 2008 on Irish and American radio stations. Hannigan performed at Electric Picnic 2008. She was the opening act for singer-songwriter Jason Mraz on his 2008 U.S. tour. That year she appeared on the charity album Even Better Than the Disco Thing and performed a duet of Mick Flannery's new song "Christmas Past" with Flannery on Tony Fenton's Christmas Special on Today FM. In December 2008, she made her UK solo debut at St Johns Church in London. Hannigan signed with ATO Records in the U.S., where her album was released in February 2009. Sea Sew was nominated for the Choice Music Prize and Best Irish Album at the Meteor Music Awards in January 2009. That year, Hannigan appeared on the American television shows The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and The Colbert Report. In 2009, Hannigan also appeared on the BBC's Later... with Jools Holland, performing her song "I Don't Know". Sea Sew rose in the UK charts following this appearance and she performed at Glastonbury 2009 music festival and went on tour later in the year. She performed at the nomination ceremony and she was greeted by confused journalists wondering "Lisa who?". Hannigan performed at Electric Picnic 2009 Later in 2009, she toured the United States with David Gray and performed solo shows in New York, Los Angeles and London. She then began a tour of Ireland to finish the year. Hannigan's song "An Ocean and a Rock" was used in a 2009 Irish video supporting same-sex marriage entitled "Sinéad's Hand". As part of an advertisement campaign for Oxfam's Make Trade Fair, Hannigan was drenched in melted chocolate and she participated in the Irish musical collective The Cake Sale with lead vocal on the track "Some Surprise", which was played on the US television series Grey's Anatomy. Hannigan also contributed to the 2009 charity album Sparks n' Mind, released in aid of Aware. In 2009, a broadcast of Other Voices was recorded. The songs "Lille" and "Braille" from this album were used in the film Ondine in 2009. ### Passenger Hannigan recorded her second album, Passenger, at Bryn Derwen Studios in North Wales with producer Joe Henry and engineer Ryan Freeland. The album was released in the US and Canada on 20 September 2011, and on 7 October in Ireland and the UK. Hannigan performed at the Eurosonic Festival in 2012 when Ireland was the "Spotlight Country". ### At Swim Hannigan announced that her third album was produced in collaboration with Aaron Dessner, founding member of American indie rock band The National. The album entitled At Swim was released on 19 August 2016. On 24 May 2016 Hannigan revealed a short teaser in relation to the album's launch. "Prayer for the Dying" and "Ora" are two tracks which appeared among promotional material in the lead up to the release. Hannigan toured Ireland extensively in the lead up to the album release. "Prayer for the Dying" appeared on digital streaming services in June 2016. The album was positively received by several newspapers, including The Guardian, which awarded it four out of five stars, commenting on Hannigan's "crystal vocals" and the album's "stunningly pretty songs with quietly powerful undertones", and the Evening Standard, which also awarded four out of five stars and mentioned the "new-found accessibility" the album represented. The Telegraph noted the album to be "subtle and gauzy but loaded with emotion", and calls Hannigan's voice "an incredible instrument, drawing on both opera and folk, with a softness and intimacy". ### Work With Aaron Dessner and The National In 2016, Aaron Dessner produced Hannigan's album At Swim and also began featuring her on other projects he produced. She contributed backing vocals to The National album Sleep Well Beast, was a featured vocalist on four tracks on their I Am Easy to Find, and was an additional artist on First Two Pages of Frankenstein. In 2023, Hannigan was a backing vocalist on two tracks on Ed Sheeran's album -, also produced by Dessner. ### Soundtracks and film work In 2004, Hannigan credited on soundtrack for Closer (song: "Cold Water", arranged and performed by Damien Rice and Lisa Hannigan, featuring Vyvienne Long). In 2007, Hannigan credited on soundtrack for Shrek the Third (song: "9 Crimes", performed by Damien Rice and Lisa Hannigan). In 2009, Hannigan credited on soundtrack for Ondine (songs: "Braille", "Lille", written and performed by Lisa Hannigan). In 2013, Hannigan contributed vocals to the soundtrack for Alfonso Cuarón's film Gravity and performed a cover of Richard Hawley's "You Haunt Me" for the film Another Me. In 2014, Hannigan provided vocals along with John Smith for the Steven Price conducted soundtrack for the Brad Pitt blockbuster Fury. In 2014, she voiced the character of Bronagh, the Selkie mother of the main characters in the animated film Song of the Sea, and provided several songs to the film's soundtrack. In 2015, she sang a version of "Danny Boy" for the seventh episode of the second season of Fargo. In 2017, she started voicing the character Blue Diamond for the television series Steven Universe which was made by Rebecca Sugar. She also performed a cover of David Bowie's "Oh! You Pretty Things" for the closing credits of the sixth episode of the first season of Legion. In 2018, she arranged and performed a version of the traditional Irish song "Weile Weile Waile" for the soundtrack of the movie The Hole in the Ground. In 2019, she reprised her role as Blue Diamond for the television film Steven Universe: The Movie. In 2020, she returned to the role once more in the follow-up series Steven Universe Future. ### Other work In 2020, Hannigan was part of an Irish collective of female singers and musicians called "Irish Women in Harmony", that recorded a version of the song "Dreams" in aid of the charity Safe Ireland, which deals with domestic abuse which had reportedly risen significantly during the COVID-19 lockdown. ## Reception Her music has received critical praise, airplay and award nominations both in her native Ireland and the United States. In 2008, her debut album Sea Sew spawned the single "Lille", a Choice Music Prize nomination, two Meteor Music Awards nominations and a Mercury Prize nomination. Hannigan performs using "broken-down, wheezy old instruments". Herbie Hancock said of her vocals, "there's so much jazz in the notes and phrases that she picks. She was singing the ninths, the elevenths of the chords...I mean some of the things sound like choices that Miles would have made." ## Discography - Sea Sew (2008) - Passenger (2011) - At Swim (2016) - Live in Dublin (with Stargazer) (2019) ## Personal life Hannigan briefly studied English and art history at Trinity College Dublin. During her first week at university she became friends with Irish singer-songwriter Damien Rice. Hannigan eventually left university to travel with Rice across Europe. Returning to Ireland, both Hannigan and Rice began to work together recording music, including songs like "Unplayed Piano" and "Once I Loved." Hannigan featured on Rice's first two solo albums and a number of EPs and live recordings. Both Irish artists toured for a number of years together and were in a relationship, but in 2007 Hannigan left Damien Rice and his band the afternoon before a live show in Munich. Rice released a statement saying that their professional relationship had "run its creative course" in March 2007. Returning to Dublin, from 2007 onward Hannigan began to focus on her solo career which to date has produced three solo albums. In 2015, Hannigan decided to move from Dublin to London to begin a new life, which involved beginning to write new material for her third studio album At Swim. She also started pursuing a part-time degree in English literature. As of 2016, Hannigan planned to return to Dublin with her London-based husband following her At Swim tour of Europe and the US. They have a son. ## Awards ### Hot Press Readers' Poll Hannigan has four Hot Press Readers' Poll awards. She won Best Debut Album, Best Irish Album, Best Irish Track and Best Female in 2009. \\|- \\| 2009 \\|\\| Sea Sew \\|\\| Best Debut Album \\|\\| \\|- \\| 2009 \\|\\| Sea Sew \\|\\| Best Irish Album \\|\\| \\|- \\| 2009 \\|\\| "I Don't Know" \\|\\| Best Irish Track \\|\\| \\|- \\| 2009 \\|\\| Lisa Hannigan \\|\\| Best Female \\|\\| \\|- ### Choice Music Prize Hannigan's debut album, Sea Sew, was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in January 2009. Hannigan's second album, Passenger, was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in January 2012 and she also lost out to Jape that year. \\|- \\| 2009 \\|\\| Sea Sew \\|\\| Irish Album of the Year 2008 \\|\\| \\|- \\| 2012 \\|\\| Passenger \\|\\| Irish Album of the Year 2011 \\|\\| \\|- ### Meteor Music Awards Hannigan and her work was nominated in the Best Irish Female and Best Irish Album categories at the Meteor Music Awards in 2009. She was the only solo artist nominated in more than one category at the awards. She lost to Imelda May and The Script's self-titled album respectively. \\|- \\| 2009 \\|\\| Sea Sew \\|\\| Best Irish Album \\|\\| \\|- \\| 2009 \\|\\| Lisa Hannigan \\|\\| Best Irish Female \\|\\| \\|- ### Mercury Prize Sea Sew was nominated for the Mercury Prize on 21 July 2009. It was Hannigan's first nomination. Hannigan was referred to as 2009's "token folk nominee" in the UK, with the NME calling her a "token folkie". One British journalist even claimed she was "truly obscure" and part of the "moribund sensitive singer-songwriter genre". Ed Power, writing in the Irish Independent, criticised such claims, wondering if Jape (whose album Ritual beat Hannigan to the Choice Music Prize) had come close to receiving a Mercury nomination—"Or, for that matter, how many of the judges had even heard of him". \\|- \\| 2009 \\|\\| Sea Sew \\|\\| Best Album \\|\\| \\|-	[ "## Early life and education", "## Career", "### Sea Sew", "### Passenger", "### At Swim", "### Work With Aaron Dessner and The National", "### Soundtracks and film work", "### Other work", "## Reception", "## Discography", "## Personal life", "## Awards", "### Hot Press Readers' Poll", "### Choice Music Prize", "### Meteor Music Awards", "### Mercury Prize" ]	2,778	13,854
64,133,140	French ironclad Bouvines	1,136,843,629	Ironclad ship of the French Navy	[ "1892 ships", "Bouvines-class ironclads", "Ships built in France" ]	Bouvines was the lead ship for her class of two ironclad coast-defence ships built for the French Navy (Marine Nationale) in the early 1890s. Completed in 1895, she always served as a flagship and was initially assigned to the Northern Squadron (Escadre du Nord). The ship was briefly reduced to reserve in 1898, but was reactivated later that year as part of the Mediterranean Squadron (Escadre de Méditerranée). Three years later, Bouvines rejoined the Northern Squadron. The ship was again placed in reserve in 1907, but was recommissioned in 1910 as flagship for the units assigned to the English Channel. Later that year she badly damaged a French destroyer in a collision at night while training. Bouvines returned to reserve status in 1912, but she was decommissioned the following year. Despite this, the ship served as a guard ship during World War I. Bouvines was condemned in mid-1918 and was sold for scrap in 1920. ## Design and description The Bouvines-class coast-defence ships were ordered in accordance with the Jeune École's belief in the primacy of coastal defences and commerce raiding. The ships were 89.38 m (293 ft 3 in) long at the waterline and 89.65 m (294 ft 2 in) long overall. They had a beam of 17.86 m (58 ft 7 in) and a draft of 6.38 m (20 ft 11 in) forward and 7.54 m (24 ft 9 in) aft. They displaced 6,798 metric tons (6,691 long tons). Once in service they proved to roll badly so bilge keels were later fitted. The crew of the Bouvines class numbered 15 officers and 318 ratings; service as a flagship added 5 more officers and 33 more ratings. The Bouvines-class ships were powered by two inclined horizontal triple-expansion steam engines, each driving a 4.5-metre (15 ft) propeller. Bouvines's engines used steam provided by 16 d'Allest-Lagrafel water-tube boilers at a working pressure of 15 kg/cm<sup>2</sup> (1,471 kPa; 213 psi) that exhausted through two funnels. The engines produced a total of 8,865 indicated horsepower (6,611 kW) and gave a top speed of 16.05 knots (29.72 km/h; 18.47 mph) on trials. The ships carried enough coal to give them a range of 3,900 nautical miles (7,200 km; 4,500 mi) at a speed of 8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph). ### Armament and armor The Bouvines-class ships carried their main battery of two Canon de 305 mm (12 in) Modèle 1887 guns in two single-gun turrets, one each fore and aft of the superstructure. Their secondary armament consisted of eight Canon de 100 mm (3.9 in) Modèle 1892 guns, four of which were mounted in individual casemates. The other four were carried on pivot mounts with gun shields on the shelter deck directly above the four casemated guns on the corners of the superstructure. Initially four Canon de 47 mm (1.9 in) Modèle 1885 Hotchkiss guns were carried for defence from torpedo boats in the fighting top in the military mast, but this was later increased to eight, with the new guns on the superstructure. Initially ten 37-millimetre (1.5 in) Hotchkiss revolving cannon were positioned on the superstructure, but this was reduced to three when the additional 47 mm guns were added. Two 450-millimetre (17.7 in) torpedo tubes were mounted above the waterline, but they were removed in 1906. The Bouvines class had a full-length waterline armor belt of steel that tapered from the maximum thickness of 464 mm (18.3 in) amidships to 250 mm (9.8 in) at the ships' ends. They were intended to have 40 centimetres (15.7 in) of the belt showing above the waterline, but they were overweight as completed and only 24 centimetres (9.4 in) of the belt was above the waterline. The maximum thickness of the armored deck was 92 mm (3.6 in) and it was joined to the top of the armor belt. The main turret armor was 370 mm (14.6 in) thick although the barbettes were only 320 mm (12.6 in) thick. The plates protecting the conning tower measured 80 mm (3.1 in) in thickness. ## Construction and career Bouvines, named for the 1214 Battle of Bouvines, was authorized in the 1889 Supplementary Naval Programme and was ordered from Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée on 18 December 1889. The ship was laid down on 30 September 1890 at their La Seyne-sur-Mer shipyard and launched on 29 March 1892. She was commissioned for preliminary trials on 15 October 1894, but excessive heating in her boiler rooms and funnels took some time to rectify and official trials did not begin until mid-1895. A premature detonation of a 47 mm shell during gunnery tests on 23 July killed two men and wounded two others, including Rear Admiral Chateauminois, President of the Trials Commission. Bouvines was fully commissioned (armée definitif) on 1 December. Her construction cost 14,986,587 francs. The ship arrived at Brest on 22 January 1896 and briefly became the flagship of Rear Admiral Ménard, commander of the Second Battleship Division (2<sup>e</sup> division cuirassée) of the Northern Squadron, on 1 February. Ménard was replaced eight days later by Rear Admiral Charles-Félix-Edgard de Courthille. Bouvines had engine problems shortly afterwards and conducted trials on the 22nd. For the next year and a half, she spent her time at sea training in the English Channel and Bay of Biscay, interrupted only by ferrying the President of France, Félix Faure, from Saint-Nazaire to Rochefort on 22 April 1897. De Courthille was relieved by Rear Admiral Auguste Éléonor de Penfentenyo de Kervéréguen on 10 October 1898 and transferred his flag to another ship when Bouvines was ordered to proceed to Toulon to be placed in reserve on 26 September. The ship was recommissioned on 15 December and became the flagship of Rear Admiral Léonce Caillard, commander of the Coast-Defence Division (Division des garde-côtes) of the Mediterranean Squadron. She conducted routine exercises off the coast of Provence in 1899 and Caillard was replaced by Rear Admiral Escande on 15 July, but he was relieved in his turn by Rear Admiral Charles-Alfred Mallarmé on 1 September. Bouvines departed Toulon on 21 June 1900 together with the rest of the Mediterranean Squadron to participate in manoeuvres with the Northern Squadron in the Channel and the Bay of Biscay. From 22 July the division was attached to the Northern Squadron and based in Cherbourg with reduced crews. The crews were filled out to full strength in preparation for the following year's manoeuvres and gunnery exercises in the Mediterranean. The Northern Squadron departed Cherbourg on 20 June 1901 and returned on 13 August. Bouvines rejoined the 2nd Battleship Division on 1 September as the flagship of Rear Admiral Rouvier. The division was transferred to Brest in 1902 and then joined the rest of the Squadron for the annual manoeuvres in the Mediterranean on 30 June. The ship made port visits in Lisbon, Portugal, and French North Africa between exercises before returning to Cherbourg on 4 September. Over the next three years, she trained in the Channel and the Bay of Biscay. Rouvier was relieved by Rear Admiral François Leygue on 28 March 1904; Rear Admiral Joseph-Albert Philibert replaced him on 3 April 1906. The Northern Squadron joined with the Mediterranean Squadron for combined manoeuvres in the Eastern Mediterranean in mid-1906 and returned to Brest after the customary port visits on 28 August. The division arrived at Cherbourg on 5 October and Bouvines was reduced to reserve there on 1 January 1907. The ship was reactivated on 13 April 1910 as the flagship for the commander of the Channel Flotillas (Commandeur supérieur des flotilles de la Manche). She was sent to Calais to assist with the salvage of the wreck of the submarine Pluviôse on 28 May. While conducting night training on 13 September, Bouvines collided with, and badly damaged, the destroyer Escopette. She was returned to reserve at Cherbourg on 1 June 1912 and was decommissioned on 1 July 1913. Bouvines was reactivated on 1 August 1914, just a few days before the French declaration of war on Imperial Germany. She served as the guard ship for Cherbourg until 1917. The ship was condemned and stricken from the navy list on 8 June 1918. Her hulk was sold for FF550,000 on 19 June 1920.	[ "## Design and description", "### Armament and armor", "## Construction and career" ]	2,041	14,057
33,284,481	LLA Azteca Championship	1,149,561,530	Former professional wrestling championship	[ "Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre championships", "Openweight wrestling championships", "Television wrestling championships" ]	The LLA Azteca Championship (Campeonato Azteca de LLA in Spanish) was a professional wrestling championship promoted by Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) and Lucha Libre Azteca (LLA) between 2009 and 2014. This championship had no weight limit nor any other limits on who could become champion. It was sponsored by TV Azteca Noreste, who televised all championship matches and covered professional wrestling in Monterrey, Nuevo León on a weekly basis. The Championship was last seen on May 4, 2014 and was not promoted by LLA between that date and LLA's last show on September 27, 2015. No champion was able to successfully defend the championship as it changed hands each time LLA and CMLL promoted a title match. As a professional wrestling championship, it was not won through athletic competition; it was instead won and lost via a scripted ending to a match. The championship was vacated on May 2, 2013, after a match between then-champion Místico and challengers La Sombra and Volador Jr. ended in a time limit draw and the title was vacated. The championship was created in late 2009 as CMLL announced a one-night tournament to determine the first Azteca champion. The longest reigning champion was Último Guerrero who held the title for 234 days from December 19, 2009, to August 10, 2010. The youngest champion was Místico, who was born in 1991 and won the title in September 2012 making him 20 or 21 years old at the time. The shortest reigning champion was Héctor Garza who held the title for 124 days from August 10, 2010, to December 12, 2010. Último Guerrero holds the record for most reigns, the only person to win it twice. ## Background Lucha libre, (professional wrestling) is a form of entertainment where matches are presented as being competitive, but their outcomes are pre-determined by promoters. As part of presenting lucha libre as a genuine combat sport, promoters create championships that are used in the storylines presented on their shows; they are not won as result of genuinely competitive matches. The championship is represented by a belt for the champion to wear before or after a match. In 2009, Mexican professional wrestling promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ("World Wrestling Council"; CMLL) began working with the Monterrey, Nuevo León local promotion "Lucha Libre Azteca" (LLA), allowing wrestlers under CMLL contracts to work LLA shows. In 2009 LLA and CMLL decided to create the "Azteca Championship" as the centerpiece of their shows. ## History The Azteca Championship was created in late 2009 as a one-night tournament to determine the first Azteca champion on December 18. The tournament started out with two six-man tag team matches to reduce the field from 12 to 6 wrestler. Héctor Garza, Místico and Shocker defeated La Peste Negra (Negro Casas, El Felino and Mr. Niebla) while Los Guerreros de la Atlantida (Atlantis, Rey Bucanero and Último Guerrero) defeated Los Hijos del Averno (Averno, Ephesto and Mephisto) to advance to the semi-finals. The semi-final event was a torneo cibernetico elimination match that saw Atlantis and Último Guerrero as the final two survivors. In the end, Último Guerrero pinned his tag team partner Averno to become the first LLA Azteca Champion. All championship matches except for the tournament to determine the first champion was held under "Three-way" rules, with three wrestlers in the ring concurrently. No champion was able to successfully defend the championship as it changed hands each time LLA promoted a title match at Gimnasio Nuevo León or Arena Solidaridad. As a professional wrestling championship, it was not won through athletic competition; it was instead won and lost via a scripted ending to a match. The championship was vacated on May 2, 2013, after a match between then-champion Místico and challengers La Sombra and Volador Jr. ended in a time limit draw. LLA held a match for the vacant championship over a year later, on May 4, 2014, where Atlantis defeated Último Guerrero by disqualification to win the championship for a second time. The championship was not promoted on any subsequent LLA shows, with LLA holding its last event on September 29, 2015, rendering it inactive after Atlantis won it. The longest reigning champion was Último Guerrero who held the title for 234 days from December 19, 2009, to August 10, 2010. The youngest champion was Místico, who was born in 1991 and won the title in September 2012 making him 20 or 21 years old at the time. The shortest reigning champion was Héctor Garza who held the title for 124 days from August 10, 2010, to December 12, 2010. Último Guerrero and Atlantis are the only wrestlers to win the championship twice. The oldest champion was Atlantis who won at the age of 48 years and 75 days. The last champions was Místico, who defeated Atlantis and Último Guerrero for the championship on September 30, 2012, in Monterrey, Nuevo León. ## Reigns ## Combined reigns	[ "## Background", "## History", "## Reigns", "## Combined reigns" ]	1,191	22,108
2,673,725	Massena Terminal Railroad	1,145,508,315	Class III railroad in New York	[ "New York (state) railroads", "RailAmerica", "Railway companies established in 1900", "Switching and terminal railroads" ]	The Massena Terminal Railroad is a Class III terminal railroad operating in the U.S. state of New York. It operates over 4 miles (6.4 km) of track from the CSX Transportation yard in Massena north to the Alcoa plant, the railroad's only customer. It was built in the early 20th century, beginning operations in 1900. In 2005, the railroad was purchased by holding company RailAmerica. Shortline holding company Genesee & Wyoming acquired the Massena Terminal Railroad in 2012 as part of its purchase of RailAmerica. The railroad's traffic comes mainly from aluminum and petroleum products. The MTR hauled around 4,300 carloads in 2008. ## History The Massena Terminal Railroad was incorporated in May 1900, to connect a power plant of the St. Lawrence Power Company to the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg Railroad and Grand Trunk Railway at Massena. The New York Central Railroad took over rail operations for the MTR in 1915, with the latter remaining owner of the physical infratstructure. Significant traffic was carried by the Massena Terminal Railroad during the construction of the St. Lawrence Seaway; new tracks were laid to support the project, and then removed upon its completion. When the company had its bridge across the Grasse River replaced in 1946, it included an Alcoa-designed all-aluminum bridge span that was reportedly the first in the world. The New York Central Railroad acquired the MTR in 1966 from Alcoa, which cited "improved operating efficiencies" as the reason for the sale. Shortline holding company RailAmerica purchased the MTR in 2005, eventually assigning it to the company's Northeast Region in 2008. RailAmerica was itself purchased by fellow shortline holding company Genesee & Wyoming in 2012, which became the Massena Terminal Railroad's owner. The railroad received a \$1.6 million grant from the New York State Department of Transportation in 2013 for infrastructure improvements. ## Operations The company's primary customer is an Alcoa facility in Massena. The MTR connects this facility with a CSX Transportation line also in Massena. In 2008, the company reported approximately 4,300 carloads. As of 2019, the Massena Terminal Railroad has a total of 4 miles (6.4 km) of tracks.	[ "## History", "## Operations" ]	501	37,538
6,157,801	KYOU-TV	1,172,846,463	Fox/NBC/CW affiliate in Ottumwa, Iowa	[ "1986 establishments in Iowa", "Circle (TV network) affiliates", "Fox network affiliates", "Gray Television", "Grit (TV network) affiliates", "NBC network affiliates", "Television channels and stations established in 1986", "Television stations in the Ottumwa–Kirksville market", "The CW affiliates", "True Crime Network affiliates" ]	KYOU-TV (channel 15) is a television station licensed to Ottumwa, Iowa, United States, serving Ottumwa and Kirksville, Missouri, as an affiliate of Fox, NBC and The CW Plus. The station is owned by Gray Television and maintains studios on West 2nd Street in Downtown Ottumwa; its transmitter is located one mile (1.6 km) east of Richland, Iowa. A translator, K30MG-D, offers additional coverage in the Kirksville area. Channel 15 began airing in the summer of 1986 as KOIA-TV. It replaced a low-power station on channel 42 and was owned by the same group. When this company became financially insolvent, it immediately moved to discontinue broadcasting. KOIA-TV was then sold to Public Interest Broadcast Group and returned to the air in June 1987, affiliating with Fox in February 1988. The call letters were changed to KYOU-TV in 1992. Waitt Broadcasting acquired the station in 1999; when Waitt merged with Raycom Media in 2003, KYOU was spun off to a company that later became known as American Spirit Media. Raycom provided services to KYOU and the other American Spirit stations. In 2015, KYOU began airing a nightly 9 p.m. local newscast. An NBC subchannel was introduced in 2018, including a 10 p.m. newscast. Raycom acquired KYOU outright, concurrent with its merger with Gray Television, in 2019. ## History ### Early history A construction permit was granted to the Haynes Communications Company, owned by Carl Haynes, for a new commercial television station in Ottumwa in November 1984. Haynes managed radio stations in Mississippi but admitted to the Ottumwa Courier that his interest in other permits would put building the Ottumwa station, designated KOIA-TV, "'on the back burner'". Before going on air, Haynes sold the permit for his expenses to Ottumwa Television Limited Partnership. This firm was 51 percent owned by Impact Television of Vienna, Virginia, which owned low-power K42AM in Ottumwa. K42AM was especially interested in channel 15 because, in converting to a full-power station on the KOIA-TV construction permit, it would have obtained must-carry status on the local cable system, which was not carrying channel 42. The low-power station was off the air by January 1986, with KOIA-TV planned as its successor. KOIA-TV began broadcasting on June 2, 1986. Even though this market only had one television station—KTVO in Kirksville—KOIA-TV was an independent station. However, the original ownership—a partnership consisting of various minority local investors and Impact Television—was badly undercapitalized. Impact owned KOIA and low-power stations in Jackson, Tennessee; Jonesboro, Arkansas; and Oglesby, Illinois. When Impact cut financial support and stated that it had run out of money, local management immediately moved to cease broadcasting, with KOIA-TV going off the air on August 19; that day, the general manager had turned the transmitter on at 11 a.m. only to be called at 11:05 a.m. and told to take it off the air pending a sale. Ottumwa Television Limited Partnership sold the station in the wake of the shutdown to Public Interest Broadcast Group Inc., an Orlando, Florida-based firm owned by Dean C. Engstrom and Les White, for \$900. Public Interest put KOIA-TV back on the air on June 29, 1987, though it had been testing for two weeks prior to the relaunch. In addition to syndicated programs, movies, sports, and Independent Network News, the station initially offered a local news program covering the Ottumwa area, News Plus, and an interview program, Midday Magazine; studios were set up at the present site, a former McDonald's restaurant. White sold his interest to Engstrom later in the year. In February 1988, KOIA-TV began airing programming from the Fox network. On April 30, 1992, the station's call letters were changed to KYOU-TV. In 1997, KYOU served as a secondary affiliate of UPN. In January 1999, Public Interest Broadcast Group announced it would sell KYOU to Omaha-based Waitt Broadcasting for \$3 million. For most of KOIA-TV/KYOU-TV's history since returning to the air in 1987, the station had been the local broadcaster of Iowa Hawkeyes sports events, even well into its Fox affiliation. Despite a new Fox affiliation agreement, KYOU-TV continued to preempt some Fox programming to show games. However, in January 2001, Fox ordered the station to stop carrying sports telecasts that conflicted with network prime time and sports programming, threatening disaffiliation if it did not comply. This led to angry callers frustrated that some Iowa football and basketball games were not shown, while the station also had to pay a fine to the ESPN Plus syndication service because it could not show games it had agreed to air. KYOU then reached an agreement with Fox that allowed it 15 prime time preemptions. ### LMA with Raycom Media In August 2003, Raycom Media acquired three of Waitt Broadcasting's Fox affiliates in southeastern states for \$25.7 million. On September 6, Waitt announced it would spin off the station to Charlotte, North Carolina-based Ottumwa Media Holdings (co-founded by Thomas B. Henson and Macon Moye), for \$4 million. Ottumwa Media Holdings then entered into a local marketing agreement (LMA) with Raycom, owner of KTVO, to provide KYOU-TV with commercial scheduling, promotions, master control, and production services (including a planned local newscast), though programming and sales remained separate. Even though Raycom then sold KTVO and other stations to Barrington Broadcasting in 2006, Raycom continued to act as the service provider to KYOU. KYOU-TV discontinued regular programming on its analog signal, over UHF channel 15, on June 12, 2009, when full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station's digital signal relocated from its pre-transition UHF channel 14 to channel 15. In 2018, KYOU-TV added two major networks as subchannels. On January 24, its 15.2 subchannel began carrying NBC via a long-term agreement between the network and American Spirit Media. This followed a failed effort by New Moon Communications to convert KUMK-LP—a former TBN translator—to an NBC affiliate in 2011; KUMK-LP's license was cancelled in March 2014. On September 1, the 15.4 subchannel launched The CW Plus, giving the network its first over-the-air outlet in the market. ### Sale to Gray Television On June 25, 2018, Atlanta-based Gray Television announced an agreement with Raycom to merge their respective broadcasting assets in a \$3.6 billion cash-and-stock transaction. As part of the merger, Gray also acquired KYOU and WUPV in Richmond, Virginia, which Raycom exercised its options to purchase outright from American Spirit Media. The sale to Gray was approved by the Federal Communications Commission on December 20 and completed on January 2, 2019. ## News operation In 2015, KYOU-TV launched an in-house 9 p.m. newscast. The newscast was produced in partnership with William Penn University in Oskaloosa; university students were involved in the production of the program, while the news set was in the technology center on campus. After affiliating with NBC and at the insistence of the network, KYOU's NBC subchannel debuted a 10 p.m. evening newscast on July 16, 2018. ## Subchannels The station's signal is multiplexed:	[ "## History", "### Early history", "### LMA with Raycom Media", "### Sale to Gray Television", "## News operation", "## Subchannels" ]	1,660	23,661
1,563,683	The Guardian Legend	1,097,021,566	1988 video game	[ "1988 video games", "Action-adventure games", "Broderbund games", "Compile (company) games", "Irem games", "Nintendo Entertainment System games", "Nintendo Entertainment System-only games", "Nintendo games", "Science fiction video games", "Scrolling shooters", "Single-player video games", "Video game sequels", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games featuring female protagonists" ]	The Guardian Legend is a 1988 hybrid action-adventure/shoot 'em up video game developed by Compile for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). It is the sequel to the 1986 MSX game Guardic, and was published and released in Japan by Irem in 1988, in North America by Broderbund in 1989, and in Europe by Nintendo in 1990. It incorporates gameplay elements from other games such as The Legend of Zelda, Metroid, and 1942. In the game, the player controls a lone protagonist, the Guardian, who is on a quest to destroy a large alien-infested world named Naju before it reaches the planet Earth. The player must deactivate ten safety devices scattered throughout Naju, thus activating the alien world's self-destruct sequence. The player explores Naju in a non-linear fashion and can acquire different weapons during the course of the game. The Guardian Legend received mixed reviews from magazines such as Electronic Gaming Monthly and Nintendo Power. While it has been praised for its impressive graphics, memorable sound, and responsive controls, it has been criticized for its repetitive gameplay and complicated password system. It has since been considered a classic example of a multiple-genre game that set a standard for others such as Sigma Star Saga. ## Gameplay Gameplay varies depending on the player's location within Naju. The player controls the Guardian in humanoid form when exploring the surface of Naju (the Labyrinth) and in spaceship form when investigating Naju's interior (the Dungeon). The Guardian has a life meter that decreases after sustaining damage from enemies; it can be replenished by collecting various items. If the life meter runs out, the Guardian explodes, and the game ends. The player can use a primary rapid-fire weapon with unlimited ammunition as well as various powerful secondary weapons that consume "power chips" with each use. Power chips are also used as currency to purchase upgrades for the Guardian in a handful of shops throughout Naju. Found within the Labyrinth or obtained after defeating a boss, these upgrades include primary weapon improvements, new or upgraded secondary weapons, and round, brightly colored creatures called Landers. Blue and Red Landers, recurring characters in many Compile games, increase the player's maximum life and power chip capacities, respectively. Blue Landers play multiple roles in The Guardian Legend. Some of them are not items but non-player characters that dispense advice to the player or exchange upgrades for power chips; others provide a password that allows the player to resume the game at a later time with their progress retained. These Blue Landers also serve as checkpoints; players can restart their game in these designated rooms after being defeated provided the system has not been turned off. In the action-adventure portion of the game known as the "Labyrinth", the player explores the surface of Naju in humanoid form in a top-down perspective. The player must navigate the Labyrinth and find and infiltrate the corridors and ultimately activate Naju's ten safety devices. The Labyrinth consists of screen-wide passages and rooms individually plotted as X–Y coordinates. A map that details these coordinates in a grid-like form can be viewed on the pause subscreen. While the player can generally walk from one screen to the next, some screens are separated by portals called "warp panels". Warp panels bear a symbol indicative of their surrounding area, and the player can only access these warp panels with keys that match these symbols. Some warp panels lead to rooms containing various clues and story elements while others are gateways to shops, password rooms, and corridors. Keys allow players to access different portions of the Labyrinth, which they can then explore in a non-linear fashion. In the shoot 'em up portion of the game known as the "Dungeon", the player battles through Naju's interior in spaceship form. The Dungeon consists of a series of enemy-filled corridors which are found during exploration of the Labyrinth. The player's objective in the Dungeon is to progress through each corridor and defeat the boss at the end. Upon completion, the player destroys the corridor and is returned to the Labyrinth, where a power-up (and sometimes a warp panel key) is collected as a reward. While some corridors can be accessed freely, others can only be entered by performing a particular action in the corridor room. Some rooms in the Labyrinth contain clues that indicate how to unseal these corridors. Ten of the corridors in the game serve as the safety devices which must be deactivated to win the game. ## Plot In The Guardian Legend, the player controls the gynoid guardian of Earth, a "highly sophisticated aerobot transformer". The player's mission is to infiltrate Naju, a large planet-like object which aliens sent hurtling towards the Earth. While inside, the player must activate ten safety devices in order to initialize Naju's self-destruct mechanism and destroy the alien world before it reaches Earth. Five hostile tribes of alien lifeforms are vying for control of territories within Naju, and the player needs to fight through them to successfully activate the switches and escape. The story is advanced through a series of messages left by one or more unidentified predecessor(s) who unsuccessfully attempted to engage the self-destruct mechanism of Naju before the Guardian arrived. Left by the sole remaining survivor of the attack on Naju, the first message serves as an introduction; later messages give hints that help the player open locked corridors. ## Development The Guardian Legend was developed for the Nintendo Famicom by Compile as the sequel to the 1986 MSX game Guardic, and it was released as Guardic Gaiden in Japan by Irem on February 5, 1988 (1988-02-05). The director was Masamitsu "Moo" Niitani, Compile's president and the creator of the Puyo Puyo series. The development team featured many of the staff who helped create Guardic as well as Zanac and Blazing Lazers. The box art for Guardic Gaiden was created by Japanese science-fiction illustrator Naoyuki Kato and depicts the Guardian as a female cyborg. Though it is the sequel to a MSX game that was developed and published by Compile and makes use of the company's Lander characters, The Guardian Legend is the intellectual property of Irem. The Guardian Legend was released for the NES in North America by Broderbund in April 1989; it was published in Europe by Nintendo in 1990. Nintendo Power previewed The Guardian Legend in January 1989, where they discussed the game's mechanics, graphics, and shoot 'em up sequences. They promised a full review in the following issue, but it was postponed due to a delay of the game's release. The Guardian Legend was exhibited at the 1989 Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Nevada before its release; it was one of the prime attractions at the Broderbund booth along with the U-Force controller. In 1990, remaining inventory of The Guardian Legend was among the assets Broderbund sold to THQ along with the rest of its New Ventures Division. ## Reception The game has received both praise and criticism for its multiple-genre format. It was reviewed by four people in a 1989 issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly shortly after the release of the game in 1989. Steve Harris said that the game does more than most shoot 'em ups and that it's a "good follow-up for Zanac fans". He added that the multiple-genre format "helps elevate the whole title to a much higher level". Ed Semrad called the game a Blaster Master clone and "only average at best", and he echoed Harris' opinion that those who enjoyed Zanac would enjoy The Guardian Legend. Donn Nauert said that the game is repetitive and offers little challenge and that it would have been better as a pure shoot 'em up; he pointed to a special password ("TGL") in which players can enter to bypass all of the Labyrinth portions. Jim Allee also compared the game to Zanac and repeated what Nauert said about the lack of difficulty except in the boss battles; he overall praised the game for successfully bringing together two distinct themes. The Guardian Legend received accolades from the editors of Nintendo Power. The game appeared in the magazine's September 1989 issue, where it debuted at \#9 on its "Top 30" NES Chart. The editors praised the game, and described the protagonist as "the ultimate transforming hero". The game would remain on the chart for nearly a year. In recognition of its achievements, the magazine's editors and staff nominated the game for several awards in its first-ever Nintendo Power Awards for 1989—among them, "Best Graphics & Sound", "Best Play Control", and "Best Overall"—but the game did not win the top award in any of these categories. Nintendo Power published a partial walkthrough for the game in the following November 1989 issue. The game received moderate praise in some German gaming magazines after its European release. In Video Games magazine the reviewer praised the game as being a good action-adventure game in the same style of The Legend of Zelda; he notes that the need to find hidden items and areas and the top-down perspective closely resemble the Nintendo classic. He appreciated the variety and extras in the game, the various strategies needed to fight bosses, its difficulty, and the well-done graphics. The reviewers from Power Play compared The Guardian Legend to The Legend of Zelda and Life Force. They praised the diverse gameplay and weapons, difficulty, and the mixture of action-adventure and shoot 'em up elements. They criticized the game for lacking battery-backed RAM to save player progress—one of the reviewers said that "the wretched fumbling with the password had long ended"—as well as its lack of challenging puzzles and a high difficulty level in some of the shoot 'em up sections. The game continued to receive praise from major game reviewers more than a decade since its release. In 2005, Lucas Thomas of the Evansville Courier & Press favorably compared The Guardian Legend with the NES title The Legend of Zelda and the Game Boy Advance title Sigma Star Saga; he emphasized Compile's successful fusion of the action-adventure, shoot 'em up and action role-playing game genres. Later, in a 2008 IGN article, Thomas listed the game at \#2 on his "Top 10 Unreleased NES Hits" list and contended that The Guardian Legend took the concept of the multiple-genre game to a farther extent than Blaster Master. In October 2009, IGN ranked The Guardian Legend as \#87 on its "Top 100 NES Games of All Time" list and deemed it "one of the most influential games in the history of the gaming industry". In March 2008, Game Informer editors referred to the game as "the ultimate genre bender" and likened it to a combination of the NES games The Legend of Zelda, Metroid, and 1942. While they acclaimed the game for its "exciting and challenging" shooter stages, they criticized it for its complex world map and "outrageous" password system. In a Gamasutra interview, Retro Game Challenge designer Mike Engler said that "The Guardian Legend is one of the best games ever released". The graphics and sound of The Guardian Legend have been influential. Robert Dewar and Matthew Smosna of the open computing magazine Open Systems Today cited the game as an example of how graphics co-processors such as those in the NES can compensate for inadequate CPU speed in graphics-intensive computer applications. They noted that the fast-paced action seen in the game could not be replicated on a personal computer at that time (1992) without an expensive graphics board and regardless of CPU speed. The music of the game, composed by Masatomo Miyamoto and Takeshi Santo, has remained popular years after the game's release. Samantha Amjadali of the Melbourne-based newspaper The Herald Sun reported that a remixed tune from the game was rated as the second most popular track on the website OverClocked ReMix in March 2002. Video game cover band The Advantage's 2006 album Elf Titled features a cover version of music from one of the game's dungeon levels.	[ "## Gameplay", "## Plot", "## Development", "## Reception" ]	2,499	11,907
12,457,546	Interstate 84 in Utah	1,137,278,674	Section of Interstate Highway in Utah, United States	[ "Central Overland Route", "Interstate 84 (Oregon–Utah)", "Interstate Highways in Utah", "Transportation in Box Elder County, Utah", "Transportation in Davis County, Utah", "Transportation in Morgan County, Utah", "Transportation in Summit County, Utah", "Transportation in Weber County, Utah", "U.S. Route 30S" ]	Interstate 84 (I-84) is a part of the Interstate Highway System that links Portland, Oregon, to I-80 near Echo, Utah. The 117.38-mile-long (188.90 km) segment in the US state of Utah is the shortest of any of the three states the western I-84 passes through and contains the eastern terminus of the highway. I-84 enters Box Elder County near Snowville before becoming concurrent with I-15 in Tremonton. The concurrent highways travel south through Brigham City and Ogden and separate near Ogden-Hinckley Airport. Turing east along the Davis County border, I-84 intersects US Route 89 (US-89) and enters Weber Canyon as well as Morgan County. While in Morgan County, I-84 passes the Devil's Gate-Weber Hydroelectric Power Plant and Devil's Slide rock formation. Past Morgan, the highway crosses into Summit County, past the Thousand Mile Tree before reaching its eastern terminus at I-80 near Echo. Construction of the controlled-access highway was scheduled in late 1957 under the designations Interstate 82S (I-82S) and Interstate 80N (I-80N). The I-82S designation was only applied on paper for about a year, but the I-80N designation was the highway's official designation until 1977 when it was renumbered I-84 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). By 1986, construction of the freeway had been completed across the three states. Average traffic in 2012, along the non-concurrent parts of I-84, ranged from as few as 6,655 vehicles traveling along I-84 at the interchange with State Route 86 (SR-86) in Henefer, and as many as 18,945 vehicles used the highway at the SR-26 interchange in Riverdale. ## Route description Out of the three states that the western portion of I-84 passes through, the 117.38-mile-long (188.90 km) segment in Utah is the shortest. By comparison, the longest stretch of western I-84 through a single state is the 375.17-mile-long (603.78 km) segment in Oregon. I-84 also has a noncontiguous eastern segment that passes through Pennsylvania, New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts: all four of these segments are shorter than the Utah segment. Every year, the Utah Department of Transportation (UDOT) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume. This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic (AADT), a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year. In 2012, UDOT calculated that as few as 6,655 vehicles traveled I-84 at the interchange with SR-86 in Henefer, and as many as 18,945 vehicles used the highway at the SR-26 interchange in Riverdale. Between 27 and 57 percent of the traffic recorded consisted of trucks. These counts are of the portion of the freeway in Utah and are not reflective of the entire Interstate or of its concurrency with I-15. As part of the Interstate Highway System, the entire route is listed on the National Highway System, a system of roads that are important to the nation's economy, defense, and mobility. ### Western segment Crossing the Idaho–Utah state line, I-84 enters Box Elder County and the Curlew Valley near farmland that utilizes center-pivot irrigation before intersecting SR-30 at a diamond interchange. The town of Snowville is crossed before passing to the north of the Hansel Mountains and the North Promontory Mountains. The town of Howell, accessible from an interchange with SR-83, lays to the southeast of Blue Creek Reservoir in the Blue Creek Valley. Access to Golden Spike National Historical Park is provided by SR-83 south of Howell. The Blue Spring Hills form the southern border of Howell as I-84 continues southeast. Additional center irrigation farmland is passed before giving way to more traditional farmland outside of the city of Tremonton, where a trumpet interchange marks where I-15 turns north towards Malad City and Pocatello. Heading southeast from this interchange, I-84 and I-15 are concurrent for just over 38 miles (61 km). ### Concurrency with I-15 Concurrent highways I-15/I-84 continue south, parallel to rail belonging to the Union Pacific Railroad past the Wellsville Mountain Wilderness, to an interchange at 1100 West in Brigham City, also known as US-91, which, once in Brigham City, becomes concurrent with US-89 and the two highways travel northeast from Brigham City into Box Elder Canyon toward Logan in the heart of the Cache Valley. US-89 closely parallels I-15/I-84 east, as the highways pass Willard Bay, Willard Bay State Park, and Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge before crossing into Weber County. Upon entering Weber County, the rail line that the highway has paralleled since Tremonton splits off eastward near Defense Depot Ogden, as the concurrent highways continue south past Farr West and Marriott-Slaterville before a Southern Pacific Railroad rail line, which traverses the Great Salt Lake on a causeway, crosses under the freeway. The city of Ogden is bypassed by the Interstates, with US-89 serving downtown. US-89 is accessible via interchanges with SR-39, SR-79, and SR-104 in addition to I-84 further southeast. I-84 splits from I-15 at the south end of Ogden-Hinckley Airport, with I-15 continuing south toward Salt Lake City and Provo. ### Eastern segment Splitting from I-15 near Roy, I-84 passes between Hill Air Force Base, which is to the south of the highway, and Washington Terrace before clipping the extreme northern portions of Davis County. While in Davis County, I-84 intersects 475 East, also known as the Adams Avenue Parkway, before coming to a hybrid partial cloverleaf/half diamond interchange with US-89 along the Davis–Weber county line. I-84 follows the Weber River into Weber Canyon, Morgan County, and Wasatch–Cache National Forest. Once in the canyon, the carriageways of the highway split to accommodate the Devil's Gate-Weber Hydroelectric Power Plant. Following the river south, I-84 exits the forest and enters the county seat of Morgan. Leaving the city the highway turns back east, passing Devil's Slide, an unusual rock formation just off the freeway. Upon entering Summit County, I-84 passes Thousand Mile Tree, planted by Union Pacific Railroad workers to mark the construction of 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of rail from its origin in Omaha, Nebraska. The tree was said to be the only pine tree between Omaha and Salt Lake City. Another tree was planted as the original tree had died in 1900 and was removed in 1926 to during the conversion from single-track to double-track through the canyon. Past the tree, the freeway passes through the town of Henefer before terminating at a directional T interchange with I-80 just south of the census-designated place of Echo. Immediately south of the interchange is Echo Reservoir and Echo Dam. ## History ### Earlier roads Most of the original routing of what is now I-84 existed as early as 1923; however, the portion of now I-84 into Idaho was not yet constructed. In 1926, much of the route was signed as US-30S, from the now eastern terminus at I-80 (US-530 then), northwest into Ogden. Between Ogden and Brigham City, the highway was to be concurrent with US-91, then US-30S split off northwest to the Idaho border. The entire western branch of US-30S was an unimproved road; however, the concurrency into Ogden was paved. The remainder of the route to its now terminus was mostly graded with a few improved sections, and, by 1937, the entire route was paved. ### Current road The first Utah state route to have the number 84 is what is now known as SR-126. SR-126 was originally numbered SR-84 until the 1977 Utah state route renumbering. Previously, the freeway's legislative designation was SR-3. Like the other two main Interstate Highways in Utah, I-15 (Veterans Memorial Highway) and I-80 (Purple Heart Trail), I-84 has also been given a special name of "Vietnam Veterans Memorial Highway". House Bill HB275, sponsored by Utah Representative Justin Fawson, North Ogden, authorizing the name designation was signed into law by Utah Governor Gary Herbert on March 30, 2015. The highway loosely follows the path of the first transcontinental railroad. The original routing of US-30S had the highway passing into Idaho west of Black Pine Peak; however, the new I-84 was constructed to the east. The original roadways are now numbered SR-30, SR-42 and Idaho State Highway 2847. Passage of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 formed the Interstate Highway System; however, only the western segment of now I-84 was approved at this time, and a designation of I-82S was assigned to a then unconstructed controlled-access highway across Box Elder County in 1957. The eastern segment of the highway was added later in 1957, and the route was numbered I-80N by 1958. By 1968, portions of the western half of the freeway had been completed, along with the segment between Tremonton and Brigham City. A portion of the freeway was completed around Morgan as well. By 1971, most of the western portions of the freeway had been constructed with two sections remaining that had at-grade intersections. Along the concurrency, there were gaps between Brigham City and Pleasant View and one small gap near the Devil's Slide. The I-80N designation was changed to I-84 in 1977 by the AASHTO, over objections from the Washington State Department of Transportation and the Idaho Transportation Department, and with the support of UDOT and the Oregon Department of Transportation. By 1978, construction of I-84 was complete across most of the three states. In September 1986, the final section of the highway was opened on the 11 miles (18 km) from Tremonton to Blue Creek Summit, following three years of construction that cost \$21 million (equivalent to \$ in ). In 1994, I-84 was planned to be used to transport low-level radioactive waste from Idaho National Laboratory to the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in Carlsbad, New Mexico, via Wyoming. This did not start until 1999 however due to the delay in the opening of the New Mexican plant. A \$20-million (equivalent to \$ in ) reconstruction of the US-89 interchange at the mouth of Weber Canyon was financed partly by the funding obtained by the state in preparation for the 2002 Winter Olympics in 1998 and was scheduled to begin in 2000. Reconstruction of a 10-mile-long (16 km) segment of I-84 between Mountain Green and Morgan was done between 2004 and 2005 at a cost of \$19 million (equivalent to \$ in ). One of the sub-contractors on the job was found guilty of lying about sub-par work done on installation of roadside impact absorbers along this stretch. ## Exit list ## See also	[ "## Route description", "### Western segment", "### Concurrency with I-15", "### Eastern segment", "## History", "### Earlier roads", "### Current road", "## Exit list", "## See also" ]	2,399	37,004
20,906,059	Bisporella citrina	1,063,129,008	Species of fungus	[ "Fungi described in 1789", "Fungi of Africa", "Fungi of Asia", "Fungi of Australia", "Fungi of Central America", "Fungi of Europe", "Fungi of North America", "Fungi of South America", "Helotiaceae", "Inedible fungi", "Taxa named by August Batsch" ]	Bisporella citrina, commonly known as yellow fairy cups or lemon discos, is a species of fungus in the family Helotiaceae. The fungus produces tiny yellow cups up to 3 mm (1⁄8 in) in diameter, often without stalks, that fruit in groups or dense clusters on decaying deciduous wood that has lost its bark. The widely distributed species is found in North Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, and Central and South America. Found in late summer and autumn, the fungus is fairly common, but is easily overlooked owing to its small size. There are several similar species that can in most cases be distinguished by differences in color, morphology, or substrate. Microscopically, B. citrina can be distinguished from these lookalikes by its elliptical spores, which have a central partition, and an oil drop at each end. ## Taxonomy The species was originally described from Europe in 1789 by German naturalist August Batsch as Peziza citrina. Elias Fries sanctioned this name in the second volume of his Systema Mycologicum (1821). Jean Louis Émile Boudier transferred the species to Calycella in 1885. Another historical name for the fungus was derived from Johann Hedwig's 1789 Octospora citrina. Fries referred Hedwig's name to Helotium in 1846, and for several decades the fungus was known as either Calycella citrina or Helotium citrinum, depending on which generic concept an author accepted. In a 1974 publication, Richard Korf noted that the generic name Helotium competes with a basidiomycete genus of the same name, and under the rules of botanical nomenclature, the ascomycete version of the name had to be abandoned because the basidiomycete version was sanctioned by Fries in 1832, and thus had priority. He also pointed out that the generic name Calycella could not be used, as it is a synonym of an older name Calycina, which contains species that bear no taxonomic relationship to Helotium citrinum. Accordingly, he formally transferred Helotium citrinum to Bisporella, to produce the new combination Bisporella citrina. Korf further noted that since Bisporella was published by Pier Andrea Saccardo in 1884, it had priority over Boudier's 1885 Calycella. Calycella has since been folded into Bisporella. The specific epithet citrina is derived from the Latin citrin, meaning "lemon yellow". Common names for the fungus include "yellow fairy cups", and the British Mycological Society-approved "lemon disco"; the name "disco" is short for Discomycetes, an older term for ascomycete species with disc- and cup-shaped fruit bodies. Samuel Frederick Gray called it the "lemon funnel-stool" in his 1821 work A Natural Arrangement of British Plants. ## Description Fruit bodies begin as spherical, closed globules, before expanding. The smooth, bright yellow fruit bodies are small—typically less than 3 mm (1⁄8 in) in diameter and up to 1 mm (1⁄32 in) high—and shallowly cup- or disc-shaped. The inner surface is smooth, and bright yellow, while the outer surface is a paler yellow. In mass, the spore color is white. The stalk is broad, pale yellow in color, and short to nearly absent; when present it is rarely more than 1 mm. The fruit bodies may be so numerous that their shapes are distorted by overcrowding. Fruit bodies that have dried are wrinkled and have a dull orangish-brown color. The fruit bodies have no distinctive taste nor odor, and are not edible. The smooth spores are roughly elliptical, measuring 8–14 by 3–5 μm; in maturity they have one cross-wall, and oil drops at either end. The asci (spore-bearing cells) measure 100–135 by 7–10 μm. The paraphyses are shaped liked narrow cylinders with diameters up to 1.5 μm, and have tips that are rounded or somewhat club-shaped. β-Carotene is the predominant pigment responsible for the yellow color of the fruit body. ### Similar species There are several small yellow discomycetes with which Bisporella citrina might be confused. Lookalikes include the acorn cup (Hymenoscyphus fructigenus) that grows on fallen acorns and hickory nuts. The green stain fungus (Chlorociboria aeruginascens) forms blue-green cups, and stains its wood substrate bluish-green. Lachnellula arida is up to 6 mm (1⁄4 in) in diameter, and has hairs around the edge of its cup, and its outer surface is covered with short brown hairs. Fruit bodies of Bisporella sulfurina have a coloration similar to B. citrina, but they are smaller and grow in clusters on old, blackened, fungal stroma on wood. Other lookalikes include Hymenoscyphus species, including H. calyculus, but these can be distinguished by their distinct stalks, and growth on smaller woody debris like sticks and twigs, rather than logs and stumps. Many other small, yellow discos have fringed or hairy margins to the discs, like Anthracobia melaloma; this latter species grows on or near moss, rather than wood. Chlorosplenium chlora is another small cup fungus resembling B. citrina. It has a bright yellow outer surface, but the hymenium becomes develops greenish tints in age. The common jellyspot fungus (Dacrymyces stillatus) is usually smaller but can approach the dimensions of B. citrina. Similar in color, its fruit bodies are usually blob-like rather than cup shaped. Another cup fungus that grows on dead beech wood is Neobulgaria pura, but its fruit bodies are larger, ranging from 2–4 cm (3⁄4–1+5⁄8 in). Also similar are Bisporella pallescens, Dacrymyces capitatus, Guepiniopsis alpina, and members of Octospora. ## Ecology and distribution Bisporella citrina is saprobic, and so obtains nutrients by breaking down complex organic molecules into simpler ones. Fruit bodies are typically encountered growing in dense clusters on the surface of rotten wood (especially deciduous trees), particularly beech. They have also been found growing on the fruit bodies of the polypore fungus Daedaleopsis confragosa. In a study of the succession of fungi associated with the decay of a 120-year-old healthy beech tree uprooted by strong winds, B. citrina was found on the wood about three years after the fall. It appeared after early colonizers such as Quaternaria quaternata, Tubercularia vulgaris (the anamorph form of Nectria cinnabarina), and Bulgaria inquinans, and was followed by Stereum hirsutum and Nectria cinnabarina. The widespread fungus is known from North Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, Central and South America, Australia, and New Zealand. It is one of the most common of the small discomycetes.	[ "## Taxonomy", "## Description", "### Similar species", "## Ecology and distribution" ]	1,562	14,990
70,857,776	Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life	1,147,253,835	1988 book by Henry Giroux about pedagogy	[ "1988 non-fiction books", "Critical pedagogy", "Criticism of the United States", "Routledge books", "University of Minnesota Press books" ]	Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life is a nonfiction book about critical pedagogy by Henry Giroux. In the book Giroux analyzes and critiques various concepts of pedagogy, arguing that schools should not be subservient to the existing power structure but should instead be sites of struggle and exist in solidarity with the oppressed. He adopts the framework of citizenship education, defining citizenship as the struggle for empowerment. The book was originally published in 1988 under the title Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life: Critical Pedagogy in the Modern Age by University of Minnesota Press. An updated edition with a new preface was published in 2005 by Paradigm Publishers, with the title Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life: Democracy's Promise and Education's Challenge. Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life received mixed reviews. While reviewers generally praised Giroux's analysis of education and democracy, some reviewers criticized the lack of analysis of Giroux's own arguments in the book, as well as the lack of discussion of how the arguments could be implemented. ## Background Before writing Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life, Henry Giroux authored and co-authored several other books related to what he characterized as an ongoing crisis in education. As a radical democrat, Giroux argued against the pursuit of apoliticism in public education, extending the ideas of John Dewey and similar thinkers who presented schools as core institutions of democracy. ## Publication Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life was first published in 1988 by University of Minnesota Press, as a 257-page book with the full title Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life: Critical Pedagogy in the Modern Age. This edition was republished in 1989 by Routledge, and was translated to the Spanish language as La escuela y la lucha por la ciudadanía for publication by Siglo XXI Editores [es] in 1993. An updated edition of the book, with a new preface, was published by Paradigm Publishers in 2005. The new edition was retitled Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life: Democracy's Promise and Education's Challenge. ## Synopsis Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life contains Henry Giroux's critical analysis of various political conceptions of pedagogy. Giroux criticizes positions across the political spectrum including the conservative and New Right perspectives on education along with various liberal and leftist views. He adopts the concept of citizenship education from conservative pedagogy, rejecting what he describes as the tendency of leftist theorists to "downplay citizenship as an emancipatory category", but also rejects uncritical patriotism and its association with citizenship. Instead, he defines citizenship as the ongoing pursuit of empowerment. In connection with this definition, he states that the goal of education is "elimination of those ideological and material conditions that promote various forms of subjugation, segregation, brutality, and marginalization." While distinguishing his argument from cultural relativism, which he describes as not sufficiently critical, Giroux argues that schools should be sites of struggle into which identity, social change, and empowerment are incorporated. He criticizes the existing structure of education in the United States as subservient to the broader structure of power, stating that "notions of struggle, debate, community, and democracy have become subversive categories" as a result of their subservience to the status quo structure of society. He additionally argues that education should be liberatory and schools should maintain active solidarity with oppressed groups. Within these broad themes, Giroux spends the second chapter of Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life discussing ethics, morals, and values in education. He argues that progressive and radical educators should engage with ethical issues, but should not simply dictate what is right and wrong, instead suggesting a focus on critical analysis of whether or not certain actions are politically and morally responsible. In another chapter, Giroux analyzes teacher education, which he argues should focus on "Teacher Education as Cultural Politics" and critical pedagogy rather than simply rules and regulations. ### Updated edition preface In the preface to the 2005 updated edition of the book, Giroux criticizes the presidential administration of George W. Bush, stating that the administration's focus on job training and standardization has further damaged the education system and brought about a militaristic form of education. He asserts that critical pedagogy remains a solution to the problems of education and encourages educators to consider themselves activists participating in a political process with the goal of emancipation and better public life for all. ## Reception ### First edition Publishers Weekly reviewed Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life positively, describing it as a "perceptive, piquant proposal for educational reform". The review noted the influence of "Marxism, feminism, liberation theology and the pedagogical theories of Paulo Freire" and similar figures. In The Personalist Forum, A. J. Mandt gave the book a mixed review, broadly praising Giroux's analysis of core problems with democracy and education but criticizing the lack of deep exploration of the book's central concepts. Mandt noted that Giroux analyzed educational philosophies with which he disagreed in more detail than his own main themes, and stated that at certain points in his argument "it seems like Giroux regards the explicit politicization of schools as an end in itself", which "shows no regard [...] for the ways in which certain forms of knowledge" such as science seek to be objective. Mandt concluded that despite its "uncritical, 'romantic' view of struggles against social, cultural, and political oppression", Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life was an important book which surpassed others "that appear completely ignorant of these central problems of democracy". Alice Crawford analyzed the arguments of Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life in a negative review in Social Epistemology, finding that "while initially appearing as a critique of the 'civic humanist' approach to pedagogical theory, [the book] in fact reproduces the civic humanist position in a number of essential respects". Drawing on William Fusfield's critique of civic humanist pedagogy, Crawford described three "tensions" in Giroux's argument: "the tension between explicitly disavowing reproduction as an appropriate model of pedagogy while implicitly embracing it in the form of indoctrination [...] between claiming to reject absolute values while positing absolutes in the guise of a 'provisional morality' [...] between the Utopian possibilities of the project in theory and the rather less optimistic possibility of its implementation". She concluded that the book leaves the reader with "a call to arms but nothing to arm ourselves with". ### Second edition After the publication of the second edition of Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life in 2005, Jonathan Segol reviewed the book positively in the Canadian Journal of Education. Noting that the book was originally published in the 1980s when "those in critical pedagogy circles most likely found much in the rightward drift of American politics that drove them to become more – well, critical", Segol stated that "things have only gotten worse in those respects", agreeing with Giroux's assertion in the new preface that the book was "more useful" in 2005. Segol praised Giroux's fusion of critical pedagogy and cultural studies, and concluded that "Giroux's take on education is making more sense than ever". In Teachers College Record, Aaron Cooley wrote a mixed review of the book. While praising Giroux's "passionate writing style" of "poetic polemics" along with much of the book's content "that is essentially irrefutable for progressive supporters of public education", Cooley stated that he was "troubled by the ideological and intellectual insularity of sections of [Giroux's] narrative". While noting that "the consistent message that comes through is that public schools need to be catalysts for social change that will make society fairer and more just", Cooley criticized the lack of "substantive discussion about how to overcome the opposing forces that strongly object to his future for public schools and teachers" in the book. He additionally pointed out that "the democratic will of the people has not sought to make schools into the engines of social change [Giroux] suggests", questioning how the changes suggested in Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life could be made in a democratic manner. A negative review in Teaching Sociology by Thomas Brignall found Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life "best suited for graduate school classes", noting that its "language density and structure [...] occasionally make reading it an arduous task" but nevertheless finding it potentially useful for teachers, students, and student organizers. Turning to content, Brignall praised the "basic premise" of the book but found that it was "not without flaws". He disliked the book's focus on criticism of the status quo rather than the presentation of solutions, and stated that the text of the updated edition was largely the same as the original edition. With regard to support for critical pedagogy, Brignall found the book "a diminutive attempt" because of its lack of appeal to "those with neutral, uninformed, or oppositional perspectives on education", and described some of Giroux's arguments as simple or even circular in nature.	[ "## Background", "## Publication", "## Synopsis", "### Updated edition preface", "## Reception", "### First edition", "### Second edition" ]	1,912	25,304
70,367,629	Carolina (Taylor Swift song)	1,169,509,188	2022 promotional single by Taylor Swift	[ "2020s ballads", "2022 songs", "Appalachian folk songs", "Folk ballads", "Music based on novels", "Song recordings produced by Aaron Dessner", "Song recordings produced by Taylor Swift", "Songs about North Carolina", "Songs about nature", "Songs written by Taylor Swift", "Taylor Swift songs" ]	"Carolina" is a song written and recorded by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift for the soundtrack of 2022 murder mystery film Where the Crawdads Sing. Released via Republic Records on June 24, 2022, the song is titled after the Carolinas region in the United States, and sung from the perspective of the film's protagonist, Kya. "Carolina" was met with strong acclaim from music critics, most of whom felt the song's ambience matched the film's atmosphere, and is reminiscent of Swift's 2020 indie folk albums, Folklore and Evermore. Reviews commended the song for Swift's vocals, songwriting style, and the overall "haunting" mood. Produced by Swift and Aaron Dessner, "Carolina" is a slow-paced, downtempo, Americana ballad, particularly in an Appalachian folk style, with country and bluegrass inflections. It is driven by acoustic instruments of the early 1950s, such as fiddle, mandolin, and acoustic guitars. "Carolina" charted in Australia, Canada, Hungary, Ireland, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, the United States and Vietnam. It won a MTV Movie & TV Award, and was nominated for a Critics' Choice Award, a Golden Globe Award, a Grammy Award, and a Satellite Award amongst other accolades. ## Background and release Where the Crawdads Sing is an American mystery thriller drama film starring Daisy Edgar-Jones in the lead role, directed by Olivia Newman and produced by Reese Witherspoon. It is a film adaptation of the 2018 novel of the same name written by American author Delia Owens. The story is set in the 1950s, revolving around an abandoned girl named Kya, who grew up in a marsh in North Carolina and becomes the prime suspect in the murder of a man who once romantically pursued her. The first trailer for the film was released on March 22, 2022, and featured "Carolina" being played in the background. The trailer also revealed that the song was written and performed by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift. Another snippet of the song was revealed through a longer trailer of the film on May 22, 2022. The release date of the song was teased by the film's official Instagram account, when they made a series of posts on June 22 with captions that had capitalized letters, spelling out "Carolina This Thursday" together. The next day, the song's release date was confirmed as June 24, 2022. A lyric video on YouTube accompanied the release. ## Writing "Carolina" was written solely by Swift and produced by her and Aaron Dessner, with whom she collaborated on her 2020 studio albums Folklore and Evermore. She wrote the song well over a year and a half before the release date of June 24, 2022. According to Witherspoon, Swift wrote the song while working on Folklore but did not reveal that she had written "Carolina" until after she finished the song. Swift's eagerness to contribute to the film grew after she was aware that Witherspoon would be producing. Swift stated on Instagram that she enjoyed the original novel by Owens, and as soon as she heard a film adaptation was "in the works", she wanted to be a part of its soundtrack. She said she aimed to create a "haunting and ethereal" song that captured the novel's "mesmerizing" story. "Carolina" plays over the ending credits, and Newman opined that it "reflects the tone of the story's ending". ## Lyrics and composition "Carolina" has been described as an Americana and Appalachian folk song, with country folk and bluegrass elements, on minor chords. It was recorded in one take and only features instruments available before 1953—around the time when Where the Crawdads Sing takes place—acoustic instruments such as mandolin, fiddle, gentlely strummed acoustic guitar and "sweeping" strings. The song begins with the sparse strums of the guitar and eventually expands into a "misty atmosphere" incorporating strings and banjo. The lyrics deal with how Kya, the narrator in the song and the lead character of the film, "roams the lonesome marshes, despairs over those who have left her and hints at the many secrets she's keeping". The lyrics are heavy with naturalistic imagery, such as creeks, backroads, mist, clouds, mud, pines, beaches and forests, inspired by the story's setting in coastal North Carolina. Swift's vocals in the song have been characterized as a "breathy" lower register. ## Critical reception "Carolina" received acclaim from music critics. People journalist Jack Irvin described "Carolina" as a downtempo, "haunting ballad" with lyrics about "sneakily moving through various locations without being seen". Variety critic Chris Willman felt the song is stylistically reminiscent of the music in Folklore and Evermore "at their most folky and subdued." Emily Zemler and Kat Bouza reviewed the song for Rolling Stone, noting that the "haunting" song evokes the film's backwoods setting and the "elegiac" tone of Appalachian folk ballads and praising Swift's "otherworldly and siren-like" vocals. Will Lavin of NME described Swift's vocals as "eerie". In a glowing review for Clash, Robin Murray called the song a timeless "grand achievement" and the greatest example of Swift's ability to "suggest inner movement, the passing of time and emotion in only a few words." He praised the "innate" instrumentation, Swift's "minimalist yet potent" vocals, and the lyrics "somehow distilling Delia Owens' work—in all its breadth and depth—into a song of real brevity and power." Colliders Ryan O'Rourke called "Carolina" a "chilling" tune with a haunting melody and is "almost a loose re-telling of the events of the book." Emily Zemler of Observer said the song "perfectly captures the bittersweet conclusion" of Where the Crawdads Sing, complementing the film's "palpable mood". ABC News journalist Peter Travers wrote Swift captures "the haunting, folklore quality" of the film's story in the song, via her music and lyrics that suggest an "abiding mystery". British Vogue journalist Radhika Seth described the song as a "sweeping earworm" with a "mournful, intensely atmospheric" composition tonally reminiscent of Evermore. Sam Sodomsky of Pitchfork said "Carolina" is an understated song, one that stems from the "darker corners" of Folklore and Evermore, abandoning the "language and texture of pop music in favor of old American folk songs". He further complemented the synergy between Swift's musical approaches in the song: the "ghost story-writing" of the lyrics, and the deep and slow vocals. Lindsay Zoladz of The New York Times named "Carolina" one of the "spookiest" tracks in Swift's discography and "the closest [Swift has] come to writing an outright murder ballad" other than "No Body, No Crime" (2020). Jonathan Broxton of Movie Music UK also described the song as a murder ballad; "not one of her usual chart topping efforts—instead this is a mournful, soulful piece". He praised "Carolina" as "a superb piece of traditional Americana, stripped down and carried by little more than a guitar, a banjo, and Swift’s unexpectedly dreamy voice, and has poetic lyrics that directly reference elements of the story." In a review of the film for Consequence, Liz Shannon Miller wrote "Carolina" is a "perfect match for the content of the film as well as its mood." Pat Padua of The Washington Post said the song, making use of ominous lyrics, "bridges pop music with Americana". ## Accolades At the 65th Annual Grammy Awards (2023), "Carolina" was contended for Best Song Written for Visual Media—Swift's fourth nomination in the category, following "Safe & Sound" (2011) from The Hunger Games: Songs from District 12 and Beyond, "I Don't Wanna Live Forever" (2017) from Fifty Shades Darker, and "Beautiful Ghosts" (2019) from Cats, the first of which won. Swift also garnered her career's first-ever Critics' Choice Movie Award nomination with the song. The song was shortlisted for Best Original Song at the 95th Academy Awards. ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from Tidal. - Taylor Swift – vocals, songwriting, production - Aaron Dessner – production, engineering, acoustic guitar, banjo, bass guitar, mandolin, piano, synthesizer - Reid Jenkins – fiddle - Randy Merrill – mastering - Jonathan Low – mixing, engineering ## Charts ## Release history	[ "## Background and release", "## Writing", "## Lyrics and composition", "## Critical reception", "## Accolades", "## Credits and personnel", "## Charts", "## Release history" ]	1,867	37,731
1,771,585	Swiss Cottage Library	1,173,797,930	Library in Camden, London	[ "Basil Spence buildings", "Grade II listed buildings in the London Borough of Camden", "Grade II listed library buildings", "Libraries in the London Borough of Camden", "Library buildings completed in 1964", "Public libraries in London", "Swiss Cottage" ]	Swiss Cottage Library is a public library in the London Borough of Camden, housed in an architectural landmark building on Avenue Road designed by Sir Basil Spence of Spence, Bonnington & Collins and built between 1963 and 1964. The library replaced the former Metropolitan Borough of Hampstead's main library, Finchley Road Library, which was over capacity and damaged as a result of the Blitz. The new library had originally been part of a larger civic project designed to regenerate the wider Swiss Cottage area, but following reorganisations in local government only it and the adjoining swimming baths were built. The building shows a more open, fluid architectural style compared to other comtemporary libraries, with distinct fins revolving around the exterior. Opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 10 November 1964, the library has been Grade II listed since 1997, and was refurbished in the early 2000s as part of the Swiss Cottage Centre redevelopment. ## Background The Metropolitan Borough of Hampstead's first library, Kilburn Library, opened in 1894 and was soon succeeded by Finchley Road Library in 1897. Then known as Hampstead Central Library, this became Camden Arts Centre in 1965. By the 1950s, the Central Library was in need of expansion: it had served the same role since establishment; it had been refurbished, only to suffer severe damage during the Blitz in World War II, leaving it with only half the required capacity. The borough desperately needed more space for books, and incorporated a new library into its plans for a new civic centre to house its headquarters and other services. The Library Association reported in 1959 that, whilst hardly any new public library buildings had been built, library usage had risen by 75% since 1939, with most buildings being over 50 years old. Post-war, the British government had prioritised housing and education, resulting in wartime restrictions remaining in force and many libraries being designed for fewer users than needed. With additional damage and destruction to other libraries, Hampstead lacked the infrastructure needed for storing and cataloguing media. ## History ### Founding Swiss Cottage Library was planned as part of the Hampstead Civic Centre development by the Metropolitan Borough of Hampstead in the 1950s, which was originally intended to offer a new master site for Hampstead's governance. In 1959, British architect Sir Basil Spence of Spence, Bonnington & Collins created a scheme for the Civic Centre, including a library and sports centre (which contained the swimming baths), on land purchased from the Eyre and Eton College (Chalcots) estates in 1956 at a cost of £200,000 (equivalent to £ million in ). The Metropolitan Borough of Hampstead became part of the larger London Borough of Camden under the London Government Act 1963, bringing complications to the scheme: Camden Council instead wanted to focus instead on its Euston Road developments; Spence described the fate of the project as being "in the lap of the Gods". As Hampstead's final major infrastructure project, the original "masterplan" was downgraded to include only a sports centre and a library, per demands from the Greater London Council and central government. Furthermore, the library, which was originally intended to be built next to Winchester Road, was instead moved west to be beside Avenue Road, to accommodate the changes. Construction was undertaken by McAlpine & Sons and was accelerated by the use of a 164 ft (50 m) tower crane, the tallest in the UK at the time. Construction began on 31 December 1962, with Mayor Denza shovelling the first pile of earth for the site. Succeeding weeks brought difficulties due to unusually heavy snow, leading to concrete needing additional protection. Later building strikes exacerbated the problem, and construction was delayed, but eventually finished in 1964. Soon after opening the University of Sussex's new library, also by Spence, Queen Elizabeth II opened the library as Hampstead Public Library on the 10 November 1964. On opening, the library superseded Finchley Road Library as Hampstead's Central Library. Present, among others, were Councillor Luigi Carlo Denza, then Mayor of Hampstead, Basil Spence and Sir Edwin McAlpine, acting head of the library's construction firm at the time. Its title as Hampstead Central Library was later amended in light of the Hampstead's amalgamation and it was renamed as Swiss Cottage Central Library before its shortened name today. ### Refurbishment and expansion In 1989 Camden reported that the swimming baths were underperforming and that Swiss Cottage Library, despite being the largest and most used in the borough, had structural issues that required immediate address, even with remedial works in 1984. The council announced in the late 1990s that it intended to regenerate Swiss Cottage Centre, and in 2003 John McAslan & Partners finished a refurbishment of Swiss Cottage Library to include a children's library and improved accessibility facilities, at a cost of £7.9 million (equivalent to £ million in ). The overall centre redevelopment plan, including the demolition of Swiss Cottage Sports Centre, including the swimming baths, and construction of Swiss Cottage Leisure Centre on the demolished site, was designed by Sir Terry Farrell and finished in 2007 at a cost of £85 million. Whilst the accompanying sport centre's demolition was not controversial, it removed the library's complimenting twin, which was factored into new designs. Camden originally planned to demolish the library with Swiss Cottage Sports Centre, but was forced to instead refurbish it as a result of English Heritage designating it with a Grade II listing in December 1997; following the library's refurbishment, the Council acknowledged that demolition "would have been a mistake". The library was officially reopened by Tessa Jowell MP, the then Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport, who praised the building as "magnificently refurbished" and "an excellent example of the new face of public libraries". When Camden began irreversible works on the library in 1996, the then Department for National Heritage warned them of section 3 "spot-listing" powers they held, allowing them to list a building under emergency procedures if it was being considered for listing and at risk of demolition: English Heritage claimed their swift responses had been a result of a lack of notification for the developments in advance. Subsequently, the library was included in English Heritage's "Something Worth Keeping" exhibition of 65 buildings for possible listing, with the public being encouraged to comment: Swiss Cottage Library was later listed alongside the Royal College of Physicians. In late 1999 English Heritage controversially decided to list the library, against the council's wishes. Camden Council opposed the listing vehemently from its first consideration in 1996 and the Evening Standard described the building, alongside the Swimming Baths, as a "drab concrete complex", with the Ham & High additionally recording residents as calling the pair the "ugliest buildings in the borough", though most criticism was directed at the baths. Local councillors were dismayed and the Council argued it was more important to support private investors in funding a new library through the private finance initiative than the maintenance of a building with chronic issues, whilst others argued listing would encourage a more preservative restoration. The refurbishment, despite being widely acclaimed, was subject to numerous delays and significantly overbudget, in part a result of the project's primary contractor going into administration; McAslan and Camden's relationship was described as "bumpy". Later in 2006, Camden Council sued McAslan & Partners for £500,000 as a result of delays in supply and a cost increase in the contract by £1.5 million. McAslan defended the delays, arguing "It was less than 10% late", a comparatively small delay in construction, and commenting on additional removals needing to be carried out. In spite of refurbishments, Camden began a major overhaul of its library service in 2011, looking to cut its budget by £2 million due to falling borrower numbers. Swiss Cottage Library, costing the council £1.2 million per year at the time, was on a list of potential libraries to be closed, with McAslan remarking that the library's closure would be a "tragedy" for the community. The library remained open and underwent a low-carbon retrofit in 2023. ## Details Built in the ubiquitous Modernist style of the 1960s, Spence took inspiration from the vast open-space and minimalism of Scandinavian libraries, visiting them to take notes on the designs. ### Exterior The library measures 250 feet (76 m) by 75 feet (23 m) with three storeys, and features 238 narrow 2-tonne "fins" made from a Portland stone aggregate on a pill-shaped structure, resembling the leaves of a book. The fins were designed to protect readers from strong sunlight and additionaly block noise pollution; whilst the semi-circular structure was reminiscent of some of Spence's earlier home designs. The library's location in Swiss Cottage, described by Spence as the "gateway to North London", was criticised due to significant noise pollution from the arterial Finchley Road that it borders. The borough council complemented the library by commissioning a bronze sculpture by F. E. McWilliam, titled The Hampstead Figure, as part of the initial stages of landscaping, which was unveiled by the Queen following the library. ### Interior Entry is via a semi-circular foyer with the main staircase in front on entrance; originally lending and return counters were positioned on either side, though this was modified to be moved to the respective libraries following the refurbishment. Spence made use of a lowered ground floor roof to hide the upper floors, revealing the vast atrium as one ascends the terrazzo-lined staircase, with an initial view of the lending library: the upper floors are cantilevered to create the entrance area. A private staff area from the ground floor leads to a two-storey bookstack, which has capacity for 200,000 books. The wider atrium of the first floor is an exhibition space with the two lending and reference libraries positioned around it, on either pole of the structure. Along the length there is a children's library, with more open usage of colour to contrast with the mostly monotone grey throughout; additionally there are study areas, a periodicals room and formerly the borough's local history department, now relocated to Holborn Library. Nine study carrels were available for library users, including one typing carrel, soundproofed, and an artist's carrel with running water. Both the lending and reference libraries retain their unique spiral staircases which in the reference library leads to an upper floor that includes 40 desks. The second floor hosts music and philosophy libraries, the latter being the library's specialisation; a café was added alongside in the 2000s refurbishment. Throughout the library transparent partitions are used to create a more fluid and open feeling, in keeping with Spence's Scandinavian inspiration, and consistency through colouring and flooring serves to join the different sections into one, rather than the feeling of a divided library. Furniture was specially designed by Spence for the library, though most was controversially removed in the refurbishment and replaced with furnishings of a similar style. Whilst the RIBA Journal defended the new furniture, calling it "pretty good" for local authority standards, Camden Arts Centre director Jenni Lomax, writing in The Guardian, argued that the removal "[destroyed] its initial integrity". Spence's "floating" bookshelves additionally delineate the floor into casual studying areas: the library's fins also hide the bookcases' backs, preventing an unsatisfying effect from the outside. ## Commentary Speaking to thousands at the opening, the Queen acclaimed Spence's library as "really wonderful" and described Hampstead as "so interesting". She heralded the specialised facilities available for readers in the library as well as accessibility measures for the disabled. The library was viewed positively by reviewers, with many commenting on the fluidity of the library's line work complimenting the louvres of the adjacent swimming baths, bringing together two buildings with great differences in purpose. Concrete Quarterly called the building "spacious and well-equipped", while the Library Association Record was also greatly appreciative, praising it as "another splendid library building", though in their conclusion they noted that it was an "architect's building first, and a librarian's second". In the Hampstead & Highgate Express however, some residents disapproved of the earlier opening hours compared to libraries in other boroughs like Greenwich, with others defending the older library as "perfectly adequate", with no need to waste the Borough's remaining funds on the project. The library's entrance was criticised as "uninpressive" and the entrance "gloomy" and "uninviting", a side-effect of Spence's design to open up the floors as you progress the stairs. The library's refurbishment was acclaimed by English Heritage as "a success in both architectural and heritage terms". Historic England also commented on the refurbishment, appreciating that the library was one of the few post-war libraries that has been "sensitively refurbished". CILIP, the UK's professional body for librarians, awarded the refurbishment the Public Library Building Award in 2005, and called the refurbishment "sensitive [and] intelligent" in its journal.	[ "## Background", "## History", "### Founding", "### Refurbishment and expansion", "## Details", "### Exterior", "### Interior", "## Commentary" ]	2,752	44,709
72,853,957	HMS Myngs (1914)	1,166,917,442	British M-Class destroyer	[ "1914 ships", "Admiralty M-class destroyers", "Ships built on the River Tyne", "World War I destroyers of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS Myngs was an Admiralty M-class destroyer which served in the Royal Navy during the First World War. The M-class ships were an improvement on those of the preceding L class, capable of higher speeds. Myngs, the first ship to enter Royal Navy service to be named after Vice-Admiral Sir Christopher Myngs, was launched in 1914. initially serving as part of the Grand Fleet, the vessel was involved in escorting troop ships like before being transferred to the Harwich Force in 1915. Placed within the Dover Patrol, the destroyer continued to operate as an escort, as well as taking part in sorties against German warships. The vessel formed part of the cover for monitors including Erebus and Terror for an attack on Zeebrugge in 1918. Towards the end of the war, Myngs sank the monitor Glatton, which was alight following an internal explosion, with a single torpedo. After the Armistice, the destroyer was placed in reserve and subsequently sold to be broken up in 1921. ## Design and development Myngs was one of the initial six Admiralty M-class destroyers ordered by the British Admiralty in May 1913 as part of the 1913–14 Naval Programme, one of the last destroyers to be ordered before the outbreak of the First World War. The M class was an improved version of the earlier L-class, required to reach a higher speed in order to counter the rumoured new German fast destroyers. The remit was to have a maximum speed of 36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph) and, although the eventual design did not achieve this, the greater performance of the M class was appreciated by the navy. It transpired that the German ships did not exist. The destroyer had a length of 265 ft (80.8 m) between perpendiculars and 273 ft 4 in (83.3 m) overall, with a beam of 26 ft 9 in (8.2 m). Displacement was 971 long tons (987 t) normal. Design draught was 8 ft 6 in (2.6 m). Power was provided by three Yarrow boilers feeding Parsons steam turbines rated at 25,000 shaft horsepower (19,000 kW) and driving three shafts, to give a design speed of 34 knots (63 km/h; 39 mph). Three funnels were fitted. A total of 228 long tons (232 t) of oil were carried. Design range was 2,530 nautical miles (4,690 km; 2,910 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph), but actual endurance in service was less; sister ship Murray had a range of 2,240 nautical miles (4,150 km; 2,580 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). Myngs had a main armament consisting of three single QF 4-inch (102 mm) Mk IV guns on the centreline, with one on the forecastle, one aft on a raised platform and one between the middle and aft funnels. Torpedo armament consisted of two twin mounts for 21 in (533 mm) torpedoes located aft of the funnels. Two single 1-pounder 37 mm (1.5 in) "pom-pom" anti-aircraft guns were carried. The anti-aircraft guns were later replaced by 2-pdr 40 mm (1.6 in) "pom-pom" guns. The ship had a complement of 80 officers and ratings. ## Construction and career Myngs was laid down by Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company at their yard in Hebburn on 31 December 1913, was launched on 24 September the following year and was completed in March 1915. The destroyer cost £113,524. The vessel was the first to be named after the naval officer Vice-Admiral Sir Christopher Myngs. Myngs was deployed as part of the Grand Fleet, joining the newly formed Tenth Destroyer Flotilla. The destroyer took part in a wide range of activities during the war, usually alongside other members of the flotilla. For example, the flotilla was involved in escorting ships, and Myngs escorted the troop ships and on their departures from Liverpool on 18 May 1915 and an ammunition ship between Queenstown and Avonmouth on 14 June the same year. By the following month, a routine developed of escorting transports departing Avonmouth and Devonport, then bringing in transports that had crossed from Canada. By October, the destroyer, along with the rest of the flotilla, had been transferred to the Harwich Force. On arriving in Dover, the destroyer found there was less activity than expected. In fact, since 10 April 1915, the German navy had decided to no longer send warships into the Strait of Dover and the threats to shipping were substantially reduced. This gave time for other types of operations to be considered. On 25 April 1916, the flotilla engaged German battlecruisers returning from their bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft, but the destroyer did not record any hits. On 14 August, the destroyer was to have supported a major minelaying expedition to take place off the Ems, but this was reduced to a much smaller operation and Myngs was no longer required. The ship remained part of the Tenth Flotilla. However, the amount of sailing increased. By the end of the year, British naval traffic in the Strait of Dover had increased dramatically and the flotilla was heavily involved in escorting convoys across to France as threats from German submarines also increased. On 10 February 1917, Myngs was involved in an unsuccessful search for a German minelaying submarine, possibly UC-4. On 17 March, the destroyer was part of the Dover Patrol, but held in reserve against a German attack. This proved useful when, on 21 April, German destroyers of the 3rd Torpedo-Boat Flotilla attacked the Kent coast and were in turn engaged by British destroyers in an action that became known as the Battle of Dover Strait (1917). Myngs was dispatched, the last of the British destroyers deployed in the action. The ensuing battle led to the destruction of two of the German vessels and dissuaded the German fleet from attacking the Strait of Dover for many months. By this time, the Royal Navy force in Dover had grown to include 13 monitors and 43 destroyers. Myngs was part of the Sixth Destroyer Flotilla. The destroyer again sailed against German shipping on 20 March 1918. Although still based at Dover, Myngs had been sent by Allied command in Dunkirk to patrol the east barrage in the Dover Straits in response to news of German ships being spotted there. No action took place on that occasion. After an aborted attempt on 11 April, the vessel escorted the monitors Erebus and Terror that attacked Zeebrugge on 18 April. The plan included the sinking of blockships to impede the flow of German submarines leaving the port. Although the operation did not meet the expectations of the Admiralty and the port remained open, the bombardment was achieved without interference by enemy warships or the loss of any British vessels. On 11 September, the monitor Glatton exploded while in Dover harbour. At great risk, the crew of Myngs launched a torpedo at the stricken vessel which successfully caused the ship to capsize, extinguishing the flames. Had the ship continued to burn, this could have led to many deaths. After the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that ended the war, the Royal Navy returned to a peacetime level of strength and both the number of ships and the amount of personnel needed to be reduced to save money. Myngs was declared superfluous to operational requirements. The vessel was initially placed in reserve at the Nore but on 5 January 1920, the destroyer was passed to care and maintenance. This situation did not last long. The harsh conditions of wartime operations, particularly the combination of high speed and the poor weather that is typical of the North Sea, exacerbated by the fact that the hull was not galvanised, meant that the ship was worn out. On 9 May 1921, Myngs was sold to Thos. W. Ward to be broken up in Rainham. ## Pennant numbers	[ "## Design and development", "## Construction and career", "## Pennant numbers" ]	1,781	33,832
48,110,415	2015 FIA GT World Cup	1,173,135,727	1st World Cup for GT3-spec sports cars in Macau	[ "2015 in Chinese motorsport", "2015 in Macau sport" ]	The 2015 FIA GT World Cup was the race's inaugural edition and the eighth time Grand Touring (GT) sports car machinery participated in Macau's autonomous territory. On November 22, it was staged in the streets of the city as a non-championship race as part of the GT Asia Series in GT3-spec cars. The Automobile General Association Macau-China appointed the Stéphane Ratel Organisation (SRO) to assist in establishing a grid. The race itself consisted of two races: a 12-lap qualification race that determined the starting grid for the 14-lap main race. Mercedes AMG Driving Academy driver Maro Engel won the main race from pole position after winning the Qualification Race the previous day after on-track victor Edoardo Mortara was penalised ten seconds for brake testing him. Mortara accelerated faster than Engel during the rolling start, but he quickly lost the lead to the former. Engel then dominated the rest of the race, which was stopped two laps early due to a multi-car accident behind the safety car, and the result was recalculated two laps back. René Rast finished second in his Audi R8 LMS, while Stefan Mücke completed the podium in his Craft-Bamboo Racing entered Aston Martin Vantage V12. ## Entry list and rules To enter the FIA GT World Cup in Macau, drivers had to compete in a Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA)-regulated championship based on GT3 regulations. On 11 September 2015, Audi, Aston Martin, Mercedes-Benz, McLaren and Porsche were announced as the five manufacturers accepted to enter the event that was open to any car model meeting GT3 rules. Manufacturers could enter up to three drivers through privateer teams, and the teams representing manufacturers could field both gold and platinum ranked drivers; bronze and silver-rated entrants were considered on a case-by-case basis by the FIA GT World Cup Committee. On October 7, 2015, the FIA GT World Cup entry list was released. The first list of participants had 22 drivers, including 2014 Macau GT Cup race winner Maro Engel, two-time Macau Grand Prix victor Edoardo Mortara, and 24 Hours of Le Mans co-winner Earl Bamber. René Rast, a World Endurance Championship participant, was called in as a late replacement for Laurens Vanthoor, who withdrew from the race on doctor's orders after injuring his hip at the Misano World Circuit's Blancpain Sprint Series round. ## Background The 2015 FIA GT World Cup was the event's maiden running and the eighth time Grand Touring (GT) cars contested in Macau. It took place on November 22, 2015, at the 6.2 km (3.9 mi) 22-turn Guia Circuit, after three days of practise and qualifying. The motorsport promoter Stéphane Ratel Organisation (SRO) elected not to renew its contract with the FIA two years before the 2015 FIA GT World Cup, and in early 2013, the SRO's founder, Stéphane Ratel, proposed creating a race for the finest teams and drivers. These proposals were dormant for a while until an FIA World Motor Sport Council meeting in Doha saw the idea resurface and eventually confirmed by the sport's governing body on 20 March 2015. It was the first collaboration between Ratel and the FIA since the FIA GT1 World Championship disbanded. The FIA GT World Cup was granted its status after the World Touring Car Championship stopped travelling to Macau, and it replaced the Baku World Challenge which was discontinued that year when Formula One announced it would hold a race in the city from 2016. The Automobile General Association Macao-China, the race's promoter, asked the SRO to assist in forming a grid. ## Practice and qualifying There was one 30-minute practice session each on Thursday afternoon and Friday morning before Sunday's race. Renger van der Zande set the quickest lap for the Mercedes AMG Driving Academy SLS GT3 in the first practise session at 2 minutes, 20.796 seconds, two-tenths of a second faster than anybody else. In second place was his brandmate Engel. Mortara finished third in the lone Audi Sport Team Phoenix R8 LMS entry. Darryl O'Young's Aston Martin V12 Vantage finished fourth. Bamber was the fastest Porsche competitor, finishing fifth. Positions six through ten were filled by Stefan Mücke, André Couto, Keita Sawa, Rast, and Richard Lyons. Engel led for the majority of the second practice session until Mücke passed him with a time of 2 minutes, 20.082 seconds, the fastest lap of the weekend at the time. Van Der Zande finished second, 0.021 seconds slower, with Adderly Fong third Engel was fourth, and Bamber fifth, repeating his first practise session performance. Positions six through ten were filled by O'Young, Mortara, Álvaro Parente, his teammate Kévin Estre, and Rast. Friday afternoon's half-hour qualifying session determined the starting order for the qualification race through each driver's fastest lap times. Before he hit an inside kerbstone at Mandarin Corner and lost control of his car, which then drifted into a barrier (the first of three stoppages), Engel was the early leader in qualifying. Engel took responsibility for the collision and apologised to his team. Van Der Zande's crash into a wall at Paiol caused qualifying to be turn red-flagged qualifying for the second time to repair the barriers. With less than 12 minutes remaining. Audi devised a strategy to let Mortara to drive in clear air for a pole position effort. But Cuoto experienced oversteer and severely damaged his car in an incident at Mandarin curve, which ricocheted between the barriers. Cuoto's crash, which left him unhurt, led to the session's third and last interruption. With six minutes left in qualifying, Mortara started recording fast sector times to take provisional pole before Mücke passed him with a lap of 2 minutes, 18.032 seconds. Mücke was joined on the grid's front row by Mortara. Engel's accident left him in third. Rast was fourth, Van Der Zande fifth and O'Young sixth. O'Young's teammate Lyons was seventh. Bamber, Fong and Parente were eighth to tenth, respectively. Estre was the fastest driver not to qualify in the top ten, ahead of teammate Cuoto, Sawa, Marchy Lee, the Thai duo of Pasin Lathouras and Vutthikorn Inthraphuvasak, Dylan Derdaele, Jeffrey Lee, Weng Sun Mok and Philip Ma. John Shen and Jacky Yeung completed the 22 qualifiers. ### Qualifying classification ## Qualifying race At 12:15 Macau Standard Time (UTC+08:00), the qualifying race to set the main race's starting order began under dry and cloudy conditions with the air and track temperatures at 26 °C (79 °F) and 27 °C (81 °F). At the start, Mücke stopped Mortara's overtake to retain the lead into Mandarin turn, before Engel used his straightline speed to pass Mortara for second position approaching Lisboa corner. Rast dropped to fifth as brandmate Marchy Lee gained another position before turning into Lisboa corner. Despite matching his pace earlier in the race, Engel was unable to challenge Mücke because the leader controlled his speed; both men pulled away from the trailing Mortara and Van Der Zande. Fong lost control of his Bentley Continental GT and crashed heavily at the Solitude Esses on the third lap. The safety car was deployed a lap later to neutralise the order because his car was stranded in the centre of the track. At the lap eight restart, Mücke got away cleanly to lead the race back up to speed, with Engel and Mortara close behind. Simultaneously, fourth-placed Van Der Zande sought but failed to move up the order. Engel had to take evasive action when Mücke accelerated and then abruptly braked. After the race, Engel expressed his surprise at Mücke's actions. The leaders were unable to execute any further manoeuvres, and the margins at the front grew progressively until the qualification race ended. Mücke led the race from start to finish. He was then found to have brake tested Engel in violation of the regulations and was given a ten-second time penalty. Engel was given the victory and took pole position for the main race. Mortara joined him on the grid's front row. Mücke's penalty demoted him to third place. Van Der Zande was fourth, Rast was fifth, and Lyons was sixth. Following closely were Bamber, O'Young, Parente, and Estre, who rounded out the top ten. Sawa, Marchy Lee, Lathouras, Inthraphuvasak, Derdaele, Jeffrey Lee, Sun Mok, Sheng, Yeng, Cuoto, and Ma were the final 21 classified finishers. ### Qualifying race classification ## Main race The race began under dry and sunny weather at 12:55 local time. The air temperature was 28 °C (82 °F) and a track temperature at 28 °C (82 °F). Fong withdrew from the race because his chassis was too damaged from the previous day's qualification race crash. Mortara made a quick getaway after the race's rolling start and stopped Engel's initial pass to take the lead before the Mandarin Oriental corner. Mortara lost the lead to Engel when he steered into the inside as they approached the Reservoir Kink bend. After a brisk start, his teammate van der Zande took second position. Mücke then took third from Mortara before Lisboa corner. Estre collided with Lyon's rear at the turn, and both drivers retired. After crashing into a barrier at San Francisco Bend, Bamber retired on the lap. At the end of the first lap, Engel led teammate Van der Zande, followed by, Mortara, Mücke, Parente, O'Young, Sawa, Marchy Lee and Lathouras. The first five were covered by five seconds with the rest of the field 18 seconds behind them. At the midway, Derdaele's car had a punctured tyre and retired at Lisboa curve, while Parente lost sixth place to O'Young by having a better exit out of a turn. Meanwhile, Engel extended his advantage over second-placed Van Der Zande when the course of the race altered on lap 12. Van Der Zande was slowed by traffic, allowing Mücke to challenge him for second place heading into Lisboa bend. As a result of the manoeuvre, Mücke struck Van der Zande's vehicle from behind, causing debris to land in Mücke's left rear wheel. The two collided as Mücke passed Van Der Zande on the inside as they approached Lisboa corner on the next lap. Both drivers ran wide under braking, allowing Rast and Mortara of Audi into second and third places. When the safety car was deployed to close the field down following an accident on lap 14, Engel's eight-second lead over Mortara was reduced to nothing. Inthraphuvasak crashed at Paiol corner, leaving his vehicle stranded in the middle of the course. As everyone waited for additional laps at racing speed behind the safety car, a multi-vehicle accident occurred at Moorish Hill with 21⁄2 laps to go. The lapped Shen struck the tyre barrier, and every driver behind him collided with each other since he blocked the course. Race control decided to stop the race and not restart it, counting back the result by two laps. Engel won the first FIA GT World Cup, his second consecutive victory in Macau after winning the GT event in 2014. Mortara finished second before a 20-second time penalty was enforced by the International Sporting Code for being deemed to have jumped the start, promoting Rast and Mucke to second and third. Off the podium, Van Der Zande, O'Young, Mortara, Parente, Marchy Lee, Sawa and Lathouras, Couto, Jeffrey Lee, Sun, Shen, Ma, Yueng and Inthraphuvasak were the final finishers. ### Main race classification Notes: ## FIA GT World Cup for Manufacturers The FIA GT World Cup for Manufacturers award was presented to the manufacturer supplying the cars with a manufacturer entry with the highest number of points after adding the points of its two best cars awarded based on the result of the Main Race. ### Scoring system To be classified and earn points, entries had to complete 90 per cent of the winning car's race distance. The pole position winner received no points. #### Main Race points Notes - † – Drivers did not finish the race, but were classified as they completed over 90% of the race distance. - <sup>1</sup> – Only the two best highest finishing cars of a manufacturer are able to score points. The result of the lowest finishing car is not included. ## See also - 2015 Macau Grand Prix - 2015 Guia Race of Macau	[ "## Entry list and rules", "## Background", "## Practice and qualifying", "### Qualifying classification", "## Qualifying race", "### Qualifying race classification", "## Main race", "### Main race classification", "## FIA GT World Cup for Manufacturers", "### Scoring system", "#### Main Race points", "## See also" ]	2,798	30,148
30,762,157	Kepler-11c	1,141,346,105	Extrasolar planet orbiting Kepler-11	[ "Cygnus (constellation)", "Exoplanets discovered by the Kepler space telescope", "Exoplanets discovered in 2011", "Hot Neptunes", "Kepler-11", "Transiting exoplanets" ]	Kepler-11c is an exoplanet discovered in the orbit of the Sun-like star Kepler-11 by the Kepler spacecraft, a NASA telescope aiming to discover Earth-like planets. It is the second planet from its star, and is most likely a water planet with a thin hydrogen–helium atmosphere. Kepler-11c orbits Kepler-11 every 10 days, and has an estimated density twice that of pure water. It is estimated to have a mass thirteen times that of Earth and a radius three times that of Earth. Kepler-11c and its five sister planets form the first discovered system with more than three transiting planets. The Kepler-11 system also holds the record of being the most compact and the flattest system discovered. Kepler-11c and the other Kepler-11 planets were announced to the public on February 2, 2011, and was published in Nature a day later. ## Name and discovery Kepler-11c's name is divided into two parts: it is named for Kepler-11, the star around which it orbits. As planets with discoveries that are announced at the same time are sorted by distance, Kepler-11c's "c" is because it was the second-closest planet from its host star at the time of discovery (Kepler-11b is the closest). Kepler-11, the host star, was named for the Kepler satellite, a NASA telescope that searches for terrestrial planets by measuring small fluctuations in the light of stars that occurs when celestial bodies transit, or cross in front of, the star with respect to Earth. Kepler-11 was flagged as home to a potential transit event by the satellite, and was given the designation KOI-157. After further observations, Kepler-11c's existence was confirmed by the observation of an orbital resonance effect between Kepler-11b and Kepler-11c. Along with the other five planets in orbit around Kepler-11, Kepler-11c was announced on February 2, 2011 at a press conference. Its findings were published on February 3 in the journal Nature. The Kepler-11 system is the first known to host more than three transiting planets. Follow-up observations were conducted by the Hale and the C. Donald Shane telescopes in California; MMT, WIYN, and Tillinghast telescopes in Arizona; the Keck I telescope in Hawaii; the Hobby–Eberly and Smith telescopes in Texas; and the Nordic Optical Telescope in the Canary Islands. ## Host star Kepler-11c's host star, Kepler-11, is a G-type star 2,000 light-years away in the Cygnus constellation. With a mass of .95 M<sub>sun</sub>, a radius of 1.1 R<sub>sun</sub>, a metallicity of [Fe/H] = 0, and an effective temperature of 5680 (± 100) K, Kepler-11 is almost identical to the Sun in terms of radius, mass, and temperature. However, Kepler-11 is much older than the Sun, with an estimated age of 8 (± 2) billion years (the Sun is approximately 4.6 billion years old). Along with Kepler-11c, Kepler-11 is host to the planets Kepler-11b, Kepler-11d, Kepler-11e, Kepler-11f, and Kepler-11g. The inner five planets' orbits would fit within the orbit of planet Mercury, while Kepler-11g orbits Kepler-11 at a much further distance in comparison to the inner components. With an apparent magnitude of 14.2, Kepler-11 cannot be seen from Earth with the naked eye. ## Characteristics Kepler-11c has a mass of 13.5 M<sub>E</sub> and a radius of 3.15 R<sub>E</sub>, making it over 13.5 times the mass of earth, but approximately 3.15 times its radius. Neptune, in comparison, has a radius approximately 3.9 times that of Earth. With a density of 2.3 grams/cm<sup>3</sup>, Kepler-11c has a mass over double of that of pure water at 0 °C; it is also denser than all the Sun's gas giants, but less dense than any of its rocky planets. Its density is closest to the dwarf planet Pluto. Due in part to its proximity to its star, the planet's equilibrium temperature is 833 K, about three times hotter than Earth's average temperature. It orbits Kepler-11 every 13.02502 days at a distance of .106 AU; it is Kepler-11's second-closest planet. Mercury, in comparison, orbits every 87.97 days at a distance of .387 AU. The orbit's inclination of Kepler-11c is 89°, and is thus almost edge-on as seen from Earth. The Kepler team has said that Kepler-11b and Kepler-11c are probably composed mostly of water with a thin hydrogen and helium atmosphere. In comparison to the outer planets of the system, which probably have large hydrogen and helium atmospheres, Kepler-11c's proximity to its star has blown off most of its atmosphere. In fact, formation and evolution calculations indicate that Kepler-11c lost over 50% (by mass) of the hydrogen envelope it had accreted after formation. Support to the idea that the planets of this system formed ex situ and contain large amounts of H<sub>2</sub>O is provided by the radius of Kepler-11b, which can only be explained by the presence of a thin gaseous envelope. However, since hydrogen and helium cannot survive for the age of the system bound to the planet because of photo-evaporation blow-off, the most likely alternative is the presence of a vapor atmosphere generating from its surface. Kepler-11 and its six-planet system form what NASA considers to be the most compact and flattest planetary system yet discovered. Kepler-11b and Kepler-11c orbit Kepler-11 with a phenomenon called orbital resonance, a gravitational tugging that keeps their orbits stable at a ratio of the orbital periods close to 5:4 . Orbital resonances can arise from orbital migration during formation. Kepler-11c may be at risk of eventually colliding with b due to a precarious orbital configuration in which a secular resonance could emerge and cause planet b's orbit to become dangerously ecccentric.	[ "## Name and discovery", "## Host star", "## Characteristics" ]	1,329	35,387
28,013,944	Lactarius subflammeus	1,122,279,939	Species of fungus	[ "Fungi described in 1979", "Fungi of North America", "Inedible fungi", "Lactarius", "Taxa named by Alexander H. Smith" ]	Lactarius subflammeus, commonly known as the orange milk cap, is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. It is found in western North America in the late summer and fall and is especially common in the Pacific Northwest, where it grows on the ground near conifers like pine and spruce. The brightly colored fruit bodies, which are slimy or sticky, have scarlet caps when young that soon fade to brilliant orange. The stem—typically longer than the width of the cap—is also bright orange but the gills are whitish. The mushroom secretes a whitish latex when it is cut or injured. ## Taxonomy The species was first described by Lexemuel Ray Hesler and Alexander H. Smith in their 1979 monograph of North American species of the genus Lactarius, based on specimens collected from Pacific City, Oregon. Prior to this description, the species had frequently been confused in the literature with L. aurantiacus. The specific epithet subflammeus means "almost flame color". It is classified in the section Russularia of the subgenus Russularia of Lactarius. Species in this subgenus have small to medium-sized and fragile fruit bodies. Lactarius subflammeus is commonly known as the "orange milk cap". ## Description The cap is 3–7 cm (1+1⁄4–2+3⁄4 in) wide, convex, eventually becoming shallowly depressed in the center. The margin of the cap is curved inward then arched, with short translucent striations (grooves) at maturity. The cap surface is slimy to sticky, smooth, not zonate. It is scarlet when young, but becomes orange to yellowish-orange and duller when older. The attachment of the gills to the stem is adnate (squarely attached) to decurrent (running down the length of the stem); the gills are moderately broad, with spacing close to subdistant (with visible spaces between the gills). They are whitish or colored similar to the cap but paler. The stem is 4–9 cm (1+1⁄2–3+1⁄2 in) long, 5–15 mm (1⁄4–1⁄2 in) thick, and thicker near the base. The smooth stem surface can be either moist or dry depending on the moisture in the environment. It is hollow, fragile, and colored like the cap. The flesh is thin, fragile, pale pinkish-buff to dull orangish-buff. The mushroom's odor is not distinctive, and the taste slowly becomes acrid. The latex is white, and does not change color with continued exposure to air. It does not stain the tissues, and tastes acrid. The spore print is white. The species is considered inedible, and consumption is not recommended. ### Microscopic characteristics The spores are 7.5–9 by 6.5–7.5 μm, with an ellipsoid shape. Their surfaces are ornamented with warts and short ridges that do not form a reticulum (a network of raised net-like ridges on the surface), with ridges up to 1.0 μm high. The spores are hyaline (translucent), and amyloid—they absorb iodine when stained with Melzer's reagent. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored, and measure 42 by 9 μm. The cap cuticle is a modified ixotrichoderm, meaning that the hyphae are embedded in a slimy or gelatinous layer. ### Similar species Lactarius luculentus var. luculentus is similar in appearance, but it has an ochraceous-tawny to ochraceous-buff cap and stem, flesh that tastes slightly bitter before slowly turning acrid, white latex that tastes mild to somewhat astringent, and a buff-colored spore print. Lactarius luculentus var. laetus is another lookalike, but may be distinguished by a brownish-orange to grayish-orange stem, and mild-tasting latex. Lactarus substriatus has white latex that slowly changes color to yellow, and Lactarius subviscidus has similar overall coloring but white latex that changes to yellow. The Californian species L. cocosiolens has a sticky orange-brown to caramel-colored cap. It has a mild taste, abundant latex, and as its specific epithet suggests, smells like coconut when it is dry. ## Ecology, habitat and distribution Like all species in the genus Lactarius, L. subflammeus is mycorrhizal, forming mutualistic associations with trees. The fungus and the plant forms structures called ectomycorrhizae, a specialized sheath of hyphae on the surface of the root from which hyphae extend into the soil and into the outer cortical cells of the root. The fruit bodies of L. subflammeus grow scattered to grouped under conifers or in mixed conifer-hardwood forests near pine and spruce, from August to December. The fungus is widely distributed in the Pacific Northwest, where it is very common in conifer forests. The habitat of the type location was coastal sand dunes under pine. States from which the fungus has been collected include Washington, Idaho, Oregon, California, and Colorado. The mushroom's range extends north into Canada, where it has been found near Victoria, British Columbia in coastal forests dominated by Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). ## See also - List of Lactarius species	[ "## Taxonomy", "## Description", "### Microscopic characteristics", "### Similar species", "## Ecology, habitat and distribution", "## See also" ]	1,179	17,378
54,552,208	Watch (Billie Eilish song)	1,149,351,229	2017 single by Billie Eilish	[ "2010s ballads", "2017 singles", "2017 songs", "Billie Eilish songs", "Interscope Records singles", "Pop ballads", "Song recordings produced by Finneas O'Connell", "Songs written by Finneas O'Connell" ]	"Watch" is a song by American singer Billie Eilish from her debut EP Don't Smile at Me (2017). Written and produced by Eilish's brother Finneas O'Connell, the song was released for digital download and streaming through Darkroom and Interscope Records on June 29, 2017, as the third single from the EP. A pop ballad, the lyrics of "Watch" address Eilish leaving a toxic relationship. The song received platinum certifications in the United States, Australia and Canada by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) and Music Canada (MC), respectively. A music video for the track was released on September 18, 2017, and was directed by Megan Park. In the visual, Eilish sets the remnants of a toxic relationship on fire and dumps her former lover. "Watch" was performed live by Eilish during her 2019 When We All Fall Asleep Tour. ## Background and composition "Watch" was released on June 30, 2017, as the third single on Eilish's debut EP Don't Smile at Me. The track was written and produced by Eilish's brother, Finneas O'Connell. Mastering and mixing was handled by the studio personnel, John Greenham and Rob Kinelski, respectively. The song was originally titled "Watch & Burn", before becoming two separate tracks, one being "Watch" and the other being "&Burn", a collaboration with Vince Staples. According to sheet music published by Hal Leonard Music Publishing at Musicnotes.com, "Watch" has a moderately fast tempo of 80–84 beats per minute (BPM) and is played in the key of C Major, while Eilish's vocals range from G<sub>3</sub> to C<sub>5</sub>. The song was described as a pop ballad by music critics. The song starts with the strike of a match and continues throughout the song as its main beat. In the lyrics, Eilish writes a missive to her former lover, saying she is leaving their toxic relationship behind: "If we were meant to be, we would have been by now/See what you wanna see, but all I see is him right now." As the chorus comes in, Eilish sings about not wanting to be in the relationship anymore: "I'll sit and watch your car burn/With the fire that you started in me/But you never came back to ask it out." Finneas later explained in an interview with Pitchfork saying: "This is me just lighting a bunch of matches in the bathroom. It became the snare essentially for [the] song. There were all these references to starting a fire and that’s a more inventive way to use a sound than to just be like, 'Yeah, we’re gonna start with the sound of the waves rolling in or something.'" ## Reception "Watch" was met with critical acclaim from music critics. Insider's Claudia Willen wrote that the song "provided a mere glimpse of the greatness to come in Eilish's career." Nicole Almeida of Atwood Magazine commended the production, which she described as "meticulous" and "amazing". Avery Stone of Vice described the chorus as "sweeping". It was ranked number 28 by NME's Sam Moore, who compared it to Lorde's compositions and affirmed it was a "stepping stone towards bigger and better things". The track has been awarded several certifications; including double platinum in Australia, and platinum in Canada and the United States by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), Music Canada (MC), and the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), respectively. ## Promotion A music video for "Watch" was released on September 18, 2017, and directed by Canadian actress Megan Park. In the video, Eilish sets the remnants of a toxic relationship on fire and dumps her former lover. The singer stated in an interview with Vice that Park came up with her sitting in a bedroom during the video: "You see that room is right across from the ladder where I'm burning. And I get up and I walk over to the other 'ladder.' who represents the old me, who's hurt and heartbroken by this boy, and can't do anything without thinking about this person. And the new me is kind of over it. So I go up to the old me like, 'Screw you, I'm going to light you on fire now.'" In March 2018, Eilish and Finneas performed an acoustic version of "Watch". The track was also performed live during Eilish's North American 1 by 1 tour. It was also included on the setlist of her When We All Fall Asleep Tour (2019). ## Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Don't Smile at Me. - Billie Eilish – vocals - Finneas O'Connell – producer, songwriter - John Greenham – mastering engineer, studio personnel - Rob Kinelski – mixer, studio personnel ## Certifications	[ "## Background and composition", "## Reception", "## Promotion", "## Personnel", "## Certifications" ]	1,062	6,552
38,107,039	Frog Fractions	1,158,815,297	Browser game developed by Twinbeard Studios	[ "2012 video games", "Browser games", "Flash games", "Parody video games", "Promotional alternate reality games", "Single-player online games", "Single-player video games", "Video games about amphibians", "Video games developed in the United States", "Windows games" ]	Frog Fractions is a 2012 browser game developed by Twinbeard Studios, a company composed primarily of founder Jim Stormdancer. The game, released on October 25, 2012, has been described as a spoof of the edutainment game genre. In the game, the player begins by controlling a frog to eat bugs and defend fruit. Later on, the player may spend points on upgrades to improve their frog's abilities. The game does not actually teach the player about fractions; the player's score is given in fractions, but no knowledge of them is necessary to play. Its sequel, Frog Fractions 2, announced by a Kickstarter in 2014, was released in December 2016 after players successfully completed a multi-segmented alternative reality game assembled by Stormdancer. The first game was later ported to Windows and released on Steam in August 2020 as Frog Fractions: Game of the Decade Edition, along with downloadable content that adds a new playable story. ## Gameplay Frog Fractions begins with a frog named Hop sitting on a lily pad. The player controls Hop, and must use his tongue to attack insects, while collecting and protecting fruit. The game later introduces upgrades that the player may purchase, including lock-on targeting, a cybernetic brain, and a flying dragon named Draggy. When the player collects enough fruit, they can buy a warp drive, which lets Hop ride Draggy through an asteroid field to Bug Mars, where he then battles an alien robot squid. Hop is then sent to Bug Court, where he signs for a work visa. Hop then travels under the water below Bug Mars, while listening to a narrated fictional history of the creation of boxing. At the end of the maze, Hop activates a spaceship, and the player must complete a text adventure game to return to Bug Mars. Upon returning, Hop runs for president in a Dance Dance Revolution-style game. Regardless of how well the player performs, Hop succeeds in being elected president, and a fake credits scene plays. After the fake credits, the player must complete a business simulator manufacturing bug pornography to unlock further upgrades. Once all required upgrades are collected, the game concludes. The game takes about one hour to complete. ### Hop’s Iconic Cap Years after the events of Frog Fractions, Hop has been impeached and works at a theater production of his original adventure, where he is constantly heckled by an internet troll in the audience named Content-Aware Phil. Disillusioned with his job and fearing he is becoming estranged from his daughter October, the player plays a point-and-click adventure game to help the two sneak out of the house and go on a new adventure so they can reconnect. While they visit the Frog Fractions Science Museum, Hop receives multiple phone calls from his wife Hatricia stating her team uncovered a cursed grave site on an archaeological dig and, through a complex series of events, she has become a new demiurge. Draggy, now working for Redcane Group, Inc., calls Hop for a meeting at the request of his boss Dom Schema, but he, Hop and October are attacked by Schema during the meeting and must escape via an Ikaruga-inspired scrolling shooter game. After hiding in an IKEA, the three decide to infiltrate Redcane to find the truth, now accompanied by the still-heckling Phil. They first attempt to find ores needed to fool the building's odor scanner via a Boulder Dash-inspired digging game. When that attempt fails, they obtain an employee keycard and sneak into the building via a turn-based puzzle game. Entering the deepest level of the building, the group discovers hundreds of Hop clones in holding containers. Schema appears and reveals he is the original Hop and that the one controlled by the player is a clone, created when he got too old for adventuring. Due to Hop settling into a routine and becoming boring, Schema intends to replace Hop with another clone, prompting a final RPG battle with Schema. Phil's heckling during the battle so infuriates the other Hop clones that they escape their captivity, killing Phil and Schema before rampaging through the streets of Bug Francisco as the credits roll. After the credits, October and Hop work together in the digging game to find VHS tapes of skate videos, which contain information Hatricia needs to obtain bureaucratic forms limiting her responsibilities as demiurge. After digging deep enough, they emerge in the underground kingdom of Gehennom, where the family is happily reunited. ## Development Stormdancer originally created Frog Fractions to entertain his friends, and to see their reactions when they first played it. Later on, he felt that with the indie genre taking off, Frog Fractions was taken more seriously among gamers. Stormdancer noted that although critics often described the game as a satire on old educational games, he never intentionally developed Frog Fractions with that in mind. Instead, Stormdancer explained that Frog Fractions had an educational theme because of the name's alliteration, and because he considered educational games a part of his youth. Originally, Frog Fractions included tutorials to teach the player how to progress through the game. However, after Stormdancer asked his friend Tim Ambrogi to play test the game, Ambrogi stated that he did not want to read any of the informational popups that appeared throughout the game because he was too busy focusing on the gameplay. Stormdancer added transitions that made the game feel like a "dream-like progression", which he believed would better appeal to players. For transitions in the game's latter half, Stormdancer wanted the transitions to entertain players more, rather than attempt to make any sense of the game's story. PC World complimented Frog Fractions for using the transitions to draw connections between each scene to add a feeling of consistency, despite the often strange transitions that take place. In order to make money from Frog Fractions, Stormdancer first sold the game's soundtrack, with part of the proceeds going to the game's music team. He later decided to sell T-shirts containing jokes from the game in order to benefit its art team. While developing Frog Fractions, Stormdancer said that he came up with a lot of other video game ideas, but he then realized that he could implement them immediately into Frog Fractions rather than start a new project, due to the game's unpredictable nature. ## Release Stormdancer released Frog Fractions earlier than he wanted, when he sent an incomplete version to the 2013 Independent Games Festival as a "Main Competition Entrant" but was told that he needed to increase the game's popularity before it would be accepted. Subsequently, he let Gamasutra editor and popular Twitter user Brandon Sheffield play the game, who enjoyed it so much that he shared it with his more than 3,000 Twitter followers. Within a day, tens of thousands of people had played the game. After the game's release, players began requesting new features, such as more updates, a high definition version for tablets and smartphones, and a sequel. Stormdancer was interested in developing a high definition version in which he could include some leftover ideas, but admitted that he was unsure if this would ever materialize. He noted that he created Frog Fractions to gain visibility for himself rather than to profit from it. Frog Fractions was described as being possibly the "greatest game of all time" by Rock Paper Shotgun, who credited the wild range of gameplay mechanics. It was also called "the most deranged thing you'll play this year" by Eurogamer, and "either the best or worst piece of math edu-tainment in history" by the Gameological Society. The game won Giant Bomb's "URL of the Year" award for 2012. In March 2014, Twinbeard launched a Kickstarter campaign to crowdfund the development of a sequel entitled Frog Fractions 2. In January 2020, it was announced that Frog Fractions would be released via Steam later in the year as Frog Fractions: Game of the Decade Edition. Due to Flash no longer being supported, the game was ported to C# using Haxe before being reimplemented into the Unity engine. The in-game graphics were also upscaled to support 4K resolution displays. Game of the Decade Edition was released on August 2, 2020, as a free download. A piece of paid downloadable content called "Hop's Iconic Cap" was released alongside the game, with Stormdancer saying to try the DLC if "you want to eat bugs while wearing a hat". While billed solely as a cosmetic item for the original game, parodying the "Horse Armor" DLC for the 2006 videogame The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, the "Hop's Iconic Cap" content actually unlocks an additional game story with new gameplay styles; Stormdancer has stated he considers "Hop's Iconic Cap" to be Frog Fractions 4. An update released for the game in October 2020 added new secrets to "Hop's Iconic Cap", along with Steam achievements for Game of the Decade Edition. The update includes over 100 new secrets and changes, described by Stormdancer as "ranging in obscurity from 'can't miss it' to 'break out the decompiler.'" ## Sequel Stormdancer announced his plans for a sequel, Frog Fractions 2, via a Kickstarter campaign in March 2014, with a planned release in 2015. The Kickstarter campaign was successful raising \$72,107, which exceeded the goal of \$60,000. The campaign included a number of elements that pointed players towards a larger alternate reality game (ARG) that incorporated a number of web sites, social media accounts, real-life locations, and around two dozen independent video games. The ARG was solved by players around December 2016, discovering a physical box that triggered the release of Frog Fractions 2, hidden within the content of the video game Glittermitten Grove''.	[ "## Gameplay", "### Hop’s Iconic Cap", "## Development", "## Release", "## Sequel" ]	2,040	30,251
27,651,049	German submarine U-104 (1940)	1,172,031,028	German World War II submarine	[ "1940 ships", "German Type IX submarines", "Maritime incidents in November 1940", "Ships built in Bremen (state)", "U-boats commissioned in 1940", "U-boats sunk by mines", "U-boats sunk in 1940", "World War II submarines of Germany" ]	German submarine U-104 was a Type IXB U-boat of Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine during World War II. She was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 24 May 1938 as part of the German naval rearmament program Plan Z. Her keel was laid down by DeSchiMAG AG Weser in Bremen in November 1939. Following about six and a half months of construction, she was launched on 25 May 1940 and formally commissioned into the Kriegsmarine on 19 August 1940. U-104 had a very short career, sinking just one enemy vessel and damaging one other during one war patrol. In the middle of her first patrol, U-104 was posted missing off the north coast of Ireland on 30 November 1940 and was presumed sunk in minefield SN 44, which was laid a few days prior to her arrival in the area. ## Construction and design ### Construction U-104 was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 24 May 1938 (as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles). Her keel was laid down on 10 November 1939 by DeSchiMAG AG Weser in Bremen as yard number 967. U-104 was launched on 25 May 1940 and commissioned on 19 August of that year under the command of Kapitänleutnant Harald Jürst. ### Design German Type IXA submarines were slightly larger than the original German Type IX submarines, later designated IXA. U-104 had a displacement of 1,051 tonnes (1,034 long tons) when at the surface and 1,178 tonnes (1,159 long tons) while submerged. The U-boat had a total length of 76.50 m (251 ft), a pressure hull length of 58.75 m (192 ft 9 in), a beam of 6.76 m (22 ft 2 in), a height of 9.60 m (31 ft 6 in), and a draught of 4.70 m (15 ft 5 in). The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40/46 supercharged four-stroke, nine-cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4,400 metric horsepower (3,240 kW; 4,340 shp) for use while surfaced, two Siemens-Schuckert 2 GU 345/34 double-acting electric motors producing a total of 1,000 metric horsepower (740 kW; 990 shp) for use while submerged. She had two shafts and two 1.92 m (6 ft) propellers. The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres (750 ft). The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18.2 knots (33.7 km/h; 20.9 mph) and a maximum submerged speed of 7.3 knots (13.5 km/h; 8.4 mph). When submerged, the boat could operate for 64 nautical miles (119 km; 74 mi) at 4 knots (7.4 km/h; 4.6 mph); when surfaced, she could travel 12,000 nautical miles (22,000 km; 14,000 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). U-104 was fitted with six 53.3 cm (21 in) torpedo tubes (four fitted at the bow and two at the stern), 22 torpedoes, one 10.5 cm (4.13 in) SK C/32 naval gun, 180 rounds, and a 3.7 cm (1.5 in) SK C/30 as well as a 2 cm (0.79 in) C/30 anti-aircraft gun. The boat had a complement of forty-eight. ## Service history During her short career, U-104 sank one enemy vessel and damaged another on her first and only war patrol in the North Sea, off the northern coast of Ireland and Great Britain. She went to sea on her first and only war patrol on 12 November 1940. For a period of 17 days, she roamed the North Sea and eventually the northern coast of Scotland and Ireland in search of any Allied convoys heading to Great Britain. During that time she attacked two enemy vessels, sinking one and damaging the other. On 27 November 1940, U-104 torpedoed and sank the British merchant vessel Diplomat, a straggler of convoy HX 88, with the loss of 14 of her crew. The other merchant vessel was the British motor tanker Charles F. Meyer, of convoy HX 87, which survived the attack. The next day, U-104 went missing just north of neutral Ireland. She is presumed to have been sunk by a mine from the SN 44 minefield, which was laid on 8 November 1940, just 20 days prior to U-104's disappearance. All of her crew are presumed dead. ## Summary of raiding history	[ "## Construction and design", "### Construction", "### Design", "## Service history", "## Summary of raiding history" ]	1,061	15,789
39,066,697	Eugenia Washington	1,168,963,812	American historian and civil servant (1838-1900)	[ "1838 births", "1900 deaths", "19th-century American Episcopalians", "19th-century American historians", "19th-century American women writers", "19th-century Roman Catholics", "American people of English descent", "American people of French descent", "American people of Scotch-Irish descent", "American women historians", "Calhoun family", "Catholics from Maryland", "Catholics from Virginia", "Catholics from Washington, D.C.", "Catholics from West Virginia", "Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism", "Daughters of the American Revolution people", "Episcopalians from Virginia", "Episcopalians from West Virginia", "Founders of lineage societies", "Historians from Maryland", "Historians from Virginia", "Historians from West Virginia", "Historians of the American Revolution", "Historians of the Thirteen Colonies", "Historians of the United States", "People from Berwyn Heights, Maryland", "People from Charles Town, West Virginia", "People from Falmouth, Virginia", "People from Washington, D.C.", "Stafford County in the American Civil War", "United States Postal Service people", "Washington family", "Women founders", "Women in the American Civil War" ]	Eugenia Scholay Washington (June 27, 1838 – November 30, 1900) was an American historian, civil servant, and a founder of the lineage societies, Daughters of the American Revolution and Daughters of the Founders and Patriots of America. Washington was born in 1838 near Charles Town, Virginia, in present-day West Virginia. She was the daughter of William Temple Washington, through whom she was a great-grandniece of George Washington, first president of the United States, and a grandniece of Dolley Payne Todd Madison. Following her family's relocation to Stafford County, she and her family witnessed the Battle of Fredericksburg first hand during the American Civil War. Due to her family's limited financial resources after the war and her father's illness, Washington accepted a position as a clerk within the United States Post Office Department in Washington, DC, to support her family. There, Washington was one of the four co-founders of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution (with Mary Desha, Mary Smith Lockwood, and Ellen Hardin Walworth). Washington had reportedly been inspired by her experiences during the American Civil War to found an organization for preserving the shared heritage of women from the North and South of the United States. Washington was the DAR's first Registrar General, and was made "number one" on the "grand roll" of the society's membership. In 1898, Washington founded another lineage society, the National Society of Daughters of the Founders and Patriots of America, with the broader goal of preserving the history of the American colonial era. While visiting a relative in Louisiana around 1870, Washington attended a Roman Catholic mission. She later converted to Roman Catholicism from her Episcopal faith, after which she became a prominent lecturer of the Catholic faith. Washington never married, and she died in 1900. Washington was interred beside her mother at the Moncure family burial ground of her sister's estate, "Glencairne", in Falmouth, Virginia. ## Early life, family, and ancestry Eugenia Scholay Washington was born on June 27, 1838, at "Megwillie" plantation near Charles Town in Jefferson County, Virginia (now West Virginia), to William Temple Washington (1800–1877) and his wife, Margaret Calhoun Fletcher (1805–1865). The name of the plantation on which she was born, "Megwillie", was a portmanteau of both her mother and father's nicknames. Through her father, Washington was the granddaughter of George Steptoe Washington (1771–1809) and Lucy Payne Washington Todd (1772?–1846). She was also the great-granddaughter of Samuel Washington (1734–1781, younger brother of George Washington) and his wife Annie Steptoe, and the great-grandniece of George Washington (1732–1799). Her grandfather, George Steptoe Washington, was a "favorite nephew" of George Washington and was left an inheritance following Washington's death. Washington's grandmother, Lucy Payne Washington Todd, was a sister of First Lady of the United States Dolley Payne Todd Madison (1768–1849). The widowed Dolley Payne Todd married James Madison at Washington's grandparents' residence, Harewood. Through her mother, Washington was great-grandniece of John C. Calhoun (1782–1850). Also through her mother, Washington was descended from Charles Francois Joseph, Count de Flechir (born in France in 1755, died in New York in 1815), who served in the American Revolutionary War and was "a friend and kinsman" of Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette. Count de Flechir married Ruth Phillips Sourency. Flechir's grandson and Washington's grandfather, Thomas Fletcher, served on the staff of General William Henry Harrison in the War of 1812. Thomas Fletcher married Nancy McIlhenney and was the son of Samuel Fletcher and Abigail West. Washington's father, William Temple Washington, was educated at the College of William & Mary and home schooled his children. Around 1859, William Washington relocated his family to a plantation at Falmouth in Stafford County, Virginia, located on the north side of the Rappahannock River across from Fredericksburg. Washington's father suffered from paralysis, and she cared for him from a young age. ## American Civil War Following her family's relocation to Falmouth, Washington continued to live a "tranquil life" caring for her father until the American Civil War. Union and Confederate forces fought near the family plantation, so Washington and her family "suffered all the horrors and the hardships" of the war. The family witnessed the Battle of Fredericksburg, December 11–15, 1862, first hand. A wounded Union Army officer was brought to their home early in the battle and placed in Washington's care while waiting a surgeon, thus delaying the evacuation of Washington and her disabled father. As the battle drew even nearer, Washington "sheltered her father's body with her own" in a trench created by a cannon, and they remained in that position for an entire day. By the end of the American Civil War, Washington and her family were "deprived of all worldly goods". Washington's mother, Margaret, died shortly after the war's conclusion in 1865, and her father, William Temple, died twelve years later in 1877. ## United States Post Office Department After her mother's death, Washington accepted a position as a clerk within the United States Post Office Department in Washington, DC, to support herself and her ailing father. Eva Bryan, former president of the Daughters of Founders and Patriots of America, considered Washington's position an "honorable" one for a woman, because of the family's financial straits, although otherwise "the great-great-niece of George Washington would not normally be employed". Washington and her father relocated from Falmouth to Washington in 1867, and she lived there until her death in 1900. During her tenure with the Post Office, Washington was known as "Miss Eugie" and "considered quite attractive and always received a great deal of attention wherever she went". During her last decade, Washington served as a clerk in the Dead letter office. ## Daughters of the American Revolution Washington was one of the four co-founders of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution (with Mary Desha, Mary Smith Lockwood, and Ellen Hardin Walworth). The organization's founders emulated the Sons of the American Revolution, founded in New York City on April 30, 1889, which excluded women. According to society tradition, Washington's experiences during the American Civil War "inspired in her a will to assist women from both the North and the South in the worthy cause of preserving their shared heritage". Washington and Desha consulted regularly with Sons of the American Revolution members for advice, particularly Registrar General Dr. George Brown Goode, Secretary General A. Howard Clark, William O. McDowell (SAR member \#1), and Wilson L. Gill (secretary at the inaugural meeting). On October 11, 1890, at 2 pm, the 18 founding members and these four men met at the Stratford Arms in Washington, DC, thus forming the Daughters of the American Revolution. Washington, Desha, Lockwood, and Walworth are called co-founders since they held two to three meetings in August 1890. Washington was the DAR's first Registrar General, and her name appears as member "number one" on the "grand roll" of membership. Washington also served as secretary general, vice president general, and in 1895 she became honorary vice president general, an office which she held until her death. Under Washington's leadership, the society raised funds for a national monument to Mary Ball Washington, mother of George Washington. Washington ardently carried out the duties of her offices at DAR, despite suffering with a serious eye condition that made it difficult for her to write. Washington stated, "We want a patriotic society founded on service and I will not become a member of an organization which is founded on rank and not on the service of the ancestors." ## Daughters of Founders and Patriots of America Washington founded another lineage society, the National Society of Daughters of the Founders and Patriots of America, in June 1898. Washington established this organization with the broader goals of preserving the history of the American colonial era (like The Colonial Dames of America and The National Society of Colonial Dames of America), as well as encouraging appreciation of American history and fostering patriotism. Washington disliked the "bickering" within the DAR, and to ensure a more "congenial" society that "remained small and cordial", she required that the new organization members also be direct descendants of "a colonist who arrived in America between May 13, 1607 and May 13, 1687" as well as qualify for the DAR. Washington chose the deadline date of May 13, 1687 (broader than the Mayflower Society), so that she would be eligible for membership in the society. While Washington intended for the organization not to grow beyond 300 members, membership in the Daughters of Founders and Patriots of America grew to 2,800 by the mid-1980s. ## Catholic faith While visiting a family member in Louisiana around 1870, Washington attended a Catholic mission organized by the Paulists at a neighboring parish. After "careful study", Washington was received into the Roman Catholic Church. Prior to her conversion, Washington consulted with a clergyman at her Episcopal church, and in response to his concern, she replied: "Oh no, I must act up to my convictions and I shall pray hard that you may be given the same grace." Washington became a prominent lecturer of the Catholic faith and attended the Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle in Washington, DC. ## Later life and death Washington never married. In 1892, Washington purchased a second residence at 5706 Berwyn Road in Berwyn Heights, Maryland, from James E. Waugh; she owned it until her death. While in Washington, DC, she resided with her cousin Fanny Washington Finch at 813 13th Street, Northwest. Washington died at the age of 62 on Friday, November 30, 1900, at her home on 13th Street. Washington's housemate and cousin Fanny Washington Finch predeceased her in March of that year. Only "a few acquaintances" among Washington's colleagues and employees in her Post Office bureau knew she was ill, and she worked until a week before her death. Washington's sister, Jean Washington Moncure, also a resident of Washington and married to Thomas Gascoigne Moncure, arranged for Washington's funeral at her own house and interment next to their mother at the Moncure estate "Glencairne" on the Rappahannock River near Falmouth. On December 1, 1900, the funeral train left the Pennsylvania Railroad station in Washington, DC, for Fredericksburg, Virginia. The Fredericksburg Betty Lewis Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution "escorted" Washington's remains. A simple graveside service was performed by Reverend Dr. Smith, pastor of St. George's Episcopal Church in Fredericksburg. A memorial service and requiem mass for Washington were held at St. Patrick's Catholic Church in Washington, DC, on December 31, 1900. Following Washington's death, her sister Jean was the last surviving patrilineal descendant of William Temple Washington. ## Legacy By Washington's death in 1900, membership in the National Society of Daughters of the American Revolution numbered around 35,000. Many chapters of the society expressed their appreciation and respect. She was also mentioned at the groundbreaking of the Memorial Continental Hall on October 11, 1902, by Cornelia Cole Fairbanks. In 1908, a "mourning pin" crafted on the occasion of the death of George Washington that had been given to Washington by her grandmother, Lucy Payne Washington Todd, was donated to the Memorial Continental Hall by Jennie White Hopkins. On April 17, 1929, under the leadership of President General Grace L. H. Brosseau, the Daughters of the American Revolution dedicated a memorial to its four founders, including Washington; it was sculpted by Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney and is located at Constitution Hall in Washington, DC. The Daughters of the American Revolution also maintained Washington's gravesite at "Glencairne", and in 1979 they installed a plaque honoring her. In October 1990, the Daughters of the American Revolution held a ceremony at her gravesite to mark the centennial jubilee of the organization's founding. On October 13, 1999, a year after their own centennial, 21 members of the Daughters of Founders and Patriots of America met at the gravesite to unveil a larger memorial plaque honoring her.	[ "## Early life, family, and ancestry", "## American Civil War", "## United States Post Office Department", "## Daughters of the American Revolution", "## Daughters of Founders and Patriots of America", "## Catholic faith", "## Later life and death", "## Legacy" ]	2,721	28,604
61,607,905	C. Doris Hellman	1,173,185,396	American historian of science (1910–1973)	[ "1910 births", "1973 deaths", "20th-century translators", "City University of New York faculty", "Columbia University alumni", "Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science", "Fellows of the Royal Astronomical Society", "German–English translators", "Historians of science", "New York University faculty", "Pratt Institute faculty", "Radcliffe College alumni", "Vassar College alumni", "Writers from New York City" ]	Clarisse Doris Hellman Pepper (August 28, 1910 – March 28, 1973) was an American historian of science, "one of the first professional historians of science in the United States". She specialized in 16th- and 17th-century astronomy, wrote a book on the Great Comet of 1577, and was the translator of another book, a biography of Johannes Kepler. She became a professor at the Pratt Institute and later at the Queens College, City University of New York, and was recognized by membership in several selective academic societies. ## Early life and education Hellman was born on August 28, 1910, in New York City. Her father, Alfred Myer Hellman, was an obstetrician and a collector of rare books; her mother Clarisse (née Bloom) later served as the only female member of the board of directors of Sydenham Hospital. She graduated from the Horace Mann School in 1926, and earned a bachelor's degree in mathematics and astronomy (with election to Phi Beta Kappa) from Vassar College in 1930. She then became a Vassar College Fellow at Radcliffe College and completed a master's degree in the history of science at Radcliffe in 1931. According to biographer Joseph Dauben, this was "one of the country's earliest advanced degrees in history of science". At Radcliffe, Harvard historian of science George Sarton became one of her mentors. She became a doctoral student at Columbia University and, interrupting her studies to marry and raise two daughters, completed her Ph.D. in 1943. Her dissertation concerned the Great Comet of 1577, and was titled The Comet of 1577: Its Place in the History of Astronomy. In it, she credits Columbia professor Frederick Barry for supervising her doctoral research, and thanks Sarton and Lynn Thorndike for their encouragement, suggestions, and criticism. The dissertation was also published as a book in 1944 by the Columbia University Press, and reprinted in 1971 by the AMS Press of New York. ## Later life and career In 1949, Hellman began a ten-year term on the council of the History of Science Society. In 1951, she was appointed to the faculty of the Pratt Institute, in the Department of Social Studies, and in the early 1950s she led the effort to found The New York Section of the History of Science Society. In 1959 she published her second book, a translation of a biography of Johannes Kepler originally written in German by Max Caspar [de]. It was reprinted by Dover Publications in 1993. She also represented the United States at the International Union of the History and Philosophy of Science Congress on the History of Science in Spain in 1959, and was secretary of the following congress, in 1962 at Cornell University. Her research in 1959–1960 was supported by a National Science Foundation senior postdoctoral fellowship. Continuing to work at the Pratt Institute, she also began working as an adjunct professor at New York University in 1964. In 1966, she moved to Queens College, City University of New York, also teaching at the CUNY Graduate Center. She died in New York on March 28, 1973, after a long illness. Her husband, Morton Pepper (a lawyer and president of the Jewish Guild for the Blind) remarried and lived until 1988. Her daughters, Alice and Carol Pepper, married two brothers who both became academics, Robert L. and Paul R. Cooper. ## Books ### The Comet of 1577 Hellman's book The Comet of 1577: Its Place in the History of Astronomy collected and catalogued accounts of the Great Comet of 1577 by writers of the time. It also includes two introductory chapters based on the work of Lynn Thorndike and George Sarton summarizing what was known about comets prior to 1577. Prior works in the history of astronomy largely told the tale only of astronomical observations, and Hellman broke from this tradition by including the writings of many others, including "preachers, poets, persons of general culture, and astrologers". The book's material on astronomical observations of the comet is divided, broadly, according to the measurement of parallax and its use in determining the position of the comet with respect to the moon, with one chapter on astronomers who believed it to be closer than the moon, another chapter on those who, finding no observable parallax, determined that it was farther away (chief among them Tycho Brahe), and a third on those who did not consider the question. Although Brahe himself rejected the sun-centered model of the solar system put forward by Nicolaus Copernicus, in favor of his own version of the more orthodox earth-centered model of the time, the observations of Brahe cast serious doubt on the earth-centered model and on its reliance on solid but transparent spheres supporting the planets, because they showed the comet passing through that space without obstruction. As the book briefly outlines in its conclusion, and as historians of science came to realize, in large part based on Hellman's work, these observations of the comet played a key role in the success of the Copernican Revolution of the early 17th century, in which the earth-centered model was supplanted by the sun-centered one. This changing view of Brahe's and the comet's place in the history of science is reflected in the book's reviews. Writing at the time of its first publication, historian Pearl Kibre sees the book as reflecting the continuity of medieval thought, rather than the break that was soon to come. Another contemporary reviewer, astronomer Nicholas T. Bobrovnikoff, while finding much to quibble about in the details of the book, seems perplexed both by its inclusion of non-astronomers and by its focus on parallax, writing that it would have been better to pay more attention to the direction of the comet's tail and what it would imply about the composition of comets. In contrast, at the book's republication in the 1970s, historian of science William H. Donahue credits Hellman with the recognition of the comet's role in the change in cosmology, calls her choice to include non-astronomical sources "admirable and powerful", and writes that, by focusing less on theoretical debates and more on thoroughly cataloging the works of the time, Hellman's book has become timeless, "ever assured a place in the first rank of works on the history of astronomy". By 1995, Albert van Helden, the Lynette S. Autrey Professor of History at Rice University, called her book "the standard treatment of the comet of 1577". ### Kepler German historian Max Caspar spent 50 years collecting and editing the works of Johannes Kepler. Kepler, his biography of Kepler, was originally published in German in 1948, and reprinted in 1950 and 1958, but until Hellman's translation there was nothing like it in English. Writing in Science, reviewer William D. Stahlman calls Caspar's book the definitive biography, and Hellman's translation excellent, smooth, and long-awaited. As well as translating Caspar's original text, Hellman also added footnotes with historical and biographical information, largely missing from the original, and corrected some errors. Some text written in Latin by Kepler and quoted by Caspar remains untranslated. The 1993 Dover edition added a new introduction and bibliography, contributed by Owen Gingerich and Alain Segonds. Reviewer Albert Van Helden described the book as standard and unchallenged as a biography of Kepler, and Hellman's translation as "beautiful". ## Recognition Several learned societies honored Hellman by electing her as a member (or, for societies with open membership) to a higher honorary level of membership: She became a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1960. She was elected to the International Academy of the History of Science in 1963, and became a full member in 1969. She was also a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Hellman's papers are kept in the Columbia University Libraries.	[ "## Early life and education", "## Later life and career", "## Books", "### The Comet of 1577", "### Kepler", "## Recognition" ]	1,697	8,169
36,348,125	Meica Horsburgh	1,158,620,409	Australian goalball player	[ "1989 births", "Goalball players at the 2012 Summer Paralympics", "Goalball players at the 2016 Summer Paralympics", "Goalball players at the 2020 Summer Paralympics", "Living people", "Paralympic goalball players for Australia", "People from Redland City" ]	Meica Jayne Horsburgh (née Christensen; born 24 February 1989) is an Australian goalball player. She began playing the sport in 2004, the same year she made her national team debut. After the national team took a three-year break, she was named the captain in 2010 and played in the Goalball World Championships. She represented Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics and was at the 2016 Summer Paralympics and 2020 Summer Paralympics. ## Personal Horsburgh was born in Wynnum North, Queensland, on 24 February 1989. She has a visual disability, with partial sight. She attended Cavendish Road State High School, and played in a goalball demonstration game there in 2004. Other sports she participates in include skiing. In 2005, she lived in Birkdale, Queensland, but was living in Wellington Point again by 2011. In 2011, she worked at Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital as an administrator. She is married to Australian goalball player Jon Horsburgh. ## Goalball Horsburgh is a goalball player, and is classified as a B3 competitor. She started playing the sport in 2004, when she was 15-years-old. In 2005, she played in the New Zealand Goalball Nationals for the Queensland women's goalball team. Horsburgh made her national team debut in 2004, the same year she started playing the sport, when she played in a game against Sweden women's national goalball team in Malmö, Sweden, as part of a ten-team Malmö Women's International Cup that included seven teams that had qualified for the 2004 Summer Paralympics. She was coached in the competition by Robyn Stephens. In late 2004, she had a goal of making the Paralympic team for the 2008 Summer Paralympics, but the Australian team did not qualify. She was named the national team captain in 2010. In her role as captain, she plays the song "The Final Countdown" before competitions. Going into the 2010 Goalball World Championships with the national team not having played a match in three years, her team finished eighth. She was the national team captain again in 2011, and was with the team during the 2011 IBSA Africa Oceania Goalball Regional Champions, which served as the Paralympic qualifying tournament. In her first game against New Zealand, her team won 11-4 after leading 7–1 at the half. She scored seven goals in the team's victory. She also played in the final match against New Zealand women's national goalball team. Australia won the game against New Zealand by a score of 6–2, Horsburgh scored three goals, the second one from a penalty shot. She finished the competition as the fifth highest scorer, and her team finished sixth overall. Horsburgh was named to the Aussie Belles team going to the 2012 Summer Paralympics. She was the team's longest serving member going into the Games, and the team's captain. That the team qualified for the Games came as a surprise, as the Australian Paralympic Committee had been working on player development with an idea of the team qualifying for the 2016 Summer Paralympics, and an Australian team had not participated since the 2000 Summer Paralympics, when they earned an automatic selection as hosts, and the team finished last in the competition. The country has not medalled in the event since 1976. Going into the Paralympic Games, her team was ranked eighth in the world. In the 2012 Summer Paralympics tournament, the Belles played games against Japan, Canada, the United States and Sweden. They lost every game, and did not advance to the finals. She scored three goals. The Belles originally failed to qualify for the 2016 Paralympic Games after finishing third at the IBSA Goalball Asia Pacific Championships in Hangzhou, China. They were displaced to allow for an African team, Algeria as it turned out, to compete in goalball for the first time. But following the re-allocation of Russia's spot, the Belles found themselves getting a last-minute invite to Rio de Janeiro. They entered the tournament ranked ninth in the world. They performed better this time, fighting Uzbekistan to a draw, but they needed a win or draw in their final game against Canada to progress to the quarter finals, but lost 6–0, ending their second Paralympic campaign. At the 2020 Summer Paralympics, Horsburgh and the other members of the Belles team comprising Raissa Martin, Jennifer Blow, Amy Ridley, Brodie Smith, and Tyan Taylor won two group stage games out of four and qualified for the quarterfinals. The team lost to Turkey 10-6 and failed to win a medal. Horsburgh was the leading goal scorer, scoring in every game she played, except for the loss to China where Australia were beaten 6–0. ## See also - Australia women's national goalball team	[ "## Personal", "## Goalball", "## See also" ]	1,083	44,626
4,003,731	Ethiopia at the 2006 Winter Olympics	1,098,102,681	null	[ "2006 in Ethiopian sport", "Ethiopia at the Winter Olympics by year", "Nations at the 2006 Winter Olympics" ]	Ethiopia competed in the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy. The country's participation at the Games marked its Winter Olympics debut, although it had competed in the Summer Olympics since the 1956 Games. The delegation consisted of a single cross-country skier, Robel Teklemariam, who did not win any medals. Teklemariam would later return for his country at the 2010 Winter Olympics. ## Background Ethiopia first competed in the Summer Olympics at the 1956 Games in Melbourne, Australia. They participated on 10 occasions prior to the 2006 Winter Olympics, where they made their Winter Olympics debut in Turin, Italy. They sent a single cross-country skier, Robel Teklemariam. Teklemariam was born in Addis Ababa, before he left Ethiopia with his family at the age of nine. When he arrived in the United States, he was introduced to skiing while at school in Lake Placid. After leaving full-time education, he decided that he wanted to compete internationally in the sport. In seeking to compete at the Winter Olympics, he set up the Ethiopian National Skiing Federation with his three brothers so that the sport could be recognised in the country. Teklemariam explained in interviews prior to the Games that he hoped his appearance would inspire other Ethiopians living in colder climates to take up sports. He suggested that cross-country skiing could be a sport that Ethiopians could naturally be proficient at, since it was an endurance sport. ## Cross-country skiing The sole Ethiopian athlete at the Games, Robel Teklemariam, competed in the men's 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) classical. He was the flag bearer at both the opening and closing ceremonies. He was banned for five days prior to the Olympics after tests showed he had abnormally high haemoglobin levels in his blood, but was cleared after a second test, and was allowed to compete. Competing on the 17 February, he finished the 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) race in a time of 47 minutes and 53.8 seconds, placing him in 83rd place out of the 96 skiers who finished the run. This was nearly ten minutes slower than the gold medallist, Andrus Veerpalu of Estonia (38 minutes and 1.3 seconds). Teklemariam finished faster than the only other African competing, Kenya's Philip Boit (53 minutes and 32.4 seconds). Teklemariam later returned to compete once again for Ethiopia at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Cross-country skiing	[ "## Background", "## Cross-country skiing" ]	542	9,927
52,659,656	Crossover (Adventure Time)	1,167,793,793	null	[ "2016 American television episodes", "Adventure Time (season 7) episodes", "Television episodes about parallel universes" ]	"Crossover" is the twenty-third episode of the seventh season of the American animated television series Adventure Time. The episode was written and storyboarded by Sam Alden and Jesse Moynihan, from an outline by showrunner Adam Muto, Jack Pendarvis, and head writer Kent Osborne. The episode, which debuted on January 28, 2016 on Cartoon Network, guest stars Kumail Nanjiani as Prismo, Lou Ferrigno as Bobby, and James Kyson as Big Destiny. The series follows the adventures of Finn (voiced by Jeremy Shada), a human boy, and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake (voiced by John DiMaggio), a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will. In this episode, Finn and Jake crossover into Farmworld (an alternate dimension first created in the episode "Finn the Human") to stop Farmworld-Finn and the Jake-Lich from using an alternate version of the Enchiridion to open up doorways into all dimensions. After a long and drawn-out battle, Finn, Jake, and Farmworld-Finn team up to stop the Jake-Lich. Finn and Jake are able to use a magical device given to them by Prismo to remove the essence of the Lich from Farmworld Jake, returning Farmworld to normal. "Crossover" was the first of several seventh-season episodes that Moynihan and Alden would work on; the two had previously collaborated on the sixth-season episode "The Mountain". Moynihan focused part of his attention on making sure that this episode would line up with the logic established in the fifth-season episode "Finn the Human" regarding alternate realities. Upon its airing, the episode was seen by 1.13 million viewers. It received largely positive reviews from critics, with several praising Nanjiani's voice work, as well as the aesthetic and design of the episode itself. ## Plot ### Background In the fourth-season finale, "The Lich", the series' main villain, the Lich (voiced by Ron Perlman), manages to open a portal to access the time room of Prismo (voiced by Kumail Nanjiani). In the fifth-season premiere, "Finn the Human", it is revealed that Prismo is a being that can grant wishes, and the Lich wishes for all life in the multiverse to be extinguished. Finn and Jake also enter Prismo's time room, and to undo the Lich's cataclysmic request, Finn wishes that "the Lich never even ever existed". Consequently, Finn is transported into a new "wish-altered reality", dubbed "Farmworld". In this version of Ooo, magic has been lost and the essence of the Lich was never released into the world via the detonation of a "mutagenic bomb". Furthermore, in this reality, Finn lives with his family and a non-magical dog named Jake. During the course of "Finn the Human", Finn finds the ice crown, a magical artifact. When he puts it on, he releases the essence of the Lich (who then possesses Farmworld-Jake's body), and re-introduces magic into the world. In "Jake the Dog", Jake, who has been still stuck in Prismo's time room after Finn is teleported to Farmworld, eventually wishes that the Lich's original request had merely been for "Finn and Jake to go home". With Jake's wish to seemingly undo what both the Lich and Finn wished for, Prismo believes that everything has been reset. ### Events Prismo summons Finn and Jake to his time room and reveals that Farmworld is still in existence; Farmworld-Finn has teamed up with the Jake-Lich, which could lead to destruction of all life in the multiverse. Prismo is powerless to stop this from occurring, and so he sends Finn and Jake to Farmworld with a device called "The Maid", which will clean up "all class-A inter-dimensional bung-ups." Once in the Farmworld universe, Finn and Jake discover that Farmworld-Finn has frozen all of that reality's humans in order to "save them". It is also revealed that the Jake-Lich has been possessing Big Destiny (voiced by James Kyson), gathering up the jewels needed to activate the Farmworld-version of the Enchiridion, so as to open up a portal to the multiverse. Eventually, Finn and Jake are discovered, and the portal is opened. Just as the Jake-Lich is about to kill Jake, Finn's grass-arm activates, severing Jake-Lich's hand. Farmworld-Finn realizes he has been used by Jake-Lich, and he teams up with Finn and Jake. The portal is closed, and Finn manages to use The Maid to remove the Lich's essence from Farmworld-Jake's body. With their work complete, Finn and Jake are taken back to Prismo's time room. Out of pity for his alternate reality self, Finn convinces Prismo to destroy Farmworld's ice crown, allowing Farmworld-Finn to reunite with his family. Finn despondently watches this transpire, while Jake tries to comfort him as they watch. ## Production The story for "Crossover" was developed by showrunner Adam Muto, Jack Pendarvis, and lead writer Kent Osborne. Sam Alden and Jesse Moynihan collaborated on the storyboard, which was submitted for network approval May 18, 2015, and eventually animated by Rough Draft Studios in South Korea. Supervising direction for the episode was carried out by Andres Salaff, whereas Sandra Lee handled the episode's art direction. This was Alden and Moynihan's first episode together since the sixth season episode "The Mountain". The episode sees the return of guest stars Ron Perlman, Kumail Nanjiani, and James Kyson; they reprise their characters Jake-Lich, Prismo, and Big Destiny, respectively. The episode also features Lou Ferrigno as Bobby, the Farmworld-version of the hero Billy. Some scenes in this episode reference other media works. According to Pendarvis, the visual appearance of the Jake-Lich was based on a scene from Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1978), which featured a mutant dog with a man's face. During the episode's final scene, Farmworld Finn's father is seen emerging out of a block of ice. Alden revealed on Twitter that he had specifically storyboarded this sequence to mirror a similar scene in "Escape from the Citadel" that had been storyboarded by Steve Wolfhard, which featured Finn's father Martin emerging from a crystal prison cell. It was Alden's intention for these two scenes to mirror each other, given their similar content. With the episode assigned to Alden and Moynihan, fellow storyboard artist Tom Herpich began to worry that the show would not be able to adequately explain why Farmworld continued to exist after the result of Jake's wish in "Jake the Dog". Herpich's concern caused Moynihan to also worry, and several discussions with Muto did little to quell his unease. In order to overcome this issue, Moynihan storyboarded several scenes featuring Prismo explaining why Farmworld continued to exist. Moynihan claimed that these additions were to ensure that "this shit made sense." In the end, however, these scenes were deemed unnecessary, and as such were excised from the episode. The sequences that depict the multiverse were designed by Moynihan, and to get the details right, he asked storyboard revisionist Julia Srednicki's father, who was a former quantum physicist, for assistance. Julia Srednicki's father provided several "articles and diagrams", which Moynihan then used when storyboarding the episode. ## Reception "Crossover" aired on January 28, 2016. It was seen by 1.13 million viewers and scored a 0.29 Nielsen rating in the 18- to 49-year-old demographic (Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States), which means that the episode was seen by 0.29 percent of all individuals aged 18 to 49 years old who were watching television at the time of the episode's airing. The episode received positive reviews from critics. Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded it an "A", calling it "a thrilling episode with some very impressive visuals". He also wrote that it "ends with a significant, unexpected emotional gut punch that takes advantage of the undercurrent of tragedy that runs through this post-post-apocalyptic series." Sava was complimentary towards Moynihan and Alden's storyboarding sensibilities, specifically highlighting their ability to balance the darker and more humorous aspects of the episode. Finally, the review also applauded Nanjiani's voice work, as well as the episode's "bold color choices and dramatic compositions that intesify the impact of the story". Andrew Tran of Overmental wrote that the episode's plot deviceparallel universes"call[s] attention to the most basic function of fiction: to imaginatively, counterfactually ponder what never happened so we can understand what did happen, and perhaps more importantly, so we can edit our perspectives on reality." In regards to the latter point, Tran highlighted similarities between the episode, and news stories of the day, writing: > It looks as though every wish granted in this way causes an entirely new dimension to be born and exist independently and irrevocably, which is an intriguing idea for the current moment. Today’s headlines are littered with activists and would-be revisionists attempting to either confront or whitewash this atrocity, or that new perspective, to either insert or obliterate narratives from history books, and effectively from the public consciousness. Hence, parallel dimension episodes are very much about historical authority and the fluidity of prevailing worldviews, and the threat that even a backwater dimension like Farmworld poses to Adventure Time‘s multiverse suggests that even the unlikeliest narrative, the most insane conspiracy theory, the most fringe historical revision, has a shot at existence, a chance to influence. K-K Bracken of The Geekiary applauded the return of the Lich as well as Prismo, and she complimented the episode's creative dialogue and neologism, writing, "This kind of dialogue is not only giggle-worthy, it’s also sneaking in vocabulary lessons for its target audience." Bracken also noted that Moynihan and Alden had good chemistry and that, in regards to Alden alone, "if this episode is any indication his future with the program looks bright indeed." ## Explanatory notes	[ "## Plot", "### Background", "### Events", "## Production", "## Reception", "## Explanatory notes" ]	2,196	7,945
23,779,852	Get Away From My Mom	1,110,425,319	null	[ "1999 American television episodes", "American television series premieres", "Home Movies (TV series) episodes" ]	"Get Away From My Mom" is the pilot episode of the American animated sitcom Home Movies. It originally aired on the UPN network in the United States on April 26, 1999. In the episode, eight-year-old Brendon Small discovers that his mother, Paula, is set to have a date with Brendon's soccer coach, the lazy, profane alcoholic John McGuirk. Brendon resents McGuirk for this and expresses his outrage throughout the episode. The date goes terribly and McGuirk and Paula decide to not pursue a relationship. Meanwhile, Brendon and his friends Melissa and Jason film a new movie about a rogue police officer. The episode used retroscripting, a process by which the actors completely improvised all their dialogue lines, the first time this technique was used for an animated television production. Certain script material, however, was provided by series co-founder Loren Bouchard, who also directed the episode. The pilot also utilized the "Squigglevision" style of animation which was used to produce the show for the entirety of its first season. In its original broadcast, "Get Away From My Mom" received a 1.4/2 Nielsen Rating, the lowest UPN had ever received in that time slot. The episode received mixed reviews from television critics, particularly pertaining to its employment of improvisation. ## Plot After soccer practice, eight-year-old aspiring filmmaker Brendon Small shows his mother Paula a self-made trailer for his upcoming film, The Dark Side of the Law, a crime film about a rogue police detective. Paula expresses indifference to the production. At breakfast the next morning, Paula informs Brendon she plans to go on a date that night with Brendon's soccer coach, John McGuirk, much to Brendon's chagrin. Brendon seeks advice from his friend Melissa and her father Erik, but they are unable to advise him as they are late for a violin recital. When McGuirk shows up at Brendon's house for the date that night, Brendon tries to scare him off by acting as if he is his son, but it proves unsuccessful. During the date, Paula becomes agitated at McGuirk's inappropriate, boring subject matter, and she becomes drunk in order to entertain herself. Meanwhile, Brendon, Melissa, and their friend Jason film a scene from The Dark Side of the Law in Brendon's basement, where Brendon's character is in a French prison, confronted by his mother, played by Melissa. They stop filming when Jason's nose starts running, and he demonstrates how he can move the mucus up and down to their disgust. At soccer practice the next day, Brendon—still upset with his mother's decision to date his coach—is uncooperative and chastises McGuirk for dating his mother, accusing him of desires to engage in a relationship with all the soccer players' mothers. While being driven home by Erik, Brendon asks Erik to fight McGuirk as revenge, but Erik denies his request and suggests he take his mind off the topic by playing a car game. Eventually, Brendon decides to apologize to McGuirk for his behavior, and the two reconcile. Later, McGuirk and Paula decide over the phone to end their relationship, a decision Brendon overhears using three-way calling. At the next soccer game, Brendon's team plays poorly, and an opposing player injures Brendon, which causes McGuirk to yell at the referee. While sitting out, Brendon spots Erik and Paula engaging in meaningless and casual flirtation in the bleachers, which Brendon interprets as another possible relationship. ## Production "Get Away From My Mom" was the first episode of Home Movies, which was created by Brendon Small and Loren Bouchard. The episode, as with the four subsequent episodes, demonstrated a writing style known as "retroscripting," in which the cast completely improvised their lines. Main cast members Small, H. Jon Benjamin, Paula Poundstone and Melissa Bardin Galsky wrote the episodes, while Bouchard also contributed to certain dialogue material. The episode marked the first animated television production without a script. Bouchard directed this first episode and the entire series. Along with the rest of the first season, the episode was animated using "squigglevision," a technique pioneered by the show's executive producer, Tom Snyder. The animation style consists of eight frames of looped "zigzagged" lines that stimulate the character's mouth movement. This style was used to produce the series on its incredibly low budget and allow for the actors to improvise. The style was eventually changed during the second season to Flash animation, which was believed to be a more conventional style. To make the young characters sound like children, instead of adults, recordings of the actors' performances were electronically altered. Galsky was cast to play Melissa despite having no prior experience in voice acting. Galsky considers Bouchard the biggest benefactor to her career based on that decision. After recording sessions for "Get Away From My Mom" concluded, Small (who voices Brendon) and Benjamin (who plays McGuirk) went out to drink beers before going to see a concert. According to Small, the experience contributed to their understanding of the unique dynamic between the characters. "Get Away From My Mom" is available on the DVD "Home Movies: The Complete First Season," which was released on November 16, 2004. A bonus feature on the DVD enables an audio commentary track, recorded by Small, Bouchard, and Benjamin, to play over the episode. Though generally intended to be humorous and entertaining, the track also details actual information on the episode's production. ## Reception "Get Away From My Mom" was originally broadcast on April 26, 1999 on UPN at 8 p.m. The episode received a 1.4/2 Nielsen rating, positioning it at 133 in total viewership for 1999's May sweeps. This marked the lowest rated telecast the network had ever aired in its timeslot at the time. The episode received generally mixed reviews from television critics. Writing for The Cincinnati Enquirer, John Kiesewetter criticized the show's use of improvised dialogue: "The uneven plot and sophomoric bodily function jokes sound like these people were making it up as they went along. And they were." Rob Owen, television critic for the Post-Gazette, paralleled Kiesewetter and said that the episode was a "pitfall" of the improvisation process: "The half-hour seems like a collection of scenes rather than a cohesive episode." Owen called it "so lackadaisical, it's hard to imagine UPN's most recently announced target audience - young males - having any patience for the program. The entertainment value is low", but did note that McGuirk's scenes in the episode were "the closest to ha-ha funny the show gets." Conversely, John Levesque called the show a "keeper" in his review for the Seattle Post-Intelligencer and applauded the series subtle, improvised style. Chicago Sun-Times journalist Phil Rosenthal commended the episode. In his review, he wrote, "Rather than big laughs, it's more likely to elicit the grin of bemused recognition. It's not about sight gags or clever puns. It's not about parodying the sitcom form. This sweet ass series[...]is not always subtle - unless a child showing another how to have fun with a runny nose is intellectual - but it nicely plays off the inherent absurdities and weirdness of everyday modern life." Dennis Landmann of DVD Freak wrote that the episode "sets up the tone quite well, for it develops the aspirations of Brendon becoming a filmmaker," and praised the confrontational scenes that occur between McGuirk and Brendon.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Reception" ]	1,593	26,367
1,224,931	Floorless Coaster	1,173,074,854	Type of roller coaster	[ "Floorless Coaster roller coasters", "Roller coasters manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard" ]	A Floorless Coaster, commonly known as a Floorless Roller Coaster, is a type of steel roller coaster manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard where riders sit with no floor underneath them, allowing their feet to swing freely just above the track. Development of the Floorless Coaster model began between 1995 and 1996 with Medusa at Six Flags Great Adventure opening on April 2, 1999, making it the world's first Floorless Roller Coaster. Floorless Roller Coasters also tend to have 3 to 7 inversions incorporated in the layout of the coaster. Recently, Bolliger & Mabillard have used floorless trains on their Dive Coasters, such as Griffon and SheiKra. Though they contain floorless trains, the coasters are still not considered Floorless Coasters as B&M classifies them as another model. Maurer Söhne has designed their own version of the Floorless Coaster, a variant of their X-Car called X-Car Floorless, but currently do not have any installations. ## History According to Walter Bolliger, development of the Floorless Coaster began between 1995 and 1996. In 1999, the world's first Floorless Coaster opened at Six Flags Great Adventure as Medusa. With the success of Medusa, SeaWorld, Cedar Fair, Six Flags, and independent parks, Janfusun Fancyworld, Parque Warner Madrid, Tivoli Gardens, and Ocean Park Hong Kong have built other coasters of this model at their parks. B&M has built 13 Floorless Coasters from the ground up, with Dominator at Kings Dominion being the only one relocated to another park. They have also converted three of their stand-up roller coasters to Floorless Coasters: Rougarou at Cedar Point, Patriot at California's Great America, and Firebird at Six Flags America. ## Design The design of a Floorless Coaster has one main difference from traditional steel roller coasters around the world: there is no floor under the seats. While a train is parked in the station, a floor is used only for loading and unloading purposes. Because the front row has nothing in front of it to stop riders from walking over the edge of the station, a gate is placed in front of the train to prevent this from happening. Once all the over-the-shoulder restraints are locked, the floor separates into several pieces and retracts underneath the station. The gate then opens, allowing the train to move forward. When the train returns to the station, the floor is brought back up and the gate is closed for the next group of riders to load and unload. Aside from the station, Floorless Coasters have similar layouts to B&M's sit-down coasters. ## Installations Bolliger & Mabillard has built thirteen Floorless Coasters from the ground up, with three additional that were converted from stand-up roller coasters. The roller coasters are listed in order of opening dates. Note: Although some Dive Coasters (such as SheiKra, Griffon, Valravn and Yukon Striker) feature floorless trains, they are not considered Floorless Coasters. ## Similar rides Maurer Söhne, a German roller coaster and steel manufacturer, has developed their own version of the Floorless Coaster called the X-Car Floorless. The car is the same as the original X-Car with the only difference being that there is no floor during the ride. As of 2019, no X-Car Floorless roller coasters have been manufactured. ## See also - Dive Coaster, a type of roller coaster also designed by Bolliger & Mabillard, that feature floorless trains on some models.	[ "## History", "## Design", "## Installations", "## Similar rides", "## See also" ]	779	34,820
65,251,794	Tobias Watkins	1,164,005,833	American physician, writer and educator (1780–1855)	[ "1780 births", "1855 deaths", "19th-century American educators", "19th-century American essayists", "19th-century American male writers", "19th-century American non-fiction writers", "19th-century pseudonymous writers", "American Freemasons", "American government officials convicted of crimes", "American magazine writers", "American male non-fiction writers", "American non-fiction writers", "Educators from Virginia", "John Quincy Adams administration personnel", "Marine Hospital Service personnel", "Military medical personnel of the United States", "People from Anne Arundel County, Maryland", "Prisoners and detainees of the United States federal government", "United States Army Medical Corps officers", "United States Navy Medical Corps officers", "Writers from Baltimore", "Writers from Washington, D.C." ]	Tobias Watkins (December 12, 1780 – November 14, 1855) was an American physician, editor, writer, educator, and political appointee in the Baltimore-Washington, D.C. area. He played leading roles in early American literary institutions such as The Portico and the Delphian Club and in early American medical institutions such as The Baltimore Medical and Physical Recorder and The Maryland State Medical Society. He served as an assistant surgeon general in the United States Army, secretary to the Spanish Commission following the Adams–Onís Treaty, Fourth Auditor of the United States Treasury, and an education leader in the Washington, D.C. area. The Supreme Court decisions connected to his high-profile conviction for embezzlement are part of the history of original habeas as it relates to federal review of federal custody in the US. ## Education and medical career Tobias Watkins was born on December 12, 1780 in Anne Arundel County, Maryland. He graduated from St. John's College in Annapolis, Maryland in 1798 and received a Doctorate of Medicine from the College of Philadelphia Department of Medicine in 1802. Between 1799 and 1801, Watkins served as an assistant surgeon in the United States Navy. He opened his first private medical practice in Havre de Grace, Maryland in 1803, but moved it shortly thereafter to Baltimore. During the War of 1812 in 1813 Watkins served as a surgeon with the 38th Army Infantry Regiment. The following year he was appointed major surgeon at a Marine Hospital, where he served until June 1815. In 1818 Watkins was appointed an assistant surgeon general in the United States Army under Surgeon General Joseph Lovell and assigned to inspect the medical staff and facilities of the Army Division of the North. Between May and October of that year he traveled as far north as Castine, Maine, as far south as Annapolis, Maryland, and as far west as Niagara Falls, New York. The army was reorganized again in 1821 and Watkins returned to private medical practice upon honorable discharge. In 1826 he delivered a discourse before the Columbian Institute for the Promotion of Arts and Sciences to celebrate its tenth anniversary. The institute published his words as a booklet later that year. ## Editorship and writing Watkins founded The Baltimore Medical and Physical Recorder, Maryland's first and the US's fifth medical journal. He edited and published the journal monthly from April 1808 through its final issue in August 1809. The first volume included more than eighty articles on "every conceivable subject," including the recently recognized treatment for smallpox by vaccination. In the 1810s Watkins entered the field of literature by publishing essays on Lord Byron in a Philadelphia newspaper edited by his brother in-law, Stephen Simpson. He used the pen name "A.," which many readers misunderstood to refer to historian Paul Allen. In 1816 he co-founded The Portico: A Repository of Science & Literature, in which he published several medical works he translated from French as well as his own literary essays until its final issue in 1818. The Portico was closely associated with the Delphian Club, which Watkins co-founded with John Neal, John Pierpont, and four other men in Baltimore in 1816. The club disbanded in 1825. Shortly after its establishment, Watkins served as the club's president, known as the "Tripod," and earned the nickname "Pertinax Particular." In 1821 he published Tales of the Tripod; Or A Delphian Evening under this nickname, a collection of three stories, two of which are about fellow Delphian Paul Allen. The Delphian Club brought him into association with other eccentric Baltimore professionals of law, literature, art, and medicine at a time when the city was the third largest in the US. Watkins helped John Neal publish his first novel in 1817 and also worked with Neal in 1818 to write most of A History of the American Revolution (published 1819), otherwise attributed to fellow Delphian Paul Allen. John Neal took over for Watkins as editor of the last issue of The Portico when Watkins left Baltimore on his 1818 tour as assistant surgeon general in the army. ## Political appointments and legal battle Tobias Watkins was a close friend of John Quincy Adams, who, as US Secretary of State under President James Monroe, secured Watkins an appointment as secretary to the Spanish Commission. This commission handled American claims against Spain following the signing of the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1819, which resulted in Spain's cession of Florida to the US. Part of his work on the commission involved translating from Spanish Luis de Onís's 152-page memoir on the diplomatic negotiation, which was published in English in 1821. When the Spanish Commission disbanded in 1824, Adams secured Watkins an appointment as Fourth Auditor of the United States Treasury, which he served through the Adams presidency until 1829. As fourth auditor he embezzled money from the treasury for "politics and electioneering," a common crime in this period. Upon assuming office in 1829, President Andrew Jackson replaced Watkins with Amos Kendall, who discovered Watkins had embezzled \$3,050. Jackson assigned Attorney General John M. Berrien to prosecute Watkins, who secured a conviction for perjury and misappropriation of public funds. Watkins was sentenced to nine months in prison and a fine equal to his embezzlement, but he was held in prison for an additional two years for inability to pay the fine. Jackson ordered a sign attached above the door to Watkins's cell labeled "Criminal's Apartment." Watkins's trial attracted considerable public attention and was an embarrassment to President Adams, who recorded in his journal: > That an officer under my administration, and appointed partly at my recommendation, should have embezzled any part of the public moneys is a deeper affliction to me than almost anything else that has happened; that he was personally and warmly my friend aggravates the calamity. Watkins felt abandoned by Adams and wrote to John Neal from prison, asking him to > Tell me what to do, ... but for God's sake, tell me not to engage again in politics, unless it be to hunt down both parties to destruction. I have sacrificed every thing [sic] for the one, and have met in return neglect and insult — by the other I am persecuted, harrassed [sic], trampled to the earth — proscribed like a wretch with the Plague, so that not a creature dare venture within the infected atmosphere. In the legal proceedings, Watkins's family lost "every thing [sic] ...— even the beds they sleep on" were seized for payment of his fine. Feeling persecuted in jail, he wrote of a prison official being replaced by a "creature of the President" to deny him family visits, as well as a request from the administration "to have me removed from the more decent room which I now occupy to one of the cells!" In 1833 Watkins petitioned the Supreme Court for a writ of habeas corpus, challenging the district court's criminal jurisdiction in his conviction. As a result he was released February 1833, but was arrested again the same day under three writs of capias ad respondendum issued by Attorney General Roger B. Taney. Watkins petitioned again for a writ of habeas corpus and was released again the following month. Chief Justice John Marshall's opinions in the 1830 and 1833 decisions are part of the history of original habeas as it relates to federal review of federal custody in the US. ## Freemasonry Watkins joined Washington Lodge Number 3 of the Freemasons in 1805 and served as Deputy Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Maryland 1809–1813 and Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Maryland 1813–1814 and 1816–1818. He was the first High Priest of the Encampment of the Knights Templar in 1812. His friend John Neal recalled that Watkins was "so pre-eminently popular [with the Masons] that nothing he could say or do, was ever able to shake their faith in him, or their love." ## Character and later life John Neal described Watkins as "both generous and extravagant" in that he "would sooner empty his pockets into the lap of a stranger, than pay his butcher or grocer." Neal blamed this character trait for what he saw as Watkins "always laboring under embarrassment, up to the day of his death," citing that at the time of his appointment to the US Spanish Diplomatic Commission Watkins was on the brink of economic ruin by his own mismanagement of his family's funds. In the 1840s, Watkins served as head of the boys' common school in the Fourth Presbyterian Church in Alexandria, Virginia. In 1849 he co-founded and served as the first Vice President of the Columbian Association of Teachers, an organization with over 100 members. Watkins died on November 14, 1855 in Washington, D.C.	[ "## Education and medical career", "## Editorship and writing", "## Political appointments and legal battle", "## Freemasonry", "## Character and later life" ]	1,881	8,833
64,440,710	The Woo	1,173,777,776	2020 single by Pop Smoke featuring 50 Cent and Roddy Ricch	[ "2020 singles", "2020 songs", "50 Cent songs", "Pop Smoke songs", "Republic Records singles", "Roddy Ricch songs", "Songs released posthumously", "Songs written by 50 Cent", "Songs written by 808Melo", "Songs written by Pop Smoke", "Songs written by Roddy Ricch" ]	"The Woo" is a song by American rapper Pop Smoke featuring fellow American rappers 50 Cent and Roddy Ricch, from the former of the three's posthumous debut studio album, Shoot for the Stars, Aim for the Moon (2020) as well as the EP For The Night (2020). The song was released as the second single from the album on July 10, 2020, by Victor Victor Worldwide and Republic Records. It was written by the artists alongside producer 808Melo, co-producers Rxcksta and JW Lucas, and Jess Jackson, who is also credited as an additional producer alongside 1801 Records, Billy J, DJ Drewski, Jer-Z, K. Mack, and Ray Lennon. "The Woo" is a Latin-influenced trap song that features flickers of Spanish acoustic guitar. Pop Smoke interpolates 50 Cent's single, "Candy Shop". The song received positive reviews from music critics, who praised 50 Cent's and Roddy Ricch's features. "The Woo" was featured in 2020 year-end lists by Vice and Complex. It was nominated for Song of Summer at the 2020 MTV Video Music Awards. The song reached number 11 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and was certified a double-platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It reached the top-10 in the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, and Portugal. An accompanying music video was released on July 20, 2020, on what would have been Pop Smoke's twenty-first birthday. The music visual was directed by Eif Rivera, who had directed several videos for 50 Cent in the past. It features old archival footage edited on vintage TV screens of Pop Smoke performing various tasks while showing 50 Cent and Roddy Ricch being surrounded by expensive cars and women wearing bikinis. The video received positive reviews, with one critic saying it was sentimental. ## Background "The Woo" was created the month Pop Smoke died. Pop Smoke asked 808Melo to play some of his beats, one of which Pop Smoke liked. The rapper said: "Oh, yeah, this is something different. This is what I want." Pop Smoke had not made a verse for the song but made a hook. He admitted to 808Melo he was struggling with writer's block. Steven Victor recalled he had never heard the song before. When he first started talking to 50 Cent about producing the album, Victor sent him a folder of all of Pop Smoke's songs. 50 Cent called Victor and was singing the hook of the song. Victor stated he did not even remember Pop Smoke doing it. Victor described it as a "most obscure joint". Victor commented that 50 Cent took over the song. 50 Cent explained that the song's chorus was written and that Victor had left it all the way open. There was no verse taken off of it, so the chorus played. 50 Cent said he then started the record. 50 Cent took to Instagram, reaching out to Roddy Ricch to help with the song, captioning a post of his: "Tell @roddyricch i'm looking for him, i need him on Pop album". When 50 Cent invited Roddy Ricch to be on the album, he felt like he should have been a part of it general. 50 Cent recorded his verse while he was going through all Pop Smoke's records to find the right tone for the album. There were three records that he recorded, but he did not want to over-feature on the album, and just decided to be featured on "The Woo". Roddy Ricch had heard a couple of other songs from Pop Smoke but felt like "The Woo" was a good one because it was different from what Pop Smoke would usually record. He recorded his verse while he was in quarantine. He had a studio set up at the house and did it in one night. He called his engineer to cut it. The verse that Pop Smoke wrote for the song was in a different key. Producer Jess Jackson explained instead of not using the song at all, he talked to Mike Dean. Jackson was thinking of melodizing the vocals and tuning them, but could not do it because Pop Smoke would not have liked it. Dean said to Jackson: "Why don't you just do a chord change in the whole song?" Jackson sat down and did a key change for the song. 50 Cent and Roddy Ricch were in B minor, with the song switching up once Pop Smoke raps his verse in G minor. Jackson made the song together from two demos in different keys. ## Writing and composition It was written by Pop Smoke, known as Bashar Jackson, alongside 50 Cent, Roddy Ricch, 808Melo, Rxcksta, and JW Lucas, who have the respective real names of Curtis Jackson, Rodrick Moore, Andre Loblack, Adam Hashim, and John Lucas. Jess Jackson was also credited as a writer. The song was produced by 808Melo while co-produced by Rxcksta and JW Lucas. 1801 Records, Billy J, DJ Drewski, Jer-Z, Jess Jackson, K. Mack, and Ray Lennon were credited as additional producers. Musically, "The Woo" is a Latin-influenced trap song. A.D. Amorosi of Variety said the track is "filled with flickers of Spanish acoustic guitar, and [Pop] Smoke making high and nice with his buds". Danny Schwartz of Rolling Stone commented that the track features "arpeggiated guitar lines". Gary Suarez of Entertainment Weekly stated Pop Smoke "emulates the Queens rapper's cadence and tone". David Arron Blake of HipHopDX commented that Pop Smoke, 50 Cent, and Roddy Ricch "trade bars atop 808Melo's groovy production". In his verse, Pop Smoke interpolates 50 Cent's 2005 hit single, "Candy Shop", rapping: "Let me take you to the Candy Shop, show you all I got/I put diamonds on your chain to match your diamond ring." ## Reception Vulture's Craig Jenkins complimented Pop Smoke's versatility, stating that the song "would've silenced anyone who tried to accuse Pop of being a one-dimensional artist". Uproxx's Wongo Okon labeled it a "well-meshed collaboration of the past and the present". NME's Dhruva Balram opined that it features a "memorable verse from 50 Cent". Roisin O'Connor of The Independent wrote that "West Coast Shit" feels "paper-thin" when following "The Woo". Briana Younger of NPR said Pop "sounds scarily like 50 Cent" on the song. Arron Blake said the song has "the most radio replay value" from Shoot for the Stars, Aim for the Moon. Jade Gomez from Paste stated the song has "50 Cent's satisfying feature accented with Roddy Rich's vocals". M.T. Richards, for Consequence of Sound said 50 Cent "demolishes" the song, saying he would "never tire of 50 [Cent], a cutely insolent schoolyard bully". August Brown of the Los Angeles Times wrote the song has "mournful singing". Ashton Howard of Earmilk said the song is a "complete swing and a miss". David Crone of AllMusic stated Pop Smoke isn't "even given the dignity of a first verse, with featured artists muscling their way in ahead of the late rapper on tracks like 'The Woo' and 'Diana'". Vice ranked "The Woo" at number 45 on their list of 2020's best songs. Kristin Corry remarked that the song is "an alternate universe of what the Brooklyn rapper could have become—a bridge between the rap of yesterday and the sound of tomorrow". The song placed at number 26 on Complex's the Best Songs of 2020 list, with Eric Skelton calling it the catchiest song on the album, and stating it is "a bittersweet moment that hinted at the fact [Pop Smoke] was about to catapult to global superstardom". He concluded by saying "The Woo" is an "undeniable hit, and a lasting reminder of Pop [Smoke's] limitless abilities". It was nominated for Song of Summer at the 2020 MTV Video Music Awards. ## Release and commercial performance "The Woo" was released on Pop Smoke's posthumous debut studio album Shoot for the Stars, Aim for the Moon, as the tenth track on July 3, 2020. The song was later released as the album's second single on July 10, 2020. Following the release of Shoot for the Stars, Aim for the Moon, "The Woo" debuted and peaked at number 11 on the US Billboard Hot 100. The song also peaked at number three on the US Rhythmic chart and number nine on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the single a double platinum certification, which denotes two million units based on sales and track-equivalent on-demand streams. The song peaked at number 9 on the UK Singles Chart, giving Pop Smoke his first top-10 hit in the United Kingdom. The song was later certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), denoting track-equivalent sales and streams of 600,000 units in the UK. It further reached the top-10 in Canada, New Zealand, and Portugal. It reached the top-20 in Australia, Denmark, Ireland, and Switzerland. ## Music video ### Background 50 Cent teased clips of the song's music video on his Instagram account on July 17, 2020. His post was captioned "You know da Vibes, Monday is Pops birthday so Video Monday." The music video was later uploaded to Pop Smoke's YouTube channel on July 19, 2020, along with the release of the deluxe edition of Shoot for the Stars, Aim for the Moon. The music video was then uploaded to 50 Cent's YouTube channel a day later. The visual was released that day to honor what would have Pop Smoke's twenty-first birthday. The music video was directed by Eif Rivera, who had directed a number of videos for 50 Cent in the past. Rivera took inspiration for creating the visual by the parking lot scene from the music video from Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg, and Akon's hit single "Kush" (2010). ### Synopsis and reception The video features old archival footage edited on vintage TV screens of Pop Smoke inside of a tour bus, making music in a studio, performing on stage, and dancing on top of a car. The visuals also feature 50 Cent and Roddy Ricch singing the song while being surrounded by expensive cars and women wearing bikinis. The video also shows women kissing and hugging each other. The music video was met with positive reviews from critics. The staff of Rap-Up described the music video as a "steamy clip". Marisa Mendez of HipHopDX stated that the visual "provides an authentic feel despite the absence of its key player". Writing for HotNewHipHop, Alex Zidel commented it was "nice to see some throwback footage of Pop having fun in the studio added into the video," but opined that the "moment is certainly sentimental for fans of the late Brooklyn rapper". ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from Tidal. - Pop Smoke – vocals, songwriter - 50 Cent – vocals, songwriter - Roddy Ricch – vocals, songwriter - 808Melo – production, programming songwriter - Jess Jackson – mastering engineer, mixing engineer, additional production, songwriter - Rxcksta – co-production, songwriter - Jw Lucas – co-production, songwriter - 1801 Records – additional production - Billy J – additional production - DJ Drewski – additional production - Jer-Z – additional production - K. Mach – additional production - Ray Lennon – additional production - Cheese – engineer - Ky Miller – engineer - Chris Dennis – recording engineer - Derek Ali – vocal mixing - Rose Adams – assistant mixing engineer - Sage Skofield – assistant mixing engineer - Sean Solymar – assistant mixing engineer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications	[ "## Background", "## Writing and composition", "## Reception", "## Release and commercial performance", "## Music video", "### Background", "### Synopsis and reception", "## Credits and personnel", "## Charts", "### Weekly charts", "### Year-end charts", "## Certifications" ]	2,567	35,225
24,922,241	Datchet Bridge	1,126,573,950	Road bridge which crossed the River Thames at Datchet	[ "Bridges across the River Thames", "Bridges in Berkshire", "Buildings and structures in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead", "Datchet", "Former structures on the River Thames", "Windsor, Berkshire" ]	Datchet Bridge, also known as The Divided Bridge, was a road bridge which crossed the River Thames at Datchet from 1706 until it was demolished in 1848. It was situated on the reach between Old Windsor Lock and Romney Lock and linked Windsor on the Berkshire bank to Datchet on the Buckinghamshire side. The bridge replaced a ferry service which had operated at the site since at least the middle of the 13th century. The first Datchet Bridge was a wooden bridge commissioned by Queen Anne as the crossing was a convenient back-way to Windsor Castle. Responsibility for the upkeep and maintenance of the crossing later passed to the counties of Berkshire and Buckinghamshire over whose boundary the bridge spanned. There followed many decades of dispute between the counties over who should pay for what. This culminated in 1836 with each county deciding to build their own half, in different materials and not touching in the middle. The resulting "crazy erection", Buckinghamshire's side in wood and Berkshire's in iron, known as The Divided Bridge, was demolished in 1848 and is the only case on the Thames where an established bridge crossing site has completely disappeared. ## Background Datchet on the north bank of the River Thames has existed as a settlement since before 990 but the first recorded mention of a river crossing is in 1224 when Henry III gave John le Passir a "great oak" with which to make a boat for "passage of Datchet". In 1278 Edward I paid for William of Eton to a build a "great barge" for Datchet Ferry. Although the Crown had provided for the vessels, the right to operate the ferry and collect tolls sat with the Lord of the Manor of Datchet. This continued until 1680 when the then Lord of the Manor, Colonel Andrew Pitcairn Wheeler, sold the Manor of Datchet to Budd Wase but kept back the ferry rights which he subsequently mortgaged for £1000 (equivalent to £ today). In 1699 Wheeler wrote to William III complaining that a wall built by the King along the Windsor bank was adversely affecting the ferry trade. To settle the complaint the Crown purchased the ferry rights from Colonel Wheeler for £7000 (equivalent to £ today). The crossing was important to the Crown as the road through Datchet and across the Thames provided a convenient short route from London to Windsor Castle and the ferry was much used by Royalty and courtiers. Privy Purse records show two payments from Elizabeth of York to the Datchet ferryman in 1502 and similarly from Princess Mary in 1522 and her father Henry VIII between 1530 and 1532. In Elias Ashmole's account of the 1520 Procession of the order of the Garter he describes how Queen Catherine after watching the procession returned to Windsor Castle from Colnbrook by way of "the fery [sic] next way to the castle." The ferry however did not always provide a quick and efficient service. In 1678 the ferryman, Matthew Hale, received a formal rebuke from Charles II's Secretary of State, Henry Coventry, for unduly delaying a Royal Messenger. Coventry warned Hale in no uncertain terms: Despite Coventry's warning Royal dissatisfaction with the inefficient service provided by the Hale Family, who by 1706 had kept the ferry for over 150 years, continued to grow. This culminated in the decision by Queen Anne to provide a fixed bridge crossing on the site. ## Queen Anne's bridge In 1706 a wooden bridge was built by order of Queen Anne to replace the ferry between Datchet, Buckinghamshire and Windsor, Berkshire. It was made of oak provided by the Surveyor General of Woods South of the Trent, Edward Wilcox, who was ordered to fell "sufficient non-navy timber" from the Royal forest "for the better convenience of our passage from our Castle at Windsor". The building work was supervised by the Surveyor General, Samuel Travers and the final cost was £1000 (equivalent to £ today) The better convenience of passage was further enhanced by Queen Anne's intimate friend Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough and her husband the first Duke who then lived at Langley and who had a carriage drive built from their house, over the bridge and on to Windsor Castle. Unlike the upstream toll bridges at Windsor and Maidenhead, the crossing at Datchet was toll-free for both River and road and quickly became a popular crossing. Seeking compensation for loss of income on their bridges, the corporations of Windsor and Maidenhead made claims to the Treasury. In 1708 Windsor was granted an ex-gratia payment of £55 (equivalent to £ today) plus £25 and £20 to two tenants (equivalent to £ and £ respectively). Maidenhead's complaint, not made until 1714, was noted but no compensation paid. The bridge was initially maintained by the Crown which paid £800 (equivalent to £ today) for repairs in 1737 and in 1770 replaced the original all-wood structure with a bridge of ten wooden arches on stone piers. By 1794 the bridge was "absolutely dangerous for carriages to pass over it and a stone one [was] now in contemplation." Later the same year the central arches of the new bridge collapsed during heavy flooding and King George III deciding that he did not wish to finance the rebuilding instead instated a temporary free ferry. There followed many years of wrangling between the Crown and the counties of Berkshire and Buckinghamshire over who should bear the cost of the building and maintenance of the bridge as the county boundary ran down the centre of the channel of the Thames thus cutting the bridge in half. The matter was forced by the intervention of John Richards, the Rector of Datchet who was also a lawyer; Richards took legal action and the resulting judgement from the King's Bench in 1809 was that the two counties must equally share the rebuilding costs, a total of £2,375 each (equivalent to £ today). The counties, forced to co-operate, built a new wooden bridge on the old stone piers which was opened by Queen Charlotte and Princess Elizabeth on 4 December 1812. ## The Divided Bridge The co-operation was short-lived and arguments over maintenance started again in 1834 when the Buckinghamshire side needed repairs and Berkshire refused to contribute. Lack of maintenance led to the bridge collapsing once more in 1836 and the counties came up with the unique solution of each building their own half. Buckinghamshire decided to rebuild with wooden railings whilst Berkshire built its half in iron suspended by chains. Kelly's Directory of 1847 noted: > "Datchet is separated from Windsor by the river Thames, over which is a very singular bridge; one half of it is kept in repair by the county of Bucks and the other half by Berks. The former has a wooden railing and the latter an iron one, suspended by chains, but neither the Bucks nor Berks sides touch each other." Even during the building the counties would not work together and had to be ordered by the Lord Chancellor to "proceed in such a manner as not to impede each other". Consequently when the bridge was finished the two sides did not touch in the middle with Berkshire's final span being cantilevered out from the last Berkshire stone pier thus needing no support from the Buckinghamshire side. The result was an unsatisfactory, ungainly structure, sarcastically noted on opening as having "scarce a bridge upon the River Thames which surpasses it". The centre gap was apparent during the Divided Bridge's whole lifetime and lacking structural integrity the "hideous monstrosity" quickly became unsafe: > "It was no wonder that when Wombwell took his caravans across the crazy erection, the elephant-van broke through and the beast in it nearly came to an untimely end." The dispute between the counties was resolved once and for all in 1848 when the Windsor Castle Act 1848 decreed the dismantling of the Divided Bridge and the building of two new road bridges, Victoria Bridge slightly upstream, and Albert Bridge slightly downstream. Both new bridges opened in 1851. Once the Divided Bridge was demolished the old Windsor to Datchet road was rerouted over Victoria Bridge and the Berkshire side became part of the private grounds of Windsor Castle. This is the only case on the entire Thames where a main bridge crossing has completely disappeared. ## Legacy A small plaque erected by the Datchet Parish Council in 2000 is the only reminder of the Divided Bridge. Datchet High Street which once continued on over the bridge to Berkshire ends abruptly at the Thames and the bank on the Buckinghamshire side is now occupied by a marina car park. The Crown and Angel public house on the Berkshire bank depicted in many of the contemporary drawings of the bridge was demolished at the same time as the bridge; a Victorian estate cottage now stands its place. ## See also - Crossings of the River Thames	[ "## Background", "## Queen Anne's bridge", "## The Divided Bridge", "## Legacy", "## See also" ]	1,847	16,669
6,111,661	New York State Route 45	1,132,326,678	State highway in Rockland County, New York, US	[ "State highways in New York (state)", "Transportation in Rockland County, New York" ]	New York State Route 45 (NY 45) is a north–south state highway in central Rockland County, New York, in the United States. It spans 8.57 miles (13.79 km) from the village of Chestnut Ridge at the New Jersey–New York border, where it becomes County Route 73 (CR 73) in Bergen County, New Jersey, to U.S. Route 202 (US 202) in the town of Haverstraw. Though an interchange does exist between NY 45 and the Palisades Interstate Parkway, the route has no access to the New York State Thruway. NY 45 was originally designated as New York State Route 305 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. It was renumbered to New York State Route 94 in the early 1940s before becoming NY 45 on January 1, 1949. ## Route description NY 45 begins at the New Jersey–New York border in Chestnut Ridge. Although the first NY 45 reassurance shield is a quarter-mile north of the state line, the reference marker below the "Welcome to New York" sign at the crossing indicates the beginning of NY 45. NY 45 runs parallel to the small portion of the Garden State Parkway (GSP) that enters New York. Officially this portion is considered an extension of the New York State Thruway. While NY 45 never intersects the GSP, it provides a link to the parkway. South of the New Jersey border in Bergen County, CR 73 intersects the GSP, and in New York, NY 45 intersects CR 41, which intersects the parkway. Through Chestnut Ridge (where it is known as Chestnut Ridge Road, just as CR 73, its southern extension, is in New Jersey), it crosses the New York State Thruway. Once it enters Spring Valley (where it is known locally first as South Main Street, then as North Main Street after it crosses its very busy intersection with NY 59), NY 45 continues northward through the downtown business district. Traffic here tends to pile up many times a day. After NY 45's intersection at Hillcrest with CR 74 (the location of several small shopping centers), traffic tends to ease up. North of there, NY 45 provides a link to the Hassidic Jewish community of New Square, although it never enters the village limits. At CR 80, NY 45 enters New Hempstead. Again the road becomes relatively quiet, but it begins to parallel the Palisades Interstate Parkway, until its intersection at exit 12 in Pomona. NY 45 quickly leaves Pomona and enters Mount Ivy. This is where NY 45 comes to its northern terminus at US 202. This area of US 202 is in downtown Mount Ivy, and exit 13 of the Palisades is just 0.1 miles (0.2 km) west of NY 45's northern terminus. ## History What is now NY 45 was originally designated NY 305 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. At the same time, the portion of modern NY 305 north of Portville in Cattaraugus and Allegany counties was assigned NY 94, while the current NY 94 in Orange County was designated NY 45. The NY 305 and NY 94 designations were swapped in the early 1940s, placing NY 305 on its current alignment and NY 94 on what is now NY 45. NY 94 was then swapped again, this time for NY 45, on January 1, 1949, placing both routes on their modern routings. In 1958, Ramapo town engineer Edwin Wallace noticed an increase in the amount of traffic passing through the village of Spring Valley. This led Wallace to propose a 5-mile (8.0 km) bypass of the village, starting at NY 59 in Monsey and ending at NY 45 in Hillcrest. Rockland County approved the proposed bypass two years later, and the plans were forwarded to the New York State Department of Transportation. In 1966, the Tri-State Transportation Commission released its long-term highway report for the area. The new study replaced the Spring Valley Bypass with the NY 45 expressway, a north–south bypass of Spring Valley connecting the Garden State Parkway to the Palisades Interstate Parkway. The road would serve a steadily growing area of commercial businesses along the NY 45 corridor. No action was taken on this proposal. ## Major intersections ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections", "## See also" ]	957	22,878
26,016,478	Konnie Huq	1,165,715,234	British television presenter and writer	[ "1975 births", "Alumni of Robinson College, Cambridge", "BBC Asian Network presenters", "Blue Peter presenters", "British Asian writers", "British radio presenters", "British women radio presenters", "British women television writers", "English people of Bangladeshi descent", "English television writers", "Living people", "People educated at Notting Hill & Ealing High School", "People from Ealing", "Television personalities from London", "Writers from London" ]	Kanak Asha "Konnie" Huq (/ˈhʌk/; born 17 July 1975) is a British television and radio presenter, screenwriter and children's author. She became the longest-serving female presenter of the British children's television programme Blue Peter, presenting it from 1997 to 2008. She has been a presenter and guest of shows including the 2010 series of The Xtra Factor on ITV2. She co-wrote the Black Mirror episode "Fifteen Million Merits" with her husband, Charlie Brooker. Her children's book Cookie and the Most Annoying Boy in the World was published in 2019. She published the follow-up, Cookie and the Most Annoying Girl in the World, in 2020 along with her third children's book, Fearless Fairy Tales: The Perfect Book for Homeschooling Fun and Inspiration. ## Early life Kanak Asha Huq was born in the Hammersmith district of London on 17 July 1975, the daughter of Muslim parents who emigrated from East Pakistan in the 1960s. She grew up in the Ealing district of London with her two elder sisters, Nutun, and future Labour Party politician Rupa. She attended Notting Hill & Ealing High School and obtained nine GCSEs, then gained A-levels in chemistry, mathematics, and physics. She went on to study economics at Robinson College, Cambridge, graduating with a 2:1 degree. ## Career ### Early work Huq trained part-time at the National Youth Music Theatre. In 1989, at the age of 14, she appeared with them on Blue Peter and sang a solo. The following year, she appeared alongside Jude Law in Captain Stirrick, a National Youth Music Theatre production. Before the 1992 general election, Huq interviewed Labour leader Neil Kinnock for the children's programme Newsround, and appeared as a contestant on Blockbusters in the same year. She appeared as an uncredited extra playing a schoolgirl in the BBC1 sitcom 2point4 Children in the Series 2 episode "I'm Going Slightly Mad". Her presenting debut, at the age of 16, was on the satellite television show, TVFM. She then appeared on a GMTV Saturday morning children's quiz show entitled Eat Your Words between 1994 and 1996. She was assisted by Mark Speight before Simon Parkin took over. In 1997, several months before joining Blue Peter, Huq presented Channel Five's early morning children's programme Milkshake! ### Blue Peter Huq presented the BBC children's television programme Blue Peter, starting on 1 December 1997. Early in her term as a presenter, she visited the village in Bangladesh where earlier generations of her family lived. In the programme's 2004 Summer Expedition to India, Huq became an extra in the Bollywood film Musafir (2004), and practised dancing alongside its stars. For the programme's 2004 Welcome Home appeal, she visited Angola, hoping to reunite children and their families who had been separated due to war. In 2008, during her last programme, she broke a Guinness World Record by pinning 17 Blue Peter Badges onto fellow presenter Andy Akinwolere's shirt in a minute. In March 2007, she apologised on air on behalf of the programme to viewers, after the result of a competition to identify the celebrity owner of a pair of shoes was faked. On 31 May 2007, Huq announced she would be leaving Blue Peter. On 22 January 2008, she hosted her final Blue Peter, with a clip show of her highlights through the ten years she had been on the programme. She is the third longest-serving Blue Peter presenter and its longest-serving female host, having passed Valerie Singleton's record on 1 October 2007. She holds the record for working with the most co-presenters while on the show, with a total of 10. These are Stuart Miles, Katy Hill, Romana D'Annunzio, Richard Bacon, Simon Thomas, Matt Baker, Liz Barker, Zoe Salmon, Gethin Jones and Andy Akinwolere. ### Other work #### Presenting and panel shows Between 2002 and 2004, Huq co-presented the CBBC Channel's UK Top 40 chart show and in early 2003 she was briefly a presenter for Top of the Pops. She presented GMTV's LK today coverage of New York Fashion Week on the week of 10 September 2007. In June 2007 she was a guest panellist on the comedy gameshow 8 out of 10 Cats. In December 2007, Huq appeared on a celebrity version of Ready Steady Cook with Blue Peter co-presenter Andy Akinwolere. She began presenting the ITV1 London show London Talking, a political debate show, alongside Vanessa Feltz and Nick Ferrari in 2007, and co-presented some of the weekly Your News programmes for BBC News in 2008. Huq was the main presenter for the third series, in 2008, of Channel Five show Zoo Days, a documentary series about the animals and staff at Chester and Colchester Zoos. Huq presented The Red Bull Air Race with Dougie Anderson for Channel 4 in 2008. Huq appeared with her future husband Charlie Brooker in his satirical review programme Screenwipe in December 2008 on BBC Four. She hosted a mock version of a "mission documentary" entitled Konnie's Great British Wee. She was a guest on political show This Week on 18 December 2008, appearing with M.P. Charles Kennedy. She presented Guinness World Records Smashed with Steve Jones on Sundays on Sky1 in 2009. On 15 May 2009, Huq began to present entertainment show Hannah-Oke on The Disney Channel with Duncan James. The show was a "Hannah Montana themed karaoke-style game show". Huq presented the seventh series of The Xtra Factor on ITV2, replacing Holly Willoughby who was unable to fulfil the role due to her ongoing commitments at This Morning. In February 2011, Huq appeared in an episode of the ITV2 documentary programme Under Pressure, where she attempted to learn how to be a rapper. Trailers for the show asked "Will Konnie Huq it up?" She was coached by Akala and performed at indigO2. For two consecutive years she presented the Royal Shakespeare Company's Live from Stratford upon Avon, a web project aimed at showing theatre productions in schools. In July 2012, the project web-streamed a performance of I, Cinna (The Poet), a play by Tim Crouch about the poet in Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar killed by a mob after being mistaken for a conspirator. In November 2013 a recording of the Globe Theatre production of Richard II was shown in 3,000 schools. The performances were followed by a question-and-answer session hosted by Huq. In May 2022 the BBC announced that Huq would be one of the guest presenters to take over Richard Osman's role on Pointless. #### Radio On 15 September 2006, Huq became one of the presenters of The Tube with Tony Wilson, Alex James and Emily Rose on Channel 4 Radio working with production company UKoneFM. The first edition was broadcast on 3 November 2006. Huq made her debut as a news presenter on the BBC Asian Network in September 2007, in a series of documentaries on a radio current affairs programme called the Asian Network Report. She presented an episode of Archive on 4 in 2010, reviewing forty years of Sesame Street. In 2013, she took part in the Radio 4 biographical series Great Lives, where participants select someone who has inspired them, and chose Ada Lovelace. #### Cameo appearances She appeared as herself in The Kumars at No 42 in 2001. In 2007, she had minor roles in The Sarah Jane Adventures episode "Invasion of the Bane", and in the CBBC series M.I.High episode "The Big Freeze". She played herself again in the FM episode "Golden Lady" in March 2009. She played a villainous servant (also called Konnie) in the last episode of the second series of Robin Hood. In 2013, Huq played a presenter of the fictional telethon "Help a Blameless Child" in television comedy series A Touch of Cloth. In 2019, she appeared briefly as a breakfast television presenter of the in-universe show Pam & Sam in Good Omens, which was based on the book written by Neil Gaiman and Terry Pratchett. #### Screenwriting and conferences In December 2009, Huq won the Best Rising Star Screenplay Angel award at the Monaco International Film Festival for her screenplay Ahmed and Mildred, a story described as "a superhero themed journey into the imagination of two young infants as they experience love at first sight." In March 2014, Ahmed and Mildred was selected as one of the projects to receive funding from Film London to enable production to take place. She co-wrote the second episode of the Channel 4 anthology series Black Mirror, "Fifteen Million Merits", which is a satire of entertainment shows, with her husband Charlie Brooker. An installation featuring extracts from the episode was installed at the Barbican Centre as part of the science-fiction themed exhibition "Into the Unknown" in 2017. On 14 October 2014, Huq was one of the speakers celebrating Ada Lovelace Day at the Royal Institution. On 29 June 2016, Huq hosted VOOM 2016, a pitch competition, for Virgin Media Business. #### Children's books Her book for children Cookie and the Most Annoying Boy in the World was published in 2019 and is the first of a projected three-book series. The book centres around the fictional character Cookie Haque, a schoolchild who enjoys learning about science, and what happens when her best friend moves away, and a boy that Cookie considers the most annoying boy in the world moves next door. Huq wrote and illustrated the book. The character of Cookie has been described by Huq as "a cross between Wimpy Kid and Bridget Jones." As of May 2020, the next book in the series, with a theme of climate change, was due to be published in August 2020. ## Philanthropy In 2005, Huq took part in the BBC One fundraising show Comic Relief Does Fame Academy. She was the third contestant to be voted off, after her rendition of Kim Wilde's Kids in America. She travelled to Uganda and met orphaned children on behalf of Comic Relief. Huq travelled to Afghanistan with the charity Afghanaid to film a BBC Lifelines appeal, which was aired on 21 September 2008, and the following year she travelled to India as part of Rotary International's "Thanks for Life/End Polio Now" campaign. She administered polio vaccine to children as part of the trip. As a celebrity ambassador for the British Red Cross, Huq appeared in the 2009 video "If I had HIV, would you kiss me?" which was part of a campaign against the stigmatisation of people living with HIV and AIDS. She was an ambassador for Gold Challenge, part of the official mass participation legacy programme for the London 2012 Olympic Games. ## Personal life On 26 July 2010, Huq married writer and satirist Charlie Brooker at the Little White Wedding Chapel in Las Vegas after a nine-month relationship. They have two sons. Huq has said she reduced her television commitments so that she could focus on her children. Huq supported the Labour Party at the 2010 general election. Her sister, Rupa, was elected as the Labour MP for Ealing Central and Acton at the 2015 general election. On 6 April 2008, Huq participated in the London leg of the Summer Olympics torch relay as one of 80 torch carriers on the torch's journey to Beijing. In Ladbroke Grove, a protester tried to grab the torch from her as she was about to hand it to the next runner. She was not hurt in the incident, though police wrestled the protester to the ground and arrested him. ## Filmography ## See also - List of British Bangladeshis	[ "## Early life", "## Career", "### Early work", "### Blue Peter", "### Other work", "#### Presenting and panel shows", "#### Radio", "#### Cameo appearances", "#### Screenwriting and conferences", "#### Children's books", "## Philanthropy", "## Personal life", "## Filmography", "## See also" ]	2,600	25,091
51,388,821	Fallout 4: Nuka-World	1,167,116,321	2016 video game	[ "2016 video games", "Action role-playing video games", "Bethesda Game Studios games", "Fallout (series) video games", "Gangs in fiction", "Open-world video games", "PlayStation 4 games", "Video game expansion packs", "Video games developed in the United States", "Video games set in Massachusetts", "Video games set in amusement parks", "Video games with gender-selectable protagonists", "Windows games", "Xbox One games" ]	Fallout 4: Nuka-World is an expansion pack for the 2015 post-apocalyptic action role-playing video game Fallout 4. It was developed by Bethesda Game Studios, published by Bethesda Softworks, and released on August 30, 2016, for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One. It is set in the eponymous fictional amusement park Nuka-World. As with Fallout 4, Nuka-World can be played in both first-person and third-person perspectives. The player controls the protagonist during their journey through Nuka-World, a former amusement park, now run by groups of raiders. Nuka-World's main gameplay consists of both questing and exploration. Upon completion of quests, the player is rewarded with both the franchise's fictional currency, bottle caps from Nuka-Cola bottles, and experience points. Development of Nuka-World began after Fallout 4's November 2015 release. The expansion was based partly on player feedback expressing a desire for more content involving Raiders. Rumors of Nuka-World began circulating three months before the official release after a file hinting at a new expansion was found in Fallout 4's source code. Development was confirmed by Matt Grandstaff on the Bethesda Game Studios blog. Fallout 4: Nuka-World received both a positive and mixed response, with reviewers praising the new locations, but rated Nuka-World less favorably to Far Harbor—a previous expansion pack for the game—believing it suffered from having a less apparent story-line. ## Gameplay Nuka-World is an expansion pack for the action role-playing game, Fallout 4. The ability to swap between first-person and third-person perspectives is available in both the expansion and the original version. Nuka-World is the territory of raiders, roving gangs of bandits who terrorize the Commonwealth. The player can access Nuka-World when they reach level thirty, and upon arrival are subject to "The Gauntlet", a booby-trapped maze. At the end of The Gauntlet, the player must defeat the raider leader: Colter to be crowned the new leader of the raiders. The player can claim the parts of the park the raiders have not yet annexed by entering the area and defeating the enemies residing there. The enemies in Nuka-World consist of both new enemies and more powerful versions of existing ones. The Pip-Boy – a small computer strapped to the character's wrist which contains maps, statistics, data, and items – plays a role in both Fallout 4 and Nuka-World. When the player reaches level thirty and is able to explore Nuka-World, the Pip-Boy receives a radio signal alerting the player. Nuka-World adds minor additions to the game's crafting mechanics, allowing the player to mix varieties of Nuka-Cola to create new flavors; these grant the player additional status buffs, such as temporary boosts to health, increased damage resistance, or improved S.P.E.C.I.A.L attributes. S.P.E.C.I.A.L. is an acronym denoting the character attributes which the player can distribute through the means of acquired stat points. The available character attributes consist of: strength, perception, endurance, charisma, intelligence, agility, and luck. In order to create these items, the player will need to collect raw materials from the game world and find recipe books to unlock new flavors. ## Synopsis ### Setting and characters Nuka-World is set in the eponymous Nuka-Cola themed amusement park. Once a popular tourist destination run by the Nuka-Cola Corporation, the park has since been overrun by three gangs of raiders. Unlike the raiders featured in the base game, the raiders of Nuka-World are much more disciplined and organised, with each gang following a different path. There are three main factions of raiders within Nuka-World: the Operators, the Pack, and the Disciples. The Operators are led by Maggy "Mags" Black, alongside her brother William and their friend Lizzie Wyath; their gang is mostly interested in acquiring as much wealth as possible. The Pack is headed by Mason, the alpha of the gang; they favor a survival of the fittest mentality, and train wild animals for gambling and sport. The Disciples are led by Nisha, with her lieutenants Savoy and Dixie, and are the most bloodthirsty of the three gangs, preferring to inflict as much violence as possible. A minor faction, called the Hubologists (loosely based on Scientology), are followers of a UFO religion and live outside the park. Nuka-World itself is divided into six smaller parts, each of which can be explored by the player: Nuka-Town, U.S.A., the park's central hub, made up of restaurants, souvenir stores, and sideshows; Kiddie Kingdom, a fantasy setting, featuring a central castle, fairground rides, and a candy theme throughout, has been overrun by Feral Ghouls; Dry Rock Gulch, a wild west-themed area, featuring roller coasters and animatronic gunslingers which has been infested with a parasitic larvae known as Bloodworms; Safari Adventure, a wildlife enclosure filled with exotic animals that have since turned feral; the Galactic Zone, a space-themed section populated by customized robots that have malfunctioned and reverted to their military specifications long before; and the Nuka-Cola bottling plant, a model Nuka-Cola factory offering guided tours and samples of Nuka-Cola products that have since leached into the environment and triggered additional mutations in the local fauna. The area surrounding Nuka-World includes: Bradberton, a town built to house park employees, the defunct Nuka-World power plant, Grandchester, a haunted mansion and tourist attraction, and the Nuka-World scrapyard containing a UFO-themed carnival ride which the Hubologists are convinced is a genuine spaceship. Like the Island in Far Harbor, Nuka-World is outside the Commonwealth. The player can access Nuka-World by riding a monorail called the Nuka-Express. ### Plot The Sole Survivor investigates a pre-War amusement park, Nuka-World, when radio advertisements are broadcast into the Commonwealth. Porter Gage, a veteran raider, contacts the Sole Survivor after boarding a monorail and tells them that they are walking into a death trap. Upon arrival, the Sole Survivor must navigate an increasingly-deadly obstacle course called the Gauntlet, which culminates with a fight with Colter, the raider Overboss. Following the death of Colter, Gage reveals the leaders of the three raider gangs conspired to usurp him, using the broadcast and the Gauntlet to find possible replacements. The Sole Survivor is offered to become the Overboss, but must balance the competing needs of each gang of raiders while conquering the outlying areas of the park. Once the entire park is under raider control, the Sole Survivor sets about expanding raider influence in the Commonwealth by conquering settlements, restoring power to Nuka-World to make the park self-sufficient, and thwarting attempts by the Gunners—a band of amoral mercenaries—to seize control of Nuka-World for themselves. As the Sole Survivor gradually expands their influence, tape recordings and journal entries reveal that despite its popularity, Nuka-World was under threat from serious mismanagement in the weeks and months prior to the Great War. Gradually, John-Caleb Bradberton, the creator of Nuka-Cola and the architect of Nuka-World, is revealed to have redirected resources to fund Project Cobalt, a weapons development project for the United States military. This culminated in the creation of Nuka-Cola Quantum, a variation of Nuka-Cola made with radioactive isotopes. In exchange for his support, the military agreed to include Bradberton in LEAP-X, an attempt to artificially prolong life; however, Braxton, the general in charge of Project Cobalt, saw Bradberton's prediction of an imminent war as a lack of confidence in the military, and thus betrayed him. When the Sole Survivor accesses Bradberton's office, they discover a hidden elevator leading to a private Vault. Inside is Bradberton's still-living head attached to a life support machine; a punishment by Braxton for doubting the military. The player is given the choice of shutting off the power and euthanizing Bradberton at his request or keeping him alive for the sake of Sierra Petrovita, a recurring character from Fallout 3 who idolises Bradberton. #### Endings Eventually, the gang the Sole Survivor has been most neglecting will turn on them and take over the power plant of Nuka-World. With the remaining two gangs by their side, the Sole Survivor will have to eliminate the rogue gang. Their actions ultimately decide who controls Nuka-World. In an alternate scenario, they are also given the option of ending raider influence by assassinating the leaders of each gang and their lieutenants, thereby returning control of Nuka-World to the traders who originally used it as a hub of commerce. ## Development and release Nuka-World is the sixth and last expansion pack for Bethesda Game Studios' 2015 video game Fallout 4 and was released on August 30, 2016, following the releases of: Automatron, Wasteland Workshop, Far Harbor, Contraptions Workshop and Vault-Tec Workshop. Nuka-World is included in the season pass. The development for Nuka-World did not begin until after the November 2015 release of Fallout 4. Bethesda's Mark Teare said the expansion was partly the result of feedback from people who wished for more content surrounding Raiders. Rumors surrounding Nuka-World started circulating in May 2016 after Reddit user flashman7870 uncovered a segment of code which referenced a file called "DLCNukaWorld.esm". Many fans speculated the expansion would incorporate an amusement park. Nuka-World's release date of August 30, 2016 for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One was announced in a post on the Bethesda Game Studios blog on August 15, along with the expansion's trailer. Bethesda started releasing keys for the beta version on August 16 and pre-release gameplay was live streamed through Twitch on August 23, with the official trailer coming out two days later. The expansion has a larger file size than Far Harbor, being 3.66 GB as opposed to 2.69 GB. This resulted in people wondering if Nuka-World would contain more gameplay, although the price implied it would be somewhere between Automatron and Far Harbor. The North American release of Nuka-World on PlayStation 4 was delayed due to unknown problems. Unlike the PS4 launch of Far Harbor, no major stability or frame-rate issues were found while playing, except when inside a location called The Galactic Zone. In the article on the website Push Square, it was noted that the cause of the frame-rate issues in The Galactic Zone were unknown and were not consistent. ## Reception Nuka-World received both positive and mixed reviews, according to the video game review aggregator site Metacritic. The PC and Xbox One releases received "generally favorable" reviews while the PS4 release received "mixed or average" reviews. Many critics, including Christopher Livingston (PC Gamer), Davide Ambrosiani (IGN), and Juan Garcia (IGN) liked the new places to explore. Reviewers, including Paul Tassi (Forbes) and Nicholas Tan (Game Revolution), compared Nuka-World to Far Harbor, with many thinking this expansion had a less developed story-line, and was thus less story-based. Reviewers enjoyed exploring the new map and world which Nuka-World added. Christopher Livingston (PC Gamer) thought that "attacking settlements, especially your own, is good fun, but there's [sic] hours of chores to complete before you can really become a raider." Bob Fekete (iDigitalTimes) believed exploring the map of Nuka-World is some of the best gameplay in Fallout 4. Davide Ambrosiani (IGN) said Fallout 4's last expansion pack added some interesting mechanics and expands the world further. Juan Garcia (IGN) wrote about how he believed the expansion added a "great new location" which added a few more hours of gameplay, although it was more limited and repetitive than he wanted. Andrew Webster (The Verge) enjoyed exploring the map and discovering every detail of Fallout's world. He regarded it as a "superb piece of worldbuilding." Many critics compared Nuka-World to a previous expansion pack for Fallout 4 named Far Harbor. Dan Stapleton (IGN) said that when compared to Far Harbor, the role-playing elements are far less developed, though he also said Nuka-World has a nice setting filled with surprises and battles. Nicholas Tan (Game Revolution) also believed it was one of the better expansion packs, albeit not having such an in-depth story-line as Far Harbor. Paul Tassi (Forbes) preferred Far Harbor due to this expansion being light on story. Reviewers thought the expansion would be worth the player's investment if they enjoyed Fallout 4. Kirk McKeand (Eurogamer) said there are no real choices to make in Nuka-World, though it still may be worthy of your time. Kat Bailey (USgamer) liked the expansion, and thought there was a lot to do in it, but not all of it is interesting. She said the expansion "could be worse, but it could also be a whole lot better", but if you enjoyed Fallout 4, then "there's good reason to pick up Nuka-World." Nic Rowen (Destructoid) noted fans of the genre will probably enjoy Nuka-World, but others will be left unsatisfied. Tassi believed it was worth the \$20. Andrew Webster finished his review by saying Nuka-World was only for dedicated players.	[ "## Gameplay", "## Synopsis", "### Setting and characters", "### Plot", "#### Endings", "## Development and release", "## Reception" ]	2,879	30,443
10,443,745	Hayden Epstein	1,161,306,700	American gridiron football player (born 1980)	[ "1980 births", "21st-century American Jews", "American football placekickers", "American players of Canadian football", "Berlin Thunder players", "Canadian football placekickers", "Edmonton Elks players", "Jacksonville Jaguars players", "Jewish American sportspeople", "Living people", "Michigan Wolverines football players", "Minnesota Vikings players", "Players of American football from San Diego", "Players of Canadian football from San Diego", "Rhein Fire players" ]	Hayden Scott Epstein (born November 16, 1980) is a former American football placekicker and punter who played college football for the Michigan Wolverines from 1998 to 2001 and played professional football in the National Football League (NFL), NFL Europa, and the Canadian Football League (CFL). Epstein attended Torrey Pines High School in San Diego, California. He kicked a 58-yard field goal in the 1997 California Interscholastic Federation (CIF) championship game and was rated by various ratings agencies and all-star selection committees as the best kicker in the national high school class of 1998. As a senior, Epstein led the 2001 Michigan Wolverines in scoring and was selected by conference coaches as a second-team selection on the All-Big Ten team as a placekicker. He tied a Michigan record with a 56-yard field goal in 1999 and broke it with a 57-yard field goal in 2001, both against Michigan State. He played for two Michigan teams that won Big Ten Conference championships. He was selected by the Jacksonville Jaguars in the seventh round of the 2002 NFL draft. He also played for the Minnesota Vikings, Berlin Thunder, Edmonton Eskimos and Rhein Fire. He played for a Thunder team that won a World Bowl championship. ## Early life Epstein, who is Jewish, was born in San Diego, California. He was a Parade All-American at Torrey Pines High School and honored as the top kicker in the nation by Prep Football Report and PrepStar College Recruiting. In the 1997 CIF Championship game, he kicked a 58-yard field goal. Epstein's 1997 kick was a San Diego section CIF record (tied with Nate Tandberg's 1995 kick) until David Quintero posted a 59-yard kick on September 11, 2015. He participated in the July 25, 1998 47th Annual Shrine All-Star Football Classic of California All-stars against Texas All-stars, but missed two early field goal attempts in a 10–5 victory. ## University of Michigan Epstein enrolled at the University of Michigan in 1998 and played college football as a placekicker and punter for head coach Lloyd Carr's Michigan Wolverines football teams from 1998 to 2001. He was successful on 26 of 42 field goals and 85 of 88 extra point attempts. Epstein also averaged 39.9 yards on 167 punts (50 of which were downed inside the 20 yard line) at Michigan. He was a two-time finalist for both the Lou Groza and Ray Guy Awards at Michigan, according to some sources, but the University of Michigan seems to only recognize him as Guy Award finalist as a junior in 2000. Epstein's freshman season for the 1998 Wolverines was the redshirt 5th year senior season for Michigan placekicker Jay Feely. His only point of the season was a PAT against Eastern Michigan on September 19. Of Epstein's 10 career tackles, his only 2-tackle performance came against Minnesota in the October 31 battle for the Little Brown Jug. Epstein performed punting duties for the team in its final two games against Hawaii and Arkansas (in the 1999 Florida Citrus Bowl), landing 6 of his 9 punts inside the 20 yard line and averaging 40.1 yards per punt. Michigan finished the season as Big Ten Co-champions with Ohio State and Wisconsin. Jeff Del Verne kicked field goals for the 1999 Wolverines early in the season. In fact, Del Verne led the team in scoring after 5 games. However, on October 9 (in the team's sixth game), Epstein tied Mike Gillette's November 19, 1988 Michigan record for longest field goal with a 56-yard kick against Michigan State in the Michigan–Michigan State football rivalry game. The kick was the longest ever by a Michigan State opponent at the time. It was the first successful field goal of Epstein's Michigan career (following two previous misses). On October 30, 1999, his 20-yard field goal with 18 seconds remaining clinched a 34–31 victory over Indiana for Michigan. That day would be Epstein's highest scoring day as a Wolverine (2–2 FGs and 4–4 in PATs). The game marked the first time that he handled the placekicking, kickoff and punting responsibilities. Of his seven kickoffs 3 were touchbacks and 3 more were covered inside the 20. Epstein punted six times, resulting in his first 50-yard punt and 2 punts landing inside the 20 yard line. For his efforts, he earned his first Big Ten Special Teams Player of the Week award. Epstein was the first player to handle placekicking, kickoff and punting responsibilities for Michigan since Mike Gillette in 1988. In overtime in the January 1, 2000 Orange Bowl against Alabama, his PAT provided the margin of victory (after he missed a 36-yard field goal at the end of regulation time). Epstein finished the season with 36 points (5–8 FGs and 21–22 PATs) and 32 punts for 1282 yards (40.1 average/7 inside 20). In 2000, Epstein and Del Verne split kicking duties (sometimes in the same game). On September 16, 2000, Epstein missed a 24-yard field goal for the 2000 team with 3:24 remaining against to UCLA. Although Michigan got back within field goal range, John Navarre was intercepted on the 15-yard line and the team lost 23–20. In that game, Epstein, who totalled 400 punt yards on 9 attempts, had landed what would become his career high 5 punts inside UCLA's 20-yard line and executed his first career 60-yard punt. On October 14, he executed a 67-yard punt that was downed inside the 20-yard line and became his career long against Indiana. On November 4, Epstein was thwarted on an attempt to tie the game at the end of regulation when a 57-yard field goal attempt went through the hands of his holder against Northwestern in a 54–51 loss after Northwestern scored a go-ahead touchdown with 20 seconds left. Earlier in the game, he had completed a 6-yard forward pass and a 52-yard field goal. On November 18 against Ohio State in the Michigan–Ohio State football rivalry game, Epstein scored 8 points (a 25-yard field goal and 5 PATs). He dropped 3 of his 6 punts inside the 20 yard line and posted a touchback when kicking off to Ohio State with 1:18 remaining to force them to attempt to drive from their own 20. He earned his second Big Ten Special Teams Player of the Week recognition. Epstein finished the season with 50 points (8–14 FGs and 26–28 PATs) and 55 punts for 2224 yards (40.4 average/19 inside 20). He earned All-Big Ten Conference honorable mention honors by both the coaches and media as a punter and placekicker. Epstein was one of 10 finalists for the inaugural Ray Guy Award. Michigan finished the season as Big Ten Co-champions with Purdue and Northwestern. When Epstein's field goal attempt for the 2001 Wolverines was blocked on September 8 with 9:11 remaining against Washington and run back for a touchdown, it gave the Huskies a lead that they would not relinquish on the way to a 23–18 game. Epstein made a 51-yard field goal against Iowa on October 27 to give Michigan a 6-point lead with 3:57 remaining. The 32–26 score held up. He posted a school record 57-yard field goal against Michigan State in the November 3, 2001 Michigan–Michigan State football rivalry game known as Clockgate. However, later in the game, Epstein's short punt and two Michigan penalties, made way for Michigan State's controversial game-winning drive. He made the game-winning 31-yard field goal against the Wisconsin on November 17, 2001 with 10 seconds left. Epstein set up the field goal when his punt bounced off of Badger Brett Bell and was recovered by Brandon Williams with 14 seconds left. In the game 3 of his 8 punts were downed inside the 20 yard line, including a 48-yarder that was downed on the 1-yard-line to set up Michigan's first score. 3 of his 5 kickoffs were touchbacks and a fourth one into the end zone was just returned 15 yards. Epstein's performance earned him Big Ten Special Teams Player of the Week recognition and his 8 points (2 FGs and 2 PATs) gave him the team scoring lead with 69 points. He finished the season with 76 points (13–20 FGs and 37–37 PATs) and 71 punts for 2790 yards (39.3 average/17 inside 20). Epstein's single-season punt yardage total was a school record that was surpassed the following season by Adam Finley. His 76 points just edged out B. J. Askew's 72 points and Marquise Walker's 68 points. Epstein earned All-Big Ten Conference second-team honors as a placekicker from the coaches and honorable mention honors by both the coaches and media as a punter. He concluded his career by making 2 field goals in the January 26, 2002 Senior Bowl. ## Professional career Epstein was drafted by the Jacksonville Jaguars in the 2002 NFL Draft and played in six games with the Jaguars in the 2002 NFL season before being picked up off waivers by the Minnesota Vikings on October 23, 2002, where he was a kickoff specialist for the remainder of the season. Epstein tore his anterior cruciate ligament with one week remaining in the 2002 season and had offseason surgery. Despite being reactivated during the 2003 preseason, he was released before the 2003 season. 43-year-old Gary Anderson performed the PATs and field goals for the 2002 Vikings. Anderson, had been brought out of retirement during the season to contribute to the Vikings' special teams efforts as Doug Brien faltered. Epstein replaced Brien. As a Jaguar, Epstein made 5 out of 9 field goals (with a long of 34 yards) and 13 PATs. He was 0–4 on field goals of 39 yards or longer. Of his 72 career kickoffs, 10 of them were touchbacks and his average distance was 61.7 yards. After Epstein was released, the Jaguars continued to have troubles as his successor Tim Seder was cut five games later. 8 of Epstein's 28 career points came in a 28–25 October 6, 2002 Jacksonville victory over Philadelphia. He was 2-for-2 on both field goals and PATs. The Denver Broncos signed Epstein in February 2004 and assigned him to the Berlin Thunder of NFL Europe. He was released in September 2004. He was the punter and performed kickoffs for the World Bowl XII champion 2004 Thunder team, although Jonathan Ruffin performed field goal attempts for them. The Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League signed Epstein during the 2005 CFL season. He appeared in four regular season games for Edmonton, made 8 of 12 field goal attempts, and punted 16 times for an average of 41 yards (37 m) but that record and especially a blocked kick on September 18, his final game for the Eskimos, resulted in his release on September 29. Edmonton went on to win the 93rd Grey Cup. The Houston Texans signed him in January 2006 and assigned him to the Rhein Fire of NFL Europe. He was released in May 2006. On February 6, 2008, Epstein signed back on with the Edmonton Eskimos of the CFL, but he was released again on April 28. ## See also - List of select Jewish football players	[ "## Early life", "## University of Michigan", "## Professional career", "## See also" ]	2,541	18,452
409,987	Norid	1,069,483,097	Domain name registry for the three Norwegian country code top-level domains	[ "Companies based in Trondheim", "Domain name registries", "Internet in Norway", "Norwegian companies established in 2003" ]	Norid AS is the registry for the Norwegian country-code top-level domains (ccTLDs) .no (Norway), .sj (Svalbard and Jan Mayen) and .bv (Bouvet Island). By agreement with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, Norid is delegated the exclusive authority to assign, administer and register domain names under these three top-level domains. Of these three top-level domains, second-level domains may only be registered under .no, while use of .sj and .bv is presently reserved. ## Norid Norid is not an administrative body, and domain names are assigned on a private-law basis and do not involve the exercise of official authority. Norwegian domains are governed by regulation, and supervised by the Norwegian Communications Authority. As a registry, Norid administers the name service and the registration service for the top-level domains, and determines assignment rules within the framework of legislation and regulations. The registration service processes applications for domain names under .no in accordance with current assignment rules and maintains a register of rights of use for the various domain names. The name service for the .no domain is required to ensure that the domain names function technically. This service, which is a key element of the basic Internet infrastructure in Norway, sets particularly high requirements for availability and has had no downtime since the top-level domain was first delegated, more than 30 years ago. ## History On 17 March 1987, the .no top-level domain was delegated to Televerket’s Research Institute, assisted by the Internet pioneers Pål Spilling and Jens Thommassen. In the same year, the Uninett project was launched, and as a technically competent and neutral party, they took over responsibility for the top-level domain. In 1993, Uninett was formally constituted as a wholly owned limited company under the Norwegian Ministry of Education, Research and Church Affairs. As the Internet became more popular, more resources were required to operate the .no domain, and in 1996 the domain registry project was made a distinct unit within Uninett. The project was named Norid, an acronym for Norwegian registration service for Internet domain names. In 1997, Norid became the registry for .sj and .bv. The first domain name policy for .no was published in 1995. The policy was initially quite restrictive. Only organisations (companies and other businesses) could register domain names, and they could only register one domain name, for which they had to have documented rights. In the ensuing years, the domain name policy has been revised a number of times, and many of the restrictions have been removed: {\\| \\|- \\| style="text-align: right" style="vertical-align: top;" \\| 2000: \\|\\| Permission was given to register general words and expressions. \\|- \\| style="text-align: right" style="vertical-align: top;" \\| 2001: \\|\\| The number of domain names allowed per registrant organisation was increased to 15, and the requirement to document rights to names was removed. \\|- \\| style="text-align: right" style="vertical-align: top;" \\| 2004: \\|\\| The number of permitted characters was expanded by 23, including æ, ø and å. Following this change, all the official written languages in Norway could be represented in Norwegian domain names. \\|- \\| style="text-align: right" style="vertical-align: top;" \\| 2007: \\|\\| Domain names that only consist of numbers permitted, such as 123.no. \\|- \\| style="text-align: right" style="vertical-align: top;" \\| 2011: \\|\\| priv.no was originally established as a category domain for private individuals in 1993, and was operated by various commercial players for many years. After taking over responsibility for the operation of the category domain, Norid made it available to everyone again on 6 June 2011. On 30 November 2011, the number of domain names for organisations (companies and other businesses) was expanded to 100 domain names per organisation number. \\|- \\| style="text-align: right" style="vertical-align: top;" \\| 2014: \\|\\| Private individuals permitted to register domain names directly under .no. Following a recommendation from an inter-ministerial working group, the domain area was regulated by a separate regulation of 1 August 2003 (the Norwegian Domain Name Regulations). In February of the same year, Norid was established as a subsidiary of Uninett AS, under the name UNINETT Norid AS. The company changed its name to Norid AS in 2019. Since 1 July 2021, Norid AS has been owned by the Ministry of Local Government and Modernisation. ## Domain name policy Norid establishes all assignment rules for domain names under the .no domain within the frameworks of legislation and regulations, and is responsible for the establishment of an appeal scheme. Prior to making any significant changes to the assignment or appeal rules, Norid obtains advice from the authorities and from users’ representatives, and may conduct public hearings. Important stakeholder groups are represented through Norpol, an advisory body that helps develop the rules for the .no domain. Anyone who wishes can also give input to Norid directly. Assignment rules and appeal rules are designed under a private-law contractual framework. The assignment rules have provisions governing which domain names can be registered and which are reserved for specific purposes, and who can register domain names. Important provisions include: The subscriber must be an organisation registered in the Central Coordinating Register of Legal Entities or a private individual registered in the Norwegian National Registry and must have a Norwegian postal address. Limited number of domain names. An organisation (company or other business) may have up to 100 domain names directly under .no and may also register under geographical domains and category domains. Individuals may register up to five domain names. The domain name. A domain name must have a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 63 characters. Permitted characters: the letters a–z, 23 special characters that cover all the official Norwegian written languages, the digits 0-9 and hyphens. Protected or reserved names. Some domain names are reserved or protected for various reasons. Examples include ftp.no, www.no etc. This also applies to some geographical names. A domain name is only created when an organisation or private individual is assigned a subscription for it. The subscription gives the domain subscriber a right to use the domain name, and this right is maintained for as long as the subscription runs. The domain subscriber is responsible for the use of the domain name. Norid has no control over the content of websites and has no mandate to sanction websites that may appear to be breaking the law. This is the responsibility of the Police and the courts. Disputes over domain names are handled by the Alternative Dispute Resolution Committee or the courts. Norid’s website provides more information about things to consider when choosing a domain name, and general issues concerning domain names.	[ "## Norid", "## History", "## Domain name policy" ]	1,438	35,307
68,115,632	Haley Cavinder	1,173,065,336	American social media personality (born 2001)	[ "2001 births", "American TikTokers", "American podcasters", "American women podcasters", "American women's basketball players", "Basketball players from Arizona", "Basketball players from South Bend, Indiana", "Fresno State Bulldogs women's basketball players", "Living people", "Miami Hurricanes women's basketball players", "People from Gilbert, Arizona", "Point guards" ]	Haley Cavinder (born January 13, 2001) is an American social media personality and former college basketball player who played with the Fresno State Bulldogs of the Mountain West Conference (MW) and then with the Miami Hurricanes of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC). Cavinder was an All-MW selection in each of her three seasons at Fresno State, and was named MW Player of the Year in her sophomore season. As a junior, she set the NCAA Division I single-season free throw percentage record before transferring to Miami. Cavinder and her fraternal twin and teammate, Hanna, have a large social media following and share a TikTok account with millions of followers. In the last two seasons of their basketball careers, they were leading figures in college sports endorsements, signing name, image and likeness (NIL) deals with several companies, including Boost Mobile and WWE, and co-founding the clothing company Baseline Team. ## Early life and education Cavinder was born in South Bend, Indiana, on January 13, 2001, one minute before and one pound (454 g) heavier than her twin sister, Hanna, to parents, Katie and Tom Cavinder. The family moved to the Phoenix area in the twins' early childhood. She started playing basketball before preschool and watched drills on YouTube to improve her skills. Cavinder competed in boys leagues until sixth grade before playing against girls who were two to three years older than her. She also played soccer and volleyball before focusing on basketball in middle school. She emulated her game after Skylar Diggins-Smith. ### High school career Cavinder played for Gilbert High School in Gilbert, Arizona, alongside her twin sister, Hanna, and another sister, Brandi, who was two years ahead of them in school. The Cavinder twins were drawn there by coach Kyle Pedersen, who had trained them since they were in sixth grade and was their coach with Arizona Elite Basketball Club. As a freshman at Gilbert, Cavinder assumed a leading role along with Hanna, and helped the team reach the state quarterfinals. In her junior season, Cavinder averaged 23 points, 9.2 rebounds, 6.6 assists and 3.9 steals per game, leading Gilbert to the Class 6A state semifinals. She earned most valuable player honors at the Nike Tournament of Champions, an annual high school competition. As a senior, she averaged 21.8 points, 8.9 rebounds and 6.5 assists per game, helping her team reach the Class 5A state title game. She was named Arizona 5A Player of the Year and finished with 2,282 career points. ## College career ### Fresno State On February 1, 2020, Cavinder scored 31 points, a Fresno State single-game freshman record, along with six assists and five steals, in an 84–78 win against New Mexico. As a freshman, she averaged 15.7 points, 7.2 rebounds and 3.6 assists per game. Cavinder recorded the most points (512) and rebounds (233) by a freshman in program history. She was named Mountain West Freshman of the Year and to the All-Mountain West and All-Freshman Teams. Cavinder scored a sophomore season-high 30 points in a 78–70 win over Nevada on January 14, 2021. As a sophomore, she averaged a conference-high 19.8 points, 7.5 rebounds, 3.8 assists and 1.7 steals per game, leading Fresno State to the second round of the Women's National Invitation Tournament. Cavinder became the fastest Fresno State player to reach 1,000 career points. She was named Mountain West Player of the Year, becoming the third sophomore to win the award. She earned All-Mountain West honors for a second straight season. As a junior in 2021–22, Cavinder led the Bulldogs in scoring (19.8 per game), rebounding (9.4), and assists (5.8) on her way to her third straight All-Mountain West selection. She also had three triple-doubles, second in NCAA Division I to Iowa's Caitlin Clark and the most all-time by a Fresno State player. Cavinder set a new Division I single-season record for free throw percentage, with 97.3%. ### University of Miami Following the season, the Cavinder twins entered the NCAA transfer portal and eventually announced on April 21, 2022, that they would transfer to the University of Miami. Both twins had two years of remaining athletic eligibility at the time of their transfer, because the NCAA did not count the 2020–21 season, extensively disrupted by COVID-19, against the eligibility of any basketball player. On February 9, 2023, Cavinder scored a career-high 33 points, shooting 7-of-10 from three-point range, in an 86–82 win over 19th-ranked Florida State. She was named second-team All-Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC). Shortly after the end of the 2022–23 season, the twins announced that they would end their college basketball careers, choosing not to take advantage of their extra year of eligibility. Their agent later told TheStreet that they would begin professional wrestling training at the WWE Performance Center later that spring. ## Social media and endorsements Cavinder has established a large social media following with Hanna. In April 2020, while bored at home during the COVID-19 pandemic, she was persuaded by Hanna, who used TikTok, to make videos together on a shared account on the platform. The videos feature Cavinder and her sister performing synchronized dances, dribbling and lip syncing side-by-side. By April 2022, the twins had four million followers on TikTok. The Cavinder twins have made national headlines for their success with college sports endorsements and are among the most prominent college athletes in the field. On July 1, 2021, after the NCAA began allowing student-athletes to be compensated for the use of their name, image and likeness (NIL), the twins signed deals with Boost Mobile within minutes of it being permitted. On December 8, 2021, they signed with professional wrestling promotion WWE as part of its new Next In Line program to develop college athletes into potential WWE wrestlers. On January 18, 2022, the twins announced that they had co-founded the streetwear clothing startup Baseline Team. They were given 25 percent equity stake in the company and one of three seats on the board of directors. The twins have also signed NIL deals with Champs Sports, Eastbay, Gopuff and SoFi, among other companies. In July 2022, Forbes estimated that they had earned \$1.7 million in endorsement deals. By November 2022, they had over 40 deals, more than any other women's basketball players at any level. The twins also started a podcast, Twin Talk, in December 2022 on iHeartRadio that initially focuses on student-athletes' perspectives on NIL; the twins' first official guest was LSU gymnast and leading NIL figure Olivia Dunne. In early 2023, the twins were involved in the first known NCAA sanctions case related to NIL opportunities. On February 24, the Miami women's basketball program was placed on a year of probation and received other minor penalties; the twins received no direct sanctions. The NCAA found that the program and its head coach Katie Meier had violated NCAA rules by facilitating a meeting between the Cavinders and Miami-based businessman John Ruiz, a Miami alumnus and booster who has signed over 100 Hurricanes athletes in various sports to NIL deals, before they officially committed to transferring to the school.	[ "## Early life and education", "### High school career", "## College career", "### Fresno State", "### University of Miami", "## Social media and endorsements" ]	1,589	32,247
8,422,996	Kuhl's maskray	1,168,690,952	Species of cartilaginous fish	[ "Fish described in 1841", "Fish of China", "Fish of India", "Fish of Japan", "Fish of Madagascar", "Fish of Taiwan", "Marine fish of East Africa", "Marine fish of Northern Australia", "Neotrygon", "Ovoviviparous fish", "Taxa named by Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle", "Taxa named by Johannes Peter Müller" ]	Kuhl's maskray (Neotrygon kuhlii), also known as the blue-spotted stingray, blue-spotted maskray, or Kuhl's stingray, is a species of stingray of the family Dasyatidae. It was recently changed from Dasyatis kuhlii in 2008 after morphological and molecular analyses showed that it is part of a distinct genus, Neotrygon. The body is rhomboidal and colored green with blue spots. Maximum disk width is estimated 46.5 cm (18.3 in). It is popular in aquaria, but usually not distinguished from the blue-spotted ribbontail ray. The ribbontail has a rounded body, is a brighter green with brighter blue and more vivid spots, but Kuhl's maskray is larger. The stingray's lifespan is estimated at 13 years for females and 10 years for males. The blue-spotted stingray preys on many fish and small mollusks. It is also generally found from Indonesia to Japan, and most of Australia. Kuhl's maskray also is targeted by many parasites, such as tapeworms, flatworms, and flukes. ## Taxonomy Kuhl's maskray was discovered by Heinrich Kuhl in Java, Indonesia. The population size of this species is greatly debatable due to the five different species of rays in Indonesia. Also, two different subgroups are known, the Java and Bali forms. The distinct difference between the two strains is their size, with the Bali being much larger than the Java. On the familial level, the family Dasyatidae is made up of 9 genera and 70 species. The species in Neotrygon are called maskrays, because of the color pattern around their eyes. ## Description and behavior Kuhl's maskrays have a flat, disc-like, rhomboid body up to 47 cm (19 in) in diameter and 70 cm (28 in) in total length. Their coloring is a dark green with blue spots with a light white underbelly, also known as countershading. Their snouts are very short and broadly angular along with an angular disc. The rays' bright coloration serves as a warning for their venomous spines. The rays have a very long tail accommodating two venomous spines on its base. Their tails are about twice as long as their bodies, and the barbs or spines are two different sizes, one being very large and the other medium in size. Kuhl's maskrays have bright yellow eyes that are positioned to allow them a wide angle of view. Since their gills are located ventrally, the spiracles allow water to reach the gills while resting or feeding on the benthos. The spiracles are located directly behind the eyes. The mouth is located on the ventral side of the body, which promotes the unique foraging technique of stingrays. Rays are normally solitary individuals, but can occur in groups. One unique characteristic of Kuhl's maskrays is that they bury themselves in the sand only to hide from predators, unlike most stingrays, which bury themselves regularly to hunt. ### Diet Kuhl's maskray feeds on shrimp, small bony fish, mollusks, crabs, and worms. Because this ray is a shallow-bottom feeder, it has a small variety of marine life on which to prey. It overpowers its prey by pinning it to the bottom of the seafloor with its fins. This ray has numerous tiny teeth, with the lower jaw being slightly convex. Like most stingrays, it has plate-like teeth to crush prey. ### Reproduction Kuhl's maskray is ovoviviparous. The embryos are retained in eggs within the mother's body until they are ready to hatch. The embryos receive nourishment from the mothers' uterine fluid. Mothers give birth to up to seven pups per litter; these pups range from 6 to 13 in (150 to 330 mm) long at birth. The blue-spotted stingray passes its offspring 32 sets of chromosomes. The female also has an annual reproductive cycle. The mating season is in October and November, and the ovulating season is in the Australian summer (December 1- February 28/29), which coincides with the embryonic development. ## Habitat The blue-spotted stingray is commonly found in waters of depths above 90 m (295 ft), being commonly found in sand and mudflats, but is also encountered near rocky coral reefs and sea grass beds. This stingray is found in a tropical climate at 29°N to 31°S, and 20°E to 171°W. At high tide, the blue-spotted stingray moves into the shallow lagoons and reef flats. It is found in northern Australia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Somalia, the east coast of South Africa, and India, and in almost the entire continental waters of Asia, including the Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, Philippine Sea, Sulu Sea, Java Sea, Banda Sea, Celebes Sea, Andaman Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Arabian Sea. ## Threats and protected areas Queensland, Australia, has many areas for high protection of Kuhl's maskrays, three being the Shoalwater, Corio Bay's Area Ramsar Site, and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. A major threat to this stingray is the destruction of coral reefs mainly in the north-western Pacific. The rays dwell in these reefs and the destruction and pollution from fertilizers and pesticides hurt them. The ray is commonly caught in the Java Sea by fishermen trawling and by Danish seine boats in large quantities. The blue-spotted stingray is the second-most significant species of the shark, ray, and skate family to be fished, contributing to about 700 kg (1,500 lb) per boat in 2006–2007. ## Predators Larger elasmobranchs, such as hammerhead sharks, prey on Kuhl's maskrays. The rays' coloration is a warning for the highly venomous barbs, thus few animals attempt to overpower them. The hammerhead shark uses its head to pin down this stingray, while it is in shock and much weaker. ## Human interaction Due to the unique characteristics of this ray, it is commonly found in pet trade, but many people ignore the fact that the fully mature size of the ray exceeds the capacity of many household aquaria. Kuhl's maskray is generally fished for its meat, being either smoked and salted or dried for local markets, but inexpensive due to its small size. It is caught in mass in bottom trawl, trammel, and fish traps. Kuhl's maskray is very venomous and it has a barb about 12 in (300 mm) long. The venom contains serotonin, 5' nucleotidase, and phosphodiesterase. The skin of the blue-spotted stingray is often used for drums, such as on the Arab and Turkish darbuka goblet drum and riq tambourine. ## Parasites Many parasites can inhabit the blue-spotted stingray: ## Applications Two short peptides identified from the hydrolyzed proteins of this species showed protective effects against the oxidation of lipids, DNA and proteins. The potential application of the peptides as functional food ingredients or nutraceuticals has been proposed.	[ "## Taxonomy", "## Description and behavior", "### Diet", "### Reproduction", "## Habitat", "## Threats and protected areas", "## Predators", "## Human interaction", "## Parasites", "## Applications" ]	1,553	16,415
12,197,230	Hurricane Carlotta (2000)	1,169,039,713	Category 4 Pacific hurricane in 2000	[ "2000 Pacific hurricane season", "2000 in Mexico", "Category 4 Pacific hurricanes", "Maritime incidents in 2000", "Pacific hurricanes in Mexico", "Tropical cyclones in 2000" ]	Hurricane Carlotta was the most powerful hurricane of the 2000 Pacific hurricane season. The third tropical cyclone of the season, Carlotta developed from a tropical wave on June 18 about 270 miles (430 km) southeast off the coast of Mexico. With favorable conditions for development, it strengthened steadily at first, followed by a period of rapid deepening to peak winds of 155 mph (249 km/h) on June 22. Cooler waters caused Carlotta to gradually weaken, and on June 25 it degenerated into a remnant area of low pressure while located about 260 miles (420 km) west-southwest of Cabo San Lucas. The hurricane produced heavy rainfall and rough surf along the southwest coast of Mexico, though no serious damage was reported. A Lithuanian freighter traversing through the peak of the hurricane was lost after experiencing an engine failure; its crew of 18 was presumed killed. ## Meteorological history A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on June 3. It tracked westward across the unfavorable Atlantic Ocean, and on June 15 it crossed Central America into the eastern Pacific Ocean. The system continued westward, and late on June 16 a low pressure area developed about 300 miles (480 km) southwest of San José, Costa Rica. At around 1200 UTC on June 17, Dvorak classifications began on the disturbance, though initially its convection was broadly distributed and disorganized. The next day, however, an area of concentrated convection developed just south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. Ships in the vicinity confirmed the development of a surface circulation within the system, while satellite imagery showed the development of a central dense overcast. Based on its organization, it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression Three-E late on June 18 while located about 270 miles (430 km) southeast of Puerto Angel, Oaxaca in Mexico. Initially, the convection of the depression was displaced to the west of the circulation due to some easterly wind shear, though as it tracked west-northwestward parallel to the coast of Mexico, it maintained and developed deep convection near and over the center. With favorable conditions, the cyclone strengthened and became Tropical Storm Carlotta early on June 19. The storm initially maintained a track toward the Mexican coastline, though a mid-level ridge turned it to the west; its closest point of approach was about 140 miles (230 km) at 1200 UTC on June 19. Late that day, a ragged banding-eye feature developed on satellite imagery, while at the same time it maintained an area of strong convection and well-defined outflow to its south. The storm continued to intensify, and at 0600 UTC on June 20 Carlotta attained hurricane status while located about 155 miles (249 km) south of Acapulco. Operationally, it was upgraded to hurricane status six hours earlier. With a large anticyclone centered near Mazatlán, Sinaloa, Carlotta turned more to the west. Deep convection increased in coverage and intensity as the system maintained impressive upper-level outflow over its southern semicircle. Late on June 20, Hurricane Carlotta began a period of rapid deepening, with warm waters and a very favorable upper-level environment, and in a twelve-hour period the pressure dropped 49 mbar to an estimated minimum central pressure of 932 mbar at 0600 UTC on June 21; at the same time, Carlotta attained peak winds of 155 mph (249 km/h) while located about 285 miles (459 km) southwest of Acapulco. At the time of its peak intensity, Carlotta maintained a well-defined central dense overcast around an eye of 20 miles (32 km) in diameter. Satellite intensity estimates indicated winds of 160 mph (260 km/h), though through much of its duration there was a sizable discrepancy between the estimated winds and that of winds reported by Hurricane Hunters. Hurricane Carlotta maintained peak winds for about twelve hours before weakening as it curved around the periphery of the mid-level ridge over Mexico. Late on June 21, the eye had become less distinct while its surrounding ring of convection eroded and warmed. Early on June 22, northeasterly wind shear increased, and shortly thereafter the weakening trend was temporarily halted with some oscillations in the convective intensity and eye definition. Weakening continued on June 23 as the hurricane tracked over increasingly cooler waters, and shortly after 0000 UTC on June 24 Carlotta weakened to a tropical storm about 260 miles (420 km) west-southwest of Cabo San Lucas. Overall convection continued to diminish, and early on June 25 the winds dropped to tropical depression status. Deep convection ceased to exist by 0600 UTC on June 25, and Carlotta degenerated into a remnant low pressure area. The low-level circulation of Carlotta persisted for several days as it continued northwestward. ## Impact Shortly after first developing, the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning from Salina Cruz to Acapulco, and later was extended to Zihuatanejo. Though the National Hurricane Center never forecast it to make landfall, one computer model predicted Carlotta to move ashore; due to the threat, the Mexican government also issued a hurricane watch from Puerto Angel to Zihuatanejo. Outer rainbands and rough surf affected the southwestern coast of Mexico for an extended duration; officials evacuated about 100 families in potentially flooded areas of Acapulco as a precaution. Precipitation and clouds were reported in every Mexican state along the Pacific Ocean, resulting in flooding in some areas. No stations in Mexico reported sustained tropical storm force winds; however, Bahías de Huatulco International Airport in Oaxaca reported a wind gust of 44 mph (71 km/h). Heavy rainfall and rough seas were also reported on Socorro Island. Seven ships reported tropical storm force winds in association with Carlotta, peaking at 46 mph (74 km/h); the lowest pressure recorded by ship was 1,008 mbar. Offshore, waves reached 40 feet (12 m) in height. The Lithuanian freighter Linkuva, en route to Long Beach, California, encountered the waves and strong winds as the hurricane was undergoing its period of rapid intensification. After an engine failure, the freighter was lost about 220 miles (350 km) southwest of Acapulco. A naval vessel from both the United States Navy and the Mexican Navy searched for the freighter for three days, though the crew was lost and presumed killed. ## See also - Other storms of the same name - List of Category 4 Pacific hurricanes	[ "## Meteorological history", "## Impact", "## See also" ]	1,385	4,740
1,160,422	Worms Armageddon	1,161,787,344	1999 video game	[ "1999 video games", "Artillery video games", "Cancelled classic Mac OS games", "Dreamcast games", "Game Boy Color games", "Hasbro games", "Infogrames games", "MicroProse games", "Nintendo 64 games", "PlayStation (console) games", "Strategy video games", "Video games developed in the United Kingdom", "Video games scored by Bjørn Lynne", "Windows games", "Worms games" ]	Worms Armageddon is a 1999 turn-based strategy video game developed and published by Team17. It was originally released for the Microsoft Windows operating system, and was later ported to the PlayStation, Dreamcast, Nintendo 64, and Game Boy Color. Worms Armageddon is the third installment in the Worms series. In the game, the player controls a team of up to eight earthworms tasked with defeating an opposing team using a wide range of weapons at their disposal. The game takes place on a destructible and customizable two-dimensional board and is characterized by cartoonish graphics and a unique brand of humour. Worms Armageddon was originally developed as an expansion pack to Worms 2 and initially titled Wormageddon before it was released as a standalone game. Worms Armageddon was acclaimed by critics, who praised the refined gameplay and stylized graphics, and it has been featured in a number of "greatest games of all time" lists. Worms Armageddon is still updated periodically as of 2020, and was released on the Steam platform in 2013. ## Gameplay Gameplay is turn-based, with each team moving in sequence, which is determined randomly, across two-dimensional terrain. During a single turn, a team can only move one of their worms (unless an item that allows the team to select their worm is used). Worms can walk and jump, as well as (when the proper items are available) swing by rope, parachute, teleport, and bungee. The objective of a traditional match is to defeat all opposing teams by killing their worms, although in the campaign some missions have other objectives such as collecting a specific crate. Each worm begins the round with a specific amount of health, which is predefined by the chosen game options or by scripting in campaign levels. When hit with a weapon, the worm will lose health depending upon the power of the weapon and the directness of the hit. A worm can be killed either by exploding after having its health reduced to zero or by being knocked into the water around and below the level. The game includes a wide variety of weapons, including melee, projectile, and explosive weapons, as well as airstrike-based attacks. Some are based on real-life arms, such as the shotgun, bazooka, and hand grenade; others are rather fanciful and cartoonish, such as the sheep, which serves as a mobile explosive, and the skunk, which releases poisonous gas. In a normal match, all teams begin with the same weapons, based on the chosen weapon set. Some weapons may not become available until a certain number of turns pass. Depending on the game options, additional weapons may randomly fall onto the terrain in airdropped and teleported crates. In addition to normal weapons, during team creation, each team chooses a special weapon which becomes available to them after a certain number of turns. The special weapons are more powerful than regular weapons and often offer special abilities; super weapons will rarely fall in weapon crates. These weapons are often based on cartoonish themes, such as the French Sheep Strike, and usually devastating in power. In homage to the film Monty Python and the Holy Grail, one of the game weapons is a Holy Hand Grenade, with a sound-effect reminiscent of the Hallelujah chorus from Handel's Messiah. ### Gameplay modes Worms Armageddon includes a series of training missions, a single-player campaign with premade missions, a deathmatch mode in which the player fights increasingly difficult and outnumbered battles against the computer, local multiplayer, and online multiplayer. Local multiplayer allows the player to select which teams participate in the battle as well as the number of worms and handicaps, which options and weapons are used, and the level to be played on. The matches can use any combination of human and computer teams, provided at least one team is human. Additionally, multiple worm teams can form an alliance for the match by selecting the same team color – they will still operate separately in movement rotation but share weapons and score. If multiple human players are using the same computer, the game functions in a hotseat mode. Online multiplayer is set up similarly to local multiplayer but allows the players to be at separate computers. Additionally, hotseat can be combined with online play, so multiple human players can use each computer. Worms Armageddon features a multiplayer Internet service called WormNet. This service allows one player to host a game online and others to join it. The host can choose settings such as the landscape and scheme. In the past, it used to keep a score and ranking system for the players. ### Customization Worms Armageddon includes a very high level of customizability – in multiplayer games or skirmishes, the player can create custom game modes with preferred gameplay options and weapon sets. Regular options include starting health, whether the worms can move, how long a turn lasts, and sudden death options. Weapons settings include what weapons the teams start with, which weapons will fall in crates and how often, and how powerful individual weapons are. Worms Armageddon offers several levels of customizability outside of direct gameplay options. The game offers players the ability to create their own custom teams. Each team has its own name and includes eight individually named worms. The player can also change the team's special weapon, grave marker, flag, victory fanfare, and voice set. In addition to numerous defaults available, the game offers the ability to import custom voices. The game includes a random terrain generator, a basic terrain editor which allows the user to create the shape of the terrain with brushes, and a more complex terrain-import system which allows the user to import custom-made terrains in image format, which the game automatically converts into playable terrains. ## Development Worms Armageddon was originally intended to be an expansion pack to Worms 2, but it was eventually developed as a standalone game. It was intended to be the last game of the Worms franchise, but Worms creator Andy Davidson felt that it needed more content before being released, leading to the development of Worms World Party. It was also going to be released under the name Wormageddon, but Team17 changed the name to Worms Armageddon because of close similarities to the name of the game Carmageddon. It was released initially for PCs in 1999 in Europe and on 31 May 1999 in North America, published by Hasbro Interactive under the MicroProse brand. The game was eventually ported to Dreamcast and PlayStation on 30 November, Game Boy Color on 19 January 2000, and Nintendo 64 on 30 March 2000. The Nintendo 64 version is one of the first Nintendo 64 games to feature a terrain editor and generator. A Macintosh version was being developed by MacSoft, but it has since been cancelled. Worms Armageddon was produced by Martyn Brown and composed by Bjørn Lynne, Karl Morton was the game's lead programmer, and Dan Cartwright was the game's lead artist. Worms Armageddon was initially released on Steam for a limited time as the preorder bonus for Worms Revolution. The Steam release included all improvements from the previously-released updates. This release was made available on 12 September 2012. Worms Armageddon was released onto the Steam store as a standalone game on 20 March 2013. Despite its age, Worms Armageddon still receives periodic updates, mainly from two programmers known as Deadcode and CyberShadow, recruited by Team17. These updates address bugs and compatibility issues, and also add new features to the game, such as support for a greater number of worms in a match and support for arbitrarily-sized colour levels. The latest update was on 16 July 2020. ## Reception The PlayStation version of Worms Armageddon received a "Gold" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 200,000 copies in the United Kingdom. Worms Armageddon received generally positive reviews from video game critics, averaging a PC score of 88% on the GameRankings website. The main element across all the versions of the game that the critics considered praiseworthy is the gameplay. The PC version of Worms Armageddon was critically successful. Whilst writing that veterans of Worms 2 would find the game to be similar, Greg Kasavin of GameSpot praised the game for being easy to play and control and humorous and the game's graphics, physics, and seemingly endless customization as well as the game's WormNet. He also likened the single-player missions to the classic game of Lemmings in that the missions often required the player to precisely utilize a limited supply of weapons and tools to accomplish the objective. Among his only criticisms are that the AI-controlled worms do not utilize their full arsenals and that the player would wish that there were more weapons, more diverse graphics and sound, and more content. Matthew Pierce of PC Gamer UK commended Team17 for addressing the problems of single-player (i.e. the missions and AI) that the original Worms and Worms 2 had always been criticized for. The Dreamcast version's reception was positive. Johnny Liu of Game Revolution praised the version for its "addictive" gameplay, its loads of personality, and not having to save money to buy multiple controllers for multiplayer, but criticized the version for the lack of Internet support, reduced customizations compared to the PC version, and the lack of a multiple-controller option. On the contrary, Ben Stahl of GameSpot praised the multiple controller ports as well as multiplayer for being fast-paced and turned into a "barrage of havoc", but criticized the single-player for the AI-controlled worms' nearly perfect accuracy and the length of time that it takes for such worms to complete their turns. He also pointed out that the worms' high-pitched voices are "only mildly cute" and can potentially be annoying, but praised the soundtracks for lending in realism to an otherwise unrealistic experience and the background music for helping players stay on task. The Game Boy Color port received mixed reviews. Concluding that the port is an "abridged edition of the overall game", Craig Harris of IGN criticized the version's great lack of the PC version's features (e.g. weapons) and personality and pointed out its "quirky" graphics. The reviewer felt that the game's front end was "extremely thrown together". He concluded that it was still fun to play. Chris Hudak of The Electric Playground similarly criticized the lack of weapons and also criticized the lack of soundbites and complete lack of voices and what he perceived to be "microscopic" worms that are tough for the eye to see. He did, however, praise the terrain and physics engine for being well translated from the other versions of the game. Michael Wolf reviewed the Nintendo 64 version of the game for Next Generation, rating it three stars out of five, and stated that "a good rental if you're planning a gaming party, but for day-to-day gaming, these annelids just don't cut it". ### Awards The editors of PC Gamer US nominated Armageddon for their 1999 "Best Turn-Based Strategy Game" award, which ultimately went to Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri. They wrote that Armageddon "put up one hell of a fight [for the award] and should not be overlooked by fans of the genre". It was also a runner-up for GameSpot's annual "Best Strategy Game" award among console games, losing to Ogre Battle 64. ## Legacy Worms Armageddon has been placed on several lists of the greatest games of all time. Digital Spy ranked Worms Armageddon at No. 18 on their list of the top 20 Nintendo 64 games of all time. GamesRadar ranked the game at No. 13 on their list of the top 50 PlayStation I games of all time. They also ranked it at No. 68 on their list of the top 100 video games of all time. Slant Magazine ranked the game at No. 100 on their similar list. TechRadar listed the game as one of their favourite PC games of all time. Team17 chose to base the source code of the 2016 game Worms W.M.D entirely on that of Worms Armageddon, because fans frequently told them upon questioning that Worms Armageddon was their favourite game in the series. Additionally, the 2009 game Worms 2: Armageddon was named in honor of Worms Armageddon despite not being a direct sequel. In 2022, Worms Armageddon added to the premium collection of PlayStation Plus.	[ "## Gameplay", "### Gameplay modes", "### Customization", "## Development", "## Reception", "### Awards", "## Legacy" ]	2,613	35,239
13,051,250	Hugh Foliot	1,169,529,554	English bishop (c. 1155–1234)	[ "1155 births", "1234 deaths", "13th-century English Roman Catholic bishops", "Archdeacons of Shropshire", "Bishops of Hereford", "Burials at Hereford Cathedral", "Year of birth uncertain" ]	Hugh Foliot ( – 7 August 1234) was a medieval Bishop of Hereford. Related somehow to his predecessor at Hereford, he served as a priest and papal judge as well as being an unsuccessful candidate as Bishop of St David's in Wales. In 1219, he was appointed Bishop of Hereford. During his time in office, he mostly attended to ecclesiastical duties, but did occasionally serve as a royal administrator. He helped found a hospital and a priory, and died in 1234 after a months-long illness. ## Early life Foliot possibly was the son of Roger Foliot and his wife Rohese. Roger held three knight's fees in Northamptonshire. Probably born sometime between 1150 and 1160, Hugh was related in some manner to Robert Foliot, his predecessor at Hereford. He was a canon of Hereford Cathedral before becoming Archdeacon of Shropshire by May 1186. Foliot is a frequent witness on charters as archdeacon, but little else is known of his tenure of the office. From 1212 to 1219, he served as a papal judge-delegate three times. In 1215 he was also King John's candidate for the see of St David's in Wales, but was not elected. After Foliot's failed candidacy as bishop, in February 1216 John appointed him to the benefice of Colwall in Herefordshire, the king having the ability to make the appointment because Giles de Braose, the Bishop of Hereford, who would normally have made the appointment, had recently died. Also from this time comes Foliot's patronage of Robert Grosseteste, the theologian and future Bishop of Lincoln. ## Bishop Foliot had been one of three members of the cathedral chapter from Hereford sent to King Henry III's court to secure permission for the chapter to hold an election in 1219 Foliot was elected to the see of Hereford in June 1219 and consecrated on 27 October 1219 along with William de Goldcliff, the Bishop of Llandaff, at Canterbury. The new bishop accompanied Peter des Roches, the Bishop of Winchester, on a pilgrimage in 1221. Because des Roches travelled to Spain to the shrine of St James at Compostela, and it is known that Foliot accompanied him, the statement by a medieval chronicler from Dunstable that Foliot's destination was not certain, being either Rome or Compostela, should be discounted. Foliot spent most of his tenure of office in his diocese, only rarely attending the royal court or being assigned governmental duties. On 30 December 1223, Foliot assumed one of those duties, when he took custody of Hereford Castle after it was surrendered by Hubert de Burgh, during the redistribution of royal castles when de Burgh ousted des Roches from power. He also was appointed to determine the size of the royal forest in Gloucestershire. Foliot also founded a hospital in Ledbury, devoted to St Katherine. He helped found Alberbury Priory, a house of the Grandmontine order. In his cathedral, he reorganised the benefices and offices of the chapter, as well as endowing further benefices. Foliot died 7 August 1234, after an illness that began in the spring. He was buried in Hereford Cathedral, where his tomb survives. Foliot appointed his younger brother Thomas to offices in the diocese, first as precentor in the 1220s and then around 1230 as treasurer of the cathedral chapter.	[ "## Early life", "## Bishop" ]	749	16,337
1,047,569	Michael I of Wallachia	1,173,801,611	null	[ "1420 deaths", "House of Basarab", "Monarchs killed in action", "Princes of Wallachia", "Year of birth unknown" ]	Michael I (Romanian: Mihail I), (? – August 1420) was Voivode of Wallachia from 1415 to 1420. He was the only legitimate son of Mircea I of Wallachia, who made him his co-ruler. Styled as prince from 1415, Michael became sole ruler after his father died in early 1418. His support for a Hungarian campaign against the Ottoman Empire caused the Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed I, to invade Wallachia, forcing him to agree to pay tribute. After Michael failed to respect the treaty, the Ottomans gave assistance to his rival, Dan, who crossed into Wallachia in 1420. Dan and his Ottoman allies defeated the Wallachian army, and Michael was killed on the battlefield. ## Early life The son of Mircea I of Wallachia and his wife, Maria Tolmay, Michael was Mircea's only legitimate son. Alexander Aldea and Vlad were Michael's most prominent illegitimate half-brothers, who, in accordance with local custom, could have claimed the throne of Wallachia. To strengthen Michael's position, his father made him his co-ruler. ## Reign Although Michael was first mentioned as Mircea's co-ruler in 1391, it was only from 1415 that he was consistently styled as "voivode and prince". Michael was still his father's co-ruler when in 1417 he refused to send the tribute that Mircea had promised to pay to the Ottoman Empire. Michael became the sole ruler of Wallachia after his father died on 31 January 1418. The first year of his reign was peaceful because the Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed I, was still occupied with the internal consolidation of the Ottoman Empire. Michael supported Sigismund of Luxembourg, King of Hungary, who launched a campaign against the Ottoman Empire in the autumn of 1419. They captured the city of Turnu Severin that Michael's father had lost to the Ottomans, but it was put under Sigismund's control. In retaliation, the sultan broke into Wallachia, forcing Michael to cede Giurgiu and other fortresses on the Danube to the Ottomans and to pay the tribute he had failed to send during the previous three years. Michael was also forced to send his two sons, Michael and Radu, as hostages to the Ottoman Empire. Michael's cousin, Dan, then laid claim to Wallachia. Many of Michael's boyars (including the influential Albul and Utmeș) defected to the pretender. Dan crossed into Wallachia in early 1420. Initially, Michael was able to resist, but since he had failed to implement all provisions of his 1419 treaty with the Ottoman Empire, his cousin was able to obtain military assistance from the Ottomans. Michael received support from Hungary, but their united forces were routed in the summer of 1420. Michael was killed on the battlefield. ## Ancestry	[ "## Early life", "## Reign", "## Ancestry" ]	621	21,118
223,482	Bart the General	1,167,749,792	null	[ "1990 American television episodes", "Television episodes about bullying", "Television episodes about revenge", "Television episodes about wars", "Television shows written by John Swartzwelder", "The Simpsons (season 1) episodes" ]	"Bart the General" is the fifth episode of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on Fox in the United States on February 4, 1990. In the episode, Bart Simpson enlists Grampa's help to battle local bully Nelson Muntz. Bart unites the neighborhood children against Nelson and defeats him. The episode was directed by David Silverman and was the first to be written by John Swartzwelder. ## Plot Bart gets into a fight with Nelson Muntz, the school bully, after Nelson's friends stomp on a box of cupcakes that Lisa baked for Miss Hoover's birthday party. Nelson beats up Bart after school and warns him to expect the same pummeling the next day. Marge encourages Bart to reason with Nelson, but Homer urges him to bend the rules and fight dirty. Bart follows Homer's advice and gets beaten up again. He turns to the toughest member of the Simpson family, Grampa, who introduces him to Herman, the crazed one-armed proprietor of an army surplus store called Herman's Military Antiques. After Herman teaches him military tactics, Bart declares war on Nelson and his gang of bullies. Bart enlists all of Nelson's other victims — nearly all of his friends and classmates — and trains them for combat. With Herman commanding from Bart's tree house, Bart leads his forces into battle by ambushing Nelson and his minions. They commence saturation bombing with water balloons, forcing Nelson's thugs to surrender and Nelson to be taken prisoner, who threatens to beat up Bart as soon as he is untied. Herman drafts an armistice that states that Nelson will retain his honorary position and name but not hold any actual power. After Bart and Nelson sign the treaty, Marge serves cupcakes and peace prevails. During the epilogue, Bart tells the audience that contrary to the events of the episode, war is neither glamorous nor fun, and states that there are no winners and very few good wars. He also advises that the audience visit their local library for more information about war. ## Cast - Dan Castellaneta as Homer Simpson and Grampa Simpson - Julie Kavner as Marge Simpson and Receptionist - Nancy Cartwright as Bart Simpson, Nelson Muntz and Lewis - Yeardley Smith as Lisa Simpson - Harry Shearer as Otto, Principal Seymour Skinner, Jasper and Herman - Susan Blu as Weasel \#1 - Jo Ann Harris as Weasel \#2, Richard and Lewis - Pamela Hayden as Milhouse Van Houten and Boy ## Production This episode was running too long to use the normal opening sequence and therefore did not feature a chalkboard gag or a couch gag. Instead, it just cut to an image of the Simpson house. David Silverman was the director and was somewhat stressed, because he was doing storyboards for this episode while also directing "Bart the Genius". Originally, he had planned to use the song "War" by Edwin Starr in the episode. The plans were dropped when they decided the song did not really fit the story. John Swartzwelder wrote the episode, being his first work on the show. The episode had problems with the censors, who did not want the characters to say "family jewels" on prime time television. The producers ignored the notes and "family jewels" remained in the episode. This act of attempted censorship was reflected in the part where Grampa Simpson writes a letter complaining of how sexualized television has become and gives a list of words he never wants to hear on television again, one of which is the phrase "family jewels". Two new characters were introduced in this episode. The first, Nelson Muntz, remains a frequently used recurring character. Voice actress Dana Hill was originally assigned to play Nelson and was present at the table read, but not at the recording session (for unknown reasons). Nancy Cartwright was then assigned the role. The second character, Herman, has been used far less. The design of Herman, with the exception of his missing arm, was inspired by writer John Swartzwelder. His voice, as performed by Harry Shearer, was partly inspired by George H. W. Bush. The original idea for Herman was for him to have a differing story for the loss of his arm with every appearance. ## Cultural references The episode featured several references to war films. Several lines of dialogue, Bart slapping one of his soldiers for "being a disgrace", and the music was lifted directly from the 1970 film Patton, composed by Jerry Goldsmith. Fox owned the rights to this film, so it was no problem to use the soundtrack. The marching sequence and the silhouettes of the children climbing the jungle gym against the setting sun are a nod to Stanley Kubrick's 1987 film Full Metal Jacket. The Longest Day from 1962 is also referenced. The episode parodies the famous sailor kissing a girl in Times Square photograph taken on V-J Day, where a random boy in a sailor suit kisses Lisa, before she slaps him in the face. Bart concludes the episode by saying the only "good wars" are the American Revolution, World War II, and the Star Wars trilogy. ## Reception In its original American broadcast, "Bart the General" finished 31st place in the weekly ratings for the week of January 29 – February 4, 1990 with a Nielsen rating of 14.3. It was the highest-rated show on Fox that week. Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, said: "Some good lines and setpieces aside – we love Bart's fantasy of death at Nelson's hands – this episode nevertheless feels a bit unsure of itself, particularly towards the end." In a DVD review of the first season, David B. Grelck rated the episode a 3 (of 5) and called it "another episode that helped to propel Bart's popularity into the stratosphere ..." Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that the episode "remains a primitive example of The Simpsons, but it's a reasonably amusing and entertaining experience", adding that the episode "lacks the subtlety and cleverness found on later episodes, but it was onto something". Matt Groening notes on the commentary track that he finds it strange how controversial this episode seemed at the time of its release. Today, they would go a lot further and to him this episode now seems harmless. The episode's reference to Full Metal Jacket was named the eleventh greatest film reference in the history of the show by Nathan Ditum of Total Film. ### Use in scientific research "Bart the General" and Seinfeld's "The Tape" were used in a Dartmouth College experiment to study brain activity in relation to humorous moments in television shows. The results were published in a 2004 issue of the academic journal Neurolmage. The researchers noted, "During moments of humor detection, significant [brain] activation was noted in the left posterior middle temporal gyrus ... and left inferior frontal gyrus." ## Home media The episode was released first on home video in the United Kingdom, as part of a VHS release titled The Simpsons Collection; the episode was paired with season one episode "There's No Disgrace Like Home". It was released in the US on the VHS release The Best of The Simpsons, Vol. 2 (1997), paired with "Moaning Lisa". It was later re-released in the US in a collector's edition boxed set of the first three volumes of The Best of The Simpsons collections. It was re-released in the UK as part of a VHS boxed set of the complete first season, in November 1999. The episode's debut on the DVD format was as a part of The Simpsons season one DVD set, which was released on September 25, 2001. Groening, Brooks, and Silverman participated in the DVD's audio commentary. A digital edition of the series' first season, including the episode, was published December 20, 2010 in the United States through Amazon Video and iTunes.	[ "## Plot", "## Cast", "## Production", "## Cultural references", "## Reception", "### Use in scientific research", "## Home media" ]	1,690	5,540
20,625,567	Glenn & Viola Walters Cultural Arts Center	1,039,140,446	Arts center in Hillsboro, Oregon, US	[ "2004 establishments in Oregon", "Arts centers in Oregon", "Buildings and structures in Hillsboro, Oregon", "Culture of Hillsboro, Oregon", "Event venues established in 2004", "Former churches in Oregon", "Music venues in Oregon", "Religious buildings and structures completed in 1949", "Tourist attractions in Hillsboro, Oregon" ]	The Glenn & Viola Walters Cultural Arts Center is a multi-use arts and performance venue in downtown Hillsboro, Oregon, United States. Opened in 2004, it is housed in a red-colored stone building completed in 1949 as a Lutheran church. Hillsboro, a city on the west side of Portland, owns the three-level facility and operates it through their Parks and Recreation Department. Walters Cultural Arts Center includes gallery space, classroom space, and a 200-seat performance hall. With two above ground floors and one below ground level, the center has a total of 15,664 square feet (1,455.2 m<sup>2</sup>) of space. Located on East Main Street, the Washington County Courthouse and the Hillsboro Civic Center are just to the west and the Edward Schulmerich House one block to the east on Main. The center is named in honor of a local couple who donated \$1 million towards the project which included purchasing the property and US\$2.4 million worth of renovations. ## History The Trinity Lutheran Church congregation was founded in 1917 and acquired their first church in 1923. By the 1940s the congregation needed a larger place to worship and bought a lot on the corner of Fifth Avenue and East Main Street in downtown Hillsboro in 1941. ` A Camas, Washington, rock quarry offered the church an unlimited amount of red colored rock for $1,000 as a long as the church transported the rock back to Hillsboro. Construction began in 1947 and the new church was completed in 1949. By the late 1990s Trinity Lutheran had again outgrown their church and began building a new campus in the southeast part of the city.` The church did not want to sell its former home to just anyone, or for it to be torn down. At this time the city was looking for a space to use as an arts center. Plans for an arts and culture center in Hillsboro were made in the city's Hillsboro 2020 Vision. This community plan was finalized in 2000 and designed to improve the livability of the city located in the Portland metropolitan area. Hillsboro purchased the property from the church for \$1.325 million in November 2000. Most of the purchase price came from a \$1 million donation by Glenn and Viola Walters to the city to help pay for an arts center in 1999. The Walterses had earned their money from operating a nursery in the surrounding community. The city had hoped to open a remodeled arts center during the winter of 2001, but this was delayed with later estimates having the center opening in late 2002. In December 2002, construction began on the work to transform the church into a culture and arts center. WaterLeaf Architecture & Interiors designed the changes to the building that sits on a 54,648 square feet (5,077.0 m<sup>2</sup>) lot. Renovations included adding a new roof, creating a new entrance, adding an elevator, among other changes. Creating a new entrance involved removing hand quarried stone from the walls to enlarge a window opening. The remodeling also brought the building up to modern seismic codes and to comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). City officials hoped to maintain the character of the original structure despite changes and upgrades. The total cost for renovations as of opening were \$2.4 million, with the city paying for 60% of those costs. Some financing for the center came from selling bricks to the public that were then used on exterior spaces. On March 16, 2004, the Glenn & Viola Walters Cultural Arts Center opened. Total cost for the project including buying the property was around \$3.5 million. The center's operating budget comes from city funds and user generated fees. A new classical music concert series was started at the center in 2009, as was a book club focusing on arts and culture titles. In April 2010, the Oregon Mandolin Orchestra held their first ever concert at the center. ## Building Located on Main Street at Fifth Avenue in downtown Hillsboro, the center is two blocks from the Hillsboro Central/3rd Avenue Transit Center MAX light rail station. The building covers 15,664 square feet (1,455.2 m<sup>2</sup>) of space and contains five classrooms, a lobby, meeting rooms, a box office, exhibition gallery, and an auditorium. The main part of the building has rock walls, and the auditorium contains high, arched ceilings and stained-glass windows. Once featuring a stone chimney, contractors removed the chimney during conversion to the center and inserted an elevator to comply with ADA requirements. The T-shaped center has three levels, which includes a basement that houses classrooms used for art instruction. Instruction includes courses on creating pottery, sculptures, and ceramics. The second story contains exhibition gallery space and multipurpose rooms, with the focus on visual arts. On the main level is the 2,000-square-foot (190 m<sup>2</sup>) auditorium where the church's sanctuary was located. The auditorium seats up to 200 people and is used for concerts, lectures, plays, and other events. On the outside is a garden, and a lawn area to the east with a small stage that is used for fair weather events such as summer concerts. Also outside the building is a new wheelchair ramp that was added to the east side where a new entrance was added. There are two terraces on the exterior of the building and the inside also has a kitchen area. ## Operations Walters Cultural Arts Center was designed to be a bookend, along with the Hillsboro Civic Center, to increased downtown development. The center is the city's first dedicated arts facility. City officials hoped to create a magnet for artists and aficionados in the downtown area with the center and other developments that include a renovated Venetian Theatre. The goal was to have the center encourage art studios to open and for art related festivals to develop to attract people to downtown after most businesses closed. Traditionally, shops and businesses closed by 6:00 p.m. as workers in the county seat left for the day. The center also is rented out to groups for private functions. Performances at the Walters Cultural Arts Center include opera, folk music, country music, and spoken word acts. These include poetry readings and lectures. Art exhibits have included "Organic," "Questioning Functionality," and "Questioning Functionality 2 (QF2)" among others. These shows have included art forms such as interior design, crafts, sculpture, and fine art.	[ "## History", "## Building", "## Operations" ]	1,368	30,411
27,301,737	Scarborough Day School	1,169,455,645	null	[ "1913 establishments in New York (state)", "Briarcliff Manor, New York", "Defunct schools in New York (state)", "Educational institutions established in 1913", "Historic district contributing properties in New York (state)", "National Register of Historic Places in Westchester County, New York", "Private elementary schools in New York (state)", "Private high schools in New York (state)", "Private middle schools in New York (state)", "School buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)", "Schools in Westchester County, New York", "U.S. Route 9" ]	The Scarborough Day School was a private school in Scarborough-on-Hudson, in Briarcliff Manor, New York. Frank and Narcissa Cox Vanderlip established the school in 1913 at their estate, Beechwood. The school, a nonsectarian nonprofit college preparatory day school, taught students at pre-kindergarten to twelfth grade levels and had small class sizes, with total enrollment rarely exceeding 150 students. Since 1980, the buildings and property have been owned by The Clear View School, which runs a day treatment program for 83 students. The current school still uses the Scarborough School's theater, which was opened in 1917. The school campus is a contributing property to the Scarborough Historic District. The Scarborough Day School was accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools and the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York. The school also was a member of the Cum Laude Society and the National Association of Independent Schools. Its seal copies that of Scarborough, North Yorkshire; Scarborough-on-Hudson's namesake. ## History The Scarborough School was founded in 1913 by Frank A. Vanderlip and Narcissa Cox Vanderlip for their six children and the children of friends and neighbors. Having met educator Maria Montessori during their European travels, the Vanderlips pioneered the Montessori method at the Edward Harden Mansion in nearby Sleepy Hollow by creating the first Montessori school in the United States, in 1913. Frank Vanderlip's sister Ruth was married to Harden; the families maintained close ties. After a year existing in two rooms of the Harden residence, the school moved to the River Gate House at the north end of River Road and the Beechwood estate. The school moved to its final location in 1917, at Vanderlip Hall, a building Vanderlip constructed in 1916 bordering Albany Post Road (current U.S. Route 9). The building was designed for classes of ten, to accommodate 120 children total. It was situated on Beechwood's 80-acre (320,000 m<sup>2</sup>) parkland designed by Frederick Law Olmsted for the Vanderlips. Throughout the school's history, students were open to wander the woodlands and gardens, utilize the lawns and tennis courts, and swim in the Olympic-sized pool. There were always farm animals nearby for the children to see and play with and a circus carousel to ride on. The school had a gymnasium class, amateur theater group, folk singing, a swimming pool, and an economic forum. Frank Vanderlip had spent about \$500,000 on the school (\$ in ), and he remained chairman of the school board of trustees until his death in 1937. Regular art exhibits were held at the Scarborough School, including a sculpture exhibition in the Italian garden at Beechwood, which included works by Jose de Creeft, Jason Seley (a longtime professor of sculpture at Cornell), and Richard Stankiewicz. Early on in the school's history, the Vanderlips decided to change the school's system from the Montessori method to a more formal approach with more discipline, although students still had more freedom than the average school. In the 1930s, the school was considered progressive: students were not graded and were instructed to work at their own speed. The school flourished during almost two decades under the helm of Dr F. Dean McClusky, who went on to a career as a professor in the Department of Education at UCLA. The studio building was devoted to younger children (grades one, two, and three), and included a lunchroom, workshop, and art studio. Frank Vanderlip enjoyed teaching simplified political economy at the school; he would act out Swiss Family Robinson on an imaginary island with students to demonstrate the development of capitalism. Narcissa Vanderlip ran the school lunchroom, and it is recorded that she served good simple food. She named some of her foods artistically (rice pudding with raisins was called Bête Noire a la Bolshevik). The studio building burned down in 1959. Members of the Vanderlip family, particularly Virginia Vanderlip Schoales, continued to administer the school for sixty years. A 1959 development plan made way for a new primary school in 1961, new science facilities in 1962, expansion of the library in 1963, and the creation of an organization for alumni, of whom there were more than a thousand living in 1977. The school was unable to obtain sufficient funding and closed in 1978. In 1980, the buildings and property were taken over by The Clear View School, which opened in September 1981 after major renovations. The school runs a day treatment program for 83 students from nursery school age to 21, and is sponsored by the Association for Mentally Ill Children of Westchester; its program involves education, treatment, and crisis intervention and parent involvement. ## Campus The main Scarborough School building, Vanderlip Hall, was designed by William W. Bosworth, known for landscaping Kykuit and restoring Versailles. The school building was constructed in a severe, all-white Neoclassical style, and was completed early in 1917. In addition to a grand porticoed entry, there were two wings that housed classes, a library, cafeteria and gymnasium, basement science labs, and an art room measuring 1,000 square feet (93 m<sup>2</sup>), ringed on three sides with French windows. In the 1960s, an additional Modernist structure was built across a stream that would ultimately house the school's lower grades. Rosemont, an estate and the birthplace of John Worden, was later used by Vanderlip as a dormitory for Scarborough School boarding students. Rosemont stood opposite the Beechwood estate, at the corner of Route 9 and Scarborough Road. Another campus building was Marie Fayant Hall, which was originally Barnesby House, home to Dr. Percy Norman Barnesby. Vanderlip built the house for him and his wife; the house was later given to the Scarborough School and served as a girls' dormitory in the 1940s and as a headmaster's residence about thirty years later. ### Theater Beechwood Theater, a replica of the Little Theater on Broadway, was included in Wells Bosworth's design of the primary school building because Vanderlip particularly wanted his own theater. Beechwood Theater, with 256 gold velvet seats, was designed by Winthrop Ames around 1917. Details were closely examined upon construction; the lighting equipment, the scene lofts and fly gallery, and the dressing rooms were well-designed and state-of-the-art. The stage floor was designed especially for dancing, and the acoustics and theater proportions made varieties of productions possible. The theater was used for assemblies, plays, concerts, and lectures. It was also home to the Beechwood Players, an adult performing arts group which had its origins in 1919. The Players put on several plays a year, summer and winter, six plays a year and three-night runs. They had started with three one-act plays but had graduated to full-length dramas. From its first years, Broadway actors used the theater when not otherwise engaged. Among them were Sylvia Sidney, Laurette Taylor, Lynn Fontanne, James Dean, Judson Laire, and Parker Fennelly. Lecturers and performers in the Beechwood Theater included Sarah Bernhardt, Robert Frost, John Masefield, Vachel Lindsay, Eleanor Roosevelt, H. G. Wells, Stephen Vincent Benét, and a King of Siam. Other notable appearances at the theater included Charles Coburn and Isadora Duncan. Audiences have included Franklin D. Roosevelt, John D. Rockefeller Jr., Henry Ford and the last King of Poland. The theater was opened and dedicated on January 2, 1917. The first concert took place on July 30, 1916, and was by Ignacy Jan Paderewski. During his performance, the Black Tom explosion took place at a munitions works in New Jersey, more than 30 miles (48 km) from Scarborough. Frank Vanderlip Jr., ten years old at the time, later recalled that he saw the detonation shake the jammed theater building, and that Paderewski had played on as if nothing had happened. The automatic fire doors at the top of the theater had sprung open, and two men were sent aloft to sit on them until the end of the performance to prevent a cold draft from entering the room. Following the Scarborough School's closing, the Beechwood Theater had stood empty for many years, and was restored in 1983 by the Greater Ossining Area Community Theater. On March 17, 1984, The Clear View School presented a solo performance of Currier Bell, Esquire (a dramatization of Charlotte Brontë's life) performed by Julie Harris. The performance was a \$100-a-ticket benefit for the school. Also on that day, the theater was rededicated as the Julie Harris Theater. Briarcliff High School used the theater until its own was constructed in 1998. ## Alumni Notable alumni of the Scarborough School include Secretary of the Army Stephen Ailes, Benjamin Cheever and his sister Susan Cheever, Richard Pousette-Dart, an Abstract Expressionist artist, graduated from the school in 1935. Anna Roosevelt Halsted lived with Curtis Bean Dall on nearby Sleepy Hollow Road; their children Eleanor "Sistie" and Curtis "Buzzie" (grandchildren of President and Mrs. Roosevelt) attended the Scarborough School. Other notable alumni include Mark Helprin, a writer who graduated in 1965; the three children of Ely Jacques Kahn, Jr.; John Kelvin Koelsch, a U.S. Navy officer during the Korean War and the first helicopter pilot to receive the Medal of Honor, who also lived in Scarborough; Ralph J. Menconi, a medallic sculptor; Ilyasah Shabazz, an author and a daughter of Malcolm X; and Richard Yates, a writer who attended from 1937 to 1939 while his mother taught sculpture there. The theatrical traditions of the school attracted many pupils with interests or family connections in the performing arts, including actresses Joan Evans, Tina Louise, Alexandra Berlin, Broadway producer Dasha Amsterdam Epstein, musical theater composer Henry Krieger (who attended the school with his sister), Margot Feiner (a niece of Richard Rodgers), and Daniel and Margaret Da Silva (children of Howard Da Silva). ## Headmasters Headmasters included: - Elizabeth Moseley Dean (1913–1916) - Dr. Ernest Horn (1917–1918) - Wilford M. Aikin (1918–1922) - Morton Snyder (1922–1926) - Dr. Arthur H. Sutherland (1926–1927) - Dr. Frank M. McMurry (1927–1928) - Dr. F. Dean McClusky (1928–1945) - Cornelius B. Boocock (1945–1948) - Philip L. Garland (1948–1951) - Thomas C. Schuller (1951–1961) - H. L. Richardson (1964–1965) - Robert C. Mellow (1967–1971) - A.W. Rousseau (1971–1972) - Donald F. Cantrell (1972–1974) - Douglas G. Carner (1976–1978) - Richard Pierce (1978) ## Gallery ## See also - Beechwood (Vanderlip mansion) - Country Day School movement	[ "## History", "## Campus", "### Theater", "## Alumni", "## Headmasters", "## Gallery", "## See also" ]	2,416	36,808
43,480,958	Heinz Schnabel and Harry Wappler escape attempt	1,054,609,025	Escape attempt by two WWII prisoners of war	[ "1941 in the United Kingdom", "German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United Kingdom", "POW escapes and rescues during World War II", "Shot-down aviators" ]	Heinz Schnabel and Harry Wappler were two Second World War German prisoners of war who escaped from a British prison camp and attempted to fly to the continent in a stolen aircraft on 24 November 1941. Leutnant Schnabel and Oberleutnant Wappler were German Luftwaffe airmen who had been shot down during the Battle of Britain. Schnabel's aircraft was damaged by British fighters. He crash-landed in Kent on 5 September 1940; Wappler's bomber had hit a barrage balloon over Newport one week later and crashed. The two were taken as prisoners of war (POWs) to Shap Wells, where they were held for a year. On 23 November 1941, the aviators, equipped with fake Dutch uniforms and forged identity documents, escaped from the prison camp and made their way to the British air base at RAF Kingstown. The next day they stole a trainer aircraft, with the intention of flying to the German-occupied Netherlands. However, this flight would have stretched their machine's fuel range to its maximum, and unknown to the German escapees, their plane's fuel tanks were only half full. The pair decided to land in eastern England when they realised that they would run out of fuel over the North Sea if they continued. They were caught on the ground, and returned to prisoner camps. ## Background ### Heinz Schnabel Heinz Schnabel was a member of the 1st squadron (Staffel) of Jagdgeschwader 3 and was an ace with six enemy aircraft confirmed destroyed at the time. He had taken off on the morning on 5 September at 08:40 to escort Dornier 17 bombers for a raid on Croydon. His Messerschmitt Bf 109 was intercepted by RAF Spitfire and Hurricane fighters on its return to France and its engine was disabled. Schnabel crash-landed in a field at Handen Farm near Aldington, Kent, shortly after 10 in the morning. After capture, Schnabel was sent to hospital due to injuries to his spine and a pre-existing chest wound he had sustained during the Battle of France. After he recuperated he was sent to the No. 1 POW Camp (Officers) Grizedale Hall and then later to the POW camp from which his escape attempt was to be made at Shap Wells in Cumbria. ### Harry Wappler Oberleutnant Harry Wappler was the pilot of a four-man Heinkel He 111 P-2 bomber of Kampfgeschwader 27 (8 Staffel (squadron)) which had left an airfield in northern France on the evening of 12 September on a bombing sortie to Ellesmere Port in Cheshire, England. After they had bombed their intended target they headed for home; their return route took the aircraft over Newport in south Wales, a secondary target. Wappler's aircraft still had two bombs aboard and to ensure accuracy he flew low to avoid cloud cover and the bomber flew into cables strung from barrage balloons of No. 966 Balloon Squadron AAF in the early morning of 13 September. Close to Tredegar Park and at approximately 6,500 ft (2,000 m), the bomber hit the first cable of several mobile Fordson barrage balloon winches scattered around the park. The bomber's starboard wing sliced into the cable and stalled the aircraft. The severely damaged aircraft flew on with its left engine on fire and ran into a second cable. Wappler was thrown out of the doomed bomber which crashed at 03:15 onto a house in Stow Park Avenue, Newport, killing the remaining three crew members as well as two occupants in the house. Wappler's aircraft was the first confirmed loss in Britain of an aircraft to a barrage balloon during the Second World War. After interrogation, Wappler was sent to the Shap Wells hotel, requisitioned for use as POW camp No. 13, located between Kendal and Penrith in Cumbria. ## Shap Wells prison camp The Shap Wells hotel was opened in 1833, and was known for its water and as having the "finest air of Britain". It was requisitioned in 1939 during World War II to serve as a prisoner-of-war camp for officers, non-commissioned officers and petty officers, most of them from the German navy or the Luftwaffe. Known then as "Camp 15", the hotel was surrounded by a barbed wire fence, and was equipped with searchlights; the guards lived in Nissen huts. At the time when Schnabel and Wappler arrived, the camp held approximately 250 POWs. ## Escape attempt Prior to their escape, the German pilots had secretly put together Dutch pilots' uniforms by altering Luftwaffe uniforms. They managed to create plaster of Paris tunic buttons covered in foil to resemble those of the Dutch air force. They also created within the camp false Dutch identification documents; Schnabel carried papers in the name of Pilot Officer George Harry David and Wappler as Flight Lieutenant Harry Graven. On Sunday 23 November 1941, Schnabel and Wappler hid within a log pile that camp prisoners had constructed; it was to serve as fuel for the camp during the coming winter but a space had been left inside so that the two Germans could hide there. After dark they carefully made their way to the camp fence which they managed to prise apart using wooden tools made for the occasion. They headed towards the nearby railway line where they climbed aboard a Carlisle-bound freight train which had been slowed by ascending the steep Shap Bank. The pair left the train after it pulled into a yard and then the two escapees spent a few hours in a Carlisle cinema. After the end of the film, they mingled with the rest of the audience which included airmen from the local airfield at RAF Kingstown (later to become RAF Carlisle (No. 15 Elementary Flying Training School)). After entering the camp using their false papers they spent the night hidden behind a hangar. On the morning of Monday 24 November, the Germans bluffed an airfield mechanic to start up a Miles Magister trainer aircraft. The escapees initially thought of heading towards neutral Ireland but the weather over the Irish Sea looked poor for an open cockpit aircraft and instead the Germans headed south east, with hopes of reaching the German-occupied Netherlands. The trainer had only a half tank of fuel when the pair took off. When they flew out over the coast they realised they would have to land and refuel; they could not risk ditching in the North Sea as they had no survival gear. They landed the trainer in a meadow near Scratby, five miles north of Great Yarmouth in Norfolk at around 15:00. They again showed their false Dutch papers to a local policeman, Sergeant Clifford Fisk. Wappler asked if they could call the local airfield and request fuel be sent to them, so Fisk took Wappler to Caister Police Station. Another policeman remained with the other 'Dutchman' and the aircraft. Due to the late hour, a car was sent to pick up the airmen and transport them to the RAF Bomber Command base at RAF Horsham St. Faith (now Norwich International Airport). Initially, both men continued to convince everyone they were Dutch airmen and were put in unoccupied officers' quarters. However, news of their escape in the Miles Magister had been broadcast across the country, and both were arrested in their quarters; allegedly one was having a bath at the time. For their escape attempt, both pilots were sentenced to 28 days of solitary confinement; they were later transferred to a POW camp in Canada where they spent the remainder of their internment.	[ "## Background", "### Heinz Schnabel", "### Harry Wappler", "## Shap Wells prison camp", "## Escape attempt" ]	1,608	31,765
45,634,177	Row hammer	1,156,365,060	Computer security exploit	[ "2014 in computing", "Computer memory", "Computer security exploits", "Data quality", "Denial-of-service attacks", "Hardware bugs", "Privilege escalation exploits" ]	Row hammer (also written as rowhammer) is a security exploit that takes advantage of an unintended and undesirable side effect in dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) in which memory cells interact electrically between themselves by leaking their charges, possibly changing the contents of nearby memory rows that were not addressed in the original memory access. This circumvention of the isolation between DRAM memory cells results from the high cell density in modern DRAM, and can be triggered by specially crafted memory access patterns that rapidly activate the same memory rows numerous times. The row hammer effect has been used in some privilege escalation computer security exploits, and network-based attacks are also theoretically possible. Different hardware-based techniques exist to prevent the row hammer effect from occurring, including required support in some processors and types of DRAM memory modules. ## Background In dynamic RAM (DRAM), each bit of stored data occupies a separate memory cell that is electrically implemented with one capacitor and one transistor. The charge state of a capacitor (charged or discharged) is what determines whether a DRAM cell stores "1" or "0" as a binary value. Huge numbers of DRAM memory cells are packed into integrated circuits, together with some additional logic that organizes the cells for the purposes of reading, writing, and refreshing the data. Memory cells (blue squares in both illustrations) are further organized into matrices and addressed through rows and columns. A memory address applied to a matrix is broken into the row address and column address, which are processed by the row and column address decoders (in both illustrations, vertical and horizontal green rectangles, respectively). After a row address selects the row for a read operation (the selection is also known as row activation), bits from all cells in the row are transferred into the sense amplifiers that form the row buffer (red squares in both illustrations), from which the exact bit is selected using the column address. Consequently, read operations are of a destructive nature because the design of DRAM requires memory cells to be rewritten after their values have been read by transferring the cell charges into the row buffer. Write operations decode the addresses in a similar way, but as a result of the design entire rows must be rewritten for the value of a single bit to be changed. As a result of storing data bits using capacitors that have a natural discharge rate, DRAM memory cells lose their state over time and require periodic rewriting of all memory cells, which is a process known as refreshing. As another result of the design, DRAM memory is susceptible to random changes in stored data, which are known as soft memory errors and attributed to cosmic rays and other causes. There are different techniques that counteract soft memory errors and improve the reliability of DRAM, of which error-correcting code (ECC) memory and its advanced variants (such as lockstep memory) are most commonly used. ## Overview Increased densities of DRAM integrated circuits have led to physically smaller memory cells containing less charge, resulting in lower operational noise margins, increased rates of electromagnetic interactions between memory cells, and greater possibility of data loss. As a result, disturbance errors have been observed, being caused by cells interfering with each other's operation and manifesting as random changes in the values of bits stored in affected memory cells. The awareness of disturbance errors dates back to the early 1970s and Intel 1103 as the first commercially available DRAM integrated circuits; since then, DRAM manufacturers have employed various mitigation techniques to counteract disturbance errors, such as improving the isolation between cells and performing production testing. However, researchers proved in a 2014 analysis that commercially available DDR3 SDRAM chips manufactured in 2012 and 2013 are susceptible to disturbance errors, while using the term row hammer to name the associated side effect that led to observed bit flips. The opportunity for the row hammer effect to occur in DDR3 memory is primarily attributed to DDR3's high density of memory cells and the results of associated interactions between the cells, while rapid DRAM row activations have been determined as the primary cause. Frequent row activations cause voltage fluctuations on the associated row selection lines, which have been observed to induce higher-than-natural discharge rates in capacitors belonging to nearby (adjacent, in most cases) memory rows, which are called victim rows; if the affected memory cells are not refreshed before they lose too much charge, disturbance errors occur. Tests show that a disturbance error may be observed after performing around 139,000 subsequent memory row accesses (with cache flushes), and that up to one memory cell in every 1,700 cells may be susceptible. Those tests also show that the rate of disturbance errors is not substantially affected by increased environment temperature, while it depends on the actual contents of DRAM because certain bit patterns result in significantly higher disturbance error rates. A variant called double-sided hammering involves targeted activations of two DRAM rows surrounding a victim row: in the illustration provided in this section, this variant would be activating both yellow rows with the aim of inducing bit flips in the purple row, which in this case would be the victim row. Tests show that this approach may result in a significantly higher rate of disturbance errors, compared to the variant that activates only one of the victim row's neighboring DRAM rows. As DRAM vendors have deployed mitigations, patterns had to become more sophisticated to bypass Rowhammer mitigations. More recent Rowhammer patterns include non-uniform, frequency-based patterns. These patterns consist of many double-sided aggressors pairs where each of them is hammered with a different frequency, phase, and amplitude. Using this and synchronizing patterns with the REFRESH command, it is possible to very effectively determine "blind spots" where the mitigation is not able to provide protection anymore. Based on this idea, academics built a Rowhammer fuzzer named Blacksmith that can bypass existing mitigations on all DDR4 devices. ### Mitigation Different methods exist for more or less successful detection, prevention, correction or mitigation of the row hammer effect. Tests show that simple error correction code, providing single-error correction and double-error detection (SECDED) capabilities, are not able to correct or detect all observed disturbance errors because some of them include more than two flipped bits per memory word. Furthermore, research shows that precisely targeted three-bit row hammer flips prevents ECC memory from noticing the modifications. A less effective solution is to introduce more frequent memory refreshing, with the refresh intervals shorter than the usual 64 ms, but this technique results in higher power consumption and increased processing overhead; some vendors provide firmware updates that implement this type of mitigation. One of the more complex prevention measures performs counter-based identification of frequently accessed memory rows and proactively refreshes their neighboring rows; another method issues additional infrequent random refreshes of memory rows neighboring the accessed rows regardless of their access frequency. Research shows that these two prevention measures cause negligible performance impacts. Since the release of Ivy Bridge microarchitecture, Intel Xeon processors support the so-called pseudo target row refresh (pTRR) that can be used in combination with pTRR-compliant DDR3 dual in-line memory modules (DIMMs) to mitigate the row hammer effect by automatically refreshing possible victim rows, with no negative impact on performance or power consumption. When used with DIMMs that are not pTRR-compliant, these Xeon processors by default fall back on performing DRAM refreshes at twice the usual frequency, which results in slightly higher memory access latency and may reduce the memory bandwidth by up to 2–4%. The LPDDR4 mobile memory standard published by JEDEC includes optional hardware support for the so-called target row refresh (TRR) that prevents the row hammer effect without negatively impacting performance or power consumption. Additionally, some manufacturers implement TRR in their DDR4 products, although it is not part of the DDR4 memory standard published by JEDEC. Internally, TRR identifies possible victim rows, by counting the number of row activations and comparing it against predefined chip-specific maximum activate count (MAC) and maximum activate window (t<sub>MAW</sub>) values, and refreshes these rows to prevent bit flips. The MAC value is the maximum total number of row activations that may be encountered on a particular DRAM row within a time interval that is equal or shorter than the t<sub>MAW</sub> amount of time before its neighboring rows are identified as victim rows; TRR may also flag a row as a victim row if the sum of row activations for its two neighboring rows reaches the MAC limit within the t<sub>MAW</sub> time window. Research showed that TRR mitigations deployed on DDR4 UDIMMs and LPDDR4X chips from devices produced between 2019 and 2020 are not effective in protecting against Rowhammer. Due to their necessity of huge numbers of rapidly performed DRAM row activations, row hammer exploits issue large numbers of uncached memory accesses that cause cache misses, which can be detected by monitoring the rate of cache misses for unusual peaks using hardware performance counters. Version 5.0 of the MemTest86 memory diagnostic software, released on December 3, 2013, added a row hammer test that checks whether computer RAM is susceptible to disturbance errors, but it only works if the computer boots UEFI; without UEFI, it boots an older version with no hammer test. ## Implications Memory protection, as a way of preventing processes from accessing memory that has not been assigned to each of them, is one of the concepts behind most modern operating systems. By using memory protection in combination with other security-related mechanisms such as protection rings, it is possible to achieve privilege separation between processes, in which programs and computer systems in general are divided into parts limited to the specific privileges they require to perform a particular task. Using privilege separation can also reduce the extent of potential damage caused by computer security attacks by restricting their effects to specific parts of the system. Disturbance errors (explained in the section above) effectively defeat various layers of memory protection by "short circuiting" them at a very low hardware level, practically creating a unique attack vector type that allows processes to alter the contents of arbitrary parts of the main memory by directly manipulating the underlying memory hardware. In comparison, "conventional" attack vectors such as buffer overflows aim at circumventing the protection mechanisms at the software level, by exploiting various programming mistakes to achieve alterations of otherwise inaccessible main memory contents. ### Exploits The initial research into the row hammer effect, published in June 2014, described the nature of disturbance errors and indicated the potential for constructing an attack, but did not provide any examples of a working security exploit. A subsequent October 2014 research paper did not imply the existence of any security-related issues arising from the row hammer effect. On March 9, 2015, Google's Project Zero revealed two working privilege escalation exploits based on the row hammer effect, establishing its exploitable nature on the x86-64 architecture. One of the revealed exploits targets the Google Native Client (NaCl) mechanism for running a limited subset of x86-64 machine instructions within a sandbox, exploiting the row hammer effect to escape from the sandbox and gain the ability to issue system calls directly. This NaCl vulnerability, tracked as , has been mitigated by modifying the NaCl so it does not allow execution of the `clflush` (cache line flush) machine instruction, which was previously believed to be required for constructing an effective row hammer attack. The second exploit revealed by Project Zero runs as an unprivileged Linux process on the x86-64 architecture, exploiting the row hammer effect to gain unrestricted access to all physical memory installed in a computer. By combining the disturbance errors with memory spraying, this exploit is capable of altering page table entries used by the virtual memory system for mapping virtual addresses to physical addresses, which results in the exploit gaining unrestricted memory access. Due to its nature and the inability of the x86-64 architecture to make `clflush` a privileged machine instruction, this exploit can hardly be mitigated on computers that do not use hardware with built-in row hammer prevention mechanisms. While testing the viability of exploits, Project Zero found that about half of the 29 tested laptops experienced disturbance errors, with some of them occurring on vulnerable laptops in less than five minutes of running row-hammer-inducing code; the tested laptops were manufactured between 2010 and 2014 and used non-ECC DDR3 memory. In July 2015, a group of security researchers published a paper that describes an architecture- and instruction-set-independent way for exploiting the row hammer effect. Instead of relying on the `clflush` instruction to perform cache flushes, this approach achieves uncached memory accesses by causing a very high rate of cache eviction using carefully selected memory access patterns. Although the cache replacement policies differ between processors, this approach overcomes the architectural differences by employing an adaptive cache eviction strategy algorithm. The proof of concept for this approach is provided both as a native code implementation, and as a pure JavaScript implementation that runs on Firefox 39. The JavaScript implementation, called Rowhammer.js, uses large typed arrays and relies on their internal allocation using large pages; as a result, it demonstrates a very high-level exploit of a very low-level vulnerability. In October 2016, researchers published DRAMMER, an Android application that uses row hammer, together with other methods, to reliably gain root access on several popular smartphones. The vulnerability was acknowledged as and a mitigation was released by Google within a month. However, due to the general nature of possible implementations of the attack, an effective software patch is difficult to be reliably implemented. As of June 2018, most patch proposals made by academia and industry were either impractical to deploy or insufficient in stopping all attacks. As a mitigation, researchers proposed a lightweight defense that prevents attacks based on direct memory access (DMA) by isolating DMA buffers with guard rows. In May 2021, a Google research team announced a new exploit, Half-Double that takes advantage of the worsening physics of some of the newer DRAM chips. ## See also - Memory scrambling – memory controller feature that turns user data written to the memory into pseudo-random patterns - Radiation hardening – the act of making electronic components resistant to damage or malfunctions caused by ionizing radiation - Single event upset – a change of state caused by ions or electromagnetic radiation striking a sensitive node in an electronic device - Soft error – a type of error involving erroneous changes to signals or data but no changes to the underlying device or circuit	[ "## Background", "## Overview", "### Mitigation", "## Implications", "### Exploits", "## See also" ]	2,941	11,983
25,618,464	Kud Wafter	1,125,420,816	2010 visual novel by Key	[ "2010 manga", "2010 video games", "ASCII Media Works manga", "Android (operating system) games", "Anime postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic", "Bishōjo games", "Dengeki G's Magazine", "Drama anime and manga", "Eroge", "Films postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic", "J.C.Staff", "Japan-exclusive video games", "Key (company) games", "Manga based on video games", "PlayStation Portable games", "PlayStation Vita games", "Prototype (company) games", "Romance anime and manga", "Romance video games", "Seinen manga", "Single-player video games", "Video games developed in Japan", "Visual novels", "Windows games" ]	Kud Wafter (クドわふたー, Kudo Wafutā) is a Japanese adult visual novel developed by Key, released on June 25, 2010, for Windows. Kud Wafter is Key's eighth game, along with other titles such as Kanon, Air, and Clannad. Key released a version of Kud Wafter without the erotic content, and the game was ported to the PlayStation Portable and PlayStation Vita. The story follows the lives of high school students Riki Naoe and his close friend Kudryavka Noumi as they start to see more of each other in a romantic relationship. The gameplay in Kud Wafter follows a branching plot line which offers pre-determined scenarios with courses of interaction, and focuses on the appeal of the title character Kudryavka, also known as "Kud" (クド, Kudo) for short. The game is a spin-off of Key's earlier game Little Busters! rated for all ages and its expanded, adult version Little Busters! Ecstasy. Kudryavka appears as a heroine in both Little Busters! and Ecstasy. Kud Wafter is an expansion of Kudryavka's story after the events of Ecstasy and is written by Chika Shirokiri. Na-Ga and Itaru Hinoue returned as co-art directors. The game ranked as the best-selling PC game sold in Japan for the time of its release. A manga adaptation illustrated by Bakutendō was serialized in ASCII Media Works' Dengeki G's Magazine. A 51-minute theatrical anime adaptation by J.C.Staff premiered on July 16, 2021. ## Gameplay Kud Wafter is a romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Riki Naoe. Much of its gameplay is spent on reading the story's narrative and dialogue. Kud Wafter follows a branching plot line with multiple endings; depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game, the plot will progress in a specific direction. Throughout gameplay, the player is given multiple options to choose from, and text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made. To view all plot lines in their entirety, the player will have to replay the game multiple times and make different choices to bring the plot in an alternate direction. Throughout gameplay, there are scenes with sexual CGs depicting Riki and Kudryavka having sex. Key released a version of Kud Wafter without the erotic content. ## Plot and characters Kud Wafter'''s story revolves around Riki Naoe (直枝理樹, Naoe Riki, voiced by: Tomoe Tamiyasu (epilogue only)), the male protagonist from Little Busters! and Little Busters! Ecstasy, and Kudryavka Noumi (能美クドリャフカ, Nōmi Kudoryafuka, voiced by: Miyako Suzuta), one of the main heroines of the same games and the title character of Kud Wafter. Kudryavka has her story expanded upon than what was seen in Ecstasy, which was itself an expansion on the story featured in Little Busters!. Kud Wafter begins at the onset of the summer vacation after the events of the peaceful field trip from Little Busters!. The other members of the Little Busters have returned home for the break, leaving Riki and Kudryavka to spend their vacation living at the school dormitories as they form a romantic relationship. However, the male dormitory is undergoing renovations due to a problem with the plumbing, leaving Riki without a place to stay. As Kudryavka has no roommate, she suggests to Riki that he live with her until the renovation on the male dormitory is finished, and Riki accepts. Riki and Kudryavka try to keep the other dorm members from finding out since it is against the rules for a boy and girl to share a room. Also living at the dorms is a girl named Yuuki Himuro (氷室憂希, Himuro Yūki, voiced by: Kumiko Okukawa) whom Kudryavka knew and was roommates with for a time in Kudryavka's home country; Yuuki is half Japanese, a quarter German and a quarter Russian. She is the president of the science club at the school and came to take part in a cultural exchange program. Every day, Yuuki is absorbed in various strange research projects and experiments and could be described as a logical genius. The head of the girl's dormitory is Kanata Futaki (二木佳奈多, Futaki Kanata, voiced by: Keiko Suzuki), the only main character other than Riki and Kudryavka to return from Little Busters!. While Kanata is good friends with Kudryavka, she is concerned about Kudryavka's relationship with Riki. Kanata succeeded the previous head of the girl's dormitory, a third-year girl referred to as "A-chan" (あーちゃん, voiced by: Rita). Since she resigned from being the dormitory head, the dormitory rules have become somewhat more relaxed, but she still aides Kanata because Kanata inherited the position. A-chan is the president of the home economics club, which Kudryavka is a member of, and she likes interesting and strange things. A young girl named Shiina Arizuki (有月椎菜, Arizuki Shiina, voiced by: Nana Ayase) is aiming to win a water rocket competition and she becomes friends with Kudryavka and Riki while searching for a suitable plastic bottle. Shiina is a cheerful, energetic girl without a hint of shyness around strangers. Shiina has a Welsh Corgi named Ōsumi as a pet. Her dream is to become an astronaut, but her family is against it. Her mother is a picture book author and she has an older sister, Ui Arizuki (有月初, Arizuki Ui, voiced by: Asari), a second-year high school student who also stays at the dormitory, even though her house is close to the school. Ui is a realist who does not really believe in achieving dreams. She is frugal with her money and works part-time at a family restaurant. Ui used to play lacrosse, but had to stop due to an injury. ## Development and release After the release of Little Busters! Ecstasy in 2008, Key decided to produce a spin-off of that game which focused on the heroine Kudryavka Noumi. The project's planning was headed by Kai, who returned to Key after he last contributed to the scenario of Clannad released in 2004. Chika Shirokiri returned after his work on Little Busters!, in which he wrote the scenario for Kudryavka. The artists Na-Ga and Itaru Hinoue were the art directors and character designers, both of whom previously worked on Little Busters! for Key. Jun'ichi Shimizu composed the game's music and was supervised by Jun Maeda. Kud Wafter was released in Japan on June 25, 2010, as a limited edition version for Windows as a DVD. As a bonus, it came bundled with the visual novel's original soundtrack and a game demo of Key's ninth game Rewrite. Takahiro Baba, the president of VisualArt's, the publisher of Kud Wafter, announced via his Twitter account in April 2010 that 100,000 copies of Kud Wafter would be produced in its initial release. To advertise Kud Wafter, Good Smile Racing took Shinji Orito's 2003 Honda Fit and made it into an itasha (a car featuring illustrations of anime-styled characters) with images of Kudryavka. The car was driven around and showcased throughout Japan between April 19 and June 26, 2010. The car was put onto the Japanese Yahoo! Auction website on June 25, 2010, and sold for 1,699,000 yen after starting the auction at 1 yen. An adult version playable on Android devices was released on January 31, 2013. A fully voiced version playable as a Blu-ray Disc was released on March 29, 2013, by Asoberu! BD-Game, a brand of VisualArt's. Prototype released a PlayStation Portable (PSP) port of the game titled Kud Wafter Converted Edition on May 9, 2013, which contains additional story events and visuals. Key released an all ages version on June 28, 2013, for Windows, and it contains the additional content in the PSP version. Prototype released a version of Kud Wafter Converted Edition ported to the PlayStation Vita (PS Vita) on December 19, 2013. ## Adaptations ### Print A manga adaptation, illustrated by manga artist Bakutendō and titled Kud Wafter, was serialized between the May 2010 and February 2014 issues of ASCII Media Works' Dengeki G's Magazine. Six tankōbon volumes of the manga were released between February 26, 2011, and March 27, 2014. Two volumes of a manga anthology titled Kud Wafter Comic Anthology were released by Ichijinsha between August and October 2010. An anthology of a collection of four-panel comic strips titled Kud Wafter 4-koma Maximum was released by Wedge Holdings in September 2010. Harvest published Kud Wafter Anthology Comic in November 2010. Taibundo released a manga anthology titled Kud Wafter as the first volume in their Earth Star Comics line in December 2010. Paradigm released a novel anthology titled Kud Wafter Anthology: It's Kud Wafter! in September 2010. Harvest published a novel anthology titled Kud Wafter Anthology Novel in November 2010. ASCII Media Works published an art book titled White Fairy: Kudryavka Noumi Photo Album (White Fairy―能美クドリャフカ写真集) on March 10, 2011. ### Anime Key's parent company VisualArt's announced they were putting together a production committee for a possible anime adaptation in January 2017. VisualArt's launched a crowdfunding campaign on July 18, 2017, to fund the anime adaptation, and it reached its goal of ¥30 million in three days. The campaign reached its final stretch goal of ¥60 million to produce a 51-minute theatrical anime originally scheduled to premiere in September 2019 to be directed by Yoshinobu Yamakawa at J.C.Staff with Key having complete supervision over it. However, it was later delayed to a September 2020 release with Kentarō Suzuki replacing Yamakawa as the director. The anime's theme song is "Light a Way" sung by Suzuyu. It was delayed again to November 2020, before being delayed again to May 14, 2021. It was delayed even further to July 16, 2021, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. ## Music The visual novel has two main theme songs: the opening theme "One's Future" by Miyako Suzuta, the voice actress of Kudryavka, and the ending theme "Hoshikuzu" (星屑, Stardust) by Haruka Shimotsuki. An insert song also sung by Suzuta, "Hoshimori Uta" (星守歌), is featured in the game as well. The single of "One's Future" was released in April 2010. Kud Wafter's original soundtrack was released on June 25, 2010, with the original release of the visual novel. The soundtrack contained 24 music tracks: 20 background music tracks, an a cappella version of "Hoshimori Uta", a remix of "One's Future" subtitled "Rock Band Mix", and the original versions of "Hoshikuzu" and "Hoshimori Uta". A ten-track arrange album remixing music from the game titled Albina: Assorted Kudwaf Songs was released at Comiket 79 in December 2010. A remix album titled Deejay Busters!, featuring tracks from Little Busters!, Little Busters! Ecstasy and Kud Wafter, was released in May 2011. A piano arrange album titled Ripresa, which also features tracks from Little Busters!, Ecstasy and Kud Wafter, was released in April 2013. Each of the albums released were on Key's record label Key Sounds Label. ## Reception In May 2010, Kud Wafter ranked first in national PC game pre-orders in Japan. The limited edition version of Kud Wafter ranked first in terms of national sales of PC games in Japan in June 2010. In addition, Kud Wafter was reported to sell the most copies of any PC game in Japan for the first half of 2010. At some stores in Akihabara, Kud Wafter was sold at midnight the day of its release, which is cited as not happening very often for games sold in Akihabara. Kud Wafter premiered as the No. 2 game sold on Getchu.com, a major redistributor of visual novel and domestic anime products, during the month of its release, and at No. 26 in July. The game would go on to be the No. 9 game sold for the first half of 2010, and at No. 15 for the whole year. The PSP port sold 5,733 units in its first week of sales. Both the PSP and PS Vita ports were reviewed by the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu'', which gave them an overall score of 27/40.	[ "## Gameplay", "## Plot and characters", "## Development and release", "## Adaptations", "### Print", "### Anime", "## Music", "## Reception" ]	2,922	15,115
963,460	Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights	1,161,684,407	null	[ "2001 albums", "HIM (Finnish band) albums" ]	Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights is the third studio album by Finnish gothic rock band HIM, released 27 August 2001. The album was produced co-produced by the band, T. T. Oksala and Kevin Shirley. The record had a troubled production, which lasted approximately eleven months. The prolonged recording process was partially due outside influences within the music industry hoping to repeat the success of HIM's previous album. As a result, Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights features a sleeker and more pop-oriented sound. It is the first HIM album to feature keyboardist Janne "Burton" Puurtinen. Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights received mixed reviews from music critics. While some gave praise to the songwriting and Ville Valo's vocal performance, most were highly critical of the production and overall commercial sound. Despite this, Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights charted in seven countries, peaking at number one in Finland and Austria. It would later go platinum and gold, respectively. Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights was also the band's first album to chart on the Billboard 200. Three singles were released, all of which reached the top two spots on the Finnish Singles Chart. The supporting tour for Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights lsaw HIM playing in the US for the first time, but overall strained the band to the point of nearly breaking up. ## Production HIM began demoing songs for its third album in the northern fall of 2000 at Petrax Studios in Hollola, with producer T. T. Oksala. Satisfied with the initial recordings, the band hoped to use them on the album, with additional overdubs being done at a later date. However, BMG, HIM's record label, disagreed, with Valo believing they wanted a more well-known producer working on the album instead of Oksala. BMG's Asko Kallonen refuted these claims, stating that he and the label were worried by the band's plan to release "essentially demos" so soon after an exhausting touring cycle for Razorblade Romance. Under pressure from BMG's international branches to repeat the success of Razorblade Romance, HIM was paired with producer Kevin Shirley, who had previously worked with Bon Jovi, Aerosmith, and The Black Crowes, among others. While Shirley was excited to be working with the band, they were not entirely on board with his style of producing, in addition to the amount of money BMG had spent hiring him. However, Valo later admitted that some of Shirley's ideas did improve the songs. The recording process for HIM's third album lasted approximately eleven months. This had a profound effect on the songs, with Valo later noting: "When we started recording the third album, we were into stoner rock and Black Sabbath [...] At the end we were into Neil Young and it shows on the record." In addition, several outside forces within the music industry contributed to the album's troubled production. According to Valo: "The industry wasn't expecting [Razorblade Romance] to be such a hit that it was, so it meant that now there was like seventeen thousand different A&R people from the record companies and whatnots in the studio, and everybody had an opinion." During the album's recording process, keyboardist Janne "Burton" Puurtinen replaced Jussi-Mikko "Juska" Salminen, who played his final show with HIM on 31 December 2000. After recording finished, the album was sent to Randy Staub and Chris Lord-Alge to mix. Additional mixing was done by John Fryer, who had produced the band's previous album. The record was then mastered by George Marino at Sterling Sound in New York. The title Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights is a photography term, which Valo chose because of its yin and yang symbolism, that had been prominent in the band's previous album titles as well. The original proposed album cover was rejected by BMG's UK branch. Thus, Valo was flown out to London for a photoshoot with Rankin. The resulting album cover for Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights took inspiration from Lou Reed, Patti Smith, and late 1970s New York City art circles. ## Music and lyrics The overall sound of Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights has been described by music critics as more commercial and "poppy" than HIM's previous albums. "Salt in Our Wounds" was deliberately chosen as the first track on the album to mess with the listeners' expectations, due to its use of looping and other effects. Despite the track's experimental nature, Valo referred to it as "the record's Neil Young song". "Heartache Every Moment" features many of HIM's signature sonic elements, including "tongue-in-cheek" gothic lyrics, piano, rough guitars and a "howling melody". Valo also noted a distinct Bon Jovi influence in the song. "Lose You Tonight" changed the most throughout the recording process. It began in the style of Cathedral, before ending up like "Bon Jovi on mushrooms" as Valo described it. "In Joy and Sorrow" features guest performances by Apocalyptica's Eino "Eicca" Toppinen and composer Tuomas Kantelinen. Valo compared the song to "Sweet Child o' Mine" by Guns N' Roses, singling out the lyrics' "no frills, self-ironic directness" as one of the song's best qualities. "Pretending" was chosen by BMG to be the first single from the album. While Valo has admitted to being indifferent towards the song, he still singled out its relaxed nature and lyrics as particular highlights. Valo described "Close to the Flame" as "sincere and direct", very similar in tone to "Gone with the Sin" from the band's previous album. "Please Don't Let It Go" began in the style of The Stooges, but after Valo recorded an acoustic version, the band chose to combine the two arrangements. "Beautiful" also began life as a more uptempo song, but the band felt the arrangement didn't fit, so it was reworked in the style of John Frusciante's first solo album. "Don't Close Your Heart" was described by Valo as "Jefferson Airplane meets Bon Jovi". Lyrically it tackles with similar themes as "Join Me in Death", but from a different perspective. According to Valo, the song talks about how "if things go to shit, you don't have to sink into the swamp. You can ask for help and not close your heart". "Love You Like I Do" was described as "Elvis on acid" and makes use of church bells, which was done in tribute to Black Sabbath. ## Release and promotion The album was originally slated for released in May 2001, but was pushed back to August to accommodate a supporting tour. Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights was released on 27 August 2001, and it charted in six countries, peaking at number one in Finland and Austria, as well as number two in Germany and Switzerland. The album would later be certified platinum in Finland and gold in Austria. Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights also charted in the United States in 2004 at number 190, making it the band's first album to hit the Billboard 200. "Pretending" was released as the album's first single, and it peaked at number one in Finland and number ten in Germany. The band initially wanted Miikka Lommi to helm the music video, but BMG and its UK marketing department refused, wanting Kevin Godley instead. "In Joy and Sorrow" was released as the second single, hitting number two in Finland. The accompanying music video was later described by Valo as the group's "shittiest" video. "Heartache Every Moment" and "Close to the Flame" were released as a double single, with the former peaking at number two in Finland. Both tracks also received music videos. In August 2001, HIM were invited to play their first show in the US at a party organized by professional skateboarder Bam Margera, whom the band had met while on tour for Razorblade Romance. The official supporting tour for Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights began on 17 September 2001 in Hamburg, with Timo Rautiainen & Trio Niskalaukaus and The Mission serving as opening acts for the German leg. The European tour for Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights lasted four months and 44 shows, which nearly resulted in the band breaking up. Valo later explained: "The stress was at a level where I [was pissed off] the entire run – I had done this for three years straight without a vacation. No wonder the dams broke at some point." As a result, HIM took a two-month hiatus in early 2002. Guitarist Mikko "Linde" Lindström and bassist Mikko "Mige" Paananen headed to Nepal, drummer Mika "Gas Lipstick" Karppinen flew to New York, keyboardist Janne "Burton" Puurtinen vacationed in Turkey, while Ville Valo stayed in Helsinki. HIM regrouped at the turn of February and March 2002, when Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights was officially released in the UK. In support, the band played two shows in Birmingham and London, respectively, with the first being sold-out and the second supporting The Mission. HIM was also named Export of the Year at the Emma Awards. The band also received the Viewers' Choice Award at the VIVA Comet Awards. In March 2002, HIM began another Finnish tour, with The Skreppers serving as support. Afterwards, HIM returned to the UK for a full tour. ## Reception Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights received mixed reviews from critics. Borivoj Krgin, writing for Blabbermouth.net, gave the album a score of nine out of ten. He described the record as "the group's most accessible offering so far", giving praise to the songwriting and Valo's vocal delivery, which he called the "most potently effective weapon in the group's musical arsenal". While disappointed by the album's softer sound, Krgin concluded his review by stating that "in purely artistic and commercial terms – HIM have made the logical follow-up album to one of last year's highlights, and they continue to cement their reputation as one of the most unique and consistent rock acts around." Rock Hard's Thomas Kupfer, meanwhile, criticized the album's production and mellower sound, but did give cudos to some of the songwriting. Ultimately though, he deemed Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights "no more than a good pop album". This was echoed by Jani Mikkonen of Helsingin Sanomat, who described the album's best moments as "straight-up pop songs". Rumba's Janne Flinkkilä rated the record a six out of ten, stating: "Every song has been squeezed into a tight hit format, where the song structures move as predictably as the seasons change." He also noted how Shirley and Oksala's production brings "Valo's asthmatic breathing sounds to an almost comical scope". Ultimately, Flinkkilä stated that "HIM hasn't made a bad album", but "compared to the gothic gloominess of past albums, Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights sounds very light". Antti J. Ravelin of AllMusic awarded the album two-and-a-half stars out of five, describing it as "utterly boring" and the songs as "lacking hooks". In general, he described Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights as a "horrible failure" musically. Tero Alanko of Soundi felt similarly, deeming the record "ideal music for girls, who don't dig the music, but Ville Valo's looks and his lyrics' decadent imagery". He also described the record as "anemic" and "devoid of moments, where the best parts of the band come together to form something more that the sum of their parts." In 2017, Valo revisited Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights and described it as a "fragmented, unnatural record", stating: "We were recovering from the cannon that was the last album and the way back to ground was through a lot of fumbling. There were too many chefs on the record than there should have been, so the end result was incoherent." Loudwire ranked Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights sixth in HIM's discography, describing it as not "the follow-up to Razorblade Romance that fans had hoped for", but still commending the "hooks" and Valo's vocal performance. Kaaoszine ranked the record fifth in HIM's discography, commending many of the song, while noting that the album is not "as strong of an ensemble" as some of the band's other work. ## Track listing ### Original release ### Digipak / Remastered edition ### Remastered edition bonus disc ## Personnel HIM - Ville Valo − lead vocals, keyboards, artwork - Mikko "Linde" Lindström − guitar - Mikko "Mige" Paananen − bass - Janne "Burton" Puurtinen − keyboards - Mika "Gas Lipstick" Karppinen − drums Guest musicians - Eicca Toppinen – cello on "In Joy and Sorrow" - Tuomas Kantelinen – strings on "In Joy and Sorrow" Production - HIM - production (tracks: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10) - T.T. Oksala - production (tracks: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10), engineering, mixing (tracks: 8) - Kevin Shirley - production (tracks: 1, 2, 4, 5, 7), engineering - John Fryer - mixing (tracks: 3, 6, 9), additional production (tracks: 1) - Chris Lord-Alge - mixing (tracks: 1, 2, 4, 7) - Randy Staub - mixing (tracks: 5) - George Marino - mastering - Rankin - photography - Janne Uotila - artwork ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications	[ "## Production", "## Music and lyrics", "## Release and promotion", "## Reception", "## Track listing", "### Original release", "### Digipak / Remastered edition", "### Remastered edition bonus disc", "## Personnel", "## Charts", "### Weekly charts", "### Year-end charts", "## Certifications" ]	2,993	18,776
22,099,414	Ælfhelm of York	1,141,139,950	10th and 11th-century Ealdorman of Northumbria	[ "1006 deaths", "Anglo-Saxon warriors", "Earls and ealdormen of York", "Year of birth unknown" ]	Ælfhelm (died 1006) was the ealdorman of Northumbria, in practice southern Northumbria (the area around York), from about 994 until his death. An ealdorman (or earl) was a senior nobleman who governed a province—a shire or group of shires—on behalf of the king. Ælfhelm's powerful and wealthy family came from Mercia, a territory and former kingdom incorporating most of central England, and he achieved his position despite being an outsider. Ælfhelm first appears in charters as dux ("ealdorman") in about 994. Most of Ælfhelm's subsequent historical appearances record him as a witness to charters, although one notable exception is the will of his brother, Wulfric Spot. According to a 12th-century tradition, Ælfhelm was murdered and his sons blinded in 1006, by Eadric Streona with the connivance of King (Æthelred II). Ælfhelm's daughter, Ælfgifu, married Cnut the Great, King of England between 1016 and 1035, as a result of which Ælfhelm became the grandfather of future English king Harold Harefoot. ## Origins Ælfhelm was a Mercian, son of Wulfrun, a rich noblewoman who founded Burton Abbey. His father is unknown, but it is thought that he was of lower rank than Wulfrun as Wulfric Spot, Ælfhelm's brother, is called "Wulfric son of Wulfrun", suggesting that his status derived mainly from his mother. Wulfric Spot founded Burton Abbey, but little is known about Ælfhelm's sister, Ælfthryth. Wulfrun also founded the Minster of St Mary's at Wolverhampton, a settlement which took her name ("Wulfrun's chief settlement"). Her earliest association is with Tamworth, when she is mentioned as the only hostage taken when the place was seized by Olaf Guthfrithson in 940. It is thought that her lands were mostly in Staffordshire, while most of Wulfric Spot's lands were in Staffordshire, Derbyshire, and western Warwickshire. ## Ealdorman of southern Northumbria Ælfhelm begins witnessing charters as dux, i.e. ealdorman, in 994. He was thought by historian Simon Keynes to have been the same as Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England (PASE) "Ælfhelm 15", who witnesses charters as minister, i.e. thegn, from 982 to 990. Charter appearances earlier, during the reign of Edgar the Peaceable, are possible, but it is impossible to show definitively that earlier thegns with the name Ælfhelm are the same as the future ealdorman of southern Northumbria, the latter only being positively identifiable by his title, dux. Ælfhelm's apparent promotion in 994 is thought by some historians, for instance Richard Fletcher, to have been due to the Scandinavian attack on Northumbria in 993. Under the year 993, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle relates that Vikings had invaded Northumbria and sacked Bamburgh, whereupon the southern English raised an army: > Bamburgh was sacked and much booty was captured there, and after that the army came to the mouth of the Humber and did great damage there, both in the Kingdom of Lindsey and in Northumbria. Then a very large English army was collected, and when they should have joined battle, the leaders Fræna, Godwine and Frythegyst, first started the flight. Fletcher speculated that Ælfhelm's predecessor Thored, who disappeared from the records at this time, was removed from office and replaced by Ælfhelm by King Æthelred II as a result of his failure against the Scandinavians. Another historian, William Kapelle, believed Thored was removed because of his Scandinavian descent, an argument based on the Worcester Chronicle'''s claim, added to the text borrowed from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, that Fræna, Godwine and Frythegyst fled because "they were Danish on their father's side". ## Wulfric Spot's will Ælfhelm's brother, Wulfric Spot, left a will written in Old English, which provides many of the details we know about Ælfhelm. For instance, it gives the names of his two sons, Wulfheah and Ufegeat. It dates to between 1002 and 1004, and survives in a 12th-century manuscript. Wulfric granted the lands "between the Ribble and the Mersey, and in the Wirral" to Ælfhelm and his son Wulfheah, on condition that they each pay Burton Abbey 3,000 shad at shad season. Wulfric left Ælfhelm Rolleston (Staffordshire), Harlaston (Staffordshire), and Conisbrough (Yorkshire), the last on condition that he gave Burton one third of the fish there. Wulfheah received Barlaston (Staffordshire), Marchington (Staffordshire), and Alvaston (Derbyshire), while Ælfhelm's other son Ufegeat was given Norton (Derbyshire) "in the hope that he may be a better friend and supporter of the monastery [of Burton]". Ælfhelm is asked to protect Burton Abbey and the possessions of Wulfric's daughter. ## Death and legacy Little else is recorded about Ealdorman Ælfhelm's career before his death. Notice of the latter, with the blinding of his two sons, comes in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which related under the year 1006: > In this year Archbishop Ælfric died and Bishop Ælfheah succeeded him to the archiepiscopal see. In the same year Wulfgeat was deprived of all his property, and Wulfheah and Ufegeat were blinded and Ealdorman Ælfhelm killed. The Worcester Chronicle, which for this period consists of entries taken from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle supplemented with extra information, gives an expanded saga-like version of this account, attributing Ælfhelm's death to Eadric Streona: > The crafty and treacherous Eadric Streona, plotting to deceive the noble ealdorman Ælfhelm, prepared a great feast for him at Shrewsbury at which, when he came as a guest, Eadric greeted him as if he were an intimate friend. But on the third or fourth day of the feast, when an ambush had been prepared, he took him into the wood to hunt. When all were busy with the hunt, one Godwine Porthund (which means the town dog) a Shrewsbury butcher, whom Eadric had dazzled long before with great gifts and many promises so that he might perpetrate the crime, suddenly leapt out from the ambush, and execrably slew the ealdorman Ælfhelm. After a short space of time his sons, Wulfheah and Ufegeat, were blinded, at King Æthelred’s command, at Cookham, where he himself was then staying. This material in the Worcester Chronicle seems to have been part of a lost saga about Eadric Streona, not extant but used by various surviving 11th- and 12th-century sources. Kapelle thought Ælfhelm's murder, conducted without King Æthelred's displeasure, was the result of suspect loyalty in the face of Scandinavian invasions. The sources appear to indicate that Ælfhelm's successor was Uhtred of Bamburgh, the first magnate in decades to govern northern and southern Northumbria together. The text known as De obsessione Dunelmi'' ("On the siege of Durham"), relates that Uhtred took power after defeating a Scottish invasion. As well as his two sons Ælfhelm left a daughter, Ælfgifu of Northampton, by a lady named Wulfrun; Ælfgifu's territorial appellation is taken as further evidence that Ælfhelm had territory in the eastern Danelaw. At some time between 1013 and 1016, she married Cnut, son of Sweyn Forkbeard, future King of the English. Her son was Harold Harefoot, King of the English.	[ "## Origins", "## Ealdorman of southern Northumbria", "## Wulfric Spot's will", "## Death and legacy" ]	1,803	17,625
5,741,930	Southport Pier	1,153,036,097	Pier in Southport, Merseyside, England	[ "1 ft 111⁄2 in gauge railways in England", "3 ft 6 in gauge railways in England", "Buildings and structures in Southport", "Grade II listed buildings in Merseyside", "Pier railways", "Piers in Merseyside", "Rail transport in Merseyside", "Tourist attractions in Merseyside", "Tram transport in England" ]	Southport Pier is a pleasure pier in Southport, Merseyside, England. Opened in August 1860, it is the oldest iron pier in the country. Its length of 1,108 m (3,635 ft) makes it the second-longest in Great Britain, after Southend Pier. Although at one time spanning 1,340 m (4,380 ft), a succession of storms and fires during the late 19th and early 20th centuries reduced its length to that of the present day. The pier has been host to famous entertainers, including Charlie Chaplin in the early 20th century. It was visited by steamliners in its heyday, but silting of the channel meant that by the 1920s very few steamers were able to reach the pier, and the service ceased in 1929. The pier fell into disrepair throughout the late 20th century, and by 1990 it was operating at a significant annual loss with rising maintenance costs. The local council sought to have the pier demolished, but were defeated in their attempt by a single vote. The pier was significantly restored during 2000–2002, and opened to the public in May 2002. The Southport Pier Tramway ran from Southport Promenade to the pier head at various times in the pier's history with various rolling stock, most recently until June 2015. The pier is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II listed building, first listed on 18 August 1975. ## Location At 1,108 m (3,635 ft), Southport Pier is the second longest in Great Britain. As a result of silting in the water channel, part of the pier now passes overland before reaching the beach, as the silt has allowed land beneath the pier to be reclaimed. The entrance starts at Promenade Road and follows a route inland next to Princes Park, before crossing over Marine Drive and meeting the beach at approximately half-way along its length. The area that now houses the marine lake and surrounding road at the land-end of the pier was acquired by the pier corporation in 1885, following population growth in the local area and pier extensions in the 1870s. In the late 1920s the council reclaimed a large area of the beach to build an urban park, consisting of a lake, miniature railway and car parking. The pier is a seven-minute walk from Southport railway station, 480 m (0.3 mi) away. ## History ### 19th century Proposals for a pier in Southport were first suggested in 1844, in conjunction with a potential railway from Manchester, with a committee formed in 1852 to help promote its construction. Following debates throughout the following few years about what its intended usage should be, the Southport Pier company was formed in March 1859 with a £12,000 capital. The cost to build the pier was estimated at £8000 (), eventually rising to £8700 () with construction work commencing in August 1859. The pier's primary purpose was to be a promenade as opposed to a ship docking pier, and thus is considered to be the country's first pleasure pier. A year later, on 2 August 1860, the pier was officially opened with a grand procession; at a length of 1,100 metres (3,600 ft) it was the second-longest and first iron-constructed pleasure pier in the country. Waiting rooms for boat passengers were added during the pier's first few years of operation, and a cable-operated tramway had been installed by 1865. The pier was extended to 1,340 metres (4,380 ft) in 1868 and was used by various steamer ships, including those of the Blackpool, Lytham and Southport Steam Packet Company, with services operating from the pier to resorts including Fleetwood and Llandudno. Visitors to the pier had to pay a toll, priced deliberately high at 6d (equivalent to £2.75 in 2016) to ensure only the most affluent could afford it. As the 1870s progressed, the numbers of working class visitors increased and tolls were reduced to 2d. Storm damage was a frequent occurrence – several storms caused damage to the pier's foundations and buildings throughout the late 1880s and early 1890s. A fire in September 1897 destroyed the original pavilion; its replacement was opened in January 1902 and considered grander, with the inclusion of an auditorium. ### 20th century A popular attraction from 1903 were an array of divers, typically diving from the tea house roof several times daily; the most popular and longest-serving were Professors Osbourne and Powsey, the latter frequently jumping off the pier on a bicycle. From 1906, the newly constructed pavilion was leased out to play host to a variety of entertainers, including Charlie Chaplin and George Robey. Following the First World War, the pavilion was renamed the Casino and its main attraction on offer was dancing. This period was a financial success for the pier, with a net profit of £9155 () in 1913 and an annual average profit of £6750 () during the 1920s. By the early 1920s, silting in the water channel allowed for land reclamation, whilst it became more and more difficult for steamer ships to reach the pier; the service ceased entirely in 1929. Profits fell during the 1930s depression, compounded with a large fire in July 1933 destroying the pier head. The cost of damage was estimated at £6000 () which was unaffordable to the Southport Pier Company, who ended up selling the pier to Southport Corporation in June 1936 for £34,744 (). The pier was closed to the public during the Second World War to house and operate searchlights to detect enemy aircraft travelling to Liverpool docks, yet was not physically separated from the land like other piers were during this time. The pier did not reopen again until 1950 and in June 1959, suffered a significant fire which destroyed 460 square metres (5,000 sq ft) of decking, reducing its length to the present day 3,633 feet (1,107 m) and for a period of time making it the third longest pier after Herne Bay Pier, until that was destroyed by a storm in 1978. Sefton Council acquired ownership of the pier in 1974 following national reorganisation of local government and it was designated as a Grade II listed structure on 18 August 1975 despite being in a state of deterioration. A grant of £62,400 () was awarded in 1983 by the European Regional Development Fund to strengthen the pier's structure. Deterioration continued during the latter 20th century and worsened by a storm in 1989, causing extensive damage. Despite its listed status, Sefton Council sought to demolish the pier in December 1990 due to the rising cost of repairs and maintenance, yet was defeated by a single vote. Operating at an annual loss of £100,000 and with estimates close to £1 million to secure the future of the pier, plus a further £250,000 required every five years for repainting, a charitable trust was formed in 1993 to upkeep the pier; various funding was secured in the subsequent years to maintain the pier's operation. In February 1997, a grant of £34,000 () was provided from lottery funding in order for a structural survey to be undertaken, confirming the pier's then poor condition and recommending its closure. In October 1998, the pier received a heritage grant of £1.7 million from the Heritage Lottery Fund, awarded to support restoration and access. ### 21st century After falling into disrepair and subsequently closing, work to restore the pier began in 2000 and was completed in 2002, opening to the public in May 2002 with the restoration costing £7.2 million, complete with a new tram. Restoration of the pier formed part of a wider redevelopment strategy, including a new sea wall to help prevent flooding, landscaping around the pier and a new £28 million Ocean Plaza shopping complex. The pier today is an open structure, with modern railings on an older base and a deck made of hardwood slats, affording a partial view of the sea below. Along the walkway are name plaques that local people funded to help towards raising the restoration funds. The modern pavilion structure at the pier head was designed by Liverpool architects Shed KM and cost £1.2 million; the building houses a cafeteria with airport style floor to ceiling windows overlooking the beach and a collection of vintage mechanical amusement machines and penny arcade. The exhibition of Edwardian and Victorian machines operates on pre-decimalisation pennies, available to purchase on-site at £1 for 10 old pennies. Plans were announced in April 2017 to renovate the pier as part of a £2.9 million makeover, with two-thirds of the cost coming from the Coastal Communities Fund to include repairs and new retail units. Additionally, the council seek to undertake repainting and mechanical works, as well as pavilion improvements and providing easier access to the pier from the beach. During 2022, the decking appeared to be rotting and unstable , and as a precaution the whole pier was closed to the public - pending repair. ## Tramway Initially, the pier had a baggage line from 1863, though this was replaced in 1864 when the pier was widened to provide a steam-driven tramway capable of transporting passengers and their luggage. The line was re-laid in 1893, with electrification coming in April 1905. The rolling stock was rebuilt in 1936 when the line was taken over by Southport Corporation. The pier was closed during the Second World War, but when it reopened the tram did not reopen with it, as the town had lost its supply of DC electricity. The tram line eventually reopened in 1950, with the track gauge changed and moved to the side of the pier (previously central) and from 1954 operated with new diesel trains, known as the Silver Belle and built by local engineer Harry Barlow who owned the Lakeside Miniature Railway. The stock was replaced in 1973 with English Rose, which operated until the mid-1990s, at which time there were doubts over the pier's future. The Silver Belle stock became derelict at Steamport for some years, before moving to the West Lancashire Light Railway for conversion into carriages. The restoration in 2002 provided a new narrow gauge tram track in the centre of a widened deck and on 1 August 2005, a new twin-section articulated, battery powered tram car started service on this track, with a passenger capacity of 74 people. The tram ran every day of the year except Christmas Day and provided a half-hourly service in both directions. In July 2013, the tram service was suspended following the discovery of cracks within the supporting columns and ceased running entirely in June 2015 due to rising maintenance costs and council cost-cutting measures. It was replaced by an extension of a pre-existing smaller land train, with the tram removed for sale in March 2016. ## Cultural references The pier has been featured in films, such as the 1985 film Mr. Love, which was filmed primarily in Southport. In 2014, a BBC drama titled There To Here filmed some scenes at Southport pier, which takes place in June 1996 in Manchester when an IRA bomb caused significant damage to Manchester's city centre. In 2021, the pier featured in the closing scene of the BBC drama, Time, which starred Sean Bean and Stephen Graham. ## Awards - 2003 National Piers Society: Pier of the Year ## See also - Southport Corporation Tramways - List of town tramway systems in England - List of town tramway systems in the United Kingdom	[ "## Location", "## History", "### 19th century", "### 20th century", "### 21st century", "## Tramway", "## Cultural references", "## Awards", "## See also" ]	2,502	13,765
26,258,825	Battle of Tellicherry	1,081,828,710	Battle of the Third Anglo-Mysore War	[ "1791 in India", "Battles of the Third Anglo-Mysore War", "Conflicts in 1791", "Mysorean invasion of Malabar", "Naval battles involving France", "Naval battles involving Great Britain", "Thalassery" ]	The Battle of Tellicherry was a naval action fought off the Indian port of Tellicherry between British and French warships on 18 November 1791 during the Third Anglo-Mysore War. Britain and France were not at war at the time of the engagement, but French support for the Kingdom of Mysore in the conflict with the British East India Company had led to Royal Navy patrols stopping and searching French ships sailing for the Mysorean port of Mangalore. When a French convoy from Mahé passed the British port of Tellicherry in November 1791, Commodore William Cornwallis sent a small squadron to intercept the French ships. As the British force under Captain Sir Richard Strachan approached the convoy, the escorting frigate Résolue opened fire. A general action followed, with Strachan succeeding in forcing the French ship to surrender within twenty minutes and both sides suffering damage and casualties. All of the French vessels were searched and subsequently returned to Mahé, the local French authorities reacting furiously at what they perceived as a violation of their neutral position. Messages were sent back to France reporting the action from Commodore Saint-Félix but they evoked little response. Although under normal circumstances the battle might have provoked a diplomatic incident, the upheavals of the ongoing French Revolution meant that the despatches had little effect. ## Background In December 1789, after five years of diplomatic wrangling about the terms of the Treaty of Mangalore that had ended the Second Anglo-Mysore War, the ruler of Mysore Tipu Sultan again declared war on the British East India Company and their allies in Southern India. For the next two years the war continued as British forces and their allies drove the Mysore armies back towards the capital of Seringapatam. Both sides were reliant on supply by sea to maintain their campaigns inland: the British forces were supported from their major ports at Bombay and Madras, later stationing additional forces at the small port of Tellicherry inside Mysore territory. The Mysorean forces were supplied through Mangalore by French ships. France had been an ally of the Tipu Sultan's father Hyder Ali during the Second Anglo-Mysore War and although the political instability caused by the French Revolution in Europe prevented active involvement, they ensured that their ships kept up a supply of equipment to Mysore throughout the war. In an effort to eliminate French support Commodore William Cornwallis, the British naval commander in the region, stationed a squadron of frigates at Tellicherry, where they were ideally situated to blockade Mangalore and prevent the passage of shipping into Mysorean territory. The squadron consisted of Cornwallis in HMS Minerva, Captain Sir Richard Strachan in HMS Phoenix and HMS Perseverance under Captain Isaac Smith. The French operated a squadron of their own on the coast, led by Commodore Saint-Félix and consisting of two frigates based at Mahé, a small French port 7 miles (11 km) south of Tellicherry. The French had communicated to the British at Tellicherry that they would not submit to any attempts to search their vessels, but Strachan and Cornwallis replied that they would enforce the blockade of Mangalore whatever the consequences. ## Battle In November 1791, a French convoy sailed from Mahé on the short journey to Mangalore. The convoy included two merchant vessels and the frigate Résolue, a 36-gun warship under Captain Callamand. Passing northwards, the convoy soon passed Tellicherry and Cornwallis sent Strachan with Phoenix and Perseverance to stop and inspect the French ships to ensure they were not carrying military supplies. As Smith halted the merchant ships and sent boats to inspect them, Strachan did the same to Résolue, hailing the French captain and placing an officer in a small boat to board the frigate. The French captain was outraged at this violation of his neutrality, and responded by opening fire: British sources suggest that his initial target was the small boat, although Phoenix was the ship most immediately damaged. Strachan was unsurprised at the French reaction, and returned fire immediately, the proximity of the ships preventing any manoeuvres. Within twenty minutes the combat was decided, the French captain hauling down his colours with his ship battered and more than 60 men wounded or dead. The French ship carried significantly weaker cannon than Phoenix, with 6- and 12-pounder guns to the 9- and 18-pounders aboard the British squadron. In addition, Résolue was heavily outnumbered: no other French warships were in the area, while the British had three large frigates within sight. French losses eventually totalled 25 men killed and 60 wounded, Strachan suffering just six killed and 11 wounded in return. ## Aftermath With the enemy subdued, Strachan ordered a thorough search of the captured vessels, but could find no contraband and returned control to the French commander. The French officer however refused, insisting that he and his ship were treated as prisoners of war. Cornwallis ordered the merchant ships released to continue their journey and for the frigate to be towed back to Mahé, where it was anchored in the roads with its sails and topmasts struck. Provision was subsequently made at Mahé by Strachan for the wounded French sailors. Soon afterwards Saint-Félix arrived at Mahé in his frigate Cybèle and reacted furiously at the discovery that one of his neutral ships had been attacked and captured by the British. When Cornwallis insisted that his ships had been acting within their orders, Saint-Félix promised reprisals if any of his vessels were attacked again and withdrew with both Cybèle and Résolue later in the day, followed by Minerva and Phoenix. One account reported that Saint-Félix actually ordered his crew to fire on Cornwallis but that they refused. The British shadowed the French for several days, openly stopping and searching French merchant ships but without provoking a response from Saint-Félix. Résolue and Phoenix were subsequently detached by their commanders, Cornwallis and Saint-Félix remaining in contact for several more days before finally separating. News of the encounter was conveyed back to France, but the country was at this time in one of the most turbulent eras of the ongoing Revolution and little notice was taken of events in India. Historian William James notes that under normal political circumstances the action would have had more significant ramifications, while Edward Pelham Brenton claims that the French deliberately ignored the report out of fear of antagonising Britain. In Britain, the Admiralty approved of Cornwallis' actions, suggesting that the French were deliberately using the guise of trade to support Mysore against Britain. The action had no effect on the ongoing war in India, which was now centred on the inland city of Seringapatam. As British forces closed on the city in February 1792, the Tipu Sultan initiated peace talks which brought the war to an end in exchange for concessions to the company and its Indian allies. ## See also - Mysore invasion of Kerala	[ "## Background", "## Battle", "## Aftermath", "## See also" ]	1,470	35,235
5,607,383	Acquainted with the Night (book)	1,152,280,380	Non-fiction book by Christopher Dewdney, 2004	[ "2004 non-fiction books", "Books about night", "Canadian essay collections", "Canadian non-fiction books", "HarperCollins books", "Mythology books" ]	Acquainted with the Night: Excursions through the World After Dark (or Acquainted with the Night: A Celebration of the Dark Hours) is a non-fiction book by Christopher Dewdney about various aspects of night. It was first published in 2004 by HarperCollins. It uses the same title as the Robert Frost poem "Acquainted with the Night". The book consists of 14 chapters, with one chapter dedicated to each hour of the night, from 6 pm to 5 am. Mini-essays populate each chapter which each follow a theme, like nocturnal creatures, dreams, astronomy, and mythology. Other subjects and topics touched upon include science, art, culture, natural history, superstitions, and psychology. The book was a finalist for the 2004 Governor General's Awards and for the 2005 Charles Taylor Prize. It tied with Dark Matter: Reading The Bones for the World Fantasy Award in Anthologies. ## Background At the time of Acquainted with the Night'''s writing, author and poet Christopher Dewdney was 52 years old and living in Toronto with his wife, Barbara Gowdy. He had previously written 14 books, the last being the 2002 book of poetry, The Natural History. His previous non-fiction books were Last Flesh: Life in the Transhuman Era (1998) on the impacts of technological advances on humanism, The Secular Grail: Paradigms of Perception (1993) regarding the human psyche, and The Immaculate Perception (1986) on his views of consciousness, language and dreams. Dewdney's past books were described as being "more admired than read". On the topic of 'the night', he had a lifelong fascination with nightlife and eventually decided to write a book about it. He quickly became overwhelmed by the amount of information relating to the subject. For research, he consulted a variety of genres and formats, including books, journals, magazines, music, and movies, and collected information within the broad topics of art, science, social sciences and history. The perspective Dewdney took was that of "explaining night to beings from another planet that had two opposed suns and no night at all". ## Content The content is divided into 14 chapters. The first chapter serves as an introduction and considers the mythological and geological origin of night. The next 12 chapters are each titled after an hour starting with chapter 2's 6 pm and ending with chapter 13's 5 am. Chapter 2 discusses the transition into night, including sunsets, the green flash, the stages of twilight, as well as Olbers' paradox, and a definition of the size and speed of night. The 7 pm chapter deals with nature at night, how animals see and hear differently at night with a focus on bats, nighthawks, and nocturnal insects. The 8 pm chapter analyzes children's literature and bedtime stories. The 9 pm chapter discusses aspects of the city at night, including the evolution of nightclubs, street lights, and the impacts of light pollution. The 10 pm chapter discusses night festivals around the world and throughout history. The 11 pm chapter explains the circadian rhythm and the physiology of sleep and dreams. The 12 am chapter traces the history behind dream interpretation from Gilgamesh to Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, and Calvin Hall. Here, Dewdney considers nightmares and takes sudden unexplained death syndrome, whose sufferers are almost always Asian males, between 20 and 49 years old, as an extreme example of nightmares that cause the dreamer to die from a "ventricular fibrillation...brought about by extreme terror". The 1 am chapter compares literary and mythological personifications of, or beings associated with, the night. The 2 am chapter tells the stories of the legends behind the moon and the constellations. The 3 am chapter is all about insomnia. The 4 am chapter provides a geographical aspect, touring the places with long nights, like Las Vegas, caves, the poles, and deep within the oceans. The 5 am chapter discusses artistic representations of night, especially in music, on film and through paintings. The final chapter is a conclusion in which Dewdney reflects on memorable sunrises he has experienced and contrasts sunrises with sunsets. ## Style The title shares its name with the Robert Frost poem "Acquainted with the Night," which is quoted on the first page. The book's structure uses twelve chapters, equating to twelve hours of night, from 6 pm to 5 am. Two additional chapters, "First Night" and "Night's Last Stand", bookend the twelve chapters as an introduction and conclusion. This hour-by-hour structure was used to move the narrative along logically while jumping between diverse topics. The topics range from such disparate subjects as culture, superstitions, natural history, physiology, and psychology so that reviewers variously called the book "a compendium", "a browser's book" and full of "encyclopedic mini-essays". Autobiographical passages are also included. One reviewer noted the format uses personal observations that lead to discussions of broad subjects with "side trips into relevant supporting materials". The reviewer for the Quill & Quire cited the book as an example of a subgenre which an article in The Atlantic Monthly dubbed "mundane studies" referring to the ubiquity of the subject, like Mark Kurlansky's Salt: A World History and Witold Rybczynski's One Good Turn: A Natural History of the Screwdriver and the Screw. Dewdney's writing in Acquainted with the Night combines a poet's point of view with an interest for the sciences. The tone was described as "boyish enthusiasm" and "highly condensed yet personable voice". Gisèle Baxter, in the journal Canadian Literature, wrote that its tone was set at the beginning of the book by "an anecdote of a small boy creeping into the moonlit, partly wooded backyard of his family home". ## Publication and reception Acquainted with the Night: Excursions through the World After Dark was published as a hardback in Canada by HarperCollins in May 2004. In the United States, Bloomsbury published the hardback version in July 2004 as Acquainted with the Night: A Celebration of the Dark Hours. The trade paperback version was published by HarperCollins in March 2005. An excerpt was published in the Canadian literary magazine Geist. The book was nominated for the 2005 Charles Taylor Prize, awarded to the best Canadian work of literary non-fiction, and Dewdney was a finalist in the English-language non-fiction category of the Governor General's Awards. The Library Journal noted the book would be "most useful for larger public libraries". Regarding Dewdney's writing, the reviewer for Publishers Weekly wrote that Dewdney writes carefully and "confidently". Another reviewer called the book "engaging and recreational". Gisèle Baxter, in Canadian Literature, found his use of language "provok[es] consideration through its elegant turns of phrase and image" and Laura Wright, in Discover called the imagery "arresting". In The Globe and Mail, poet and novelist Margaret Atwood wrote, "The prose moves from the strictly informative to the lyrical to the charming to the amusing to the odd to the strangely moving without batting an eye." Another reviewer noted Dewdney "combined a deft lyric touch with a deep interest in science". The reviewer for Canadian Geographic wrote that "the strength of the book is in its artful mix of science and poetry". Literary critic Sven Birkerts found Dewdney to be "an engaging enough narrator and solid, enthusiastic stylist". The book's structure received mixed reviews, some reviewers found Dewdney was able to effectively transition between various topics while other reviewers did not. Birkerts wrote the book has "a fun-facts-fished-from-the-data-ocean...[and] end-of-term crammer" sense to it. The Quill & Quire and The Economist'' reviewers found the topics were too cursory, like "an encyclopedia entry". Birkerts concluded "that any one of Dewdney's excursions could earn its keep as a column in a popular science magazine" but assembled into one book the topics seemed random.	[ "## Background", "## Content", "## Style", "## Publication and reception" ]	1,701	33,576
62,477,813	The Pussycat Dolls Tour	1,167,850,292	Cancelled 2021 concert tour by the Pussycat Dolls	[ "Concert tours cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic", "Concert tours of Ireland", "Concert tours of the United Kingdom", "Concert tours postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic", "Reunion concert tours", "The Pussycat Dolls concert tours" ]	The Pussycat Dolls Tour (also informally known as The Unfinished Business Tour) was the planned third concert tour by American girl group the Pussycat Dolls. It was announced in 2019, when Nicole Scherzinger, Ashley Roberts, Carmit Bachar, Kimberly Wyatt and Jessica Sutta revealed that they were reforming for new music and a brand new concert tour. Former member Melody Thornton declined to reunite but decided to continue with her career as a solo recording artist. The announcement followed the release of "React", the first new song by the group in more than decade. The tour was due to begin in April 2020 with 10 arena dates around the UK and Ireland, but these were postponed until the Autumn and then Spring-Summer 2021 due to the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic. It was then scheduled to begin on May 21, 2021, with ten dates across the UK and Ireland. A number of festival dates were cancelled all together including a headline slot at Brighton Pride (UK), So Pop Festival (Australia and New Zealand), Untold Festival (Romania), and Superbloom Festival (Germany), while some international dates in Japan, Brazil, and the Philippines were postponed pending further confirmation. Following further delays which were down to the pandemic, breach of contracts and logistics, the tour was ultimately cancelled in January 2022 with the fate of the Pussycat Dolls unknown pending the legal dispute between Scherzinger and Antin regarding the terms of the group's business ventures. ## Background The Pussycat Dolls reunited in November 2019 for a performance on the finale of UK reality tv competition The X Factor: Celebrity, where alongside previous singles, they also performed a new song "React". Following the performance, it was confirmed that new music was in production alongside a UK and Ireland concert tour. The tour would be the group's first since 2009's Doll Domination Tour, and "React" was the first release by the group in more than a decade. Former member, Melody Thornton decided not to reunite with the them in order to focus on her solo career. Speaking on their decision to tour the UK, Roberts told the BBC, "L.A. was our home, but the U.K. was our second home because the British just scooped us up. So, our lives ended up here as well, some of us, so the fans have just been holding on strong with wanting this reunion and our biggest fanbase is over here." In the same interview, Wyatt noted that the Pussycat Dolls had been talking about a reunion for some years, "it’s been a few years in the making, and the tour was dubbed Unfinished Business, supported by comments made by both Roberts and Wyatt. Wyatt said "I think ultimately there’s some unfinished business with The Pussycat Dolls" and Roberts agreed, noting that it had "been 10 years ... we just all were ready to do it". The tour was also known as the Unfinished Business Tour. As part of the tour, the group was confirmed to be headlining the second day of Fabuloso Pride in the Park, Brighton's Pride celebrations on August 2, 2020. ## Changes to scheduling The Pussycat Doll Tour's first leg was supposed to begin in April 2020, visiting nine venues around the UK and Ireland, plus an appearance at Fabuloso Pride in the Park (Brighton) in August. However, by March 2020 the UK was being impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, leading to social restrictions making the tour impossible to go ahead; new dates were planned for October. Following the same guidance regarding social restrictions, organisers of Pride in the Park announced the event was being delayed 2021, with the Pussycat Dolls returning to headline. The tour was then scheduled to begin in July 2020 with a number of festival and racecourse events through the UK and Ireland, as well as the Untold Festival in Romania, and Superbloom Festival in Germany. The arena dates for the UK and Ireland would then follow in October, beginning with Newcastle on October 19 and ending in Dublin, Ireland on November 2. However, on July 2, 2020, the tour was confirmed to have been pushed back into 2021, with dates now spanning May and June. Other previously announced 2020 international appearances including in the Philippines, Japan, and Brazil were either postponed or cancelled all together. A third announcement came in March 2021, several months ahead of the new scheduled dates. Ticketmaster informed customers that the tour was being rescheduled once again at the request of the organisers. No new dates were announced but there was the promise of further announcements to follow in due course. ## Legal dispute and cancellation In September 2021, it was reported that Scherzinger was refusing to take part in the tour and had been subsequently sued by Robin Antin, founder of the Pussycat Dolls. The media reported that Scherzinger had originally agreed to 49% of the tour's earnings but was now refusing to take part unless this rose to 75% and included overall creative control. Documents filed at the Los Angeles Superior Court found that the basis of the agreement was a Memorandum of Understanding that Scherzinger had committed to 45 shows, under terms that she would receive 32.5% of earnings from the tour, with Sutta, Roberts, Wyatt and Antin also receiving 12.5% and Bachar receiving 5%, reflecting that she left before the release of the group's second album, Doll Domination (2008). The legal dispute came from Scherzinger wanting to negotiate the terms of PCD Worldwide, a new business venture that would handle future earning from the group and brand from existing terms of 49% to an increased 75%, to reflect "opportunities she would have to forego to continue to engage in "the partnership with Antin". Scherzinger's lawyer released a counter-statement to Antin's claims. Amongst the response was details of \$600,000 advance from Live Nation that Antin had received to support the tour and now "won't or can't repay", as well as accusing her of "trading on Nicole's name without her consent" and public release of the group's financial arrangements for the tour. Scherzinger concluded that the lawsuit was "ludicrous and false", and that under those circumstances, the tour cannot happen. In January 2022, Scherzinger officially confirmed the tour's cancellation on an Instagram stories post. The official reasons cited "evolving circumstances surrounding the pandemic". Not long after, group members Sutta and Bachar confirmed that they had only learnt about the tour's cancellation from Scherzinger's Instagram post, writing their own statement, saying: "We want to say how incredibly disappointed we are to learn of an announcement made on Instagram that The Pussycat Dolls reunion tour is canceled. As of now, there has been no official notification of that." Antin also confirmed the tour's cancellation stating that "all of us have made personal & financial sacrifices" and later confirming that there were "truths to this situation" which may see the light of day one day. Despite referring to the tour cancellation as "the end of a chapter", Sutta and Bachar remained optimistic about the future of the group, stating that "[it] is not the end of the Dolls story, [we have] created a sisterhood that will live on"." Wyatt has expressed she has "done all [she] can", as she was the motivator for the reunion for years. She confirmed that both she and Roberts still want the tour to happen. ## Reception When the tour was announced for April 2020, the group were only intending to play one date at The O2 Arena. However, due to strong demand an additional date was added for April 19, 2020. ## Tour dates ### Arena shows ### Festival and international shows	[ "## Background", "## Changes to scheduling", "## Legal dispute and cancellation", "## Reception", "## Tour dates", "### Arena shows", "### Festival and international shows" ]	1,665	33,579
38,967,952	Hoylande Young	1,171,137,708	American chemist	[ "1903 births", "1986 deaths", "20th-century American chemists", "American women chemists", "Chemists from Illinois", "Chemists from Ohio", "Manhattan Project people", "Ohio State University College of Arts and Sciences alumni", "Scientists from Chicago", "Scientists from Columbus, Ohio", "Texas Woman's University faculty", "University of Chicago alumni", "Women on the Manhattan Project" ]	Hoylande Denune Young Failey (June 26, 1903 – January 12, 1986) was an American chemist. During World War II she worked at the Manhattan Project's Metallurgical Laboratory. After the war she became the first woman to be appointed as a division head at the Argonne National Laboratory, and the first woman to chair the Chicago Section of the American Chemical Society. ## Biography Hoylande Denune Young was born in Columbus, Ohio, on June 26, 1903. She had a sister, Hilda. She became interested in chemistry when she was in high school, where there were separate boys' and girls' chemistry classes. Due to course scheduling conflicts she was permitted to take the more challenging boys' course, although she had to sit up the back of the class. She entered Ohio State University, from which she received a Bachelor of Science degree in chemistry in 1924. She then went on to earn a Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Chicago, writing her thesis on "Stereoisomeric Bromoimino Ketones" under the supervision of Julius Stieglitz. After graduating, Young became an industrial research chemist, working in the lacquer industry at Van Schaack Brothers Chemical Works in Chicago. In 1930, she became an assistant professor of chemistry at Texas State College for Women, where she taught nutrition and biochemistry. In 1934, she resigned to take up an offer from Michael Reese Hospital in Chicago, but when she arrived the director found out that she was a woman, and refused to hire her. Jobs were hard to find during the Great Depression, and she was a consultant with no regular employment until 1938, when she took a position with Pure Oil. There she worked with Cary R. Wagner, Jr., on a book on petroleum refining. The project went on for six years, but it was interrupted by the outbreak of World War II, and the book was never published. With the United States at war, Young took a job in 1942 as a scientific librarian with the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) at the University of Chicago's Toxicity Laboratory, compiling American, British and Canadian reports on chemical warfare, and preparing an index of toxic chemicals. In 1945, she transferred to the Manhattan Project's Metallurgical Laboratory as a chemist. There she edited papers that would later be published by the Atomic Energy Commission as part of its National Nuclear Energy Series. She later served on the editorial board of the National Nuclear Energy Series, representing the Argonne National Laboratory. In 1946, Young joined the newly created Argonne National Laboratory in 1946 as Director of Technical Information, the first woman to be appointed a division head. She would remain at Argonne until she retired in 1964. In 1956, she became the first woman to be appointed chair of the Chicago Section of the American Chemical Society. She was involved in setting up its Distinguished Service Award, and later received it herself in 1975. She was also a fellow of the American Institute of Chemists, the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the Atomic Scientists of Chicago. She was a charter member of the American Nuclear Society and the president of Iota Sigma Pi, a national honor society for women in chemistry. In 1959, the Chicago Tribune named her as one of the city's most distinguished women in business or the professions, and the Argonne National Laboratory established the Hoylande D. Young lecture series in her honor in 1963. Young married Crawford Failey, whom she had known in the Toxicity Laboratory. She died at her home in Hyde Park, Chicago, on January 12, 1986, and was buried in the Riverside Cemetery, Columbus, Ohio.	[ "## Biography" ]	781	16,413
32,767,659	Nakhichevan uezd	1,170,363,144	null	[ "Geographic history of Azerbaijan", "History of Nakhchivan", "Uezds of Erivan Governorate" ]	The Nakhichevan uezd was a county (uezd) of the Erivan Governorate of the Caucasus Viceroyalty of the Russian Empire. It bordered the governorate's Sharur-Daralayaz uezd to the north, the Zangezur uezd of the Elizavetpol Governorate to the east, and Iran to the south. The uezd's administrative center was the city of Nakhichevan (present-day Nakhchivan). The county was mostly mountainous and devoid of industry beyond salt plantations. Before the Russian Revolution it was home to more than 81,200 Muslims who formed the majority of the population, and a significant minority of 54,200 Armenians who would later be massacred or displaced during the Armenian–Azerbaijani war of 1918–1920. Originally formed from the Nakhichevan Khanate, the Nakhichevan uezd was part of the Armenian Oblast and later the governorate of Erivan. Shortly after the Bolshevik coup, the district fell under the control of the invading Ottoman army (and was briefly annexed by the Treaty of Batum) until the latter's withdrawal in late 1918—In the wake of the retreat, the district came under the control of local Muslims between 1919 and 1920, with brief periods of Armenian control in the middle of each year, ending with region's takeover by the 11th Army of Soviet Russia. Finally, the district was transformed into the Nakhchivan exclave of Azerbaijan and later partitioned with Armenia (forming parts of the latter's Syunik and Vayots Dzor provinces) whilst part of the Transcaucasian SFSR. ## History ### Background The topography of the uezd was mainly mountainous with most of the lowland located along the Aras river. The highest peaks of the uezd (Kambil at 11,188 feet (3,410 m); Damara-dag at 11,090 feet (3,380 m); and Mount Kaputjukh at 12,855 feet (3,918 m)) were located along the Karabakh Range, which made up the eastern boundary with the Elizavetpol Governorate. Kyuki-dag at 10,282 feet (3,134 m) rose from the Sharur-Daralayaz uezd in the north. The left tributaries of the Aras (the Nakhichevan-chay, Alinja-chay, and Gilan-chay) flowed through the territory of the uezd. The population of the uezd was primarily engaged in cattle breeding and gardening, especially in the Ordubad area. There were practically no industrial plants or factories, but there were however salt plantations which produced approximately 250,000 pounds of salt per annum. The subcounties (uchastoks) of the Nakhichevan uezd in 1913 were as follows: ### Russian rule and World War I The Nakhichevan uezd, based in the city Nakhichevan, was originally one of the territorial administrative subunits of the Armenian Oblast in 1828–1840, created after its annexation into the Russian Empire in 1828 through the Treaty of Turkmenchay. The territory of the uezd roughly corresponded to the defunct Nakhichevan Khanate and was the site of large-scale Armenian repatriation from Iran, which was across the Aras river to the south. In 1844, the Caucasus Viceroyalty was reestablished, in which the Nakhichevan uezd briefly formed part of the Tiflis Governorate before its transfer to the newly established Erivan Governorate in 1849. The new governorate in addition to Nakhichevan also included the uezds of Erivan, Alexandropol, Nor Bayazet and Ordubad, however, the latter was later abolished in 1868 and incorporated into the south of the Nakhichevan and Zangezur uezds, the latter continuing to border Nakhichevan from the east. Not long after, further administrative reforms resulted in the separation of the northern part of the Nakhichevan uezd corresponding to the present-day Sharur District of Azerbaijan and the Vayots Dzor Province of Armenia to form the Sharur-Daralayaz uezd in 1870—bordering Nakhichevan from the north. On 3 March 1918, in accordance with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk the Russian SFSR ceded the Kars and Batum oblasts to the Ottoman Empire who had been unreconciled with its loss of those territories (which they referred to as Elviye-i Selase [tr]) since 1878. Despite the resistance of the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic which had initially rejected the Brest-Litovsk treaty, the Ottoman Third Army was successful in occupying the oblasts, and going on to expand into the western districts of the Erivan and Tiflis governorates, including the Nakhichevan uezd. These additional territorial gains were confirmed through the Treaty of Batum with the individual South Caucasus republics. ### Republic of Aras As stipulated in the Mudros Armistice, the Ottoman Empire was compelled to withdraw its armies from the Erivan and Tiflis governorates, thus withdrawing to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk boundaries. One of the commanders of the occupying army, Yukub Shevki, sponsored the creation of the Republic of Aras in the occupied Erivan districts, providing it with moral support, weapons, and instructors. Following the conclusion of the 2-week Armeno-Georgian war, Armenia repositioned its forces to annex the Republic of Aras, however, their advance into the district was halted on 18 January 1919 by Captain F. E. Laughton who established a local British military governorship in the district. On 26 January 1919, the governorship was confirmed by the British military headquarters based in Tiflis (present-day Tbilisi) as a means to prevent ethnic clashes between Armenian soldiers and local Muslims of up to "ten thousand well-armed men". The British sympathy to the Aras Republic was later reversed when Major-General William M. Thomson became the highest-ranking officer in the South Caucasus—believing that Pan-Turkism was influential in the region, especially in consideration of the presence of Azerbaijani and Ottoman agents Samed Bey and Colonel Halil Bey, respectively. Thomson believed that they were scheming to "forge a bridge between the Ottoman Empire and Azerbaijan and ultimately between Nationalist Turkey and Soviet Russia." Following the British announcement of the dissolution of the governorship and the plans to annex the region to Armenia, Gevorg Varshamyan [hy] was selected to become the first governor of the district. Armenia's formal annexation of Nakhichevan was officially declared on 3 May 1919, after which Armenian forces commanded by Drastamat Kanayan and accompanied by British representative General K. M. Davie advanced southward into the district along the railway. When the force had reached Davalu (present-day Ararat), Thomson ordered them to stop, believing that Armenia was encouraging the defiance of Zangezur in refusing to submit to British–Azerbaijani authority in a "severe breach of faith". The restriction Thomson had placed was later revoked after acting prime minister Alexander Khatisian met him in Tiflis to assure him that the Armenians of Zangezur were acting independently of the Armenian government. On 13 May 1919, when Armenian forces had advanced to Bashnorashen (present-day Sharur), Khatisian arrived in Nakhichevan and met the minister of war of the Aras Republic, Kalb Ali Khan Nakhichevansky [ru], after which the Aras Republic effectively capitulated. ### Anti-Armenian uprising Despite the apparent defeat of the Ottoman Empire, agents of the Turkish National Movement were reported to be fostering rebellion amongst the Muslims of Nakhichevan, eventually culminating in a large-scale anti-Armenian uprising in July 1919. Fearing retaliation by the Volunteer Army, Azerbaijan did not openly intervene to assist the Nakhichevan rebels, however, on 14 July they provided covert assistance. On 20 July, a pogrom began against the Armenian inhabitants of the city of Nakhichevan—within a few days, the Armenian administration was completely ousted and its Armenian inhabitants expelled. As the uprising spread throughout the Nakhichevan uezd, Armenians in Jugha (present-day Gülüstan) were forced to escape across the Aras river into Iran. Some 6,000 Armenians from Nakhichevan living in the Ararat Valley managed to escape to Daralayaz, Nor Bayazet, and Zangezur (present-day Vayots Dzor, Gegharkunik and Syunik provinces, respectively). During the uprising, Halil Bey coordinated the destruction of 45 Armenian villages and the massacre of 10,000 of their inhabitants, including the destruction of the large Armenian town of Agulis (present-day Yuxarı Əylis) and its 1,400 inhabitants. In late 1919, Samed Bey complained to the Azerbaijani government about the presence of Iranian agents trying to bring refugees from Nakhichevan into Iran. Some months after the Sovietization of Azerbaijan on 18 June 1920, Armenia issued an ultimatum to the rebels of Zangibasar (present-day Masis) some 15 kilometers southwest of Yerevan to submit to Armenian rule. Not expecting that the ultimatum would be answered, the Armenian army launched an offensive to recapture the rebelling districts on 19 June. In the fight for Zangibasar, Lieutenant Aram Kajaznuni, the son of the first prime minister of Armenia was killed, however, the Armenians won the battle on 21 June, with the local Muslims consisting mainly of Tatars fleeing to Aralikh (present-day Aralık) in the neighbouring Surmalu uezd to avoid retribution. After the battle, volunteer detachments consisting of Armenian refugees from the Aresh and Nukha uezds of Azerbaijan looted the abandoned homes. The militarists in the Armenian government were strengthened by the success in Zangibasar, hence, they prepared to move against the rebels of Vedibasar (present-day southern Ararat Province) and Nakhichevan; the advance into the former began on 11 July and by the next day, Armenian forces had captured the district and reached the boundary of the Erivan and Sharur-Daralayaz uezds at the mountain pass known as Volchi vorota (Russian: Волчьи ворота, lit. 'Wolf gate') and the local Muslims fled into Sharur. On 14 July, the Armenian advance continued through Volchi vorota into the Sharur district, capturing it 2 days later whilst the locals fled across the Aras river into Iran. Before the Armenians could advance into the Nakhchevan uezd proper, the national council (Azerbaijani: milli şura) of Nakhichevan appealed for peace, however, the negotiations only served in delaying Armenia's advance, after which Şahtaxtı some 40 kilometres (25 miles) northwest of the city of Nakhichevan was captured. By this time, the 11th Army of Soviet Russia (which had previously invaded Azerbaijan) occupied southern Nakhichevan with the aim of linking with Kemalist Turkey. Colonel V. Tarkhov, the commander of the "united troops of Soviet Russia and Red Turkey in Nakhichevan", addressed the Armenians in Shahtaght, proclaiming Soviet control over the rest of the district, thus putting an end to the Armenian campaign. During the Turkish–Armenian War beginning in September 1920, Armenia for the third time in six years was invaded by Turkish forces; this time under the command of General Kâzım Karabekir. The outcome of the war was Armenia's formal loss of Nakhichevan as the district became an autonomous protectorate of Soviet Azerbaijan, as confirmed by the treaties of Kars and Moscow in 1921. The Nakhichevan uezd was combined with the Sharur subdistrict of the Sharur-Daralayaz uezd and organized into the Nakhichevan ASSR. The south-easternmost parts of the uezd, Karchevan and part of the Zaritap Municipality (part of the Syunik and Vayots Dzor provinces, respectively), were transferred to Soviet Armenia in 1929–1934 whilst within the Transcaucasian SFSR. ## Demographics According to the Russian Empire Census, the Nakhichevan uezd had a population of 100,771 on , including 52,984 men and 47,787 women. The majority of the population indicated Tatar to be their mother tongue, with a significant Armenian speaking minority: According to the 1917 publication of Kavkazskiy kalendar, the Nakhichevan uezd had a population of 136,859 on , including 74,081 men and 62,778 women, 133,343 of whom were the permanent population, and 3,516 were temporary residents: ## Settlements According to the 1897 census, there were 67 settlements in the Nakhichevan uezd with a population over 500 inhabitants. The religious composition of the settlements was as follows:	[ "## History", "### Background", "### Russian rule and World War I", "### Republic of Aras", "### Anti-Armenian uprising", "## Demographics", "## Settlements" ]	2,879	2,226
13,962,744	Lytes Cary	1,148,974,076	Grade I listed house in Somerset, UK	[ "Arts and Crafts gardens", "Country houses in Somerset", "Gardens in Somerset", "Grade I listed buildings in South Somerset", "Grade I listed houses in Somerset", "Grade II listed parks and gardens in Somerset", "Hall houses", "Hamstone buildings", "Historic house museums in Somerset", "National Trust properties in Somerset" ]	Lytes Cary is a manor house with associated chapel and gardens near Charlton Mackrell and Somerton in Somerset, England. The property, owned by the National Trust, has parts dating to the 14th century, with other sections dating to the 15th, 16th, 18th, and 20th centuries. "Yet all parts blend to perfection with one another and with the gentle sunny landscape that surrounds them," comments Nikolaus Pevsner. The House is listed as Grade I by English Heritage. The chapel predates the existing house, having been built around 1343, and functioned as a chantry chapel, where masses could be said for the souls of the family, both living and dead. The great hall was added in the 15th century and the Oriel Room in the 16th. Various renovations were undertaken during the 16th and 17th centuries after which the house fell into disrepair with the north range being demolished by the early 19th century. In 1907 Sir Walter Jenner of the Jenner baronets bought the house and restored it in a period style, furnishing it with fine 17th century and 18th century oak furniture, antique tapestries and fabrics modelled after medieval textiles, along with historic and period paintings. On his death in 1948 he left the house to the National Trust. The gardens are listed as Grade II on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England. The original 17th-century gardens have disappeared. However, the Jenners laid them out in an Arts and Crafts style with a series of 'rooms', which are separated from each other by high, neatly clipped box and yew hedges. These are complemented by ponds and walks in and between each of the 'rooms'. ## History The parkland surrounding the house includes the site of a deserted medieval settlement which is a scheduled monument. The unusual name derives from the Lyte family who lived at Lytes Cary for over four centuries, and the River Cary which flows nearby. The first documentary evidence is from 1285 when it was known as Kari. William le Lyte was a feudal tenant of the estate in 1286, and the Lyte family occupied and added to the house until the mid-18th century. The earliest surviving part of the manor and associated buildings is the chapel, which dates to the mid-14th century. The Great Hall was built in the mid-15th century, and in the early 16th century the entrance porch and oriel room were added to the eastern side of the hall, and the great parlour and little parlour to the south of the hall, with bedrooms above. Sometime after the Lyte family sold the Manor in 1755, tenants moved in and the house gradually fell into disrepair. In 1810, it was reported by a neighbour that the north range 'had lately been destroyed and a farm house built on the site', (this north range is dated by architectural historians to the late 18th century) and by the time John Buckler came to draw the house in 1835 the west range had also disappeared. In 1907, Sir Walter Jenner of the Jenner baronets and son of the late Sir William Jenner, physician to Queen Victoria, bought Lytes Cary. At that time the Great Hall was being used as a cider store and the Great Parlour was full of farm equipment. Jenner's brother Leopold had just bought and started to restore Avebury Manor in Wiltshire, and Jenner was inspired by his brother's work there. He set about restoring Lytes Cary and decorating the interiors in period style, including fine 17th century and 18th century oak furniture, antique tapestries and fabrics modelled after medieval textiles. He had the west range rebuilt in a plain William and Mary style by the architect C.E. Ponting, but left the historic core of the house mostly untouched. It incorporates carvings believed to be from the demolished St Benet Gracechurch. Jenner left the manor to the National Trust after he died in 1948. The house was designated as a Grade I listed building in 1959. The National Trust opened the west range as a holiday rental property in 2006. Only the older parts of the house are open to the public. ## Architecture ### House The two-storey house and the chapel are built of the local Blue Lias stone. Parts of the house have mellow honey-coloured Hamstone dressings, especially around windows and at quoins; the later 18th century additions have brick dressings. The roofs are stone tiled with some later terracotta tiles. ### Chapel The chapel predates the existing house, and functioned as a chantry chapel, where masses could be said for the souls of the family, both living and dead. It was built by Peter Lyte in about 1343, and was completed by 1358, and would have served both the original manor which now no longer survives and later the existing house. It has a small window, or squint, that permitted servants and others to observe communion from the house. The chapel was thoroughly renovated in 1631 by Thomas Lyte, who installed the arch-braced-collar truss roof, the communion rail, a rear screen and a frieze below the roof painted with the arms of the Lytes and their relations. A monument to the south of the altar records Thomas' work on the chapel. In 1912 Sir Walter Jenner added the stained glass, including medieval glass said to have come from Charlton Mackrell church which William Le Lyte had commissioned before his death in 1316. ### Great Hall This structure was built in the mid-15th century. At the southern end is a shallow raised dais on which the Lytes and favoured guests would have sat at a long table, facing the rest of the hall where the servants would have dined. The roof has arch-braced-collar trusses, with double purlins, and cusped curved windbraces. Typical of West Country design, these carved windbraces are both decorative and practical. Beneath is a cornice of pierced quatrefoils, and at the base of each main rafter is a carved wooden angel with a shield with the Lyte arms. The fireplace is 15th century, while the windows and the stained glass in them date from the early 16th century. The hall is entered from the east front porch via the screens passage, which would have divided the Hall from the kitchen and servants quarters' which would have lain to the left of the hall. The screen and gallery are not original, having been inserted by Sir Walter Jenner in 1907. He based the decoration on that of the arch from the Great Hall through to the Oriel Room. At the time of Jenner's arrival in 1907 the Great Hall was being used as a cider store. The Great Hall is furnished with mostly 17th century oak furniture, including tables, coffers and wainscot chairs, and a great dining table, on which stand two blue and white late 17th century Delftware pyramidal tulip vases. One treasure of the home is the Lytes Herbal, a 16th-century botanical volume by noted horticulturist Henry Lyte, who was born and resided at the manor. Lyte's Niewe Herball was published in 1578 and was a translation and elaboration of the Cruydeboeck of Flemish herbalist Rembert Dodoens. The herbal was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth. A copy is displayed in the Great Hall. ### Oriel Room This was added to the south of the Great Hall in the early 16th century to provide a small intimate room where the family could eat in private away from the servants. Above it is the small Oriel Bedroom, probably originally a dressing room for the Great Chamber as its only entrance is via that room. At the same time that the oriel room and bedroom were added, rooms were added or remodeled to the south of the Great Hall: the Great Parlour with Great Chamber above, and the Little Parlour with Little Chamber above. John Lyte, the builder, placed his coat of arms on the outside of the building. ### Great Parlour This was the main family sitting room on the ground floor, with the south-facing grand window giving views to the gardens, and was remodelled by John Lyte in 1533. In the early 17th century Thomas Lyte added the wood paneling (including Ionic pilasters) and the internal porch: these decorative features also had the practical benefit of keeping out the drafts. In the 20th century the room was being used as a store for farm equipment. Sir Walter Jenner had the paint stripped from the panelling to reveal the original warm-coloured oak. Above is the Great Chamber, an impressive room with a barrel ceiling with geometrical plaster decoration featuring John Lyte's arms and those of his wife, Edith Horsey. This ceiling is a rare survival. The wall above the bed displays the royal coat of arms and Tudor roses, signifying Lyte's loyalty to King Henry VIII (whose government Lyte represented in Somerset). The panelling is 17th century, as are the great four poster bed and the tapestries on the walls. Some of the original oak panelling of the room may have been used in the construction of the canopy of the bed. ### Little Parlour This smaller room may have been used by Henry and Thomas Lyte for their studies. It too has later paneling and an alcove in which are displayed a collection of early glassware. Above this room is the Little Chamber, used by Sir Walter Jenner as his bedroom. The bed came from Burton Pynsent House in Somerset, a house given to William Pitt the Elder by an admirer of his achievements as prime minister. ### Paintings Sir Walter Jenner furnished the rooms with furniture and included historic and newly commissioned paintings. The paintings include: portraits of Lady Catherine Neville by Robert Peake James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth and Mary II of England by Sir Peter Lely and William III of England by Godfrey Kneller, along with landscapes by Jan Wyck and Jack Green. Oil paintings of horses by George Denholm Armour and George Richard Pain are also included in the extensive collection. ## Gardens All trace of Henry Lyte's garden has disappeared. Records show that his son Thomas kept a very well-stocked orchard, which included in 1618 "Apples, 3 skore severall sorts. pears and Wardens (a type of pear), 44 sorts. Plummes, 15 divers kynds. Grapes, 3 severall sortes. Cherries, 1. Walnuts, 3. Peaches, 1." By the Victorian period the garden had run to seed, and so the Jenners had to start from scratch on their arrival in 1907. They had the gardens designed and constructed to include a series of hedged and walled "rooms" with topiary, specimen trees, a pool, statuary, croquet lawn, walkways, an Elizabethan orchard, and a herbal border that includes plants described in the Lytes Herbal. The gate piers at the east and west entrances are listed buildings. The gardens were constructed in a series of 'rooms', which are separated from each other by high, neatly clipped box and yew hedges. The gardens were influenced by the Arts and Crafts style popular at the time. The Jenners had a garden staff of four. In 1965 Graham Stuart Thomas, the National Trust's first Gardens Adviser designed the Main Border. From 1955 to 1997 the Trust's tenants at the Manor, Biddy and Jeremy Chittenden, transformed the garden, and Biddy rethought and replanted the main border in 1996, using new plants but following Stuart Thomas's colour scheme. The gardens are listed as Grade II on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England. A barn and other outbuildings north west of the house are listed buildings. The Apostle garden is aligned on the front door in the East front of the house and a building which has been described as a water tower, built by the Jenners in imitation of the dovecote at Avebury Manor, which was wrongly identified as a Dovecote by English Heritage. The garden is a severe, formal approach, flanked by topiarised yews, and is "deliberately low-key and simple so as not to distract from the beauty of the building". The main border is 35 metres (114.8 ft) long and at its best in midsummer. The flowers grade from blues and yellows, through creams and apricots to pinks, mauves and reds. There is a restful White Garden beyond for contrast. The orchard contains fruit trees such as quinces, medlars, crab apples and pears are underplanted with spring-flowering meadow plants such as snake's head fritillaries, camassias, narcissus, cowslips and lady's smock. The orchard is crossed by wide mown paths meeting at a central sundial. Originally four weeping elms were situated at the four corners of the garden, but they succumbed to Dutch elm disease in the early seventies and were replaced in 1973 by four weeping ash trees which make inviting 'houses'. The orchard can be viewed from the raised walk on its east side, another idea copied from Avebury Manor. A main path known as the Long walk is based on the Long Walk at Hidcote Manor Garden in Gloucestershire, although it is on a smaller scale. It is a plain grassed walkway connecting the Raised Walk with the Pond Garden. The pond garden, seat garden and croquet lawn are interlinked, with aligned openings to form a vista from the bay windows of the Great Parlour and Great Chamber on the south front of the house over to the Sparkford plain. A short tunnel of hornbeams link the Pond Garden to the Vase Garden, where variegated weigela is underplanted with euphorbia and vinca. ## See also - Grade I listed buildings in South Somerset - List of National Trust properties in Somerset	[ "## History", "## Architecture", "### House", "### Chapel", "### Great Hall", "### Oriel Room", "### Great Parlour", "### Little Parlour", "### Paintings", "## Gardens", "## See also" ]	2,981	11,789
1,273,799	Suspensory muscle of duodenum	1,171,945,253	Muscle between the duodenum and jejunum	[ "Digestive system" ]	The suspensory muscle of duodenum (also known as suspensory ligament of duodenum, Treitz's muscle or ligament of Treitz ) is a thin muscle connecting the junction between the duodenum and jejunum (the small intestine's first and second parts, respectively), as well as the duodenojejunal flexure to connective tissue surrounding the superior mesenteric and coeliac arteries. The suspensory muscle most often connects to both the third and fourth parts of the duodenum, as well as the duodenojejunal flexure, although the attachment is quite variable. The suspensory muscle marks the formal division between the duodenum and the jejunum. This division is used to mark the difference between the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts, which is relevant in clinical medicine as it may determine the source of gastrointestinal bleeding. The suspensory muscle is derived from mesoderm and plays a role in the embryological rotation of the gut, by offering a point of fixation for the rotating gut. It is also thought to help digestion by widening the angle of the duodenojejunal flexure. Superior mesenteric artery syndrome is a rare abnormality caused by a congenitally short suspensory muscle. ## Structure The duodenum and the jejunum are the first and second parts of the small intestine, respectively. The suspensory muscle of the duodenum marks their formal division. The suspensory muscle arises from the right crus of the diaphragm as it passes around the esophagus, continues as connective tissue around the stems of the celiac trunk (celiac artery) and superior mesenteric artery, passes behind the pancreas, and enters the upper part of the mesentery, inserting into the junction between the duodenum and jejunum, the duodenojejunal flexure. Here, the muscles are continuous with the muscular layers of the duodenum. ### Variation Considerable anatomic variation exists, in terms of length and point of attachment. Despite the classical description, the muscle only solely attaches to the duodenojejunal flexure in about 8% of people; it is far more common, 40 to 60% of the time to attach additionally to the third and fourth parts of the duodenum; and 20 to 30% of the time it only attaches to the third and fourth parts. Moreover, separate multiple attachments are not that uncommon. According to some authors, who use the original description by Treitz, the muscle may be divided into two sections: a ligamentous portion attaching the right crus of diaphragm to the connective tissue surrounding the coeliac artery and superior mesenteric artery; and a lower muscular portion from the connective tissue attaching to the duodenum. The superior portion is also described as the Hilfsmuskel. These two parts are now considered anatomically distinct, with the suspensory muscle referring solely to the lower structure attaching at the duodenum. ## Function The ligament contains a slender band of skeletal muscle from the diaphragm and a fibromuscular band of smooth muscle from the horizontal and ascending parts of the duodenum. When it contracts, by virtue of connections to the third and fourth parts of the duodenum, the suspensory muscle of the duodenum widens the angle of the duodenojejunal flexure, allowing movement of the intestinal contents. ### Embryology Embryologically, the suspensory muscle of the duodenum is derived from mesoderm. It plays an important role in the embryological rotation of the small intestine as the superior retention band. ## Clinical significance This ligament is an important anatomical landmark of the duodenojejunal flexure, separating the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts. For example, bloody vomit or melena, black tarry stools, usually indicate a gastrointestinal bleed from a location in the upper gastrointestinal tract. In contrast, hematochezia, bright red blood or clots in the stool, usually indicates gastrointestinal bleeding from the lower part of the gastrointestinal tract. It is an especially important landmark to note when looking at the bowel for the presence of malrotation of the gut, a syndrome often suspected in young children when they have episodes of recurrent vomiting. Visualising a normal location of the ligament of Treitz in radiological images is critical in ruling out malrotation of the gut in a child; it is abnormally located when malrotation is present. During a Whipple's procedure, commonly used to treat pancreatic cancer by removing the pancreas, duodenum, and part of the jejunum, the ligament of Treitz is separated from the duodenum and preserved. When the remaining jejunum is anastamosed with the pylorus of the stomach, it may be passed through the ligament. Superior mesenteric artery syndrome (SMA) is an extremely rare life-threatening condition that can either be congenital and chronic, or induced and acute. SMA Syndrome is characterised by compression of the duodenum between the abdominal aorta and the superior mesenteric artery, and may—when congenital—result from a short suspensory muscle. One surgical treatment is Strong's operation, which involves cutting the suspensory muscle, though this is not often carried out. ## History The suspensory muscle of the duodenum was first named in 1853 by Václav Treitz, as the musculus suspensorius duodeni (in Latin), and described as consisting of a lower muscular portion with a broad base, and an upper tendinous portion blending with connective tissue around the origins of the superior mesenteric and coeliac arteries. It is commonly termed the ligament of Treitz by clinicians and as the suspensory muscle of the duodenum by anatomists. It has also been likened to "a polar ice cap ... a structure that many refer to but few have seen." ## Additional images	[ "## Structure", "### Variation", "## Function", "### Embryology", "## Clinical significance", "## History", "## Additional images" ]	1,241	25,628
36,562,595	Sa'd al-Dawla	1,171,603,783	Hamdanid ruler of Aleppo from 967 to 991	[ "10th-century Arab people", "10th-century Shia Muslims", "10th-century monarchs in the Middle East", "952 births", "991 deaths", "Arab people of the Arab–Byzantine wars", "Hamdanid emirs of Aleppo", "Sayf al-Dawla", "Syrian Shia Muslims" ]	Abu 'l-Ma'ali Sharif, more commonly known by his honorific title, Sa'd al-Dawla (Arabic: سعد الدولة), was the second ruler of the Hamdanid Emirate of Aleppo, encompassing most of northern Syria. The son of the emirate's founder, Sayf al-Dawla, he inherited the throne at a young age and in the midst of a major offensive by the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros II Phokas that within two years conquered the western portions of his realm and turned Aleppo into a tributary state. Facing a multitude of rebellions and desertions until 977, Sa'd was unable even to enter his own capital, which was in the hands of his father's chief minister, Qarquya. By maintaining close relations with the Buyids, he managed to re-establish his authority in parts of the Jazira, but his rule was soon challenged by the rebellion of his governor Bakjur, who was supported by the Fatimids of Egypt. In turn, Sa'd came to rely increasingly on Byzantine assistance, although he continued to fluctuate in his allegiance between Byzantium, the Buyids, and the Fatimids. ## Biography ### Early years Sa'd al-Dawla was the son of Sayf al-Dawla, the first Emir of Aleppo, and Sakhinah, the sister of Sayf al-Dawla's cousin and court poet, Abu Firas. At the time of his father's death, in February 967, he was only fifteen, and resided at the emirate's Jaziran capital, Mayyafariqin. His succession to the emirate was unopposed, but the state his father had left him was crumbling: the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros II had just conquered Cilicia and was raiding its northern and western provinces, while rebellions of his closest lieutenants had plagued Sayf al-Dawla's last years. Sa'd al-Dawla reached Aleppo, which for years had been governed by Sayf al-Dawla's chief minister and chamberlain (hajib), Qarquya, in June/July 967. Almost immediately he was confronted by a rebellion of his uncle, Abu Firas, at the time governor of Homs, which lasted until the latter's death in battle in April 968. At the same time, Aleppo itself was threatened by the Byzantines, and Sa'd al-Dawla, on the advice of Qarquya, left the city. The Byzantines did not attack the city, but Qarquya and his fellow ghilman (military slaves) seized the moment to claim the city for themselves. Accompanied by 300 faithful followers, Sa'd al-Dawla was thus reduced to wandering from city to city across the lands that were nominally his, hoping to gain entry: Saruj, Manbij and Harran refused to support him, while at Mayyafariqin his own mother refused to let him in. Finally, he found refuge at Homs. In the meantime, many of his father's old supporters left to join his cousin Abu Taghlib, Emir of Mosul, who used the opportunity to expand his own territory. Immediately after Sayf al-Dawla's death, he captured Raqqa, and by 971 extended his control over the provinces of Diyar Bakr and Diyar Mudar. Sa'd al-Dawla, unable to offer any resistance, tacitly accepted these losses as well as his cousin's suzerainty. The year 969 was a crucial one in Syrian history, as it marked the climax of the Byzantine advance. In October, the generals Michael Bourtzes and Peter captured Antioch, securing their control over the north Syrian littoral. Soon after, the Byzantines marched against Aleppo itself and forced Qarquya to sign a treaty (December 969 or January 970) making Aleppo a tributary Byzantine protectorate with Qarquya as emir and his deputy, Bakjur, as his designated successor. At the same time, in Egypt, the Fatimids defeated the Ikhshidids and gained control of the country, from where they advanced into southern Syria. The competition between these two powers, Byzantium and the Fatimids, would shape the history of Syria and of Aleppo for the next fifty years. ### Recovery of Aleppo It was not until 977 that Sa'd al-Dawla managed to regain his capital, which by now was under the control of Bakjur, who in 975 had deposed and imprisoned Qarquya. Aided by some of his father's ghilman, and, crucially, the powerful Banu Kilab tribe living around Aleppo, Sa'd al-Dawla besieged Aleppo and captured it. Qarquya was set free and again entrusted with the affairs of state until his death a few years later, while Bakjur was given the governorship of Homs. Soon after, in 979, he was able to capitalize upon Abu Taghlib's conflict with the Buyids of Iraq to recover some of his father's domains in the Jazira: after acknowledging Buyid suzerainty, he received governorship of the Diyar Mudar, except for Raqqa and Rahba. At the same time, he also received from the Abbasid caliph—who was a puppet of the Buyids—the honorific laqab of Sa'd al-Dawla (lit. 'Happiness of the Dynasty'), by which he is known. ### Conflicts with Bakjur, the Fatimids and Byzantium Bakjur, in the meantime, had used his new post at Homs to open contacts with the Fatimids, who intended to use him as a pawn to subdue Aleppo and complete their conquest of the entirety of Syria. Sa'd al-Dawla himself oscillated between the Fatimids and Byzantium: on the one hand he resented Byzantine overlordship and was willing to acknowledge the Fatimid Caliph, but on the other hand he did not want to see his domain become merely another Fatimid province like southern Syria. His first attempt to free himself of the Byzantine protectorate, in 981, ended in failure due to lack of outside support, when a Byzantine army appeared before Aleppo's walls to enforce compliance. The Fatimids then induced Bakjur to act: in September 983, Bakjur launched an attack on Aleppo with the support of Fatimid troops. Sa'd al-Dawla was forced to appeal to the Byzantine emperor Basil II for help, and the siege was raised by a Byzantine army under Bardas Phokas the Younger. The Byzantines then proceeded to sack Homs in October. The city was returned to Hamdanid control, while Bakjur fled to Fatimid territory, where he assumed the governorship of Damascus. It is an indication of the strained relations between Sa'd al-Dawla and his "saviours" that after Bakjur's flight, there were clashes between Byzantine and Hamdanid troops, which were settled only when the Hamdanid emir agreed to pay twice the usual yearly amount of tribute of 20,000 gold dinars. Hamdanid relations with Byzantium collapsed completely in 985–986, after the Fatimids took the Byzantine fortress of Balanyas. Sa'd al-Dawla refused to continue paying tribute. As a result, Bardas Phokas invaded his territory and sacked Killis before retracing his steps and marching south to an unsuccessful siege of Apamea (Qalaat al-Madiq). In retaliation, Sa'd al-Dawla sent his troops to raze the famous monastery of Qal'at Sim'an. However, soon after that, in May 986, the prospect of an imminent conclusion of a peace between Byzantium and Egypt forced Sa'd al-Dawla to return to his earlier allegiance, and he re-affirmed his tributary status on the same terms as before. This did not prevent Sa'd al-Dawla from supporting the Byzantine general Bardas Skleros in his second rebellion against Basil II, once he was released from Buyid captivity in December 986, nor of recognizing Fatimid suzerainty in the same month, especially as Byzantium now descended into a civil war that lasted until 989. Warfare with the Fatimids once again threatened in 991, again because of Bakjur. He had governed Damascus until 988, when he was deposed, and then fled to Raqqa. From there, though with little support from the Fatimids, he tried to attack Aleppo. With Byzantine assistance in the form of troops under the doux of Antioch, Michael Bourtzes, Sa'd al-Dawla was able to defeat and capture Bakjur at Na'ura, east of Aleppo, in April 991, and later had him executed. Nevertheless, relations with the Fatimids soured over Sa'd al-Dawla's arrest of Bakjur's children, and it was only his death from hemiplegia in December 991 that stopped him from attacking Fatimid possessions. ### Succession and the end of the Hamdanid dynasty in Aleppo Sa'd al-Dawla was succeeded by his son, Sa'id Abu 'l-Fada'il Sa'id al-Dawla, but real power rested in the hands of Sa'd al-Dawla's former chamberlain, Lu'lu'. Several of the Hamdanid ghilman, resenting the influence of Lu'lu', went over to the Fatimids, who now launched a sustained offensive against Aleppo under the Turkish general Manjutakin. Only the personal intervention of Basil II in 995 and again in 999 would save the emirate from Fatimid conquest. Warfare lasted until 1000, when a peace treaty was concluded guaranteeing Aleppo's continued existence as a buffer state between the two powers. Finally, in 1002, Lu'lu' assassinated Sa'id al-Dawla and assumed control of Aleppo in his own name.	[ "## Biography", "### Early years", "### Recovery of Aleppo", "### Conflicts with Bakjur, the Fatimids and Byzantium", "### Succession and the end of the Hamdanid dynasty in Aleppo" ]	2,101	27,533
69,273,617	Rhodinia fugax	1,136,300,363	Species of moth	[ "Moths described in 1877", "Moths of Japan", "Saturniidae", "Taxa named by Arthur Gardiner Butler", "Wild silk" ]	Rhodinia fugax, the squeaking silkmoth, is a moth in the family Saturniidae. It was described by Arthur Gardiner Butler in 1877. It is native to Korea, Japan, China, and the Russian Far East. The squeaking silkmoth is known as ウスタビガ (usutabiga, 薄手火蛾) in the Japanese language, 透目大蚕蛾 (tòu mù dà cán'é) in the Chinese language, and 유리산누에나방 (yulisannuenabang) in the Korean language. The Japanese common name translates to "thin hand fire moth", with tabi, "hand fire" being an archaic term for a lantern. The "lanterns" refer to the pupae left behind by the moths after their emergence, which, on defoliated trees in winter, resemble lanterns. The English epithet is derived from the caterpillar's defense mechanism, which consists of an audible squeaking akin to that of a squeak toy. The sound is produced through rapid bodily contraction, which forces air through the spiracles of the larva. The pupae of R. fugax are separately known as ヤマカマス (yama-kamasu). They were named because of their resemblance to kamasu [ja], folded straw mats used as storage. Cocoons from R. fugax were used historically to treat whooping cough on top of various usages as folk remedies, silk from its cocoons have been used as a type of wild silk. ## Description Rhodinia fugax has a wingspan between 75 and 110 millimeters. R. fugax is sexually dimorphic, with males being smaller than females. Males range in size between 75 and 90 millimeters, and females range in size between 80 and 110 millimeters. Their coloration resembles that of oak leaves during the autumn season to serve as camouflage. Both sexes have translucent eyespots on their wings and have hairy bodies. Their hairy bodies aid in thermoregulation due to their late emergence in autumn. Males of Rhodinia fugax display a variable appearance compared to the females. They range in color from yellow, orange, brown, and black. Males are always darker in color than the females. Females are always yellow, with the color of their submarginal band varying in thickness and the intensity of its color. Male forewings are more elongated than the rounded forewings of the females. ## Life history ### Eggs Eggs overwinter, or enter a state of diapause during the winter, with the process of blastokinesis, embryonic development, occurring during March. Eggs hatch during April as the temperatures rise. The time of hatching is synchronized to the emergence of hostplant leaf development. The eggs are often laid on the surface of cocoons that the moths have previously emerged from. Unlike most Japanese saturniid moths, the moths overwinter as eggs, rather than as a pupa. Experiments conducted on R. fugax found that eggs kept at 25 degrees Celsius resulted in death. Delayed hatching directly correlated to colder temperatures: with 87 days at 20 °C, 100 days at 15 °C, and 145 days at 10 °C. Larvae would develop within the eggs if kept at 5 °C for a duration of 370 days, but eggs kept at this temperature would result in death prior to hatching. ### Larvae The larvae are polyphagous, feeding on a wide variety of plants. These include: Acer spp., Castanea crenata, Celtis pallida, Celtis sinensis, Fagus spp., Hevea brasiliensis, Ilex verticillata, Phellodendron amurense, Platanus spp., Prunus domestica, Quercus acutissima, Quercus cerris, Quercus cuspidata, Quercus serrata, Quercus variabilis, Salix spp., and Zelkova serrata. In captivity, R. fugax larvae specifically prefer Quercus serrata, Zelkova spp., Phellodendron amurense, and Prunus spp. A total of five instars occur during the larval development. The first instar is small in size and the body is entirely black and covered in dark hairs. In captivity, the larvae are recommended to be reared on Crataegus buds. Second instars are slightly larger, blue tubercules on the second bodily segment, with a black stripe running down the side of its body. The third instars are bright green, with blue tubercules running down the sides of its body, it has mostly lost the black coloration that the previous two instars display. The fourth instar is entirely green and displaying the same amount of tubercules as the previous instar. The final instar is instantly distinguishable from the previous four, as they lack the spines that the previous instars exhibit. The fourth and fifth instars defend themselves by emitting an audible squeaking sound through ejecting air from their trachea through the spiracles which is described as sounding using the Japanese onomatopoeia "キュー、キュー" (kyu-kyu). The sound that the larvae emit make them popular with children. The larvae are preyed upon by parasitoid wasps, including Gregopimpla ussuriensis (Ichneumonidae, Pimplinae) which is a major predator for the larvae. ### Pupae Larvae begin to enter the pupal stage around June and July. The pupae are bright green to act as camouflage amongst the green foliage, the pupal case sports an open slit at the top to allow the adult moth to emerge. They are hung using a silk thread on tree branches. Empty cocoons can be spotted hung amongst defoliated tree branches during the winter months. ### Adults Adults emerge between the late autumn months of October and November. Adults emerged from 2 PM to 6 PM. Only one generation of moths are produced yearly, thus making R. fugax univoltine. The moth is diurnal, flying during the early mornings, finding its mate during its daytime flight. The adult moths lack mouthparts, thus making their lifespans brief. Male and female moths concentrate their energy as adults to find a mate before they die. Mating begins between 5 AM-8 AM, and ends in the time between 3 PM-6 PM, unlike other saturniid moths such as Antheraea yamamai and Antheraea pernyi which mate during the evening. Virgin females on average lived for 15.1 days, while females who have mated live for only 3.5 days on average. Oviposition occurs during the evening, ending around 6 PM. ## Distribution The squeaking silkmoth is found in Korea, Japan, China, and the Russian Far East. In Japan, it is found throughout the islands of Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. It has been additionally sighted on Sado Island. In China it is known in the provinces of Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Liaoning, Ningxia, Shandong, and Shanxi. Additional discoveries by Ronald Brechlin in 2007 extends the range within China as far south as the province of Guangdong and as far west as the Tibet Autonomous Region. The nominate subspecies fugax is found throughout the Japanese main islands of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. Subspecies diana is found on the northern island of Hokkaido. Subspecies diana has also been recorded on Manchuria, and the Russian Far East. Subspecies szechuanensis is known from the Chinese provinces of Sichuan and Yunnan. Subspecies shaanxiana is found in the Chinese province of Shaanxi. Subspecies jiangxiana is found in the Chinese province of Jiangxi. Subspecies guangdongensis is found in the Chinese provinces of Guangdong and Hunan. Subspecies flavescens is found in the autonomous region of Tibet, with Brechlin's original description referring to it as "Xizang Zizhiqu". ### Habitat The adults inhabit Satoyama hillsides, flatlands, and mountainous regions. ## Interactions with humans The primary interaction between Rhodinia fugax have been in regards to its cocoons. Humans in Japan have used its cocoons for a variety of purposes, including talismans and folk remedies. R. fugax silk has been researched for its potential in aiding in the production of new forms of biomaterials. The cocoons of Rhodinia fugax were historically used as a remedy for tumors and lumps by reducing them in whooping cough sufferers. More specifically, the cocoons were used as folk remedies in various parts of Japan. In the vicinity of Fujisawa in Iwate prefecture, boiled cocoons were used as a folk remedy for mouth ulcers. In the region between Fukushima prefecture and northern Tochigi prefecture, cocoons were attached to the throat to prevent colds. Azuki beans placed within the cocoons were used as talismans in Gifu prefecture. In the Hida region, cocoons were attached to injuries and used as finger cots. The pupae have been historically eaten by the people of Nagano prefecture, served as tsukudani. Supplements made from its pupae have been sold as a quack dietary supplement. Rhodinia fugax produces a type of wild silk, and has been researched for its commercial potential with limited success. Silk from R. fugax showed the lowest temperature needed for thermal degradation from 369 to 371 °C. Researchers have successfully cloned leucine-rich fibroin genes extracted from the silk glands in R. fugax. Further research into fibroin genes from R. fugax can yield new varieties of biomaterials. A passage within The Pillow Book titled "みのむし、いとあはれなり" refers to a "screaming bagworm." It is likely that this "minomushi"; which directly translates to "bagworm" is the larva of R. fugax. ## Etymology The specific name of fugax means shy in Latin, fugax can also mean swift flight. ### Vernacular names The English vernacular name for Rhodinia fugax is the Squeaking silkmoth. The name is derived from the caterpillars habit of squeaking when threatened to ward off any potential predators. It has also been referred to as the Pellucid-spotted silk moth in English. The Japanese name for the imago of R. fugax is ウスタビガ Usutabiga. Usutabiga is written in kanji as 薄手火蛾. The Japanese vernacular name directly translates to "thin hand fire moth," with "hand fire" being an archaic term for a lantern. The name is derived from the emptied cocoons hanging from tree branches resembling lanterns. Subspecies diana is known commonly as ウスタビガ北海道亜種, or the "Hokkaido subspecies of Usutabiga". Rhodinia fugax is known by the name 유리산누에나방 (yulisannuenabang) in the Korean language, which directly translates to "glass silkworm moth". In the Chinese language it is known by the name 透目大蠶蛾, or 透目大蚕蛾 (Tòu mù dà cán'é) in Simplified Chinese, its common name translates to "transparent large silkmoth". The silken cocoons are most often called ヤマカマス, yama-kamasu. Kamasu were folded straw mats, frequently used as bags which resemble the folded cocoons that R. fugax larvae produce. They have been alternatively known as ツリカマス tsuri-kamasu and ヤマビシャク yama-bishaku. ## Taxonomy ### Classification The genus Rhodinia was of uncertain taxonomic position, with no consensus on Rhodinias placement within either the tribes Attacini or Saturniini within the Saturniinae. Some researchers, including Bouvier (1936), classify Rhodinia within its own tribe, the Rhodiicae''', together with the genus Pararhodia. Chen and colleagues (2021), through genetic analysis determined that the genus Rhodinia belonged in the Attacini rather than Saturniini. Rhodinia fugax had its entire mitogenome sequenced in 2021 by Dong-Bin Chen et al. The moth had its mitogenome sequenced with 25 separate mitogenomes from multiple families and representative species within the family Saturniidae to determine its broader placement. Chen and colleagues found that the genome in its entirety had a length of 15,334 base pairs, akin to other saturniids such as Actias selene (15,236 base pairs) and Antheraea proylei (15,575 base pairs). ### Subspecies Three subspecies are currently recognized by GBIF. - Rhodinia fugax diana Oberthür 1886 - Rhodinia fugax fugax Butler 1877 - Rhodinia fugax szechuanensis Mell 1938 The National Center for Biotechnology Information recognizes an additional 4 subspecies, all described by Ronald Brechlin in 2007. - Rhodinia fugax flavescens Brechlin 2007 - Rhodinia fugax guangdongensis Brechlin 2007 - Rhodinia fugax jiangxiana Brechlin 2007 - Rhodinia fugax shaanxiana'' Brechlin 2007	[ "## Description", "## Life history", "### Eggs", "### Larvae", "### Pupae", "### Adults", "## Distribution", "### Habitat", "## Interactions with humans", "## Etymology", "### Vernacular names", "## Taxonomy", "### Classification", "### Subspecies" ]	2,972	29,780
43,608,999	The Boat Race 1898	1,154,815,224	null	[ "1898 in English sport", "1898 in sports", "1898 sports events in London", "March 1898 events", "The Boat Race" ]	The 55th Boat Race took place on 24 March 1898. Held annually, the Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. Oxford, the reigning champions and leading overall, went into the race with a marginally heavier crew than Cambridge. They won "easily" as Cambridge's boat became waterlogged in strong winds and inclement conditions. It was their ninth consecutive victory and took them to an overall lead of 32–22 in the event. The winning time of 22 minutes 15 seconds was the slowest since the 1878 race. ## Background The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). The race was first held in 1829, and since 1845 has taken place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and as of 2014, broadcast worldwide. Oxford went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 1897 race by 2+1⁄2 lengths, with Cambridge leading overall with 31 victories to Cambridge's 22 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877). Oxford were coached by G. C. Bourne who had rowed for Oxford in the 1882 and 1883 races and Douglas McLean (an Oxford Blue five times between 1883 and 1887). Cambridge's president, William Dudley Ward, despite opposition, invited William Fletcher, Oxford Blue and former coach, to assist in teaching his crew the style required to challenge the Dark Blues. Several members of the Light Blue crew refused to row, and Dudley Ward himself was refused leave to row on grounds of sickness. According to George Drinkwater, former rower and author, "Fletcher turned out a crew well above the average of previous years." Conversely, Oxford "did not develop as it should have done" and was "by no means up to the average of those that went before it." The umpire for the race for the tenth year in a row was Frank Willan who won the event four consecutive times, rowing for Oxford in the 1866, 1867, 1868 and 1869 races. ## Crews The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 7 lb (79.2 kg), 0.5 pounds (0.2 kg) per rower more than their opponents. Cambridge's crew contained two participants with Boat Race experience: Adam Searle Bell who was rowing in his fourth contest and cox Edward Caesar Hawkins steering in his second appearance. Claude Goldie, son of John rowed at number seven for the Light Blues. Oxford saw six members of the previous crew return, including Charles Burnell and R. Carr, both of whom were making their fourth consecutive appearance in the race. Eight of the nine crew Oxford crew had studied at Eton College. R. O. Pitman, rowing at bow for Oxford, was the third of his siblings to participate in the Boat Race, with his brothers Frederick I. Pitman rowing for Cambridge between 1884 and 1886 and C. M. Pitman who rowed for Oxford between 1892 and 1895. ## Race According to author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater, "there was a gale blowing ... which met a spring tide, so that the water was very rough from the start." Oxford, the slight pre-race favourites, won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station, handing the rougher Surrey side of the river to Cambridge. Willan started the race at 3:47 p.m. but within four strokes, the Cambridge boat was "half-full of water". Oxford steered towards the shore for shelter, with Cambridge following, but they had taken on so much water that "only the bladders which had been placed under their seats kept them afloat". Although the Dark Blues had shipped a fair amount of water, they were able to continue, and with Cambridge waterlogged, the race was effectively ended as a contest. Oxford won "easily", to secure their ninth consecutive victory in the slowest winning time since the 1878 race.	[ "## Background", "## Crews", "## Race" ]	917	14,140
11,054,827	Licario	1,142,388,464	13th century Byzantine admiral	[ "13th-century Byzantine people", "Byzantine admirals", "Byzantine mercenaries", "Medieval Aegean Sea", "Medieval Euboeans", "Megaloi doukes", "Michael VIII Palaiologos", "People from Karystos", "People of medieval Greece", "Privateers" ]	Licario, called Ikarios (Greek: Ἰκάριος) by the Greek chroniclers, was a Byzantine admiral of Italian origin in the 13th century. At odds with the Latin barons (the "triarchs") of his native Euboea, he entered the service of the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1259–1282), and reconquered many of the Aegean islands for him in the 1270s. For his exploits, he was rewarded with Euboea as a fief and rose to the rank of megas konostaulos and megas doux, the first foreigner to do so. ## Biography ### Origins and early life Licario was born in Karystos in Latin-held Euboea (Negroponte), from a Vicentian father and a local woman. He was of humble origin, but able and ambitious. Serving as a knight under the Latin triarch Giberto II da Verona, he managed to win the heart of Felisa, sister of Giberto and widow of another triarch, Narzotto dalle Carceri. The match was met with disapproval by Felisa's family. They secretly married, but the marriage was cancelled by her relatives. Fleeing from their wrath, Licario sought refuge in the fort of Anemopylae near Cavo D'Oro. He repaired the strong fortress, assembled a small group of followers, and began raiding the surrounding estates, belonging to the island's nobles. ### Entry into Byzantine service At that time, the newly restored Byzantine Empire, under the leadership of Michael VIII Palaiologos, sought to recover Euboea, which was the major Latin insular possession in the Aegean Sea, and the main naval base, not only of the Venetian fleet, but also of Latin piratical activity directed against his lands. Furthermore, along with the Principality of Achaea it presented the major obstacle to his complete recovery of Greece. Already in 1269/70, in retaliation for raids against the coasts of Asia Minor, a Byzantine fleet under Alexios Doukas Philanthropenos had attacked and captured many Latin nobles near the town of Oreos. Facing the persistent refusal of the island's barons to treat with him, desiring vengeance and eager for glory and wealth, Licario presented himself to Philanthropenos, offering his services. He, in turn, took him to the Emperor, who was eager to use the services of talented Westerners whenever he could, and had already bankrolled several Latin corsairs in his service. Licario became the Emperor's vassal according to Western feudal rules, and in turn was strengthened with imperial troops. Under the leadership of Licario, the Byzantines could now mount a serious attempt to conquer the island, while their forces were further augmented by many defections from the Greek population. In 1272/73, the Byzantine forces, now under Licario's command, launched a campaign that took the fortresses of Larmena, La Cuppa, Clisura and Manducho. The Lombard triarchs then appealed to their liege-lord, Prince William II of Achaea, and to Dreux de Beaumont, marshal of the Angevin Kingdom of Sicily. William was able to recover La Cuppa, but de Beaumont was defeated in a pitched battle and was subsequently recalled by Charles of Anjou. Between then and 1275, according to the Venetian chronicler Marino Sanudo, Licario himself served in the Byzantine army in Asia Minor, where he scored a victory against the Turks. ### Conquest of Euboea and campaigns in the Aegean In 1276, following their great victory over the Lombard triarchs of Negroponte at the Battle of Demetrias, the Byzantines renewed their offensive in Euboea. Licario attacked his native Karystos, seat of the southern triarchy, and took it, after a long siege, in the same year. For this success, he was rewarded by Michael VIII with the whole island as a fief, and a noble Greek wife with a rich dowry. In turn, Licario pledged to provide 200 knights to the Emperor. Gradually, Licario reduced the Latin strongholds on the island, until, by 1278, he had seized almost all of it except for the capital, the city of Negroponte (Chalkis). For his successes, Licario was rewarded with the post of megas konostaulos, head of the Latin mercenaries, and eventually appointed as megas doux after Philanthropenos's death in c. 1276; the first foreigner to be thus honoured. He commanded the Byzantine navy in a series of expeditions against the Latin-held Aegean islands. The first to fall was Skopelos, whose fortress was believed to be impregnable. Licario, however, knew that it lacked water supplies. Thus, he attacked it during the hot and dry summer of 1277 and forced its surrender. Its lord, Filippo Ghisi, was captured and sent to Constantinople; his other possessions, the islands of Skyros, Skiathos and Amorgos, were also taken soon after. After that, Licario went on to capture the islands of Kythera and Antikythera off the southern coast of the Morea, and later Kea, Astypalaia, and Santorini in the Cyclades. The great island of Lemnos was also captured, although its lord, Paolo Navigajoso, withstood a three-year siege before surrendering. Finally, in late 1279 or early 1280, he returned to Euboea, landing in the norther town of Oreos and moving south towards Negroponte. His forces by now included many Spanish and Catalan mercenaries (the first time the latter are mentioned in Greece) and even former adherents of Manfred of Sicily, who had fled to Greece after Manfred's defeat and death at the hands of Charles of Anjou. As he reached Negroponte, the triarch Giberto II da Verona, Felisa's brother, and John I de la Roche, the Duke of Athens, who were present at the city, rode out with their forces to meet him. The two armies met at the village of Vatondas, northeast of Negroponte. The battle resulted in a major victory for Licario: John de la Roche was unhorsed and captured, while Giberto was either killed (according to Sanudo) or captured and taken along with de la Roche as a prisoner to Constantinople, where, according to Nikephoros Gregoras, the sight of the hated renegade, moving triumphantly among the assembled Byzantine court, caused him to drop dead. After Vatondas, Negroponte seemed about to fall into Licario's hands too. The city, however, was quickly reinforced by Jacques de la Roche, lord of Argos and Nauplia, who, along with the energetic Venetian bailo of Negroponte, Niccolo Morosini Rosso, led its defence. Facing determined resistance and possibly fearing an intervention of John I Doukas, ruler of Thessaly, Licario was forced to raise the siege. Licario then turned to reducing the remaining Latin strongholds on the island, becoming its total master except for the city of Negroponte itself, and ruling it from the fortress of Fillia. His fleet carried out further naval expeditions: the islands of Sifnos and Serifos were taken, and Licario's ships raided the Morea. Licario himself sailed to Constantinople, presenting Emperor Michael VIII with his captives. Then, at the height of his fame and success in c. 1280, Licario disappears from the sources, and his subsequent fate is unknown. Most likely he lived in Constantinople and died there. ## Assessment His conquests proved temporary only, as the Byzantines were gradually evicted by the Venetians and the other Latin lords. Even in Euboea, Licario's major gain and personal fief, the triarchs managed to complete their reconquest of the entire island by 1296. Nevertheless, Licario proved one of the most successful military leaders in Michael VIII's employ, and his victories greatly enhanced the emperor's own standing and prestige amongst the Latins. The historian Deno John Geanakoplos ranks him, along with Michael's brother John Palaiologos, as the two men who caused the most damage to the Latin rulers of Greece.	[ "## Biography", "### Origins and early life", "### Entry into Byzantine service", "### Conquest of Euboea and campaigns in the Aegean", "## Assessment" ]	1,812	9,424
58,525,782	German torpedo boat T15	1,122,094,317	German torpedo boat	[ "1939 ships", "Type 37 torpedo boats" ]	The German torpedo boat T15 was one of nine Type 37 torpedo boats built for the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) during World War II. Completed in mid-1941, the ship was transferred to Occupied France in December. She helped to escort a pair of battleships and a heavy cruiser through the English Channel back to Germany in February 1942 in the Channel Dash and then was ordered to Norway for escort work. T15 returned to Germany in August where she was assigned to the Torpedo School and U-boat Flotillas as a training ship. The ship was sunk by American bombers in December 1943. ## Design and description The Type 37 torpedo boat was a slightly improved version of the preceding Type 35 with better range. The boats had an overall length of 85.2 meters (279 ft 6 in) and were 82 meters (269 ft 0 in) long at the waterline. The ships had a beam of 8.87 meters (29 ft 1 in), and a mean draft of 2.8 meters (9 ft 2 in) at deep load and displaced 888 metric tons (874 long tons) at standard load and 1,139 metric tons (1,121 long tons) at deep load. Their crew numbered 119 officers and sailors. The Type 37s were equipped with a pair of geared steam turbine sets, each driving one propeller, that were designed to produce 31,000 shaft horsepower (23,000 kW) using steam from four high-pressure water-tube boilers which would give them a speed of 35 knots (65 km/h; 40 mph). The ships carried enough fuel oil to give them a range of 1,600 nautical miles (3,000 km; 1,800 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). As built, the Type 37 class mounted a single 10.5 cm (4.1 in) SK C/32 gun on the stern. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by a single 3.7 cm (1.5 in) SK C/30 anti-aircraft gun superfiring over the 10.5 cm gun and a pair of 2 cm (0.8 in) C/30 guns on the bridge wings. They carried six above-water 533 mm (21.0 in) torpedo tubes in two triple mounts and could also carry 30 mines (or 60 if the weather was good). ### Modifications Early-war modifications to the Type 37s were limited to the conversion of the foremast into a tripod mast, installation of a FuM 28 radar with fixed antennas angled 45° to each side and a 2 cm gun superfiring over the main gun. Ships participating in the Channel Dash in February 1942 were ordered to have their aft torpedo tube mount replaced by a quadruple 2 cm gun mount, but it is not certain if this was actually done. Confirmed deliveries of this mount began in May when they were installed in the superfiring position, but T15's anti-aircraft suite is unknown when she was sunk at the end of 1943. ## Construction and career T15 was ordered on 18 September 1937 from Schichau, laid down at their Elbing, East Prussia, shipyard on 3 January 1939 as yard number 1403, launched on 16 September 1939 and commissioned on 26 June 1941; construction was delayed by shortages of skilled labor and of raw materials. Working up until December, she was then transferred to France. On the morning of 12 February 1942, the 2nd Torpedo Boat Flotilla (with T2, T4, T5, T11, T12) and the 3rd Torpedo Boat Flotilla (with T15 and her sisters T13, T16, and T17) rendezvoused with the battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen to escort them through the Channel to Germany in the Channel Dash. The following month, T15, T16, and T17 were transferred to Norway where they formed part of the escort of the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper to Trondheim on 19–21 March. T15 helped to escort the heavy cruiser Lützow from Kristiansand to Trondheim on 18–20 May. During the beginning stages of Operation Rösselsprung, T15 and the torpedo boat T7 were among the escorts for the battleship Tirpitz and Admiral Hipper as they sailed from Trondheim to Altafjord in early July. Returning to Germany in August, T15 was briefly assigned to the Torpedo School as a training ship in October before beginning a refit in October at the Oderwerke shipyard in Stettin that lasted until February 1943. She briefly rejoined the Torpedo School in April before beginning another refit in July–August. Following its completion, the boat was assigned to U-boat flotillas in the Baltic as a training ship. T15 was sunk by American bombers in Kiel on 13 December.	[ "## Design and description", "### Modifications", "## Construction and career" ]	1,069	18,148
8,378,133	Look at Your Game, Girl	1,170,048,859	1970 song by Charles Manson	[ "1970 songs", "1970s ballads", "1993 songs", "American folk rock songs", "Folk ballads", "Guns N' Roses songs", "Lounge music", "Obscenity controversies in music", "Psychedelic folk songs", "Rock ballads", "Songs about mental health", "Songs involved in royalties controversies", "Songs written by Charles Manson" ]	"Look at Your Game, Girl" is a song written by Charles Manson. It was first released under the artist name "Silverhorn" (backed with another Manson song "Eyes Of A Dreamer") as a private press 45 rpm single on the "Insane Train" label. It was later included on his album Lie: The Love and Terror Cult (1970). A folk rock and psychedelic folk ballad about a confused young woman, the song was included on a tape that Manson sent to record companies. His version of the song received mostly positive reviews from critics, who felt that the track had musical merit and drew connections between its lyrics and the ways in which Manson manipulated his followers. After Axl Rose was introduced to Lie: The Love and Terror Cult, Guns N' Roses released a cover of "Look at Your Game, Girl" on their album "The Spaghetti Incident?" (1993). The Guns N' Roses version of the song is a lounge music ballad with acoustic guitar and congas in its instrumentation that features elements of Brazilian and Caribbean music. The band's cover of the track was negatively reviewed by critics, who felt it was in poor taste. Guns N' Roses' decision to cover the song sparked considerable controversy, as some worried that Manson could profit off the song. Ultimately, Manson's royalties from the cover were assigned to Bartek Frykowski, the son of Manson victim Voytek Frykowski, and the controversy did not hurt sales of "The Spaghetti Incident?". ## Background and composition "Look at Your Game, Girl" was written in 1968 in the hopes that it would help Manson to get a record contract. The song is a folk rock and psychedelic folk song with a length of two minutes. It is a mid-tempo ballad, and, like all of the songs on Lie: The Love and Terror Cult, a demo. Manson sings: "Think you're loving baby, but all you're doing is crying... Are those feelings real?"; the track is about an insane woman who is playing a "mad game" and, in searching for love, has only found sadness. According to Alex Henderson of AllMusic, "Look at Your Game, Girl" "embodies Manson's fundamental approach to influencing young women by targeting their socially imposed hang-ups and implying that his way is better and more liberating. This is problematic considering his remarkable knack for mind control." Manson generally took influence from figures such as The Beatles, Robert A. Heinlein, and L. Ron Hubbard. Discussing Manson's music, Mark Savage of BBC News deemed his guitar playing "basic" and his lyrics "disorganized". Manson recorded a still-unreleased runthrough of "Look at Your Game, Girl" on the same eight-track tape that The Beach Boys used for the 20/20 outtake "Well You Know I Knew". A different recording of the song was included on a tape that Manson sent to record companies, after he was jailed for committing the Tate murders in 1969, that tape was commercially released as Lie in 1970 by Manson's former roommate Phil Kaufman, and copyrighted by Awareness Records. ## Critical reception Alexis Petridis of The Guardian wrote that "If you could make a vague and far from watertight claim for a couple of the songs Manson recorded prior to the murders having some musical value – not least Look at Your Game, Girl – there is absolutely nothing worth hearing in [Manson's] subsequent recordings." All About Jazz's Raul D'Gama Rose deemed "Look at Your Game, Girl" an "iconic" song which has "stood up to the test of time." Chris Yates of Noisey said that "The song is a semi-interesting folk rock anomaly, although obviously one that would have disappeared into oblivion if not for its author." Yates found it superior to the music made by cult leaders David Koresh and Jim Jones. Writing for GQ, Jeff Vrabel called the track a "Manson-penned banger" while TeamRock's Howard Johnson viewed the song as "surprisingly tender". Mark Savage of BBC News said that Manson's music is "not very good" but that the lyrics of "Look at Your Game, Girl" "[paint] an eerily accurate picture of the methods he used to manipulate the members of his cult." Eduardo Rivadavia of Ultimate Classic Rock viewed the song as a "psychedelic relic". ## Guns N' Roses version ### Background and composition There are conflicting accounts of how Axl Rose was first exposed to "Look at Your Game, Girl". Rose himself claimed that he was introduced to the track by his brother during a game of musical trivia. Marilyn Manson discussed meeting Rose in his autobiography, The Long Hard Road Out of Hell (1998). According to the autobiography, Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails took Manson to a U2 concert where he met Rose backstage; there, Manson mentioned his song "My Monkey", which incorporates lyrics from Lie: The Love and Terror Cult. Rose commented that he had never heard of Lie, and Manson encouraged him to listen to it. Six months later, Rose's band Guns N' Roses released a cover of "Look at Your Game, Girl" on "The Spaghetti Incident?" (1993), a cover album of punk rock songs. Marilyn Manson later expressed anger that it had become "trendy" for musicians to reference Charles Manson in their music. Around the same time that Guns N' Roses covered "Look at Your Game, Girl", Rose wore a shirt depicting Charles Manson alongside the words "Charlie don't surf". Rose said that upon hearing "Look at Your Game, Girl" "I liked the lyrics and the melody. Hearing it shocked me, and I thought there might be other people who would like to hear it." Rose also "felt that it was ironic that such a song [about insanity] was recorded by Charles Manson, someone who should know the inner intricacies of madness." The song was released upon Rose's demand, despite protest from his bandmates. Rose along with Dizzy Reed (on percussion) are the only members of Guns N' Roses to perform on the track, with the acoustic guitar played by Carlos Booy. Guns N' Roses' cover is a lounge music ballad with elements of Brazilian music and Caribbean music, as well as congas in its instrumentation. Geoffrey Himes of Paste deemed the song "breezy" while Bryan Rolli of Billboard called it "sprightly". Rose's vocals on the track are nasal. According to Himes of Paste, Guns N' Roses' version does not substantially alter Charles Manson's original. The cover ends with Rose saying "Thanks, Chas". The song was released as a hidden track on the album and Manson is never mentioned on the album's packaging. On the album, "Look at Your Game, Girl" begins after twelve seconds of silence following the preceding track, "I Don't Care About You". The band's publicist Bryn Bridenthal claimed that the band's decision to cover a Manson track was not meant to be a publicity stunt, while Slash said the cover was done in a spirit of "naive and innocent black humour". Nick Kent of The Guardian reported that the track was intended as a message to Rose's ex-girlfriend Stephanie Seymour. ### Critical reception and controversy Rolling Stone's Elisabeth Garber-Paul wrote that the "straightforward cover" is "a rather unimpressive track on first listen", adding that it sounds like "a half-assed attempt at seducing a woman...until you realize that the guy who wrote it led a female-heavy cult." In his review of "The Spaghetti Incident?", Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said that "the tacked-on Charles Manson song leaves a bad aftertaste, but not because of the song itself; the inclusion of the song seems like a publicity-seeking stunt, a way to increase their sales while trying to regain their street credibility. And as The Spaghetti Incident? proves, they didn't need to stoop so low." Alexis Petridis of The Guardian wrote that Guns N' Roses' cover and other references to Manson by musicians are "an exercise in button-pushing, an increasingly hackneyed, cliched shortcut to suggest the artist involved is dangerous and unbiddable, an outlaw who defies conventional mores" and "frequently seem to be done without any real thought as to what exactly the artist is aligning themselves with". Eduardo Rivadavia of Ultimate Classic Rock deemed the cover the single worst song of the band's career, dismissing it as "a forced attempt to underscore their 'most dangerous band in the world' reputation." Conversely, the staff of Spin called the song "Legitimately Kind of Good" and superior to "Paradise City" (1987), though they were sickened by the track's origins. According to Christopher R. Weingarten of Rolling Stone, "Covering a notorious murder-conspirator would be one of the last big controversies in the band's original run." J. D. Considine wrote in The Baltimore Sun that "the album had barely been in record stores a week before law-enforcement and victims-rights groups began expressing outrage." Patti Tate, daughter of Doris Tate and sister of Sharon Tate, responded to the cover by saying "Doesn't Axl Rose realize what this man did to my family? It really hurts and angers me that Guns N' Roses would exploit the murders of my sister and others for capital gain." Jesse McKinley of The New York Times reported that Manson could earn up to \$60,000 for every million copies of "The Spaghetti Incident?" that were sold, while the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation said the figure was \$62,000 for every million copies of the album sold. David Geffen, the head of Geffen Records, the label which released "The Spaghetti Incident?", commented: "The fact that Charles Manson would be earning money from the fame he derived committing one of the most horrific crimes of the 20th century is unthinkable to me"; Geffen had been acquainted with two of the Manson Family's victims. To counter claims that he was glorifying Manson, Rose said that "I'm by no means a Manson expert or anything, but the things he's done are something I don't believe in. He's a sick individual." Rose also claimed that he initially believed that Dennis Wilson, a Beach Boy and former acquaintance of Manson's, authored the song. McKinley of The New York Times found Roses' claim dubious, as Rose thanks "Chas" on the cover. The band considered removing the track from subsequent copies of "The Spaghetti Incident?". Manson's share of the royalties was assigned to Bartek Frykowski, the son of Manson victim Voytek Frykowski. Bartek Frykowski, whose children were fans of the band, commented that "Even though this new situation cannot change the past, my hope is that something positive will emerge for the future." He viewed the band's decision to cover a Manson track and the fallout from it as "a bizarre chain of events". J. D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun noted that the controversy did not hinder the sales of "The Spaghetti Incident?". The controversy led representatives of Nothing Records to tell Marilyn Manson that the label would not release "My Monkey", though they later changed their minds and released the song. ## See also - "Never Learn Not to Love"	[ "## Background and composition", "## Critical reception", "## Guns N' Roses version", "### Background and composition", "### Critical reception and controversy", "## See also" ]	2,352	5,528
32,267,527	College of All Saints, Maidstone	1,071,581,424	null	[ "Buildings and structures in Maidstone", "Christianity in Kent", "Grade I listed buildings in Kent", "Grade II listed buildings in Kent", "Grade II* listed buildings in Kent", "Scheduled monuments in Kent" ]	The College of All Saints was an ecclesiastical college in Maidstone, Kent, England, founded in 1395 by Archbishop Courtenay. It was part of the establishment of the nearby Archbishop's Palace, but was closed in 1546. The College church was the neighbouring Church of All Saints. Following its closure, the College estate was sold. The buildings and land passed through the ownership of three aristocratic families, being farmed until the late 19th century. A number of the College's buildings survive and all are listed buildings. Additionally, the whole site of the College is protected as a scheduled monument. ## History The College was founded by Archbishop of Canterbury William Courtenay in 1395. Courtenay died in 1396 and the College and church were completed by his successor, Thomas Arundel. Richard II endowed the College with land and income from the Hospital of St Peter and St Paul in Maidstone and from the parishes of Linton, Farleigh, Sutton and Crundale. The College was also granted the advowsons for the parishes. To cover the cost of building the College, Courtenay obtained a bull to levy a charge of fourpence in the pound on all ecclesiastical revenue raised in his archbishopric. For most of its existence, the college had an establishment of a master and six chaplains. Masters of the College between its founding and its dissolution were: - John Wootton (1395–1417) - John Holond (1418–19) - Roger Heron (1419–41) - John Darell (1441–44) - Peter Stackley (1450–58) - Thomas Boleyn (1458–70) - John Freestone (1470) - John Lee (1470–94) - John Comberton (1494–1506) - William Grocyn (1506–19) - Thomas Penyton (1519–?) - John Leffe (before 1535–46) When the College was closed in 1546 following the passing of the Chantries Act, its annual income was valued at £208 6s 2d (equivalent to £ in ). The church and the College were separated; the church became the parish church for the whole of Maidstone and the College and its lands were sold. Sixteen members of the College's establishment were granted pensions totalling £100 17s. In 1549, the College estate was granted to George Brooke, Baron Cobham for the sum of £1081 18s 1d (equivalent to £ in ). Plate and other valuables belonging to the College were sold for £200 (equivalent to £ in ). Much of the Cobham family's estate was forfeited to the Crown in 1603 when his grandson, Henry Brooke, the 11th Baron Cobham, was charged with high treason for his part in the Main Plot against James I. The College was granted for life to the 11th Baron's wife after which it reverted to Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, husband of Baron Cobham's sister. The College remained in the ownership of the Cecil family until 1697 when it was sold to Sir Robert Marsham of Mote House. The College estate was subsequently owned by Marsham's heirs, the Earls of Romney. The College buildings were used as a farm into the 19th century, until the expansion of Maidstone led to their demolition as the neighbouring area was developed. Part of the site was developed in the late 19th century for the Cutbush Almshouses, a collection of grade II listed buildings. The buildings are currently owned by Maidstone Borough Council having been donated to the borough by Sir Garrard Tyrwhitt-Drake, mayor of the borough in 1949–50. A plaque commemorating the presentation is fixed inside the archway of the Gatehouse. Part of the buildings were used by Kent Music School (later Kent Music) until 2000 when the school relocated to Astley House on Hastings Road. ## Buildings The College, like the Church of All Saints, is constructed of Kentish rag-stone in the Perpendicular style. The main building, a two-storey structure with attic, was mostly built in the 14th century and served originally as the Master's house. Some later 18th century alterations have been made and later windows added. The building contains a collar beam roof and a 16th-century staircase, moulded ceiling and aumbry cupboard. Poste records in his 1847 history of the College that some of the rooms retained traces of decorative wall painting. The College Gateway to the north of the site is a three-storey rectangular tower with a two-storey stone-ribbed vaulted archway through it with an exterior opening 8 feet 11 inches (2.72 m) wide with a pedestrian opening 4 feet (1.2 m) wide alongside. The ground floor room to the east of the archway was the College bakehouse where evidence existed prior to the 1845 alterations of a large bakery oven. The room on the west side of the archway housed the porter. The roof of the gateway tower is hipped, projecting above a crenellated parapet. A small turret is located in the south-west corner. Adjacent to the tower on the west side is a two-storey building that contained the College refectory, kitchen and scullery on the ground floor with a dormitory and infirmary on the first floor. Poste records that restoration and alterations carried out in 1845 included the removal of part of a range of rooms and cloisters attached to the main building as well as separate farm buildings including oast houses. On the north-west corner of this building is a small three-storey tower known as the River Tower or Muniment Tower. Poste records that around 1847 a peaked roof on the river tower was removed and replaced with a lower roof not visible above the parapet. The two-storey Master's Tower was the original access to the College from the river. A single-storey structure is attached to the south side. The ruined gateway stands to the south separated from the other structures by the almshouses. Poste records that in 1847 it stood between two barns, neither of which now remain. It consists of a pointed arch for carriages in a roughly coursed rag-stone wall flanked by buttress walls on each side. The Gateway and refectory are listed Grade I, the Master's house is listed Grade II\* and the Master's Tower and the ruined gateway are listed Grade II. The College site is also a scheduled monument with the protection covering the ruined gateway and buried remains of demolished buildings. ## See also - Grade I listed buildings in Maidstone - Grade II\* listed buildings in Maidstone - List of scheduled monuments in Maidstone	[ "## History", "## Buildings", "## See also" ]	1,439	10,764
98,361	New Jersey Route 20	1,160,346,597	State highway in Passaic County, New Jersey, US, known as McLean Boulevard	[ "Limited-access roads in New Jersey", "State highways in New Jersey", "Transportation in Passaic County, New Jersey" ]	Route 20, known locally as McLean Boulevard, is a state highway that runs 4.15 miles (6.68 km) in New Jersey, United States. It runs along the east side of Paterson, Passaic County, following the west bank of the Passaic River between the Garden State Parkway and U.S. Route 46, and River Street (County Route 504), at which point County Route 504 begins. It is a four- to six-lane expressway for most of its length that runs through residential and commercial areas of Paterson, intersecting with Interstate 80 and Route 4 at interchanges. The northernmost part of the route is a county-maintained one-way pair that follows 1st and 2nd Avenues. ## Route description Route 20 begins at an interchange with U.S. Route 46 and County Route 630 (Crooks Avenue) just north of the Garden State Parkway on the border of Clifton and Paterson. The road follows the bend of the Passaic River directly north of Dundee Lake, heading to the north into Paterson as McLean Boulevard, a four-lane divided highway. The route runs in between the Passaic River to the east and two large cemeteries to the west before coming to an interchange with Interstate 80 and Market Street. Past Interstate 80, Route 20 becomes a six-lane divided highway that heads under New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway's New Jersey Subdivision line and through a mix of residential and commercial areas. The next interchange along the route is for Route 4 (Broadway), with access to both eastbound Route 4 and westbound Broadway from both directions. The road continues further north as a four-lane divided highway, heading through more urbanized areas of Paterson. It crosses County Route 651 (East 33rd Street/Morlot Avenue), which crosses the Passaic River to become County Route 78 (Morlot Avenue) in Bergen County. Route 20 continues to follow the Passaic River as a 45 mph (72 km/h) road through commercial areas, featuring an intersection with County Route 652 (5th Avenue). Past this intersection, the route proceeds through urban areas, turning west and splitting into a one-way pair. Here, the route becomes county maintained, with the northbound direction following 1st Avenue and the southbound direction following 2nd Avenue before coming to an end at County Route 504 (River Street). ## History The present-day routing of Route 20 north of Market Street was legislated in 1927 as part of Route 3, which was to run from the New York border at Greenwood Lake to Secaucus. In addition, the present day routing south of Route 4 was also legislated as part of that route, which was to run from the George Washington Bridge to Cape May. In 1929, the western terminus of Route 3 was moved to Paterson as Route S4B (now Route 208) was planned to replace the alignment of Route 3 from Paterson to the New York border. McLean Boulevard through Paterson was built by the 1930s. A new highway was to be built connecting the two, bypassing the Paterson Plank Road to the north. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route 20 was legislated to follow the former alignment of Route 3 between Paterson and East Rutherford as Route 3 was moved to the Route S3 freeway that was built between East Rutherford and Clifton. By this point, the Paterson Plank Road was no longer in the state highway system. Another freeway routing of Route 20 was planned in 1959. This road, which was to be a six-lane freeway called the Paterson Peripheral, was to run from Clifton north to the existing Route 20 in downtown Paterson. This road was completed between the Garden State Parkway and Valley Road by 1969 and north to Interstate 80 in 1975. Upon completion, this road received the Route 20 designation. In 1972, the state once again took over maintenance of the Paterson Plank Road from Route 3 to Route 17 in East Rutherford and made it a part of the route. As it became clear that these three sections of Route 20 would not be connected, especially after the designation of the Great Falls Historic District, they received three different route designations by the 1990s. The freeway section of Route 20 from the Garden State Parkway to Interstate 80 was designated Route 19, the section between Route 3 and Route 17 was designated Route 120, and the Route 20 designation was retained along McLean Boulevard through Paterson. The unfinished section of Route 20 that was to connect McLean Boulevard to Paterson Plank Road was built as a northern extension of the Route 21 freeway in 2000. ## Major intersections ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections", "## See also" ]	1,025	5,823
16,739,221	SODO station (Sound Transit)	1,146,649,889	Light rail station in Seattle, Washington	[ "2009 establishments in Washington (state)", "Link light rail stations in Seattle", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 2009", "SoDo, Seattle" ]	SODO station is a light rail station located in Seattle, Washington. It is situated between the Beacon Hill and Stadium stations on the 1 Line, which runs from Seattle–Tacoma International Airport to Downtown Seattle and the University of Washington as part of the Link light rail system. The station consists of two at-grade side platforms at the intersection of the SODO Busway and South Lander Street in the SoDo neighborhood of Seattle. SODO station was first proposed in the late 1980s but was ignored in subsequent light rail proposals until the addition of the Beacon Hill Tunnel to the Central Link route in 1998 (now part of the 1 Line). It was built between 2005 and 2006 by Kiewit Pacific and opened to Link service on July 18, 2009. Trains serve the station twenty hours a day on most days; the headway between trains is six minutes during peak periods, with less frequent service at other times. SODO station is also served by several Sound Transit Express and King County Metro buses that stop on the SODO Busway adjacent to the platforms. ## Location SODO station is situated along the SODO Busway in the SoDo neighborhood of Seattle. The entrances to its two side platforms is located at the intersection of the SODO Busway and South Lander Street, adjacent to a United States Postal Service parking garage. The area surrounding the station consists of a mixture of industrial and low-density commercial areas without residences, employing over 12,000 workers. Major employers in the area include Starbucks, who has their headquarters at the Starbucks Center five blocks west of the station, and Seattle Public Schools at the John Stanford Center. The light rail line is paralleled to the east by a mixed-use bicycle trail called the SODO Trail, which connects SODO station to Stadium station at South Royal Brougham Way. The Seattle Department of Transportation plans to extend the trail to Spokane Street, connecting it to a bike trail on the Spokane Street Viaduct, serving West Seattle; a connector trail on Forest Street to a segregated cycletrack on Airport Way is also being considered. ## History The earliest proposal for a light rail station at South Lander Street in SODO came from the Puget Sound Council of Governments in 1986, as part of a north–south line from Lynnwood to Federal Way, following the Duwamish River from Downtown Seattle to the Seattle–Tacoma International Airport. The station was omitted from the 1993 Regional Transit Project proposal, and the two Sound Transit proposals in 1995 and 1996, with the latter being approved to follow Interstate 90 toward the Rainier Valley. Sound Transit added several alternative routes to Central Link in 1998, including "Route C1" consisting of an at-grade segment parallel to the existing SODO Busway and a tunnel under Beacon Hill, with stations at South Royal Brougham Way, South Lander Street and under Beacon Hill. "Route C1" was selected as the final route for Central Link (now the 1 Line) in 1999, with a station at South Lander Street being approved ahead of the deferred Royal Brougham and Beacon Hill stations. A groundbreaking ceremony for the Central Link project was held at SODO station in November 2003, with construction beginning after utility poles located next to the SODO Busway were relocated to clear the track's right of way. The Sound Transit Board officially named the station after the SoDo neighborhood on January 13, 2005, replacing the provisional name of South Lander Street. The first rails on Central Link were laid between Holgate and Lander streets in August 2005, with the first piece of station art being installed at SODO station during the same month. The station itself was built by Kiewit Pacific in less than a year, with opening ceremonies for SODO and Stadium stations held on May 30, 2006, celebrating the completion of the first two Central Link stations. Light rail testing on the 1.3-mile-long (2.1 km), at-grade SoDo segment was carried out by Sound Transit between March 2007 and February 2008, allowing the agency to declare the segment "substantially complete" in June 2008. SODO station was opened to the public on July 18, 2009, during the first day of Central Link service. ## Station layout SODO station consists of two 400-foot-long (120 m) at-grade side platforms, located 160 feet (49 m) north of the station's entrance at South Lander Street. The station includes the largest bicycle facility in the Link light rail system, with 64 covered spaces at a bicycle parking station and bicycle locker with 32 spaces adjacent to the nearby SODO Trail. SODO station also houses a free-standing art installation as part of the "STart" program, which allocates a percentage of project construction funds to art projects to be used in stations. Located at east side of the station entrance, Michael Davis's Made in USA consists of a 24-foot-high (7.3 m) by 14-foot-wide (4.3 m) archway that is made of an oversized try square, spirit level, and carpenter pencil, installed in August 2005 to honor the industrial heritage of SoDo. The plaza also includes seating made of sliced steel I-beams and a cog, with cast bronze replicas of workbench tools soldered onto the granite tops; the seating is meant to humanize the industrial environment, illustrating the process of transforming ideas and raw materials into a completed project. The station's pictogram, an anvil, represents the industrial heritage of the SODO area. It was created by Christian French as part of the Stellar Connections series and its points represent nearby destinations, including the Starbucks Center, the Link railyard, Rainier Brewery, and the Beacon Hill Tunnel. ## Services SODO station is part of Sound Transit's 1 Line, which runs from Seattle–Tacoma International Airport through the Rainier Valley, Downtown Seattle, and the University of Washington campus to Northgate. It is the ninth northbound station from Angle Lake and tenth southbound station from Northgate; it is situated between Beacon Hill and Stadium stations. Trains serve SODO twenty hours a day on weekdays and Saturdays, from 5:00 am to 1:00 am, and eighteen hours on Sundays, from 6:00 am to 12:00 am; during regular weekday service, trains operate roughly every eight to ten minutes during rush hour and midday operation, respectively, with longer headways of fifteen minutes in the early morning and twenty minutes at night. During weekends, 1 Line trains arrive at SODO station every ten minutes during midday hours and every fifteen minutes during mornings and evenings. The station is approximately 27 minutes from SeaTac/Airport station and eleven minutes from Westlake station in Downtown Seattle. In 2019, an average of 2,524 passengers boarded Link trains at SODO stadium on weekdays. Stadium station is also served by several bus routes on the SODO Busway, which runs parallel to 1 Line, at a pair of bus stops west of the station platforms at South Lander Street. Three Sound Transit Express routes stop at the station on their way to Tacoma, Lakewood, and Gig Harbor. King County Metro operates three all-day routes through the SODO Busway that serve West Seattle, the Rainier Valley, Renton, Tukwila, and Kent. Metro also runs four peak-direction routes through the SODO Busway towards Renton, Fairwood, Federal Way, and Redondo Heights. In addition to regular bus service, Metro also runs the Route 97 Link Shuttle, a shuttle service serving Link stations along surface streets during Link service disruptions.	[ "## Location", "## History", "## Station layout", "## Services" ]	1,601	36,803
20,730,428	You'll Never Eat Lunch in This Town Again	1,127,587,180	Autobiography by Julia Phillips	[ "1991 non-fiction books", "Books about film", "Random House books", "Show business memoirs" ]	You'll Never Eat Lunch in This Town Again is a memoir by Julia Phillips, detailing her career as a film producer and disclosing the power games and debauchery of New Hollywood in the 1970s and 1980s. It was first published in 1991 and became an immediate cause célèbre and bestseller. The book was reissued in 2002 after the author's death. ## Background In partnership with her husband Michael, Julia Phillips was one of the most successful film producers in Hollywood during the 1970s. Their second film, The Sting, grossed almost \$160 million and won seven Academy Awards, making Julia the first woman to win a Best Picture Oscar. Their third film, Taxi Driver, brought them a second Oscar nomination and won the Palme d'Or in 1976. In 1977 they co-produced their most financially successful movie, Steven Spielberg's \$300 million-grossing Close Encounters of the Third Kind. However, Julia had long indulged in a self-destructive lifestyle of excessive drug consumption, and it had begun to affect her work. François Truffaut, one of French cinema's most iconic directors and a star of Close Encounters (playing "Claude Lacombe", a French government scientist in charge of UFO-related activities in the United States), blamed her for that film's budget difficulties, and she was eventually fired during post-production because of her cocaine dependence. Phillips, by now divorced, spent the following years on a downward spiral which included, by her own account, spending \$120,000 on cocaine, before entering therapy to recover from her addiction. Then, in 1988, having been out of Hollywood for eleven years, she sold all her assets to produce The Beat, about a kid in a tough neighbourhood trying to teach poetry to local gangs. It was a critical and commercial disaster, grossing less than \$5,000 at the box office, and Phillips turned to penning her scathing memoir to escape her financial difficulties. ## Synopsis The book begins by briefly introducing the reader to Phillips in 1989, before quickly travelling back to her childhood in 1940s Brooklyn. It then covers her early life and first successes in the film industry: she and Michael earned \$100,000 from their debut feature, Steelyard Blues, moved to Malibu, California, and had a daughter, Kate. The most notorious chapters follow as Phillips enjoys her greatest career successes, perhaps most infamously when she recalls the amalgam of drugs she was under the influence of on the night she won her Oscar ("a diet pill, a small amount of coke, two joints, six halves of Valium, and a glass and a half of wine"). She also reveals the personal peccadillos and vices of the biggest Hollywood A-listers of the day, including Steven Spielberg, Martin Scorsese, Richard Dreyfuss, Goldie Hawn, and David Geffen. Many of these people were pivotal figures in the emergence of New Hollywood in the 1960s and '70s, but Phillips disparagingly refers to them as "a rogues' gallery of nerds". Later episodes in her life, including freebasing, and her abusive relationship with a violent drug addict which caused her to miss her own mother's funeral, are also discussed candidly. Most significant, from Phillips' own point of view, is her exposé of the "Boys' Club" in the higher echelons of Hollywood, where she claimed it was her gender that led to her ultimate ostracism. "If I had been a man, they would have closed ranks around me", she said, referring to her drug addiction. "They hated the woman thing. And I wasn't even regarded as a woman, I was a girl." Writing about her in The Independent in 2002, film critic David Thomson expressed Phillips' attitude as: "you [Hollywood] guys don't take women seriously; you like us around... [but] we aren't allowed to be players". Those same few men, like "Valley viper" Mike Ovitz who headed the Creative Artists Agency were, in her eyes, responsible for a qualitative decline in standards and the increasing banality of movies since the 1970s. ## Reception On its release most critics agreed that the book was both scandalous and career-ending. (Even with a quarter of the 1,000-page original manuscript excised, it took lawyers at Random House fourteen months to approve it for publication.) Lewis Cole, in The Nation, described it as being "[not] written but spat out, a breakneck, formless performance piece...propelled by spite and vanity". Newsweek's review called it a "573-page primal scream", while one Hollywood producer said it was "the longest suicide note in history". In the 2003 documentary version of Easy Riders, Raging Bulls, based on Peter Biskind's 1998 anecdotal history of New Hollywood, Richard Dreyfuss recalled his initial fury at Phillips' revelations, before more circumspectly listening to "a little voice inside my head [saying] 'Richard, Richard, the truth was so much worse'." Despite Phillips' criticisms of Steven Spielberg in the book, Spielberg nevertheless invited her to a 1997 screening of Close Encounters of the Third Kind as a way of "keeping his friends close and his enemies closer." Rapper Tupac Shakur misquotes the title of the book in a Vibe interview in 1996, stating briefly that it was one of the books he read recently. "You’ll Never Work Again in Hollywood, whatever that is that they’re talking about, all the people that slept together." After Phillips' death from cancer in 2002 the book was reissued in paperback by Faber and Faber, and gained renewed attention. Tim Appelo wrote in his Salon.com tribute that it was "mordant, merciless, [and] outdid Capote in shrieking truth to decadent power", while David Thomson of The Independent praised it as "compulsive, hilarious entertainment". Commercially, Phillips' memoir became an enormous success. It quickly moved to the top of the New York Times Non Fiction Best Seller list and stayed at No. 1 for thirteen weeks. Additionally, several prominent Los Angeles bookstore owners reported it to be the fastest-selling book they had ever seen. But Phillips was excoriated by Hollywood, and her autobiography's publication cost her the chance to adapt Anne Rice's Interview with a Vampire with David Geffen. Furthermore, in an example of life imitating art, pre-eminent Los Angeles restaurant Morton's fulfilled the book's titular prediction by declining her future patronage. Shortly before her death, when asked if she had been too cruel in her writing, Phillips replied, "We all have our standards. People behaved in an ugly and despicable fashion towards me. I felt no constraints. Nothing I did in my book is as mean as any of the people I wrote about." She was similarly unrepentant about her subsequent expatriation, saying, "I wasn't a pariah because I was a drug-addicted, alcoholic, rotten person and not a good mother. I was a pariah because I hit them with a harsh, fluorescent light and rendered them as contemptible as they truly are."	[ "## Background", "## Synopsis", "## Reception" ]	1,506	37,654
33,584,939	Lose Yourself (Entourage)	1,100,655,535	null	[ "2010 American television episodes", "Entourage (American TV series) episodes", "Television episodes directed by David Nutter" ]	"Lose Yourself" is the seventh-season finale of the American comedy-drama television series Entourage. It originally aired on HBO in the United States on September 12, 2010. The episode mainly centers on Vincent Chase (Adrian Grenier), whose issues begin to intensify between his ex-girlfriend and his current girlfriend, Sasha Grey. Although riddled with similar issues, Ari Gold (Jeremy Piven), Eric Murphy (Kevin Connolly), and Turtle (Jerry Ferrara) collaborate with each other in an attempt to orchestrate an intervention for Vince, only to make things worse. "Lose Yourself" was written by Doug Ellin, and directed by David Nutter. The episode features guest and cameo appearances from notable music artists, including Christina Aguilera and Eminem. It marked the conclusion of the plot arc between Grey and Chase. The episode was well received by television critics. Upon its initial airing, it attained 2.72 million viewers and garnered a 1.6/4 rating in the 18-49 demographic, according to the Nielsen ratings. ## Plot After Sasha informs Vincent that she will participate in a pornographic film, he expresses his disapproval. While on the set of production, the couple engage in an intense argument and simultaneously break up, making Vincent leave angrily. Meanwhile, Johnny and his friends orchestrate an intervention much to Vincent's dismay, and he leaves the premises. Eric begins to worry that his relationship with his fiancée may be crumbling. He has dinner with Sloan's father, Terrence, but is shocked when Terrence asks him to sign a prenuptial agreement. Eric gets upset and confronts Sloan about it, and she tells him that they will talk about it when he returns home, to which he agrees. However, upon discovering that his boss Murray has been reporting to Terrence, Eric changes his mind and contacts Scott Lavin. Eric tells him that he'll join forces with him to take over the company, effectively pushing Murray out of his own firm. Similarly, Ari suffers setbacks in his marriage when, despite throwing an extravagant party for Ms. Ari, she decides to leave him and has her sister go to the house to retrieve her belongings. Overwhelmed with depression, Vincent consumes alcohol and snorts cocaine in his hotel room, and then decides to attend Eminem's private party at the hotel lobby. He walks around being rude, hitting on girls, and refuses to leave when security asks him to do so. Johnny attempts to bring him home, but Vincent refuses to go with him. After being greeted by Eminem, Vincent begins insulting him which leads to him punching Vincent in the face, initiating a brawl in the process. Vincent is then rushed to the hospital shortly thereafter and attempts to leave, despite the orders of the medical staff. As he nears the entrance, he is confronted by a police officer, who informs him that Vince will need to go with him, as the officer has found a bag of cocaine in Vincent's clothes, leaving everyone stunned. ## Production "Lose Yourself" was written by series creator Doug Ellin and directed by David Nutter. In June 2010, it was announced that Eminem and Christina Aguilera would make guest appearances in the episode. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Ellin explained that "[Eminem] has a little conflict [...] with Vince [Adrian Grenier]." Similarly, Ellin revealed that Aguilera would perform a song in the episode, adding that "she [does] Ari a favor and [performs] at a party for him." Principal photography for the episode commenced shortly thereafter, and concluded two weeks later. Grenier revealed that he had offered Eminem a guest role in the series. He stated, "I actually met Eminem several months ago, interviewing him for a documentary we're making. He mentioned that he loved the show." Upon his approval, Grenier contacted creator Ellin, who agreed to cast Eminem for a future appearance. The episode was used to promote Recovery, the seventh studio album of Eminem. "Lose Yourself" marks the conclusion of the plot arc between Sasha Grey and Vincent Chase (Adrian Grenier). Grey was cast for the seventh season in May 2010, where she played a fictionalized version of herself, in a relationship with Chase. The episode features appearances from several recurring actors and actresses for the series. "Lose Yourself" marked the introduction of Marci, who is portrayed by Illeana Douglas. Janet Montgomery reprised her role as Jenni, the assistant of Eric Murphy. This would be Montgomery's first recurring appearance in the series since "Sniff Sniff Gang Bang". Rhys Coiro guest starred as Billy Walsh, having last appeared in the season seven episode "Porn Scenes from an Italian Restaurant". Other appearances include Bob Odenkirk, Jami Gertz, Dania Ramirez, and Malcolm McDowell. Cameo appearances were made by Mark Cuban, Drew Brees, John Cleese, Jordan Farmar, Ryan Howard, Minka Kelly, The Alchemist, Paul Rosenberg, Royce da 5'9", and Kon Artis. ## Reception "Lose Yourself" was initially broadcast on September 12, 2010, in the United States on HBO. It received 2.72 million viewers upon airing, and garnered a 1.6/4 rating in the 18-49 demographic. Total viewership was up 8% from the previous season finale; however, total viewership and ratings for the episode were slightly down from the previous episode, "Porn Scenes from an Italian Restaurant", which was viewed by 2.86 million households and achieved a 1.8/5 rating in the 18-49 demographic, according to the Nielsen ratings. "Lose Yourself" was well received by most television critics. James Poniewozik of Time has mixed reactions to the episode. He was critical of the plot arc between Grey and Chase, harshly criticizing Grey's acting and expressing that "[he] didn't think that Adrian Grenier had completely sold Vince’s downward spiral." He continued: "There’s something half-jokey about his manner that makes me think he’s about to break up laughing, as in a blooper reel." In contrast, Poniewozik felt that "for the first time in a while, I’m really interested to see what happens on Entourage next." Dan Philips of IGN gave the episode a nine out of ten, signifying an "amazing" rating. Philips praised "Lose Yourself", opining that it was an "excellent, extremely entertaining climax to this season's two main plot lines." He added, "Even though the episode never got around to providing any resolution, the overall journey was engaging enough to make its cliffhanger feel less like a cheap trick to get us to tune in for season eight." Similar sentiments were expressed by Josh Wagler of MTV, who praised Grenier's performance, opining that it was his best performance to date. The A.V. Club writer Kyle Ryan gave the episode a 'B−' grade. Ryan wrote, "The last episode teed up tonight’s many confrontations [...]. For a show that has specialized in spinning its wheels, these were surprisingly high stakes." He was critical with the development of Vincent Chase, as well as his storyline with Sasha Grey, commenting that "Vincent and his coterie just aren’t that interesting." Blair Marnell of CraveOnline gave the episode an eight out of ten rating, noting that the episode "hit its dramatic points." Marnell commended Grenier's acting, as he opined, "I've never hated Vince before this season, but that's the reaction that he was meant to elicit. Vince has always been a little bit shallow, but never to this extent. Vince never told his friends that they needed him more than he needed them before. And while it's definitely true to a certain extent, part of Vince's charm was that he never threw that back in their faces." In concurrence, TV Fanatic's Eric Hochberger expressed that "Lose Yourself" was a "stellar season finale with plenty of unanswered cliffhangers for next season." Concluding his review, Hochberger gave the episode a 4.5 out of 5 stars.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Reception" ]	1,696	21,294
49,827,975	Käre bröder, så låtom oss supa i frid	1,164,259,324	Song by the 18th century Swedish bard Carl Michael Bellman	[ "1770 compositions", "Fredmans epistlar", "Swedish songs" ]	Käre bröder, så låtom oss supa i frid (Dear brethren, so let us drink in peace) is Epistle No. 5 in the Swedish poet and performer Carl Michael Bellman's 1790 song collection, Fredman's Epistles. The epistle is subtitled "Til the trogne Bröder på Terra Nova i Gaffelgränden." ("To the faithful Brethren in Terra Nova in Gaffelgränden"). The first epistle to be written, it introduces Jean Fredman's fictional world of ragged drunken men in Stockholm's taverns, making music, drinking, and preaching the message of the apostles of brandy, in the style of St Paul's epistles. The composition's approach is simple compared to later epistles, retaining much of the character of a drinking song. Scholars note that Bellman had the idea of parodying a sermon for the burial of the real Fredman in 1767, but transformed this into having Fredman as a prophet who sent Bacchanalian epistles to the faithful. This enabled Bellman to write a succession of epistles, 25 of them in 1770. ## Background ## Song ### Music and verse form The song was composed in the spring of 1770; it was the first of the epistles to be written. The composition has the timbre "Alt sedan Bernhardus kom til vår by" from a songplay by Henrik Brandel [sv], which the musicologist James Massengale assumes was Bellman's immediate source; the melody had been used in numerous other places. There are three stanzas, each of 14 lines. The rhyming scheme is AA-BBCC-ADD-EEFFD. The Epistle's time signature is , with its tempo marked Allegro ma non troppo. ### Lyrics The subtitle text is "Til the trogne Bröder på Terra Nova i Gaffelgränden." ("To the faithful Brethren in Terra Nova in Gaffelgränden."), echoing the biblical language of St Paul's Epistles. The locale was a tavern in an alleyway of Stockholm's Gamla stan. ## Reception and legacy The Bellman scholar Lars Lönnroth writes that soon after the real watchmaker Fredman's death in 1767, Bellman had the idea of a ceremony for his burial, complete with a poem that parodied a sermon: "We could call his soul a clockwork, his body a tavern." The idea of a sermon about Fredman was transformed into having him as a preaching prophet who sent epistles to the faithful. That in turn led to a whole series of Fredman's Epistles, the first being what is now called No. 5. Where St Paul had written to the Christian brothers in Ephesus or Corinth, the Bacchanalian St Fredman wrote to the Ale-ephesians and the Cheer-inthians, exhorting them to press grapes for wine. The language is intentionally old-style biblical in tone. In the second verse, Fredman announces that "Brännvins apostlar uppstiga var dag" ("Brandy's apostles rise up each day"), and invites his disciples to "Stöta basuner, förkunna vår lag" ("blow bassoons, proclaim our law"). Finally in the third verse, in the style of Acts of the Apostles, Fredman encourages his correspondent Theophilus to drink, mentioning Damascus, where St Paul had his dramatic conversion: "Drick min Theophile, strupen är djup; Si i Damasco där ligger en Slup, Fuller med flaskor" ("Drink my Theophilus", your throat is deep; See in Damascus there lies a sloop, full of bottles). Lönnroth comments that the lack of a harbour in Damascus would scarcely have troubled Bellman or his audience. Carina Burman writes in her biography of Bellman that when he wrote this first epistle he certainly did not know he would eventually write another eighty of them: the genre was wholly new and fresh. In a rush of creativity, he wrote nine epistles between March and May 1770, and by the year's end he had written twenty-five. It was not, Burman explains, the first time he joked about religious texts, nor the first in which he mixed spirits and religion, but marked the start of his parodying of St Paul's letters to the faithful. She notes that the diction of Fredman's speech was already antique, echoing the tone of the Charles XII Bible, a translation completed in 1703. For example, Fredman says "världenes ondsko" where more modern Swedish would use "världens ondska" for "the evil of the world". All the same, this first parody of an epistle, described by some scholars as primitive, was still very close to Bellman's usual drinking-songs; later epistles such as No. 9, Käraste Bröder, Systrar och Vänner, became more complex, and biblical parody moved into the background. The Bellman Society calls the epistle a Bacchanalian mass in which Fredman the preacher encourages his congregation to drunkenness. The Epistle has been recorded by the actor Mikael Samuelson on his album Sjunger Fredmans Epistlar.	[ "## Background", "## Song", "### Music and verse form", "### Lyrics", "## Reception and legacy" ]	1,117	22,367
64,248,053	2nd Missouri Infantry Regiment (Confederate)	1,158,706,832	Infantry regiment of the Confederate States Army	[ "1862 establishments in Missouri", "1863 disestablishments in Alabama", "Military units and formations disestablished in 1863", "Units and formations of the Confederate States Army from Missouri" ]	The 2nd Missouri Infantry Regiment was an infantry regiment that served in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. Organized on January 16, 1862, the regiment first saw major action at the Battle of Pea Ridge on March 7 and 8, 1862. After Pea Ridge, the regiment was transferred across the Mississippi River, fighting in the Battle of Farmington, Mississippi on May 9. The unit missed the Battle of Iuka in September, but was heavily engaged at the Second Battle of Corinth on October 3 and 4. The regiment helped drive in a Union position on October 3. On October 4, the 2nd Missouri Infantry, along with the rest of Colonel Elijah Gates' brigade, captured a fortification known as Battery Powell, but were forced to retreat by Union reinforcements. On May 16, 1863, the regiment was part of a major attack at the Battle of Champion Hill. The attack was repulsed, and the regiment was routed at the Battle of Big Black River Bridge the next day. During the Siege of Vicksburg, the regiment helped repulse Union assaults on May 19 and May 22. On July 1, a mine was detonated under the regiment's position; the regiment's commander was killed during the ensuing fighting. After the Confederate garrison of Vicksburg surrendered on July 4, the men of the 2nd Missouri Infantry were paroled and exchanged. On October 1, 1863, the regiment was combined with the 6th Missouri Infantry Regiment to form the 2nd and 6th Missouri Infantry Regiment (Consolidated). The new regiment saw action during the Atlanta campaign and the Battle of Allatoona in 1864. On November 30, 1864, the combined regiment suffered devastating losses at the Battle of Franklin. The 2nd and 6th Missouri Infantry (Consolidated) surrendered at the Battle of Fort Blakely on April 9, 1865. ## Organization The 2nd Missouri Infantry Regiment was organized and joined the Confederate States Army on January 16, 1862, while stationed at Springfield, Missouri. Many of the men in the regiment had seen prior service in the secessionist Missouri State Guard. When the regiment was first organized, it was given the designation of 1st Missouri Infantry Regiment, but this was changed to 2nd Missouri Infantry Regiment, as another regiment had precedence to the former name. At the time of organization, the regiment was commanded by Colonel John Quincy Burbridge. Edward B. Hull was the regiment's first lieutenant colonel, and Robert D. A. Dwyer was the regiment's first major. At the time of organization, the regiment contained ten companies, designated with the letters A–I and K, all of which contained men from Missouri. ## Service history ### 1862 #### Pea Ridge Less than a month after the regiment was organized, the Confederates abandoned Springfield. During the ensuing retreat into Arkansas, the 2nd Missouri Infantry served as a rear guard unit. At the Battle of Pea Ridge on March 7 and 8, the regiment was part of Colonel Lewis Henry Little's First Missouri Brigade, along with the 3rd Missouri Infantry Regiment, 1st Missouri Cavalry Regiment, Wade's Missouri Battery, and Clark's Missouri Battery. In the early stages of the battle, the 2nd Missouri Infantry was deployed in a ravine when Major General Sterling Price's Confederate division, of which Little's brigade was a part, encountered Union forces along the approach to a local landmark named Elkhorn Tavern. The 2nd Missouri Infantry was later engaged in a Confederate attack against a Union line arrayed around the tavern. The charge eventually broke the Union line, and the 2nd Missouri Infantry helped capture a portion of the 3rd Iowa Battery, despite taking heavy casualties from canister fire. However, the Confederate ranks quickly became disorganized, hindering their ability to follow up on gains from the assault. On March 8, the regiment was initially positioned in an open field, but heavy Union artillery fire forced the regiment to retreat to the cover of some woods. Union troops then pressed a counterattack, forcing the 2nd Missouri Infantry, as well as the rest of Price's division, to retreat. Three companies of the regiment became separated from the rest of the unit in the retreat, and along with Good's Texas Battery and Guibor's Missouri Battery, helped to repulse a small Union cavalry charge, ending the Battle of Pea Ridge, which was a Confederate defeat. Specific casualty returns reported that the regiment lost 46 men killed, 49 wounded, and 15 missing, for a total of 110, although an overall return for the regiment reported 150 losses. #### Second Corinth After the defeat at Pea Ridge, the regiment retreated to the vicinity of Van Buren, Arkansas and was then ordered to Des Arc, Arkansas, on the other side of the state. On April 10, the regiment crossed the Mississippi River, moved to Memphis, Tennessee, and then reported to Corinth, Mississippi on April 28. A muster conducted in Corinth in early May found 923 men officially listed on the regiment's rolls, but only 590 of them were reported as present for duty. On May 9, the regiment participated in the Battle of Farmington, and left Corinth along with the rest of the Confederate army at the end of May. The 2nd Missouri Infantry then spent much of the rest of the summer stationed in northern Mississippi. Burbridge resigned on June 29 and was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Francis M. Cockrell as commander of the regiment. On September 19, the regiment arrived on the field of the Battle of Iuka after the fighting ended. At the Second Battle of Corinth on October 3 and 4, the 2nd Missouri Infantry was in Colonel Elijah Gates' brigade, along with the 16th Arkansas Infantry Regiment, 3rd Missouri Infantry Regiment, 5th Missouri Infantry Regiment, 1st Missouri Cavalry Regiment, and Wade's Missouri Battery. On October 3, the 2nd Missouri Infantry reinforced the brigade of Brigadier General Martin E. Green, and helped Green's brigade defeat a stubborn Union defensive position by enfilading the 11th Missouri Infantry Regiment. The next day, Gates' brigade, including the 2nd Missouri Infantry, charged the Union interior line. The attack was aimed for a fortification known as Battery Powell. The Confederate charge hit the division of Brigadier General Thomas A. Davies, breaking the Union line. The Confederate charge was also able to drive the Union artillerymen defending Battery Powell out of the fortification. The 2nd Missouri Infantry charged the 6th Wisconsin Battery, driving the battery's crews from the guns and taking the pieces. The Confederate charge had broken a large hole in the Union line. However, reinforcements were not sent to follow up the breakthrough, and a Union counterattack drove the 2nd Missouri Infantry and the rest of Gates' brigade from the ground they had won. At Second Corinth, the regiment lost 47 men killed, 107 wounded, and 91 missing, for a total of 245. The regiment then spent the next several months in camp. ### 1863 #### Champion Hill In March 1863, the regiment was transferred to Grand Gulf, Mississippi, where the regiment built fortifications. The next month, the regiment was part of an observation force sent across the Mississippi River into Louisiana. After returning from Louisiana, the regiment was stationed at Grand Gulf, and did not participate in the Battle of Port Gibson on May 1. On May 3, the regiment was part of a rear guard that protected the Confederate retreat from Grand Gulf. At the Battle of Champion Hill on May 16, the 2nd Missouri Infantry, along with the rest of the First Missouri Brigade (now commanded by Cockrell) plugged a gap in the Confederate line. Later in the afternoon, Cockrell's brigade responded with a counterattack, driving Union troops back and recapturing the cannons of Waddell's Alabama Battery, which had been captured earlier in the fighting. The attackers suffered heavy casualties in the charge, one member of Cockrell's brigade later wrote that "blood ran in a stream, as water would have done." The charge gained momentum, eventually reaching the top of Champion Hill, a prominent landmark on the battlefield. Eventually, Union reinforcements arrived, blunting the Confederate charge and forcing the attackers to retreat. At Champion Hill, the 2nd Missouri Infantry suffered casualties of 10 men killed, 35 wounded, and 38 missing, for a total of 83. #### Siege of Vicksburg On May 17, the 2nd Missouri Infantry was part of a rear guard holding the crossing of the Big Black River in Mississippi. A Union attack broke through the Confederate line, forcing the 2nd Missouri Infantry and the rest of Cockrell's brigade to break for the rear. The 2nd Missouri Infantry routed, as did most of the Confederate regiments on the field. Cockrell's brigade then entered the defenses surrounding Vicksburg, Mississippi. During the Siege of Vicksburg, elements of the brigade were initially held as a reserve, but were eventually sent to various weak points in the line. On May 19, Union troops made a determined assault against the Confederate lines, and the 2nd Missouri Infantry was sent to a position known as the 27th Louisiana Lunette. The 2nd Missouri Infantry and the 27th Louisiana Infantry Regiment fought off Union attempts to carry the position. Later that day, a small group from the regiment burned a house lying between the lines to prevent Union troops from using it as cover. On May 22, the regiment again helped repulse a Union charge; several of the regiments the 2nd Missouri Infantry fought against on the 22nd were composed of Missourians fighting for the Union. The routine siege action also took a toll on the regiment; two men of the 2nd Missouri were killed by Union shellfire on June 26. A mine was detonated beneath the 2nd Missouri Infantry's position on July 1, inflicting multiple casualties. Cockrell led the regiment to the gap blown in the lines, shouting "Come on, Old Bloody Second Missouri; you have died once, and can die again!" The explosion was not followed with an infantry assault, although Union artillery did fire into the gap in the line. Lieutenant Colonel Pembroke Senteny had been commanding the regiment on July 1, and was fatally shot through the head. The 2nd Missouri Infantry suffered a total of 38 casualties on July 1. On July 4, the Confederate garrison of Vicksburg surrendered. The men of the regiment were paroled, ordered to Demopolis, Alabama, and officially exchanged on September 12. By the July 4, only 356 men remained in the regiment. On October 1, regiment was combined with the 6th Missouri Infantry Regiment to form the 2nd and 6th Missouri Infantry Regiment (Consolidated); the 2nd Missouri Infantry ceased to exist as a separate unit. ## Commanders Three men served as colonel of the 2nd Missouri Infantry: Burbridge, Cockrell, and Peter C. Flournoy, who was promoted to colonel on July 20. The regiment's lieutenant colonels were Hull, who resigned on May 8, 1862; Cockrell; Dwyer, who died on March 21, 1863; Senteny, and Thomas M. Carter. Dwyer, Senteny, Thomas M. Carter, and William F. Carter served as the regiment's majors. ## Legacy The 2nd and 6th Missouri Infantry (Consolidated) was commanded by Colonel Flournoy, formerly of the 2nd Missouri Infantry. Companies A, E, F, G, I, and K of the 2nd and 6th Missouri (Consolidated) were from the 2nd Missouri Infantry, and Companies B, C, D, and H were from the 6th Missouri. The new regiment fought in the Atlanta campaign in 1864, including at the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain on June 27. On October 5, the regiment was part of a Confederate force that assaulted a Union outpost at the Battle of Allatoona. The regiment then fought at the Battle of Franklin on November 30, where the regiment lost its flag to capture and suffered over 60 percent casualties. After missing the Battle of Nashville in mid-December, the regiment was transferred to Mississippi in January 1865. After being sent to Mobile, Alabama in March, the regiment was captured at the Battle of Fort Blakely on April 9, ending the regiment's fighting tenure.	[ "## Organization", "## Service history", "### 1862", "#### Pea Ridge", "#### Second Corinth", "### 1863", "#### Champion Hill", "#### Siege of Vicksburg", "## Commanders", "## Legacy" ]	2,648	33,450
7,682,623	The Sinking of the Lusitania	1,148,770,764	1918 silent animated short documentary	[ "1910s American animated films", "1910s animated short films", "1910s disaster films", "1918 animated films", "1918 documentary films", "1918 films", "1918 short films", "American World War I propaganda films", "American animated documentary films", "American black-and-white films", "American silent short films", "Articles containing video clips", "Black-and-white documentary films", "Documentary films about maritime disasters", "Films directed by Winsor McCay", "Films set in 1915", "Films set in the Atlantic Ocean", "RMS Lusitania", "Silent adventure films", "Silent war films", "Surviving American silent films", "United States National Film Registry films" ]	The Sinking of the Lusitania (1918) is an American silent animated short film by cartoonist Winsor McCay. It is a work of propaganda re-creating the never-photographed 1915 sinking of the British liner RMS Lusitania. At twelve minutes it has been called the longest work of animation at the time of its release. The film is the earliest surviving animated documentary and serious, dramatic work of animation. The National Film Registry selected it for preservation in 2017. In 1915, a German submarine torpedoed and sank the RMS Lusitania; 128 Americans were among the 1,198 dead. The event outraged McCay, but the newspapers of his employer William Randolph Hearst downplayed the event, as Hearst was opposed to the U.S. joining World War I. McCay was required to illustrate anti-war and anti-British editorial cartoons for Hearst's papers. In 1916, McCay rebelled against his employer's stance and began work on the patriotic Sinking of the Lusitania on his own time with his own money. The film followed McCay's earlier successes in animation: Little Nemo (1911), How a Mosquito Operates (1912), and Gertie the Dinosaur (1914). McCay drew these earlier films on rice paper, onto which backgrounds had to be laboriously traced; The Sinking of the Lusitania was the first film McCay made using the new, more efficient cel technology. McCay and his assistants spent twenty-two months making the film. His subsequent animation output suffered setbacks, as the film was not as commercially successful as his earlier efforts, and Hearst put increased pressure on McCay to devote his time to editorial drawings. ## Synopsis The film opens with a live-action prologue in which McCay busies himself studying a picture of the Lusitania as a model for his film-in-progress. Intertitles boast of McCay as "the originator and inventor of Animated Cartoons", and of the 25,000 drawings needed to complete the film. McCay is shown working with a group of anonymous assistants on "the first record of the sinking of the Lusitania". The liner passes the Statue of Liberty and leaves New York Harbor. After some time, a German submarine cuts through the waters and fires a torpedo at the Lusitania, which billows smoke that builds until it envelops the screen. Passengers scramble to lower lifeboats, some of which capsize in the confusion. The liner tilts from one side to the other and passengers are tossed into the ocean. A second blast rocks the Lusitania, which sinks slowly into the deep as more passengers fall off its edges, and the ship submerges amid scenes of drowning bodies. The liner vanishes from sight, and the film closes with a mother struggling to keep her baby above the waves. An intertitle declares: "The man who fired the shot was decorated for it by the Kaiser! And yet they tell us not to hate the Hun". ## Background Winsor McCay (c. 1869–1934) produced prodigiously detailed and accurate drawings since early in life. He earned a living as a young man drawing portraits and posters in dime museums, and attracted large crowds with his ability to draw quickly in public. He began working as a newspaper illustrator full-time in 1898, and in 1903 began drawing comic strips. His greatest comic strip success was the children's fantasy comic strip Little Nemo in Slumberland, which he began in 1905. In 1906, McCay began performing on the vaudeville circuit, doing chalk talks—performances during which he drew in front of a live audience. Inspired by the flip books his son brought home, McCay said he "came to see the possibility of making moving pictures" of his cartoons. His first animated film, Little Nemo (1911), was composed of four thousand drawings on rice paper. His next film, How a Mosquito Operates (1912), naturalistically shows a giant mosquito draw blood from a sleeping man until it burst. McCay followed this with a film that became an interactive part of his vaudeville shows: in Gertie the Dinosaur (1914), McCay commanded his animated dinosaur with a whip on stage. The British liner RMS Lusitania briefly held the record for largest passenger ship upon its completion in 1906. McCay displayed a fondness for it, and featured it in the episode for September 28, 1907, of his comic strip Dream of the Rarebit Fiend, and again in the episode for November 10, 1908, of A Pilgrim's Progress by Mister Bunion, where Bunion declares it "the monster boat that has smashed the record". The Germans employed submarines in the North Atlantic during World War I, and in April 1915 the German government issued a warning that it would target British civilian ships. The Lusitania was torpedoed on May 7, 1915, during a voyage from New York; 128 Americans were among the 1,198 who lost their lives. Newspapers owned by McCay's employer William Randolph Hearst downplayed the tragedy, as Hearst was opposed to the U.S. entering the war. His own papers' readers were increasingly pro-war in the aftermath of the Lusitania. McCay was as well, but was required to illustrate anti-war and anti-British editorials by editor Arthur Brisbane. In 1916, McCay rebelled against his employer's stance and began to make the pro-war Sinking of the Lusitania in his own time. The sinking itself was never photographed. McCay said that he gathered background details on the Lusitania from Hearst's Berlin correspondent August F. Beach, who was in London at the time of the disaster and was the first reporter at the scene. The film was the first attempt at a serious, dramatic work of animation. ## Production history The Sinking of the Lusitania took twenty-two months to complete. McCay had assistance from his neighbor, artist John Fitzsimmons, and from Cincinnati cartoonist William Apthorp "Ap" Adams, who took care of layering the cels in proper sequence for shooting. Fitzsimmons was responsible for a sequence of waves, sixteen frames to be cycled over McCay's drawings. McCay provided illustrations during the day for the newspapers of William Randolph Hearst, and spent his off hours at home drawing the cels for the film, which he took to Vitagraph Studios to be photographed. McCay's working methods were laborious. On Gertie the Dinosaur an assistant painstakingly traced and retraced the backgrounds thousands of times. Rival animators developed a number of methods to reduce the workload and speed production to meet the increasing demand for animated films. Within a few years of Nemo's release, it became near-universal practice in animation studios to use American Earl Hurd's cel technology, combined with Canadian Raoul Barré's registration pegs, used to keep cels aligned when photographed. Hurd had patented the cel method in 1914; it saved work by allowing dynamic drawings to be drawn on one or more layers, which could be laid over a static background layer, relieving animators of the tedium of retracing static images onto drawing after drawing. McCay adopted the cel method beginning with The Sinking of the Lusitania. As with all his films, McCay financed Lusitania himself. The cels were an added expense, but greatly reduced the amount of drawing necessary in contrast to McCay's earlier methods. The cels used were thicker than those that later became industry standard, and had a "tooth", or rough surface, that could hold pencil, wash, and crayon, as well as ink lines. The amount of rendering caused the cels to buckle, which made it difficult to keep them aligned for photographing; Fitzsimmons addressed this problem using a modified loose-leaf binder. McCay said it took him about eight weeks to produce eight seconds' worth of film. The claimed 25,000 drawings filled 900 feet of film. Lusitania was registered for copyright on July 19, 1918, and was released by Jewel Productions who were reported to have acquired it for the highest price paid for a one-reel film up to that time. It was included as part of a Universal Studios Weekly newsreel and featured on the cover of an issue of Universal's in-house publication The Moving Picture Weekly. Its première in England followed in May 1919. Advertisements called it "he world's only record of the crime that shocked humanity". ## Style The animation combines editorial cartooning techniques with live-action-like sequences, and is considered McCay's most realistic effort; the intertitles emphasized that the film was a "historical record" of the event. McCay animated the action in what animation historian Donald Crafton describes as a "realistic graphic style". The film has a dark mood and strong propagandist feel. It depicts the terrifying fates of the passengers, such as the drowning of children and human chains of passengers jumping to their deaths. The artwork is highly detailed, the animation fluid and naturalistic. McCay used alternating shots to simulate the feel of a newsreel, which reinforced the film's realistic feel. McCay made stylistic choices to add emotion to the "historical record", as in the anxiety-inducing shots of the submarines lurking beneath the surface, and abstract styling of the white sheets of sky and sea, vast voids which engorge themselves on the drowning bodies. Animation historian Paul Wells suggested the negative space in the frames filled viewers with anxiety through psychological projection or introjection, Freudian ideas that had begun circulating in the years before the film's release. Scholar Ulrich Merkl suggests that as a newspaperman, McCay was likely aware of Freud's widely reported work, though McCay never publicly acknowledged such an influence. ## Reception and legacy The Sinking of the Lusitania was noted as a work of war propaganda, and is often called the longest work of animation of its time. The film is likely the earliest animated documentary. McCay's biographer, animator John Canemaker, called The Sinking of the Lusitania "a monumental work in the history of the animated film". Though it was admired by his animation contemporaries, Canemaker wrote that it "did not revolutionize the film cartoons of its time" as McCay's skills were beyond what animators of the time were able to follow. In the era that followed, animation studios made occasional non-fiction films, but most were comedic shorts lasting no more than seven minutes. Animation continued in its role of supporting feature films rather than as the main attraction, and rarely received reviews. Lusitania was not a commercial success; after a few years in theaters, Lusitania brought McCay about \$80,000. McCay made at least seven further films, only three of which are known to have seen commercial release. After 1921, when Hearst learned McCay devoted more of his time to animation than to his newspaper illustrations, Hearst required McCay to give up animation. He had plans for several animation projects that never came to fruition, including a collaboration with Jungle Imps author George Randolph Chester, a musical film called The Barnyard Band, and a film about the Americans' role in World War I. Later in life, McCay at times publicly expressed his dissatisfaction with the animation industry as it had become—he had envisioned animation as an art, and lamented how it had become a trade. According to Canemaker, it was not until Disney's feature films in the 1930s that the animation industry caught up with McCay's level of technique. Animation historian Paul Wells described Lusitania as "a seminal moment in the development of the animated film" for its combination of documentary style with propagandist elements, and considered it an example of animation as a form of Modernism. Steve Bottomore called the film "he most significant cinematic version of the disaster". A review in The Cinema praised the film, especially the scene in which the first torpedo explodes, which it called "more than reality". The National Film Registry selected the film for preservation in 2017.	[ "## Synopsis", "## Background", "## Production history", "## Style", "## Reception and legacy" ]	2,556	39,380
6,694,360	Shades of Purple	1,167,951,193	null	[ "2000 debut albums", "Atlantic Records albums", "M2M (band) albums" ]	Shades of Purple is the debut studio album by Norwegian pop duo M2M. It was released in the US on 7 March 2000 by Atlantic Records. It reached No. 7 in Norway, No. 89 on the US Billboard 200 and No. 1 on the US Top Heatseekers chart. The single "Don't Say You Love Me", which had already been released as the lead single of the Pokémon: The First Movie soundtrack in October 1999, appears on the album. A further two singles, "Mirror Mirror" and "Everything You Do" were released throughout 2000. The album received a positive critical response. Robert Christgau gave the album an 'A−', praising the duo's singing. Michael Paoletta from Billboard said it was "poised to be the soundtrack of spring/summer 2000." Shades of Purple sold over 1.5 million units worldwide and was nominated for best pop album at the 2000 Spellemannprisen awards. ## Background and composition Marion Raven and Marit Larsen come from Lørenskog in the district east of Oslo. They became friends at age five, and formed their own band when they were eight. They released a children's album, Synger Kjente Barnesanger, under the band name "Marit & Marion", which was nominated for a Spellemannprisen award when they were both 12 years old. They continued writing pop songs and sent demo recordings out. One of the demos ended up at Atlantic Records and they were signed to a worldwide contract in 1998, after which they shortened their name to M2M, which reflects the initials of both their first names. The album was recorded in London, Sweden and New York, when Raven was 14 and Larsen was 15. Raven and Larsen co-wrote most of the songs on the album. "Girl in Your Dreams" was the first song Raven had ever written. She wrote it when she was 13 about a boy she liked that was not interested in her. The pair wrote over 30 songs in anticipation of recording; 16 of these were recorded, and 13 made it onto the US version of the album. One of the unreleased songs, "The Feeling is Gone", was released as a B-side on the European and Japanese single versions of "Don't Say You Love Me", and also appears on the Australian version of the album. The track "Our Song" uses the chorus of the Bee Gees' hit single "Too Much Heaven" as its own chorus. Raven and Larsen had previously been unaware of "Too Much Heaven"; the chorus was added at the suggestion of their producer. When questioned about the album title, M2M replied that purple was their favourite colour and they wanted "a title that expressed that the album is us and through our eyes." ## Release and promotion The album was released in both Europe and Asia in mid-February 2000 and the US on 7 March. It had been released worldwide by the end of March, except in Sweden where a shipment of 20,000 copies was delayed for at least four weeks due to a legal dispute with a local band there that also used the name "M2M". In December 1999 Warner Music Group, which owns Atlantic Records, stated they expected to sell at least five to six million copies of Shades of Purple. Sales had exceeded one million by September 2000, though investors were disappointed as they had not yet recuperated the amount they had spent promoting the duo; they expected to break even before the end of the year. The album sold 107,000 units in its opening week in the US, debuting at number one on the Billboard Top Heatseekers chart and reached number 89 on the US Billboard 200, staying on the chart for sixteen weeks. and had sold 268,000 units there by March 2002. Worldwide sales of the album exceeded 1.5 million by January 2002. Beginning in August 1999, M2M toured and performed extensively to promote their debut single "Don't Say You Love Me", performing several concerts in the US and throughout Asia, as well as appearing on an episode of the show One World, and performing at Walt Disney World in February 2000. M2M continued to keep a high profile following the release of Shades of Purple, appearing on Top of the Pops in March 2000 embarking on a tour of US high schools and touring with Hanson in September. ### Singles "Don't Say You Love Me" was released in October 1999 as the lead song from the Pokémon: The First Movie soundtrack. There was a minor lyric change between the versions, as the original version contained the lyrics "then you start kissing me", which was deemed inappropriate for Pokémon's young viewers and was changed to "then you said you love me". The original version was retained on Shades of Purple. Promoted by a "nonstop marketing effort", advanced airing on Radio Disney and the affiliation with Pokémon, the single was successful. It charted at No. 2 in Norway, No. 4 in both Australia and New Zealand, No. 16 in the UK and No. 21 on the Billboard Hot 100. It was certified gold in both Australia and the US, and was nominated for the year's best song at the 2000 Spellemannprisen awards. The second single from the album was '"Mirror Mirror", which reached No. 30 in Australia, No. 13 in Canada and No. 62 on the Billboard Hot 100. It was certified gold in the US. The album's final single was "Everything You Do", which reached No. 21 on the US Hot Dance Singles Sales. Additionally a music video, directed by Tryan George, was filmed in Norway for the song "The Day You Went Away", which was released as a promotion single in Mexico. All of the singles on the album appeared on M2M's 2003 best-of album The Day You Went Away: The Best of M2M. ## Reception The album received critical acclaim. The Village Voice's Robert Christgau stated that "even when the writing is ordinary, the quality teenpop, some assembly-line and some personalized, is transfigured by the duo's singing." Entertainment Weekly critic Arion Berger wrote that M2M's "precise Euro-dance pop is fun, fun, fun, and behind the lip gloss is enough insecurity to charm." Heather Phares from AllMusic said "Overall, Shades of Purple is a strong debut from a young group that still sounds fresh and innocent ... something of a rarity in teen pop." Michael Paoletta from Billboard gave a favourable review, saying "The 13 tracks on display here showcase a seasoned singing style that is, quite frankly, the antithesis of teen sensations like Britney Spears", concluding "Beautifully sun-kissed, Shades of Purple is poised to be the soundtrack of spring/summer 2000." The album was nominated for the best pop album at the 2000 Spellemannprisen awards. ## Track listing ## Credits and personnel Credits are taken from AllMusic. Writers and producers are mentioned in track listing. ## Charts	[ "## Background and composition", "## Release and promotion", "### Singles", "## Reception", "## Track listing", "## Credits and personnel", "## Charts" ]	1,498	34,312
250,882	Cat's Eye Nebula	1,170,397,976	Planetary nebula in the constellation Draco	[ "Astronomical objects discovered in 1786", "Caldwell objects", "Discoveries by William Herschel", "Draco (constellation)", "NGC objects", "Planetary nebulae" ]	The Cat's Eye Nebula (also known as NGC 6543 and Caldwell 6) is a planetary nebula in the northern constellation of Draco, discovered by William Herschel on February 15, 1786. It was the first planetary nebula whose spectrum was investigated by the English amateur astronomer William Huggins, demonstrating that planetary nebulae were gaseous and not stellar in nature. Structurally, the object has had high-resolution images by the Hubble Space Telescope revealing knots, jets, bubbles and complex arcs, being illuminated by the central hot planetary nebula nucleus (PNN). It is a well-studied object that has been observed from radio to X-ray wavelengths. ## General information NGC 6543 is a high northern declination deep-sky object. It has the combined magnitude of 8.1, with high surface brightness. Its small bright inner nebula subtends an average of 16.1 arcsec, with the outer prominent condensations about 25 arcsec. Deep images reveal an extended halo about 300 arcsec or 5 arcminutes across, that was once ejected by the central progenitor star during its red giant phase. NGC 6543 is 4.4 minutes of arc from the current position of the north ecliptic pole, less than 1⁄10 of the 45 arcminutes between Polaris and the current location of the Earth's northern axis of rotation. It is a convenient and accurate marker for the axis of rotation of the Earth's ecliptic, around which the celestial North Pole rotates. It is also a good marker for the nearby "invariable" axis of the solar system, which is the center of the circles which every planet's north pole, and the north pole of every planet's orbit, make in the sky. Since motion in the sky of the ecliptic pole is very slow compared to the motion of the Earth's north pole, its position as an ecliptic pole station marker is essentially permanent on the time-scale of human history, as opposed to the pole star, which changes every few thousand years. Observations show the bright nebulosity has temperatures between 7000 and 9000 K, whose densities average of about 5000 particles per cubic centimetre. Its outer halo has the higher temperature around 15,000 K, but is of much lower density. Velocity of the fast stellar wind is about 1900 km/s, where spectroscopic analysis shows the current rate of mass loss averages 3.2×10<sup>−7</sup> solar masses per year, equivalent to twenty trillion tons per second (20 Eg/s). Surface temperature for the central PNN is about 80,000 K, being 10,000 times as luminous as the sun. Stellar classification is O7 + [WR]-type star. Calculations suggest the PNN is over one solar mass, from a theoretical initial 5 solar masses. The central Wolf–Rayet star has a radius of (452,000 km). The Cat's Eye Nebula, given in some sources, lies about three thousand light-years from Earth. ## Observations The Cat's Eye was the first planetary nebula to be observed with a spectroscope by William Huggins on August 29, 1864. Huggins' observations revealed that the nebula's spectrum was non-continuous and made of a few bright emission lines, first indication that planetary nebulae consist of tenuous ionised gas. Spectroscopic observations at these wavelengths are used in abundance determinations, while images at these wavelengths have been used to reveal the intricate structure of the nebula. ### Infrared observations Observations of NGC 6543 at far-infrared wavelengths (about 60 μm) reveal the presence of stellar dust at low temperatures. The dust is believed to have formed during the last phases of the progenitor star's life. It absorbs light from the central star and re-radiates it at infrared wavelengths. The spectrum of the infrared dust emission implies that the dust temperature is about 85 K, while the mass of the dust is estimated at 6.4×10<sup>−4</sup> solar masses. Infrared emission also reveals the presence of un-ionised material such as molecular hydrogen (H<sub>2</sub>) and argon. In many planetary nebulae, molecular emission is greatest at larger distances from the star, where more material is un-ionised, but molecular hydrogen emission in NGC 6543 seems to be bright at the inner edge of its outer halo. This may be due to shock waves exciting the H<sub>2</sub> as ejecta moving at different speeds collide. The overall appearance of the Cat's Eye Nebula in infrared (wavelengths 2–8 μm) is similar in visible light. ### Optical and ultraviolet observations The Hubble Space Telescope image produced here is in false colour, designed to highlight regions of high and low ionisation. Three images were taken, in filters isolating the light emitted by singly ionised hydrogen at 656.3 nm, singly ionised nitrogen at 658.4 nm and doubly ionised oxygen at 500.7 nm. The images were combined as red, green and blue channels respectively, although their true colours are red, red and green. The image reveals two "caps" of less ionised material at the edge of the nebula. ### X-ray observations In 2001, observations at X-ray wavelengths by the Chandra X-ray Observatory revealed the presence of extremely hot gas within NGC 6543 with the temperature of 1.7×10<sup>6</sup> K. It is thought that the very hot gas results from the violent interaction of a fast stellar wind with material previously ejected. This interaction has hollowed out the inner bubble of the nebula. Chandra observations have also revealed a point source at the position of the central star. The spectrum of this source extends to the hard part of the X-ray spectrum, to 0.5–1.0 keV. A star with the photospheric temperature of about 100,000 K would not be expected to emit strongly in hard X-rays, and so their presence is something of a mystery. It may suggest the presence of a high temperature accretion disk within a binary star system. The hard X-ray data remain intriguing more than ten years later: the Cat's Eye was included in a 2012 Chandra survey of 21 central stars of planetary nebulae (CSPNe) in the solar neighborhood, which found: "All but one of the X-ray point sources detected at CSPNe display X-ray spectra that are harder than expected from hot (\~100,000 K) central star photospheres, possibly indicating a high frequency of binary companions to CSPNe. Other potential explanations include self-shocking winds or PN mass fallback." ## Distance Planetary nebulae distances like NGC 6543 are generally very inaccurate and not well known. Some recent Hubble Space Telescope observations of NGC 6543 taken several years apart determine its distance from the angular expansion rate of 3.457 milliarcseconds per year. Assuming a line of sight expansion velocity of 16.4 km·s<sup>−1</sup>, this implies that NGC 6543's distance is 1001±269 parsecs (3×10<sup>19</sup> k or 3300 light-years) away from Earth. Several other distance references, like what is quoted in SIMBAD in 2014 based on Stanghellini, L., et al. (2008) suggest the distance is 1623 parsecs (5300 light-years). ## Age The angular expansion of the nebula can also be used to estimate its age. If it has been expanding at a constant rate of 10 milliarcseconds a year, then it would take 1000±260 years to reach a diameter of 20 arcseconds. This may be an upper limit to the age, because ejected material will be slowed when it encounters material ejected from the star at earlier stages of its evolution, and the interstellar medium. ## Composition Like most astronomical objects, NGC 6543 consists mostly of hydrogen and helium, with heavier elements present in small quantities. The exact composition may be determined by spectroscopic studies. Abundances are generally expressed relative to hydrogen, the most abundant element. Different studies generally find varying values for elemental abundances. This is often because spectrographs attached to telescopes do not collect all the light from objects being observed, instead gathering light from a slit or small aperture. Therefore, different observations may sample different parts of the nebula. However, results for NGC 6543 broadly agree that, relative to hydrogen, the helium abundance is about 0.12, carbon and nitrogen abundances are both about 3×10<sup>−4</sup>, and the oxygen abundance is about 7×10<sup>−4</sup>. These are fairly typical abundances for planetary nebulae, with the carbon, nitrogen and oxygen abundances all larger than the values found for the sun, due to the effects of nucleosynthesis enriching the star's atmosphere in heavy elements before it is ejected as a planetary nebula. Deep spectroscopic analysis of NGC 6543 may indicate that the nebula contains a small amount of material which is highly enriched in heavy elements; this is discussed below. ## Kinematics and morphology The Cat's Eye Nebula is structurally a very complex nebula, and the mechanism or mechanisms that have given rise to its complicated morphology are not well understood. The central bright part of the nebula consists of the inner elongated bubble (inner ellipse) filled with hot gas. It, in turn, is nested into a pair of larger spherical bubbles conjoined together along their waist. The waist is observed as the second larger ellipse lying perpendicular to the bubble with hot gas. The structure of the bright portion of the nebula is primarily caused by the interaction of a fast stellar wind being emitted by the central PNN with the visible material ejected during the formation of the nebula. This interaction causes the emission of X-rays discussed above. The stellar wind, blowing with the velocity as high as 1900 km/s, has 'hollowed out' the inner bubble of the nebula, and appears to have burst the bubble at both ends. It is also suspected that the central WR:+O7 spectral class PNN star, HD 164963 / BD +66 1066 / PPM 20679 of the nebula may be generated by a binary star. The existence of an accretion disk caused by mass transfer between the two components of the system may give rise to polar jets, which would interact with previously ejected material. Over time, the direction of the polar jets would vary due to precession. Outside the bright inner portion of the nebula, there are a series of concentric rings, thought to have been ejected before the formation of the planetary nebula, while the star was on the asymptotic giant branch of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. These rings are very evenly spaced, suggesting that the mechanism responsible for their formation ejected them at very regular intervals and at very similar speeds. The total mass of the rings is about 0.1 solar masses. The pulsations that formed the rings probably started 15,000 years ago and ceased about 1000 years ago, when the formation of the bright central part began (see above). Further, a large faint halo extends to large distances from the star. The halo again predates the formation of the main nebula. The mass of the halo is estimated as 0.26–0.92 solar masses. ## See also - List of largest nebulae ## Cited sources	[ "## General information", "## Observations", "### Infrared observations", "### Optical and ultraviolet observations", "### X-ray observations", "## Distance", "## Age", "## Composition", "## Kinematics and morphology", "## See also", "## Cited sources" ]	2,448	43,723
69,129,598	Equestrian statue of Ambrose Burnside	1,172,405,270	Equestrian statue in Providence, US	[ "1887 establishments in Rhode Island", "1887 sculptures", "Bronze sculptures in Rhode Island", "Buildings and structures in Providence, Rhode Island", "Culture of Providence, Rhode Island", "Equestrian statues in Rhode Island", "Outdoor sculptures in Rhode Island", "Relocated buildings and structures in Rhode Island", "Sculptures of men in Rhode Island", "Statues in Rhode Island", "Tourist attractions in Providence, Rhode Island", "Union (American Civil War) monuments and memorials in Rhode Island" ]	Major General Ambrose E. Burnside, also known as the Ambrose Burnside Monument, is a monumental equestrian statue in Providence, Rhode Island, United States. The statue, located in the city's Burnside Park, was designed by sculptor Launt Thompson and depicts Ambrose Burnside, an officer in the Union Army during the American Civil War who later served as the governor of Rhode Island. Ambrose had died in 1881 and the project to erect a statue in his honor began shortly afterwards. It was dedicated on July 4, 1887 in a large ceremony that included several notable guests of honor, such as General William Tecumseh Sherman, Colonel Robert Hale Ives Goddard, and the governors of both Connecticut and Rhode Island. The monument was originally located in Exchange Place (now known as Kennedy Plaza), but it was moved to its current location in the early 1900s. As part of the move, the pedestal was replaced with one designed by William R. Walker. ## History ### Background Ambrose Burnside was a military officer who served in the United States Army during the mid-1800s. After graduating from the United States Military Academy in 1847, he participated in the Mexican–American War. At the outbreak of the American Civil War, he led the 1st Rhode Island Infantry Regiment of the Union Army and was later promoted to commanding the Army of the Potomac. In the later parts of the war, Burnside was moved to commanding positions in other departments, including the Department of the Ohio and the IX Corps. Following the war, he was elected to several terms as governor of Rhode Island, and afterwards was elected to the U.S. Senate. He died on September 13, 1881. Following this, he laid in state in Providence City Hall. ### Creation The day after Burnside's death, Colonel Isaac M. Potter suggested erecting a statue in his honor, and less than a week after his funeral, a group of soldiers gathered at the Grand Army of the Republic's Prescott Post Hall in Providence at Potter's request. The result of this meeting was the formation of a General Committee to oversee the monument project, with General Horatio Rogers Jr. as its chairman. This committee then began fundraising, and by January 1883, enough money had been raised that a meeting was held on January 20 where a Building Committee was appointed to select an artist and location in Providence for the monument, which would be an equestrian statue. In May 1883, the Building Committee commissioned sculptor Launt Thompson of New York City to design the monument, which was to be created by May 20, 1886. Thompson would be paid \$30,000 for the work, with half to be received at the submission of a plaster model to a bronze foundry and the other half to be received when the statue was placed on a pedestal, which was to be designed by Thompson and provided by the committee. At the time, Thompson was working on another commission, a statue of Admiral Samuel Francis Du Pont in Washington, D.C. In designing the statue, Thompson bought several horses to use as models and make several changes until a final design was determined. The Burnside monument was Thompson's last major work, as well as the only equestrian statue in his career. According to a preservationist with the Rhode Island Historical Preservation and Heritage Commission, the statue was commissioned during a time they referred to as the "Bronze Age"—the period from the 1870s to the 1920s when many bronze Civil War statues were erected across the country. Work on the Burnside project took longer than expected, and it was not until July 1885 that a sketch of the statue was submitted by Thompson and approved by the committee, and it took until August 1886 that a plaster model was submitted for casting at the Henry-Bonnard Bronze Company in New York City. Meanwhile, Thompson's pedestal design was accepted by the committee, with some slight modifications from the committee's consulting architect William R. Walker, and created by architect Henry O. Avery of New York City, with the location for the monument selected to be Exchange Place (later renamed Kennedy Plaza). Specifically, the statue would be on the eastern end of the plaza. Additional contracting work was done by George Gerhard of East Providence, Rhode Island and Franklin L. Mason of Providence, while the city government added a curbed sidewalk to hinder the possibility of auto accidents with the monument. The marble for the pedestal was acquired from Frederick L. Mathewson's quarry in Burrillville, Rhode Island and was cut and prepared by Providence citizen Isaac M. Sweet. The total cost of the monument (not including the sidewalk installation) was about \$40,000, with the government of Rhode Island contributing \$10,854.69 of this amount, the city contributing an additional \$5,000, and the remainder raised through private donations. By April 1887, it was determined that the monument would be ready for unveiling on July 4 (Independence Day). In preparation for this, the Rhode Island General Assembly appropriated \$4,000 towards the dedication ceremony, in addition to \$1,000 for transporting veterans to the event and \$2,500 for the governor to call upon the militia for the event. This was all in addition to \$2,000 set aside by the city council for Independence Day festivities. All veterans living in Rhode Island were invited to attend, with free transportation and food provided. The statue itself was cast and shipped to Providence in June 1887. ### Dedication The statue was dedicated on July 4, 1887, in a ceremony that began with a procession at 10:30 a.m. The procession included mounted police, the marshals for the event (of which Potter was the chief marshal), the Rhode Island Militia, and many veterans, including members of the Grand Army of the Republic. In total, about 5,000 people marched in the procession, which lasted over an hour. At the end of the procession was a carriage holding Rhode Island Governor John W. Davis and other guests of honor, including General William Tecumseh Sherman and the governor of Connecticut, Phineas C. Lounsbury. "Marching Through Georgia", a Civil War march, was played during the parade to cheers from spectators. The parade marched through Providence and ended at the monument, where the American Band played an overture before Governor Davis was introduced to the crowd by Henry Rodman Barker. Davis then gave a brief speech before an invocation was given by the Reverend Joseph J. Woolley. General Lewis Richmond then gave a short speech before unveiling the statue, which was accompanied by the American Band playing "The Star-Spangled Banner" as the crowd cheered. General Rogers was then introduced as the ceremony's orator and proceeded to give a lengthy oration in praise of Burnside, recounting some of his experiences in the Civil War and testifying to his character. At the end, Governor Davis introduced Thompson to the crowd and thanked him for his work on the statue, with Thompson giving a one-sentence reply to the crowd that he was proud to have been selected to create the monument and that he hoped it would be satisfactory to the people of Providence and Rhode Island. After this, Colonel Robert Hale Ives Goddard spoke on behalf of the Monument Committee and offered the monument to the city of Providence, with Providence Mayor Gilbert F. Robbins accepting. The ceremony ended with the Reverend Christopher Hughes giving a benediction and the band playing the "American Hymn". Following the close, a large reception was held for the guests of honor and veterans. Additionally, other Independence Day-related festivities occurred throughout Providence for the rest of the day. ### Later history In December 1902, the Rhode Island General Assembly passed an act to relocate some monuments in Providence, including the Burnside statue. As part of the act, the General Assembly would pay for both the statue's relocation and the creation of a new pedestal. In 1906, the statue was moved from Exchange Plaza to the northeast corner of nearby City Hall Park, which would later be known as Burnside Park. The statue was placed on a new pedestal designed by Walker. In 1993, the statue was surveyed as part of the Save Outdoor Sculpture! project. In July 2015, the city of Providence spent \$13,500 in hiring Buccacio Sculpture Studios LLC of Natick, Massachusetts to restore the statue as part of a larger renovation of the Kennedy Plaza area. ## Design The monument consists of a bronze equestrian statue of Burnside atop a granite pedestal. The statue depicts Burnside overlooking a battlefield, with binoculars in his right hand and the horse's reins in his left. The horse is depicted with all four feet planted on the ground and also staring directly ahead. Burnside is dressed in his Civil War military attire. The statue itself is approximately 13.5 feet (4.1 m) tall, with the horse measuring approximately 8 feet (2.4 m) from the ground to its withers. The total statue is approximately 1.5 times life-size, with Burnside depicted as an approximately 9-foot (2.7 m) tall man. The pedestal is divided into two parts, with the upper portion measuring 86 inches (2.2 m) tall and the lower portion measuring 26.5 inches (0.67 m). The upper pedestal covers a rectangular area of 89 inches (2.3 m) by 14 feet (4.3 m), while the lower part has side measurements of 8 feet (2.4 m) and 18 feet (5.5 m). By comparison, the original pedestal measured roughly 15 feet (4.6 m) or 16 feet (4.9 m) tall, making the total original height of the monument about 31 feet (9.4 m). Today, the total height is roughly 20 feet (6.1 m). The base of the statue bears markings from both the sculptor (Launt Thompson 1887 Sculptor) and the foundry (The Henry-Bonnard Bronze Co. 1887.), while the front of the pedestal bears the inscription "BURNSIDE". ### Analysis In an 1887 encyclopedia of art, Samuel Greene Wheeler Benjamin stated that the statue was "a work of considerable merit" and compares it favorably to other equestrian statues in the United States, such as Thomas Ball's statue of George Washington in Boston, John Quincy Adams Ward's statue of George Henry Thomas in Washington D.C., and Henry Kirke Brown's statues of Winfield Scott and George Washington in Washington, D.C., and New York City, respectively. However, in the same review, Benjamin stated that while all of those statues were "meritorious works", "none are of the first rank". Meanwhile, an 1891 article in The American Architect & Building News gave the following review: "Considering the character of the sculptor's previous work, this, his only piece of equestrian sculpture, is surprisingly good. It is sober, dignified, well-composed and, though the modelling is commonplace and hardly bears examination, the whole monument is deserving of a much better site than has been accorded it, for it is pushed aside to one end of an irregular-shaped square near the railroad station, where it is hemmed about by cars, carriages and wagons; but the squalor and bustle of its surroundings do but enhance and make conspicuous the virtues of a quiescent pose in a public statue." A 1965 catalogue from the Metropolitan Museum of Art states that many of Thompson's Civil War-related statuary, including the Burnside statue, were designed "in the heavy-handed, cast-iron, realistic style that prevailed between 1865 and 1895." ## See also - List of equestrian statues in the United States - List of Union Civil War monuments and memorials	[ "## History", "### Background", "### Creation", "### Dedication", "### Later history", "## Design", "### Analysis", "## See also" ]	2,469	645
55,452,495	Vince Dunn	1,170,186,817	Canadian ice hockey player	[ "1996 births", "Canadian ice hockey defencemen", "Chicago Wolves players", "Ice hockey people from Mississauga", "Living people", "Niagara IceDogs players", "Seattle Kraken players", "St. Louis Blues draft picks", "St. Louis Blues players", "Stanley Cup champions" ]	Vince Dunn (born October 29, 1996) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman currently playing for the Seattle Kraken of the National Hockey League (NHL). A native of Mississauga, Ontario, Dunn began his minor hockey career with the Central Ontario Wolves and hometown club, the Peterborough Petes. He was eventually drafted by the Niagara IceDogs in the 2012 Ontario Hockey League (OHL) Priority Selection Draft and spent three seasons with the team. During his tenure in the OHL, Dunn began to gain attention from scouts and earned the IceDogs Top Defenceman of the Year Award in two consecutive seasons. He was eventually drafted by the St. Louis Blues in the second round, 56th overall, in the 2015 NHL Entry Draft and later won the Stanley Cup as a member of the team in 2019. ## Early life Dunn was born on October 29, 1996, in Mississauga, Ontario, Canada, to police officer John and nurse Tracy Dunn. His step brother Nolan Dunn is also a hockey player. Growing up, he cheered for the hometown Toronto Maple Leafs, specifically Carl Gunnarsson and Alexander Steen. In honour of Dunn's grandfather who was important in his development as a player, the family started a Canadian Tire Jumpstart memorial fund in his name. ## Playing career ### Youth Dunn grew up in Lindsay, Ontario and began his minor hockey career with the Central Ontario Wolves and hometown club, the Peterborough Petes at the bantam and midget level. Dunn was unhappy while playing for the Wolves, although his coach refused to release him to another team. As a result, he and his mother Tracy moved an hour away to allow him to play with the Petes. While with the Petes, Dunn was invited to compete on the North American select team at the 2012 Lekov Cup tournament in the Czech Republic. As a result of his early success, Dunn was invited to the 2011 Ontario Minor Hockey Association AAA Showcase in Barrie prior to the 2012 Ontario Hockey League (OHL) Priority Selection Draft. He was eventually drafted 109th overall by the Niagara IceDogs in the 2012 OHL Priority Selection Draft but chose to play amateur Junior B hockey with the Thorold Blackhawks of the Greater Ontario Junior Hockey League before joining the IceDogs. Upon reflection on his decision, Dunn stated, "I needed to learn a few more things to move up to the next level ... I thought Thorold would be the best place for me." During his season with the Blackhawks, Dunn collected 28 points in 48 games. ### Major junior The following year, Dunn made the jump to major junior and began his rookie campaign with the Niagara IceDogs during their 2013–14 season. In his first 26 games with the team, Dunn recorded 10 points which earned praise from coach/general manager Marty Williamson as an "above average player." At the conclusion of his rookie campaign, Dunn led all first year defencemen in the league in scoring with 33 points in 63 games. He also received the Ice Dogs Rookie of the Year Award. Dunn continued to improve in his second season with Niagara, totaling 56 points in 68 games to clinch the team's Top Defenceman of the Year Award. He was invited to the 2015 BMO Top Prospects Game where he remained pointless in the 6–0 loss to Team Orr. He also earned a final ranking of 32nd overall amongst North American Skaters by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau prior to the 2015 NHL Entry Draft. When asked about his rising status, Dunn stated "Obviously, I want to be selected in the first round ... I believe I’m a first-round pick but if it doesn’t end up that way, I’m going to work just as hard no matter where I am picked and whoever picks me." Dunn and the IceDogs qualified for the 2015 OHL playoffs, where he scored four goals in Game 1 against the Ottawa 67s to help the team win the series 4–2. He began the second round against the Oshawa Generals leading all defencemen before being suspended two games for slew footing Mitchell Vande Sompel. Although he returned to the lineup for Game 4, a knee injury would keep him out for the remainder of the series. Dunn was eventually selected by the St. Louis Blues 56th overall in the second round of the draft and signed a three-year, entry-level contract with the team on September 25, 2015. On June 24, 2015, Dunn was one of seven Niagara IceDogs players and prospects invited to participate in Hockey Canada Summer Showcase. However, Dunn left the camp early due to a pre-existing knee injury. Dunn attended the St. Louis Blues 2015 Development Camp before returning for his final season of major junior hockey with the IceDogs. Once again, he led the IceDogs to the OHL playoffs and was selected as the IceDogs Top Defenceman of the Year for the second consecutive season. During the IceDogs Eastern Conference Finals series win over the Kingston Frontenacs, Dunn suffered a knee injury and sat out for the start of the Eastern Conference championships. He suffered the injury during Game 3 of the series and was listed as day-to-day with no surgery required. Dunn eventually returned to the lineup and led the IceDogs to the Eastern Conference championship over the London Knights. ### Professional #### St. Louis Blues At the conclusion of his major junior career, Dunn opted to begin his professional career and was assigned by the Blues to their American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Chicago Wolves, for the 2016–17 season. He recorded his first career professional goal in a 4–2 loss against the Grand Rapids Griffins on October 15, 2016. At the age of 20, Dunn was the youngest player on the roster and he compiled 45 points in 72 games to lead the Wolves defence in scoring. Approaching his second season as a professional, Dunn made the St. Louis Blues' opening night roster for the 2017–18 season. He made his NHL debut with the Blues against the defending Stanley Cup champions, the Pittsburgh Penguins, while playing a third pairing role in a 5–4 overtime win on October 4, 2017. Eight days later, Dunn registered his first career NHL goal at 18:51 in the third period during a 5–2 loss to the Florida Panthers. He consistently played on the team's third pairing with Robert Bortuzzo while averaging 16:14 of ice time and playing on the second power play unit. On March 18, 2018, Dunn became the first Blues rookie to record four points in one game since Rik Wilson during a 5–4 overtime win against the Chicago Blackhawks. At the conclusion of his sophomore season, Dunn was named to Canada's senior team to compete at the 2018 IIHF World Championship, but was replaced by Josh Bailey due to an injury. Dunn continued his success in the National Hockey League by once again making the Blues lineup to begin the 2018–19 season. During a game against the Edmonton Oilers on December 18, Dunn cross-checked Oilers forward Jujhar Khaira, earning him a minor penalty and \$1,942.20 fine. In March 2019, Dunn recorded a new career-high in points with 27 and joined Alex Pietrangelo and Colton Parayko as the first three Blues defensemen to reach 10 goals in the same season. He stayed with the team the entire season and helped them qualify for the 2019 Stanley Cup playoffs. During Game 3 of the Western Conference finals, Dunn took a puck to the face which he broke his jaw and required multiple surgeries to fix. He returned to the Blues' lineup for Game 4 of the 2019 Stanley Cup Finals and recorded a point in the 4–2 win over the Boston Bruins. On June 12, 2019, Dunn won the 2019 Stanley Cup Finals with the Blues, St. Louis' first Stanley Cup in their 52-year franchise history. Upon winning the Cup, Dunn said "For me at such a young age, it's very special ... You kind of take things for granted when you're younger, but now you really take it in." During his Day with the Cup, Dunn returned to his hometown of Lindsay, Ontario and Kawartha Lakes. Although he returned to the lineup, Dunn required surgeries during the offseason and replaced five teeth. He was cleared to play during the Blues' preseason games and chose to forgo a full face shield. When asked about his decision, Dunn said "I tried that (full shield) ... I didn’t like it. It’s a distraction more than anything. I’d rather just take another puck to the face." Upon returning to the Blues for the 2019–20 NHL regular season, Dunn was reunited with his former defensive partner Robert Bortuzzo. During the NHL's pause in play due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Dunn competed in a league-wide Fortnite tournament for charity with teammates Robert Thomas and Jordan Kyrou. Together, they finished in first place and donated \$50,000 to the St. Louis Children's Hospital, \$25,000 to the St. Louis Area Foodbank, and \$25,000 to muscular dystrophy research. Once the NHL returned to play, Dunn and the Blues loss to the Vancouver Canucks in the Western Conference First Round of the 2020 Stanley Cup playoffs. Following their playoff loss, Dunn signed a one-year, \$1.875 million contract to remain with the Blues on December 31, 2020. #### Seattle Kraken After five seasons within the Blues organization, Dunn's tenure ended on July 21, 2021, after he was the team's selection at the 2021 NHL Expansion Draft by the Seattle Kraken. Dunn soon signed a two-year, \$8 million contract by the Kraken on August 6 to avoid going to arbitration. He then participated in the Kraken's inaugural training camp and played alongside captain Mark Giordano. Once the season began, Dunn suffered an undisclosed injury and missed two consecutive games. Upon returning to the lineup, he scored the first goal in the history of Climate Pledge Arena for the Kraken in the first period of a 4–2 loss to the Vancouver Canucks. As the Kraken continued to lose games through November, head coach Dave Hakstol placed Dunn on a pairing with Adam Larsson. As a precaution during the COVID-19 pandemic, the NHL paused play for over a week as teams recovered. Once the Kraken returned to the ice, Dunn was placed on the NHLs COVID protocol list. Dunn had a breakout season in 2022-23, setting career highs with 14 goals and 64 points, continuing his successful partnership with Larsson on the Kraken's top pair. The Kraken also improved dramatically from the previous season, making the playoffs for the first time and defeating the Colorado Avalanche, the reigning Stanley Cup champions, in seven games before falling to the Dallas Stars in the next round. On July 21 2023, Dunn and the Kraken avoided arbitration for a second time with a 4-year, \$29.4 million contract extension. ## Player profile Dunn considers himself a puck-moving defencemen, similar to that of Ryan Ellis of the Philadelphia Flyers. He said, "I know I’m not one of the biggest defensemen out there, but if my stick is really good in one-on-one battles and I keep guys on the outside as much as possible, I’ll be able to succeed in the defensive end. Being one of the smaller defenseman out there my stick skills are essential. Since last year, I have been working on my defensive skills especially." ## Career statistics ## Awards and honours	[ "## Early life", "## Playing career", "### Youth", "### Major junior", "### Professional", "#### St. Louis Blues", "#### Seattle Kraken", "## Player profile", "## Career statistics", "## Awards and honours" ]	2,467	14,454
4,366,580	The 23rd Psalm	1,171,553,267	null	[ "2006 American television episodes", "Lost (season 2) episodes", "Television episodes written by Damon Lindelof" ]	"The 23rd Psalm" is the tenth episode of the second season of Lost, and the 35th episode overall. The episode was directed by Matt Earl Beesley, and written by Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof. It first aired on January 11, 2006, on ABC, and was watched by an average of 20.56 million American viewers. The episode is centered on the character of Mr. Eko (Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje), who in flashbacks is revealed to be a former warlord in Nigeria, and in the present day events goes with Charlie Pace (Dominic Monaghan) to the Nigerian airplane which had crashed on the island. The episode has an overall theme of redemption, and was written by drawing inspiration from "Deus Ex Machina", the episode where the Nigerian airplane was first introduced. Reviews for "The 23rd Psalm" were positive, praising the flashback and Akinnuoye-Agbaje's performance as Eko. The episode's script was later nominated for an Emmy Award. ## Plot ### Flashbacks Nigerian guerrillas arrive at a small village, grab a young boy named Yemi and try to force him to shoot an old man. The boy hesitates and his older brother, Eko, takes the gun and shoots the man himself, thus saving his brother from the act. The guerrillas are pleased with this, and force him to join their group, tearing his Christian cross from his neck, which is then taken by Yemi. Years later, Eko has become a powerful warlord. He meets with a drug dealer who is trying to get his heroin out of the country. Eko offers to do him a "favor," buying the drugs at a low price and spiriting them out of the country. The drug runner agrees, but is killed after saying that he believed Eko had no soul. Later, Eko visits the church of his hometown, where Yemi has become a priest. Eko asks him for a plane, because only United Nations relief and missionary aircraft are allowed to fly out of Nigeria, saying he will fly the drugs away from the Nigerians and give his brother money for a polio vaccine. Yemi refuses to help. Later, Eko approaches his brother again, asking simply for Yemi to sign ordination papers that make Eko and two associates priests so that they can arrange the flight themselves. His brother refuses, but reluctantly signs after Eko says that his two friends will burn the church to the ground if Yemi does not collaborate. Eko also buys Virgin Mary statues to hide the heroin within. Dressed as priests, Eko and two associates are loading drugs onto a Beechcraft airplane, when Yemi drives up and tells him not to leave. The Nigerian military arrives shortly thereafter, killing a henchman and shooting Yemi. Eko loads his brother onto the plane, but the pilot, who has a gold tooth, prevents Eko from boarding and flies away. Then the military approach and, mistaking Eko for a real priest, ask Eko, "Are you alright, Father?" ### On the Island On the island, Claire Littleton (Emilie de Ravin) watches Eko whittling scripture into the head of his club, and mentions that Charlie Pace (Dominic Monaghan) carries a Virgin Mary statue. Eko immediately demands to see the statue, which he breaks open and shows Claire the heroin inside. Eko then goes to Charlie, demanding him to take him to the plane. Meanwhile, Locke teaches Michael Dawson (Harold Perrineau) how to use a gun, and Michael then asks Kate Austen (Evangeline Lilly) to have her shift at the hatch computer. At the computer, Michael continues his conversation with his son Walt (Malcolm David Kelley), which is interrupted by the arrival of Jack Shephard (Matthew Fox), who remains unaware of it. On the way to the Beechcraft, Eko and Charlie find a parachute in a tree, which leads to the corpse of a Nigerian man dressed as a priest that Boone Carlyle (Ian Somerhalder) and John Locke (Terry O'Quinn) had previously found. When Eko sees the dead man's gold tooth, he tells Charlie that the man "saved his life." Charlie loses his way, and Mr. Eko tells him to climb a tree. As he is above the tree, trees are uprooted as a cloud of free-moving black smoke emerges from the jungle. It confronts Mr. Eko whilst flashing images to him of his past. Mr. Eko stands his ground, despite Charlie telling him to run, and stares at the smoke before it pulls back and disappears. (This scene is significant because it marks the first appearance of the smoke monster in the second season, and it is the first time a clear shot of it is given; apart from very brief glances in the season one finale, the monster went unseen throughout the entire first season.) Eko and Charlie then find the plane, inside which Eko finds another corpse which Eko recognizes as Yemi. After taking the cross from Yemi's body, Eko tells Charlie that it is his brother, gives Charlie a Virgin Mary statue "for the one [he] broke" and sets the plane on fire. Charlie asks Eko if he is a priest himself, and as Eko puts the cross around his neck he replies "Yes, I am." The two then recite Psalm 23 from the Old Testament as the plane burns. After arriving at the camp, Charlie apologizes to Claire, but Claire tells him to leave her and her son alone. Charlie then goes into the jungle, and opens a hiding place where he is keeping Virgin Mary statues to put with the one Eko gave him. ## Production During the production of "Deus Ex Machina", which introduced the Nigerian airplane, a corpse dressed as a priest with a gun, and Virgin Mary statues filled with heroin, the Lost writers decided that the story of the Beechcraft would coincide with one of the characters' flashbacks. They decided to use one of the tail section characters to be introduced in season 2, "essentially a bad guy who was forced to disguise himself as a priest, and how would that come about, and could he now be presenting himself as a priest". Since Eko and Locke are both spiritual leaders on the island - but with Locke having a "paganistic, ritualistic appreciation" for the island's powers and Eko, "pure religious faith" - writers Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof decided to write in this episode parallels with "Deus Ex Machina", where Locke and Boone find the Beechcraft. The biggest similarity is Charlie unwillingly become Eko's "acolyte", just like Boone was being Locke's follower in their expedition to the airplane. The main theme of "The 23rd Psalm" was redemption, which both Eko and Charlie are seeking, with Eko eventually getting his upon finding his brother. Charlie was chosen to be Eko's companion because the character did not have much screentime up to that point in the season, and the writers found similarities between Charlie and Eko, such as both having difficult relationships with their brothers. The writers accidentally transcribed Psalm 23 wrong, with "the shadow of the valley of death" instead of "the valley of the shadow of death," but decided to keep the mistake, feeling it was appropriate as Eko was never a proper priest. The flashbacks had the intent of showing that Eko was the opposite of his religious brother, but eventually ended up similar to Yemi. Nigeria's depiction was described by art director Bill Matthews as a "very dusty-dirty brown kind of Nigerian-earth look", with touches such as vendors on the street, and a square where children play soccer. The interior of the church was an actual location in Haleiwa, and a facade was built on the set to match it. While editing, the producers decided to separate a part of the final scene involving the airplane getting attacked and taking off, where a soldier confuses Eko for a priest, to juxtapose with Eko's spiritual epiphany on the island and set up his next flashback on "?", where he is a priest in Australia. As the casting team was having trouble finding a Moroccan to play the drug dealer, set caterer Moumen El Hajji was selected for the role. As the Monster had not yet appeared in the second season, the producers decided to expand on his mythology in "The 23rd Psalm", as they thought Eko was a good character to confront the Monster because of his spirituality and "self-awareness". Visual effects supervisor Kevin Blank suggested on adding imagery representing Eko's past on the smoke, such as a cross and the man he shoots at the opening scene. ## Reception The original broadcast of "The 23rd Psalm" was on January 11, 2006 on ABC, being preceded by a clip show titled "Lost: Revelations". It was watched by approximately 20.56 million American viewers, being third in the weekly audience ranking, behind the AFC playoffs and Desperate Housewives. Reviews for "The 23rd Psalm" were mostly positive. Entertainment Weekly's Jeff Jensen gave the episode an A, describing it as a "wonderfully strange parable about redemption and fate". Mac Slocum of Filmfodder.com considered the episode a worthy return after the two-month break, saying that Eko's "simple looks and simple phrases pummel the screen with gravitas and charisma". Ryan Mcgee of Zap2it considered highlights of the episode the scene with the Monster, and the flashback, which in his opinion "[did] so great a job at explaining an entire character so succinctly". IGN's Chris Carabott gave the episode an 8.3 out of 10, praising the development of Eko's character and the flashback. Writers Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof's script for "The 23rd Psalm" was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series. IGN ranked "The 23rd Psalm" 40th out of the 115 Lost episodes, calling the flashback "one of most action-packed and ambitious on the series". A similar list by Los Angeles Times ranked the episode at 49th, describing it as "a great first chapter that sadly never got a worthy follow-up."	[ "## Plot", "### Flashbacks", "### On the Island", "## Production", "## Reception" ]	2,154	19,165
71,631,115	Escúchame (Carlos Ponce song)	1,159,797,451	null	[ "1990s ballads", "1999 singles", "1999 songs", "Carlos Ponce songs", "EMI Latin singles", "Latin ballads", "Pop ballads", "Songs written by Marco Flores (songwriter)", "Spanish-language songs" ]	"Escúchame" (transl. "Listen to Me") is a song by Puerto Rican entertainer Carlos Ponce from his second studio album, Todo lo Que Soy (1999). The song was written and produced by Marco Flores. It was released as the album's lead single on August 16, 1999, by EMI Latin. A flamenco pop ballad, it features Ponce making a plea to a woman he loves. The song received positive reactions from music critics, who praised its melody and genre. Commercially, the song reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Latin Pop Airplay charts in the United States. The song's music video was filmed in Old San Juan in Puerto Rico and features the artist impressing a woman in a club. A Portuguese-language version of the song was released in Brazil, where it reached number one in several of its cities. ## Background and composition In 1998, Ponce released his self-titled debut album, which spawned two hit singles ("Rezo" and "Decir Adiós") and had sold over 450,000 copies worldwide. The record led to Ponce winning the Billboard Latin Music Award for Pop Album of the Year by a New Artist in 1999. On July 22, 1999, Ponce announced that he was releasing his second studio album, Todo lo Que Soy, which was released on September 21, 1999, and recorded at the Crescent Moon Studios in Miami, Florida. Ponce recruited several songwriters for the project such as Marco Flores, Tim Mitchell, and Roberto Blades. Flores penned two of the album's track including "Escúchame", which he also produced. A flamenco pop ballad, the singer is "pleading calls for love". The lyrics narrate the "plea of a lover to a beautiful woman". The track utilizes flamenco guitars and hand clapping. ## Promotion and reception "Escúchame" as released as the album's lead single on August 16, 1999. Ponce performed the song live at a free concert at the Coconut Grove in Miami, Florida, on September 28. He also sung the track live during a halftime show at the Miami Dolphins versus Philadelphia Eagles game on October 24, 1999. The music video for the song was filmed at Old San Juan in Puerto Rico and features the artist dancing in n club while being enamored by a woman. The visual was nominated in the category of Best Clip of the Year in the Latin field at the 2000 Billboard Video Music Awards, but lost to "Ritmo Total" (1999) by Enrique Iglesias. A Portuguese-language version of the song featuring Brazilian singer Belo [pt] was released exclusively to Brazil in 2000 and reached number one in several of its cities, according to Crowley Broadcast Analysis. A music video for the Portuguese version was released in Brazil as well. Billboard editor John Lannert regarded the track to be "flamenco-laced" and stated its "sonic vibe recalls the chugging grooves of Enrique Iglesias' 'Bailamos'". The Dallas Morning News' Mario Tarradell found "Escúchame" to be "invigorating". Laura Emerick of the Chicago Sun-Times highlighted the song where Ponce "lets more of his personality shine through this time" on the disc. The Houston Chronicle critic Joey Guerra felt that the song "should have no problem finding an audience" and complimented Ponce's vocals, as it works "nicely with the song's airy rhythms and hand claps." At the 2001 ASCAP Latin Music Awards, it was recognized as the best-performing Latin songs of the year under "Pop/Balada" category. Commercially, the song topped the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Latin Pop Airplay charts in the US, making it Ponce's third number one on both charts. ## Formats and track listings Promotional single 1. Escúchame – 3:14 2. La Entrevista – 6:29 European single 1. Escúchame – 3:14 2. Ameilia (club mix) – 3:41 Remixes 1. Escúchame (The Eurolatin Mix) – 3:16 2. Escúchame (Mannos De Papa Mix) – 3:15 3. Escúchame (Radio Dance Mix) – 3:07 Pablo Flores remix 1. Escúchame (Pablo Flores Club Mix Radio Edit) – 4:47 Brazilian single 1. Original Version – 3:16 2. Original Version (featuring Belo [pt]) – 3:17 3. Hitmakers Samba Mix (featuring Belo [pt]) – 3:27 4. Hitmakers Radio Edit – 3:45 5. Hitmakers Extended Mix – 5:21 6. Version Balada – 3:14 ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## See also - List of number-one Billboard Hot Latin Tracks of 1999 - List of Billboard Latin Pop Airplay number ones of 1999	[ "## Background and composition", "## Promotion and reception", "## Formats and track listings", "## Charts", "### Weekly charts", "### Year-end charts", "## See also" ]	1,094	13,473
36,483,390	Hurricane Ignacio (1985)	1,133,990,663	1985 category 4 Pacific hurricane	[ "1985 Pacific hurricane season", "1985 in Hawaii", "Category 4 Pacific hurricanes", "Hurricanes in Hawaii", "Tropical cyclones in 1985" ]	Hurricane Ignacio was a Pacific hurricane that threatened Hawaii during July 1985, but ultimately had little impact on the island chain. Ignacio was the eleventh tropical cyclone, ninth named storm, and third hurricane and major hurricane of the very active 1985 Pacific hurricane season. A tropical depression formed on July 21 far from land. It became Tropical Storm Ignacio later that day. Ignacio then rapidly intensified and peaked with 130 mph (215 km/h) winds on July 24. Ignacio weakened quickly, though it briefly leveled off in intensity as a Category 2 hurricane. Ignacio was downgraded into a tropical storm on July 26 while passing south of Hawaii. Continuing to weaken, Ignacio dissipated on July 27. A hurricane watch was briefly issued for the Hawaiian Islands even though the watch was dropped when Ignacio weakened. However, Ignacio still brought high waves and light rainfall to the islands. A few roads were closed, but otherwise, damage was minimal. ## Meteorological history Based on data from the ships UJGN and Okean and satellite imagery, the next tropical cyclone of 1985 was spotted early on July 21 while located 1,623 mi (2,612 km) southwest of San Diego. Situated over 81 °F (27 °C) sea surface temperatures, the depression attained tropical storm intensity a few hours later. Intensifying further west than normal, the storm reached winds of 70 mph (140 km/h) roughly 24 hours after formation. Nine hours later, the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center dropped advisories on Ignacio as it had left their area of responsibility and into the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's (CPHC) warning zone. A Hurricane Hunter aircraft investigated Ignacio at daybreak on July 22, and found that Ignacio had developed a well-defined eye and winds of 85 mph (165 km/h). Based on this, the CPHC upgraded Ignacio to hurricane status. Continuing to rapidly intensify, Hurricane Ignacio moved west-northwest at 10 mph (16 km/h) and was soon upgraded into Category 2 status on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale (SSHS). Several hours later, the hurricane attained major hurricane status, Category 3 or higher on the SSHS. Later that day, a Hurricane Hunter aircraft discovered that Hurricane Ignacio had reached its peak wind speed of 130 mph (210 km/h) and a central pressure of 960 mbar (28 inHg), making Ignacio one of the most intense hurricane to traverse the Central Pacific. The hurricane held peak intensity for several hours, however, an upper trough northwest of the Hawaiian Islands was gradually approaching Ignacio. Subsequently, the environment was rapidly becoming less conductive as the trough induced increased southwesterly wind shear and introduced colder and drier air into Ignacio's circulation. By 1800 UTC July 24, Ignacio was no longer a major hurricane as satellite imagery suggested that the eye had become irregular and soon disappeared. Air Force aircraft confirmed the weakening trend despite being located in an area where other hurricanes such as Hurricane Dot in 1959 and Hurricane Fico in 1978 maintained their intensity around the same time of the year. Minor re-intensification may have occurred the next day as the eye re-developed, however, this theory is not supported in the hurricane database. The hurricane resumed its westerly course, and Hurricane Ignacio was downgraded a Category 1 hurricane at 1800 UTC on July 25, and a tropical storm the next day. While passing south of Hawaii, Ignacio dropped to tropical depression status early on July 27, and dissipated shortly after that. ## Preparations and impact Because of a strong trough was located northwest of Ignacio, many tropical cyclone forecast models predicted a more northerly track than what ultimately occurred. By July 24, a high surf advisory was in effect for east-facing shores of Hawaii; subsequently, a hurricane watch was issued at 0300 UTC July 25 for the Big Island of Hawaii Because the island chain only recently recovered from the devastating Hurricane Iwa during the 1982 Pacific hurricane season, civil defense authorities evacuated low-lying residents. One drugstore opened a special hurricane supplies center. In addition, beach activities on south-facing shores were cancelled. Roughly 24 hours after the hurricane watch was issued, the watch was cancelled as Ignacio resumed weakening though a small craft advisory initially remained in effect for the Hawaiian Islands. Ignacio resulted in 10 ft (3.0 m) to 15 ft (4.6 m) surf, peaking midday on July 25. Rainfall from the storm was generally light, with a few reports exceeding 2 in (51 mm) on the windward slopes of Maui and the Big Island. Some structures and roads near Kalapana and Kapoh were damaged. Many secondary roads that led to the beaches were closed. Picnic areas and nature trails in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park were closed and overnight camping throughout the state was banned. ## See also - List of Pacific hurricanes - 1985 Pacific hurricane season - Timeline of the 1985 Pacific hurricane season - Hurricane Estelle (1986) - Hurricane Hector (2018)	[ "## Meteorological history", "## Preparations and impact", "## See also" ]	1,082	26,081
23,666,730	Bramhope Tunnel	1,149,628,905	Railway tunnel in West Yorkshire, England	[ "1849 establishments in England", "Bramhope", "North Eastern Railway (UK)", "Rail transport in West Yorkshire", "Railway tunnels in England", "Tunnels completed in 1849" ]	Bramhope Tunnel is on the Harrogate Line between Horsforth station and the Arthington Viaduct in West Yorkshire, England. Services through the railway tunnel are operated mainly by Northern. The tunnel was constructed during 1845–1849 by the Leeds and Thirsk Railway. It is notable for its 2.138-mile (3.441 km) length and its Grade II listed, crenellated north portal. The deaths of 24 men who were killed during its construction are commemorated in Otley churchyard by a monument that is a replica of the tunnel's north portal. Thomas Grainger was the engineer for the line and James Bray the contractor. Two sighting towers were erected and 20 shafts sunk along the tunnel's line. Men excavated rock from the shaft faces until the shafts were connected and the tunnel was completed in 1848. Thousands of navvies lived locally in temporary bothies with their families, and worked in dangerous and wet conditions to facilitate the grand opening in 1849. ## History In the mid-1840s Railway Mania was taking hold and railway companies competed with each other to bring forward schemes to access Wharfedale. Most of these schemes did not come to fruition but the Leeds and Thirsk Railway Company's proposal, a counter to George Hudson's "megalomania", to build a line from Leeds to Thirsk received approval in an Act of Parliament in 1845. The line would open up trade in Leeds to the North East and access lower Wharfedale. Among the several major obstacles on the route was the ridge between Airedale and Wharfedale requiring a long tunnel between Horsforth and Arthington under Bramhope village. The company appointed Thomas Grainger as engineer for the project and James Bray was the contractor for the Bramhope contract. Bray, of Black Bull Street in Leeds, was originally a brass and iron founder. Water was taken at first from the town well opposite St Giles' Church, but the excessive demand diminished the supply and spoiled its quality. The tunnellers' water was then pumped from a site near the Dyneley Arms crossroads. At the same time the tunnel was draining away the local farmers' natural water supply and the source of Bramhope town well. Litigation on this subject continued for some years. To mitigate the situation, a public waterworks scheme with a reservoir and an aqueduct was proposed but not implemented. The tunnel was planned to be 3,344 yards in length but during construction it was extended to 3,743 yards. The cost of building the whole line was estimated to be £800,000 but the final total rose to £2,150,313 () by 1849 because of costs incurred for labour, unforeseen extra costs for tunnelling at Bramhope and work in Leeds and on the Arthington Viaduct. At a shareholders meeting in September 1848 it was reported that only 100 yards of new ground were left to be penetrated and Bray stated it would be possible to run a locomotive through the tunnel in the following May. Work on the tunnel cost the lives of 24 men. The grand opening was 9 July 1849, a week later than intended, but the first train, full of Leeds and Thirsk railway officials, pulled by Bray's locomotive Stephenson, went through a few weeks earlier on 31 May. The railway was opened to the public on 10 July. When built it was the third-longest rail tunnel in the country. The Leeds and Thirsk Company was renamed the Leeds Northern Railway shortly after the line was completed. Since 2016 most services on the line through the tunnel are operated by the Northern franchise on behalf of Rail North which represents the Local Transport Authorities in West and North Yorkshire and other parts of the North of England. ## Construction Two sighting towers were built at a cost of £140 for the surveyors to keep the line true, then from 20 October 1845 twenty shafts were sunk to enable tunnelling. Tunnelling started after the foundation stone was laid at the bottom of No. 1 airshaft in July 1846. The separate working faces were joined into a single tunnel on 27 November 1848, and work was completed in summer 1849. The four shafts retained for ventilation cost £35,000. The shaft north of Otley Road is 240 feet deep, the one behind Park House is 239 feet, Camp House Farm 204 feet and the one nearest to Horsforth station is 175 feet deep. The ventilation shafts measure 40 feet (12 m) by 30 feet (9.1 m) – wider than the tunnel. The finished tunnel is 2 miles, 243 yd or 2.138 miles (3.441 km) long; 25.5 feet (7.8 m) wide by 25 feet (7.6 m) high. It is a double track tunnel, with a gradient of 1 in 94 (0.01%) falling from just north of Horsforth station towards Arthington. The line enters and leaves the tunnel on a curve. ### Working conditions Work was carried out by up to 2,300 navvies and 400 horses were brought in for the work. The workforce included 188 quarrymen, 102 stonemasons, 732 tunnel men, 738 labourers and 18 carpenters. Each day around 2150 wagon loads of rock and earth was removed from the workings to be tipped on the Wharfe embankment leading to the Arthington Viaduct. Men were lowered by bucket down the airshafts to dig by candlelight. They were paid £1.50 per week to shovel 20 tons (20.32 tonnes) of rock and earth per 12–hour shift, seven days a week. Conditions were constantly wet, with foul air and gunpowder fumes and the danger of roof–collapse. The tunnel cuts through hard sandstone, shale and clay, and there are seven major faults in the rock near the centre point. The work was dangerous because the rock at the Horsforth end was difficult to blast, and there was frequent flooding and subsidence. About 1,563,480,000 gallons (7,107,580,080 litres) of water were pumped out of the workings between 1845 and 1849. Metal sheets had to be used to divert water inside the tunnel. ### Living conditions For four years the workmen, some of whom brought their families, lived in 300 temporary wooden bothies either in a field alongside the offices and workshops, opposite the cemetery, or elsewhere along the line of the tunnel. Day– and night–shift workers lived up to 17 per hut taking turns to use the beds in unsanitary conditions. Workers' children overwhelmed the village school. It had been built by the township copyholders and freeholders on Eastgate in 1790. There were originally 30 children but their number increased fourfold, and with a grant of £100 from the railway company the school building was enlarged to accommodate them. The workers and their families used St Ronan's Methodist Chapel in Bramhope and the Methodist Chapel at Pool-in-Wharfedale. The Leeds Mission spread bibles and tracts to families who lived in the bothies. Many navvies had been farm labourers from the Yorkshire Dales, North East England and the Fens, or had come for work from Scotland and Ireland. Drunkenness and fighting was such that Jos Midgeley, a railway police inspector, was hired for £1.25 per week to keep order. At one time he was attacked by a group of men, and at Wescoe Hill, two miles away on the opposite side of the River Wharfe, a riot occurred when the contractors tried to cut off the beer supply to keep the men sober enough to work. ## What is visible today Four of the twenty construction shafts were retained as ventilation shafts. One of the two sighting towers, a tall, cylindrical sandstone structure, two metres in diameter with four vertical slits near the top and flat coping stones is still standing in the field opposite Bramhope cemetery. The other one, now demolished, was behind Dyneley Hall. About 250,000 cubic yards (190,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of sandstone and shale spoil was tipped close to the ventilation shafts along the line of the tunnel. One of the tips is in an area around the scout hut north of Otley Road through to the Knoll, another is south of Breary Lane, one is in a field opposite the cemetery and another near None Go Bye Farm. The sandstone sighting tower, the north and south portals and the retaining walls to the south portal are all Grade II listed structures. The portals are on Network Rail land with no public access. The southern portal at the Horsforth end is a plain sandstone horseshoe-shaped arch with rusticated voussoirs below a cornice and a parapet. It is approached by a slightly curved 300-metre cutting faced with sandstone retaining walls. They have a concave batter, slightly projecting piers at regular intervals and are topped with square coping stones. During the Railway Mania period in which the tunnel was constructed, the powerful landowners often had a strong influence on the railways being built on their land, and it was due to the demands of William Rhodes of the adjoining Bramhope and Creskeld Halls that the north portal is to an intricate Gothic revival castellated design; it was not simply an entrance and exit for trains, but a fantasy medieval gatehouse garden feature. After it was finished, was lived in for a while by railway workers. It is built of rock–faced sandstone and has three side towers with turrets. The keystone on its horseshoe–shaped archway features a portrait of a bearded man thought to be Rhodes. Its crenellated parapet has a carved cartouche in the centre featuring a wheatsheaf, fleece and fish – the heraldic device of the Leeds and Thirsk Railway. ## Incidents A southbound passenger train and a pilot engine left Arthington station on 19 September 1854 heading for Leeds. A pilot engine had travelled northbound through the tunnel earlier the same day with no problems but this time the train ran into a pile of stone debris and was derailed when it was three-quarters of the way into the tunnel. The debris was from a roof fall that affected both tracks. The train engine collided with the pilot engine tender causing considerable damage. Trains have been cancelled or delayed because of flooding in the tunnel. Water still runs fast into the tunnel, and in the 1960s a train was derailed by a 3-ton (3.3 tonne) icicle. ## Repairs Major repair work was done in 2003 and 2006, when the Victorian drainage culvert was replaced and the track lowered to allow access for larger passenger and freight stock at a cost of £10 million. The 16 closed airshafts were deteriorating and had to be re-capped. In 2003 the excavated material from the works was recycled to shore up the railway embankment near Castley. ## Human cost Records of death and injury were kept from 1847 to 1849, and grants were made to the Leeds Infirmary and a special sprung handcart was provided to transport the injured to hospital. Five men died in 1846, twelve died in 1847 and seven more had died by 1849. The 24 men who died are commemorated in Otley churchyard by a Grade II listed monument in the shape of the north portal. It was erected by the contractor. > The sadness of the harsh conditions of those days is captured by the simple epitaph on the gravestone of James Myers who is buried in the Methodist Cemetery at Yeadon behind the Town Hall. James was a married man just 22 years old who 'died by an accident in the Bramhope Tunnel on the 14th day of April, 1848'. Next to him lies the body of his 3 years old daughter who died two weeks later of some unspecified illness. ## See also - Listed buildings in Bramhope - Listed buildings in Guiseley and Rawdon	[ "## History", "## Construction", "### Working conditions", "### Living conditions", "## What is visible today", "## Incidents", "## Repairs", "## Human cost", "## See also" ]	2,573	4,969
6,420,998	Shwezigon Pagoda	1,161,394,762	Prominent Buddhist Pagoda in Bagan, Myanmar	[ "Bagan", "Buddhist pilgrimage sites in Myanmar", "Buddhist temples in Myanmar", "Buildings and structures in Mandalay Region", "Pagodas in Myanmar" ]	The Shwezigon Pagoda or Shwezigon Paya (ရွှေစည်းခုံဘုရား ) is a Buddhist stupa located in Nyaung-U, Myanmar. A prototype of Burmese stupas, it consists of a circular gold leaf-gilded stupa surrounded by smaller temples and shrines. Construction of the Shwezigon Pagoda began during the reign of King Anawrahta (r. 1044–1077), the founder of the Pagan Empire, in 1059–1060 and was completed in 1102, during the reign of his son King Kyansittha. Over the centuries the pagoda had been damaged by many earthquakes and other natural calamities, and has been refurbished several times. In recent renovations it has been covered by more than 30,000 copper plates. However, the lowest level terraces have remained as they were. This pagoda, a sacred Buddhist religious place, is believed to enshrine a bone and tooth of Gautama Buddha. The pagoda is in the form of a cone formed by five square terraces with a central solid core. There are footprints below the four standing Buddha statues here. Jataka legends are depicted on glazed terra-cotta tiles set into three rectangular terraces. At the entrance of the pagoda there are large statues of guardians of the temple. There are also four bronze standing statues of Buddha which are stated to be of the current age Buddha. At the outer limits of the pagoda there are 37 nats deified along with an intricately carved wooden sculpture of Thagyamin, the Burmese version of the Indian god Indra. Within the compound of the Shwezigon Pagoda there is a stone pillar containing Mon language inscriptions dedicated by Kyansittha. ## Location The pagoda, a pilgrimage centre, is located close to Bagan or Pagan (known as "a land of thousand pagodas") in the plains in the Shwe Zigon settlement at Nyaung-U. ## History Chronicles of the Kings of Burma have attributed that King Anawrahta (r. 1044–77) initiated its construction during 1059–1060. According to legend, Anawrahta selected the site for building this pagoda by sending a white elephant mounted with a frontal bone relic of the Buddha to roam freely with the declaration that wherever the elephant stopped would be the site for building the pagoda. The elephant finally stopped over a dune which was chosen as the site for erecting the pagoda, hence the name Shwezigon pagoda meaning "golden pagoda on a dune" in Burmese. Pagoda means "stupa" or "zedi." The pagoda was then completed by his son King Kyansittha (r.1084–1112/13). While its lower terraces were built by Anawrahta, the balance structure is credited to Kyansittha. Its final completion date is 1086 and the footprints below the four standing Buddha statues here are also believed to be of the same period. The pagoda is a replica of the pyramidal Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya, the location of Buddha's illuminating realisation in India. The pagoda has been damaged by earthquakes and other natural calamities over the centuries, and has been refurbished from time to time. A notable renovation was carried out by King Bayinnaung (r. 1550–1581) during late 16th century. In the 1975 earthquake there was considerable damage to the spire and the dome necessitating large renovation. It is now substantially strengthened with a covering of more than 30,000 copper plates, which were donated by local and international devotees; gilding of the dome has been done during 1983–1984 and again in recent times. However, the pagoda's bottom level terraces have remained mostly in their original form. ## Features The pagoda, a prototype of Burmese stupas, is like a bell-shaped stupa in traditional Mon people, which became the prototype architectural feature for many stupas built in the then Burma (now Myanmar). It has features of staircases, gates, and a richly ornamented spire fitted with a large golden umbrella type finial embedded with gems. The relics that are believed to be enshrined in the pagoda are Buddha's collar-bone and his frontal bone from Prome, and his tooth from Ceylon. `On the outer limits of the pagoda there is a shrine where 37 nats are deified along with an intricately carved wooden sculpture of Thagyamin, Buddhist deva Sakka, king of the nats, which is believed to be 900 years old; it is the Burmese version of the Indian god Indra holding his weapon, the thunderbolt. These shrines of 37 nat spirits have been built to circumambulate as a homage to these relics.` The pagoda, which rises with five square terraces has a central solid core. The terraces rise steeply in the form of a pyramid topped with umbrellas or chatris. The entire edifice, from the base to the tip, appears like a cone. From the four cardinal directions there are steps from the base to the terraces at the centre to provide access to devotees to go up for worship; these terraces are fitted with instructions on slabs narrating events from the life of Buddha and other Buddhist scriptures. The interior, though conceived as a solid body, has a maze of interconnected narrow passages, where devotees affix dedicatory slabs on the walls by paying a donation, and praying for special blessings. Even though the relics have not been found in the pagoda, believed to have been stolen, devotees still feel the sanctity of the stupa and embed slabs hoping to attain Nibbana from the "force field" created by the embedded relics. At the entrance to the pagoda there are huge statues of guardians of the temple, known as chinthes which are leogryphs (lion shaped gryphs). Out of the four entrances to the pagoda only the southern and western ones are in use. There are 550 glazed terra-cotta tiles inscribed with the Jataka tales fixed on three of the five terraces of the pagoda; the earlier count was 584 tiles of which some are not found now. The four flights of steps provide access to the terraces leading to an octagonal platform over which the gilded stupa has been built. At the four corners of the top most terrace, smaller replicas of the main pagoda are affixed at their back side, fitted with four gilded kalashas or vases; similar replicas are also fixed at the corners in the lower terraces. At the base of the pagoda there are containers fitted closely and set in series, which have gilded bronze castings of plants and flowers, with alms bowls carved in stone in between. Around the exterior periphery of the pagoda there are several temples and wooden pavilions decorated with the pyatthat (multi-tiered and spired roofs). The pagoda houses the footprint of Lord Buddha. There are four bronze standing statues of Buddha which are 12 to 13 feet (3.7 to 4.0 m) in height, which are stated to be of the current age Buddha deified on the four sides of the temple; these four are Kakusandha Buddha in the northern face, Koṇāgamana Buddha in the eastern wall, Kassapa Buddha in the southern wall and the Gautama Buddha to the west wall. All of these Buddhas are cast in beaten bronze and seen with their right hand in a posture of abhayamudra, meaning "the fear not gesture" and the left hand holding the monk's robe. Below the Buddha Kassapa statue there are a pair of footprints intricately carved on sandstone slab; these were carved from a large "Bodhi-leaf-shaped" slab. They have engravings of a chakra at the centre, which is considered an auspicious symbol. Devotees offer oblations to the footprints through a rectangular wedge created at the rear of the stone slab. The placing of the footprints gives the viewers an impression of Buddha walking towards them. On one of the outer walls surrounding the Shwezigon Pagoda there is a stone pillar with Mon language inscriptions dedicated by King Kyansittha. ## See also - Cetiya - Burmese pagoda - Bupaya Pagoda - Dhammayazika Pagoda - Mingalazedi Pagoda - Shwesandaw Pagoda (Bagan) - Lawkananda Pagoda	[ "## Location", "## History", "## Features", "## See also" ]	1,844	17,777
12,462,236	Black catbird	1,134,370,742	Songbird species in the monotypic genus Melanoptila	[ "Birds described in 1858", "Birds of Belize", "Birds of the Yucatán Peninsula", "Catbirds", "Mimidae", "Taxa named by Philip Sclater", "Taxonomy articles created by Polbot" ]	The black catbird (Melanoptila glabrirostris) is a songbird species in the monotypic genus Melanoptila, part of the family Mimidae. At 19–20.5 cm (7.5–8.1 in) in length and 31.6–42 g (1.11–1.48 oz) in mass, it is the smallest of the mimids. Sexes appear similar, with glossy black plumage, black legs and bill, and dark brownish eyes. The species is endemic to the Yucatán Peninsula, and is found as far south as Campeche, northern Guatemala and northern Belize. Although there are historical records from Honduras and the US state of Texas, the species is not now known to occur in either location. It is found at low elevations in semi-arid to humid habitats ranging from shrubland and abandoned farmland to woodland with thick understory, and is primarily sedentary. Although it is a mimid, the black catbird is not known to imitate any other species. Its song is a mix of harsh notes and clear flute-like whistles, with the phrases repeated. It builds a cup nest in low bushes or trees, and lays two bluish eggs. It is threatened by habitat loss, and has been assessed as near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. ## Taxonomy When Philip Sclater first described the black catbird in 1858, from a specimen collected in Omoa Honduras, he assigned it to the monotypic genus Melanoptila, which he created at the same time. At least one subsequent ornithologist assigned the species to the genus Turdus, believing it to be a thrush, but most agreed with Sclater's assessment. DNA studies have since shown that it is most closely related to various endemic Antillean mimids and the gray catbird, and it is sometimes included with the latter species in the genus Dumetella. Although some taxonomists place the birds from Mexico's Cozumel Island in a separate subspecies (M. g. cozumelana), most authorities do not feel that such distinction is warranted and the species is generally regarded as monotypic throughout its range. The genus name Melanoptila is a compound word created from two Greek words: melas, meaning "black" and ptilon, meaning "plumage". This and the "black" of the bird's common name are a straightforward reference to its general appearance. The species name glabrirostris is a combination of two Latin words: glaber, meaning "smooth or hairless" and rostrum, meaning "beak". This is a reference to the very small rictal bristles which surround the black catbird's beak, in marked comparison to the prominent bristles found on the gray catbird. ## Description At 19–20.5 cm (7.5–8.1 in) in length and 31.6–42 g (1.11–1.48 oz) in mass, the black catbird is the smallest of the mimids. It has short, rounded wings and a relatively long tail. The sexes are similar in appearance, though the male tends to be heavier. The plumage is glossy black with a purplish sheen overall, though the rectrices and primary and secondary coverts have a greenish sheen and the remiges are a duller blackish-brown color showing reduced sheen. The female is less glossy than the male, and juveniles are brownish-gray with mottling below. The legs are black. The bill, which is black and shorter than the head, has a generally straight culmen, decurved toward the tip. The iris is a dark reddish color in adults and gray in juveniles. ### Similar species Although the black catbird is unlikely to be mistaken for any other mimid species, there are several other black birds — including the melodious blackbird, the bronzed cowbird and the giant cowbird — that occur within the same range and might conceivably cause confusion. All are birds of more open habitats. The melodious blackbird is larger and longer tailed; it has dark eyes and a stocky bill with an evenly curved culmen. The bronzed cowbird is thicker necked than is the catbird and has a bronzy, rather than purplish or greenish gloss to its plumage; its eye is bright red rather than dark red. The giant cowbird is considerably larger, and is relatively longer tailed and thicker necked than is the catbird. ## Distribution and habitat The black catbird is endemic to the Yucatán Peninsula. It occurs as far south as the Mexican state of Campeche, northern Guatemala and northern Belize, and is found on the offshore islands of Cozumel, Isla Mujeres, Ambergris Caye, Caye Caulker, Lighthouse Reef and Glover's Reef. Although the type specimen of the bird was apparently collected in northwestern Honduras in 1855 or 1856, it has not been recorded in that country since, and must have been rare if it was ever there. Some authors feel that the specimen might have been mislabeled, and have come instead from northwestern "British Honduras" as Belize was then called. There is also a single specimen of a black catbird collected from Brownsville, Texas in 1892. Although obtained by a reportedly reputable collector, and accepted by the Texas State Records Committee, the origin of this specimen is a source of some controversy, and it has not been accepted by the American Birding Association or the American Ornithologists' Union. The species is found at low elevations in semi-arid to humid areas in habitats ranging from scrubland and abandoned farmland to wood edge. It prefers areas with dense thickets, scrub or understory, and is uncommon in taller forest where the vegetation beneath the canopy is more open. Although it is largely sedentary, there may be some localized seasonal movements away from the drier northern parts of the Yucatán Peninsula in late summer to early winter. ## Behavior ### Voice Unlike many of its fellow mimids, the black catbird is not known to imitate any other species. Its song consists of repeated phrases of notes ranging from harsh and scratchy to warbled and flute-like, often interspersed with metallic clicking buzzes. It often sings from exposed perches. It has a variety of calls, including some which are quite similar to those of the gray catbird; these are variously described as a harsh rriah, a nasal chrrh and a grating tcheeu. ### Food and feeding Although no specific studies have been done on the black catbird's feeding ecology, it is thought to be an omnivore, like its close relatives are. It is known to eat the fruits of Bursera simaruba and Ficus cotinifolia, two deciduous trees found in the Neotropics. ### Breeding Little is known about the breeding biology of the black catbird. Its breeding season appears to run from spring through summer; nest building was observed in Belize in early May, and small young were found in a nest in Mexico in mid-August. The nest, an open cup of twigs lined with rootlets and other fine material, is placed low in a dense bush or small tree. The female lays two greenish-blue eggs. However, details of nest-building, incubation times, parental care, fledging periods and number of broods are unknown. ## Conservation and threats The range of the black catbird is small and dwindling further due to habitat loss. In 2008, the world population was estimated to be less than 50,000 and decreasing. Due to the speed of its decline, which is reported to have been "precipitous" on Caye Caulker between 2003 and 2008, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the species as near threatened. The late 20th century arrival of the shiny cowbird, a brood parasite, into the Yucatán may cause problems for the black catbird as (based on past host choices) the catbird may become a target of the cowbird. ## Note	[ "## Taxonomy", "## Description", "### Similar species", "## Distribution and habitat", "## Behavior", "### Voice", "### Food and feeding", "### Breeding", "## Conservation and threats", "## Note" ]	1,726	21,146
70,503,594	Palinuro Seamount	1,145,045,494	Submarine volcano in the Tyrrhenian Sea	[ "Calderas of Italy", "Former islands of Italy", "Holocene volcanoes", "Landforms of the Tyrrhenian Sea", "Seamounts of the Mediterranean", "Submarine calderas", "Volcanoes of Italy" ]	Palinuro Seamount is a seamount in the Tyrrhenian Sea. It is an elongated 50–70 km (31–43 mi) long complex of volcanoes north of the Aeolian Islands with multiple potential calderas. The shallowest point lies at 80–70 m (260–230 ft) depth and formed an island during past episodes of low sea level. Palinuro was active during the last 800,000 years and is likely the source for a 10,000 years old tephra layer in Italy. Ongoing seismicity occurs at the seamount, which may be a tsunami hazard. The volcanic activity may somehow relate to the subduction of the Ionian Sea farther east. Diffuse hydrothermal activity takes place on Palinuro Seamount, which has led to the deposition of sulfide deposits in the seafloor that could be used as a source of ores for rare metals. Italy has declared the seamount a protected area, where algae and deep water corals occur. ## Geography and geomorphology Palinuro lies north of the Aeolian Islands, in the Tyrrhenian Sea. Marsili Seamount lies about 30 km (19 mi) southwest from Palinuro and Glabro Seamount 29 km (18 mi) east of Palinuro. The Palinuro seamount is one of the largest in the Tyrrhenian Sea and is also known as Palinuro-Strabo seamount. The seamount is about 3 km (1.9 mi) high. It has a 50 km (31 mi)-70 km (43 mi) long and 25 km (16 mi) wide east-west elongated shape. It is asymmetric, with the northern slopes less steep as they descend to 1,800 m (5,900 ft) depth than the southern slopes. There are traces of mass failures along the seamount, especially on its southern flank, and of east-west trending faulting. At least eight separate volcanoes make up Palinuro. A horseshoe shaped caldera is located in the western part of the seamount, and is c. 8 km (5.0 mi) wide. It may be related to a sector collapse and has been modified by erosion and renewed volcanism at its rim. To its west is another potential, c. 4 km (2.5 mi) wide sediment-filled caldera at the western end of the volcano. On the eastern end of Palinuro lies another potential caldera, also filled with sediment, as well as an uneroded crater. In the central area of Palinuro, but still within the eastern sector, lies the summit region: Two flat-topped cones known as "Pjotr's cones", c. 800 m (2,600 ft) and c. 2,500 m (8,200 ft) wide. The smaller of which rises to 80 m (260 ft)-70 m (230 ft) depth below sea level; it is the shallowest point of Palinuro. The flat-topped cones formed through erosion and feature marine terraces, which may have formed when sea levels were so low that the summit of Palinuro rose above the sea. Gullies, rocky outcrops and crater remnants are found on the flat-topped cones. Rocky outcrops are scarce in the central part of Palinuro seamount, which is largely covered with sediments. ## Geology The African Plate and Eurasian Plate are converging across the Mediterranean, leading to tectonic activity in the region including the subduction of the Ionian Sea (Calabrian subduction) and the eastward migration of this subduction. The southern Tyrrhenian Sea is a back-arc basin which began to form 11 million years ago through crustal extension behind the eastward-shifting Ionian subduction, and is a complex geodynamic system. It features several volcanoes, including the Aeolian Islands volcanic arc generated by the Ionian subduction, the Marsili Seamount that appears to have formed on a spreading ridge-like structure, and Palinuro which has an unclear origin but may somehow relate to subduction as well. A 2017 proposal relates the volcanism of Palinuro and neighbouring seamounts except Marsili to the upwelling of asthenospheric mantle below the northern margin of the Calabrian subduction zone, and from underneath the descending Ionian slab. The seamount may be located at the margin between the oceanic Marsili basin to the south, and the continental slope and sedimentary basin of the Salerno Gulf to the north. The east-west trending strike-slip fault that Palinuro seamount formed on may be the northern margin of the Calabrian subduction zone ("subduction-transform edge propagator") and continues through Glabro, Enotrio and Ovidio seamounts and then on land as the Cetraro-Rossano Line. This lineament also appears to separate a tectonically stable northern domain of Italy from a slowly uplifting southern domain. A second, northeastward trending lineament continues on land as the Palinuro-Sant' Arcangelo lineament. ### Composition Dredging has yielded basalt and basaltic andesite, which define a calc-alkaline rock suite. Phenocrysts include plagioclase and pyroxene. ## Biology Dense and large stands of deep water corals and coralline algae grow on Palinuro, the latter particularly around the summit. Holothurians, melon sea urchins, nematodes, sabellids, serpulid worms, spiny lobsters, sponges, tube-dwelling anemones, tunicates and yellow gorgonians live there as well. Lower on the slopes algae become rarer and sponges more frequent, and black corals dominate at maximum depths. Dolphins, fish and sharks complete the fauna of Palinuro. There are traces of human disturbances such as abandoned long-lines and coral colonies damaged by dredging. Fossil algae, bivalves, bryozoans, corals, echinoids, gastropods, mussels and calcareous worm tubes have been dredged from Palinuro. When it was an emergent island during cold periods, Palinuro may have formed a stepping stone for plants. It still reaches into the photic zone of the sea, allowing the growth of algae. Small hydrothermal deposits with the shape of chimneys are covered by microbial mats and there are bushes of tube worms. However, remotely operated vehicles have not identified substantial hydrothermal vent-associated communities. Italy has declared Palinuro a protected area as part of the European Natura 2000 project. ## Eruption history Palinuro was active between 800,000 and 300,000 years ago. The growth of the seamount was probably protracted and complex and there appears to be a clear distinction between the eastern and western sectors of Palinuro, and the eastern half may be still active. Magnetic analysis indicates that fresh lavas occur in the eastern half of Palinuro while the western half shows evidence of hydrothermal alteration. The PL-1 volcanic ash layer, which has been detected in marine sediment cores and on land in Italy, has been interpreted to come from Palinuro. It has been dated to 8040 BCE, and may have been emitted from an emergent Palinuro when sea levels were lower. ### Recent activity and hazards Palinuro or its southeastern sector may still be active, as volcanic seismicity has been detected between Palinuro and the Calabrian coast. Seismicity at low depths, perhaps linked to hydrothermal activity, has also been recorded. Microearthquakes between 10–16 km (6.2–9.9 mi) depth may mark a melt storage zone. Volcanic edifices are often unstable and prone to mass failures, and submarine volcanoes and volcanoes next to the seas can cause devastating tsunamis like the 2018 Sunda Strait tsunami caused by a collapse of Anak Krakatau volcano, which killed 437 people. Palinuro seamount shows evidence of past instability - including collapses that post-date the last glacial maximum 18,000-20,000 years ago, and seismicity and hydrothermal activity - which tend to weaken volcanic edifices - could contribute to future collapses on the volcano. Some collapse scenarios could generate waves several metres high that would impact Sicily and Campania. ## Hydrothermal activity and deposits Diffuse hydrothermal emissions have been found at Palinuro, which form small chimneys, stained rocks, spires reaching 30 cm (12 in) height and warm (\>60 °C (140 °F)) muds with sulfide-sulfate deposits. The hydrothermal vents are found on the western side of Palinuro, around the horseshoe-shaped caldera, while hydrothermal vent deposits are found throughout the edifice. The vents around the horseshoe-shaped caldera may coincide with the margins of the caldera and thus are structurally controlled. Recent hydrothermal deposits around the summit, which was eroded during low sea level, indicate hydrothermal activity during the Holocene. The active hydrothermal vents are accompanied by chemical anomalies in the water column, and ships have reported a smell of hydrogen sulfide above the eastern part of Palinuro. Hydrothermal activity is responsible for the deposition of baryte, galena, pyrite and sphalerite, in the form of sulfide-sulfate deposits. Additional minerals reported are bravoite, chalcopyrite, covellite, enargite, marcasite, luzonite, melnikovite, tennanite, wurtzite and lead and silver containing sulfosalts. The sulfide deposits typically have a gel-like appearance and contain bacterial fossils, implying that microbial activity played a major role in their development. They occur in several metres thick deposits, often buried by sediments and in proximity to hydrothermal vents. Such seafloor massive sulfide deposits are potential sources for metals, both base and precious, and have thus drawn scientific attention. Other reported minerals at Palinuro are bismuthinite, bismuth tellurides, stibnite and traces of gold, indium and silver. Iron and manganese-containing crusts and nodules occur on Palinuro, which probably formed under hydrothermal influence after a transition from high (which emplaced the sulfides) to low temperature hydrothermal activity. They are often found in spatial coincidence with sulfidic deposits which form chimneys. The crusts and nodules contain manganate plus aragonite, calcite, clinopyroxene, illite, muscovite, plagioclase and quartz. The iron-manganese crusts have commercial potential.	[ "## Geography and geomorphology", "## Geology", "### Composition", "## Biology", "## Eruption history", "### Recent activity and hazards", "## Hydrothermal activity and deposits" ]	2,223	21,315
38,649,666	Banshee (roller coaster)	1,150,864,891	Inverted roller coaster at Kings Island	[ "Inverted roller coasters manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard", "Roller coasters in Ohio", "Roller coasters introduced in 2014", "Roller coasters operated by Cedar Fair" ]	Banshee is an inverted roller coaster located at Kings Island amusement park in Mason, Ohio. Designed and manufactured by Swiss company Bolliger & Mabillard, the roller coaster opened on April 18, 2014. Banshee cost \$24 million to build, making it the most expensive project in Kings Island's history at the time. With 4,124 feet (1,257 m) of track, Banshee was the longest inverted roller coaster in the world when it opened. The ride includes seven inversions and travels at up to 68 miles per hour (109 km/h). Banshee operates with three trains, each with eight cars, giving it an hourly capacity of 1,650 riders. Banshee was built at the former location of a wooden roller coaster named Son of Beast, as well as the Thunder Alley go-kart attraction. The ride was officially announced on August 8, 2013, although the "Banshee" name had been trademarked that April. The first track pieces were installed on August 27, 2013, and work continued through the following January. When Banshee opened, it was well-received, accommodating one million riders in less than three months. Amusement Today's annual Golden Ticket Awards has consistently ranked Banshee among the top 50 steel roller coasters in the world. ## History Banshee was built at the former location of Son of Beast, a wooden roller coaster plagued with issues and demolished in 2012, and the Thunder Alley go-kart attraction that was removed the same year. A memorial for Son of Beast is in the queue line of Banshee. Following their removal, it was not immediately clear what would replace the attractions. ### Construction Construction on a new attraction began on April 22, 2013, and a trademark for the name "Banshee" was filed the next day. Owner Cedar Fair had previously considered using the name for a roller coaster at Cedar Point, though Cedar Point's coaster was ultimately named Mantis. Kings Island began teasing the new attraction on the first day of the 2013 season. Along the perimeter of the former Thunder Alley go-kart track, a fence was set up with a sign that read, "Due to the increasing occurrence of mysterious and bone-chilling screams, it has become necessary to close this section of the park until the cause of this evil phenomenon can be identified." During the course of the summer, several clues about the attraction were set up around the construction site. On June 10, 2013, the park launched their social media campaign by posting a photo showing the construction site with the caption, "Field of Dreams". The campaign continued with five scarecrows around the construction site and several Twitter posts about the future attraction. Then, at the beginning of July 2013, recordings of someone screaming could be heard by park guests near the construction area. Two weeks later, farm owls were placed in nearby trees. On July 31, 2013, Kings Island detailed plans to reveal a new world record-breaking attraction at 10 p.m. on August 8. Media packages containing a silver comb, artificial hair and a tag were sent out to media outlets to notify them of the upcoming announcement. A limited number of tickets were also made available to the public giving access to a tour of the construction site prior to the revealing and reserved seats at the event, with net proceeds being donated to breast cancer research. Blueprints for the project were leaked to the public on August 1, 2013. One week later, on August 8, Kings Island officially announced that it was constructing Banshee, the world's longest inverted roller coaster. Banshee would feature seven inversions, including a pretzel knot inversion and a vertical loop around the lift hill. Banshee would be the second coaster constructed at Kings Island by Swiss company Bolliger & Mabillard (after Diamondback, which opened in 2009), as well as the park's 14th operating roller coaster. The foundation work for the supports was done by R.E. Middleton, and the rest of the ride's construction was performed by Adena Corporation. The first pieces of track and supports were delivered to the park from Clermont Steel Fabricators on August 16, 2013; the first track piece was erected on August 27, 2013. The lift hill was completed on September 29, 2013, and by the end of October, other elements such as the first drop, dive loop, and vertical loop were installed. Work on the station commenced that November, and the ride was 40 percent complete by the next month. The final piece of track was installed on January 23, 2014. Workers began installing the ride's trains that February, and testing began on March 15. ### Operation Kings Island hosted a preview event for Banshee on April 17, 2014. Several hundred journalists and members of the public, coming from 28 U.S. states as well as Canada and the UK, gathered at the park at as early as 4:00 a.m. The ride officially opened to the public the next day, April 18, 2014. At a cost of \$24 million, the ride was the single biggest investment in Kings Island's history at the time. Banshee's opening coincided with increased ticket sales at Kings Island, which opened for the season on the same day. Kings Island officials reported that more people visited the park during the weekend of April 18–20, 2014, than on any other opening weekend in the park's 43-year history. Banshee had attracted one million riders by July 10, 2014, less than three months after its opening. On that day, Kings Island gave the ride's millionth guest a gift package and a commemorative sign. At the time, Banshee was projected to be Kings Island's most popular new ride in 25 years; by comparison, Vortex had given 2,183,642 rides the year after it opened in 1987. The ride recorded its two-millionth rider on November 2, 2014. ## Characteristics Banshee stands 167 feet (51 m) tall and features a first drop of 150 feet (46 m). With a length of 4,124 feet (1,257 m), the ride was the world's longest inverted roller coaster when it opened; Banshee maintains this record as of 2022. The ride includes seven inversions: two vertical loops, a dive loop, a zero-g roll, a pretzel knot and an inline twist. It is also tied with Montu at Busch Gardens Tampa for achieving the most inversions on any inverted coaster. Riders experience speeds of up to 68 miles per hour (109 km/h) on the ride, which lasts two minutes and forty seconds. Due to the terrain underneath Banshee, the highest point of the lift hill is 208 feet (63 m) above the lowest point of the ride, which is at the bottom of the pretzel knot. As a result, Banshee reaches its maximum speed approximately halfway through the layout, rather than after the first drop, as is the case in most roller coasters. Banshee operates with three trains made of steel and fiberglass with eight cars per train. In each car, riders are seated four across in a single row for a total of 32 riders per train. The configuration has a theoretical capacity of 1,650 riders per hour. Riders are secured by flexible, over-the-shoulder restraints and interlocking seat belts, known as vest restraints, similar to those used on Bolliger & Mabillard's Wing Coaster models. Each train is painted a different color: blue, green, or purple. Banshee's tubular steel track was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators in Batavia, Ohio. The first vertical loop on Banshee wraps around the lift hill. This element can be found on two other Bolliger & Mabillard roller coasters, which are The Riddler's Revenge at Six Flags Magic Mountain and Kumba at Busch Gardens Tampa. At night, the ride is illuminated and features fog effects. As the name suggests, the ride is themed after the mythological female spirit of the same name. The ride's backstory details sightings and screams of the banshee dating back to when the construction of Kings Island began in 1970. The ride features its own plaza area, with its station being themed appropriately. ## Ride experience After departing from the station, the train makes a left turn towards the 167-foot (51 m) chain lift hill. After reaching the top, the sound of a banshee screaming is played as the train drops into a heavily banked right turn. After reaching the bottom of the drop, riders enter a dive loop immediately followed by a vertical loop around the lift hill. Continuing down the valley, the train enters the third inversion, a zero-gravity roll, where riders experience the feeling of weightlessness. Next, the train makes an upward left-hand turn into a "pretzel knot" (an element where the train enters a dive loop, followed by an Immelmann loop). Upon exiting the pretzel knot, the train enters a second vertical loop before making a right turn into an inline twist. Following a downward left hand helix, the train makes a final banked right turn into the final brake run leading back to the station. ## Reception Following the announcement of Banshee, Screamscape amusement park enthusiast Lance Hart called the new roller coaster "The perfect addition to an already great coaster line-up" at Kings Island. Brian Krosnick from Theme Park Tourist said that though he was excited for Banshee, he questioned why the park did not choose to add additional theming throughout the layout of the ride. In a poll conducted by CoasterRadio.com, respondents ranked Banshee as the best new roller coaster for 2014. The same year, Banshee received a Golden Ticket Award for Best New Ride from Amusement Today magazine, as well as a Golden Ticket Award for being the 16th best steel roller coaster worldwide.	[ "## History", "### Construction", "### Operation", "## Characteristics", "## Ride experience", "## Reception" ]	2,085	25,813
798,536	M-168 (Michigan highway)	1,054,642,987	Former state highway in Elberta, Benzie County, Michigan, United States	[ "Former state highways in Michigan", "Transportation in Benzie County, Michigan" ]	M-168 was one of the shortest state trunkline highways in the US state of Michigan, extending just under a mile (1.6 km) from a junction with M-22 in downtown Elberta to the former Ann Arbor Railroad ferry docks. It followed the south shore of Lake Betsie (formed by the Betsie River before flowing into Lake Michigan). The highway was commissioned in 1931 and served as a connection to the car ferries until 1984. The road was reconstructed by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) in preparation to transfer it to village control. That transfer happened on April 24, 2012, and now the former highway is a village street. ## Route description M-168 began at a junction with M-22 just west of where M-22 crosses over Lake Betsie. Known as Frankfort Avenue, M-168 then traveled to the northwest near the shore of the lake through a mixed residential and commercial area before turning slightly westward onto Furnace Avenue. Along Furnace Avenue, the roadway is lined with homes on one side and lake frontage on the other. Eventually, the road curves to the west where it intersects Betsie Valley Trail coming to its terminus shortly thereafter at the former Ann Arbor Railroad ferry docks. ## History M-168 had existed in its current location since 1931. It was originally assumed into the state trunkline system at 0.8 miles (1.3 km) in length. Aside from a minor realignment of the junction with M-22 in 1987, the route had remained in this configuration since 1931. From its creation until 1984, the road was the main entrance for cars bound for boarding the car ferry. An MDOT document indicated that in 2010, a \$2.1 million project would reconstruct M-168. Upon completion of the project, the route would be jurisdictionally transferred to the Village of Elberta, thereby removing M-168 from the state trunkline system. This transfer was finalized on April 24, 2012, and afterwards, the former M-168 was reclassified a village street. ## Major intersections ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections", "## See also" ]	450	44,496
62,353,566	Battle of Marshall's Elm	1,156,313,259	1642 skirmish in Somerset prior to the English Civil War	[ "1642 in England", "17th century in Somerset", "Battles of the English Civil Wars", "Conflicts in 1642", "Military history of Somerset" ]	The battle of Marshall's Elm was a skirmish that took place near Street, in the county of Somerset, South West England, on 4 August 1642. The engagement occurred during the build-up to formal beginning of the First English Civil War on 22 August, while the Royalists and Parliamentarians were recruiting men in the county. The Royalists had established their regional headquarters in Wells, but were threatened by superior Parliamentarian numbers in the vicinity. The Royalist commander sent out a mounted patrol consisting of 60 to 80 cavalry and dragoons, which came across a force of between 500 and 600 Parliamentarian recruits travelling north across the Somerset Levels under the command of Sir John Pyne. The Royalists set an ambush at Marshall's Elm, where the road rose out of the Levels into the Polden Hills. After a parley between the leaders was unsuccessful, the Parliamentarians were caught in the ambush. Facing musket fire from the hidden dragoons, and being charged at by the Royalist cavalry, they were routed. The Royalists killed around 27, and took 60 prisoners, including two of the Parliamentarian officers. Despite their victory, the Royalists were forced to withdraw from Wells, and later from Somerset altogether, due to their inferior numbers. ## Background Conflict between the English Parliament and its monarch on religious, fiscal and legislative matters had been ongoing since at least 1603. The tension between Parliament and King Charles escalated sharply during 1642 after the King had attempted to arrest five Members of Parliament, who he accused of treason. In preparation for the likelihood of conflict with Parliament, Charles appointed the Marquess of Hertford as commander of his forces in the West Country, supported by Sir Ralph Hopton, a local Member of Parliament (MP) and an experienced army officer. Both sides were attempting to recruit the existing militia and new men into their armies. Parliament passed the Militia Ordinance in March 1642 without royal assent, granting themselves control of the militia. In response, Charles granted commissions of array to his commanders, a medieval device for levying soldiers which had not been used since 1557. One such commission was issued to Hertford, for the levying of troops in south-west England and south Wales. Hertford chose Wells in Somerset as the Royalists' headquarters in the West Country, and they arrived in the city on 28 July. The decision was based on the fact that Wells housed the county magazine, had Royalist sympathies, and was geographically central within the area. In his 1973 book, Somerset in the Civil War, the historian David Underdown criticises the decision, citing Wells' vulnerable position in the Mendip Hills, and the strong Parliamentarian views held by the majority of Somerset's rural population. Hopton had previously acted as one of the deputy lieutenants for Somerset, making him responsible for training and leading the county's militia. Hopton's standing helped the Royalists' recruiting, but the general population of the county, many of whom were Calvinist Protestants, or worked in industries depressed by royal policies, was more sympathetic towards Parliament than the King. Broadly speaking, the Royalists were more successful in recruiting cavalry and members of the gentry; Hopton, John Digby and Francis Hawley each brought a troop of horse, but attempts to raise an infantry regiment were unsuccessful. In contrast, the Parliamentarians signed up more men, but many of these were untrained and unarmed countrymen. On 30 July 1642, the Parliamentarians, led by William Strode, one of Parliament's deputy lieutenants in Somerset, held a meeting to collect arms at Shepton Mallet, around four miles (6 km) east-southeast of Wells. Hertford sent Hopton with his cavalry to Shepton on 1 August to confront the Parliamentarians, but he had orders to avoid conflict. When Hopton arrived in Shepton, Strode refused to listen to him, and the two scuffled. A crowd of over 1,000 had gathered, and Hopton withdrew and rejoined his cavalry outside the town. There, the Royalists and the countrymen sympathetic to the Parliamentarians faced off without fighting for several hours before the Royalists pulled back to Wells. ## Prelude The success of the Parliamentarians' recruiting left the Royalists in danger of being surrounded in Wells. Sir John Pyne, an MP who had also been appointed as a deputy lieutenant of Somerset by Parliament in March, and Captain John Preston recruited around 400 men from Taunton (around 24 miles (39 km) south-west of Wells), while Captain Sands brought a further 200 from South Petherton. Pyne had orders to bring the men, described as "a few hundred farmers" by Underdown, to Street, where they would rendezvous with Strode. Hertford was wary of his weak position, and on 4 August he sent a mounted patrol out under the command of Sir John Stawell, composed of three troops of cavalry and some dragoons, numbering around 60 to 80 in all. The patrol, which also included several of the Royalist gentry and the experienced soldier Henry Lunsford, rode south through Glastonbury into the Polden Hills. On reaching the village of Marshall's Elm, just over one mile (2 km) south of Street, and around eight miles (13 km) south of Wells, the patrol spotted Pyne's force marching through cornfields about two miles (3 km) away. ## Battle Having approached from the north, the Royalists had the advantage of higher ground, coming down off the Poldens. Marshall's Elm is located in a depression that acted as a pass between Ivy Thorn Hill and Collard Hill, where the road rose out of the Somerset Levels to climb into the hills. Stawell parleyed with the Parliamentarians, telling them that they could avoid conflict if they aborted their march, but to no effect. While Stawell was engaged in his discussion with the Parliamentarians, Lunsford arranged the Royalist troops; the cavalry were behind the brow of the hill, leaving just their heads and weapons visible, to disguise their numbers; fourteen dragoons dismounted and were hidden in quarry pits lower on the hill by the road. He ordered all the men to hold their fire until he led the attack with the dragoons. Pyne initially continued the Parliamentarian march, but then changed his mind. His order to stop was met with complaints from his men, who said that the Royalist force "were but a few horse and would run away", and they continued up the hill. Pyne's men halted occasionally to fire, but Lunsford held the Royalists' fire until the enemy were within 120 paces, when the dragoons returned fire with their muskets and killed the leader of the Parliamentarian vanguard. The Parliamentarians hesitated, unsure of where the attack had come from, and Stawell led the cavalry charge down the hill. The Parliamentarians were routed; seven were killed at Marshall's Elm, and the Royalists chased some of the fleeing men for three miles (5 km), as far as Somerton. They captured sixty prisoners, who they left in Somerton. Among those captured were the two officers, Preston and Sands. As well as the seven killed at the battle, roughly another twenty died of their wounds. ## Aftermath The battle provided both a tactical and strategic victory for the Royalists, leaving Hertford with an escape route from Wells should it be needed. Underdown credits their cavalry strength and leadership for the victory, highlighting that their leaders were "accustomed to command and confident of their ability to defeat larger forces of poorly officered farmers". He was particularly complimentary of Lunsford, and the experience he brought. One of the region's Parliamentarian leaders, John Ashe, said that the battle "very much daunted the honest countryman". Despite their defeat at Marshall's Elm, the Parliamentarians continued to gather men around Wells. Groups congregated from Bristol, Gloucester, Wiltshire and throughout north-east Somerset; a range of cavalry, musketeers and countrymen wielding makeshift weapons such as pitchforks. The force, which numbered around 12,000, crossed the Mendip Hills and reached a slope overlooking Wells on the evening of 5 August. Pyne held joint command of part of the force with Strode. Hertford sent his cavalry to face them, and both groups agreed to a ceasefire until the next day. Overnight, the Parliamentarians' numbers were swelled by further recruits and reinforcements, and Hertford made a sham of negotiating in the morning to cover his retreat; while the Parliamentarian messengers were riding north out of Wells with his 'offer', his men fled south, covered by a cavalry rearguard led by Hopton. After spending two nights in Somerton, the Royalists withdrew out of Somerset altogether, garrisoning Sherborne Castle in Dorset. The First English Civil War formally began on 22 August, when Charles I raised his royal standard in Nottingham. The battle at Marshall's Elm was not the only engagement to predate the formal start of the war, but the historian Peter Gaunt suggests that it was the bloodiest, while another, Charles Carlton, said that Marshall's Elm was the "first real confrontation" of the war.	[ "## Background", "## Prelude", "## Battle", "## Aftermath" ]	1,948	40,305
1,421,339	United (Star Trek: Enterprise)	1,171,761,999	null	[ "2005 American television episodes", "Star Trek: Enterprise (season 4) episodes", "Television episodes directed by David Livingston" ]	"United" is the 13th episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Enterprise and the 89th episode overall. It was first broadcast on the UPN network on February 4, 2005. It is the second of a three-part story which included the previous episode "Babel One", and the following episode, "The Aenar". "United" was written by Judith and Garfield Reeves-Stevens from a story idea by show runner Manny Coto. It was directed by David Livingston, his third of the season. Set in the 22nd century, the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise, registration NX-01. In this episode, two of the crew are trapped on the Romulan drone ship while Captain Jonathan Archer (Scott Bakula) on the Enterprise attempts to gain the co-operation of the Andorians and Tellarites in tracking down the drone. His plan is complicated when Commander Shran (Jeffrey Combs) challenges a Tellarite to a duel, causing Archer to step in. After he defeats Shran, the races work together and force the retreat of the Romulan vessel and the missing crewman are recovered. The episode was filmed over seven days, reusing the standing sets and those created for the previous episode. The duel was choreographed by Vince Deadrick Jr., and the Ushaan-Tor weapon itself was created by Dan Curry. "United" was watched by 2.81 million viewers on the first broadcast. Critics responded favourably to the episode, comparing it to the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "Amok Time" and the Andorians' actions to those of Klingons elsewhere in the franchise. The episode was Emmy Award nominated for makeup. ## Plot "United" continues from the events in "Babel One". On Romulus, Admiral Valdore (Brian Thompson), Romulan scientist Nijil (J. Michael Flynn), and their pilot continue to control the mysterious "marauder", cloaking it to look like Enterprise and then using it to destroy a Rigelian vessel. Despite this success, Senator Vrax (Geno Silva) chastises them for losing full control of their drone since Commander Charles "Trip" Tucker III (Connor Trinneer) and Lieutenant Malcolm Reed (Dominic Keating) are still on board. Valdore and Nijil then work to trap Tucker inside a service junction as he attempts to divert power. After incapacitating him with leaked radiation coolant, Valdore then orders Reed to re-establish the damaged warp matrix on the drone or see his crewmate die. Reed complies in order to rescue Tucker. Meanwhile, aboard Enterprise, Commander T'Pol (Jolene Blalock) and Ensign Travis Mayweather (Anthony Montgomery) devise a surveillance grid that will require the coordinated effort of 128 spaceships. After seeking help from Earth and Vulcan, Captain Jonathan Archer (Scott Bakula) realizes that he will need to obtain Andorian and Tellarite support too. Archer's attempt hits a snag when Lieutenant Talas dies from the phaser wound sustained earlier. A devastated Commander Shran (Jeffrey Combs) openly challenges Naarg (Kevin Brief) to a blood-duel using Ushaan-Tor, an Andorian ice-miner's tool. Realizing that a death will derail trade negotiations, Archer announces himself as the Tellarite's substitute. The duel proceeds and Archer is fortunately able to win, and spares Shran's life after severing an antenna. With the duel completed, Shran promises continued Andorian support for the grid, and the Tellarite's Ambassador Gral (Lee Arenberg) does the same. Enterprise, as a flagship, soon relocates and re-engages the drone. Reed and Tucker, caught in the crossfire and unable to be transported out, narrowly escape death by ejecting themselves into open space. A mixed fleet of "allied" vessels then arrive, forcing Vrax and Valdore to recall the drone at warp speed to Romulan space. Archer then invites the Andorians and the Tellarites to begin their negotiations early. On Romulus, the drone's pilot is revealed to be an Aenar, another species of the Andorian race. ## Production "United" forms the second of a three part story, beginning with "Babel One" and concluding in "The Aenar". It was written by Judith and Garfield Reeves-Stevens, who were newly hired writers for the fourth season of Enterprise. It was their third script after "The Forge" and "Observer Effect". Manny Coto, the showrunner for the series, devised the story for "United". David Livingston directed the episode, his third of the season after "Borderland" and "Kir'Shara". Livingston said he went into the fourth season with the assumption that the show was not going to get a fifth season. After completing second unit shooting to fill out the episode, he walked out of the stage thinking: "It's over. It’s been a great run, but that's the last Star Trek shot I'm going to do." Filming for the episode took seven days between November 11 and November 19, 2004, with half the shoot taking place on the standing ship sets representing the Enterprise itself, and the remainder on the Romulan drone and command center sets which had been created for "Babel One". For "United", the entire guest cast returned from the previous episode, as well as Geno Silva who played the Romulan senator Vrax and Scott Rinker as the albino Andorian revealed at the end of the episode. Neither actor had previously appeared in the franchise. The Reman race made their debut in the episode, as they had only previously appeared in the film Star Trek: Nemesis. The prosthetics seen in "United" were reused from that film. Stunt co-ordinator Vince Deadrick Jr. choreographed the Ushaan fight scene between Shran and Archer, with stuntmen Gary Wayton and Kim Koscki doubling for Combs and Bakula in wide shots. The Ushaan-Tor itself was created by Dan Curry, whose previous work had included a variety of Klingon weapons including the bat'leth. The script had simply called for "a dangerous-looking Andorian weapon", with the design fully coming from Curry. To demonstrate the different physiology of the Andorians, the make-up department created a quantity of blue blood for use in that scene. It was also seen in an intravenous therapy prop in sickbay and for an earlier scene where Shran pours a quantity of it onto a Tellarite to issue his challenge. ## Reception "United" was first broadcast in the United States on February 4, 2005 on UPN. It was watched by 2.81 million viewers, which was more than the 2.53 million who saw the previous episode, but less than the 3.17 million who watched "The Aenar". In 2016, Alasdair Wilkins of The A.V. Club described "United" as containing the most pivotal moment in the series, specifically the moment where the founding races of the Federation worked together to defeat the Romulan plot. He also praised the work of Combs as Shran, adding that the duel between Shran and Archer was "the kind of larger-than-life presence the often staid Enterprise most benefits from". Jamahl Epsicokhan, at his website Jammer's Reviews, gave the episode three out of four stars. He compared the fight scene to the one from the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "Amok Time", and felt that it showed the Andorians as being similar to the Klingons seen elsewhere in the franchise. He felt that the main storyline wrapped up in "United", despite the twist at the end. Michelle Erica Green of TrekNation, also compared "United" to "Amok Time", placing Archer in the same role as Captain James T. Kirk in that episode. She said that this made sense for the sake of entertainment, but questioned why one of the marines on board the ship couldn't have fought Shran instead. Green felt that the Andorians finally showed a series of similarities to the Klingons and pondered why they hadn't become allies due to their similarities. She liked the episode, and posed one last question: "Where were these sort of episodes when Enterprise still had a chance?" In 2019, Den of Geek recommended this episode to understand the importance of the Jonathan Archer character to the show. This episode received an Emmy Award nomination in the category "Best Prosthetic Makeup for a Series". ## Home media release "United" was released on home media in the United States on November 1, 2005, as part of the season four DVD box set of Enterprise. The Blu-ray edition was released on April 1, 2014.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Reception", "## Home media release" ]	1,839	32,994
25,757,604	Pierre Guillemin	1,079,357,335	null	[ "1886 births", "1915 deaths", "France international rugby union players", "French Army officers", "French military personnel killed in World War I", "French rugby union players", "Racing 92 players", "Rugby union props", "Sportspeople from Loir-et-Cher" ]	Pierre Guillemin (14 June 1886 – 18 August 1915) was a French rugby union player, who represented , Paris and Racing Club de France (RCF). He was first selected to play for France in the Home Nations Championship of 1908, playing in the games against and . The following year, he played against England and , and in 1910, in all four Home Nations games. That year, he scored his only points for France, a try, against England in a close-fought match, after which he gained a reputation for being amongst the best of the French forwards. Guillemin's final season playing for France was that of 1910–11. The French press disapproved of his selection, noting that he was excessively violent and not very effective. In 1911, France won its first ever official international match, beating 16–15 at home, but in the following game, away against England, the French were heavily beaten. Guillemin's last match for France was against Wales; he was dropped for the final game of the championship, against Ireland. He played on with RCF for one more season, playing in the team that was runner-up in the Championnat de France. An architect by profession, he became a lieutenant in the French infantry, and died on the front in the First World War after a reconnaissance mission in Bois le Prêtre in Belleville-sur-Meuse. ## Early life Guillemin was born in Bonneveau in the Loire Valley, France. He had a brother, Henry, who died in 1914. ## Rugby career ### Early years and selection for France Guillemin had been playing as a forward for Racing Club de France (RCF) in the Championnat de Paris since 1906 when he got the opportunity to trial for . Ahead of the international matches against the Home Nations teams in 1908, the Union des Sociétés Françaises de Sports Athlétiques (USFSA) organised two matches. The first was a North of France versus South match, after which a France team was formed to play against the Rest of France on 22 December at the Stade du Matin in Colombes. Guillemin was selected for the Rest. Ahead of the game, Reichel in Le Figaro gave France the odds of winning, since it had a heavier pack and better halfbacks, and also commented positively on Duval, Bonhomme and Guillemin. The Rest of France won 12–6. The cohesion of the Rest's threequarter line, all coming from Stade Français, was especially apparent, while the forwards, although weaker in the scrum, and lighter, played with more "valour". As a result, many changes were made for the team to play on 1 January 1908: the captain, Marc Giacardy, was dropped altogether, and Guillemin was one of several who won selection. France hosted England at Colombes on 1 January 1908 for the third rugby encounter between the two nations. Although France lost the game 0–19, the press did not consider it a crushing defeat, given that on the previous occasions England had scored 35 points and then 41. During the first half, two French players departed the field injured, so that by the second half, England had the advantage in numbers and were able to control the game, which at the start had appeared (to the French press) to be well-balanced. The forwards were considered to be at least equal to, if not better, than the English. Guillemin and Duval amongst the forwards, as well as the backs Hubert and Moure, drew praise from Reichel. Guillemin was selected for the next game between and France on 2 March in Cardiff, Wales. It was the first official match played between the two nations and 20,000 spectators turned up to watch. It was clear from the start that Wales was by far the stronger team, scoring in the first three minutes and leading 17–4 at half time. By the end of the game, the home team had scored nine tries, three of which were converted, and a penalty; France managed to score just one drop-goal, although it was considered "magnificent". Guillemin then played a series of matches for le Sporting Club de Madrid, made up of current and former pupils, against Trinity College, Cambridge, the first of which was held on 3 March at Cambridge, and a return match on 26 March at Parc des Princes. Guillemin was selected to play the touring Australians on 2 January 1909, but the match was cancelled due to bad weather. ### 1908–10 In the trials match for the 1910 Five Nations Championship, Guillemin was selected to play for the Possibles against the Probables. The Probables won a close game 9–6, and Guillemin was selected again to play for France. The fourth match between England and France was held at Leicester on 30 January 1909. The English dominated from the start but the French put up a good fight, as both the English and French press reported. The French forwards were compared in their style of play with those of Ireland, with good footballing skills. Although the English won a fourth successive victory, 22–0, it seemed as though the French game was beginning to develop. On New Year's Day 1910, Wales hosted the French team, several of whose players were unable to attend due to the annual celebrations. For Wales, the match in Swansea was merely a "splendid preliminary canter", and the home side was very much favourite to win. It was only the third match between the two nations: the first, held at Cardiff in 1908, had proved popular due to the novelty. After the easy Welsh victory over France in Paris in 1909, there was very little interest in the match in 1910 and few spectators turned up. Wales scored the first try from an intercepted pass in the first three minutes of the game but the French responded immediately with a try of their own. Nevertheless, despite the Welsh appearing not to take the game seriously, the Welsh lead at half-time of 21–14 and ended with a score of 49–14. `selected its best team for the encounter with France on 22 January at Inverleith, the first time it gave full international recognition to a French team. The French backs were said to be "very fast", but the Scottish forwards far outplayed the French and the final score was 27–0.` On 3 March, France played host to England at the Parc des Princes. England were victorious but it was a good contest, with the final score 3–11. The French defended well, but England scored two tries and a conversion and were leading 0–8 at half time. After the break, the French played with "dash and spirit", repeatedly coming close to scoring until, with 20 minutes to go, Guillemin chased a long kick from Lesieur and scored a try, which went unconverted. For the final ten minutes, with an injury to Lane, France held on with fourteen men on the field. The French press was delighted not to have witnessed another crushing defeat, comparing the result with England's recent score of 11–6 against Wales. As well as having improved in the ability to play the game, the fitness of the players was much improved, and they were able to keep going right to the end. The annihilation anticipated for the second half did not come, with each side scoring three points, Guillemin amongst the best of the French forwards. ### Final seasons: 1910–12 For the trials match between the Probables and the Possibles on 18 December 1910 at Colombes, Guillemin played for the Probables and was then selected for France. G. Neumeyer writing in la Culture physique, considered that the selectors had made the right choice of XV, with the exception of Guillemin. In his opinion, it was deplorable that he should be selected, noting his "remarkable brutality", proof of which he demonstrated in the trials match, and that he ought to be thrown out of the national team for all time. Reichel in Le Figaro agreed that Guillemin's play was more violent than effective and would have preferred the selection of Berneron, who did "great work" for the Possibles. Guillemin was a member of the team that beat Scotland at Colombes in 1911 and won France's first victory in the Five Nations. After all the previous French losses to the Home Nations teams, the Scottish were favourites to win, and France's unexpected win was considered a great occasion by the French press. It proved a reversal of the defeats, accompanied with humiliating press commentary which suggested that the French were too idle and debauched to produce a team worthy of their British opponents. After unexpectedly winning the match against Scotland, France played England at Twickenham on 28 January and suffered "the most humiliating of defeats". The Observer noted the speed of the French players, which caused the English some trouble, but there was a lack of cohesion in the midfield. The fullback, Dutour, was singled out as the best French player, whose kicking saved the French repeatedly, while in the forwards, Guillemin was especially noted for his defending. On 28 February, 20,000 spectators, a huge crowd for French rugby, turned out to watch the game against Wales. Although the Welsh went on to win 0–15, with three converted tries, they were prevented from scoring in the first half. They were clearly the better team, but the French played with greater passion. Once again, while Neumeyer praised the French forwards, he singled out Guillemin for criticism, creating an imbalance in the French scrum. The Chronique de la Jeunesse, however, highlights Guillemin's dribbling with the ball. Nevertheless, for the final international match of the season against Ireland, Guillemin was dropped from the team, with approval from Reichel, although he nevertheless travelled to Cork as a replacement. Guillemin was selected for an international match between the best of London and the best of Paris, played at Stade de France on 12 March. Reichel disapproved of Guillemin's selection and suggested the Parisian front row was rather weak. In the event, London won 17–21 in an end-to-end contest, in which both sides scored five tries, but London managed to convert three, while Paris only one. Guillemin's final plaudit came as part of the team that played Stade Toulousain in the final of the Championnat de France, and finished runner-up. Although favourites to win and leading 0–6 at half time, the visitors were narrowly beaten 8–6. ### International appearances ## Military service and death Guillemin joined the as a lieutenant. While on a photographic reconnaissance mission over Bois le Prêtre in Belleville sur Meuse, he was killed on 18 August 1915. ## See also - List of international rugby union players killed in action during the First World War	[ "## Early life", "## Rugby career", "### Early years and selection for France", "### 1908–10", "### Final seasons: 1910–12", "### International appearances", "## Military service and death", "## See also" ]	2,326	33,553
8,544,742	Dacre Castle	1,083,046,547	Moated tower house in the village of Dacre	[ "Dacre, Cumbria", "Grade I listed buildings in Cumbria", "Houses completed in the 14th century", "Peel towers in Cumbria", "Towers completed in the 14th century" ]	Dacre Castle is a moated tower house in the village of Dacre, 4 miles (6.4 km) south-west of Penrith, Cumbria, England. It was constructed in the mid-14th century, probably by Margaret Multon, against the background of the threat of Scottish invasion and raids, and was held in the Dacre family until the 17th century. The tower house is 66 feet (20 m) tall, built out of local sandstone, topped by crenellations, with four turrets protruding from a central block, and includes an ornate lavabo in the main hall. Renovated during the 1670s and 1960s after periods of disrepair, the castle is now used as a private home. ## History Dacre Castle was probably built by Margaret Multon, the wife of Ralph Dacre, in the middle of the 14th century. The Dacre family had risen in prominence in Cumbria during the 12th and early 13th centuries, and William Dacre, Ralph's father, had acquired a licence to crenellate the property of Dunmallogt in 1307, quite close to the future site of Dacre Castle. Ralph married Margaret in 1317, becoming extremely wealth as a result, and received permission to found Naworth Castle in 1335. Margaret built Dacre Castle at some point between Ralph's death in 1339 and 1354, with the intention of creating a fortified home. Many tower houses were built across the region during the period in response to the threat of Scottish raids and invasions. There may have been an older building already on the site, possibly moated, but this is uncertain. After Margaret's death, the castle continued to be owned by the Dacre family until the death of Randal Dacre in 1634, when it passed briefly to the Crown. By 1675 the castle had become derelict and was restored by the then Lord Dacre, Thomas Lennard. A new entrance to the castle was constructed and square, 17th-century windows installed. After Thomas's death in 1715 the castle was sold to Edward Hassell. The condition of the castle deteriorated again in the 18th century, becoming overgrown and dilapidated, and by the 19th century the Hassell family were using it as a farmhouse. In 1961, the castle was leased for 22 years by Anthony and Bunty Kinsman, at a cost of £1,000. The property required extensive structural repairs and renovations in order to be made habitable, which the Kinsmans undertook over the next two years. The construction work cost £8,596, and some financial support was provided by the Ministry of Works in exchange for the castle being opened to the public for the next fifteen years. The new oak doors in the castle were fitted with iron hinges that had originally been used in nearby Lowther Castle. In 1967, the castle was visited by Princess Sharada Shah, the daughter of the King Mahendra of Nepal, as part of an official trip to the UK. In the 21st century the castle is owned by the Hassell-McCosh family and is rented out as a private home. It is protected under UK law as a grade I listed building. ## Architecture Dacre Castle lies in a valley, overlooking a stream and fields. It comprises a tower house surrounded by a three-sided moat, creating an enclosed courtyard to the east 73 metres (240 ft) by 55 metres (180 ft) across. The moat is between 9 metres (30 ft) to 15 metres (49 ft) wide and up to 4.5 metres (15 ft) deep, with a protective bank on the south and west sides; originally a wall would have surrounded the outside of the courtyard. The courtyard originally held various buildings, possibly stables and offices, but the tower house was designed to operate independently, without the need for attached facilities. Architecturally, the design of Dacre resembles Harewood and Langley Castles. The tower house is in the north-east corner of the enclosure and takes the form of a square, central block, with two large turrets on one side and two smaller turrets resembling angular buttresses on the other. It is made of large blocks of local sandstone and the roof is crenellated. The central block is 36 feet (11 m) by 20 feet (6.1 m) inside, and is 66 feet (20 m) tall, with 8.5 feet (2.6 m) thick walls. The building was originally entered through the south-west turret on the ground-floor, but since the 17th century the entrance way has been directly into the central block up an exterior staircase. The ground floor of the central block contains two vaulted chambers and the first-floor forms a hall containing an ornate lavabo, with smaller chambers in the turrets. The second floor similarly forms a single large chamber, 17 feet (5.2 m) high, with rooms in each of the adjacent turrets, and is traditionally called the "Room of the Three Kings", after the legend described by William of Malmesbury. In the 14th century, these large chambers would have been subdivided into smaller rooms. The renovations in the 1960s uncovered a possible priest hole behind the fireplace in the Room of the Three Kings, 7 feet (2.1 m) by 4 feet (1.2 m); this chamber was re-sealed to avoid the cost of restoring it. ## See also - Grade I listed buildings in Cumbria - Listed buildings in Dacre, Cumbria - Castles in Great Britain and Ireland - List of castles in England	[ "## History", "## Architecture", "## See also" ]	1,209	18,739
66,392,805	Siege of Taormina (902)	1,168,235,474	902 battle during the Muslim conquest of Sicily	[ "10th-century massacres", "900s conflicts", "900s in the Byzantine Empire", "902", "Battles involving the Aghlabids", "Massacres in the Byzantine Empire", "Massacres of Christians", "Muslim conquest of Sicily", "Sieges of the Arab–Byzantine wars", "Taormina" ]	The siege of Taormina in 902 ended the conquest of the Byzantine city of Taormina, in northeastern Sicily, by the Aghlabids. The campaign was led by the deposed Aghlabid emir, Ibrahim II, as a form of armed pilgrimage and holy war. Ibrahim's forces defeated the Byzantine garrison in a hard-fought battle in front of the city walls, and laid siege to the city. Left unsupported by the Byzantine government, Taormina capitulated on 1 August. The population was massacred or sold into slavery. The fall of this last major Byzantine stronghold signalled the completion of the Muslim conquest of Sicily, which had been ongoing since the 820s, although some minor Byzantine outposts survived until the 960s. ## Background Following the fall of Syracuse to the Aghlabids of Ifriqiya in 878, Byzantine presence in Sicily had been limited to the northeastern third of the island (the "Val Demone"). In the aftermath of their capture of Syracuse, the Aghlabids launched repeated raids against the Val Demone in the 880s, but made little headway. As the main stronghold remaining in Byzantine hands, the city of Taormina and its environs was one of the chief targets of the Aghlabid attacks during this period, being attacked in 879/80, 881/82, 883, 885, and 889. From c. 890 on, the raids ceased, chiefly due to the outbreak of internal quarrels among the Muslims of Sicily, which even resulted in full civil war between the Arab and Berber factions of the Aghlabid army in 898. The civil war in Sicily prompted the dispatch of Abu'l-Abbas Abdallah, son of the Aghlabid emir Ibrahim II, as the island's governor in 900. When Abu'l-Abbas landed at Sicily, factional strife had mutated to a quarrel between the cities of Palermo and Agrigento, the precise nature of which is unknown. After negotiations failed, Abu'l-Abbas Abdallah marched on Palermo, which he captured on 18 September 900. A great number of the rebels fled the city to the Byzantines in Taormina, with some reaching even Constantinople itself. The Byzantines tried to take advantage of the revolt, and began assembling forces at Messina and Reggio, while a fleet was dispatched from Constantinople under a commander named Michael. Abu'l-Abbas, however, did not tarry and as soon as he had suppressed the rebellion, marched against the Byzantines, ravaging the environs of Taormina and launching an unsuccessful siege of Catania before returning to winter in Palermo. In the next spring, he resumed his attack and assaulted Demona [it]. To disrupt the Byzantine preparations, his forces then crossed over to the Italian mainland, sacking Reggio. On his return to Sicily, Abu'l-Abbas defeated a Byzantine fleet and captured thirty of its ships. ## Ibrahim II's arrival and the fall of Taormina In early 902, Emir Ibrahim II was forced into abdication by his subjects, through the intervention of the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tadid. Abu'l-Abbas was named as his successor, and left Sicily for Ifriqiya, leaving his army under the command of his two sons. Ibrahim, in turn, resolved to make an armed pilgrimage, and took up the mantle of the holy war, aiming to go to Mecca after first conquering Byzantine fortresses in Italy. Donning the simple dress of an ascetic, he went to Sousse, where he declared his intention and started gathering volunteers to join him. Ibrahim and his followers arrived at Trapani on 8 July, and immediately set their sights on Taormina, the last major Byzantine stronghold on Sicily. The Byzantines had gathered significant forces there, commanded by the droungarios of the Fleet Eustathios, Michael Charaktos (apparently the same as the naval commander who arrived in 901, and now served as strategos of Calabria), and the commandant of Taormina, the patrikios Constantine Karamallos, who was likely also the strategos of Sicily. Rather than waiting to be besieged, the Byzantine commanders led their forces out to meet the Muslims in open combat. According to the Muslim sources, the battle that followed was fiercely contested, and the Byzantines were beginning to gain the upper hand, when Ibrahim ordered the recitation of a line from the al-Hajj sura of the Quran. Crying for help from God, he entered the fray in person, whereupon the Byzantines were defeated with heavy losses. Most of the remaining Byzantine troops either withdrew to the fortress (modern Castello di Mola [it]) or embarked on their ships. Ibrahim immediately laid siege to the city, which surrendered on 1 August. The remaining garrison, as well as many of the women and children, were massacred, and the rest sold into slavery. The local bishop, Prokopios, was brought before Ibrahim, who demanded of him to convert to Islam. When the bishop refused, he was tortured and decapitated; his corpse and those of other executed prisoners were burned. According to an Arab source, the Byzantine emperor Leo VI the Wise mourned the fall of Taormina by refusing to wear his crown for seven days, but the Byzantine sources—Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos and the Continuator of George Hamartolos—are explicit in attributing the loss of Taormina to negligence: according to the latter, the fleet was not sent to relieve the city because it was busy carrying material for the construction of two churches founded by the emperor in Constantinople. The news also spread panic, as a rumour started circulating that Ibrahim intended to march onto Constantinople itself. The Byzantine commanders managed to escape the city and return to Constantinople, but Michael Charaktos accused Eustathios and Constantine Karamallos of treason. The two men were condemned to death, but the intercession of the Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos commuted their sentence to life-long banishment to a monastery. ## Aftermath Ibrahim capitalized on his success by sending raiding parties against various strongholds in the vicinity, forcing either their capitulation and destruction or the payment of tribute. In this manner, Demona, Rometta, and Aci were captured or forced to pay tribute in token of submission. The locals were encouraged to convert to Islam, or, where they had left their forts and fled for the mountains, the walls were torn down and the wells blocked with stones to make them uninhabitable. Indefatigable, Ibrahim crossed over into the mainland in early September, where cities as far as Naples began to prepare to resist his attack. In the end, his advance was stopped at the siege of Cosenza, where Ibrahim died of dysentery on October 23. Fortunately for the Aghlabids, the inhabitants of Cosenza, unaware of this, offered terms. This allowed Ibrahim's grandson, Ziyadat Allah, to end the military campaign with a token success, and return to Sicily laden with booty. Although a few strongholds in the northeast remained unconquered and in Christian hands, the fall of Taormina marked the effective end of Byzantine Sicily, and the consolidation of Muslim control over the island. It was not until the 960s that the last Byzantine enclaves—including Taormina and Rometta, which had returned to Byzantine control—would be finally captured, by the Fatimid Caliphate.	[ "## Background", "## Ibrahim II's arrival and the fall of Taormina", "## Aftermath" ]	1,621	34,048
22,203,372	Eat, Pray, Queef	1,135,354,412	null	[ "April Fools' Day", "Flatulence in popular culture", "South Park (season 13) episodes", "Television episodes about weddings", "Television episodes set in Canada", "Works about feminism", "Works about sisters" ]	"Eat, Pray, Queef" is the fourth episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series South Park. The 185th overall episode of the series, it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on April 1, 2009. In the episode, the men and boys of South Park became infuriated when the fart-joke oriented Terrance and Phillip show is replaced with the Queef Sisters, a show devoted to queef jokes. The women and girls of South Park accuse them of holding a sexist double standard when it comes to women queefing and men farting. The episode was written and directed by series co-founder Trey Parker, and was rated TV-MA L in the United States. Parker and Matt Stone originally considered doing a full-length Queef Sisters episode in the style of the second season premiere "Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus", but they decided against it based on the negative fan reaction to that episode. The episode received generally positive reviews and, according to Nielsen Media Research, was seen by more than three million households in its original airing, making it the most-watched Comedy Central production of the week. The title is a reference to the Elizabeth Gilbert book Eat, Pray, Love; the episode also included references to Martha Stewart and the film The Road Warrior. The episode ends with the South Park men recording "Queef Free", a charity song in the style of "We Are The World" mixed with lyrics from "I Am Woman". "Eat, Pray, Queef" was released on DVD and Blu-ray along with the rest of the thirteenth season on March 16, 2010. ## Plot The boys of South Park Elementary School are anxiously awaiting the night's episode of Terrance and Phillip, which ended in a cliffhanger last season, while the girls at the school express disgust over the show and the boys' obsession with fart jokes. Cartman retaliates by farting in a little girl's face, which causes all the boys to laugh. After school, the boys gather in Cartman's house to watch the episode. To their horror, it is then revealed that, as an April Fools' Day joke, the channel is airing a new show called the Queef Sisters, about Canadian sisters Katherine and Katie Queef. They are very similar to Terrance and Phillip, but instead of fart jokes, they make queef jokes. The show starts a queefing movement across the country, and men everywhere get upset and disgusted by the queefs, although the women do not understand what the problem is. Though the women of South Park argue that there is no difference between queefing and farting, the men are revolted by queefs, while still finding their own fart jokes amusing. Meanwhile, Terrance and Phillip are furious their show got replaced with The Queef Sisters, sharing the American men's disgust of queef jokes. When the producer asks why they think fart jokes are funny, but are revolted by queef jokes, Terrance says it's "because babies come from there." As a joke mirroring Cartman's, one of the girls at school queefs on Butters' face, causing him to run screaming and crying out of the school building. Randy talks with Butter's father on the phone and then comforts Stan. The other boys are shocked and their fathers, outraged, go to the Colorado General Assembly and demand a law banning queefing, much to the anger of the town's women. Meanwhile, the Queef Sisters appear on Regis and Kelly to promote their book Eat, Pray, Queef, and Terrance and Philip's show gets canceled due to the rising popularity of the Queef Sisters. Terrance and Phillip attempt to kill the Queef Sisters, but the plan backfires when they end up becoming attracted to them after the Queef Sisters mention that Terrance and Phillip are the sisters' idols. They pair off into couples and travel the Canadian Wine Country together. Meanwhile, after Stan's mother Sharon queefs, she and Stan's sister, Shelley, start laughing at the dinner table, causing Stan and Randy to leave. Feeling sorry for Butters, the South Park boys testify in the case in the Colorado State Senate about the girl who queefed on Butters. A debate on the senate floor culminates with a female senator queefing almost exact lines of dialogue from The Road Warrior film. The next day, the newspapers announce that, partly due to the senator's stunt the previous day, the queefing ban has passed. As Stan and his father Randy celebrate, Sharon and Shelley are hurt and insulted by the decision, describing it as an example of sexism that still pervades society, and finally sarcastically congratulate the men for "getting their own way... again." Stan and Randy finally understand the issue was not simply about queefing, but a larger point about women's rights. The two get all the South Park men together and record an inspirational song called "Queef Free", declaring women should have the right to queef, while photographs of women working various careers are displayed on a television screen. Terrance and Philip, despite a continued disgust with the constant queefing, attempt to marry the two Queef Sisters. The vicar leaves the ceremony in disgust as the couples repeatedly fart and queef on him, pronouncing them "Farts and Queefs" as he leaves. ## Production "Eat, Pray, Queef" was written and directed by series co-founder Trey Parker. It first aired on April 1, 2009 in the United States on Comedy Central. Although Parker and fellow co-creator Matt Stone acknowledged it was a particularly juvenile episode, Parker said it was his favorite show of the season to produce. He said, "I seriously never laughed as hard doing retakes, just going shot-by-shot, sitting there in the editing room laughing." During the writing process, the female producers and employees with the show found the script largely unfunny, disgusting and offensive. They reportedly claimed vaginal flatulence would not bloom into a proud women's movement as it did in the episode, but Parker and Stone insisted that was what made the concept even funnier. Originally, Parker and Stone considered making a full-length episode of The Queef Sisters. The duo had pulled a similar stunt with the second season premiere. Instead of the expected follow-up to "Cartman's Mom Is a Dirty Slut", in which the identity of Cartman's father was to be revealed, Parker and Matt Stone showed the episode "Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus", a Terrance and Phillip-centered episode as an April Fools' Day prank. Since "Eat, Pray, Queef" was coincidentally also set to air on April Fools' Day, they considered a similar joke revolving around Katherine and Katie. However, since "Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus" infuriated South Park fans at the time, they decided not to do it and wrote a full script for "Eat, Pray, Queef" instead. The original prank is referenced in the episode, when The Canada Channel announces that it will not air a much-anticipated part two episode of Terrance and Phillip, and instead will show the Queef Sisters as an April Fools' Day prank. The angry reaction from the boys mirrors the real-life fan reaction to the South Park second-season premiere. The episode uses the characters' conflicting responses to the comedic value of farts and queefs to demonstrate a double standard between rights of men and women, even in the 21st century, as both genders hold unfair opinions toward the other sex, and the episode suggests men and women are, and should be, equals. Shortly after "Eat, Pray, Queef" was originally broadcast, the site also featured T-shirts and hooded sweatshirts based on the episode. One featured Katherine and Katie queefing and saying, "Babies come from there!" ## Cultural references The book Eat, Pray, Queef by the Queef Sisters, which is also the source of the episode's title, is a satirical reference to the book Eat, Pray, Love written by Elizabeth Gilbert. There is a brief scene in which television host Martha Stewart provides instruction on ways to decorate queefs on The Martha Stewart Show. Television show hosts Regis Philbin and Kelly Ripa interview Katie and Katherine on their show, Live with Regis and Kelly. One of the queefs released by a woman in the episode includes exact dialogue from the 1981 action film The Road Warrior. The montage sequence where Terrance and Phillip take Katherine and Katie on a tour of Canadian wine country is a parody of a similar montage sequence in the 2004 comedy film Sideways. The men's anthem "Queef Free" is a parody of "We Are The World", the 1985 celebrities-for-charity song written by Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie. Within the episode, The Canada Channel announces that, as an April Fools' Day prank, it will be airing the new Queef Sisters show instead of the much-anticipated part two episode of Terrance and Phillip. This is a reference to the South Park second-season premiere. Instead of the expected follow-up to "Cartman's Mom Is a Dirty Slut", in which the identity of Cartman's father was to be revealed, Parker and Matt Stone showed the episode "Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus", a Terrance and Phillip-centered episode as an April Fools' Day prank. The move infuriated South Park fans. ## Reception A preview clip of the episode listed on South Park Studios, the official South Park website, during the week before the episode's broadcast was viewed more than 50,000 times. In its original American broadcast, "Eat, Pray, Queef" was watched by three million households overall, according to the Nielsen Media Research, making it the most-watched Comedy Central production of the week. It had over one million more household viewers than the second most watched Comedy Central show that week, the April 1 episode of The Daily Show. Niki Payne of the Philadelphia Examiner said "Eat, Pray, Queef" was "probably one of my all-time favorite episodes of South Park right now" because it was so on point concerning the double standards between men and women. She particularly praised the scene in which Stan and Randy are disgusted and uncomfortable when Stan's mom and sister started queefing at the dinner table. Carlos Delgado of If Magazine said the episode was "shocking, disgusting and obscenely funny" and demonstrated South Park's ability to tackle any type of issue "in a uniquely South Park manner". He particularly enjoyed the Martha Stewart segment, which he described as "just haunting". Josh Modell of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B grade. Modell said the Katie and Katherine cartoon was particularly funny, but queefing was referred to in so many jokes that it became a bit tired by the end. Some reviewers were less laudatory. Travis Fickett of IGN said the episode was "a textbook example of a disappointing South Park". He said the jokes were predictable, lazy, boring, and that Terrance and Phillip are not funny enough to carry large portions of an episode. ## Home media "Eat, Pray, Queef", along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park's thirteenth season, were released on a three-disc DVD set and two-disc Blu-ray set in the United States on March 16, 2010. The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode, a collection of deleted scenes, and a special mini-feature Inside Xbox: A Behind-the-Scenes Tour of South Park Studios, which discussed the process behind animating the show with Inside Xbox host Major Nelson.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Cultural references", "## Reception", "## Home media" ]	2,427	31,175
3,783,695	Spindizzy	1,170,584,504	1986 video game	[ "1986 video games", "Activision games", "Amstrad CPC games", "Apple II games", "Atari 8-bit family games", "Commodore 64 games", "Electric Dreams Software games", "Loriciel games", "Marble video games", "Puzzle video games", "Single-player video games", "Video games developed in the United Kingdom", "Video games with isometric graphics", "ZX Spectrum games" ]	Spindizzy is an isometric video game released for several 8-bit home computer formats in 1986 by Electric Dreams Software. It combines action and puzzle game elements. Players must navigate a series of screens to explore a landscape suspended in a three-dimensional space. Development was headed by Paul Shirley, who drew inspiration from Ultimate Play the Game games that feature an isometric projection. The game was successful in the United Kingdom and was well received by the video game press. Reviewers praised its visuals and design, but criticized its audio. Similarities were drawn to Marble Madness, which was released in arcades two years earlier. Spindizzy was followed by a 1990s sequel titled Spindizzy Worlds. ## Gameplay Spindizzy is an action and puzzle game played from an isometric perspective. Players can view the playing field from four angles, and rotate between them. The game takes place in a fictional landscape of interconnected stages suspended in a dimensional space. The player controls a probe called a Gyroscopic Environmental Reconnaissance And Land-Mapping Device (GERALD), via keyboard commands or a joystick. The craft is able to transform between three configurations: a ball, an inverted square pyramid, and a gyroscope, although the difference between each configuration is only visual. Players navigate the probe through the stages to explore the world within a time limit. The time limit can be extended by collecting power jewels scattered through the world and is decreased by falling off a stage. Stages feature ramps, corridors, and other obstacles that hinder the player from quickly traversing them. The game ends when time expires or the world is completely explored. ## Development and release Spindizzy was developed by Paul Shirley of British video game developer Electric Dreams Software. He was primarily inspired by Ultimate Play the Game games that feature an isometric projection, but was also influenced by the gameplay of the 1984 arcade game Marble Madness. Shirley created an interpreted script to generate the game's levels. The script allowed him to design a large number of stages using 11KB of storage. The game was originally released for the Amstrad CPC and later ported to Apple II, Atari 8-bit, Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum computers. Copies of Spindizzy were promoted as prizes in magazine contests upon its release. American video game company Activision published the game in the United States as part of its "Electric Dreams" series. John Sanderson programmed the Apple II version; Shirley was unaware of the port's existence until the mid-1990s. The company sold Spindizzy's compilation rights not long after obtaining them, which reduced the amount of royalties to Shirley and Electric Dreams. Shirley eventually severed the contract with Activision, citing late royalty payments among other actions he disagreed with. ## Reception and legacy Shirley described the game's marketing life as short and attributed that to Activision's business practices. James Hague of Dadgum Games commented that Spindizzy could have been an "all-time classic" had it received a proper marketing campaign. Despite this, Spindizzy sold well in the United Kingdom reaching the number one position in the Amstrad charts in March 1986. The Commodore and Spectrum versions also reached their Top 10 charts on their release several weeks later, taking the game to the number 2 position in the all formats chart. The game was well received by video game journalists upon its release. Zzap!64 awarded Spindizzy a Gold Medal. Tony Hetherington of Computer Gamer listed it as one of the essential Spectrum titles of 1986. Praise from reviewers focused on the game's visuals and design, while criticism focused on the audio. Three of Zzap!64's reviewers—Julian Rignall, Gary Liddon, and Gary Penn—called the graphics "amazing", well-executed, and "varied"; but they described the audio as sparse. Rignall and Penn complimented the challenging gameplay and commented that its addictiveness outweighed any frustration experienced while playing. The three summarized by urging readers to purchase the game. Computer Gamer reviewer Mike Roberts praised Spindizzy's gameplay, but mentioned that the screen's orientation can require a period of adjustment, particularly when using a joystick. Crash's reviewer called Spindizzy "one of the most addictive" ZX Spectrum games, noting its innovative use of shape changing, multiple view angles, and speed control. The audio was seen as lacking compared to the rest of the game, but was still described as good. Phil South of Your Sinclair gave the game high marks for graphics, playability, value for money, and addictiveness. He praised the ability to change viewpoints and the realistic movements of the character sprite. He also lauded the speed and quality of the graphics. Info assessed the Commodore 64 version four stars out of five, recommending it as "a hot little number with much of the appeal of Marble Madness" but better. Roy Wagner reviewed the game for Computer Gaming World, stating that Spindizzy "has a lot to offer and is an excellent value." More than a decade later, reviews still praised the game. Allgame editor Ryan Glover called Spindizzy an "innovative puzzler" that prompts players to fully explore it. Saying that the game successfully mixed infuriating moments with brilliant design, Darran Jones of Retro Gamer called Spindizzy a "timeless classic". The magazine rated Spindizzy the second best game with an isometric perspective, citing its presentation and stage designs. Reviewers drew comparisons to Marble Madness, which was ported to home platforms the same year. Roberts called Spindizzy the "best 'marble' game yet", and Charles Ardai of Computer Gaming World called it "a thoroughly enjoyable game" superior to Marble Madness. South described Spindizzy as the "closest thing yet to Marble Madness" on the ZX Spectrum, while Liddon said that any similarities to Marble Madness were coincidental. Many publications commented that the game was obviously inspired by Marble Madness. Over 25 years after its release, Retro Gamer called the game "intensely devious and addictive" and added that "Spindizzy's only enemy was yourself". Spindizzy's isometric design partially inspired Glenn Corpes during the development of the 1989 title Populous. Activision released a sequel titled Spindizzy Worlds for Amiga and Atari ST computers in 1990. The game features similar gameplay, but improved graphics and larger playing fields. It was later ported to the Super Nintendo Entertainment System by ASCII, which Shirley disapproved of and considered it a "disaster". He took legal action over the span of several years to obtain royalty information and payments. ## See also - Gyroscope: A 1985 video game with similar design and gameplay - Bobby Bearing: A 1986 video game with similar design and gameplay	[ "## Gameplay", "## Development and release", "## Reception and legacy", "## See also" ]	1,393	15,146
1,046,399	JAL Express	1,172,995,135	Defunct low-cost airline of Japan (1997—2014)	[ "Airline companies based in Tokyo", "Airlines disestablished in 2014", "Airlines established in 1997", "Defunct low-cost airlines", "Former Oneworld affiliate members", "Japan Airlines" ]	JAL Express Co., Ltd. (JEX) (株式会社ジャルエクスプレス, Kabushiki-gaisha Jaru Ekusupuresu), was an airline with its headquarters at Tokyo International Airport and in Ota-ku, Tokyo, Japan, and its main hub at Tokyo International Airport. It also maintained offices in the Japan Airlines Building in Shinagawa, Tokyo. Its operations included scheduled and non-scheduled passenger services to eight regional destinations across Japan. It also served 15 additional destinations in Japan, and two in the People's Republic of China on behalf of Japan Airlines, under a wet-lease agreement. JAL Express was a wholly owned subsidiary of Japan's flag carrier, Japan Airlines and an affiliate member of the Oneworld alliance. It was founded April 1, 1997, and began operations with a Boeing 737-400 on July 1, 1998. It celebrated its tenth anniversary and first flight in April 2007 and July 2008, respectively. It operated its first international flight in May 2009, and flew to Hangzhou and Shanghai. In the fiscal year ending March 31, 1999, JAL Express, together with its sister airlines within the JAL Group, carried over 32 million passengers and over 1.1 million tons of cargo and mail. The carrier ended operations on 30 September 2014 after being fully integrated with Japan Airlines. ## History JAL Express (JEX) was established on April 1, 1997 as a wholly owned domestic subsidiary airline of Japan Airlines (JAL), with initial capital of ¥5.8 million. It operated scheduled passenger services to regional domestic destinations in Japan, as well as some low-demand flights for JAL under wet-lease agreement. It was also considered for services on the domestic trunk and short-haul international routes. On July 1, 1998, JAL Express commenced operations from Osaka to Miyazaki and Kagoshima with two Boeing 737-400s, non-Japanese cockpit crew, and short-term contracted cabin attendants. The airline's cabin attendants, called Sky Cast, were responsible for cleaning the 150-seat cabin between flights. The airline celebrated its one millionth passenger in June 2000 and commenced wet-lease operation for its parent JAL in December 2000. On 14 November 2002, JAL introduced a new aircraft livery design, "The Arc of the Sun", across the JAL Group fleet. A reception to celebrate the completion of the first aircraft with the new design was held at the JAS M2 hangar. In April 2005, the McDonnell Douglas MD-81 was introduced to the airline fleet, with an all Economy Class configuration with 163 seats. JAL Express became an affiliate member of Oneworld on April 1, 2007, together with four of its sister airlines, in the alliance's biggest expansion in its young history. On the same day, the airline celebrated its tenth anniversary of establishment. JAL Express welcomed the arrival of the new Boeing 737-800 to its fleet in January 2008 and celebrated the tenth anniversary of its first flight in July 2008. It operated its first international flight in May 2009 under a wet-lease agreement with JAL. On July 9, 2010, JAL Express pilot Ari Fuji became its first female airline flight captain. As of March 27, 2011, all of JAL Express flights were being operated as JAL flights, until the full merger of the two carriers in September 2014. ## Destinations JAL Express operated to the following destinations: ## Fleet As of September 2013, JAL Express operated 42 narrow-body aircraft, with either two classes of service (class J and Economy class) or single class of service (Economy Class). ## Services ### In-flight catering Cold beverages (including Hajime Saori cooled-green tea, JAL Original citrus drink Sky Time and apple juice), hot beverages (including tea, green tea, coffee and consommé soup), JAL Original candy, and sugar candy were available on JAL Express flights. Passengers traveling in Class J could enjoy JAL Class J in-flight catering services. From March 27, 2011, passengers traveling in all classes could enjoy in-flight catering services on all flights. ### In-flight entertainment JAL Group's in-flight magazine, Skyward, JAL Express's in-flight magazine JEX Letter, and in-flight shopping magazine JALSHOP were available on board. No newspaper or audio or video programs were available. Class J passengers could enjoy JAL Class J in-flight entertainment services where available. After March 27, 2011, passengers in all classes could enjoy in-flight entertainment services on all of flights. ## See also - Air transport in Japan - List of airports in Japan - List of Japanese companies - Transport in Japan	[ "## History", "## Destinations", "## Fleet", "## Services", "### In-flight catering", "### In-flight entertainment", "## See also" ]	1,027	251
42,342,736	HMS Algerine (J213)	1,050,933,482	British lead ship of Algerine-class	[ "Algerine-class minesweepers of the Royal Navy", "Maritime incidents in November 1942", "Ships built by Harland and Wolff", "Ships built in Belfast", "Ships sunk by Italian submarines", "World War II escort ships of the United Kingdom", "World War II minesweepers of the United Kingdom", "World War II shipwrecks in the Mediterranean Sea" ]	HMS Algerine was the lead ship of her namesake class of minesweepers built for the Royal Navy during World War II, the Algerine-class minesweepers. Initially assigned to the North Sea, she was transferred to lead the 12th Minesweeping Flotilla. The Flotilla were posted to the Mediterranean to assist with Operation Torch. In 1942, after a successful mine clearing operation off Bougie, she was torpedoed by the Italian submarine Ascianghi, causing Algerine to sink, leaving only eight survivors. ## Description Algerine displaced 850 long tons (860 t) at standard load and 1,125 long tons (1,143 t) at deep load. The ship had an overall length of 225 feet (68.6 m), a beam of 35 feet 6 inches (10.8 m) and a draught of 8 feet 6 inches (2.6 m). She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines, driving two shafts, which gave a maximum speed of 16.5 knots (30.6 km/h; 19.0 mph). The ship mounted one single 4-inch (102 mm) Mk V gun. Algerine had four single mounts for 20-millimetre (0.8 in) Oerlikon 20 mm autocannon, and she was fitted with two depth charge rails, and four depth charge throwers. ## Career Algerine was laid down on 15 March 1941, by Harland & Wolff, Belfast, and launched on 22 December 1941. She was the eighth ship of the Royal Navy to be named Algerine. After being completed, the ship was commissioned on 24 March 1942, and adopted by Sittingbourne due to a Warship Week campaign. Algerine joined the 9th Minesweeping Flotilla in May 1942 and began action in minesweeping, escorting, and patrolling duties on the east side of England. She was proposed as leader for the 12th Minesweeping Flotilla, which would participate in action abroad. Her sister ships from the 9th Flotilla, Alarm and Albacore, joined her, as did Acute, and Cadmus. In October, she was put forward to go to the Mediterranean to assist Operation Torch, but her departure was delayed due to repair work. The other four ships in her flotilla left for Gibraltar as escorts to a convoy. Four days after the other ships left, Algerine escorted convoy KMF1 to Oran. ## Fate In early November, she helped recover the escort destroyer Cowdray off Algiers after Cowdray was damaged by an aerial attack. On 15 November, Algerine and Alarm were positioned off Bougie, clearing mines. The mission had been successful, with 46 mines cleared; but, Algerine was torpedoed by the Italian Adua-class submarine Ascianghi, commanded by Lieutenant commander Rino Erler. The submarine had first fired two torpedoes at the middle ship in the trio, then fired another two torpedoes at the last ship, Algerine: Algerine suffered heavy casualties and sank. The auxiliary anti-aircraft ship Pozarica rescued 32 men, of whom only 8 survived, internal wounds killing 24. The survivors had been on a Carley raft. The final death toll was 84. Algerine's wreck lies at 1,100 ft (340 m) on the northern coast of Algeria.	[ "## Description", "## Career", "## Fate" ]	730	35,516
103,103	Polish proverbs	1,129,485,075	Adages in the Polish language	[ "Polish culture", "Polish words and phrases", "Proverbs by language" ]	Tens of thousands of Polish proverbs exist; many have origins in the Middle Ages. The oldest known Polish proverb dates to 1407. A number of scholarly studies of Polish proverbs (paremiology) exist; and Polish proverbs have been collected in numerous dictionaries and similar works from the 17th century onward. Studies in Polish paremiology have begun in the 19th century. The largest and most reputable collection of Polish proverbs to date, edited by Julian Krzyżanowski, was published in 1970s. ## History The oldest known Polish proverb, dating to 1407, was written in Latin and Old Polish: "Quando sø lika drø, tunc ea drzi", which translates to "When bast can be torn, then tear it." This is analogous to "Make hay while the sun shines" or "Strike while the iron is hot". The oldest Polish proverb thus reminded peasants to seize the opportunity when the time was right – to harvest bast in the spring, which they would turn into bast shoes, textiles, and cordage in winter. Some Polish proverbs have been medieval translations of Latin classics. Thus, "Oko pańskie konia tuczy" – "The master's eye fattens the horse" – comes from the Latin "Oculus domini saginat equum"; and the latter Latin proverb was likely translated from a still older Persian one. Other proverbs have taken their origin from other European languages. Many proverbs have been popularized by Polish literature. For example, the popularity of "Oko pańskie konia tuczy" has been attributed to its inclusion in Adam Mickiewicz's epic poem, Pan Tadeusz. ## Themes As with proverbs of other peoples around the world, Polish proverbs concern many topics; at least 2,000 Polish proverbs relate to weather and climate alone. Many concern classic topics such as fortune and misfortune, religion, family, everyday life, health, love, wealth, and women; others, like the first recorded Polish proverb (referring to bast production), and those about weather, offer practical advice. A theme unique to Polish proverbs is about Poles and Poland; one of the most famous of these states that "Polacy nie gęsi lecz własny język mają" ("Poles are not geese, they have their own tongue"), in a 1562 verse by Mikołaj Rej, and commonly interpreted as stressing the importance of having one's own national language (here, Polish). Similarly to English proverbs, Polish proverbs have been criticized for being sexist. ## Polish paremiology The first known Polish author interested in proverbs was the poet Biernat of Lublin, who in 1522 published a collection of them titled Żywot Ezopa Fryga [pl], mędrca obyczajnego i z przypowieściami jego (The life of Aesop the Phrygian, a Decent Sage, and with His Parables). The first Polish scholar of paremiology was Salomon Rysiński [pl] (Solomone Rysinio), who in 1618 published the first known Polish work dedicated solely to collecting and discussing proverbs (Proverbiorum polonicorum a Salomone Rysino collectorum Centuriae decem et octo). This work, first published in Latin, but subsequently in Polish (Przypowieści polskie, przez Salomona Rysińskiego zebrane, a teraz nowo przydane i na wielu miejscach poprawione, 1620), collected over 1,800 proverbs which, according to the author, were "of Polish origin". In 1632, Grzegorz Knapski, a Polish Jesuit, published an even larger collection (in volume three of his Thesaurus Polono-Latino-Graecus), with over 6,000 collected proverbs. In 1658 Polish writer Andrzej Maksymilian Fredro published another collection of proverbs, Przysłowia mów potocznych albo przestrogi obyczajowe, radne, wojenne, which was said to have been widely popular in contemporary Poland. The 19th century saw the first work dedicated more to analyzing the proverbs and their history than solely collecting them, the Przysłowia narodowe, z wyjaśnieniem źródła, początku oraz sposobu ich użycia, okazujące charakter, zwyczaje i obyczaje, przesądy, starożytności i wspomnienia ojczyste (1830) of Kazimierz Władysław Wóycicki [pl]. Other early works on Polish paremiology were published in the 19th century by Oskar Kolberg and Samuel Adalberg, the latter publishing a collection of over 30,000 Polish proverbs (Księga przysłów, przypowieści i wyrażeń przysłowiowych polskich - The Book of Polish Proverbs - 1889–1894). Adalberg's work was praised as "the first modern work on this topic in Polish" and "the most extensive collection ever made in this field". The early 20th century saw further scholarly analysis of Polish proverbs by scholars such as Aleksander Brückner and Jan Stanisław Bystroń, the latter known as "the father of modern Polish paremiology", and the author of the monograph simply titled Przysłowia polskie (Polish proverbs, 1933). After World War II, significant contributions to the field of Polish paremiology were carried out by Julian Krzyżanowski. He was the editor of the largest and most reputable collection of Polish proverbs to date, Nowa księga przysłów i wyrażeń przysłowiowych polskich (New Book of Polish Proverbs and Proverbial Expressions, also known as Nowa Księga przysłów polskich, A New Book of Polish Proverbs, published in several volumes in the years 1969–1978), dubbed the "bible of Polish proverbs". Despite the proliferation of similar works in later years, in 2012 his work was still described as "the most comprehensive" of its type in Poland. Other notable modern Polish paremiologists include Tomasz Jurasz [pl], Dobrosława Świerczyńska, Katarzyna Kłosińska [pl], Jerzy Bralczyk [pl] and Władysław Kopaliński. In 2009–2018 alone, 16 collections of proverbs aimed at young readers were published in Poland; many addressed to a mass audience are of varying quality. ## List of Polish proverbs - Heaven for the nobility, purgatory for townspeople, hell for peasants, paradise for Jews - Pole and Hungarian brothers be ## See also - Polish proverbs	[ "## History", "## Themes", "## Polish paremiology", "## List of Polish proverbs", "## See also" ]	1,502	6,871
14,964,319	Brian Carbury	1,167,292,779	New Zealand-born British World War II flying ace	[ "1918 births", "1961 deaths", "Deaths from cancer in England", "Deaths from leukemia", "Military personnel from Wellington", "New Zealand World War II flying aces", "New Zealand World War II pilots", "New Zealand emigrants to the United Kingdom", "People educated at King's College, Auckland", "Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)", "Royal Air Force officers", "Royal Air Force pilots of World War II", "The Few" ]	Brian Carbury, DFC & Bar (27 February 1918 – 31 July 1961) was a New Zealand fighter ace of the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the Second World War. He was officially credited with destroying 15+1⁄2 enemy aircraft. Born in Wellington, Carbury joined the RAF in 1937 after being rejected by the Royal Navy. After completion of his flight training, he was posted to No. 41 Squadron where he learnt to fly Supermarine Spitfires. He was later sent to No. 603 (City of Edinburgh) Squadron to train its pilots how to handle the Spitfire. During the early stages of the Second World War, the squadron was based in Scotland and patrolled the North Sea during which time Carbury was credited with damaging at least three bombers. The squadron shifted south in August 1940 to join in the Battle of Britain. He shot down a Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter on 28 August and another the following day. On 31 August he destroyed five enemy aircraft, one of three RAF pilots to achieve this feat during the Battle of Britain. He saw continued action for the next two months, shooting down several more enemy aircraft. After the Battle of Britain, Carbury's squadron moved north and began operating from Scotland. At the end of the year, he was posted to No. 58 Operational Training Unit on instructing duties. In October 1941 he was courtmartialed for dishonesty offences and discharged from the RAF. However, he may have continued on instructing duties until 1944. After the war, he was involved in efforts to illegally export fighter aircraft to Palestine. He died in 1961 of leukaemia. ## Early life Brian John George Carbury was born in Wellington on 27 February 1918, the son of Herbert Carbury, an Irish immigrant who was a veterinarian and worked with horses. He later moved the Carbury family to Auckland, and started specialising in the treatment of small animals. Carbury was educated at King's College but left after three years of schooling. He found employment selling shoes at the Farmers' Trading Company. Tiring of retail work, he headed to the United Kingdom in June 1937 to pursue a military career. He wanted to join the Royal Navy but on being told he was too old, he instead applied for the Royal Air Force (RAF) on a short service commission. ## Military career Accepted for the RAF, Carbury began training in September 1937 and later in the year was appointed an acting pilot officer. His first posting, in June 1938, was to No. 41 Squadron which was based at Catterick in Yorkshire and operated the Hawker Fury bi-plane fighter. His pilot officer rank was confirmed a few months later. The squadron began converting to Supermarine Spitfires in January 1939. In August, Carbury was posted to RAF Turnhouse near Edinburgh, Scotland, to join No. 603 (City of Edinburgh) Squadron of the Auxiliary Air Force (AAF) as a training officer. Being an AAF squadron, the pilots of No. 603 Squadron were weekend 'part-time' airmen from Edinburgh and the surrounding area. Carbury's work, as a by now experienced Spitfire pilot, was to help the amateur airmen convert to the aircraft. As war approached the squadron was mobilised and Carbury's posting, initially just temporary, was made permanent upon the outbreak of the war with Germany in September 1939. ## Second World War No. 603 Squadron's first encounter with the enemy was on 16 October 1939, when the Luftwaffe mounted its first raid of the war on Britain. A section of the squadron had taken off to intercept bombers targeting shipping in the Firth of Forth and shot down a Junkers Ju 88 east of Dalkeith. The destroyed German aircraft was the first to be shot down over Britain during the Second World War. Another Ju 88 was badly damaged in the encounter and crashed in Holland. Carbury, although flying that day, was not involved in the action. In early December, Carbury was part of a detachment of No. 603 Squadron sent to Montrose to provide fighter cover there. In this role, he and two other pilots attacked a group of seven Heinkel He 111 bombers on 7 December. He claimed a damaged He 111, observing smoke coming from both engines of the bomber as it turned away although he was unable to pursue it due to a lack of fuel. On 18 January 1940, reunited with the main body of No. 603 Squadron which was now flying from the RAF station at Dyce, he claimed a third share in the destruction of another He 111. The squadron carried out patrols and training over the spring and summer of 1940. During this time, he was promoted to flying officer and also shared in the destruction of two more German bombers, a He 111 in March and a Junkers 88 in July. By this stage, the pilots of No. 603 Squadron were eager to join in the fighting over southern England. Among them was the Australian Richard Hillary, who on arrival at the squadron in early July, was greeted by Carbury and immediately invited to drinks in the mess. ### Battle of Britain No. 603 Squadron became involved in the Battle of Britain on 27 August 1940, when it redeployed to RAF Hornchurch to replace a battle weary No. 65 Squadron. Carbury flew two patrols the day after the squadron's arrival, encountering a group of Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters on both occasions. He claimed a damaged Bf 109 but three of the squadron's pilots were killed. He claimed his first victory, a Bf 109, over Manston on 29 August. Another Bf 109 was shot down near Canterbury the next day. On 31 August, he flew three patrols. On the first, in the morning, he shot down a Bf 109, one of a group of 20 that the squadron encountered over Canterbury. On the second patrol carried out in the early afternoon, he and several other pilots attacked He 111s that were raiding Hornchurch. He shot down two of the bombers. Then, on the final patrol of the day, he destroyed two Bf 109s near Southend. His own aircraft was damaged in this encounter and he received an injury to his foot. His efforts of the day not only saw him become a fighter ace, but also one of only three pilots of the RAF to be credited with destroying five enemy aircraft in a day during the Battle of Britain. On 2 September Carbury claimed a Bf 109 as destroyed. Now officially credited with at least eight enemy aircraft destroyed, his exploits were recognised by the award of the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC). The award was gazetted on 24 September 1940, and the published citation read: > During operations on the North East coast Flying Officer Carbury led his section in an attack on two enemy aircraft. Both were destroyed. From 28th August, 1940, to 2nd September, 1940, he has, with his squadron, been almost continuously engaged against large enemy raids over Kent, and has destroyed eight enemy aircraft. Five of these were shot down during three successive engagements in one day. On 7 September the Luftwaffe mounted its first large scale daylight bombing raid on London. No. 603 Squadron caught part of the bombing formation on its return flight to France and Carbury shot down an escorting Bf 109 and damaged two bombers. He damaged a He 111 on 11 September and destroyed a Bf 109 on 14 September, near London. Towards the end of the month, the pace of the aerial fighting began to slow down with the Luftwaffe changing its tactics by using Bf 109s in a fighter-bomber role for daylight attacks. Carbury's next victory did not occur until 2 October, when he shot down a Bf 109 over the Thames Estuary. He destroyed another over southeast London on 7 October. Flying a patrol on 10 October as the leader of a section of three Spitfires, he spotted a group of 20 Bf 109s returning to northern France. Leading the section into attack, he shot down one of the Bf 109s into the English Channel and a second on to the beach at Dunkirk. On 14 October, he damaged a Junkers Ju 88. By the end of October 1940, Carbury was officially credited with 15+1⁄2 victories, the fifth highest scoring RAF pilot of the Battle of Britain. He was awarded a bar to the DFC he had received the previous month, one of only a few pilots so recognised during the period of the battle. The award of the bar was gazetted on 25 October 1940, the citation reading: > Flying Officer Carbury has displayed outstanding gallantry and skill in engagements against the enemy. Previous to 8th September, 1940, this officer shot down eight enemy aircraft, and shared in the destruction of two others. Since that date he has destroyed two Messerschmitt 109's and two Heinkel 113's, and, in company with other pilots of his squadron, also assisted in the destruction of yet another two enemy aircraft. His cool courage in the face of the enemy has been a splendid example to other pilots of his squadron. ### Move to the North At the start of December 1940, No. 603 Squadron moved to the RAF base at Rochford, near Southend, for two weeks before shifting to Scotland, based at Drem. On Christmas Day, Carbury took off in pursuit of a Ju 88 bomber flying off St Abb's Head. The German aircraft made for home after Carbury inflicted some damage. At the end of the year, he was posted to No. 58 Operational Training Unit, based at Grangemouth, as an instructor and did not fly operationally in combat again. By this time, in addition to his 15+1⁄2 confirmed kills, he was also credited with two probables and five damaged enemy aircraft. He was the seventh highest scoring New Zealand fighter ace of the Second World War. In October 1941 Carbury was charged with fraud after being accused of passing false cheques. His wife had expensive tastes and incurred bills that he could not pay. It was also alleged that he had deserted and misrepresented his rank by wearing the markings of a flight lieutenant. He was courtmartialled and dismissed from the RAF, a punishment announced in the London Gazette on 21 October 1941. According to aviation historian Kenneth Wynn, he continued on instructing duties until 1944. He divorced his wife and later remarried. ## Later life After leaving the RAF, Carbury continued to live in England. In 1949, he was involved with an effort to provide military equipment to Palestine. He was reportedly paid £500 to deliver a Bristol Beaufighter to Palestine and flew it there from England, with stops at Corsica and Yugoslavia. Afterwards he was charged with the illegal export of the Beaufighter and fined a total of £100. Three co-offenders received the same sentence. He later worked in London for a heating and ventilation company. He died of leukaemia on 31 July 1961 at Bourne End in Buckinghamshire, survived by his second wife and a son.	[ "## Early life", "## Military career", "## Second World War", "### Battle of Britain", "### Move to the North", "## Later life" ]	2,380	3,647
24,248,184	Battle of Unsan	1,169,885,602	1950 Korean War battle	[ "Battles and operations of the Korean War in 1950", "Battles of the Korean War", "Battles of the Korean War involving China", "Battles of the Korean War involving South Korea", "Battles of the Korean War involving the United States", "November 1950 events in Asia", "October 1950 events in Asia" ]	The Battle of Unsan (), also known as the Battle of Yunshan (Chinese: 云山战斗; pinyin: Yún Shān Zhàn Dòu), was a series of engagements of the Korean War that took place from 25 October to 4 November 1950 near Unsan, North Pyongan province in present-day North Korea. As part of the People's Republic of China's First Phase Campaign, the People's Volunteer Army (PVA) made repeated attacks against the Republic of Korea Army (ROK) 1st Infantry Division near Unsan beginning on 25 October, in an attempt to take advancing United Nations Command (UNC) forces by surprise. In an encounter with the United States military, the PVA 39th Corps attacked the unprepared U.S. 8th Cavalry Regiment in Unsan on 1 November, resulting in one of the most devastating U.S. losses of the war. ## Background By October 1950, the UNC forces had successfully broken out of the Pusan Perimeter in the extreme south of Korea and the begun a northward advance liberating South Korea and then advancing through North Korea towards the Sino-Korean border, chasing the retreating North Korean Korean People's Army (KPA). The U.S. 1st Cavalry Division entered Pyongyang on 19 October, while the ROK were rushing towards the Yalu River in all directions. As part of the Thanksgiving Offensive to end the war, Major General Frank W. Milburn, commander of U.S. I Corps, ordered the ROK 1st Infantry Division to secure the Sui-ho Dam on the Yalu River by advancing through Unsan. Alarmed by the rapid collapse of the KPA and UNC military forces approaching the Chinese border, Chairman Mao Zedong ordered the People's Liberation Army North East Frontier Force to be reorganized into the People's Volunteer Army (PVA) for the upcoming intervention in Korea. Despite Mao's determination to save North Korea from capitulation, the Chinese military leadership expressed doubts on the ability of the Chinese army to fight against the more modernized U.S. forces. As a compromise, Mao authorized the First Phase Campaign, a bridgehead building operation with limited offensives against only the South Korean forces while avoiding contacts with the U.S. forces. Under strict secrecy, the PVA entered Korea on 19 October. ## Prelude ### Locations and terrain Unsan is a town in northwest Korea, and it is located 50 mi (80 km) from the Ch'ongch'on River mouth on the Korean west coast. Because of the hilly terrain at the Sino-Korean Border, Unsan is one of the few access points into the Yalu River area. The town is surrounded by hills to the north, the Nammyon River to the west and the Samtan River to the east. At the south of the town, a road junction controls the road from Unsan to Ipsok while a ridge dubbed "Bugle Hill" controls the road between Unsan and Yongsan-dong. Those two roads formed the only retreat routes for the UN forces at Unsan. ### Forces and strategy Acting on Milburn's instruction, the ROK 1st Infantry Division advanced north on 24 October with the ROK 6th Infantry Division on its right and the U.S. 24th Infantry Division on its left, and by the morning of 25 October, the ROK 1st Infantry Division had captured Unsan. But with the UNC forces spread thinly across Korea, a 15 mi (24 km) gap was left between the U.S. 24th Division and ROK 1st Division, leaving the ROK left flank unprotected. Upon noticing the thinly held UNC frontline, the Chinese decided to launch a pincer movement against the South Koreans at Unsan. As part of the First Phase Campaign, the PVA 120th Division of the 40th Corps was at first to block and hold the ROK 1st Infantry Division at Unsan. Simultaneously, the bulk of the 40th Corps, together with the PVA 38th Corps and one division from the 42nd Corps, would attack and destroy the ROK 6th and 8th Infantry Divisions at the east of Unsan. Finally, the PVA 39th Corps would destroy the ROK 1st Infantry Division by infiltrating the gap between U.S. 24th Division and the ROK 1st Infantry Division west of Unsan. Undetected by UNC intelligence, the 120th Division arrived at the blocking position on 24 October, with its 360th Regiment heavily fortified the hills north of Unsan. To obscure troop movements and to prevent UNC air raids, the Chinese also started several forest fires around the end of October. ## Battle ### Initial skirmish On 25 October at 10:30, the ROK 1st Infantry Division attacked north with its 12th Regiment on the western bank of Samtan River while the 15th Regiment was trying to reach the eastern bank. But when the 15th Regiment was about to cross the river, the PVA 120th Division intercepted the South Koreans with heavy artillery fire. The South Koreans first believed the resistance to be the last remnants of the KPA, but the perception soon changed with the capture of the first Chinese prisoner in the Korean War. The prisoner revealed that there were 10,000 Chinese soldiers waiting to join the fight north of Unsan. Faced with the sudden appearance of the overwhelming Chinese forces, the ROK 1st Infantry Division tried to establish defensive positions by capturing the hills around Unsan. The South Koreans soon found themselves in a seesaw battle with the PVA 360th Regiment during the night of 25 October. The next day, the PVA 39th Corps arrived at the west of Unsan while cutting the road between Unsan and Yongsan-dong, completely surrounding the ROK 1st Infantry Division. Aided by airdrops, the US 6th Medium Tank Battalion and the US 10th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Group, the ROK 1st Infantry Division reopened the road on 27 October. Several more attempts to advance north by the ROK made little progress, and the fighting stopped by 28 October. Despite the warnings given by Brigadier General Paik Sun Yup, commander of the ROK 1st Infantry Division, a general feeling of optimism about the outcome of the war prevented the warnings from being taken seriously. With the fighting reached a stalemate at Unsan, General Walton Walker of the Eighth United States Army ordered the US 8th Cavalry Regiment of the US 1st Cavalry Division to resume offensives north by relieving the ROK 12th Regiment. By the time the US 8th Cavalry Regiment reached Unsan on 29 October, the ROK 11th Infantry Regiment, 1st Infantry Division was also pulling out of Unsan. At the same time, the Chinese had destroyed the ROK 6th Infantry Division on the east of Unsan. Unsan had now become a northern salient in the UN line containing only the US 8th Cavalry Regiment and the ROK 15th Infantry Regiment. ### Chinese counterattack Still believing that the ROK 1st Infantry Division was tied up at Unsan, PVA Commander Peng Dehuai gave the go ahead for the 39th Corps to destroy the Unsan garrison on 1 November. The Chinese plan called for the PVA 117th Division to attack from the northeast, the 116th Division to attack from the northwest and the 115th Division to attack from the southwest. At the same time, the US 8th Cavalry Regiment had taken up positions around the town, with its 1st Battalion defending the north of Unsan by the Samtan River, while its 2nd and 3rd Battalions defending the areas west of the Unsan by the Nammyon River. The lack of UN manpower, however, created a 1 mi (1,600 m) gap between the 1st and 2nd Battalions. The ROK 15th Infantry Regiment, on the other hand, had dug in northeast of the Unsan, across the river from the US 1st Battalion. In the early afternoon of 1 November, a combat patrol from the US 5th Cavalry Regiment, rear guard of the 8th Cavalry Regiment, was intercepted by PVA 343rd Regiment of the 115th Division at Bugle Hill. With the trap discovered, the Chinese immediately launched their attacks at 17:00. Supported by rocket artillery, the 117th Division attacked the ROK 15th Infantry Regiment in full force while four Chinese battalions from the 116th Division struck the gap between the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the US 8th Cavalry Regiment. By 23:00, the heavy fighting destroyed the ROK 15th Infantry Regiment, while the US 1st and 2nd Battalions were running out of ammunition. As the UN forces began to buckle around Unsan, Milburn finally ordered the garrison to withdraw after learning the destruction of the ROK 6th Infantry Division on the right flank. Before the withdrawal could be carried out, however, the PVA 347th Regiment of the 116th Division had already entered the town of Unsan through the gap between the American battalions. Soon afterward, several roadblocks appeared behind the US 1st and 2nd Battalions. With the attacks gaining momentum, the PVA 348th Regiment, 116th Division advanced southward from Unsan, ambushing the UN forces at the road junction by 02:30. With all the roads blocked, the US 8th Cavalry Regiment's 1st and 2nd Battalions had to escape by infiltrating the Chinese lines in small groups, abandoning most of their vehicles and heavy weapons along the way. The surviving US and ROK soldiers reached UN lines by 2 November. While the US 8th Cavalry Regiment's 1st and 2nd Battalions were under heavy attack, its 3rd Battalion was left alone for most of the night, but by 03:00, a company of commandos from the 116th Division managed to infiltrate the battalion command post disguised as ROK soldiers. The following surprise attack set many vehicles on fire while causing numerous casualties among the Americans, most of whom were still sleeping. By the time the confusing fighting had ended, the 3rd Battalion was squeezed into a 200 yd (180 m) wide perimeter by the PVA 345th Regiment, 115th Division. The US 5th Cavalry Regiment made repeated attempts to rescue the 3rd Battalion by attacking the PVA 343rd Regiment at Bugle Hill, but after suffering 350 casualties, the 5th Cavalry was forced to withdraw under orders from Major General Hobart Gay, commander of the US 1st Cavalry Division. The trapped 3rd Battalion endured days of constant attacks, and the surviving soldiers managed to break out of the perimeter by 4 November. By the end of the battle, less than 200 survivors from the 3rd Battalion managed to return to the UN line. ## Aftermath Immediately after the success at Unsan, the rest of the Chinese forces advanced across the US lines, intending to push the US forces back across the Ch'ongch'on River and into Pyongyang. But food and ammunition shortages soon forced the Chinese to disengage on 5 November, thus ending the Chinese First Phase Campaign. Besides the victory at Unsan, the Chinese First Phase Campaign also destroyed the ROK 6th Infantry Division and one regiment from the ROK 8th Infantry Division at the Battle of Onjong. In return, the Chinese had suffered 10,700 casualties by the end of the Chinese First Phase Campaign. The Battle of Unsan has been considered to be one of the most devastating US losses of the Korean War. The Chinese victory at Unsan was as much of a surprise to the Chinese leadership as it was to the UN forces. The accidental encounter between the Chinese and US forces at Unsan eased the fear of the Chinese leadership about intervening in Korea, while the performance of the US 1st Cavalry Division was studied in great detail by Chinese commanders. For the UN forces, on the other hand, despite the heavy losses suffered by the US Eighth Army at Unsan, the unexpected Chinese withdrawal made the United Nations Command believe that China did not intervene in Korea on a large scale. PVA Commander Peng Dehuai incorporated the lessons from Unsan for the upcoming Second Phase Campaign, while General Douglas MacArthur launched the Home-by-Christmas Offensive under the assumption that only a weak Chinese force was present in Korea, resulting in the decisive battles at the Ch'ongch'on River and the Chosin Reservoir later that year.	[ "## Background", "## Prelude", "### Locations and terrain", "### Forces and strategy", "## Battle", "### Initial skirmish", "### Chinese counterattack", "## Aftermath" ]	2,702	26,830
3,282,504	NSB Class 71	1,144,678,010	High-speed electric train type operating in Norway	[ "15 kV AC multiple units", "Adtranz multiple units", "Flytoget", "High-speed trains of Norway", "Multiple units of Norway", "Passenger trains running at least at 200 km/h in commercial operations", "Vehicles introduced in 1998" ]	NSB Class 71 (Norwegian: type 71) is an electric multiple unit used by Flytoget for the Airport Express Trains on the Gardermoen Line of Norway. Sixteen three-car train sets were built by Adtranz Strømmen between 1997 and 1998. The units are capable of 210 km/h (130 mph), connecting Oslo Central Station and other stations in Metropolitan Oslo to the Oslo Airport, Gardermoen, along Norway's only high-speed railway. In a three-car configuration, the units weigh 158 tonnes (156 long tons; 174 short tons) and are 82.3 metres (270 ft 0 in) long, with a power output of 2,645 kW (3,547 hp). The units are similar to the NSB Class 73, and are related to the Swedish X2 units. By 2009, all units were expanded with a fourth car. ## Specifications The unit is based on the Swedish X2 designed by Kalmar Verkstad in the 1980s, and delivered from 1990 to the Swedish State Railways for use in their X 2000 high-speed intercity trains. Although the technology involved is similar, like spot-welded stainless steel car bodies, the Class 71 differs in several ways. First, the unit does not have a separate locomotive unit, but has the motors spread throughout the train, with one powered and one unpowered bogie in each car. The car bodies are totally different in layout, including the doors between bogies instead of at the end of the cars. In addition, the trains are pressure tight to increase comfort for passengers while passing through tunnels. They also have hydraulic couplers at the ends, which are hidden behind covers when not used. The Class 71 is also shorter, with only three cars, and does not have any tilting technology installed. The exterior design, especially the nose, is quite different. Norges Statsbaner later took order of 22 units of the Class 73, that is almost identical, but has four cars and tilting technology. Class 73's pantograph is pivoted in order to keep it centred under the catenary when the body tilts. Each train has a 2,645 kW (3,550 hp) power output; this is an unusually high power to weight ratio for trains with that maximum speed. The units use the standard Norwegian voltage of . Up to four units can be run in multiple, creating 12-car (or 16-car after the upgrade) trains. However, the trains normally only operate as single or double units, limiting the length to eight cars. End cars are 27.9 m (91 ft 6 in) and weigh 52 t (51 long tons; 57 short tons), while center cars are 26.32 m (86 ft 4 in) and weigh 54 t (53 long tons; 60 short tons). The pantograph is located on the center car. Each unit has 168 seats, that are built modally so that the seating can be reconfigured. The sixteen units cost . During construction, the weight had increased from 149 to 170 tonnes; to reduce this to 158 tonnes, the original idea of step-free access was discontinued. Instead, a wheelchair lift was installed, but it proved not to work. The area around the doors are step-free from the platform, but within the trains steps must be taken to reach the seating area. The Norwegian Federation of Organisations of Disabled People have criticized Flytoget for ordering identical additional cars that will not ease access for the disabled. The Class 71 is capable of speeds up to 210 km/h (130 mph), compared to 200 km/h (124 mph) in the original. This speed was chosen to make it possible to get from Oslo Central Station to Oslo Airport, Gardermoen in less than 20 minutes. The signalling system ATC-2 is built for 200 km/h (124 mph), and could not be adopted for much more than that. The three car units (resp. four car units) can only be separated at a railway workshop, and are never used in anything but their native car configuration. ## History When the Parliament of Norway decided to build Oslo Airport, Gardermoen, on 8 October 1992, they also decided to build a high-speed airport rail link from Oslo Central Station to the airport. This railway, the Gardermoen Line, was to be built and operated by a subsidiary of Norwegian State Railways, NSB Gardermobanen. To operate the railway they needed sixteen electric multiple units. In addition to tests in Sweden, the X2 was tried out on the Randsfjord Line on 12 March 1993. The order for the units was placed on 23 February 1995, after NSB had received bids from ABB (that later merged with Daimler-Benz's train division to become Adtranz), AEG, Fiat Ferroviaria, Talbot, Linke-Hofmann-Busch, Siemens and Görlitz. During 1996, an X2 train was hired to test out performance on the Norwegian railway system, and for a short period put into service on the Sørland Line. The first Class 71 unit was delivered on 19 September 1997, and the last on 30 January 1998. The last unit, no. 71.16, was delivered with tilting mechanism to be used to test performance on the Norwegian railways, due to the similarities between Class 71 and Class 73. It could be seen during the winter on the challenging Bergen Line and Dovre Line. After a few years the tilting mechanism was removed. In 2007, Flytoget announced that they had ordered a fourth car for each of the units. This increased the capacity of each unit by 40% to 244 seats, and allows the company to manage the annual 10% growth in passengers. The delivery of the fourth cars started in 2008 and were built by Bombardier Transportation, who has bought ADtranz, with the rebuilding scheduled to be completed during 2009. The rebuilding created several challenges for Bombardier, since most of the components used in the class were no longer available. Significant components such as the car body and rectifiers had to be built by Bombardier based on abandoned production lines, and many of the original manufacturers for the interior have become defunct. From 2010, the Norwegian Rail School operates a simulator center for training motormen. It consists of six mock-ups of the Class 71 driver's cab, and is used both by the school and to train existing Airport Express Train drivers in exceptional circumstances. The simulators were built by Sydac and cost NOK 35 million. ## Incidents The sister trains in service with NSB were prone to technical failures, since they have to operate on hundred-year-old infrastructure on cross-mountain services. The Class 71 has more lenient operating conditions thanks to better infrastructure, and therefore has not been prone to as much malfunction. The only incident to ground all the Class 71 trains occurred on 17 June 2000, after a Class 73-train operated by NSB derailed at Nelaug Station owing to stress on the axles. The Oslo Airport Express Trains were back in service the next day, while the 73-series had to wait another month before returning to service. On 24 January 2004, a Class 71 unit had to be taken out of service due to smoke from a stressed bearing, causing the replacement of the bearings on all units within days. Several deaths have taken place on the route, but only one due to an accident. In 1999, an employee of the Norwegian National Rail Administration was killed after impact with a train; the authorities stated that the cause was due to the train operating at 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph), instead of the temporarily reduced limit of 80 kilometres per hour (50 mph). The company was fined for not informing the driver of the speed limit reduction. Several other deaths on the line have been classified as suicides, and so are not part of the accident statistics; they do however cause delays on all services for hours after the incidents take place. In 2000 and 2001, Flytoget experienced three derailments with empty trains at Gardermoen; one caused by the engineer falling asleep and two by the train passing a red signal. No more such accidents occurred after Automatic Train Control was installed in 2001.	[ "## Specifications", "## History", "## Incidents" ]	1,771	19,227
3,002,416	Diolkos	1,162,569,988	Paved trackway near Corinth in Ancient Greece	[ "Ancient Corinth", "Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Peloponnese (region)", "Ancient Greek buildings and structures", "Ancient Greek technology", "Archaeological sites in the Peloponnese (region)", "History of rail transport in Greece", "Portages", "Roman sites in Greece", "Trackways in Greece", "Transport in ancient Greece" ]	The Diolkos (Δίολκος, from the Greek dia διά, "across", and holkos ὁλκός, "portage machine") was a paved trackway near Corinth in Ancient Greece which enabled boats to be moved overland across the Isthmus of Corinth. The shortcut allowed ancient vessels to avoid the long and dangerous circumnavigation of the Peloponnese peninsula. The phrase "as fast as a Corinthian", penned by the comic playwright Aristophanes, indicates that the trackway was common knowledge and had acquired a reputation for swiftness. The main function of the Diolkos was the transfer of goods, although in times of war it also became a preferred means of speeding up naval campaigns. The 6-to-8.5-kilometre-long (3+3⁄4 to 5+1⁄4 mi) roadway was a rudimentary form of railway, and operated from c. 600 BC until the middle of the first century AD. The Diolkos combined the two principles of the railway and the overland transport of ships, on a scale that remained unique in antiquity. ## Function The Diolkos saved ships sailing from the Ionian Sea to the Aegean Sea, a dangerous sea journey round the Peloponnese, whose three headlands had a reputation for gales, especially Cape Matapan and Cape Malea. By contrast, both the Gulf of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf were relatively sheltered waters. In addition, the overland passage of the Isthmus, a neck of land 6.4 km (4.0 mi) wide at its narrowest, offered a much shorter route to Athens for ships sailing to and from the Ionian coast of Greece. The Diolkos also had a commercial function in transporting goods. Little is known of its success in increasing trade but because of the length of time it was maintained, it is presumed that it had some positive impact. In addition to trade, during wartime the Diolkos may have been used to transport lighter ships across land. ## History Ancient literature is silent on the date of the construction of the Diolkos. For Thucydides (460 BC–395 BC) the Diolkos already seemed to be something ancient. Excavated letters and associated pottery found at the site indicate a construction date at the end of the 7th or beginning of the 6th century BC, that is around the time when Periander was tyrant of Corinth. The Diolkos remained reportedly in regular service until at least the middle of the 1st century AD, after which no more written references appear. Possibly the trackway was put out of use by Nero's abortive canal works in 67 AD. Much later transports of warships across the Isthmus in the late 9th century, and around 1150, are assumed to have used a route other than the Diolkos, due to the extensive time lag. ### Role in warfare The Diolkos played an important role in ancient naval warfare. Greek historians note several occasions from the 5th to the 1st century BC when warships were hauled across the Isthmus in order to speed up naval campaigning. In 428 BC, the Spartans planned to transport their warships over the Diolkos to the Saronic Gulf to threaten Athens, while later in the Peloponnesian War, in 411 BC, they carted over a squadron heading quickly for operations at Chios. In 220 BC, Demetrius of Pharos had a fleet of about fifty vessels dragged across the Isthmus to the Bay of Corinth by his men. Three years later, a Macedonian fleet of 38 vessels was sent across by Philip V, while the larger warships sailed around Cape Malea. After his victory at Actium in 31 BC, Octavian advanced as fast as possible against Marc Antony by ordering part of his 260 Liburnians to be carried over the Isthmus. In 868 AD, the Byzantine admiral Niketas Oryphas had his whole fleet of one hundred dromons dragged across the Isthmus in a quickly executed operation, but this took place most likely on a different route. ### Role in commerce Despite the frequent mentioning of the Diolkos in connection with military operations, modern scholarship assumes that the prime purpose of the trackway must have been the transport of cargo, considering that warships cannot have needed transporting very often, and ancient historians were always more interested in war than commerce. Comments by Pliny the Elder and Strabo, which described the Diolkos as being in regular service during times of peace, also imply a commercial use of the trackway. Coinciding with the rise of monumental architecture in Greece, the construction of the Diolkos may have initially served particularly for transporting heavy goods like marble, monoliths and timber to points west and east. It is not known what tolls Corinth could extract from the Diolkos on its territory, but the fact that the trackway was used and maintained long after its construction indicates that it remained for merchant ships an attractive alternative to the trip around Cape Malea for much of antiquity. ## Structure ### Course The Diolkos ran across the narrowest part of the Isthmus, where the trackway followed the local topography in a curved course in order to avoid steeper gradients. The roadway passed the Isthmus ridge at c. 79 m (259 ft) height with an average gradient of 1:70 (a 1.43% grade), while the steepest sections rose at a gradient of 1:16.5 (a 6% grade). Its total length is estimated at 6–7 km (3.7–4.3 mi), 8 km (5 mi) or 8.5 km (5.3 mi) depending on the number of supposed bends taken into account. A total of 1,100 m (3,609 ft) has been archaeologically traced, mainly at its western end close to the Bay of Corinth. There the known trackway began at a mooring place south of the more recent canal and ran parallel to the waterway for a few hundred meters, after which it switched to the north side, running in a slight bend a similar distance along the canal. From there on, the Diolkos either followed in a straight line the course of the modern canal, or swung south in a wide arc. The roadway ended at the Saronic Gulf at the village Schoinos, modern-day Kalamaki, described by Strabo as the trackway's eastern terminal. Sections of the Diolkos have been destroyed by the 19th-century Corinth Canal and other modern installations. ### Track and transport The Diolkos was a trackway paved with hard limestone with parallel grooves running about 1.60 metres (63 in) apart. The roadway was 3.4 to 6 metres (11 to 20 ft) wide. Since ancient sources tell little about how the ships were hauled across, the mode of ship transport has largely to be reconstructed from the archaeological evidence. The tracks indicate that transport on the Diolkos was done with some sort of wheeled vehicle. Either vessel and cargo were hauled across on separate vehicles, or only the cargo was taken across and reloaded on a different ship at the other side of the Isthmus. Although a technical analysis has shown that the transport of triremes (25 t, 35 metres (115 ft) long, 5 metres (16 ft) beam), albeit difficult, was technically feasible, it is assumed that the vessels were usually smaller boats rather than ships. To avoid damaging the keel during transport, hypozomata, thick ropes running from bow to stern, to reduce sagging and hogging of the hull, must have been used. Ship and cargo were presumably pulled by men and animals with ropes, tackles and possibly also capstans. The scientist Tolley aimed to establish the manpower needed to haul the vessels over the isthmus ridge. Assuming that a trireme soaked with water weighed 38 tons including its trolley, and that a man can exert a force of 300 N over an extended period of time, the pulling teams—depending on the slope and the surface of the cart track—must have numbered between 112 and 142 people, with a combined exertion of force of 33 to 42 kN, or around 3.8 tons weight. Bringing the trolley up to speed may have required as many as 180 men. Assuming a speed of 2 km per hour over an estimated length of 6 kilometres, the transfer from sea to sea would have taken three hours to complete. Assuming less load and rolling friction, Raepsaet, in contrast, calculates a maximum pulling force of 27 kN, which would have needed a slightly smaller towing crew. Under these circumstances, the use of harnessed oxen—which has been refuted by Tolley on the basis of their relatively diminished pulling capabilities—would have become feasible. However, the necessary expenditure of energy at the Diolkos must be regarded in both scenarios as considerable. ### Ancient railway According to the British historian of science M.J.T. Lewis, the Diolkos represented a railway, in the basic sense of a prepared track which so guides the vehicles running on it that they cannot leave the track. Measuring between 6 km (4 mi) and 8.5 km (5.3 mi), remaining in regular and frequent service for at least 650 years, and being open to all on payment, it constituted even a public railway, a concept which according to Lewis did not reoccur until c. 1800. Also, its average gauge of around 160 cm (5 ft 3 in) is similar to modern standards. However, a close examination of the excavated tracks may give a more differentiated picture. While there is agreement that the grooves in the eastern part were cut deliberately into the stone slabs to guide cart wheels, those in the western section are interpreted by some authors as a result of wear or do not appear at all. On the other hand, the marked cambers of this road section may point at deliberate tracks as well. Generally, varying forms of the grooves can also be explained by the long period of operation of the Diolkos, during which modifications and repairs must have significantly changed the appearance of the trackway. ### Modern exploration The chief engineer of the Corinth Canal, Béla Gerster, conducted extensive research on the topography of the Isthmus, but did not discover the Diolkos. Remains of the ship trackway were probably first identified by the German archaeologist Habbo Gerhard Lolling in the 1883 Baedeker edition. In 1913, James George Frazer reported in his commentary on Pausanias on traces of an ancient trackway across the Isthmus, while parts of the western quay were discovered by Harold North Fowler in 1932. Systematic excavations were finally undertaken by the Greek archaeologist Nikolaos Verdelis between 1956 and 1962, and these uncovered a nearly continuous stretch of 800 m (2,600 ft) and traced about 1,100 m (3,600 ft) in all. Even though Verdelis' excavation reports continue to provide the basis for modern interpretations, his premature death prevented full publication, leaving many open questions concerning the exact nature of the structure. Additional investigations in situ, meant to complement Verdelis’ work, were later published by Georges Raepsaet and Walter Werner. Today, erosion caused by ship movements on the nearby Canal has left considerable portions of the Diolkos in a poor state, particularly at its excavated western end. Critics who blame the Greek Ministry of Culture for continued inactivity have launched a petition to save and restore the registered archaeological site. ## Ancient sources The following ancient writers mention the transfer of ships across the Isthmus (in chronological order): - Thucydides 3.15.1, 8.7, 8.8.3–4 - Aristophanes, Thesmophoriazusae 647–648 - Polybius 4.19.7–9 [318], 5.101.4 [484], frag. 162 (ed. M. Buettner-Wolst) - Livy 42.16.6 - Strabo 8.2.1 [C.335], 8.6.22 [C.380], 8.6.4 [C.369] - Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 4.9–11, 18.18 - Cassius Dio 51.5 - Hesychius (ed. Schmidt, I, p. 516.80) - Suidas 2.92 - George Sphrantzes 1.33 - al-Idrisi (Joubert, P.A.: Géographie d'Édrisi 2, Paris 1840, p. 123) ## Other ship trackways Apart from the Diolkos at Corinth, there is scant literary evidence for two more ship trackways by that name in antiquity, both in Roman Egypt: The physician Oribasius (c. 320–400 AD) records two passages from his 1st century AD colleague Xenocrates, in which the latter casually refers to a diolkos close to the harbor of Alexandria which may have been located at the southern tip of the island of Pharos. Another diolkos is mentioned by Ptolemy (90–168 AD) in his book on geography (IV, 5, 10) as connecting a false mouth of a partly silted up Nile branch with the Mediterranean Sea. Neither Xenocrates nor Ptolemy offers any details on his trackway. ## See also - Ancient Greek technology - Architecture of ancient Greece - Corinth Canal - History of rail transport - Timeline of railway history - Towpath	[ "## Function", "## History", "### Role in warfare", "### Role in commerce", "## Structure", "### Course", "### Track and transport", "### Ancient railway", "### Modern exploration", "## Ancient sources", "## Other ship trackways", "## See also" ]	2,937	23,083
7,937,902	Abram Lincoln Harris	1,156,058,195	African-American economist and academic (1899-1963)	[ "1899 births", "1963 deaths", "20th-century African-American scientists", "20th-century American academics", "20th-century American economists", "African Americans in World War I", "African-American economists", "American military personnel of World War I", "Columbia University alumni", "Economists from Virginia", "Howard University faculty", "People from Richmond, Virginia", "University of Chicago faculty", "University of Pittsburgh alumni", "Virginia Union University alumni", "West Virginia State University faculty" ]	Abram Lincoln Harris, Jr. (January 17, 1899 – November 6, 1963) was an American economist, academic, anthropologist and a social critic of the condition of blacks in the United States. Considered by many as the first African American to achieve prominence in the field of economics, Harris was also known for his heavy influence on black radical and neo-conservative thought in the United States. As an economist, Harris is most famous for his 1931 collaboration with political scientist Sterling Spero to produce a study on African-American labor history titled The Black Worker and his 1936 work The Negro as Capitalist, in which he criticized black businessmen for not promoting interracial trade. He headed the economics department at Howard University from 1936 to 1945, and was a professor at the University of Chicago from 1945 until his death. As a social critic, Harris took an active radical stance on racial relations by examining historical black involvement in the workplace, and suggested that African Americans needed to take more action in race relations. ## Early life Harris was born into a middle-class African-American family on January 17, 1899, in Richmond, Virginia. His father was a butcher at a German American-owned meat shop, and his mother was a schoolteacher. As a result of his frequent contact with the meat shop's owner, Harris learned German and became a fluent speaker of the language. Harris's mastery of the language would help him later in life, when he examined the writings of German economists and social reformers like Karl Marx. He served in World War I and then finished his degree at Virginia Union University, graduating in 1922 with a Bachelor of Science. Harris went on to earn an MA in economics from the University of Pittsburgh in 1924. It was his masters' thesis, The Negro Laborer in Pittsburgh, that started his lifelong examination on the African-American labor forces. ## Career He later published two articles in the National Urban League's journal, Opportunity, that discussed the difficulties faced by African-American mineworkers. His work in this field also addressed his concern about blacks and their white counterparts. Harris examined race prejudice of blacks by white workers. Meanwhile, Harris taught at West Virginia State University, a small historically black public college in Institute, West Virginia. During this year, he began a long and sustaining friendship with V. F. Calverton. He taught for a year, before he shifted directions and took the position as director of the Minneapolis Urban League. As director, he prepared a detailed report titled The Negro Population in Minneapolis: A Study of Race Relations dealing with the living conditions of African Americans in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Harris described the physical and socio-economic conditions of African Americans in Minneapolis in 1926. Using census data and statistical surveys, Harris tried to show that there was a strong social rift at the workplace between blacks and whites. Harris then enrolled at Columbia University to pursue a PhD in economics. In 1927, just a year into his doctorate studies, Harris joined the faculty of Howard University. There, Harris collaborated with fellow black colleagues Ralph Bunche and E. Franklin Frazier, and attacked older values and outlooks on race. Continuing with previous writings, Harris wrote his PhD thesis on the rift between African-American and white labor in the United States. In 1930, he became the second African American to receive a doctorate in economics in the United States, following Sadie Mossell Alexander. The following year, he collaborated his thesis with political scientist, Sterling Spero, to produce a famous study of African-American labor history entitled The Black Worker, the Negro & the Labor Movement. Harris believed that African Americans needed to contribute to the development of a working-class political party in the United States. He expressed dislike for other strategies like rebellion, secession, or the various Back to Africa movements—which Harris described as "Negro Zionism"—led by such figures as Marcus Garvey and Haile Selassie I. In The Black Worker, Spero and Harris asserted that African Americans could put an end to the racial antagonism in the working class. They wrote about the history of the racial predicament between whites and blacks that had stemmed from the days of slavery. They argued that many African Americans had just recently migrated to the urban setting, and had been unaware of trade unionism and its benefits. They stated that the anti-union beliefs held by organizations such as the National Urban League also provided for the racial division seen in the working class between blacks and whites. Harris also was the author of a Progressive Labor Party pamphlet in 1930 that called for the formation of a working-class political party in the United States. By this point, he and Calverton had grown distant; white journalist Benjamin Stolberg took Calverton's place as a major correspondent in Harris's life. They critiqued each other's work and encouraged each other towards greater heights of accomplishment. Harris, along with Frazier and Bunche, led the attack on the older generations at the NAACP's 1933 Amenia Conference. Harris's radical beliefs prompted a 1935 report entitled the Harris Report suggesting that the NAACP take a more active and affirmative stance on race relations in the United States. As the Great Depression progressed, Harris's radicalism declined. As Harris wrote in the 1957 introduction to his personal collection of essays, he was "emerging from a state of social rebellion [while] still adher[ing] somewhat to socialistic ideas by the late 1920s." He published his most famous economics work in 1936, The Negro as Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business. In the work, Harris wrote about the growing anti-business sentiment of the Great Depression. Harris argued that black businessmen were under the false sense of racial solidarity between whites and blacks. He said that African Americans needed to participate in trade unionism with white businessmen. This was the reason for the problems in the development of black business. Harris concluded that the black middle class was using their racial pride and unity to support businesses controlled by the American middle class. He felt that blacks were not reaching out to whites, and black business would not grow if there was no interracial trade. In reference to black complaints against Jewish businessmen, Harris said: > In their confusion, the masses are led to direct their animus against the Jew and against whiteness. The real forces behind their discomfort are masked by race which prevents them from seeing that what the Negro businessman wants most of all is freedom to monopolize and exploit the market they provide. They cannot see that they have no greater exploiter than the black capitalist who lives upon low-waged if not sweated labor, although he and his family may and often do, live in conspicuous luxury. Despite the heavy criticism against fellow black businesspeople, Harris's book achieved notability and recognition in the field of economics during the Great Depression. In 1937, Harris founded the liberal Social Science Division of Howard University, and served as the group's leader through the late 1930s and early 1940s. Harris left Howard in 1945 and moved to the University of Chicago, and became one of the first African-American academics with a high position at a historically white institution. His move was facilitated in part by the efforts of the Chicago economist Frank Knight, one of the founders of the famed Chicago School of economics that fostered the likes of Nobel Prize-winning economists Milton Friedman and George Stigler. Knight had been publishing many of Harris's papers on the subject of economic doctrine in The Journal of Political Economy since the late 1920s when Harris was at Howard. With his move to Chicago, Harris's economic ideologies also seemed to change. His writings took more of the tone of orthodox economics, and his previous defense of Karl Marx and other radical economists had turned into critical examinations of the works of these men. Harris expressed deep concerns about the Soviet Union's totalitarian direction led by Joseph Stalin in works such as Black Communist in Dixie, published in the National Urban League magazine, Opportunity. However, Harris became silenced on the topic of race, and did not write about it for the remainder of his academic career. Harris spent the rest of his life at the University of Chicago and died on November 18, 1963. ## Legacy Harris is best known for his work as an economist and social critic of African American business. He had a heavy influence on both black radical and neo-conservative thought. A recipient of the Guggenheim Fellowship for Economics in 1935, 1936, 1943 and 1953, Harris was one of the leaders of black economics through the early and mid-20th century. His early works such as The Negro as Capitalist set the precedent for contemporary African-American radical thought. Harris's great number of works on race relations, such as The Black Worker, served as a model for future African-American studies. His essays in The Journal of Political Economy have played a significant role for institutionalist economists and for economists studying the history of economic doctrines. He is still widely regarded as one of the first African Americans to achieve prominence in academia in the early 20th century, and an influential figure on a wide range of African-American topics of interest. ## Texts online - 1942 "Sombart and German (National) Socialism", Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 50, No. 6 (Dec., 1942), pp. 805–835	[ "## Early life", "## Career", "## Legacy", "## Texts online" ]	1,938	22,320
32,109,848	Chad at the 2012 Summer Olympics	1,068,425,839	null	[ "2012 in Chadian sport", "Chad at the Summer Olympics by year", "Nations at the 2012 Summer Olympics" ]	Chad competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, which was held from 27 July to 12 August 2012. This marked the nation's eleventh appearance at the Summer Olympics since its debut in the 1964 Summer Olympics. The Chadian delegation included track and field athlete Hinikissia Ndikert and judoka Carine Ngarlemdana. Ngarlemdana was the flag bearer for the opening ceremony and Ndikert was the flag bearer for the closing ceremony. Neither of Chad's athletes progressed beyond the first round of their events. Chad was one of only two countries to have a female-only team at the 2012 games. ## Background Chad, a landlocked country in Central Africa, participated in 11 Summer Olympic games between its debut in the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan and the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. The highest number of Chadian athletes to have participated in the summer games is six in the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea. As of 2016, no Chadian athlete has ever won a medal at the Olympics. Two athletes from Chad qualified for the London games; Hinikissia Ndikert in the women's track and field 200 metres and Carine Ngarlemdana in the women's 70 kilogram judo completion. Chad had no men competing for them; they and Bhutan were the only nations to send only female athletes to the 2012 games. ## Athletics The 2012 Summer Games was Hinikissia Ndikert's second Olympics. At the 2008 Summer Olympics, age 15, she was her country's flag bearer for both ceremonies. In her competition she finished 64th out of 85 competitors in the 100 metres. For the 2012 Summer Olympics, Ndikert qualified for the 200 metres. She competed on 6 August in the first heat of her event. She ran a time of 26.06 seconds and finished last in her heat of eight athletes. She was 3.51 seconds behind the winner of the heat, Murielle Ahouré of Ivory Coast. Overall, Ndikert was the second-slowest athlete of any in the heat round. The only athlete she was faster than was Chan Seyha of Cambodia. Ndikert was 2.96 seconds slower than the slowest athlete that progressed to the semi-final round, and was therefore eliminated. Women ## Judo Carine Ngarlemdana made her Olympic debut at the 2012 games. At the time she was 17 years of age. She was the flag bearer at both the opening and closing ceremonies. She was the third Chadian in Olympic history to compete in a judo event. Ngarlemdana qualified for the 70 kilogram event as an African Judo Union qualifier. On 1 August Ngarlemdana competed in the first round of her event. She was drawn against Sally Conway (Great Britain). Ngarlemdana lost 0002—1110 and was therefore eliminated from the competition. Overall she finished joint 17th and, along with five other athletes, last in the competition.	[ "## Background", "## Athletics", "## Judo" ]	659	22,316
107,881	New Jersey Route 52	1,169,518,483	State highway in southern, New Jersey, US	[ "Intracoastal Waterway", "State highways in New Jersey", "Transportation in Atlantic County, New Jersey", "Transportation in Cape May County, New Jersey" ]	Route 52 is a state highway in the southern part of the U.S. state of New Jersey. The highway runs 2.74 mi (4.41 km) from 9th Street in Ocean City, Cape May County north to U.S. Route 9 (New Road) in Somers Point, Atlantic County. It is composed mostly of a series of four-lane divided bridges over Great Egg Harbor Bay from Ocean City to Somers Point known as the Howard S. Stainton Memorial Causeway, also known as the Ninth Street Bridge. The remainder of the route is a surface road called MacArthur Boulevard that runs from the causeway to U.S. Route 9. This section of the route formerly included the Somers Point Circle, now a traffic light, where Route 52 intersects County Route 559 and County Route 585. Route 52 was originally designated on June 1, 1937 to run from the Somers Point Circle northwest to Mays Landing. This routing never came about and in 1953, Route 52 was designated onto its current alignment. County Route 585 ran concurrent with the route south of the Somers Point Circle until 1971, when it was truncated to end at the Somers Point Circle. The circle was removed in 2010 as part of the bridge reconstruction. In 2006, construction began on the replacement of the Route 52 causeway that was built in the 1930s over the Great Egg Harbor Bay, beginning with guardrail repairs that reduced traffic to two lanes. In 2008, the northbound lanes of the causeway were opened to traffic. Construction on the southbound lanes was completed in late 2009. The entire project was completed in 2012, including other improvements such as the construction of fishing piers, boat ramps, bike paths, walking trails, gateways, and a new Ocean City Visitor Center. In addition, improvements were made to MacArthur Boulevard that include the addition of a center left-turn lane and the replacement of the Somers Point Circle with a traffic light. ## Route description Route 52 begins along 9th Street in the Jersey Shore city of Ocean City, Cape May County, approximately 50 feet (15 m) south of Palen Avenue. Past the southern terminus of Route 52, 9th Street heads southeast and terminates at the Ocean City Boardwalk along the Atlantic Ocean. From the beginning of state maintenance, the route continues to the northwest as a four-lane divided highway. Immediately after beginning, Route 52 becomes the Howard S. Stainton Memorial Causeway, also known as the Ninth Street Bridge, which crosses over Great Egg Harbor Bay on a high-level bridge and then the longer Rainbow Harbor Channel. In between these two channels is an island where the Roy Gillian Welcome Center is located, with access from the southbound lanes. After crossing the Rainbow Harbor Channel, the road runs along another island, with a fishing pier adjacent to the southbound lanes, before crossing over the Great Egg Harbor Thoroughfare (part of the Intracoastal Waterway) and then a ship channel on another high-level bridge, where the route enters Somers Point in Atlantic County. After the ship canal, Route 52 crosses onto the mainland and intersects with County Route 559 (Mays Landing Road) and County Route 585 (Shore Road), formerly at the Somers Point traffic circle. In October 2010, the circle was eliminated and replaced by a traffic light. Beyond the former Somers Point Circle, Route 52 becomes a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane known as MacArthur Boulevard that heads north through commercial areas, soon narrowing to three lanes. The road curves northwest as a two-lane divided highway and enters residential areas. Route 52 comes to an end at an intersection with U.S. Route 9 (New Road). The road continues northwest as West Laurel Drive, which heads through a residential neighborhood to a partial interchange with the Garden State Parkway, with access to the northbound parkway and access from the southbound parkway. ## History Prior to 1914, access to the island city of Ocean City was only available by horse and buggy, ferry, or railroad. With the growing popularity of the automobile, plans for a causeway to support automotive traffic were announced in 1912. The causeway opened on April 11, 1914 as the Somers Point Boulevard Bridge, connecting 9th Street in the northern part of Ocean City with the mainland town of Somers Point via a set of four bridges. The causeway was later replaced in 1933, with a new set of bridges that were four lanes wide without shoulders. Route 52 was designated on June 1, 1937, to run from the Somers Point Circle northwest to Route 48 (now U.S. Route 40) and Route 50 in Mays Landing. However, Route 52 was never built to run to Mays Landing. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route 52 was designated to run from the Ocean City side of the causeway, north to U.S. Route 9 in Somers Point. With the creation of the 500-series county routes in New Jersey in 1952, County Route 585 was designated to run along Route 52 between the southern terminus and the Somers Point Circle as part of its route between Route 109 in Lower Township and U.S. Route 30 and Route 157 in Absecon. Eventually, the southern terminus of County Route 585 was truncated to the Somers Point Circle. In 1983, the causeway was officially named the Howard S. Stainton Memorial Causeway, after the Ocean City entrepreneur and philanthropist, who died in 1979. Between 2006 and 2012, a new \$400 million causeway was built to replace the 1933 causeway over the Great Egg Harbor Bay. The original causeway was in need of replacement due to deteriorating conditions of the bridges, increasing automobile and marine traffic on the Great Egg Harbor Bay, flooding from storms, and a high accident rate due to narrow lanes and a lack of shoulders. The causeway also contained two drawbridges, which led to traffic jams during the summer months. On January 16, 2006, the New Jersey Department of Transportation reduced traffic on the existing bridges from four lanes to two lanes to limit the weight on the old structures. The highway was reopened to four lanes of traffic after guardrail repairs were made on May 17, 2006, with a new speed limit of 35 mph (56 km/h). After years of delays, construction began on the new bridge in September 2006. Crews began the project by clearing a staging area on Garrets Island near the Ocean City side. The northbound bridge was completed in April 2008 and the southbound bridge was completed in April 2009. During the bridge construction, excavated sand was removed from the bay and deposited onto Malibu Beach Wildlife Management Area, as part of environmental mitigation. In May 2012, construction of the causeway was completed, with all four lanes opened to traffic. In addition to the new causeway, the project also called for the construction of fishing piers, boat ramps, bike paths, walking trails, and gateways at each end of the causeway, including a new visitor center with a scenic overlook on the Ocean City side. Also, other improvements were made to the MacArthur Boulevard portion of Route 52 including the addition of a center left-turn lane and the replacement of the Somers Point Circle with a traffic light, which was eliminated in October 2010. As a result of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 signed into law by President Barack Obama on February 17, 2009, \$70 million, or about 8 percent of the money allocated to New Jersey in the bill, went to the construction of the second half of the Route 52 causeway project. From 2012 to 2014, annual average daily traffic (AADT) on the causeway went from 18,584 to 22,116, an increase of 19 percent. The latest AADT of the MacArthur Boulevard section, from 2012, is 11,540. On July 19, 2021, a pilot made an emergency landing on the bridge after encountering engine problems shortly after takeoff; the plane was undamaged, and traffic was briefly halted. ## Major intersections ## See also - New Jersey Route 152 - Nearby state highway connecting barrier islands with the mainland	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections", "## See also" ]	1,778	37,077

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