pageid
int64 1.39k
74.6M
| title
stringlengths 2
102
| revid
int64 962M
1.17B
| description
stringlengths 4
100
⌀ | categories
sequencelengths 0
61
| markdown
stringlengths 1.23k
15.9k
| sections
sequencelengths 0
33
| token
int64 258
3k
| __index_level_0__
int64 0
44.8k
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
20,845,571 | Southworth House (Cleveland, Ohio) | 1,158,266,792 | Historic house in Ohio, United States | [
"Central, Cleveland",
"Delta Sigma Phi",
"Former houses in Ohio",
"Fraternity and sorority houses",
"Houses completed in 1879",
"Houses in Cleveland",
"Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Ohio",
"Italianate architecture in Ohio",
"National Register of Historic Places in Cleveland, Ohio",
"Neoclassical architecture in Ohio",
"Rockefeller Foundation"
] | The Southworth House is a Classical Revival and Italianate house in Cleveland, Ohio, United States that was built in 1879. Named for its first owner, W.P. Southworth, a leading resident of late nineteenth-century Cleveland, the house has been used for a variety of commercial purposes in recent decades. One of many historic sites in its eastside neighborhood, it has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1984.
## Construction
The house was built in 1879 by William Palmer Southworth, a Cleveland businessman who established W.P. Southworth Co., a leading Cleveland grocery, in the 1850s. He and his wife Louise were prominent in Cleveland society; while she was a leader of the women's suffrage movement, his store (located in Public Square downtown) was significant enough that its destruction by fire in 1882 prompted a front-page story in The New York Times.
The house is built on a stone foundation with a basement, with walls of brick; the architect's name is not known. Its three floors were divided into nineteen rooms, and by 1904 Southworth had installed an elevator. The elevator remains today.
## After Southworth
In August 1906, a group of Cleveland Baptists incorporated an organization, the Baptist Home of Northern Ohio, to establish a retirement home for elderly Baptists. Ten months later, Southworth sold his house to the organization, which was supported financially by industrialist and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller, who was a Baptist. With the aid of local churches, the home was opened on October 16, 1907. According to the 1910 census, the Baptist Home served fourteen residents at the end of 1910, at which time the entire property was worth \$15,000. The former Southworth residence was not long a retirement home: the Baptist Home moved to a new location in 1919 and sold the Southworth House in the same year. Since that time, the house has been used for a wide range of purposes.
During the 1950s and 1960s, various businesses had offices in the house, which was then called the "Edelmar Building" or the "Accountants Building." In 1973, the Southworth House was purchased by Pi Sigma Tau Alpha, a fraternity based at the nearby Cleveland State University; it later served as the fraternity house for Cleveland State's chapter of Delta Sigma Phi. The house has changed hands several times since its fraternity days. In 1997, a health care company bought it; in 2005, after the company was found to be fraudulent and the owner imprisoned, a historic preservation company bought the property at auction, and it too has since sold the house. Currently, the Southworth House is the location of offices for organizations such as an actual health care company and a local of the Laborers' International Union of North America.
## Preservation
The Southworth House is recognized as a landmark both locally and nationally. Along with many other properties along Prospect Avenue, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 1, 1984, as part of the "Upper Prospect Multiple Resource Area." It was included both for its distinctive combination of Classical Revival and Italianate architecture and for its association with Southworth. As the "Delta Sigma Phi Fraternity House," it has been designated a Cleveland Landmark by the city of Cleveland. Since being listed on the Register in 1984, the Southworth House has been the focus of both publicly funded and privately funded historic preservation efforts. In late 1996, as Sunrise Home Health Care prepared to buy the Southworth House, Cleveland City Council provided over \$250,000 to help purchase and renovate the property. Architects Scott and Analia Dimit began a restoration of the house for developer Michael Chesler, and continued to guide its restoration when it was purchased by Laborers Union Local 860 in 2005. The construction workers made it their union hall, completing the work in October 2007. In October 2009, the National Trust for Historic Preservation recognized the restoration with its Honor Award. Today, the house features wrought ironwork and a distinctive Italianate facade.
## See also
- North American fraternity and sorority housing | [
"## Construction",
"## After Southworth",
"## Preservation",
"## See also"
] | 871 | 26,235 |
47,087,746 | Marianos Argyros | 1,171,388,538 | Byzantine aristocrat (died 963) | [
"10th-century Byzantine monks",
"10th-century Byzantine people",
"10th-century diplomats",
"963 deaths",
"Ambassadors to the Fatimid Caliphate",
"Argyros family",
"Byzantine Empire–Fatimid Caliphate relations",
"Byzantine diplomats",
"Byzantine generals",
"Byzantine governors of Longobardia",
"Byzantine people of the Arab–Byzantine wars",
"Year of birth unknown"
] | Marianos Argyros (Greek: Μαριανός Ἀργυρός, – 16 August 963) was a Byzantine aristocrat and member of the Argyros family. A monk, in 944 he supported the assumption of sole rule by Constantine VII, and was allowed to leave the monastery and enter imperial service. He held a succession of senior military commands, fighting in southern Italy against local rebels and the Fatimids, and in the Balkans against the Magyars. In 963, he tried to oppose the takeover of the imperial throne by the general Nikephoros Phokas by assuming control over Constantinople and arresting his father, Bardas Phokas the Elder. During the ensuing clashes, he was hit on the head by a platter and died on the next day, 16 August.
## Life
### Origin and the palace coups of 944
Marianos was the eldest son of the general Leo Argyros, active in the first decades of the 10th century. He had a brother, Romanos Argyros, who in 921 married Agathe, a daughter of Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos (r. 920–944). The Argyroi therefore were counted among the firmest supporters of the Lekapenos regime. Romanos Lekapenos had risen to power in 919 as regent over the young Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos (r. 913–959), whom he married to his daughter Helena. By December 920, his position had become so unassailable that he was crowned senior emperor. To consolidate his hold on power, and possibly aiming to supplant the ruling Macedonian dynasty with his own family, Romanos raised his eldest son Christopher to co-emperor in 921, while the younger sons Stephen and Constantine were proclaimed co-emperors in 924. Christopher died in 931, and as Constantine VII remained sidelined, Stephen and Constantine assumed an increased prominence, although formally they still ranked after their brother-in-law in the college of emperors. However, in 943, the elderly Romanos drafted a will which would leave Constantine VII as the senior emperor following his death. This greatly upset his two sons, who started planning to seize power through a coup d'état, with Stephen apparently the ringleader and Constantine a rather reluctant partner.
It is in this context that Marianos Argyros is first mentioned in December 944. At the time, he was a monk, and a confidant of Stephen Lekapenos. According to the 11th-century historian John Skylitzes, he had earlier been honoured and trusted by Romanos. Marianos nevertheless was one of the conspirators, men such as Basil Peteinos and Manuel Kourtikes, who supported the coup of the Lekapenoi brothers on 20 December, which successfully deposed Romanos and exiled him to a monastery on the island of Prote. A few weeks later, however, with the support of the populace, Constantine VII managed to sideline the Lekapenoi, who joined their father in exile. It appears that Marianos had changed sides in time, for he participated in the arrest of the Lekapenoi. As a reward, Constantine VII, now sole ruler, freed him of his monastic vows and raised him to the rank of patrikios and the post of Count of the Stable. His abandonment of the monastic habit earned him the nickname "Apambas" or "Apabbas" (Ἄπαμβας/Ἀπαββᾶς), whose etymology is unclear.
### Command in southern Italy
Marianos then disappears from the scene until he was sent at the head of troops from the themes of Macedonia and Thrace in an expedition to southern Italy, dated by modern scholars to 955. A rebellion that had broken out in the local Byzantine themes of Langobardia and Calabria, involving also the imperial vassal city-state of Naples. The Byzantine expeditionary force encircled and besieged Naples, until the city surrendered. Marianos then took over the governance of the Byzantine provinces of Italy: in 956, he is attested as strategos (governor) of Calabria and Langobardia in a charter of privilege for the monastery of Monte Cassino. At about the same time, following a Fatimid raid on Almeria, war had broken out between the Fatimids and the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba. Fatimid sources report that the Umayyads proposed joint action with Byzantium, but Marianos appears to have been focused on suppressing the rebellion rather than engaging in war with the Fatimids. Byzantine envoys even went to the Fatimid caliph, al-Mu'izz, and offered to renew and extend the existing truce. Al-Mu'izz however, determined to expose the Umayyads' collaboration with the infidel enemy and emulate the achievements of his father, refused.
The Caliph dispatched new forces to Sicily under Ammar ibn Ali al-Kalbi and his brother al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Kalbi. In spring/summer 956, the Fatimid fleet clashed with and defeated the Byzantine fleet in two battles in the Straits of Messina, followed by Fatimid raids on the Calabrian coast. In the aftermath of these raids, Marianos travelled to the Fatimid court in person, and sought a truce in exchange for the resumption of a payment of tribute and the annual release of prisoners of war taken in the East. Al-Mu'izz agreed to these terms, but warfare resumed soon after, when the Byzantine admiral Basil destroyed the mosque built by the Fatimids at Rhegion and raided Termini. Marianos therefore returned to the Fatimid court in a second embassy in 957, going first through Sicily, where he apparently delivered to the local Fatimid governor, Ahmad ibn al-Hasan al-Kalbi, the agreed tribute. During the reception by al-Mu'izz, Marianos presented a letter by Constantine VII confirming the terms agreed during the first embassy, but this time al-Mu'izz rejected the terms. As a result of the breakdown in these negotiations, Constantine VII sent a massive expedition to Italy under admirals Krambeas and Moroleon, while Marianos commanded the land troops. The Fatimids, under the Kalbid brothers, al-Hasan and Ammar, were victorious over Marianos, but following the arrival of the Byzantine reinforcements the Fatimid fleet left Calabria, only to suffer a shipwreck on its return to Sicily. Marianos is no longer mentioned in Italy after that, although he may have led a third embassy to al-Mu'izz in September 958, which led to the conclusion of a five-year truce between the two powers.
### Command in the Balkans and death
In ca. 959/961, he defeated a raid by the Magyars into Thrace, taking many of them prisoner. In connection with this operation, Theophanes Continuatus refers to him as "monostrategos of the theme of Macedonia and katepano of the West", a position equivalent to that of the Domestic of the Schools of the West, in command of all the "western" (European) troops. It is unclear, however, whether this means a permanent appointment or was an ad hoc position, i.e. as strategos of Macedonia and temporary overall commander of detachments from the other European themes. The latter is more likely, as it is documented that Leo Phokas the Younger held the post of Domestic of the West, but was fighting against the Arabs in the east at the time.
On 15 March 963, Emperor Romanos II (r. 959–963) unexpectedly died, leaving his young sons Basil II and Constantine VIII as emperors. The powerful general Nikephoros Phokas (the brother of Leo) decided to seize the throne for himself, but was opposed by the parakoimomenos (head chamberlain) and guardian of the young emperors, Joseph Bringas. Seeking support, Bringas offered Marianos the high command in the east and potentially even the throne if he would aid him. Marianos first suggested trying to win over Nikephoros Phokas' popular nephew and lieutenant, the strategos of the Anatolic Theme, John Tzimiskes. The latter not only refused, but took his letter straight to his uncle, who summoned his armies to Caesarea and had them proclaim him emperor in early summer.
As Phokas' army advanced across Asia Minor on Constantinople, Marianos tried to stage a coup in Constantinople with men of the Macedonian regiments and armed prisoners of war. This move was opposed by the populace, resulting in clashes in the streets. The populace became especially enraged when Marianos tried to forcibly remove the Phokades' elderly father, Bardas, from the Hagia Sophia, where he had sought sanctuary, on 15 August. Marianos was reportedly hit on the head by a platter, thrown by a woman from a nearby house roof. Mortally wounded, he died on the next day. Phokas' supporters rapidly prevailed thereafter. Bringas was forced to flee himself to the Hagia Sophia, and on 16 August Nikephoros Phokas was crowned senior emperor as guardian of Basil and Constantine. | [
"## Life",
"### Origin and the palace coups of 944",
"### Command in southern Italy",
"### Command in the Balkans and death"
] | 1,998 | 5,939 |
21,129,343 | Cross Days | 1,167,413,025 | 2010 video game | [
"2010 video games",
"Bishōjo games",
"Cross-dressing in anime and manga",
"Cross-dressing in video games",
"DVD interactive technology",
"Days series",
"Eroge",
"Japan-exclusive video games",
"Kadokawa Shoten manga",
"LGBT-related video games",
"Manga based on video games",
"PlayStation Portable games",
"Video games developed in Japan",
"Visual novels",
"Windows games"
] | Cross Days is a Japanese erotic visual novel developed by 0verflow, released on March 19, 2010 for Windows and later ported as a DVD game and for the PlayStation Portable (PSP). The story, a dramatic slice-of-life, follows the life of Yuuki Ashikaga, a high school student who becomes the ambivalent love-interest of two girls during his second term, and the effects this has on himself and his relationships with other characters. Though the game requires little interaction from users, Cross Days engages the player through a nonlinear plot that they are given opportunities to change the course of during play. The game is the third installation of the School Days line of series, succeeding Summer Days.
0verflow announced work on Cross Days in December 2008. From February 2009 to March 2010, the game was postponed a total of six times, going on to perform marginally-well upon release. In the weeks following this, after it was illegally found on peer-to-peer (P2P) networks, a trojan horse disguised as the game was released, publishing the personal information of unknowing users online for public access.
Following the game's release, Cross Days made transitions into other media: a manga was serialized in the Kadokawa Shoten magazine Monthly Comp Ace from April 26 to August 10, 2010; three light novels were published from September 15 to October 29, as was a strategy guide; a radio drama was broadcast during development; and the game's original soundtrack was also published by Lantis from April 24 to July 21.
## Gameplay
Cross Days is a visual novel. These are essentially played by watching and listening to episodic sequences of story and then selecting, or ignoring, clickable actions or responses when they are presented to the player. These choices are intricately linked to alternating routes of plot, moderately changing the direction of the story as each is made, ultimately leading to erotic scenes between characters and one of various endings. In the game's yaoi routes, the protagonist crossdresses as a maid and engages in homosexual intercourse.
Like the games before it, Cross Days is presented with limited animation. The game is audibly stereophonic with lip-synched voice acting, sound effects and background music.
## Plot
Yuuki Ashikaga is a high school freshman in his second semester at the fictional Sakakino Academy, who from his regular visits to the library, grows enamored by Kotonoha Katsura, a classmate who also comes to read. Despite being in a relationship, she genuinely reciprocates his interest. However, things become complicated when his sister, Chie, introduces him to Roka Kitsuregawa, a friend of hers. In an attempt to make herself seem harder to get, Roka claims that she is equally interested in Makoto Itou, another schoolmate. Her lie is unsuccessful, as Yuuki, aware that Makoto is Kotonoha's boyfriend, decides to ask her about the affair.
### Setting
Unlike in Summer Days, the story in Cross Days is not rewritten as a spin-off of the original story, but occurs during the events of it, making the game a parallel series to School Days. As such, the undisclosed location of the story remains the same with focus being around the school. All signature characters and their established relationships appear in the game, with six new cast members.
## Characters
Cross Days follows Yuuki Ashikaga, a bespectacled young lad whose withdrawn school life goes awry when his affection for two girls begins to affect his relationships with his friends and peers. Though unaware of each other, the girls in question constitute the premise of the game: Kotonoha Katsura, a character well known throughout the franchise as the pivotal love-interest of Makoto Itou, and Roka Kitsuregawa, a newcomer whose efforts to make Yuuki jealous only serve to further complicate her relationship with him. Chie Ashikaga, the mildly abusive older sister of Yuuki, and Kyouichi Kasannoin, Nanami Kanroji's boyfriend, having only previously made cameo appearances in the School Days anime, return to make more prominent roles, as does Ai Yamagata, a character last seen from Summer Days. Rounding up the set of the cast are Ion Ishibashi and Kira Youka, a couple of friends who also make first appearances in the game.
## Development
News of Cross Days first surfaced in the December 2008 issue of Tech Gian, a magazine published by Enterbrain, on October 21, showing first ever screenshots, reporting on the story and characters, and mentioning that Cross Days would contain 3D animation with a meticulously reworked plot and male protagonist. Also in October, ASCII Media Works and Gakken published articles about the game in their respective issues of Dengeki G's Magazine, Dengeki Hime and Megami Magazine.
Promotion began shortly after. Besides periodically keeping the public informed on development and characters, 0verflow consecutively released downloadable, non-playable benchmarks of the game from November 1, 2008, to May 4, 2009. Company staff attended Dream Party, an anime convention, in Osaka on November 16, 2008, selling Cross Days telephone cards while stores took pre-orders for the game, reportedly filling reservations in days. On December 5, 0verflow announced that a set of USB teledildonics, collectively known as SOM, would be compatible with Cross Days, manufactured by Goods Land. Trial versions of the game, released to about 95 select retailers, were disclosed by 0verflow on December 26 and at Comiket 75.
On January 8, 2009, 0verflow announced that starting that day, Lantis would be airing a weekly, episodic internet radio drama of the game's characters, titled Radio Cross Days. Broadcasts were made regularly on Thursdays, finishing up on March 25, 2010 with 64 sessions aired.
Cross Days was originally scheduled to come out on February 27, 2009, but its release was postponed six times: to April 24, June 26, November 20, December 18, January 29, 2010, and to March 19, 2010, when it finally came out. The much-anticipated game was released to several promotional campaigns, many of which were intercity screening venues that spanned operation from March 5 to 14.
### Release history
On March 29, 2010 0verflow announced that an outdated DLL had been released with retail versions of the game. A 372 KB replacement was provided via download. The following day another patch was released to bring copies of the game up to version 1.00a.
Cross Days was ported to two other platforms. AiCherry, an interactive movie developer, re-released Cross Days as a DVD game on April 28, 2011, as did PalaceGame, a UMD publisher, for the PlayStation Portable (PSP) on July 29, 2011.
### Trojan scare
On April 15, 2010, roughly a month after Cross Days was released, BBC News reported on the spread of a virus named Kenzero masquerading on peer-to-peer (P2P) networks as unlicensed copies of erotic games; one of which, according to software developer SPAMFighter, included Cross Days. Users tricked into installing the virus, termed a form of "ransomware" in the report, were asked for personal information and then had all of their web history posted to a blog, operated by shell corporation Romancing Inc., for public access. NetAgent, a property rights company, reported that at least 5,510 people were collectively infected. Those wishing to have their information removed could do so after acknowledging to viewers that they had attempted to download the game illegally. SPAMfighter has noted that the intrusive nature of the trojan was "in fact explained in [the software's] terms of service".
## Sales
Cross Days for Windows premiered as the third most sold game on Getchu.com, a major redistributor of visual novel and domestic anime products, during the month of its release, ranking twelfth for the first half of 2010, and thirty-first for the whole year. The DVD game ranked as the most sold DVDi for the first half of 2011, and forty-seventh most from November 26 to December 27. Cross Days for the PSP additionally ranked as the fifteenth most sold UMD game during that time as well.
## Media
### Manga
Based on the story of the game, Cross Days was published into a manga, written by Yoko Kagura and illustrated by Homare Sakazuki. 0verflow announced on April 4, 2010 that it would make its serialization debut in Monthly Comp Ace on April 26. The series was circulated until August 2010, published by Kadokawa Shoten into a first and second volume, released November 20, 2010 and June 22, 2011, respectively.
### Books and publications
In addition to the manga, Cross Days was made into other print. The first of these was a strategy guide and artwork book by Junji Goto, character artist for 0verflow, titled Cross Days Visual Fanbook (ビジュアル・ファンブック, Vijuaru Fanbukku) and published by Kinema Junpousha in August 2010. The subsequent three releases were light novels by different authors but whose cover art was drawn by Goto and illustrated by Jet Yowatari; each book retold the story of the game. Cross Days, a novel, was published by Harvest Books on September 15, written by Mutsuki Mizusaki. Another novel, titled Cross Days \~Kasanaru uso, Kasanaru omoi\~ (クロスデイズ \~重なる嘘, 重なる想い\~), was released on October 22, 2010 by Shueisha, authored by Hiro Akizuki. The final novel, Cross Days Kitsuregawa Roka no koi no Ruru (Cross Days 喜連川路夏の恋のルール) was written by Yoko Kagura, author of the manga adaption, and was published on October 29 by Kill Time Communication.
### Audio CDs
As was the case for School Days and Summer Days, the original soundtrack of Cross Days was reproduced for distribution alongside the game, initially scheduled for February 27, 2009. As this was the first of the later six postponements, however, the album was republished and deferred to June 26. Following the second delay, the soundtrack was held indefinitely until 0verflow announced on April 16, 2010 that it would be released April 21. The album contains all of the game's background music, all of which was composed by HIKO of KIRIKO/HIKO Sound, and theme songs performed by Yozuca\*, iyuna, Ceui, Kotaro Odaka and Riryka, totaling 25 tracks.
Radio Cross Days, a radio drama broadcast from January 8, 2009, to March 25, 2010, was the second and final set of audio compilations made for the game by Lantis. Released as a first and second disc on June 23 and July 21, 2010, respectively, each album contained thirty-two segments of the broadcast, comprising the sixty-four total that were aired.
### Merchandise
Considerable effort was made to market and promote Cross Days before and after its release, including the sale of brand merchandise. The limited edition of the visual novel came with a figurine of the Kotonoha character, and 0verflow and its partners also sold wall scrolls and Zippo lighters, as well as shower curtains, cushion mousepads, dakimakura cases. | [
"## Gameplay",
"## Plot",
"### Setting",
"## Characters",
"## Development",
"### Release history",
"### Trojan scare",
"## Sales",
"## Media",
"### Manga",
"### Books and publications",
"### Audio CDs",
"### Merchandise"
] | 2,495 | 13,624 |
23,846,213 | Weeds (Millennium) | 1,167,593,575 | null | [
"1997 American television episodes",
"Kidnapping in fiction",
"Millennium (season 1) episodes",
"Television episodes written by Frank Spotnitz"
] | "Weeds" is the eleventh episode of the first season of the American crime-thriller television series Millennium. It premiered on the Fox network on January 24, 1997. The episode was written by Frank Spotnitz, and directed by Michael Pattinson. "Weeds" featured guest appearances by Ryan Cutrona, Josh Clark and Terry David Mulligan.
Forensic profiler Frank Black (Lance Henriksen), a member of the private investigative organisation Millennium Group, investigates a series of kidnappings in a gated community, finding that the real danger in the neighborhood comes from within its own walls.
"Weeds" was Spotnitz's writing début for the series, and saw the return of recurring guest star C. C. H. Pounder, whose appearance received some critical appreciation. The episode, which begins with a quote from the Book of Jeremiah, was met with a mixed reception, with reviews complimenting the interesting, but poorly executed plot.
## Plot
In the gated community of Vista Verde, teenager Josh Comstock is riding his motorcycle, unaware that he is being followed by an unseen man driving a van. He is later stopped by the driver and pacified with a cattle prod. The following morning, Comstock's mother finds a corpse in his bed—but it is not that of her son.
Sheriff Paul Gerlach (Ryan Cutrona) seeks the aid of private investigative firm the Millennium Group, who dispatch offender profiler Frank Black (Lance Henriksen) and pathologist Cheryl Andrews (C. C. H. Pounder) to help the investigation. Gerlach reveals that the dead boy, Kirk Orlando, had gone missing previously, and feels that Comstock's kidnapping is his fault, as he did not alert the wider community about Orlando's disappearance.
Orlando's father comes forward with a piece of evidence—his mailbox had been stuffed with shredded banknotes. That evening, Black and Gerlach visit a town meeting organised by Edward Petey (Josh Clark), where another of the residents, Bob Birckenbuehl (Terry David Mulligan), accuses Gerlach of knowing more than he is letting on. Gerlach tells the assembly that the killer is from the community.
Comstock's parents return home after the meeting to find the number 331 daubed on their son's bed in blood. The father, Tom Comstock (Michael Tomlinson) confides in Black that the number is that of the hotel room he had been using to carry on an extramarital affair, which Black persuades him to come clean about with his wife.
Birckenbuehl's son Charlie is kidnapped from his bedroom, again subdued with a cattle prod. Andrews and Black discover that the boy's goldfish had been poisoned with whiskey, which they believe to be another message like Comstock's number. The town's swimming instructor, Adam Burke (Brian Taylor) is interviewed, as he had contact with both missing boys through his coaching. Black discovers that Burke's son had been killed in a hit-and-run accident; Black also receives post containing a paint swatch with the number 528 on it, but he is unsure of its meaning.
Tom Comstock comes home the next day to find his son returned, alive but shaken. Black deduces that the paint swatch matches paint used on the vehicle that killed Burke's son; he also realizes that the boys are being kidnapped to force their fathers to confess hidden sins—Comstock's son was returned after he revealed his affair, while Orlando's son was killed because he kept secret a crime involving money. From there, Black sees that Charlie's kidnapping means that Birckenbeuhl is the hit-and-run driver.
Black convinces Birckenbeuhl to confess publicly to the hit-and-run, in order to have his son returned. Birckenbeuhl does so, but continues to maintain his innocence in private. Charlie is not returned, however; instead, a cassette is sent to Birckenbuehl by the killer, who explains that since Birckenbeuhl took a life, one must be taken from him in return. Black is able to deduce from the background noise on the tape that Charlie is being held near the local high school's swimming pool. The boy is rescued, and killer—Edward Petey—is found and arrested. However, the elder Birckenbeuhl is found hanged in his bedroom, driven to suicide by his guilt.
## Production
"Weeds" is the first of fives episodes of Millennium to be written by Frank Spotnitz, who would go on to write "Sacrament" later in the first season, as well as penning "TEOTWAWKI", "Antipas" and "Seven and One" in the series' third season. Spotnitz was a prolific writer for Millennium's sister show The X-Files, receiving his first writing credit for that series for the episode "End Game". "Weeds" also marks director Michael Pattinson's only work for the series.
The episode features the second of five appearances by C. C. H. Pounder as Millennium Group pathologist Cheryl Andrews. Pounder had first appeared in the role in the earlier episode "The Judge", and would go on to make another three appearances across all three seasons. Terry David Mulligan, who played Bob Birckenbuehl, would go on to appear in the third season episode "Collateral Damage", in an unrelated role; while Ryan Cutrona, who portrayed the town's sheriff Paul Gerlach, would later be cast in The X-Files' ninth season opening episode, "Nothing Important Happened Today", which was written by Spotnitz and Millennium creator Chris Carter.
"Weeds" opens with a quotation from the Book of Jeremiah, one of the Latter Prophets of the Hebrew Bible. Biblical verses were also used at the beginning of other episodes in the series, including the Gospel of Luke in "Blood Relatives"; the Book of Job in "Wide Open" and "Dead Letters"; and the Book of Exodus in "Kingdom Come".
## Broadcast and reception
"Weeds" was first broadcast on the Fox Network on January 24, 1997; and earned a Nielsen rating of 7.6, meaning that roughly 7.6 percent of all television-equipped households were tuned in to the episode.
"Weeds" received mixed reviews from critics. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode three stars out of five, describing it as "a portrait of a community in fear" that "simmers with recrimination and vigilantism". However, Shearman and Pearson felt that the individual characters lacked personality, as Spotnitz's script "spends a lot of time introducing figures as potential suspects rather than giving a great deal of depth to any of them". Bill Gibron, writing for DVD Talk, rated "Weeds" 3 out of 5, noting that "something about [the episode] just isn't right". Gibron felt that it was "one of the weaker episodes in the series, but it also had some of the greatest potential". Writing for The A.V. Club, Zack Handlen rated the episode a B. Handlen felt that the "black-and-white morality" of "Weeds", and Millennium as a series, was a negative factor, adding "as always with Millennium, there's the feeling that the only life worth living is one entirely free from sin, and I can't say that I buy that". However, Handlen praised C. C. H. Pounder's guest role, finding that she "manages to put herself across quite well" despite the difficulty of standing out amidst the series' sombre tone. | [
"## Plot",
"## Production",
"## Broadcast and reception"
] | 1,596 | 27,348 |
7,675,325 | M-83 (Michigan highway) | 1,167,111,975 | State highway in Saginaw County, Michigan, United States | [
"State highways in Michigan",
"Transportation in Saginaw County, Michigan"
] | M-83 is a north–south state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan primarily serving as a link between Interstate 75/US Highway 23 (I-75/US 23) in Birch Run, including a short east–west section with M-54, and the Bavarian-themed town of Frankenmuth. M-83 is primarily a north–south trunkline that passes by such landmarks as Bronner's Christmas Wonderland, Zehnder's and the Bavarian Inn before leaving town. The landscape in the remainder of the area is composed of farm fields between Frankenmuth and the northern terminus at M-15 near Richville.
Previously, the M-83 designation was used for a highway in the Upper Peninsula between 1919 and 1926. Immediately after that, the moniker was used to supplant the M-31 designation in The Thumb area. A disconnected segment of highway was given the M-83 name in 1929 in the Frankenmuth area. The gap between the two roads was eliminated within a year. By the end of the 1930s, the highway was truncated to its current northern terminus in the Richville area, removing The Thumb area segments. The last changes rerouted the southern end to connect with I-75 after that freeway was opened in 1962.
## Route description
M-83 starts at exit 136 along I-75/US 23 just north of the outlet mall in Birch Run; this interchange is also the northern terminus of M-54. The two highways run concurrently east from the freeway along Birch Run Road, crossing Dixie Highway. The landscape away from the freeway is predominantly fields through the area. Traveling eastward along this roadway, a motorist is on either northbound M-83 or southbound M-54, making these two miles (3.2 km) a wrong-way concurrency. At the intersection with Gera Road, the two trunklines diverge when M-54 turns southward. From here, M-83 turns due north for about four miles (6.4 km) into Frankenmuth.
The trunkline curves to the northwest around Bronner's Christmas Wonderland, which bills itself as the "World's Largest Christmas Store"; the store has 7 acres (2.8 ha) under one roof devoted to Christmas merchandise. Further north, M-83 follows Main Street over the Cass River into downtown Frankenmuth. North of the river are Zehnder's and the Bavarian Inn, restaurants known for their "world famous" chicken dinners. The city is known as "Michigan's Little Bavaria"; the area was settled by German Lutherans in the 19th century. Today, buildings and even road signs are erected in the Bavarian theme.
North of downtown, the highway passes through a commercial area and out of the city. The landscape returns to farm fields as M-83 follows Gera Road due north again. The highway passes through the community of Gera and crosses a line of the Huron and Eastern Railway.
`North of the railroad, the trunkline intersects M-46 (Holland Road). After this intersection, M-83 continues about a mile and a half (2.4 km) and ends at a four-way intersection with M-15 (Vassar Road) near Richville while Gera Road continues as a county road.`
M-83 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) like other state highways in Michigan. As a part of these maintenance responsibilities, the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction. These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic, which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway. MDOT's surveys in 2011 showed that the highest traffic level along M-83 was 17,240 vehicles daily between the I-75/US 23 interchange and Dixie Highway in Birch Run; the lowest count was 2,316 vehicles per day at the northern terminus. No section of M-83 has been listed on the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility.
## History
### Previous designation
The first designation of M-83 was in place by July 1, 1919, for a routing along the Mohawk–Gay Road between the communities of the same name in Keweenaw County in the Upper Peninsula. This designation lasted until late 1926 when it was replaced by a northerly extension of M-26. The second designation of M-83 replaced M-31 across The Thumb between Bay Port and Harbor Beach, along what is today M-142.
### Current designation
The current designation was assigned in 1929 as a second, disconnected section of highway. This new routing ran from US 10/US 23 in Clio by way of Frankenmuth to Reese. The gap between the two sections was filled in a year later when M-84 in Tuscola County was redesignated as part of M-83. After this change, M-83 continued north from Reese through Gilford and Akron to Unionville. There it ran concurrently along M-29 to Bay Port, connecting the two segments.
The eastern segment first designated in 1926 was separated from the rest of the highway in 1939. The northern end was scaled back to M-15/M-24 in Saginaw County. The concurrency along M-81 was removed, the section northeast to Gilford was transferred to local control, and the section northeast of Gilford to Unionville was added to M-138. The Bay Port—Harbor Beach section was redesignated M-142. The last changes came around 1962 when the I-75/US 10/US 23 freeway was completed between Pontiac and Flint. M-83 was rerouted on its south end to turn west along Birch Run Road to the freeway, concurrent with the new M-54, which replaced M-83 south of Birch Run Road.
## Major intersections
## See also | [
"## Route description",
"## History",
"### Previous designation",
"### Current designation",
"## Major intersections",
"## See also"
] | 1,254 | 19,993 |
329,806 | Sleight of hand | 1,150,658,737 | Fine motor skills used to entertain or manipulate | [
"Card magic",
"Coin magic",
"Motor skills",
"Sleight of hand"
] | Sleight of hand (also known as prestidigitation or legerdemain ()) refers to fine motor skills when used by performing artists in different art forms to entertain or manipulate. It is closely associated with close-up magic, card magic, card flourishing and stealing. Because of its heavy use and practice by magicians, sleight of hand is often confused as a branch of magic; however, it is a separate genre of entertainment and many artists practice sleight of hand as an independent skill. Sleight of hand pioneers with worldwide acclaim include Dan and Dave, Ricky Jay, Derek DelGaudio, David Copperfield, Yann Frisch, Norbert Ferré, Dai Vernon, Cardini, Tony Slydini, Helder Guimarães and Tom Mullica.
## Etymology and history
The word sleight, meaning "the use of dexterity or cunning, especially so as to deceive", comes from the Old Norse. The phrase sleight of hand means "quick fingers" or "trickster fingers". Common synonyms of Latin and French include prestidigitation and legerdemain respectively. Seneca the Younger, philosopher of the Silver Age of Latin literature, famously compared rhetorical techniques and illusionist techniques.
### Association with close-up magic
Sleight of hand is often used in close-up magic, where the sleights are performed with the audience close to the magician, usually in physical contact or within 3 to 4 m (10 to 13 ft). This close contact eliminates theories of fake audience members and the use of gimmicks. It makes use of everyday items as props, such as cards, coins, rubber bands, paper, phones and even saltshakers. A well-performed sleight looks like an ordinary, natural and completely innocent gesture, change in hand position or body posture. In addition to manual dexterity, sleight of hand in close-up magic depends on the use of psychology, timing, misdirection, and natural choreography in accomplishing a magical effect.
### Association with stage magic
Sleight of hand during stage magic performances is not common, as most magic events and stunts are performed with objects visible to a much larger audience, but is nevertheless done occasionally by many stage performers. The most common magic tricks performed with sleight of hand on stage are rope manipulations and card tricks, with the first typically being done with a member of the audience to rule out the possibility of stooges and the latter primarily being done on a table while a camera is live-recording, allowing the rest of audience to see the performance on a big screen. Worldwide acclaimed stage magician David Copperfield often includes illusions featuring sleight of hand in his stage shows.
### Association with card cheating
Although being mostly used for entertainment and comedy purposes, sleight of hand is also notoriously used to cheat at casinos and gambling facilities throughout the world. Common ways to professionally cheat at card games using sleight of hand include palming, switching, ditching, and stealing cards from the table. Such techniques involve extreme misdirection and years of practice. For these reasons, the term sleight of hand frequently carries negative associations of dishonesty and deceit at many gambling halls, and many magicians known around the world are publicly banned from casinos, such as British mentalist and close-up magician Derren Brown, who is banned from every casino in Britain.
### Association with cardistry
Unlike card tricks done on the streets or on stage and card cheating, cardistry is solely about impressing without illusions, deceit, misdirection and other elements commonly used in card tricks and card cheating. Cardistry is the art of card flourishing, and is intended to be visually impressive and to give the appearance of being difficult to perform. Card flourishing is often associated with card tricks, but many sleight of hand artists perform flourishing without considering themselves magicians or having any real interest in card tricks.
### Association with card throwing
The art of card throwing generally consists of throwing standard playing cards with excessively high speed and accuracy, powerful enough to slice fruits like carrots and even melons. Like flourishing, throwing cards is meant to be visibly impressive and does not include magic elements. Magician Ricky Jay popularized throwing cards within the sleight of hand industry with the release of his 1977 book Cards as Weapons, which was met with large sales and critical acclaim. Some magic tricks, both close-up and on stage, are heavily connected to throwing cards.
## See also
- Cups and Balls
- Tenkai palm | [
"## Etymology and history",
"### Association with close-up magic",
"### Association with stage magic",
"### Association with card cheating",
"### Association with cardistry",
"### Association with card throwing",
"## See also"
] | 915 | 36,627 |
10,135,089 | Green Bay Packers Foundation | 1,146,236,241 | Charitable organization in Wisconsin | [
"Charities based in Wisconsin",
"Green Bay Packers"
] | The Green Bay Packers Foundation is a charitable organization based in Green Bay, Wisconsin. Established in 1986, the Foundation's original purpose was to ensure continued charitable donations by the Green Bay Packers football team. Although it is legally a separate entity from the Packers, a board of trustees consisting of 10 members of the Green Bay Packers board of directors leads the foundation. It receives most of its funding from the team. The Foundation provides grant opportunities to Wisconsin-based 501(c)(3) organizations for community improvement projects. As of July 2019, the Foundation has donated more than \$11 million and maintains an endowment fund exceeding \$40 million.
## History
Judge Robert J. Parins, who was the president of the Green Bay Packers from 1982 to 1989, founded the Green Bay Packers Foundation in 1986. His desire was for the Foundation to be the charitable arm of the Packers organization and to ensure the team maintained strong community outreach. The Foundation has maintained a close relationship with the Packers organization since its founding.
## Organization
The Packers Foundation is a 501(c)(3) organization headquartered at Lambeau Field in Green Bay, Wisconsin. It is led by a 10-person board of trustees drawn from the Green Bay Packers board of directors. The trustees review the yearly grant applications and decide how much money is to be provided to each applicant. Even though the foundation is legally a separate entity and not part of the Green Bay Packers organization, it closely follows the goals of the Packers. It is the primary instrument the team uses for charitable giving. This is reinforced by the fact the Green Bay Packers are the primary financial contributor to the foundation. As of July 2019, the foundation has amassed an endowment fund totaling over \$40 million.
The foundation also has a unique role if the Green Bay Packers are ever sold. The Packers are the only publicly owned team in the National Football League. Instead of a single owner, the organization is owned by over 537,000 shareholders who elect a board of directors and executive committee each year. If the shareholders were to decide to sell the team, the proceeds of the sale would not go to the shareholders. Instead, the Packer's bylaws state the proceeds would go to the Packers Foundation to fund charitable causes. The original bylaws stated the proceeds of any sale would be given to a local American Legion post to fund "a proper soldier's memorial". However, the shareholders voted to change the bylaws in 1997 to their current wording. As of July 2019, Forbes estimates the Packers are worth \$2.63 billion.
## Activities
The Foundation offers grant opportunities to Wisconsin-based charitable organizations to fund projects that further its mission. As of August 2018, the Foundation's mission is to assist local organizations which promote families, support athletic competitions, improve the welfare of Green Bay Packers players and fans, promote the education and safety of children, and reduce cruelty to animals. The grant opportunities are open to eligible organizations that apply during three-year cycles. Each year has a different focus area that falls under the Foundation's mission. In 2019, the Packers Foundation awarded \$2.05 million worth of grants to various organizations that work in the areas of art, athletics, and education; this was the highest total awarded in a single year in the Foundation's history. The 2019 grant awards were not without controversy. One of the organizations that received funding from the Foundation was Planned Parenthood. Pro-life groups noted their disagreement with the grant funding and contrasted it with donations made by the Chicago Bears' charitable organization Bears Cares to the Chicago March for Life.
As of December 2019, the Foundation has provided over \$12 million in grants since its formation. | [
"## History",
"## Organization",
"## Activities"
] | 756 | 16,233 |
12,393,210 | Len Waters | 1,169,579,180 | Australian fighter pilot | [
"1924 births",
"1993 deaths",
"Australian World War II pilots",
"Indigenous Australian military personnel",
"Military personnel from New South Wales",
"Military personnel from Queensland",
"People from the North West Slopes",
"Royal Australian Air Force airmen",
"Royal Australian Air Force personnel of World War II"
] | Leonard Victor (Len) Waters (20 June 1924 – 24 August 1993) was the first Aboriginal Australian military aviator, and the only one to serve as a fighter pilot in the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) during World War II. Aboriginal people at the time suffered significant discrimination and disadvantages in Australian society, such as restrictions on movement, residence, employment, and access to services and citizenship. Born in northern New South Wales and raised in Queensland, Waters was working as a shearer when he joined the RAAF in 1942. Training initially as a mechanic, he volunteered for flying duties and graduated as a sergeant pilot in 1944. He flew P-40 Kittyhawks in the South West Pacific theatre, where he completed ninety-five missions, mainly close air support. By the end of the war he had risen to the rank of warrant officer. Following his discharge from the RAAF in 1946, he attempted to start a regional airline but was unable to secure financial backing and government approval. He went back to shearing, and died in 1993 aged sixty-nine.
## Early life
Leonard Victor (Len) Waters was born at Euraba Mission, near Boomi in northern New South Wales, on 20 June 1924. He was the fourth child of eleven born to labourer Donald Waters and his wife Grace Vera (née Bennett). They belonged to the Kamilaroi group of Aboriginal Australians, whose traditional lands encompassed southern Queensland and northern New South Wales. Grace's father George Bennett was a veteran of World War I who had served with the 29th Battalion AIF on the Western Front. When Waters was two the family was moved twenty kilometres (twelve miles) from Euroba to the Toomelah Aboriginal Reserve. Five years later Donald was offered work at Nindigully, near St George, Queensland, and took the opportunity to relocate his family. At a reserve such as Toomelah, the children of large families were at greater risk of being removed by the government; a town like Nindigully not only put the Waters family beyond the jurisdiction of reserve authorities but also offered the chance of better education.
Waters completed seventh grade at Nindigully State School, two grades higher than he would have been permitted at Toomelah. He excelled at mathematics and geography, boxed, played cricket and rugby, and learnt to shoot with his father's .22 rifle. Hearing tales of pioneering aviators Charles Kingsford Smith, Amy Johnson, Bert Hinkler and Charles Lindbergh, and reading stories of Biggles, Flash Gordon, and Buck Rogers, he had, as he put it, his "head in the clouds" from an early age. He also displayed a mechanical aptitude, helping his father maintain the family's Model T Ford. Waters left school when he was fourteen to support his family, working alongside his father as a ring barker. He was paid ten shillings per week, for a seven-day week, less than one-sixth of the average wage at the time. In 1939, he began working as a shearer.
## RAAF career
Although the military had officially barred or restricted the recruitment of Aboriginal people in earlier periods, these impediments were significantly relaxed after Japan entered World War II, and Australia came under direct attack for the first time. Waters volunteered for service in the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) on 24 August 1942, at Brisbane, and was accepted. He began training as an aircraft mechanic, but later volunteered for flying service. The aircrew interviewer thought he looked "a bit rough" but "should make a fighter". His flying training began at No. 1 Initial Training School at Somers, Victoria, in December 1943. Waters believed his lack of education would be a disadvantage, and studied nights to make up for it. Keen to be a pilot, he was concerned that he would be allocated to duty as a wireless operator because he showed an aptitude for Morse transmission early on. He was also asked to imagine himself as the tail gunner in a Lancaster or Halifax heavy bomber, to which he replied, "I had a very disappointed look on my face, sir!" So convinced was he that he would not achieve his dream of becoming an aviator, Waters made three separate bets against himself being selected, and had to pay out £15 when he was nonetheless chosen.
Waters undertook his basic flight instruction at No. 8 Elementary Flying Training School in Narrandera, New South Wales, where he flew de Havilland Tiger Moths.[^1] Completing his training on CAC Wirraways at No. 5 Service Flying Training School in Uranquinty, he received his wings as a sergeant pilot on 1 July 1944. He was then posted to No. 2 Operational Training Unit at Mildura, Victoria, where he converted to P-40 Kittyhawk fighters. Once, while he was on leave, Waters was briefly gaoled in Moree, New South Wales, for not carrying an identity card, which was one of the racially discriminatory institutions affecting Aboriginal people at the time. On 14 November 1944, he was posted to No. 78 Squadron, a fighter unit based on the island of Noemfoor, off Dutch New Guinea. When he arrived, he was allocated a P-40 Kittyhawk. By chance, a previous pilot had nicknamed the plane "Black Magic" and painted those words on its nose. Waters found the name of his plane an amusing coincidence and chose to retain it.
By this stage of the war, Japanese aircraft were almost non-existent in the South West Pacific theatre; No. 78 Squadron's main role was ground attack, bombing and strafing enemy positions. Waters flew ninety-five sorties from Noemfoor, and later from the air bases at Morotai and Tarakan, in Borneo. During one mission, his aircraft was struck by a 37 mm cannon shell that embedded itself behind him in the cockpit without detonating. He flew for another two hours, with the possibility of the shell exploding at any time, a situation he likened to having a loaded gun against his head. "I'll tell you what", he said after returning to base, "that was the best landing I ever made". On 1 January 1945, he was promoted to flight sergeant. By the end of the war, Waters was commanding operations whose personnel included commissioned officers. A colleague described him as a "gaunt, genial figure, humble despite his daring feats". As well as flying, Waters held the RAAF middleweight boxing title. He returned to Australia on 27 August.
One of Len Waters' brothers, Donald Edward (Jimmy) Waters, had served as an infantryman with the Australian Army during the war. With the end of the Pacific War in September 1945, Len considered volunteering for the Australian component of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan, if his brother did also. Jim declined at the time (he later changed his mind), so Len left the Air Force with the rank of warrant officer on 18 January 1946.
## Post-war life and legacy
After his discharge, Waters attempted to start a regional airline serving South West Queensland, but he was not able to secure finance or bureaucratic agreement. He reportedly wrote four letters seeking government approval, but never received a reply. He never flew a plane again. Although racism in the military during World War II was considered to be minimal, Waters and other Aboriginal people who had served their country found that the skills they had acquired were not valued in peacetime. He wrote later that, having put off his uniform, he simply "returned to being a blackfellow".
Waters married Gladys May Saunders, a waitress, on 16 February 1946 at St Andrew's Presbyterian Church in St George; they had six children. He worked as an automotive mechanic, but was forced to cease by union rules, which required him to serve an apprenticeship. Waters was then briefly employed by a local council in Queensland as a road worker, before returning to shearing, which took him away from his family to properties stretching from North Queensland to Victoria. He personally estimated that he sheared a million sheep during his life.
Waters applied for housing commission accommodation and was allocated a house at Inala, Brisbane, in August 1956. He eventually bought the property and lived there for thirty-three years. He had to cut back on work following a car accident in 1972 that left him suffering epilepsy. Aged sixty-nine, he died on 24 August 1993 after a fall in Cunnamulla, and was buried in St George Cemetery.
In 1995–96, Waters was commemorated in several ways: Australia Post depicted his portrait on a stamp and that of his P-40 Kittyhawk fighter "Black Magic" on an aérogramme, as part of its Australia Remembers series; a brand of port was named after his personal Kittyhawk; Len Waters Place, a park in Inala, was opened; Moree Plains Shire Council dedicated Leonard Waters Park in Boggabilla, New South Wales; and Len Waters Street in Ngunnawal, Australian Capital Territory, was named after him. In 2003, Balonne Shire Council erected a monument to Waters and another local RAAF identity, Squadron Leader John Jackson, in St George. The suburb of Len Waters Estate was established in the City of Liverpool, New South Wales, in 2009. In 2011, the Sutherland Shire Council recognised Waters' achievements by dedicating Len Waters Park, with a memorial plinth and plaque, at Timbrey Circuit, Barden Ridge, New South Wales. In October 2020, a new building at RAAF Base Williamtown was named in his honour. In 2018 Peter Rees published The Missing Man'', a biography of Waters.
[^1]: Rees, The Missing Man, pp. 63–64 | [
"## Early life",
"## RAAF career",
"## Post-war life and legacy"
] | 2,058 | 37,524 |
47,893,250 | Walnuts & Rain | 1,163,202,489 | null | [
"2015 American television episodes",
"Adventure Time (season 6) episodes"
] | "Walnuts & Rain" is the thirty-first episode of the sixth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time. The episode was written and storyboarded by Tom Herpich, from an outline by Herpich, Adam Muto, Kent Osborne, Jack Pendarvis, and Pendleton Ward. The episode debuted on March 5, 2015 on Cartoon Network, and guest stars Chris Isaak as a bear named Seven and Matt L. Jones as King Huge.
The series follows the adventures of Finn (voiced by Jeremy Shada), a human boy, and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake (voiced by John DiMaggio), a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will. In this episode, Finn and Jake stumble into two different holes and meet two different fates: Finn becomes the guest of the unstable King Huge (voiced by Jones), who insists that Finn remain with him and stare at his idiosyncratic cuckoo clock; whereas Jake meets Seven (voiced by Isaak), a bear whose makeshift air raft has been falling down the hole for years. Eventually, it turns out that the hole Jake and Seven are falling through is the chimney to the kitchen where Finn is being held captive. As such, Jake is eventually able to save Finn.
"Walnuts & Rain" marked the first time that Herpich had solo-storyboarded an episode since the third season episode "Thank You". The episode was seen by 1.68 million viewers, and received mixed reviews from critics; while Andrew Tran of Overmental enjoyed the allegories in the episode, Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club somewhat critically compared "Walnuts & Rain" to episodes from the show's first and second seasons. For his work on the episode, Herpich won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation; this was the series's third win in the category. For his work on this episode, Herpich was later nominated for an Annie Award for Outstanding Achievement, Storyboarding in an Animated TV/Broadcast Production in 2016.
## Plot
While wandering in the woods, Finn and Jake fall down two separate holes. Finn lands in the Kingdom of Huge, where he is greeted by its sovereign, King Huge. The king lavishes Finn with food and asks that he stay and watch the chiming of his cuckoo clock. However, it soon becomes apparent that King Huge is insane; he demands that Finn remain and watch every time the clock chimes the hour. Meanwhile, Jake lands on the barge of a bear named Seven. According to Seven, the barge has been falling for years, and he warns Jake not to try and escape, lest he die.
Eventually, Finn has enough, and knocks the king's clock from the wall. It crashes into the kingdom's huge stove, knocking over a pot of water. The water puts out the fire, which causes the warm updraft going into the chimney to cease; this updraft was actually holding Seven's barge in stasis all of this time. The barge comes crashing down into the kingdom, and Jake uses his stretching powers to save Finn. Thence, Finn, Jake, and Seven escape.
## Production
"Walnuts & Rain" was written and Storyboarded by Tom Herpich, from an outline by head Adventure Time writer Kent Osborne, series creator Pendleton Ward, Jack Pendarvis, showrunner Adam Muto, and Herpich. Andres Salaff served as the episode's supervising director, while the art direction was helmed by Nick Jennings. The episode marks Herpich's first solo storyboard since season three's 'Thank You". Near the latter part of season six, Herpich and has storyboard partner Steve Wolfhard each had episode ideas that they wanted to work on. The two decided to temporarily dissolve their partnership and work on episodes individually (Wolfhard would go on to create "Graybles 1000+"). Herpich had been working on the outline for "Walnuts & Rain" on and off for several months before he finally storyboarded it, and he would later describe the episode as an "allegorical escape story", similar to the season five episodes "Puhoy" and "Dungeon Train". This episode guest stars musician Chris Isaak as Seven, and Matt L. Jones as King Huge. Jones had previously appeared in the first season episode "Memories of Boom Boom Mountain" voicing the crying Mountain.
## Reception
"Walnuts & Rain" first aired on March 5, 2015 on Cartoon Network. The episode was viewed by 1.68 million viewers and scored a 0.24 Nielsen rating in the 18- to 49-year-old demographic. Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States, which means that the episode was seen by 0.24 percent of all households aged 18 to 49 years old were watching television at the time of the episode's airing.
Critical reception to the episode was largely mixed. Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a "C+" and called it "disappointing". Despite noting that it is "a totally serviceable episode of Adventure Time", he argued that the episode felt too much like an episode from the show's first or second seasons, when installments were often lacking in depth and a bit more uneven across the board. He noted that, "Tonight’s episode is for the kids. It’s simple and easy to follow, and doesn’t contain any unsettling imagery ... but that also prevents it from being especially memorable." Ultimately, he felt that the show's returned fixation on Finn and Jake proved that the expansion of the show's universe was "the best thing that could have happened to it."
Andrew Tran of the website Overmental, on the other hand, reacted more positively to the episode. He felt that both King Huge and Seven were representative of a stagnation in mindset; according to him, they are both stuck in their ways and unwilling to change. However, he notes that the two also differ substantially. Tran argues that King Huge has legions of slaves feeding him the richest of foods. He is comfortable, but unaccustomed to dealing with outsiders, which expresses itself as xenophobia. Seven, on the other hand, lives in abject poverty, and is much more welcoming of strangers. In the end, Seven escapes the episode unscathed, and according to Tran, the moral of the episode is that "the bright side of a crap situation is that [the situation] pushes rather than restricts, enriches rather than fattens."
For his work on this episode, Herpich won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation, making it the series's third win in this category. Herpich was later nominated for an Annie Award for Outstanding Achievement, Storyboarding in an Animated TV/Broadcast Production in 2016.
## Explanatory notes
## See also
- "Hall of Egress", the third episode that Tom Herpich storyboarded solo | [
"## Plot",
"## Production",
"## Reception",
"## Explanatory notes",
"## See also"
] | 1,450 | 19,170 |
45,295,231 | Grow Home | 1,156,623,567 | null | [
"2015 video games",
"3D platform games",
"Adventure games",
"Linux games",
"PlayStation 4 games",
"Single-player video games",
"Ubisoft franchises",
"Ubisoft games",
"Video games about plants",
"Video games about robots",
"Video games developed in the United Kingdom",
"Video games set on fictional islands",
"Video games set on fictional planets",
"Windows games"
] | Grow Home is an adventure platform video game developed by Ubisoft Reflections and published by Ubisoft. It was released for Microsoft Windows on February 4, 2015, and for PlayStation 4 on September 1, 2015. The game follows a robot named B.U.D., who is tasked with growing a plant that will oxygenate its home planet. Players explore an open world, moving B.U.D. and individually using each of its arms to climb and interact with objects.
Initially developed by a small team at Ubisoft Reflections for internal release, the game became popular between co-workers and was eventually planned for official release, confirmed in a blog post by Ubisoft on January 22, 2015. It was created using the Unity game engine, and contains procedural animation and physics-based gameplay, which allow the player's movements to adapt to the game's environment.
Grow Home received favorable reviews upon release, with critics praising its open world and visuals, while criticizing its short length. A sequel, titled Grow Up, was released on August 16, 2016.
## Gameplay
Grow Home is an adventure game played from a third person perspective. Players control a robot named B.U.D. (Botanical Utility Droid), and are tasked with oxygenating its homeworld by growing and climbing a "Star Plant", a giant beanstalk, and harvesting its seeds. Players are able to freely explore an open world, and have the ability to individually make B.U.D.'s left and right hands grab, with a button for each hand. The player can reach a small distance and grab onto any part of the environment, allowing them to push and climb objects. Throughout the game, B.U.D's ship computer entitled M.O.M. speaks to the player, informing them of gameplay objectives.
The game allows players to grow "Star Shoots" from the Star Plant, which act as platforms for the player to traverse. Star Shoots can only be grown for a limited amount of time, and their path of growth can be directed by the player. They can be used to carry the player to various floating islands found throughout the game world. Some islands, called "Energy Rocks", can be connected to Star Shoots to make the Star Plant grow along a set path. These Energy Rocks become more distant from the Star Plant as the game progresses.
Upon growing to certain heights, the Star Plant grows through larger floating islands. These islands, along with the smaller ones surrounding the Star Plant, contain power-up crystals which can be collected to provide B.U.D. with extra abilities. Creatures and other plant life can also be found throughout the game's islands, as well as environmental features, such as caves and water currents. Some parts of the environment, such as leaves growing off of both the Star Plant and Star Shoots that allow the player to jump to greater heights than normally possible, can affect how the player moves throughout the world. Teleportation pads allow the player to move around the world quickly and act as save points. The player also respawns at their last activated teleportation pad if they die, which can be caused by falling long distances, being in too much water for too long, or by the player making B.U.D. self-destruct. Additionally, players can scan various flora and fauna into the teleporters to retrieve data from them. Items can be picked up by the player and stored in B.U.D.'s backpack one at a time, such as flower parachutes that make the player fall more slowly towards the ground, and leaf gliders that allow the player to travel further through the air.
Once the player grows the Star Plant to 2000 metres and returns a seed to M.O.M., the main objective is completed, and the player is given the choice of collecting eight more seeds. Completing this final objective unlocks a special suit that allows the player to jump twice as high, and finishes the game. Players are free to explore the world after completion.
## Development
Grow Home began development as an experimental project created by an eight-person team at Ubisoft Reflections, initially being launched internally for the staff. After testing the project, management at Ubisoft decided to officially launch the title, which was developed into a full game inspired by Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy and WALL-E.
Grow Home has a minimalist, low poly graphical style. It uses procedural animation and physics-based gameplay, which allow objects and the player's actions to adapt to any part of the environment. The developers recommend using a gamepad to play the game, as it gives the player "the deepest connection to the gameplay mechanics". The game was created using the Unity engine and, unlike other Ubisoft titles, it does not require Uplay to run. After being announced in a post on the official Ubisoft blog on January 22, 2015, Grow Home was released on February 4, for Microsoft Windows via Valve's Steam service, as well as being released on September 1, for PlayStation 4. An OS X version was planned to be released if the PC version sold enough units. Ubisoft released multiple updates for the game following release, containing new missions, skins and bug fixes. It was however released for Linux on November 10, 2015.
## Reception
The PC version received "generally favorable reviews", while the PlayStation 4 version received above-average reviews, according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.
The PC version's open world was highly regarded by critics. PC Gamer's Jordan Erica Webber stated that the game's joy is in discovery. Destructoid's Ben Davis said that he got "more than enough enjoyment out of exploring the world", and Eurogamer's reviewer Christian Donlan called the game's map wonderfully generous and varied. However, reviewers criticised the game's length, with Davis calling it relatively short and both Webber and Donlan stating that it should only take the player a couple of hours or less to complete the game's campaign, although Webber said that the game has a great pace. IGN's Brandin Tyrrel also said that there's little reason to return to the game after completing the main campaign.
The game's visuals were also commended, with Tyrrel calling the game's world gorgeous and vivid, as well as calling its procedurally generated animation a "fantastic example of how movement can speak volumes more than words". However, he also stated that the animation system sometimes caused B.U.D.'s limbs to knot themselves into a state of "unnatural contortion". Rock Paper Shotgun's John Walker said that the main character's movement is "deeply involved in the world", calling its animation the reason the game is "so special".
Critics were divided on the game's control scheme. Donlan wrote that Grow Home is the best rock-climbing game he has ever played, stating that the "initially bewildering" controls allow the player to move through the world "with real skill". Davis called it the most entertaining aspect of the game, but also stated that the walking controls were awkward at times. Webber said that the climbing controls caused her wrist strain, and that the walking controls were "cute until the first time you overshoot or go skidding off the edge". | [
"## Gameplay",
"## Development",
"## Reception"
] | 1,459 | 10,692 |
12,741,219 | Supermarine Seamew | 1,168,536,247 | null | [
"1920s British military reconnaissance aircraft",
"Aircraft first flown in 1928",
"Amphibious aircraft",
"Biplanes",
"Flying boats",
"Supermarine aircraft",
"Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft"
] | The Supermarine Seamew was a British twin engined amphibious aircraft built by Supermarine at their works in Woolston, Southampton. It was intended as a small, shipborne reconnaissance aircraft. It was designed in 1925–1927 by R. J. Mitchell to meet the Air Ministry's specification 29/24. It was the first aeroplane built by Supermarine to incorporate metal in the construction; two machines were built. Mitchell planned a civilian version of the aircraft, to accommodate up to six passengers.
Higher priority projects meant that little was done on developing the Seamew until October 1926. It first flew on 9 January 1928. Tests showed that the aircraft was nose-heavy and its hand-starter gear was faulty. The propellers were poorly positioned, so that in time they sustained damage from sea spray. Further testing revealed that fittings had been made with an unsuitable material. Both aircraft were scrapped in 1930.
## Design and development
In October 1924, Supermarine’s R.J. Mitchell prepared his initial drawing for a new amphibious aircraft designed for reconnaissance purposes. Mitchell designed the aircraft to have a crew of three; the pilot was located in the nose cockpit, a forward gunner was positioned behind the pilot but forward of the lower wing, and the rear gunner was aft of the lower wing. A second design, dated 5 January 1925, moved the rear gunner closer to the mainplanes and repositioned the tailskid. On the basis of Mitchell's drawings, the Air Ministry placed a contract for two aircraft to meet specification 29/24; these were given serial numbers N212 and N213, and the aircraft was given the name Seamew. In February 1926, Mitchell started to produce his final detailed drawings, during which time he redesigned the fin and rudder. He also proposed a new version of the aircraft, to accommodate up to six civilian passengers.
The design incorporated two 238 horsepower (177 kW) geared Armstrong Siddeley Lynx IV radial engines driving wooden tractor propellers. The fuel, stored in a tank mounted on the top plane, was fed by gravity to the engines. According to a 1929 article in Flight, the fuel load of 135 imperial gallons (610 L; 162 US gal) of petrol was estimated as providing the aircraft with a range of around 300 miles (480 km).
The Seamew's wings, which had a span of 46 feet (14 m), were designed to fold backwards along the hull. Mitchell designed them to have a thick high-lift aerofoil section—he selected the Göttingen 387 design—so as to enable the fully-loaded Seamew to fly at low speeds without stalling. It was the first aeroplane built by Supermarine in which metal was included in the construction, as the spars were made of Duralumin, an aluminium–copper alloy. The wooden hull was effectively a scaled-down version of the Southampton, having a length of 35 feet (11 m) and a height of 13 feet 1 inch (3.99 m). The mainplanes were fabric-covered.
During 1925, Supermarine focussed on the development and construction of the Southampton, the Seagull V, and the S.4, and little was done on developing the Seamew. The following year, the Supermarine S.5, Nanok, and Sparrow II projects, as well as the need to make modifications to the Southampton, all caused further delays, so that work on the Seamew only began in October 1926. The first machine was eventually flown by Supermarine’s test pilot Henri Biard on 9 January 1928, by which time it was close to becoming obsolete.
## Testing and operational history
The Seamew was sent to be tested by the Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment, the Air Ministry's facility at RAF Felixstowe. It emerged that the hand-starter gear was prone to failure, and when the aircraft was full loaded, the propellers sustained damage when they hit sea spray during take-off. As the aircraft proved to be nose-heavy, which prevented it from gaining altitude at its best climbing speed, Supermarine modified the tailplane by fitting balanced rudders. After flying for 66 hours, N212's mainplane fitting failed, a fault later discovered to have been caused by the stainless steel used for the fittings. In March 1930, Supermarine considered replacing the Seamew's engine type to increase its power, but the idea was abandoned.
On 12 April 1930, N212 crashed when taxiing on the slipway at Felixstowe. This incident, as well as the potential expense involved in making new mainplane fittings and rebuilding the airframe, led to both aircraft being scrapped that year.
The Seamew provided Mitchell with new information about aerofoil design, which was later used in the design of the Spitfire wing. N213 had been fitted with smaller propellers, but this had resulted in a loss in rate of climb. To alleviate this problem, Supermarine consequently designed the Seagull V and the Sea Otter with a single engine.
## Specifications | [
"## Design and development",
"## Testing and operational history",
"## Specifications"
] | 1,060 | 22,122 |
12,440,390 | Hose's broadbill | 1,138,523,181 | Species of bird endemic to Borneo | [
"Birds described in 1892",
"Calyptomena",
"Endemic birds of Borneo",
"Taxa named by Richard Bowdler Sharpe",
"Taxonomy articles created by Polbot"
] | Hose's broadbill (Calyptomena hosii) is a species of bird in the family Calyptomenidae. It was described by the British naturalist Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1892 and is named after the British zoologist Charles Hose, who collected the holotype of the species. It is 19–21 cm (7.5–8.3 in) long, with females weighing 92 g (3.2 oz) on average and males weighing 102–115 g (3.6–4.1 oz). Males are bright green and have conspicuous black spots on the wings, black markings on the head, blue , black flight feathers, and a large green tuft covering most of the bill. Females have smaller forehead tufts, lime-green underparts with sky blue instead of azure blue on the , and lack black markings on the head, except for a black spot in front of the eye.
The species is endemic to montane regions in north, central, and southeastern Borneo, where it mostly occurs in forests at elevations of 600–1,220 m (1,970–4,000 ft). Omnivorous, it mainly feeds on fruit like figs and berries, supplementing its diet with insects and leaf buds. It is mainly seen alone or in pairs but can form flocks of up to 6–8 birds near fruiting trees. Breeding occurs from April to October, with clutches of 2–4 eggs being laid in delicate hanging nests. It is classified as being near-threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature due to a moderately rapid decline in its population caused by habitat destruction.
## Taxonomy and systematics
Hose's broadbill was described as Calyptomena hosii by the British naturalist Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1892 based on specimens collected from Mount Dulit, Borneo. The name of the genus, Calyptomena, is from the Ancient Greek words kaluptos, meaning covered, and mēnē, meaning moon. The specific name hosii, as well as the common name, is in honour of the British zoologist Charles Hose, who collected the holotype of the species. Hose's broadbill is the official common name designated by the International Ornithologists' Union. Other names for the species include blue-bellied broadbill, Hose's green broadbill, magnificent broadbill, and magnificent green broadbill.
Whitehead's broadbill is one of three species in the genus Calyptomena, a genus of three bright green broadbills found in Southeast Asia. Calyptomena is one of two genera in the family Calyptomenidae, the other being Smithornis, a genus of three rather dull-coloured species found in Africa. Although species-level relationships within the family are unclear, both the genera are monophyletic (including all descendants of a common ancestor) taxa that are sister (most closely related) to each other.
## Description
Hose's broadbill is 19–21 cm (7.5–8.3 in) long, with females weighing 92 g (3.2 oz) on average and males weighing 102–115 g (3.6–4.1 oz). Males have bright shimmery green , with a large tuft of feathers on the forehead covering most of the bill and a thin pale green eye-ring. There is a black spot in front of the eyes and black patches behind the , on the back of the neck, and across the upper back. The have conspicuous circular black spots and the flight feathers are black with green edges. The breast is indigo blue and the belly and are azure blue.
Females differ in their smaller forehead tufts, paler upperparts with a slight olive tint, and lime-green with sky blue instead of azure blue. They also have lime green eye-rings and no black on the head other than the spot in front of the eye. The iris is blackish, the bill is dark brownish-black to black, and the feet are dark olive green. Juveniles are mostly like females, but juvenile males have dark feathers on the back of the neck. Immature males are similar to adult males, but lack most of the head markings and have less blue on the underparts.
The species can be differentiated from the other two species of Calyptomena , which also occur in Borneo, by its blue underparts. It can be told apart from the green broadbill by its larger size and spots on the wings, instead of bars as in the latter. Whitehead's broadbill is larger and has a black patch on the breast.The only recorded vocalisation is a low, soft, pleasant dove-like coo-wooo, with the second note upslurred. It is given while making bobbing head movements.
## Distribution and habitat
Endemic to the island of Borneo, Hose's broadbill inhabits the northern and central parts of the island, where it is found discontinuously from Mount Kinabalu to the Müller Mountains, Kayan Mentarang, the Dulit Range, the Sambaliung Mountains, and the Sangkulirang Peninsula. It is also found in southeastern Borneo. It may be locally migratory depending on the fruiting seasons of trees it feeds on.
Hose's broadbill is mainly found on hill slopes, inhabiting dipterocarp forest, lower montane forest, lowland forest on hills, and forests with limestone pinnacles (rock columns). It is mainly found at elevations of 600–1,220 m (1,970–4,000 ft), but can be seen as low as 300 m (980 ft) and as high as around 1,680 m (5,510 ft).
## Behaviour and ecology
The generation length (average age of parents in the current population) of the species is 4.2 years.
The species is omnivorous but mainly feeds on fruit, such as figs and berries. It has been recorded eating soft, greyish-yellow berries and small orange figs covered with short, spiky hairs. It also eats insects and leaf buds. It generally forages in the lower levels of the forest. Hose's broadbills are mainly seen alone or in pairs, but small flocks of 6–8 birds are found at fruiting trees.
Breeding has been observed from April to October. It makes a delicate hanging nest out of dead leaves, rattans, and bamboo, with an outer covering of green moss and lichen and a trailing "tail" made of rattan leaves. One nest measured around 25 cm × 15 cm (9.8 in × 5.9 in) and was hanging from a low, sagging branch 1.5 m (4.9 ft) high. Clutches have 2–4 eggs. The time taken for incubation and fledging is unknown.
## Status
Hose's broadbill is classified as being near-threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature due to its a moderately rapid decline in its population caused by habitat destruction at lower altitudes in its range. It is locally common and occurs in several protected areas like Gunung Mulu National Park, but becomes rarer after deforestation occurs. Lowland logging in its range has been extensive, but the species' preference for montane habitats may protect it in the short term. Surveys to understand the extent of population decline, studies to find the species' habitat preferences, and protection of areas with suitable habitats are needed to conserve the species. | [
"## Taxonomy and systematics",
"## Description",
"## Distribution and habitat",
"## Behaviour and ecology",
"## Status"
] | 1,579 | 670 |
37,480,581 | Hypnotico | 1,156,654,324 | null | [
"2011 songs",
"Jennifer Lopez songs",
"Song recordings produced by Kuk Harrell",
"Songs written by Akon",
"Songs written by Claude Kelly",
"Songs written by Lady Gaga",
"Songs written by RedOne"
] | "Hypnotico" is a song recorded by American entertainer Jennifer Lopez for her seventh studio album Love? (2011). It was originally written by RedOne, Lady Gaga, Aliaune "Akon" Thiam, Claude Kelly and Tami Chynn for Chynn's second studio album Prima Donna in 2007. RedOne and Akon flew Gaga and Kelly to Los Angeles to write songs for Chynn, with "Hypnotico" becoming the first song of several songs they had written together. The release of Prima Donna was cancelled and "Hypnotico" was thought to be a "lost cause" by its writers. That was until 2011, when Lopez became interested in recording the song while working with RedOne, following her move to Island Records.
Jimmy Joker provided production for Lopez's version of "Hypnotico", while her vocals were produced by Kuk Harrell. "Hypnotico" is an up-tempo dance song that contains a "chunky beat" and retro-1980s synths, with an "old-school feel". It received generally mixed reviews from music critics, who cited the song to single-worthy. Some critics noticed similarities between "Hypnotico" and other Lady Gaga songs, such as "Poker Face" (2008).
## Writing and recording
"Hypnotico" was written by RedOne, Lady Gaga, Aliaune "Akon" Thiam, Claude Kelly and Tami Chynn. In 2007, Gaga and Kelly were working with RedOne in a small recording studio in Queens, New York. Gaga was writing "what would later become" her debut studio album The Fame (2008) and Kelly was writing songs with RedOne to pitch to other artists. Kelly recalled the events by saying: "We were all friends and often rode the train together to get to the studio". RedOne began working with Akon, who had signed Chynn to his record label. Akon and RedOne flew Gaga and Kelly to Los Angeles to write songs for Chynn's second studio album Prima Donna. "Hypnotico" became the first of several songs they had written together. From that trip, according to Kelly, "Akon met, signed and helped launch Lady Gaga's career". Kelly credits the trip as also helping to launch his own songwriting career. He states that he and Akon became good friends and writing partners. Akon gave Kelly a CD of working tracks as a basis for composition. From that CD of tracks he wrote songs for Leona Lewis ("Forgive Me"), Whitney Houston ("Like I Never Left", "I Got You") and Michael Jackson ("Hold My Hand"). According to Kelly, "Hypnotico" is a "symbol of how dreams come true if you work hard, and a constant reminder of how far I've come. I'm still extremely grateful for all that I've achieved".
Chynn recorded "Hypnotico" in early 2008 at a studio in Atlanta, Georgia with Akon and RedOne producing, as part of her 13-track Prima Donna project initially intended for release in August 2008. "Hypnotico" was considered as a possible single release for Chynn's Prima Donna project, the second single after "Frozen", but after the album was cancelled, Kelly thought the song to be a "lost cause". The song remained unused by any artist until 2011, when Lopez became interested in recording it while working with RedOne. Lopez's version of the song was produced by Jimmy Joker. Her vocals were arranged by RedOne, produced by Kuk Harrell and recorded by Harrell and Josh Gudwin at Henson Recording Studios in Los Angeles. Lopez's vocals were then edited by Harrell and Chris "Tek" O'Ryan. RedOne provided instruments for the song. The song was later mixed by Trevor Muzzy.
While working with RedOne, Lopez insists that he brought the best out of her, crediting this to his Moroccan, Swedish and American heritage. She stated: "He's awesome. He's one of the nicest people and has a beautiful spirit. He can create something the whole world will love and that is probably to do with his international background. Some people can do dance, others can do urban or pop, but Nadir does it all and understand what makes a hit on every level". Lopez and Gaga did not work on the song together in person. According to Lopez, RedOne brought Gaga into the process because they have worked together a lot in the past. She cited the process as being "kind of cool" and that Gaga is a "great songwriter: I don't just love her lyrics, but also her melodies".
## Composition
"Hypnotico" is an up-tempo dance song that contains a "chunky beat" and retro-1980s synths, with an "old-school feel". Categorized as a "synth-heavy record", the dancehall-tinged track also contains handclaps and "boy-toying," with syllables and a "boricua shoutout", all running at 119 bpm. It opens with Lopez calling out: "All the girls that know they sexy, come on!". "They love me for my body / I'm original sexy," sings Lopez over the "bombastic bassline" before the chanting chorus kicks in: "All the boys are lovin' when we do our thing / We just some silly heartbreakers tonight".
DJ Shane Phoenix considered "Hypnotico" to be a "dub-style track". He wrote that it "has some great breaks", a "serious electro key line", and he thought the repetitive bassline would be good for dancing. According to Emily Exton of Popdust, the song's "light and catchy" chorus "declares herself just one among a group of innocent flirts"; it allows Lopez to showcase "some range" and provides a nice counter to the "repetitive, staccato breakdown of the song’s title that precedes it". Exton also pointed out that "hyp-not, hyp-not-ico" is almost identical to "On the Floor"'s "up on the floor, up on the floor". Nyree McFarlane from Gulfnews named the song as "euphoric", adding that it was a "true club track."
## Critical response
"Hypnotico" received generally mixed reviews from music critics. Several journalists noted the similarities between the song and other Gaga works, with Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly stating that it sounded like "a watered down version of 'Poker Face'" and Scott Shetler of PopCrush elaborating that "like many of [Lady] Gaga's songs", it is "likely to stick in your head long after the song has ended". Allison Stewart from The Washington Post further expanded on this view, stating that "without the slightest hint of noblesse oblige" to Gaga, "Hypnotico" is a synthy, "burbly slip" of a song. Eliot Glazer of MTV Buzzworthy stated that the song seems to continue right where Lopez's 1999 hit single "Waiting for Tonight" left off, "making us want to put on our short shorts and dance". In addition, he concluded that "The thump that rides the song's undercurrent of ethereal echoes and a group chant of the chorus is a pretty solid reminder that this is most definitely a Gaga jam, which quickly gained J. Lo's approval". Amos Barshad of Vulture showcased his displeasure with the song, elaborating that although "you can sort of tell" that Gaga wrote the song, that was not an indication that it would become an instant hit, casting it as "Bland and half-baked", and concluding that "it was certainly farmed out for a reason".
Shane Phoenix of Hot Spots gave a positive review of the song, stating that "the girls are going to love the lyrics. It brings total sex appeal and groove that starts the hips swinging and is so meant to break the set into a dark drive and into sensual exploration of a grind close contact dance rhythm". Rich Lopez of the Dallas Voice cited the song as being one of the "better" songs of Love? and was surprised it had "yet to be released as a single". Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly complimented the potential of the song by stating that it is "sure to fit right into club DJ mixes and get people dancing"; however, he criticized that Gaga was "all over the song ... as if Lopez went into the booth trying to emulate her delivery." Emily Exton of Popdust agreed, adding that "you'd be silly not to think" that the song's chorus will become a dance-floor chant among "slightly intoxicated females (and males) in bars across America this summer". She additionally wrote that it was "impossible to get [the song] out of your head after more than one listen" although becoming "increasingly monotonous over nearly three and half minutes" Digital Spy's Robert Copsey roughly expanded on this view, stating that "Hypnotico" is not anything "we haven't heard before," although elaborating that it is worthy of a standalone release.
Katie Hasty of HitFix was not impressed by the lyrical potential of the song, stating that with lines like "sunburned baby / hurts like crazy," "we're just some silly heartbreakers tonight" and rhyming "yum yum" with "some some" won't get this song "very good scores on the SAT". She concluded by stating that: "In fact, it seems that Lopez goes out of her way to sing with a little-girl inflection to her 41-year-old pipes. But it comes off youthful, upbeat, and a little lighter than the single ['On the Floor'] and her island-inflected collaboration with Lil Wayne, 'I'm Into You'." Amos Barshad of Vulture questioned Lopez' music, stating that "with the other facets of her multimedia empire clicking [...] why does she insist on continuing to make music? Why not sit back, relax, and enjoy the fact that there is something that you do that people like? [...] Well, one can only assume, Jennifer Lopez keeps making music because Jennifer Lopez actually loves making music. And that's admirable".
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Love?.
Locations
- Recorded at Henson Recording Studios in Los Angeles
Personnel
- RedOne – vocal arrangement, instruments, songwriter
- Jennifer Lopez - lead vocals
- Lady Gaga – songwriter
- Aliaune Thiam – songwriter
- Claude Kelly – songwriter
- Tami Chynn – songwriter, additional vocals
- Jimmy Joker – record producer
- Chris "Tek" O'Ryan – vocal editor
- Kuk Harrell – vocal editor, vocal producer, vocal recording engineer
- Josh Gudwin – vocal recording engineer
- Trevor Muzzy – mixing | [
"## Writing and recording",
"## Composition",
"## Critical response",
"## Credits and personnel"
] | 2,267 | 35,291 |
189,639 | USS Delaware (BB-28) | 1,160,002,935 | Dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy | [
"1909 ships",
"Ambassadors of Chile to the United States",
"Delaware-class battleships",
"Ships built in Newport News, Virginia",
"World War I battleships of the United States"
] | USS Delaware (BB-28) was a dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy, the lead ship of her class. She was laid down at Newport News Shipbuilding in November 1907, launched in January 1909, and completed in April 1910. The sixth ship to be named for the First State, Delaware was armed with a main battery of ten 12-inch (305 mm) guns all on the centerline, making her the most powerful battleship in the world at the time of her construction. She was also the first battleship of the US Navy to be capable of steaming at full speed for 24 continuous hours without suffering a breakdown.
Delaware served in the Atlantic Fleet throughout her career. During World War I, she sailed to Great Britain to reinforce the British Grand Fleet, in the 6th Battle Squadron. She saw no action during the war, however, as both the British and Germans had abandoned direct confrontation with each other. After the end of the war, she returned to her peacetime duties of fleet maneuvers, midshipmen cruises, and good-will visits to foreign ports. Under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty, Delaware was retained until the new battleship USS Colorado was completed in 1924, at which point she was broken up for scrap in accordance with the treaty.
## Design
The two Delaware-class battleships were ordered in response to the British battleship HMS Dreadnought, the first all-big-gun battleship to enter service. The previous American dreadnoughts, the South Carolina class, had been designed before the particulars of HMS Dreadnought were known. The Navy decided that another pair of battleships should be built to counter the perceived superiority of Dreadnought over South Carolina, and so Rear Admiral Washington L. Capps prepared a design for a ship with an additional main battery gun turret to match Dreadnought's ten guns. But unlike Dreadnought, all ten of Delaware's guns could fire on the broadside. At the time of her construction, Delaware was the largest and most powerful battleship then building in the world.
Delaware was 518 ft 9 in (158 m) long overall and had a beam of 85 ft 3 in (26 m) and a draft of 27 ft 3 in (8 m). She displaced 20,380 long tons (20,707 t) as designed and up to 22,400 long tons (22,759 t) at full load. Her bow had an early example of bulbous forefoot. She had a crew of 933 officers and men.
The ship was powered by two-shaft vertical triple-expansion engines rated at 25,000 shp (18,642 kW) and fourteen coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers, generating a top speed of 21 kn (24 mph; 39 km/h). The ship had a cruising range of 6,000 nmi (11,000 km; 6,900 mi) at a speed of 10 kn (12 mph; 19 km/h). Also, because Delaware's engine bearings were equipped with forced lubrication instead of a gravity-fed system, she was the first American battleship capable of steaming at full speed for 24 hours without any need for engine repair.
The ship was armed with a main battery of ten 12-inch/45 caliber Mark 5 guns in five twin Mark 7 gun turrets on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward. The other three turrets were placed aft of the superstructure. The secondary battery consisted of 14 5-inch (127 mm)/50 caliber Mark 6 guns mounted on Mark 9 and Mark 12 pedestal mounts in casemates along the side of the hull. As was standard for capital ships of the period, she carried a pair of 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside.
Delaware's main armored belt was 11 in (279 mm) thick, while the armored deck was 2 in (51 mm) thick. The gun turrets had 12 in (305 mm) thick faces and the conning tower had 11.5 in (292 mm) thick sides.
## Service history
Delaware was built by Newport News Shipbuilding; she was laid down on 11 November 1907 and was launched on 6 January 1909. After completion of the fitting-out work, the ship was commissioned into the United States Navy on 4 April 1910. On 3 October, she steamed to Wilmington, Delaware, where she received a set of silver service from her namesake state. The battleship then returned to Hampton Roads on the 9th, and remained there until she left to join the First Division of the Atlantic Fleet, on 1 November. She and the rest of the division visited England and France, and then conducted maneuvers off Cuba in January 1911.
On 17 January, a boiler explosion aboard Delaware killed eight men and badly scalded another. On 31 January, the ship carried the remains of Don Anibal Cruz, the Chilean ambassador to the United States, back to Chile. She steamed by way of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, around the tip of South America, to Punta Arenas, Chile. She returned to New York City on 5 May, and then left for Portsmouth on 4 June to participate in the coronation fleet review for King George V.
Throughout the next five years, Delaware participated in the normal peacetime routine of fleet and squadron maneuvers, gunnery drills, and torpedo practice in the Atlantic Fleet. During the summer months, she conducted training cruises for midshipmen from the Naval Academy. She was present in the Naval Review of 14 October 1912, attended by President William Howard Taft and the Secretary of the Navy George von Lengerke Meyer. In 1913, she conducted a good-will visit to Villefranche, France, along with the battleships Wyoming and Utah. She participated in the intervention in Mexico at Veracruz during the Mexican Revolution, to protect American citizens in the area.
### World War I
Following the American entrance into World War I on 6 April 1917, Delaware had recently returned to Hampton Roads from fleet maneuvers in the Caribbean Sea. There, she trained new armed guard crews and engine room personnel as the Atlantic Fleet prepared to go to war. On 25 November 1917, she sailed with the rest of Battleship Division 9, bound for Britain to reinforce the Grand Fleet in the North Sea. Once in Scapa Flow, the division joined the Grand Fleet as the 6th Battle Squadron. The 6th Battle Squadron was tasked with serving as the "fast wing" of the Grand Fleet. On 14 December, Delaware participated in joint Anglo-American maneuvers to practice coordination of the Allied fleet.
Starting in late 1917, the Germans had begun to use surface raiders to attack the British convoys to Scandinavia; this forced the British to send squadrons from the Grand Fleet to escort the convoys. On 6 February 1918, the 6th Battle Squadron and eight British destroyers escorted a convoy of merchant ships to Norway. While steaming off Stavanger on the 8th, Delaware was attacked twice by a German U-boat, though evasive maneuvers allowed Delaware to escape undamaged. The squadron was back in Scapa Flow on 10 February; Delaware escorted two more such convoys in March and April. On 22–24 April, the German High Seas Fleet sortied to intercept one of the convoys in the hope of cutting off and destroying the escorting battleship squadron. Delaware and the rest of the Grand Fleet left Scapa Flow on 24 April in an attempt to intercept the Germans, but the High Seas Fleet had already broken off the operation and returned to port.
Starting on 30 June, the 6th Battle Squadron and a division of British destroyers covered a group of American minelayers as they laid the North Sea mine barrage; the work lasted until 2 July. King George V inspected the Grand Fleet, including Delaware, at Rosyth. Thereafter, Delaware was relieved by the battleship Arkansas; Delaware then sailed across the Atlantic, arriving in Hampton Roads on 12 August.
### Post-war
Delaware remained at York River until 12 November 1918, the day after the Armistice with Germany was signed, effectively ending World War I. She then sailed to Boston Navy Yard for an overhaul. Delaware rejoined the fleet on 11 March 1919 for training maneuvers off Cuba. She returned to New York with her division on 14 April, where additional divisional, squadron, and fleet exercises were conducted. She was present for another Naval Review on 28 April 1921 in Hampton Roads. From 5 June to 31 August 1922, Delaware conducted a training cruise for midshipmen to various ports in the Caribbean along with to Halifax, Nova Scotia. She went on another cruise to Europe from 9 July to 29 August 1923, and visited Copenhagen, Greenock, Cádiz, and Gibraltar.
In the years immediately following the end of the war, the United States, Britain, and Japan all launched huge naval construction programs. All three countries decided that a new naval arms race would be ill-advised, and so convened the Washington Naval Conference to discuss arms limitations, which produced the Washington Naval Treaty, signed in February 1922. Under the terms of Article II of the treaty, Delaware and her sister North Dakota were to be scrapped as soon as the new battleships Colorado and West Virginia, then under construction, were ready to join the fleet. On 30 August 1923, Delaware accordingly entered dry dock in the Norfolk Navy Yard; her crew was transferred to the recently commissioned Colorado, and the process of disposal began. Delaware was transferred to the Boston Navy Yard, decommissioned on 10 November, and disarmed. She was then sold on 5 February 1924 and subsequently broken up for scrap. | [
"## Design",
"## Service history",
"### World War I",
"### Post-war"
] | 2,080 | 19,482 |
59,256,153 | Battle of Bovey Heath | 1,156,313,487 | Battle of the First English Civil War | [
"Battles of the English Civil Wars",
"Conflicts in 1646",
"Military history of Devon"
] | The battle of Bovey Heath took place on 9 January 1646 at Bovey Tracey and Bovey Heath (about 10 miles (16 km) south-west of Exeter in Devon, England) during the First English Civil War. A Parliamentarian cavalry detachment under the command of Oliver Cromwell surprised and routed the Lord Wentworth's Royalist camp.
After a series of losses for the Royalists in the southwest of England, they had retreated to Exeter and beyond. The Parliamentarian New Model Army besieged Exeter, and when a Royalist army was raised to try to relieve the city, the Parliamentarian commander, Sir Thomas Fairfax launched a preemptive strike. He first sent Cromwell to attack the cavalry lodged at Bovey Heath, where they were able to rout the Royalists who were not prepared for an attack. Wentworth and most of his leading commanders were able to escape, but Wentworth was stripped of command of the Royalist army in the West, which passed to the Lord Hopton.
## Background
In early 1645, the southwest of England was predominantly held by the Royalists. After the Parliamentarians secured victory at Naseby in Northamptonshire in June that year, Sir Thomas Fairfax turned his attention, and the newly formed New Model Army to the south-west. They defeated the Royalists again at Langport in July, forcing the King's army in the west country to retreat to Exeter, though the cavalry were not allowed in the city. After securing Somerset, Fairfax established a siege of Exeter late in 1645.
## Prelude
At the start of 1646, rather than maintaining winter quarters, Prince Charles, the Prince of Wales, began to gather an army in south Devon to relieve Exeter. Thomas Wentworth, 5th Baron Wentworth had been given command of the Royalist army in the southwest by the Prince after Lord Goring left the war and escaped to France. He was quartered at Bovey Tracey (about 10 miles (16 km) south-west of Exeter) with three regiments of cavalry which had not been allowed into Exeter.
News reached the Parliamentarian commanders of the enemy forces' approach, and Fairfax split part of his army off from the siege to face the new threat. He sent a small cavalry detachment, under the command of Oliver Cromwell, to Bovey Tracey.
## Battle
Wentworth was viewed poorly by some Royalist contemporaries; Richard Bulstrode described him as "a very lazy and unactive man", and he had fallen out with one of the other Royalist commanders in the region, the Lord Hopton. In his history, Amos Miller describes that Wentworth "allowed his officers to keep lax guard", and Cromwell was able to surprise the Royalists with a night attack. The Royalist officers were playing cards when the attack was made, and were only able to escape out of the back door of their inn by "throwing their stakes of money out of the window", causing the Parliamentarian soldiers to break off their attack to try and gather the money. Wentworth, his principal officers and the majority of their men were able to escape the attack, but Cromwell succeeded in capturing 400 horses and seven colours, including the King's.
## Aftermath
Wentworth escaped to Tavistock, where he reported the attack to Prince Charles. The news led the Prince to abandon his plans to relieve Exeter, and Charles retreated further into the southwest, to Launceston. Sir Richard Grenville and other Royalist leaders petitioned the Prince for a new commander of the Royalist army, and Lord Hopton was duly appointed the role. Wentworth remained as general of the horse, reporting to Hopton.
Fairfax subsequently led his army into south Devon, but found that the Royalists had abandoned their garrisons in Ashburton, Totnes and other villages in the area. Fairfax established his army outside Dartmouth on 12 January and captured the port on 19 January, effectively ending Royalist hopes of relieving Exeter. Hopton was defeated at Torrington in February, and the following month the last remnants of the Royalist army in southwest England surrendered in Truro. Exeter fell to the Parliamentarians in April, and when first King Charles I and then the Royalist-held Oxford surrendered, the First Civil War was effectively concluded in June 1646. | [
"## Background",
"## Prelude",
"## Battle",
"## Aftermath"
] | 912 | 17,060 |
64,752,668 | Lady Red Couture | 1,166,531,318 | American drag performer | [
"1977 births",
"2020 deaths",
"20th-century African-American women singers",
"21st-century African-American women singers",
"African-American drag queens",
"African-American television talk show hosts",
"American LGBT singers",
"American women television personalities",
"LGBT African Americans",
"LGBT people from Utah",
"Salt Lake Community College alumni",
"Transgender drag performers",
"Transgender women musicians",
"Weber State University alumni"
] | Kareemia Baines (May 30, 1977 – July 25, 2020), known professionally as Lady Red Couture, was an American drag queen and singer best known as the co-host of Hey Qween! with Jonny McGovern. Born in Park City, Utah, she relocated to Los Angeles, where she became a fixture of the local drag scene. She released an album, \#Stuntqueen, in 2018, and she was featured in a number of other drag queens' singles and music videos throughout the 2010s. She also starred in Judge Lady Red, another web series produced by McGovern. Baines died on July 25, 2020, after a flare-up of cyclic vomiting syndrome, a chronic condition that affected her throughout her life.
## Early life
Baines was born in Park City, Utah, on May 30, 1977, to Kathleen Barnes. According to Baines's obituary in The New York Times, her father "left the family when she was young and was not a part of her life". She had a younger sister named Krystle Butler. Their mother was a nondenominational Christian minister, and Baines had a strained relationship with her. Ultimately, her mother kicked her out of their home for being transgender.
Baines attended George Washington Preparatory High School in Los Angeles. She was active in extracurricular activities including theatre and marching band, where she played trombone and tuba. As part of the band, she performed in the Rose Parade. After high school, she earned an associate's degree in culinary arts from Salt Lake Community College in Salt Lake County, Utah. In 2001, she graduated from Weber State University. After college, Baines was briefly employed as a chef for Amtrak. When she returned to Los Angeles, she took up work as a "security diva" at Gym Sportsbar and as a "budtender" at a MedMen cannabis shop.
## Career
Lady Red Couture began her drag career in 1995, regularly performing at venues like Hamburger Mary's. She was 6 ft 7 in (2.01 m) in height and stood as tall as 7 ft 2 in (2.18 m) when wearing heels. As a vocalist, she was noted for her wide range and commanding stage presence, which, together with her stature, earned her the nickname "the largest live-singing drag queen". Also known as Mother Couture, she was widely regarded as a staple of the Los Angeles queer nightlife community.
Couture rose to international attention as the co-host of Hey Qween! with Jonny McGovern, a drag-focused talk show that features interviews with RuPaul's Drag Race contestants. She worked at Hey Qween! for eight seasons, from 2014 until her death. She also had a minor role in the 2011 film Leave It on the Floor; starred in Judge Lady Red, a 2015 web series produced by McGovern; and appeared in "Dickmatized", one of McGovern's music videos.
In 2016, Couture toured with the Drag Queens of Comedy. Two years later, in 2018, she released an album called \#Stuntqueen in collaboration with Adam Joseph, who also featured her on his EP The Rent. Lady Red Couture also produced a number of live shows, including an adaptation of The Vixen's "Black Girl Magic" in 2019. In June 2020, Harper's Bazaar featured her in its photo series "Striking Portraits of America's Most Legendary Drag Queens". She was known for helping aspiring drag queens learn to sew, do makeup, and perform.
## Personal life
Baines was a transgender woman. She and McGovern became close friends during the first season of Hey Qween!, and he invited her to move in with him after discovering she was living in a transient hotel.
## Death and legacy
On July 19, 2020, Baines was hospitalized in Los Angeles due to cyclic vomiting syndrome, a lifelong chronic condition. She was placed on a breathing tube in intensive care. On July 24, McGovern posted on social media that she appeared to be improving and would be moved out of intensive care. However, the following day, Baines died from complications of the illness. McGovern announced her death in an Instagram post. He had been raising money for Baines's medical expenses via GoFundMe and Venmo, and he subsequently redirected the funds to her family and funeral costs. An illegitimate GoFundMe page was also set up by an unknown party, but it was swiftly deactivated after McGovern discovered and publicly condemned it. A number of queer celebrities—including Isis King, Justin Tranter, and "virtually the entire cast of RuPaul's Drag Race"—expressed shock and sadness at her death, and they shared tributes to her life and work. In a report on her death, Billboard called Baines "a pillar of the drag and trans community".
In November 2020, McGovern released an EP titled Flowers (Songs to Lady Red), a tribute to Couture produced in collaboration with Adam Joseph. The same month, Hey Qween! aired an episode called "The Lady Red Memorial Special", in which performers including Honey Davenport, Jackie Beat, Sherry Vine, The Vixen, Latrice Royale, and Peppermint shared memories of Couture.
## Discography
### Studio albums
### EPs
### Singles
#### As lead artist
#### As featured artist
## Filmography
### Feature films
### Internet series
### Music videos | [
"## Early life",
"## Career",
"## Personal life",
"## Death and legacy",
"## Discography",
"### Studio albums",
"### EPs",
"### Singles",
"#### As lead artist",
"#### As featured artist",
"## Filmography",
"### Feature films",
"### Internet series",
"### Music videos"
] | 1,161 | 3,570 |
20,526,544 | U-43-class submarine (Austria-Hungary) | 1,151,501,532 | Austro-Hungarian Navy submarines during WWI | [
"Submarine classes",
"U-43-class submarines (Austria-Hungary)"
] | The U-43 class was a class of two coastal submarines or U-boats operated by the Austro-Hungarian Navy (German: Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine) during World War I. The two submarines that comprised the class were Type UB II submarines of the Imperial German Navy, making the two classes identical. From the beginning of World War I, Austria-Hungary had been working to increase the size of its U-boat fleet, so the Imperial German Navy, which was finding it difficult to obtain trained submarine crews, sold two of its UB II boats, UB-43 and UB-47, to its ally in June 1917.
The German Type UB II design incorporated improvements over Type UB I boats, the first coastal submarines of the German Imperial Navy. Among these were twin engines and shafts for more redundancy during operations, a higher top speed, and larger torpedo tubes with double the complement of torpedoes. As a result, the UB II boats were nearly twice as heavy as their predecessor UB I boats.
Both boats of the class were selected for German service in the Mediterranean while under construction. They were shipped via rail to Pola, assembled, launched, and commissioned in the German Imperial Navy, where both enjoyed great success against Allied shipping. In June 1917, the boats were decommissioned, handed over to Austria-Hungary, and then commissioned into the Austro-Hungarian Navy in July. The B in the designation of both boats was dropped, but the submarines retained the same numbers, becoming U-43 and U-47 under the Austro-Hungarian flag. At the end of the war U-43 and U-47 were ceded to Italy and France, respectively, and had been scrapped by 1920.
## Background
Austria-Hungary's U-boat fleet was largely obsolete at the outbreak of World War I. The Austro-Hungarian Navy satisfied its most urgent needs by purchasing five Type UB I submarines that comprised the U-10 class from Germany, by raising and recommissioning the sunken French submarine Curie as U-14, and by building four submarines of the U-20 class that were based on the 1911 Danish Havmanden class.
After these steps alleviated the most urgent needs, the Austro-Hungarian Navy had adopted the German Type UB II design for what became known as the Austro-Hungarian U-27 class in mid 1915, and had six of that class being built under license in Austria-Hungary by late 1916. In November 1916, Germany had inquired to find out if Austria-Hungary were interested in purchasing existing German submarines because Germany was having a hard time finding trained submarine crews. After protracted negotiations, which had stalled over the outflow of Austro-Hungarian gold reserves to Germany, an agreement to purchase two submarines—UB-43 and UB-47—was reached in June 1917.
## Design
### The UB II design
The German UB II design of coastal submarines was a development from the design of the UB I boats, which had been originally ordered in September 1914. During their trials, the UB I boats were found to be too small and too slow, but in-service use revealed another problem. The UB I boats had a single propeller shaft/engine combo such that if either component failed, the U-boat became almost totally disabled. The UB II boats featured twin propeller shafts and twin engines (one shaft for each engine) which not only alleviated this problem, but also had the added benefit of increasing the top speed. The new design also included more powerful batteries, larger torpedo tubes, and a deck gun. The UB II boats could also carry twice the torpedo load of their predecessors, and nearly ten times as much fuel. To contain all of these changes the hull was larger, and the surface and submerged displacement was more than doubled.
The UB II boats were ordered from three manufacturers in groups that numbered between two and twelve. Each group had slight variations in design, resulting in differences in displacements, lengths, speeds, fuel capacities, and operational ranges.
### The U-43-class design
The U-43 class consisted of two boats from a contracted group of six UB II boats built by AG Weser of Bremen. Like all of the UB II boats from different manufacturers and contract groups, the U-43 group had distinct specifications. This group displaced 272 metric tons (300 short tons) surfaced and 305 metric tons (336 short tons) submerged. The boats had a single hull with saddle tanks (an early style of ballast tanks), and were 121 feet 1 inch (36.91 m) long with a beam of 14 feet 4 inches (4.37 m) and a draft of 12 feet 2 inches (3.71 m). For propulsion, they featured two shafts, twin diesel engines of 270 bhp (200 kW) for surface running, and twin electric motors of 280 shp (210 kW) for submerged travel. The boats were capable of 8.8 knots (16.3 km/h) while surfaced and 6.2 knots (11.5 km/h) submerged. The range of the boats was 6,940 nautical miles (12,850 km) at 5 knots (9.3 km/h) surfaced, and 45 nautical miles (83 km) at 4 knots (7.4 km/h) submerged. The U-43 class boats were designed for a crew of 22.
The U-43 class boats were armed with two 50 cm (19.7 in) bow torpedo tubes and carried a complement of four torpedoes. They were each equipped with an 88 mm/26 (3.5 in) deck gun and an 8 mm (0.31 in) machine gun.
The two U-43-class U-boats were nearly identical to the eight boats of the Austro-Hungarian Navy's U-27 class, which were built to UB II plans. Despite the similarities, the two groups are identified in sources as distinct classes.
## Construction
The six-boat group that included UB-43 and UB-47 was ordered in July 1915, and both boats had been laid down in early September. This group was selected by the German Admiralstab for deployment to the Mediterranean, but, unlike the smaller UB I boats, they could not as easily be transported overland by rail. Weser prepared the boats for rail shipment by cutting the boat sections longitudinally, and sent all the materials, along with German shipyard workers, to Pola, where the boats were reassembled. UB-43 was launched in early April 1916, while UB-47 followed in June.
## Class members
### SM U-43
UB-43 was ordered by the Imperial German Navy on 31 July 1915 and was laid down by AG Weser of Bremen on 3 September. While under construction, she was one of a group of six U-boats selected for service in the Mediterranean. UB-43 was broken into railcar-sized components and shipped overland to the Austro-Hungarian port of Pola where Weser workers assembled her. She was launched on 8 April 1916 and commissioned into the Imperial German Navy as SM UB-43 on 24 April, under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Dietrich Niebuhr. Kapitänleutnant Hans von Mellenthin was assigned to the boat in late August 1916, and led the boat in sinking 19 ships (86,236 GRT) over the next 81⁄2 months. In April 1917, von Mellenthin was replaced by Oberleutnant zur See Horst Obermüller who commanded the ship for the next three months, sinking three more ships (12,940 GRT) and damaging the British cruiser Grafton. UB-43 was decommissioned on 15 July and taken over by the Austro-Hungarian Navy.
Renamed U-43 for Austro-Hungarian service, the boat became the class leader of the U-43 boats when she was commissioned into the Austro-Hungarian Navy on 30 July 1917. The submarine's successes while under German command were not matched under Austro-Hungarian; she damaged a single ship in November 1917 in her only successful attack. U-47 was surrendered to France as a war reparation in 1920 and was broken up at Bizerta.
### SM U-47
UB-47 was ordered by the Imperial German Navy on 31 July 1915 and was laid down at Bremen by AG Weser on 4 September. As one of six U-boats selected for service in the Mediterranean while under construction, she was broken into railcar-sized components and shipped overland to the Austro-Hungarian port of Pola. Shipyard workers from Weser assembled the boat and her five sisters at Pola, where she was launched on 17 June.
SM UB-47 was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy on 4 July 1916 under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Wolfgang Steinbauer. Steinbauer and UB-47 sank 15 ships (62,676 GRT and 11,100 tons) over the next nine months, including two Cunard Line steamers— and Ivernia—serving as British troopships, as well as the French battleship Gaulois. Steinbauer also damaged three ships with a combined gross register tonnage of 16,967. Under the command of Hans Hermann Wendlandt, who had replaced Steinbauer in April 1917, UB-47 sank an additional seven ships (13,519 GRT and 350 tons) through 21 July, at which time the ship was decommissioned and handed over to the Austro-Hungarian Navy.
The B in her designation was dropped when she was commissioned as SM U-47 for the Austro-Hungarian Navy on 30 July 1917. U-47's success under Austro-Hungarian command was less than that under the German flag; only three ships (6,201 GRT and 351 tons) were sunk through the end of the war. U-47 was surrendered to France as a war reparation in 1920 and was broken up at Bizerta. | [
"## Background",
"## Design",
"### The UB II design",
"### The U-43-class design",
"## Construction",
"## Class members",
"### SM U-43",
"### SM U-47"
] | 2,162 | 17,702 |
48,619,403 | I Hate December | 1,088,378,184 | Single by American band Ivy | [
"1994 songs",
"1996 singles",
"American Christmas songs",
"Ivy (band) songs",
"Songs written by Adam Schlesinger",
"Songs written by Andy Chase",
"Songs written by Dominique Durand"
] | "I Hate December" (stylized as "i hate december") is a song by American band Ivy, released on January 12, 1996 by Scratchie Records. The track came from the band's first extended play, Lately (1994). It was written and produced by Andy Chase and Adam Schlesinger, while Dominique Durand also contributed to the lyrics and Peter Nashel handled additional production. While the version that appeared on Lately was not released as a commercial single, a remix was created and distributed as a CD single instead.
I Hate December has a darker theme compared to most holiday songs, with Durand singing about her dreams and fears of death. MTV host Matt Pinfield even compared to the 1982 Fear single "Fuck Christmas". "I Hate December" received praise for its songwriting and uniqueness. A music video directed and produced by Doug Werby was filmed and released in 1995. The video, which shows Ivy performing in a restaurant, received regular rotation on MTV2's music program 120 Minutes in 1996.
## Background and composition
"I Hate December" was initially included on Ivy's debut extended play, Lately (1994), which was released by Seed Records. The composition was written by Dominique Durand, Andy Chase, and Adam Schlesinger, with the latter two and Peter Nashel tackling its production. The single was recorded in 1994 during sessions at The Place in New York City and Studio I'Hôpital Éphémère in Paris. Ted Jensen handled the mastering of "I Hate December" (and the rest of the material on Lately) at Sterling Sound Studios in New York City.
After Ivy ended their partnership with Seed and signed with Scratchie Records in late 1995, a remix of the single was created and released as a CD single on January 12, 1996. The physical single contained the remix, an extended remix and the album version of "I Hate December"; it was issued in both the United States and the United Kingdom, and in the latter country, it was simultaneously released by Mercury Records in a limited edition jewel box set.
In general, "I Hate December" has a darker theme that is rarely heard in Christmas music. Durand talks about her fears of death, singing: "All I know is what I dream / But lately dreams have been such scary things / Of suicide and frozen ice over my pale body". Trouser Press editor Ira A. Robbins joked that with Lately, Ivy was attempting to bring French pop music back into the American music industry. In his book The Trouser Press Guide to '90s Rock, Robbins and Vickie Gilmer summarized it as an "original [...] wah-wahing" song recorded in the "City of Lights". On an episode of the MTV2 music program 120 Minutes, Schlesinger described the message behind "I Hate December" as "anti-Christian". In response, host Matt Pinfield compared the lyrics and inspiration behind "I Hate December" to "that Fear single [released] years ago" (referring to that band's 1982 single "Fuck Christmas").
## Critical reception
Nitsuh Abebe from AllMusic positively reviewed the track (and Lately), claiming that "I Hate December" and the four other tracks allow "their dreamier elements [to] come straight from the group's songwriting"; he also liked the production, describing it as "delicate" and "gentle". Indi from Canadian Atheist remarked that the single is "lovely" and applauded Ivy for disobeying the rules of a traditional holiday song. Longtime friend and collaborator D'arcy Wretzky labeled the track as her "favorite Ivy song".
## Music video
The official music video for "I Hate December" was directed and produced by Doug Werby sometime in 1995. The black and white video opens with Ivy performing live at a restaurant, continuing until the bridge of the song, when blurry close-ups of the band members are shown. On the November 17, 1996 episode of 120 Minutes, the official music video for "I Hate December" was played for promotional purposes, in addition to the music videos for Catherine's 1997 single "Four Leaf Clover" and Fountains of Wayne's 1996 single "Radiation Vibe".
## Track listing
## Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of the "I Hate December" CD single.
- Andy Chase – lyrics, production
- Bill Chesley – editing
- Dominique Durand – lead and background vocals, lyrics
- Peter Nashel – editing, production
- Adam Schlesinger – lyrics, production
- Jean-Pierre Sluys – recording
## Release history | [
"## Background and composition",
"## Critical reception",
"## Music video",
"## Track listing",
"## Personnel",
"## Release history"
] | 971 | 18,072 |
10,940,326 | Delaware Route 52 | 1,159,388,186 | State highway in New Castle County, Delaware, United States | [
"State highways in Delaware",
"Transportation in New Castle County, Delaware",
"Turnpikes in Delaware"
] | Delaware Route 52 (DE 52) is a state highway in New Castle County, Delaware. The route runs from U.S. Route 13 Business (US 13 Bus.) in downtown Wilmington north to Pennsylvania Route 52 (PA 52) at the Pennsylvania border near Centerville. DE 52 runs through the city of Wilmington and passes through areas of the Brandywine Valley north of Wilmington. DE 52 intersects Interstate 95 (I-95)/US 202 and DE 2 in Wilmington and DE 100/DE 141 and DE 82 in Greenville. The entire route is designated as part of the Brandywine Valley National Scenic Byway, a National Scenic Byway and Delaware Byway, while most of the route is also designated as part of the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Byway of the Delaware Byways system. The road was built as the Kennett Pike, a turnpike, between 1811 and 1813. The Kennett Pike was bought by Pierre S. du Pont in 1919 and was widened and paved before being sold to the State of Delaware for \$1. The road received the DE 52 designation by 1936.
## Route description
DE 52 begins at US 13 Bus., which is routed on the one-way pair of North Walnut Street northbound and North King Street southbound, in the downtown area of the city of Wilmington. From here, DE 52 follows the one-way pair of East 11th Street southbound and East 12th Street northbound to the northwest, forming the northern boundary of Rodney Square along East 11th Street between North King and North Market streets. The route becomes West 11th Street southbound and West 12th Street northbound at the North Market Street intersection. The one-way pair carries three lanes in each direction and heads northwest past downtown high-rise buildings, passing to the north of the DuPont Building along West 11th Street between North Market and North Orange streets and passing to the south of 1201 North Market Street along West 12th Street just west of North Market Street. The northbound direction passes south of Wilmington Hospital between North Washington and North Jefferson streets. Both directions of DE 52 merge onto Delaware Avenue, an eight-lane divided highway, and the route reaches an interchange with I-95/US 202. Past this interchange, the route narrows to six lanes and leaves downtown Wilmington. DE 52 splits from Delaware Avenue by continuing northwest on Pennsylvania Avenue, a four-lane undivided road that heads to the north of the Ursuline Academy and passes through urban areas of homes and businesses. The road intersects the eastern terminus of DE 2 in a commercial area on the northern edge of the Little Italy neighborhood and passes under CSX's Philadelphia Subdivision railroad line. The route runs through more residential areas north of the Wawaset Park neighborhood, passing to the northeast of the Wilmington Campus of the University of Delaware.
DE 52 leaves Wilmington and becomes Kennett Pike, heading through wooded areas of suburban homes. The road passes north of a park and ride lot at the North Dupont Road intersection before it comes to a junction with Montchanin Road, which heads north to provide access to DE 100/DE 141. The road continues into Greenville and widens into a divided highway as it comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with DE 100/DE 141. This interchange has no access from DE 100/DE 141 southbound to DE 52 southbound or from DE 52 to DE 100/DE 141 northbound. Past this interchange, the route continues into business areas, crossing an East Penn Railroad line at-grade before passing to the east of Alexis I. duPont High School. DE 52 leaves Greenville and narrows to a two-lane undivided road as it heads into wooded areas then open fields, intersecting the southern terminus of DE 82. The road continues through more forested suburban areas, passing to the west of the Wilmington Country Club and to the east of the Delaware Museum of Nature & Science. A park and ride lot located at a church is situated west of the roadway north of the Old Kennett Road intersection. The route passes to the west of the Winterthur Museum and Country Estate and heads into the community of Centerville. DE 52 heads northwest to its northern terminus at the Pennsylvania border, where the road continues into that state as PA 52 to Longwood Gardens and the borough of West Chester.
The entire length of DE 52 is part of the Brandywine Valley National Scenic Byway, a National Scenic Byway and Delaware Byway. The route between Washington and West streets in Wilmington and the Pennsylvania border is also part of the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Byway of the Delaware Byways system. DE 52 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 28,106 vehicles at the Jefferson Street intersection in Wilmington to a low of 7,122 vehicles at the southern terminus at US 13 Bus. All of DE 52 is part of the National Highway System.
## History
On January 21, 1811, the Wilmington and Kennett Turnpike Company was incorporated by the Delaware State Legislature to build a turnpike from Wilmington to the Pennsylvania border at Centerville. The turnpike was intended to provide a connection between Wilmington, which was a growing industrial city, and nearby areas in southeastern Pennsylvania, where it would connect to other turnpikes leading to western Pennsylvania. The road was built between 1811 and 1813 at a cost of \$30,000. The Kennett Pike was built with a 100-foot (30 m) wide right-of-way, with a 20-foot (6.1 m) travel surface. The charter of the turnpike gave Christiana Hundred the option to purchase the road in 1820 and remove the tolls. The Kennett Pike had two toll gates north of Wilmington. Tolls along the turnpike were charged based on the type of carriage or vehicle and the amount and type of cargo being carried. People who used the roadway to travel between different parts of their property, along with people traveling to a house of worship or funeral, were not charged tolls.
In the 20th century, the automobile rose to prominence and travelers demanded better roads. The alignment of Kennett Pike became home to the estates of many executives from the DuPont Company and other corporations in the early part of the century. Among the executives was DuPont Company secretary and treasurer Pierre S. du Pont, who came up with a plan to modernize Kennett Pike. In 1916, du Pont's plan to modernize the road would widen the turnpike to the same width as Pennsylvania Avenue in Wilmington, eliminate hazards such as narrow bridges, widen culverts, build a bridge near Brecks Lane in Wilmington, widen it to an improved road between 18 feet (5.5 m) and 25 feet (7.6 m), and grade the roadway to make it smooth and safe. Pierre S. du Pont's cousin, Colonel Henry A. du Pont, owned half the shares of the Wilmington and Kennett Turnpike Company and sold his shares to Pierre S. du Pont; he encouraged other shareholders to do so. Work on improving the highway would be delayed by World War I. By April 1919, Pierre S. du Pont owned nearly all the shares of the turnpike company. As a result of the acquisition of the road by du Pont, the toll gates were removed.
Following the acquisition of the turnpike company, du Pont began widening and resurfacing the road. The engineering department of the DuPont Company laid out and design the roadway while subcontractors constructed the road. Work on improving the Kennett Pike began just north of the Pyles Ford Road intersection near Winterthur. By July 1919, 2,700 feet (820 m) of concrete had been poured along the road while right-of-way acquisition took place in Centerville. Grading of the northern section of the roadway from Winterthur to Centerville occurred by August of that year. By the end of September, excavation was almost finished and homes began to be moved for paving along the northern portion of the Kennett Pike. Also at this time, plans were made for the bridge at Brecks Lane and land acquisition took place along the road in Greenville. In the later part of 1919, final grading occurred in Centerville while excavation commenced in Greenville. On December 13, 1919, construction paused for the winter. Work on improving the Kennett Pike resumed in April 1920, with the sides of the road between Greenville and the Pennsylvania border dressed. By the end of the spring, nearly all the right-of-way had been acquired and paving of the roadway was being finished. The Kennett Pike opened partially to vehicles on June 12, 1920; the road would be fully opened by the end of July. The widening and paving of Kennett Pike cost \$764,000. The roadway was 24 feet (7.3 m) wide and had a 3-foot (0.91 m) wide macadam shoulder. Following the completion of the project, du Pont sold the Kennett Pike to the Delaware State Highway Department for \$1. In addition to improving Kennett Pike, du Pont also widened Pennsylvania Avenue in Wilmington, which connected the end of Kennett Pike at Greenhill Avenue to Delaware Avenue, which led to downtown Wilmington. Planning on improving the street began in 1917 and work began in 1919, starting near Riverview Avenue. Work on improving Pennsylvania Avenue progressed from north to south. Pennsylvania Avenue in Wilmington was widened during the 1920s.
When Delaware designated state highways by 1936, DE 52 was designated to run from US 13 (French Street) in Wilmington north to PA 52 at the Pennsylvania border in Centerville, following 11th Street, Delaware Avenue, and Pennsylvania Avenue in Wilmington and Kennett Pike between Wilmington and the state line. In 1939, the route was widened to four lanes between Rising Sun Lane and Barley Mill Road to alleviate traffic congestion during peak hours. The portion of DE 52 along Delaware Avenue was widened to four lanes in November 1940. By 1957, DE 52 was split into a one-way pair to reach its southern terminus at US 13 (now US 13 Bus.). In 2002, DE 52 was designated as part of the Brandywine Valley Scenic Highway in the Delaware Scenic and Historic Highways system; it was designated a National Scenic Byway in 2005.
## Major intersections
Mileposts run from north to south.
## See also | [
"## Route description",
"## History",
"## Major intersections",
"## See also"
] | 2,202 | 4,425 |
63,491,252 | Falta Amor (song) | 1,096,575,263 | null | [
"2020 singles",
"2020 songs",
"2020s ballads",
"Pop ballads",
"Ricky Martin songs",
"Rock ballads",
"Sebastián Yatra songs",
"Song recordings produced by Andrés Torres (producer)",
"Songs written by Sebastián Yatra",
"Spanish-language songs"
] | "Falta Amor" (transl. "Missing Love") is a song recorded by Colombian singer Sebastián Yatra and Puerto Rican singer Ricky Martin. A solo version was originally included on Yatra's second studio album, Fantasía (2019). A few months after the release of the album, Martin joined Yatra to re-record the song. It was written by Andrés Torres, Mauricio Rengifo, and Yatra, while the production was handled by the former two. The duet was released as a single for digital download and streaming by Universal Music Latino on March 26, 2020.
A Spanish language pop rock and Latin pop ballad, the song speaks of a man who had a good relationship with his partner, but she suddenly left him. The song received widely positive reviews from music critics, who complimented its lyrics and the singers' vocals. "Falta Amor" was nominated for Best Pop Song at the 10th Annual Latino Show Music Awards. The song reached the top 10 in Argentina, Costa Rica, and Ecuador, as well as the top 20 in Bolivia, Latin America, and Uruguay. It was certified Latin platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).
An accompanying music video, released simultaneously with the song, was directed by Carlos Perez and filmed in Los Angeles, California. The video depicts Yatra and Martin gently grieve a detached love in a ruined factory, fronting a rock band and a group of masked dancers who do a choreography. To promote "Falta Amor", Yatra performed it for Radio Disney's Separados Pero Juntos and MTV's Juntos A Distancia both in 2020. Several artists have recorded their own cover versions of the song, most notably Tini.
## Background and release
On March 3, 2019, Sebastián Yatra announced that his second studio album would be titled Fantasía and shared its artwork on social media. 10 days later, Billboard revealed the album's track list in an article, mentioning it being set for release on April 12, 2019. Yatra told the magazine about the album: "I hope that with this album, we renew the votes [for] the Latin pop/ballad, a genre that I respect and value immensely and that has marked my life." Fantasía was released for digital download and streaming by Universal Music Latino on the specified date and a solo version of "Falta Amor" was included as the second track. In an interview with Billboard, Yatra chose seven key tracks from the album, including "Falta Amor", and explained the stories behind them. He told the magazine that "Falta Amor" is "a song that is the favorite of many".
During an interview with Billboard Argentina, Yatra described the track as one of his favorites, saying it "sounds super good". He explained in other interviews that he sent it to Ricky Martin months before the album came out, hoping for them to record a collaboration for the album. Three days ahead of the album's release date, Martin wrote back to him and explained that he had been busy at the time, but he loved the song and hoped for a chance to record it together. Thus, Yatra canceled a music video that he had planned to release in two days, and waited for Martin to join him. Yatra explained:
> We wrote the song thinking about Ricky, thinking about how perfect his voice would be on it, and thank God it was just magical when both of our voices came together. I'm superexcited, and I think it comes at the right moment. People need music like this right now, and 'Falta Amor' is almost therapeutic.
In an interview with Rolling Stone, Yatra said about collaborating with Martin: "Singing with Ricky Martin is just insane. I would have never thought it possible in [this] lifetime. It's huge not only as a Latino, but for any person that loves music." He also told the Associated Press that Martin raised the track "a lot with his voice". Additionally, Martin stated about the song during an Instagram Live: "Falta Amor brings me back to my beginnings like my song Vuelve. It brings me back to those big ballads that we used to sing back in the day that touched so many people. [...] Falta Amor is that song we need right now. We were supposed to drop this back in January but for some divine reason, it came out now." The re-made version was released as a single for digital download and streaming by Universal Music Latino on March 26, 2020, almost six months after its recording. "Falta Amor" marked the first collaboration between Yatra and Martin. The song was later added to Yatra's compilation extended play Hecho x Sebas: Directo al Corazon (2021).
## Music and lyrics
Musically, "Falta Amor" is a Spanish language pop rock and Latin pop ballad, with elements of urban. It was written by Colombian musicians Andrés Torres, Mauricio Rengifo, and Yatra. The production was handled by Torres and Rengifo, and the track runs for a total of 3 minutes and 23 seconds. Clarín staff described it as "a ballad of heartbreak, with the fresh sound of Yatra pop".
Lyrically, "Falta Amor", which translates to "Missing Love" in English, is about a man who had a good relationship with his partner, but she suddenly left him. Yatra explained to Billboard that the story behind the song was influenced by a couple close to him. It focuses on a painful statement for a person who refuses to open his heart and let himself be loved, beginning with disappointment. Then, the emotion grows until it reaches the hope of forgiveness and finding a new love. The lyrics include: "Y entre más lo intento, más me cuesta soltarte / No, me duele el vacío que dejas por dentro / Me duele inventarme falsos sentimientos / ¿Cómo viviré con tanto sufrimiento?" (And the more I try, the harder it is for me to let go / No, the emptiness you leave inside hurts / It hurts to invent false feelings / How will I live with so much suffering?)
## Critical reception
Upon release, "Falta Amor" was met with widely positive reviews from music critics. Carlos Rerucha from Cadena Dial said the song "was one of those dream collaborations that we all expected" for 2020, and it is "the success we deserved". He described the song as "an intense ballad that does not lose its power neither in the musical nor in the lyrical plane", continuing by praising its verses for piercing the listeners' hearts and reflecting "the pain of a heartbreak that is difficult to overcome". Clarín staff commented that the lyrics "seem to fit in the ravages created by the coronavirus pandemic". Umberto Antonio Olivo from Periodico Daily complimented "Falta Amor", saying "two wonderful voices managed to convey a lot". Univision's Lideny Villatoro wrote about the release of the song: "The most awaited moment arrived." She also expressed her joy with the fact that people can "finally enjoy the talented voices" of Yatra and Martin "in a single song". Suzy Exposito from Rolling Stone labeled it "a soulful revamp" and "an evocative duet", saying Martin "tempers Yatra's heartache with his croon". An author of LatinPop Brasil added, "the new version of the hit" promotes "bringing more love to people, inspiring smiles and good vibes" during the pandemic.
Pip Ellwood-Hughes from Entertainment Focus stated: "The rising star and the legend team up to make some magic." Billboard reviewer Suzette Fernandez said Yatra and Martin joined forces "to revive romantic music with their heartbreaking ballad". She added that the song "brings back the romanticism from the early 2000s". Juan Vicente from Los 40 wrote that the song "can become one of the great ballads of 2020" in its own right, seeing a "wonderful collaboration". Also from Los 40, Olga Reyna stated: "We already needed a ballad like this!" Shock.co staff stated: "Both singers are great pop performers and they make that clear on this track."
### Accolades
Amazon Music ranked "Falta Amor" as the 62nd Best Latin song of 2020, and YouTube Music placed the song on their "Top Latin Pop 2020" playlist of the most streamed songs of the year. The track won the award for Pop Song of the Year (in Spanish) at the 2020 Premios Lo Más Escuchado. It was also nominated for Best Pop Song at the 10th Annual Latino Show Music Awards, but lost to "Los Besos" by Greeicy.
## Commercial performance
"Falta Amor" debuted at number 19 on the US Latin Pop Airplay chart on August 15, 2020, becoming Yatra's 20th entry on the chart and Martin's 52nd. The song also extended Martin's own record as the artist with the most top 20s on the chart, with 49 songs. On the US Latin Digital Song Sales chart, it peaked at number seven, becoming Yatra's sixth top 10 hit and Martin's 11th. In March 2021, the song was certified Latin platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), for track-equivalent sales of over 60,000 units in the United States. Besides the US, "Falta Amor" reached the top 10 in Argentina, Costa Rica, and Ecuador, as well as the top 20 in Bolivia, Latin America, and Uruguay.
## Music videos
An animated music video for the solo version was released via Yatra's YouTube channel, upon the release of the album on April 12, 2019. The video depicts a little boy caught on the middle of his parents' expected divorce. On March 24, 2020, Yatra uploaded a teaser for the collaboration's music video along with Martin on YouTube, announcing that it would be released simultaneously with the song on March 26. The video was released on the specified date. It was filmed in Los Angeles, California, and directed by Carlos Perez, who had previously directed the videos for Martin's singles "Tal Vez", "Jaleo", "The Best Thing About Me Is You", "Frío", "Come with Me", "Perdóname", "Fiebre", and "Tiburones (Remix)". In an interview with EFE, Yatra explained "Falta Amor" as the best video he has done in his career, as of March 2020.
The music video depicts Yatra and Martin gently mourn a broken love in an abandoned ruined industrial factory with an old piano and a burning car, fronting a rock band and a group of masked dancers who perform a choreography, writhing across a "wreckage". Shock.co staff labeled the visual "a sober and dark video in which the two interpreters shine", describing it as "pretty artistic". Vicente called the music video "a video clip of great beauty according to the lyrics" of the song. The video was nominated for Best Male Artist Video at the 2020 Premios Quiero. As of July 2022, the video has received over 100 million views on YouTube. On April 10, 2020, an accompanying lyric video was released on Yatra's YouTube channel.
## Live performances and appearances in media
In May 2020, Yatra performed "Falta Amor" for Radio Disney's Separados Pero Juntos and MTV's Juntos A Distancia. He launched a challenge with the hashtag \#MiCoverFaltaAmor, and several artists recorded their own cover versions of the song for the challenge, such as David Bisbal, Cali y El Dandee, Morat, Reik, Andreew, Izaak, and Mau y Ricky. Most notably, Argentine singer and Yatra's then-girlfriend Tini shared her own version on April 25, 2020. Besides the challenge, the track has also been covered by contestants on music talent shows. Isai Reyes performed the track on the second season of American singing competition television series La Voz in 2020. In the same year, Alex Sevilla and Kaii Jiménez competed in a battle of covering the song on season nine of La Voz Mexico in 2020, which Sevilla won.
## Track listing
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from Tidal.
- Sebastián Yatra – vocal, composer, lyricist
- Ricky Martin – vocal
- Andrés Torres – composer, lyricist, producer
- Mauricio Rengifo – composer, lyricist, producer
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## Release history | [
"## Background and release",
"## Music and lyrics",
"## Critical reception",
"### Accolades",
"## Commercial performance",
"## Music videos",
"## Live performances and appearances in media",
"## Track listing",
"## Credits and personnel",
"## Charts",
"### Weekly charts",
"### Year-end charts",
"## Certifications",
"## Release history"
] | 2,713 | 16,973 |
53,082,212 | Lahaina Gateway | 1,054,639,465 | null | [
"Lifestyle centers (retail)",
"Shopping malls established in 2008",
"Shopping malls in Hawaii",
"Tourist attractions in Hawaii"
] | Lahaina Gateway is a shopping mall located in Lahaina, Hawaii. The mall was completed in April 2008 and covers approximately 137,000 square feet (13,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of retail space on two floors. It has been managed and owned by various companies, and the mall itself has been in foreclosure on two occasions. Some of the current tenants at the center include Barnes & Noble, Lahaina's Department of Motor Vehicles offices, and a Foodland Farms grocery store. Lahaina Gateway was inspired by traditional Hawaiian architecture, with some of the buildings' facades featuring stucco accents.
## Background
Lahaina Gateway opened in April 2008, becoming the largest shopping center in western Maui. The mall was developed by Western Partitions, Inc. with Kiewit Construction serving as its contractor. It took approximately 13 months to construct the 136,683 square feet (13,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of retail space across 11 acres, with the developer investing \$2.8 million USD in the project. TNP Strategic Trust acquired the center, which had gone into foreclosure, in 2011 for approximately US\$32 million. However, TNP Chief Executive Anthony Thompson remarked that despite news of foreclosure, the center was receiving strong leasing inquiries. The company bought the mall after selling its other property, Oahu's Waianae Mall, for US\$25.7 million. In November 2012, the center went into foreclosure again and was purchased by Strategic Retail Trust from TNP's backers, the Central Pacific Bank. Lahaina Gateway is currently managed by The Festival Companies, according to their official website.
### Events
Maui Gift and Craft Fair every Sunday 9–2. Several limited events and fundraisers have occurred at the shopping center since its construction. Annually, during the month of October, Lahaina Gateway hosts various events as part of their Pineapples & Pumpkins Halloween festival. The mall also hosted a classic car show that took place in March 2015. In addition, the annual Wiki Wiki Run takes place near the shopping center.
## Design and tenants
The shopping center is designed in the image of traditional Hawaiian towns. It consists of various buildings, some of which have a "plantation style" appearance while others are more influenced by modern architecture. Furthermore, some of the structures contain stucco on their exteriors. Lahaina Gateway is anchored by a Foodland Farms grocery store that sells organic and Maui-grown foods and drinks. Other tenants at the shopping mall include women's retailer Passion 4 Fashion Boutique, the largest Barnes & Noble location in Hawaii, and Lahaina's official Department of Motor Vehicles offices. Cultural center Na Lio Maui was open at the center for a limited run in 2015. Its purpose was to inform tourists and visitors about the history of horses in Hawaiian culture. The Melting Pot, a fondue restaurant, closed at Lahaina Gateway on February 24, 2013, leaving approximately 30 workers unemployed. | [
"## Background",
"### Events",
"## Design and tenants"
] | 621 | 29,440 |
1,054,296 | Johnstown Inclined Plane | 1,170,056,351 | Funicular in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, US | [
"1891 establishments in Pennsylvania",
"8 ft gauge railways in the United States",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Buildings and structures in Johnstown, Pennsylvania",
"Cableways on the National Register of Historic Places",
"Funicular railways in the United States",
"Heritage railroads in Pennsylvania",
"Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmarks",
"National Register of Historic Places in Cambria County, Pennsylvania",
"Public transportation in Pennsylvania",
"Rail infrastructure on the National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania",
"Railway lines opened in 1891",
"Tourist attractions in Johnstown, Pennsylvania",
"Transportation in Johnstown, Pennsylvania"
] | The Johnstown Inclined Plane is a 896.5-foot (273.3 m) funicular in Johnstown, Cambria County, in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. The incline and its two stations connect the city of Johnstown, situated in a valley at the confluence of the Stonycreek and the Little Conemaugh rivers, to the borough of Westmont on Yoder Hill. The Johnstown Inclined Plane is billed as the "world's steepest vehicular inclined plane". It can carry automobiles and passengers, up or down a slope with a grade of 71.9%. The travel time between stations is 90 seconds.
After a catastrophic flood in 1889, the Johnstown Inclined Plane was completed in 1891 to serve as an escape route from floods in the valley, as well as a convenient mode of transportation for residents of the new communities above the valley. It was operated by Cambria Iron Company and its successor Bethlehem Steel until 1935, when it was sold to the borough of Westmont. The incline was briefly shut down in 1962 when its supply of power from Bethlehem Steel was terminated.
Twice in its history, the Johnstown Inclined Plane fulfilled its role as a means of evacuation from floods—once in 1936 and again in 1977. The incline was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 and was designated a Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark in 1994. It had major renovations in 1962 and from 1983 to 1984.
## Design
The Johnstown Inclined Plane was designed by Hungarian-American engineer Samuel Diescher, who had also designed the Duquesne, Castle Shannon and Fort Pitt Inclines in Pittsburgh. The funicular consists of a parallel set of broad gauge railroad tracks with a 70.9% grade or an angle of 35 degrees and 28 minutes from the horizontal. The incline is 896.5 feet (273.3 m) long and ascends 502.2 feet (153.1 m) vertically to the top of Yoder Hill and the borough of Westmont, the station of which is at an elevation of 1,693.5 feet (516.2 m) above sea level. The rails are supported by 720 14-foot-long (4 m) railroad ties made from Southern Yellow Pine. The incline is illuminated at night by 114 high-pressure sodium-vapor lamps mounted along the sides of tracks. There was a stairway between the tracks with 966 steps; this was removed c. 1963. Two cars traverse the slope; as one descends, the other ascends and acts as a counterweight. The cars are 15 feet 6 inches (4.7 m) wide, 15 feet 2 inches (4.6 m) tall, and 34 feet (10 m) long, and are large enough to carry either 65 people, 6 motorcycles, or an automobile. While the cars are open to the elements, an enclosed seating area with a bench is situated along the outer side of the incline. The cables connecting the cars are 2-inch-diameter (50.8 mm), 6×36 right regular lay, steel wire rope. They are wound around a 3-short-ton (2.7-metric-ton; 2.7-long-ton), 16-foot-diameter (5 m) drum that connects the cars. The cable on the north track is 1,075 feet (328 m) long, while the south cable is 7 feet (2.13 m) shorter. Each car weighs 22 short tons (20.0 metric tons; 19.6 long tons), but they and the cables can carry an additional load of 15 short tons (13.6 metric tons; 13.4 long tons). A 400-horsepower (298 kW) electric motor drives the drum, simultaneously winding and unwinding the cable, to propel the incline. The Johnstown Inclined Plane is unusual in that the motor and winch are located at a 90-degree angle to the incline instead of directly underneath it. Operation of the incline is controlled via a foot pedal located in a booth in the upper station.
An emergency brake engages if the air pressure needed to control the incline is insufficient; the brake also engages if a dead man's switch is tripped in the operator's booth. In addition to the hauling cables, a 972-foot (296 m) safety cable capable of withstanding 165 short tons (149.7 metric tons; 147.3 long tons) is also connected to the cars.
## History
### Background and construction
Inclines are common in Europe, and immigrants, like the German, Slavic, and Welsh people who settled near Johnstown, remembered them from their native lands and brought the concept to the United States. The earliest inclines in the United States were a series of 10 that were built in the 1830s as part of the Allegheny Portage Railroad. The portage railroad carried canal boats over the Allegheny Mountains to connect the canals from Pittsburgh to the ones from Philadelphia. Pittsburgh at one time also had "at least 17" inclines—some carried passengers, others freight, while another two inclines (like the Nunnery Hill Incline) were curved.
On May 31, 1889, the South Fork Dam collapsed upstream of Johnstown on the Little Conemaugh River. The resulting deluge devastated the city, killing 2,209 people. As the city rebuilt, the Cambria Iron Company started work on a residential development atop Yoder Hill. To provide easy transportation on the steep slope for residents of the new community of Westmont, the company constructed an inclined plane. In addition to being a convenient mode of transportation, the Johnstown Inclined Plane doubled as an escape route in event of flood. Diescher was hired by Cambria Iron to design the incline. The rails used in the incline were manufactured in Johnstown at Cambria Iron, and many of the construction tools handcrafted there. The 232-foot (71 m) Inclined Plane Bridge was built to span the Stoneycreek River to provide access to the lower station of the incline. Originally named the Cambria Inclined Plane, the Johnstown Inclined Plane opened on June 1, 1891 and cost \$133,296 to build. The convenience the incline provided stimulated a rapid growth of population in Westmont and made the borough one of the country's first suburbs. Over 40 million trips were taken on the incline in its first 80 years of operation.
### Use
The incline's original steam engine was disconnected on January 6, 1912, and replaced with an electric motor. The cars used on the incline were originally double-deckers, but were reconfigured into a single-decker design in 1921. The double-decker cars had horses and wagons riding on the main, upper deck and passengers riding in a compartment below. Only one human fatality has occurred at the incline; it was determined that the incident was not caused by the incline itself. There were two incidents in the 1920s when horses aboard the incline became spooked and leapt from the car onto the tracks. Bethlehem Steel, the successor to Cambria Iron, sold the Johnstown Inclined Plane to the borough of Westmont in April 1935. On March 17, 1936, nearly 4,000 people were evacuated from Johnstown to higher ground via the incline as the Stoneycreek and Conemaugh Rivers overflowed their banks. The floodwaters continued downstream and eventually reached Pittsburgh. From February 1938 to July 1953, the Johnstown Traction Company operated transit buses from Johnstown to Westmont with the "fully loaded public buses" being carried by the incline. Bethlehem Steel stopped supplying electricity to the Johnstown Inclined Plane when the factory switched to "an incompatible power system", forcing the incline to close on January 31, 1962. Because of public pressure to keep the incline operating, it was reopened in July 1962 after extensive renovation, in which the electric motor was rewound, ties were replaced, and the cars were repainted.
The Johnstown Inclined Plane was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on June 18, 1973. On July 20, 1977, the incline was again used as an escape route, evacuating residents from the valley amid rising floodwaters. It also carried "boats, emergency personnel, and equipment down to the valley to aid in rescue operations". The incline was again sold for \$1 by Westmont borough on March 8, 1983, to the Cambria County Transit Authority, now CamTran. CamTran initiated a \$4.2 million renovation on September 7, 1983, replacing "the incline's foundation piers, structural steel, and track." The renovations were completed on August 22, 1984, and the incline was rededicated on September 6. It was designated an Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in September 1994. A footbridge spanning Pennsylvania Route 56 between the incline and Vine Street was opened around the same time. On September 1, 2000, the incline was closed when the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT) undertook an \$2.3 million renovation of the bridge and its access road. It was reopened in April 2001, but again closed in September to allow PennDOT to finish repairs to the bridge deck. The repairs were completed on December 14, 2001. A strong thunderstorm disrupted power to the incline on April 16, 2010, stranding the cars and two passengers almost halfway down the slope. The rescue took three hours, and ended when firefighters rappelled down the tracks to reach the car. The Johnstown Inclined Plane was closed from September 9 to October 14, 2010, for the installation of a new 9,000-pound (4,100 kg) "hoist brake shaft." From October 29 to October 31, 2012, CamTran shut down the incline fearing power outages due to the passage of Hurricane Sandy. During the annual Thunder in the Valley motorcycle rally, two resistors failed and stopped the incline near the stations on June 28, 2014. Repairs took approximately a month after consultants diagnosed the failure. Sensor issues briefly disrupted service in August 2014 and, again, December 2014 forcing the incline to start its winter maintenance period early.
### Refurbishment
In 2021, the incline closed for a two year project to extensively renovate the incline at a cost of more than \$12 million. The refurbishment included restoration of the cars, a complete overhaul of the mechanical and electrical systems, and replacement all the track ties. The project was funded by a variety of state and federal grants, and donations from local foundations.
## Current operations
With the growing popularity of the automobile and construction of new roads, ridership on the incline diminished. It was losing \$25,000 a year by 1961. Since the 1980s, the incline has become one of the main tourist attractions in Johnstown, with people visiting the incline to "ride for fun, nostalgia and novelty." Primarily used for tourism, the incline's use by commuters, who bike or walk to work, has also increased. CamTran's Route 18 transit bus offers connections between the incline and downtown Johnstown. As of 2017, the cost for a ride on the incline is \$3 or \$5 for a roundtrip. The one way fare for automobiles \$8. The incline takes around 90 seconds to travel between stations. The same trip takes 10 minutes by automobile. In 2021, the Johnstown Inclined Plane had an annual ridership of 20,193 passengers, a decrease of 50.5 percent from the previous year.
The upper station has a gift shop selling souvenirs and snacks. A visitor center is located adjacent to the station. The mechanical room housing the incline's hoisting mechanism can be viewed from windows in the gift shop and the visitor center lobby. An observation deck providing views of the incline, the city, and the valley is located on the opposite side of the station from the visitor center. Two hiking trails and several mountain bike trails allow visitors to recreate on the hillside. One of the hiking trails is a sculpture trail, with works created in 1989 by local artist James Wolfe, who used remnants of the Bethlehem Steel factory in Johnstown. The mountain bike trails are a series of downhill style trails that all end at the lower Inclined Plane Station. They are unique in that they are one of the only trail systems with lift service provided by public transportation.
## See also
- List of funicular railways
- List of Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmarks
- National Register of Historic Places listings in Cambria County, Pennsylvania
## Explanatory notes
## General sources | [
"## Design",
"## History",
"### Background and construction",
"### Use",
"### Refurbishment",
"## Current operations",
"## See also",
"## Explanatory notes",
"## General sources"
] | 2,756 | 41,676 |
57,747,984 | Kingdom of Fazughli | 1,171,153,676 | 16th to 17th-century East African state | [
"Christianity in Sudan",
"Coptic Orthodox Church",
"History of Ethiopia",
"History of Sudan"
] | The Kingdom of Fazughli was a precolonial state in what is now southeastern Sudan and western Ethiopia. Oral traditions assert its establishment to refugees from the Nubian Kingdom of Alodia, after its capital Soba had fallen to Arabs or the Funj in c. 1500. Centered around the mountainous region of Fazughli on the Blue Nile and serving as a buffer between the Funj sultanate and the Ethiopian empire, the kingdom lasted until its incorporation into the Funj sultanate in 1685.
## History
### Formation
In the Middle Ages, large parts of central and southern Sudan, including the region of Fazughli on the border with Ethiopia, were controlled by the Christian Nubian Kingdom of Alodia. Since the 12th century Alodia had been in decline, a decline which would have been well advanced by c. 1300. In the 14th and 15th century Arab bedouin tribes overran most of Sudan, pushing as far south as Aba Island. By the second half of the 15th century virtually the whole of Alodia had been settled by Arabs except of the area around Soba, the capital of Alodia at the confluence of the Blue and White Nile. Soba was eventually conquered by the Arabs or the African Funj, with Sudanese sources dating that event to the 9th century after the Hijra (c. 1396–1494), the late 15th century, 1504 and 1509. The Funj then established a sultanate with Sennar as its capital, which would extend as far north as the third cataract of the Nile.
Historian Jay Spaulding suggests that Alodia outlived the fall of Soba. He believes that the "Kingdom of Soba" mentioned by the Jewish traveller David Reubeni in 1523 is a reference to Alodia and believes it to be located somewhere on the east bank of the Blue Nile. This "Kingdom of Soba" had a territory at a distance of ten days' journey and encompassed the "Kingdom of Al Ga'l", which was described as subordinate to Amara Dunqas, sultan of Sennar. "Al Ga'l" is probably a reference to the Arab Jaalin tribe. Using oral traditions, Spaulding continues to argue that the Alodians eventually abandoned the territory they still held in the lower Blue Nile valley and retreated to the mountainous region of Fazughli in the south, where they reestablished their kingdom. One tradition collected in the 19th century, for example, recalls that:
> the kings of Fazughli, whose dominion extended over a large part of the peninsula of Sennar (the Gezira), and one of whose capitals had been the ancient Soba, had been forced to give way before the new arrivals... the Funj ... and to retire to their mountains... There... they maintained themselves... [Thus] the empire of Fazughli emerged from the debris of the kingdom of Soba.
Local traditions also remember Alodian migrations towards Fazughli. Fazughli as a place of Nubian exile is also mentioned in the Funj Chronicle, compiled around 1870. An archaeological culture named the "Jebel Mahadid tradition", centered around Mahadid in Qwara, western Ethiopia, with monumental architecture and pottery similar to that found in Soba, has very recently been attributed to these Alodian refugees. Considering the archaeological evidence, it has been suggested that they had already started arriving in the Ethiopian-Sudanese borderlands by the 14th century. Thus they would have arrived when Alodia still existed, but was in severe decline.
### Between Sennar and Ethiopia
The Kingdom of Fazughli was located between the sultanate of Sennar and the Ethiopian empire, serving as a buffer between these two states. Africanist Alessandro Triulzi describes the approximate extension of the kingdom as follows:
> to the east it included the Gumuz country between Gallabat and the Blue Nile, with its centre at Gubba; to the west it included the Burun country with its centre at Jebel Gule, whose realm was said to have extended as far south as Kaffa in southern Ethiopia, and to the south it included mostly the Bertha country along the gold-bearing Tumat valley down to Fadasi at the outskirts of the Oromo-inhabited territory.
Its territory would have been inhabited predominantly by speakers of Eastern Sudanic languages. According to Spaulding, it maintained the Christian faith, at least among the ruling Alodian elite. According to him, this Alodian elite would become known as the Hamaj, but it also might be possible that it was in fact the bulk of the Fazughlian population that constituted the Hamaj.
Fazughli was famous for its gold. A Portuguese source from 1607 states that it had "much fine gold and good horses exchanging trade with the (Ethiopian) empire." Another one published in 1622 records that "(...) it is certain fact, as everyone says and Emperor Seltan Cagued (Susenyos) has told me, that the finest gold in all his lands is from the kingdom of Fazcolo". It would have been its gold that caught the attention of its neighbors, and both Ethiopia and Sennar would make periodic, yet mostly ungrounded claims that Fazughli's gold fields were in their respective domains. Nevertheless, the period from the late 15th to early 17th century would have been a troubled one for the Ethiopian-Sudanse borderlands, as is reflected by the "Jebel Mahadid tradition" settlements, which were not only located on naturally defended positions, but were also protected by additional defensive systems. The Hamaj are recorded to have been involved in the Abyssinian–Adal war, being allied to the people of Shire in northern Ethiopia, near Kassala. During the reign of sultan Dakin (1568–1585) there was said to be an expedition to Abu Ramlah, just south of Mahadid. Dakin was defeated and when he returned to Sennar he was confronted with Ajib, an ambitious minor prince of northern Nubia. First Ajib acquired greater autonomy, then he eventually vassalized the Funj sultans and finally, in 1606, he invaded the Gezira and pushed the current sultan, Abd al-Qadir II, into Ethiopia. An oral tradition recalls that Ajib founded several mosques in what would have been Fazughlian territory, which, if the tradition is accurate, might suggest a Fazughlian involvement in the power struggle between Ajib and Sennar, possibly by taking sides with Ajib. If an intrusion of Ajib's forces into Fazughlian territory occurred it would have been of short duration, without lasting consequences. Ajib was eventually killed in battle in 1611–1612.
In 1615, Fazughli is said to have been conquered by the Ethiopian emperor Susenyos, which, according to Spaulding, resulted in the loss of its independence. Mahadid is attested to have been destroyed in the 16th or early 17th century, which can possibly be attributed to the Ethiopians or the Funj. The Ethiopian emperors attempted to integrate Fazughli into the realm, but within seventy years, with the death of Emperor Yohannes I, Ethiopia had lost control over Fazughli. With the decline of Ethiopian influence Sennar attempted to fill the vacuum. In 1685 "the Hameg princelings of Fazughli" were subdued by Sennar.
### Fazughli under the Funj
It is recorded that the Funj retained the current ruler of Fazughli instead of replacing him with a new provincial governor. As vassals of Sennar, the governors of Fazughli received the title of manjil. According to Spaulding, the Hamaj remained Christian for at least a generation after the conquest, but by the mid-18th century they had converted to Islam. A Christian princedom, Shaira, was said to have existed in the Ethiopian-Sudanese border area as late as the early 1770s. Integrated into the sultanate of Sennar, the Hamaj would become one of its most dominant ethnic groups and Fazughli, together with the two other southern provinces of Kordofan and Alays, became one of its most important provinces, which was mostly due to the significance of its gold for Sennar's economy. In 1761–1762 Muhammad Abu Likayik, a military commander originating from Fazughli, assembled a "heterogenous collection of neo-Alodian noblemen, warlords, slave soldiers, merchants, and fuqara (religious teachers)" and seized control of the sultanate, initiating the Hamaj Regency, which lasted until the Turko-Egyptian invasion of 1821. | [
"## History",
"### Formation",
"### Between Sennar and Ethiopia",
"### Fazughli under the Funj"
] | 1,901 | 36,323 |
43,364,764 | The Boat Race 1849 (March) | 1,009,598,182 | null | [
"1849 in sports",
"March 1849 events",
"The Boat Race"
] | The 9th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 29 March 1849. Typically held annually, the event is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. The race was won by Cambridge who triumphed over Oxford "easily". As a result of the nature of the defeat, Oxford challenged Cambridge to a second race that year, which was to be held in December, the only time the Boat Race was competed for twice in a calendar year. Every member of the Cambridge crew came from Trinity College.
## Background
The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). The race was first held in 1829, and since 1845 has taken place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. Cambridge went into the race leading overall with six victories to Oxford's two. They had beaten Oxford in the previous race, held in 1845, by three lengths.
Cambridge used an outrigged boat built by Searle, 62 feet 9 inches (19.1 m) in length and 26 inches (66 cm) in width, while the Dark Blues' boat was constructed by Hall of Oxford. The umpire for the race was J. C. Fellowes while the starter was Edward Searle.
## Crews
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 2.5 lb (70.8 kg), just under 2 pounds (0.9 kg) per rower more than their opponents. Every rower from Cambridge was studying at Trinity College but all were new to the event; not one Blue returned from the 1846 race. F. Blomfield was replaced as the Light Blue cox by George Booth as a result of an accident. Oxford welcomed back E. C. Burton at number four and their cox, C.Soanes.
## Race
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station. Just prior to the race, Oxford had suggested a foreshortening of the course, in order to avoid both crews having to pass through the narrow arches of Barnes Bridge; this was rejected by Cambridge and the conventional course was rowed. After a close start, Oxford pulled ahead and held a half-length lead by the time they passed the Star and Garter pub. By Hammersmith Bridge, the Oxford crew began to slow, their cox made an error in steering and Cambridge began to reduce the deficit. At Chiswick Eyot the crews were level once again, and Cambridge started to draw away. Several lengths ahead by Barnes Bridge, Cambridge won by around 60 seconds. The result meant that Cambridge led overall with seven victories to Oxford's two.
## Reaction
Three main factors were attributed with Oxford's substantial defeat. Firstly their stroke, and boat club president, William Rich had set such a high rating, he and his crew were unable to sustain it for the duration of the race, becoming quickly tired. Secondly, Rich himself suggested that Oxford's vessel was inadequate, calling it "a bad boat". Finally, poor steering had allowed Cambridge to pass them "like a shot".
Given the nature of the defeat, Oxford sent out a challenge in October 1849 to Cambridge for a re-row. For the first and only time in the history of the Boat Race, a second race was held in the same calendar year, this time in December. The race was won by Oxford, after Cambridge were disqualified. | [
"## Background",
"## Crews",
"## Race",
"## Reaction"
] | 746 | 30,006 |
33,679,392 | Winter: Five Windows on the Season | 1,160,555,645 | Book by Adam Gopnik | [
"2011 non-fiction books",
"House of Anansi Press books",
"Massey Lectures books",
"Winter in culture"
] | Winter: Five Windows on the Season is a nonfiction book written by Adam Gopnik for the 2011 Massey Lectures. Each of the book's five chapters had been delivered as a one-hour lecture discussing artistic portrayals of winter: its impact on culture and societies, polar exploration, and winter recreation. Each lecture was held in a different Canadian city: Montreal on October 12, Halifax on October 14, Edmonton on October 21, Vancouver on October 23, and ending in Toronto on October 26. The book was published by House of Anansi Press while the lectures were broadcast on CBC Radio One's Ideas between November 7 and 11.
While Gopnik was raised in Montreal, by 2011 he worked as a staff writer for The New Yorker magazine in New York City. Gopnik selected 'winter' as his general topic and spent nearly a year preparing for the lectures.
## Background
Adam Gopnik was selected to deliver the 2011 Massey Lectures, the annual week-long series of lectures on a political, cultural or philosophical topic given in Canada by a noted scholar. Gopnik was chosen by the panel of representatives from Massey College, House of Anansi Press and the CBC, the organizations responsible for coordinating the lectures. This would be the 50th anniversary of the Massey Lectures and coincide with the 75th anniversary of the CBC. Ideas executive producer Bernie Lucht contacted Gopnik by email to inform him of the panel's decision and to ask if he would accept. At the time Gopnik was living in New York City, working as a staff writer for The New Yorker magazine. He had previously authored several books on different topics, the most successful being Paris to the Moon, a collection of essays published in 2000. Gopnik read Lucht's email while waiting for a bus on Madison Avenue. Gopnik later stated that by the end of the 20-minute bus ride he had already selected a topic and had a good idea of the issues he would address.
Understanding the Massey Lectures were part of the Canadian culture, Gopnik, who was born in Philadelphia but lived in Montreal between the ages of 10 and 25, wanted a topic that would be relevant to Canadians but also have universal appeal: winter. Winter had appeared as a theme or setting in many of his previous writings, and he especially looked forward to talking about ice hockey. Gopnik spent the next year researching and writing the book, alongside another nonfiction book he was working on at the time: The Table Comes First: Family, France, and the Meaning of Food. This other book was released shortly after Winter, and purposefully contained one identical sentence.
## Content
There are five chapters, each of which consider a different aspect of winter. The first chapter, "Romantic Winter", describes how winter has been portrayed since the 1700s from the point of view of artists and writers. According to Gopnik, the view of winter has changed over time, from something that had to be overcome to something romanticized as hearths, glass windows, and coal heating made the cold more tolerable. Other factors, such as nationalism, religion, technology, also changed the social view of winter from being portrayed as "bleak and bitter to sweet and sublime". The second chapter, "Radical Winter", recounts the history of polar expeditions, including John Ross, John Franklin, Robert Peary, Robert Falcon Scott, Roald Amundsen, and Ernest Shackleton.
"Recuperative Winter" reviews the cultural and social history of winter festivals and holidays. Gopnik posits that the modern Christmas is a compound holiday merging elements from numerous societies, traditions, and beliefs; that its moral foundations were established in the 1820/30s; its celebratory and commercialism elements were established in the 1870s. He also argues that stress and anxiety have been part of the holiday since the 1920s. "Recreational Winter" is about winter sports, like ice hockey. The evolution of ice skating is identified from the Dutch bringing the concept to England in the 1600s and the origin of hockey is traced back to a particular neighbourhood in Montreal in the 1800s. He portrays winter sports as being more about preparation and the pleasure of solitude, in contrast with summer sports, which are more about impulse. The final chapter, "Remembering Winter", discusses three ways that the human experience of winter is changing: through technological and architectural innovations, via global warming, and by memory.
## Style and themes
The chapters are written so that they could be read as lectures. Though several reviewers referred to them as essays, Gopnik made the distinction between an essay, which is written to be read silently, and a lecture, which is meant to be spoken and keeps some of the rhythm of speech. Gopnik purposefully tried "to keep them as conversational as possible [and so] they lack the polish of his New Yorker essays". The lectures' conversational tone, with both common and arcane references, was meant to appeal to a "middlebrow" audience; they were designed to be "profound and significant" but not academic. The reviewer in The Observer described the writing as "designed to maintain a constant flame of curiosity in a lecture room shut against the cold".
The book was called an "elegy for a season". Encyclopedist James Harley Marsh believes that the central theme was, as Gopnik himself writes, that "winter started as this thing we had to get through; it has ended as this time to hold on to". The Edmonton Journal reviewer describes Gopnik's guiding metaphor for his approach to winter as "ice wine: sweetness made from stress", that the perceived benefits of winter come directly from the hardships it brings. Ian McGillis in the Montreal Review of Books identifies "two simple ideas that govern and unite the five lectures": first, that the view from inside can provide a better developed idea of what is outside, and second, that winter continues to defy the human need to consistently name and organize the world.
## Publication and reception
The book was published by House of Anansi Press and released on September 26, 2011. The five chapters/lectures were delivered by Gopnik in five locations across Canada: the first chapter was delivered in Montreal on October 12, the second in Halifax (Dalhousie Arts Centre) on October 14, the third in Edmonton (University of Alberta) on October 21, the fourth in Vancouver (Chan Centre for the Performing Arts) on October 23, and the final chapter in The Royal Conservatory of Music at the University of Toronto on October 26. Gopnik was in Guelph on October 25 where he recited passages and promoted the book. An excerpt was published in the October 3 edition of Maclean's magazine.
Reviewers variously described the book as "interesting", "charming" and "fascinating" and the prose as "eloquent", "thoughtful", but sometimes slow. The Publishers Weekly review stated that "Gopnik leavens dense material with humor, and makes unwieldy concepts accessible through modern-day comparisons". Bill Rambo in the Winnipeg Free Press said that it "reads smoothly and effectively [and demonstrates] encyclopedic knowledge and incisive research into a subject", concluding that the chapter Recreational Winter about sports was the most passionate. Charles Wilkins in The Globe and Mail found Remembering Winter, the chapter about cultural and social memories of winter to be the "most personal and poignant" and entertaining. Helen Gallagher in the New York Journal of Books "highly recommended" the book.
The book was published in the United Kingdom, in November 2012, by Quercus, a London-based independent publishing house. The review in The Daily Telegraph concluded that "while there are flashes of brilliance here, there's also a nagging sense that he's snatching at snowflakes. Time and time again one comes across statements that look, and sound good - these pieces were originally delivered as lectures - but which just don't stand up to analysis." The reviewer cited examples, like the illustrations of the theatrics people display when coming in from the cold and the isolated feelings of downhill skiers which the reviewer rebutted with similar examples of the same that occur in temperate climates. Nick Rennison reviewed the book for The Sunday Times, writing that "any writer who can take subjects as diverse as [these]....and find something original and interesting to say about each of them, has to be worth reading." | [
"## Background",
"## Content",
"## Style and themes",
"## Publication and reception"
] | 1,774 | 34,054 |
219,927 | American bittern | 1,167,792,483 | Species of bird | [
"Birds described in 1813",
"Birds of North America",
"Bitterns",
"Botaurus",
"Taxa named by Thomas Rackett"
] | The American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) is a species of wading bird in the heron family. It has a Nearctic distribution, breeding in Canada and the northern and central parts of the United States, and wintering in the U.S. Gulf Coast states, all of Florida into the Everglades, the Caribbean islands and parts of Central America.
It is a well-camouflaged, solitary brown bird that unobtrusively inhabits marshes and the coarse vegetation at the edge of lakes and ponds. In the breeding season it is chiefly noticeable by the loud, booming call of the male. The nest is built just above the water, usually among bulrushes and cattails, where the female incubates the clutch of olive-colored eggs for about four weeks. The young leave the nest after two weeks and are fully fledged at six or seven weeks.
The American bittern feeds mostly on fish but also eats other small vertebrates as well as crustaceans and insects. It is fairly common over its wide range, but its numbers are thought to be decreasing, especially in the south, because of habitat degradation. However the total population is large, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "Least Concern".
## Description
The American bittern is a large, chunky, brown bird, very similar to the Eurasian bittern (Botaurus stellaris), though slightly smaller, and the plumage is speckled rather than being barred. It is 58–85 cm (23–33 in) in length, with a 92–115 cm (36–45 in) wingspan and a body mass of 370–1,072 g (0.816–2.363 lb).
The crown is chestnut brown with the centers of the feathers being black. The side of the neck has a bluish-black elongated patch which is larger in the male than in the female. The hind neck is olive, and the mantle and scapulars are dark chestnut-brown, barred and speckled with black, some feathers being edged with buff. The back, rump, and upper tail-coverts are similar in color but more finely speckled with black and with grey bases to the feathers. The tail feathers are chestnut brown with speckled edges, and the primaries and secondaries are blackish-brown with buff or chestnut tips. The cheeks are brown with a buff superciliary stripe and a similarly colored mustachial stripe. The chin is creamy-white with a chestnut central stripe, and the feathers of the throat, breast, and upper belly are buff and rust-colored, finely outlined with black, giving a striped effect to the underparts. The eyes are surrounded by yellowish skin, and the iris is pale yellow. The long, robust bill is yellowish-green, the upper mandible being darker than the lower, and the legs and feet are yellowish-green. Juveniles resemble adults, but the sides of their necks are less olive.
## Taxonomy
The American bittern was first described in 1813 by the English clergyman Thomas Rackett from a vagrant individual he examined in Dorset, England. No extant subspecies are accepted. However, fossils found in the Ichetucknee River in Florida, and originally described as a new form of heron (Palaeophoyx columbiana McCoy, 1963) were later recognized to be a smaller, prehistoric subspecies of the American bittern which lived during the Late Pleistocene (Olson, 1974) and would thus be called B. l. columbianus. Its closest living relative is the pinnated bittern (Botaurus pinnatus) from Central and South America.
The generic name Botaurus was given by English naturalist James Francis Stephens, and is derived from Medieval Latin butaurus, "bittern", constructed from the Middle English name for the Eurasian bittern, botor. Pliny gave a fanciful derivation from Bos (ox) and taurus (bull), because the bittern's call resembles the bellowing of a bull. The species name lentiginosus is Latin for "freckled", from lentigo (freckle), and refers to the speckled plumage.
Many folk names are given for its distinctive call. In his book on the common names of American birds, Ernest Choate lists "bog bumper" and "stake driver". Other vernacular names include "thunder pumper", "bog bull", "bog thumper", "mire drum", and "water belcher".
## Distribution and habitat
Its range includes much of North America. It breeds in southern Canada as far north as British Columbia, the Great Slave Lake and Hudson Bay, and in much of the United States and possibly central Mexico. It migrates southward in the fall and overwinters in the southern United States of the Gulf Coast region, most notably in the marshy Everglades of Florida, the Caribbean Islands and Mexico, with past records also coming from Panama and Costa Rica. As a long-distance migrant, it is a very rare vagrant in Europe, including Great Britain and Ireland. It is an aquatic bird and frequents bogs, marshes and the thickly-vegetated verges of shallow-water lakes and ponds, both with fresh and brackish or saline water. It sometimes feeds out in the open in wet meadows and pastures.
## Behavior
The American bittern is a solitary bird and usually keeps itself well-hidden and is difficult to observe. It usually hunts by walking stealthily in shallow water and among the vegetation, stalking its prey, but sometimes it stands still in ambush. If it senses that it has been seen, it remains motionless, with its bill pointed upward, its cryptic coloration causing it to blend into the surrounding foliage. It is mainly nocturnal and is most active at dusk. More often heard than seen, the male bittern has a loud, booming call that resembles a congested pump and which has been rendered as "oong, kach, oonk". While uttering this sound, the bird's head is thrown convulsively upward and then forward, and the sound is repeated up to seven times.
The process by which the bittern produces its distinctive sound is not fully understood. It has been suggested that the bird gradually puffs out its neck by inflating its esophagus with air accompanied by a mild clicking or hiccuping sound. The esophagus is kept inflated by means of flaps beside the tongue. Once this action is completed and the esophagus is fully inflated, the distinctive gulping sound is made in the syrinx. When the sound is finished, the bird deflates its esophagus.
Like other members of the heron family, the American bittern feeds in marshes and shallow ponds, preying mainly on fish but also consuming amphibians, reptiles, small mammals, crustaceans and insects. It is a territorial bird and has a threat display which involves slowly erecting long, white, previously-concealed, plumes on its shoulders, to form wing-like extensions that nearly meet across its back, resembling a ruff. The bird then stands still in a threatening posture, or stalks the intruder in a crouching position, with its head retracted and a gliding gait.
This bird nests solitarily in marshes among coarse vegetation such as bulrushes and cattails, with the female building the nest and the male guarding it. The nest is usually about 15 cm (6 in) above the water surface and consists of a rough platform of dead stalks and rushes, sometimes with a few twigs mixed in, and lined with bits of coarse grass. Up to about six eggs are laid and are incubated by the female for twenty-nine days. The eggs are bluntly ovoid in shape, olive-buff and unspeckled, averaging 49 by 37 mm (1.93 by 1.46 in) in size. The chicks are fed individually, each in turn pulling down the female's beak and receiving regurgitated food directly into its beak. They leave the nest at about two weeks and are fully-fledged at six to seven weeks.
## Status
The bird's numbers are declining in many parts of its range because of habitat loss. This is particularly noticeable in the southern part where chemical contamination and human development are reducing the area of suitable habitat. However, the bird has an extremely large range and a large total population, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern". The American bittern is protected under the United States Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918. It is also protected under the Canadian Migratory Birds Convention Act of 1994 to which both Canada and the United States are signatories.
## References and notes | [
"## Description",
"## Taxonomy",
"## Distribution and habitat",
"## Behavior",
"## Status",
"## References and notes"
] | 1,849 | 27,971 |
20,857,069 | Phellodon | 1,145,286,171 | Genus of tooth fungi in the family Bankeraceae | [
"Phellodon",
"Taxa named by Petter Adolf Karsten",
"Thelephorales genera"
] | Phellodon is a genus of tooth fungi in the family Bankeraceae. Species have small- to medium-sized fruitbodies with white spines on the underside from which spores are released. All Phellodon have a short stalk or stipe, and so the genus falls into the group known as stipitate hydnoid fungi. The tough and leathery flesh usually has a pleasant, fragrant odor, and develops a cork-like texture when dry. Neighboring fruitbodies can fuse, sometimes producing large mats of joined caps. Phellodon species produce a white spore print, while the individual spores are roughly spherical to ellipsoid in shape, with spiny surfaces.
The genus, with about 20 described species, has a distribution that includes to Asia, Europe, North America, South America, Australia, and New Zealand. About half of the species are found in the southeastern United States, including three species added to the genus in 2013–14. Several Phellodon species were placed on a preliminary Red List of threatened British fungi because of a general decline of the genus in Europe. Species grow in a symbiotic mycorrhizal association with trees from the families Fagaceae (beeches and oaks) and Pinaceae (pines). Accurate DNA-based methods have been developed to determine the presence of Phellodon species in the soil, even in the extended absence of visible fruitbodies. Although Phellodon fruitbodies are considered inedible due to their fibrous flesh, the type species, P. niger, is used in mushroom dyeing.
## Taxonomy
Phellodon was circumscribed in 1881 by Finnish mycologist Petter Karsten to contain white-toothed fungi. Karsten included three species: P. cyathiformis, P. melaleucus, and the type, P. niger (originally published with the epithet nigrum). P. nigrum was originally described by Elias Fries in 1815 as a species of Hydnum. Some early authors did not consider Phellodon distinct enough to be a separate genus, and folded species assigned to this genus into Hydnellum.
Hydnellum is classified in the family Bankeraceae, which was circumscribed by Marinus Anton Donk in 1961. Donk's original family concept included the genera Bankera and Phellodon, whose species produce hyaline (translucent) and echinulate spores (covered with small spines). Donk also noted that Bankeraceae species lacked clamp connections. When clamp connections were discovered in Phellodon fibulatus and tuberculate spore ornamentation (the presence of small nodules on the spores) was found in P. niger, Kenneth Harrison thought the family Bankeraceae was superfluous, and placed Phellodon and Bankera in the family Hydnaceae. This taxonomic rearrangement was rejected by Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus in 1974, who showed that the tuberculate spores of P. niger were the result of an immature specimen. Richard Baird and Saeed Khan investigated spore ornamentation in North American Phellodon species using scanning electron microscopy, and rejected the placement of Phellodon in the Bankeraceae, preferring to leave it and Bankera in the Hydnaceae. Modern molecular phylogenetic analysis places Phellodon in the thelephoroid clade (roughly equivalent to the order Thelephorales) along with the related genera Bankera, Hydnellum, and Sarcodon. Although the status of the Bankeraceae has not been fully clarified with molecular genetic techniques, Phellodon is classified in this family by authorities on fungal taxonomy.
The generic name is derived from Greek phell-, meaning 'cork', and -don, meaning 'tooth'. In North America, Phellodon species are commonly known as "cork hydnums". The British Mycological Society, in their recommended list of common names for fungi in the United Kingdom, name Phellodon species in the form "descriptor word" plus tooth: fused tooth (P. confluens), grey tooth (P. melaleucus), black tooth (P. niger), and woolly tooth (P. tomentosus).
## Description
The fruit bodies of Phellodon species have caps and stipe, and thus fall into the general category of stipitate hydnoid fungi. The cap surfaces are initially velvety to tomentose, eventually becoming matted. The surface is rough, with pits and ridges, and sometimes with concentrical zones of color or texture. The color can vary considerably, from cream to yellowish, brownish, greenish, greyish or black. Neighboring fruitbodies can fuse, forming intertwined caps and partially fused stipes. Alexander H. Smith wrote of P. tomentosus, "It often occurs in large mats of fused caps almost producing a ceiling over large areas of the moss under conifers." Phellodon fruitbodies can envelop nearby grass or twigs. The stipe is thickly tomentose or smooth, typically the same color as the cap or darker. In P. niger, the outer covering of the stipe is a thick felty layer of mycelium that absorbs water like a sponge. The hymenophore (the fertile, spore-bearing surface) is on the underside of the cap. The spines become grey at maturity. In conditions of high humidity, P. niger can form striking drops of black liquid on the actively growing caps.
The fibrous flesh is single to double-layered; duplex layering results from differences in compactness or in the alignment of the constituent hyphae. Tough and leathery when fresh, the flesh develops a corklike texture when dry. In the dried state it often has an odor of fenugreek or curry powder. Phellodon species are often free of insect damage, suggesting that they may have defensive chemicals that deter predation. Fruitbodies are not considered edible due to their fibrous flesh.
The hyphal system is monomitic, containing only generative hyphae. These hyphae are not less than 6 μm in diameter. All European species lack clamp connections, but they are present in the North American species P. fibulatus and P. mississippiensis. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored. Cystidia are either absent, or present infrequently as incompletely differentiated cystidioles (sterile cells about the size of an immature basidium). In mass, the spores are white. Spores are broadly ellipsoid to roughly spherical, and echinulose (covered with small spines). They are also hyaline and inamyloid.
## Habitat and distribution
Fruit bodies grow on the ground. Phellodon species, like all members of the order Thelephorales, are thought to be mycorrhizal, forming symbiotic relationships with trees. Usual hosts include species from the families Fagaceae (beeches and oaks) and Pinaceae. The ectomycorrhizae that P. niger forms with Norway spruce (Picea abies) has been comprehensively described. It is distinguished from the ectomycorrhizae of other Thelephorales species by the unique shape of its chlamydospores. Stable isotope ratio analysis of the abundance of the stable isotope carbon-13 shows that P. niger has a metabolic signature close to that of saprotrophic fungi, indicating that it may be able to obtain carbon from sources other than a tree host.
Many Phellodon species are known from the southeastern United States, where they have been extensively researched. According to Baird and colleagues, there are nine distinct Phellodon species from Great Smoky Mountains and the surrounding southern Appalachian Mountains. Three additional species from this area, P. mississippiensis, P. brunneo-olivaceus, and P. fuligineoalbus were added to the genus in 2013–14.
## Conservation
Phellodon species, like other members of the family Bankeraceae, are sensitive to air pollution and soil pollution, and are in general decline in western Europe. In a preliminary assessment for a red list of threatened British Fungi, P. confluens, P. tomentosus, and P. melaleucus are considered vulnerable, and P. niger is rare.
Conservation efforts for stipitate hydnoid fungi are hampered by a dearth of information about their basic ecology, and so molecular genetic techniques are increasingly employed in attempts to better understand these fungi. In the case of Phellodon tomentosus, for example, there is little correlation between fruitbody appearance and below-ground mycelium, making it hard to determine the distribution and rarity of the fungus with standard surveying techniques. Phellodon melaleucus and P. niger were included in a Scottish study to develop species-specific PCR primers that can be used to detect the mycelia of stipitate hydnoids in soil. DNA testing of collections labelled as P. melaleucus and P. niger from the United Kingdom revealed additional cryptic species. PCR analysis can be used to determine the presence of a Phellodon species up to four years after the appearance of fruitbodies, allowing a more accurate determination of their possible decline and threat of extinction.
## Chemistry
Phellodon species contain thelephoric acid, a metabolite of the shikimic acid pathway. Thelephoric acid is a terphenyl quinone—a 1,4-benzoquinone wherein positions carbon-2 and carbon-5 are substituted with phenyl groups. The hirsutane derivative phellodonic acid is found in P. melaleucus. Phellodonic acid, which exhibits antibiotic activity towards bacteria and other fungi, was the first bioactive compound reported from any member of the order Thelephorales. A total synthesis was described for phellodonic acid in 2008 using cis-1,2-dihydrocatechol as the starting material. The compound atromentin was reported to occur in fruitbodies of P. melaleucus, but this was not confirmed in a later analysis. P. niger has been a source for several bioactive compounds: the cyathane-type diterpenoids, nigernin A and B; a nitrogenous terphenyl derivative, phellodonin; 2',3'-diacetoxy-3,4,5',6',4''-pentahydroxy-p-terphenyl; grifolin; and 4-O-methylgrifolic acid. P. niger has also been used for mushroom dyeing, in which it produces gray-blue and green colors.
## Species
Phellodon was originally circumscribed with three species. Joost Stalpers included 13 Phellodon species in his 1993 monograph on the Thelephorales. The tenth edition of the Dictionary of the Fungi (2008) indicated 16 species in the genus. As of September 2015, Index Fungorum lists 18 species of Phellodon, not including the three eastern United States species added in 2013–14. | [
"## Taxonomy",
"## Description",
"## Habitat and distribution",
"## Conservation",
"## Chemistry",
"## Species"
] | 2,380 | 242 |
74,382,056 | Blockchain Chicken Farm | 1,173,903,582 | 2020 book by Xiaowei Wang | [
"2020 non-fiction books",
"Books about China",
"Industry in China"
] | Blockchain Chicken Farm: And Other Stories of Tech in China's Countryside is a 2020 non-fiction book by Xiaowei Wang, a Chinese-American artist, writer, and software engineer. The book explores the impact of technology on rural China, especially in relation to agriculture and food safety. It consists of several vignettes that illustrate how technology is used and adapted in rural China, both by individuals and by urban corporations, and how this impacts global society.
Over the course of the book, Wang travels across China to visit places such as a "blockchain chicken farm" where chickens are tracked by QR codes to certify their free range status, a pearl farming village that exports pearls to US-based multi-level marketing companies, and a Halloween costume factory run by the e-commerce giant Taobao based in a small town. Wang conducted their research over the late 2010s, motivated by the desire to address their own biases in favour of urban areas.
Blockchain Chicken Farm was published by FSG Originals x Logic, a collaboration between Farrar, Straus and Giroux and the technology magazine Logic. The book received widespread attention from critics following its release, being featured on several recommendations lists and awarded the National Book Foundation's 2023 Science + Literature prize. It was also commended for its nuance, detail, and unique perspective on technology and society. Though reception trended positive, some reviewers criticized the book for its lack of a clear thesis, its superficiality, or its misrepresentation of some concepts.
## Background
China has rapidly industrialized since the mid to late twentieth century. One consequence is the emergence of substantial income inequality between China's urban and rural regions; inequality peaked in 2009, with a per capita income in urban areas thrice that of rural areas, and has since stabilized. A distinctive feature of Chinese internal migration is the hukou system, a form of household registration where people are assigned a "rural" or "urban" status based on the circumstances of their birth; the location of one's hukou determines eligibility for services such as schools, hospitals, pensions, housing, and employment in an area. Due to the difficulties in changing one's hukou, many migrants from rural to urban China lack access to such services in their place of residence. Though the hukou system has been reformed multiple times, it remains strict.
Food safety is a widespread concern in China, spurred by numerous high-profile controversies regarding contaminated or misrepresented food. To serve China's rapidly growing urban middle class, who increase the country's demand both for meat and for higher-quality food, farmers and companies have attempted technological solutions to guarantee their products' freshness and safety. This includes the eponymous "blockchain chicken farms", where chickens are tracked by QR code to certify their free range status and sold at a premium.
Xiaowei Wang is a Chinese-American artist, writer, and software engineer with a Ph.D. in geography from the University of California, Berkeley. Blockchain Chicken Farm is their first book. Wang was inspired to investigate technology in rural China as a critique of "metronormativity", a term defined by Jack Halberstam as a disproportionate focus on urban environments motivated by a stigma against rural cultures and societies.
## Synopsis
Blockchain Chicken Farm focuses on the impact of technology in rural China, particularly as it relates to agriculture. The first major focus of the book is the "blockchain chicken farms" run by Bubuji (Chinese: 步步鸡), also known as GoGoChicken, a subsidiary of the technology arm of ZhongAn, China's largest insurance company. Wang visits a farm in Guizhou owned by Jiang, a farmer who turned to GoGoChicken after sales for his free range chickens declined due to distrust of their provenance. In Wang's discussions with Jiang and Ren, a local government employee, they discover the people involved with the project have little understanding of what technology underpins it. Though the blockchain chickens are profitable, selling for up to (US\$) to a market of upper-middle-class consumers, Jiang's enterprise sales dry up shortly after the first order, raising concerns about their long-term viability.
The book then addresses the African swine fever outbreak of the late 2010s, which killed a substantial share of pigs in China, the world's largest pork producer. African swine fever had never been reported in China prior to 2018, and is a difficult disease to eradicate; pigs that survive infection remain carriers for the rest of their life, and exported pork products are able to spread the disease internationally. Wang ascribes the ASF outbreak to industrialized pig farming. The most nutritionally optimal pig swill is cannibalistic, feeding pork products to pigs themselves, which creates vectors for ASF to spread from infected to uninfected pigs. Wang states that the practice of "optimizing" farming allows for such externalities to occur and worsen.
Wang then addresses the role of artificial intelligence in the workforce. Inspired by a discussion with a stranger on a train to Shanghai, Wang argues that religion in China is seeing a resurgence as a reaction to increasing social alienation driven by technology. They posit that the ideal purpose of AI in the workforce is not to "take" jobs from humans, but to collaborate with humans in their existing jobs, giving the example of an AI aiding doctors in diagnosis versus one replacing a social worker who supports patients.
Blockchain Chicken Farm's next section discusses China's urban–rural education gap. The book relates the Chinese government's attempts to improve educational standards in rural areas, where very few students complete high school or attend university. Wang meets Sun Wei, a young man who works in a gig economy-like role as a drone operator, and contrasts his career expectations both with gig economy employees in the West and with his peers with higher educational achievements. They argue that Sun Wei is less marginalized or alienated as an employee than true gig economy employees, given his passion for his work, but that his role is relatively peripheral compared to that of a more traditionally credentialed employee.
The last chapters address subjects such as Chinese manufacturing, mass surveillance, and discrimination against ethnic minorities in China. At the close of the book, Wang travels to rural Zhejiang, the centre of the country's massive pearl farming industry. They analyse the international nature of Zhejiang's pearl industry, which exports a substantial number of pearls to US-based multi-level marketing companies. In the United States, these pearls are distributed to influencers who host livestreamed "pearl parties", shucking oysters to see the pearls that come out. Wang discusses the economic position of people involved in multi-level marketing, noting that the states with the highest proportion of direct sellers, North Dakota, Iowa, and Wyoming, all have above-average unemployment rates.
The chapters of Blockchain Chicken Farm are interspersed with recipes. These recipes use an intentionally science-fiction styling. The first, a porridge with goji berries, is described as food for a hypothetical artificial intelligence that needed to eat to survive; the second is inspired by DNA digital data storage, using tofu fritters as an analogy to the process of storing DNA on soybeans; and the third, a recipe for mooncakes, is styled as a meal prepared from moon-grown ingredients, with the cornmeal custard filling presented as made from corn grown on the Moon.
## Research
The research for Blockchain Chicken Farm mostly occurred from 2016 to 2018, though it continued through to the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic. Wang travelled to various districts of rural China, such as Dinglou in Pinghe County, where the e-commerce retailer Taobao had created economic incentives to centralize Halloween costume production, and rural Zhejiang, a centre of pearl farming, where pearls were shipped to international multi-level marketing companies. A particular focus of the book is the eponymous "blockchain chicken farm", a farm in Guizhou in southwestern China where the smallholder farmer had been unable to convince purchasers that his chickens were genuinely free-range. GoGoChicken, a Shanghai-based company, recruited him to a blockchain-based surveillance scheme where the chickens were monitored to guarantee their status.
Food safety and related controversies are a particular focus of the book. The primary driver behind most technological applications Wang discusses is the desire to improve food safety standards or confirm their enforcement; due to several high-profile Chinese controversies around food safety, the subject is of substantial concern to the nation's emerging urban middle class. Simultaneously, being able to technologically prove that a given farm has high standards provides an incentive to source products from that farm, potentially improving the financial state of the farmer. Blockchain Chicken Farm analyses how these technologies may be implemented by individuals with no knowledge or understanding of them. For example, Wang tried to discuss the blockchain technology underpinning GoGoChicken with the people using it while visiting the farms, only to discover none of them were familiar with the concept. Similarly, the book discusses how technological responses to food safety problems can backfire. Wang refers to the example of the ET Agricultural Brain, an Alibaba Group initiative to optimize pig farming. The AI model allowed for rapid large-scale industrialization of pig farms across the country, increasing output but contributing to the African swine fever outbreak that killed millions of pigs in the late 2010s. ET Agricultural Brain was repurposed to monitor at-risk herds in an attempt to combat the outbreak, which was focused on by media reports significantly more than the role it played in its genesis.
## Publication and reception
Blockchain Chicken Farm was published 13 October 2020 by FSG Originals x Logic, a collaboration between Farrar, Straus and Giroux (an imprint of Macmillan Publishers) and the technology magazine Logic, for which Wang was formerly an editor. FSG Originals x Logic was a short-term collaboration to publish four books on the role of technology in contemporary society; alongside Blockchain Chicken Farm, it published Voices from the Valley by Ben Tarnoff and Moira Weigel [Wikidata], What Tech Calls Thinking by Adrian Daub, and Subprime Attention Crisis by Tim Hwang.
Upon release, the book received widespread attention. Kirkus gave it a starred review, a privilege afforded to the top 10% of traditionally published books it reviews each year, and praised the "flair" with which it approached its subject matter. Peter Gordon, editor of the Asian Review of Books, joked that "[i]f there were an award for the best book title, Blockchain Chicken Farm would surely be in [the] running for 2020". He went on to deem the book "eminently readable" and remarked on how, unlike conventional "China books" that focused on travelogues or attempt to explain China to a Western audience, Blockchain Chicken Farm was primarily focused on the future of technology and simply felt its "most important signposts" were Chinese rather than Western. Ling Ma similarly wrote in Wired that she "can't think of any other recent work that comes close to capturing the alternate reality that is China today", stating Blockchain Chicken Farm exemplified the nature and pace of Chinese technological advancement to the point of being reminiscent of science fiction. Allison Arieff, print editorial director for the MIT Technology Review, reviewed Blockchain Chicken Farm for the San Francisco Chronicle. She praised the book for its avoidance of polemicism, comparing it flatteringly to what she considered a general trend towards polarization in books by authors with backgrounds in the technology industry. Similar acclaim for the work's nuance came from The Nation and the New York Times.
More mixed reviews included one by Publishers Weekly, whose staff writer described Blockchain Chicken Farm as "thought-provoking if inconclusive", praising its detail and unique subject matter but criticising its absence of a clear thesis. The digital anthropologist Gabriele de Seta wrote an overall positive review of Blockchain Chicken Farm in Asiascape: Digital Asia, but felt its breadth of coverage "necessarily leaves some topics undeveloped and others undertheorized"; he proffered the examples of Wang's "detour" into Chinese livestreaming culture and their superficial handling of the concept of shanzhai (counterfeit or copycat products). Jaime Chu, editor of Spike Art Magazine, denounced the book in The Baffler as "essentially an Eat, Pray, AI memoir". She criticised the "superficiality" of Wang's research on several levels, including their dismissal of Xinjiang, their lack of engagement with the hukou system that limits social and geographical mobility, and their sparse engagement with the historical context surrounding Chinese modernization policy. Chu particularly focused on the same loose interpretation of shanzhai as de Seta, arguing that Wang misrepresented the concept to make it more amenable to free and open-source software culture. She ultimately deemed Blockchain Chicken Farm "built on analogies as intellectual labor-saving shortcuts" and insufficient as any of memoir, technology reporting, or "speculative manifesto".
Amongst academics, Sunil Mani, director and Reserve Bank of India Chair of the Centre for Development Studies in Kerala, addressed the book from a food science-focused perspective in the Review of Agrarian Studies. While he noted its "non-use of quantitative data and methods of analysis", he nonetheless commended its "nuanced understanding" of the application of emerging technologies to an agricultural society. Melody Jue, associate professor of English at the University of California, Santa Barbara, covered it alongside AI in the Wild by Peter Dauvergne and A City Is Not a Computer by Shannon Mattern for American Literature. She held up Blockchain Chicken Farm as one of extremely few books addressing artificial intelligence from the perspective of the Global South, juxtaposing its "more complex story of technology and agency" with that of works that treat developing countries and regions as "passive subject[s] of ecological damage".
Blockchain Chicken Farm was included on several recommendations lists. The New York Times featured it alongside Barack Obama's memoir A Promised Land and Dark Archives, an exploration of books bound in human skin by Megan Rosenbloom. Literary Hub incorporated it in its "science, technology, and nature" recommendations for October 2020 amongst Kindred: Neanderthal Life, Love, Death and Art by Rebecca Wragg Sykes and A Good Time to Be Born by Perri Klass. The Verge's 2023 reader-inspired list of "the best tech books of all time" featured Blockchain Chicken Farm, as well as Masters of Doom by David Kushner, The Inevitable by Kevin Kelly, and Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution by Steven Levy. Blockchain Chicken Farm was awarded the National Book Foundation's 2023 Science + Literature prize, a \$10,000 award, alongside Real Life by Brandon Taylor. | [
"## Background",
"## Synopsis",
"## Research",
"## Publication and reception"
] | 2,999 | 7,581 |
47,099,545 | 1921 Georgia Tech Golden Tornado football team | 1,170,623,504 | American college football season | [
"1920s in Atlanta",
"1921 Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association football season",
"1921 in sports in Georgia (U.S. state)",
"Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football seasons"
] | The 1921 Georgia Tech Golden Tornado football team represented the Georgia Tech Golden Tornado of the Georgia Institute of Technology during the 1921 Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association football season. The Golden Tornado played its home games at Grant Field.
The Golden Tornado was coached by William Alexander in his second year as head coach, compiling an 8–1 record (5–0 against Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA) teams) and outscoring opponents 360 to 56. The team beat Rutgers and its only loss was its only road game, at the Polo Grounds in New York City, to undefeated eastern power Penn State.
Defeating the rival Auburn Tigers secured a sharing of the SIAA title with the Georgia Bulldogs and Vanderbilt Commodores, though "no championship was ever won with less effort or achievement." noted sportswriter Fuzzy Woodruff.
Captain Judy Harlan made Walter Camp's third-team All-America. Red Barron led the team in scoring and rushed for 1,459 yards during the season, a school record at the time. Harlan, Barron, brothers John and Al Staton, and Oscar Davis made All-Southern.
## Before the season
In 1921, football used a one-platoon system in which players played offense, defense, and special teams. A team which scored a touchdown had the option to kick-off or receive, and the ball was much rounder. Coach William Alexander retained his predecessor John Heisman's scheme, using the pre-snap movement of his jump shift offense.
Gone from the team were greats such as Buck Flowers and Bill Fincher, who graduated in 1920. The Tornado captain was senior fullback Judy Harlan, called the school's greatest back by some and one of the country's best defensive backs.
Also in the backfield was junior halfback Red Barron, who had just recovered from a broken jaw received the previous season in a game against Vanderbilt. Future Tech fullback Sam Murray said about a strong runner during the 1930s, "He's good. But if I were playing again, I would have one wish – never to see bearing down upon me a more fearsome picture of power than Judy Harlan blocking for Red Barron."
Junior starting quarterback Jack McDonough missed the final four games last year due to an ankle injury caused by Pitt's fullback Orville Hewitt. Another halfback was Jimmy Brewster, known as the "side stepping wonder".
In the line at either end were the brothers John and Al Staton. At guard was Oscar Davis, who (with Barron) was listed on an All-Tech Alexander-era team. At center was sophomore Dad Amis.
## Schedule
## Season summary
### Wake Forest
- Sources:
The season opened with a 42–0 shutout of the Wake Forest Demon Deacons, who were hold to just one first down.
The intense heat made for many substitutions, and a number of Tech players starred. Despite the weather, Harlan still smashed into the line. Brewster got the season's first touchdown, a 25-yard run around left end. Barron later got a touchdown on a 60-yard run.
The starting lineup was J. Staton (left end), McRee (left tackle), McIntyre (left guard), Amis (center), Davis (right guard), Lyman (right tackle), A. Staton (right end), Hunt (quarterback), Brewster (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback).
### Oglethorpe
- Sources:
In the second week of play, Red Barron starred as the Tornado defeated the neighboring Oglethorpe Stormy Petrels 41–0. Just prior to the game Oglethorpe had lost its star Johnny Knox.
The Tornado had 363 yards from scrimmage to Oglethorpe's four. The "right side of the Oglethorpe line was a wide open as the gap of Gehenna." A crowd of about 8,000 attended.
Dewey Scarboro scored Tech's first touchdown, and the second came on a 25-yard run by Barron, the star of the contest. In the third quarter, Tech sent in a substitute backfield which was even more successful.
The starting lineup was Nabelle (left end), Johnson (left tackle), Lebey (left guard), Frye (center), Davis (right guard), Fincher (right tackle), A. Staton (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Scarboro (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback).
### Davidson
- Sources:
Tech shut out Davidson 70–0, with 22 first downs; Davidson had none. For the first touchdown, Barron threw a pass and Staton ran 35 yards for the score. The final score came when Barron had a 63-yard punt return for a touchdown, and Judy Harlan had four touchdowns.
The starting lineup was J. Staton (left end), McRee (left tackle), Frye (left guard), Amis (center), Borum (right guard), Lyman (right tackle), A. Staton (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Ferst (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback).
### Furman
- Sources:
The Tech backfield, led by Barron, defeated Billy Laval's Furman Purple Hurricane, 69–0. Milton McManaway played for Furman.
Barron had a 55-yard touchdown run. A punt return for a touchdown, with Barron reversing field, was disallowed due to an offside penalty. Judy Harlan received praise for his work as a defensive back.
The starting lineup was J. Staton (left end), McRee (left tackle), Lebey (left guard), Amis (center), Frye (right guard), Lyman (right tackle), A. Staton (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Ferst (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback).
### Rutgers
- Sources:
The Tornado defeated Rutgers in an inter-sectional contest, 48–14. Tech's shift was at its peak, and Red Barron was the game's star. The first score was when Barron broke away for a 20-yard touchdown run around end. Rutgers' Carl Waite threw a 30-yard touchdown to Heinie Benkert.
The starting lineup was J. Staton (left end), McRee (left tackle), Frye (left guard), Amis (center), Davis (right guard), Lyman (right tackle), A. Staton (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Brewster (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback).
### Penn State
- Sources:
On October 29, the Penn State Nittany Lions' undefeated "Mystery Team" defeated Georgia Tech 28–7 at the Polo Grounds. Both teams used a shift.
Tech started strong, and Red Barron scored Tech's only touchdown. The game's star play immediately followed: an 85-yard kickoff return for a touchdown by Glenn Killinger. Penn State's defense stiffened after that.
The starting lineup was J. Staton (left end), McRee (left tackle), Frye (left guard), Amis (center), Davis (right guard), Lyman (right tackle), A. Staton (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Barron (left halfback), Brewster (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback).
### Clemson
- Sources:
"Just as we used to bring in a load of stove wood at nightfall, feed the pigs and milk the cows, so do football teams of note have their chores to perform year in and year out. Georgia Tech performed one of its accustomed tasks Saturday afternoon, when Clemson was decidedly thrashed, but the task was not performed in the usual manner, for Clemson scored a touchdown. The score was 48 to 7."
Tech started the game with a second-string backfield. Clemson scored first, with Burton running in a touchdown. Tech's first score came six seconds before the end of the first quarter, when Red Barron went around the tackle for a touchdown. The second touchdown came after a 20-yard Barron run. Pinkey Hunt got the first score of the second half. The fourth touchdown came when Jimmy Brewster gained 28 yards down field and almost 100 yards in all. Brewster also scored the next touchdown on a 15-yard run after completing an 18-yard pass. Barron and Harlan returned to the lineup late, scoring an additional touchdown apiece.
The starting lineup was Cornell (left end), Johnson (left tackle), Barnett (left guard), Amis (center), Davis (right guard), Lyman (right tackle), A. Staton (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Ferst (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Farnsworth (fullback).
### Georgetown
- Sources:
The Tornado defeated the Georgetown Blue and Gray, 21–7. Tech's first score came from Judy Harlan on a two-yard run behind right tackle. The second score was in the second half, when Red Barron skirted the left end for 20 yards and a touchdown. Barron made his team's final touchdown on a two-yard run behind left guard. Georgetown scored on a 95-yard return after DuFour recovered a Jack McDonough fumble.
The starting lineup was J. Staton (left end), Johnson (left tackle), Frye (left guard), Amis (center), Davis (right guard), A. Staton (right tackle), Mitchell (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Ferst (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback).
### Auburn
- Sources:
Georgia Tech defeated Auburn, 14–0. More than 21,000 fans, the largest crowd of the Southern football season, watched the game.
After a scoreless first half, Tech opened a drive to start the second half with runs from Barron, Harlan, and Ferst. As Barron was about to score, he fumbled and McDonough recovered the ball in the end zone. Barron later scored the second touchdown.
The starting lineup was J. Staton (left end), Johnson (left tackle), Lebey (left guard), Amis (center), Davis (right guard), A. Staton (right tackle), Mitchell (right end), McDonough (quarterback), Ferst (left halfback), Barron (right halfback), and Harlan (fullback).
## Postseason
### Awards and honors
Barron rushed for 1,459 yards during the season, and led the team in scoring with 90 points. Harlan, Barron, and Al Staton were composite All-Southerns, and Davis and John Staton made some All-Southern teams. Harlan made Walter Camp's third All-America team, and Barron made Jack Veiock's third team.
### Championships
For yet another season, neither Tech nor the Bulldogs of Georgia lost to a Southern team. Tech tied with independent Centre, Georgia, and Vanderbilt for claims of the SIAA title. For Georgia coach Herman Stegeman, the contest for the mythical title of greatest Southern team was between Centre, Georgia Tech, and Georgia. Sportswriter Fuzzy Woodruff in his History of Southern Football explained Tech was picked as champion "through force of habit"; though "no championship was ever won with less effort or achievement."
## Personnel
### Depth chart
The following chart depicts Tech's lineup during the 1921 season, with games started at the position in parentheses. It mimics the offense after the jump shift.
### Scoring leaders
The following is an incomplete list of statistics and scores, largely dependent on newspaper summaries.
## See also
- 1921 Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association football season
- 1921 College Football All-America Team
## Endnotes | [
"## Before the season",
"## Schedule",
"## Season summary",
"### Wake Forest",
"### Oglethorpe",
"### Davidson",
"### Furman",
"### Rutgers",
"### Penn State",
"### Clemson",
"### Georgetown",
"### Auburn",
"## Postseason",
"### Awards and honors",
"### Championships",
"## Personnel",
"### Depth chart",
"### Scoring leaders",
"## See also",
"## Endnotes"
] | 2,532 | 8,299 |
12,009,102 | Show Your Hand | 1,055,162,271 | null | [
"2007 singles",
"2007 songs",
"Rough Trade Records singles",
"Super Furry Animals songs"
] | "Show Your Hand" is a song by Welsh rock band Super Furry Animals and was the first single from their 2007 album, Hey Venus!. The single was made available for download on 16 July 2007 as an iTunes exclusive and was later released in physical formats on 13 August in the UK. The track failed to penetrate the UK singles chart's Top 40, peaking at \#46.
According to lead singer Gruff Rhys the track is "a song about gambling" and was originally going to be left off Hey Venus! for being "too generic" before Rough Trade boss Geoff Travis persuaded the band to reconsider their decision. Critical reaction to the track was mixed with some reviewers claiming "Show Your Hand" was "ponderously mature" and "more like the generic pop songs one would find on the radio" while others hailed the track as "classic Furries".
Unlike the two other singles taken from Hey Venus!, "Run-Away" and "The Gift That Keeps Giving", no music video was produced for "Show Your Hand".
## Origins and recording
In an interview with Pitchfork Media given before the release of Hey Venus!, singer Gruff Rhys claimed "Show Your Hand" was "a song about gambling. There's lots of card-playing going on in the Super Furry Animals [tour bus], which may have [had] a slight influence on the subject matter". Rhys went on to state that the song was initially left off Hey Venus! for being "too generic":
> I mean, we love The Zombies and bands of that era, and we felt maybe we'd pushed it too far, you know?
A combination of pressure from Rough Trade's Geoff Travis and Jeannette Lee ("Where's that song gone? That's our favorite song!") and the addition of a French horn part, written by Cian Ciaran, resulted in the song finally taking its place on the record. Although the majority of the track was recorded at Miraval Studios, France along with the rest of Hey Venus!, additional recording also took place with Chris Shaw who mixed the album. According to Cian Ciaran both b-sides to "Show Your Hand", namely "Aluminium Illuminati" and "Never More", were originally recorded during sessions for 2003's Phantom Power although "Aluminium Illuminati" was mentioned as a working title as early as May 2000 in connection with 2001's Rings Around the World album.
## Musical structure
"Show Your Hand" is 2 minutes 51 seconds long and is in the key of E minor. The song begins with a "Kevin Ayers-style psych-pop intro"; "a Beatlesque harpsichord line" accompanied by intermittent bass and occasional strummed guitar chords with Rhys singing the lines "You're perched so neatly on the fence, you're keeping your cards all to yourself..." as the songs builds to its first chorus on 30 seconds.
"Emphatic power chords" takes the song into the "rarefied soft-rock territory" of the chorus with Rhys singing the title phrase four times before being joined by "sugar-sweet harmonies from the Brian Wilson School of Spine-Tingling Pop" on the last lines: "I'm jumping off the fence, into your corner". Another verse and chorus follow before the song's middle 8 at 1 minute 31 seconds, a multi-layered vocal take on a regular verse featuring just 'bah, bah, bahs' in place of lyrics.
The song ends with a triple chorus (the third of which features a key change to A major) as "French horn counterpoints usher the song towards its climax", the line "jumping off the fence" repeating three times before a staccato finish with Rhys singing "into your corner", drawing out the last word.
## Critical response
Although some critics hailed the track as a 'return to form' for the band, with the Manchester Evening News describing the song as a "the best that the Furries have sounded in ages ... a return to the mellow-but-bouncy pop fare of their early albums Fuzzy Logic and Guerilla", others pointed out that "Show Your Hand" is "ponderously mature", rather "straightforward" and "more like the generic pop songs one would find on the radio than [that] of a historically experimental band". However, The Guardian stated that "Show Your Hand" "is the sort of music [the Super Furry Animals] do best - hazy, lazy sunshine pop". And while Cokemachineglow believed the track "may not have the staying power or the immediate pull of the Super Furry Animals' best singles" their reviewer conceded that "it's not too far behind".
The 'retro' nature of the track was commented on by several critics with The Independent describing the track as being performed in a "sophisticated soft-rock style" which recalls "the arrangements of The Association and Surf's Up-era Beach Boys", Pitchfork Media calling the song "Zombies-esque orchestral pop", and Drowned in Sound describing "Show Your Hand" as "an almost Bacharachian gem":
> Swimming in the dreamy swathes that typified Phantom Power rather than the acid-pop that provides their real edge, "Show Your Hand" is still hewn from a rich seam and glides on a joyously melodic horn and vocal exchange. There's little that sits in the ear more sweetly than Super Fury Animals in this form, and that leaves small room for complaint.
BBC Wales described "Show Your Hand" as "classic Furries" in a favourable review on their website to coincide with the release of the track as a single going on to state that it is:
> A song of gambling and indecision, with a dark edge and plenty of clever wordplay, it's a perfect record to lift dampened spirits this summer.
## Track listing
All songs by Super Furry Animals.
- CD (RTRADSCD402)
1. "Show Your Hand" – 2:51
2. "Aluminium Illuminati" – 2:37
3. "Never More" – 2:25
- 7" (RTRADS402)
1. "Show Your Hand" – 2:51
2. "Never More" – 2:25
## Personnel
- Gruff Rhys: vocals
- Huw Bunford: guitar
- Guto Pryce: bass guitar
- Cian Ciaran: keyboards
- Dafydd Ieuan: drums
- Kris Jenkins: percussion
- Gary Alesbrook: trumpet
- Nick Atwood: trombone
- Martin Owen: French horn
- Phil Woods: French horn
- Kathryn Saunders: French horn
- Brian Wright: violin
- Charles Nolan: violin
- Rick Koster: violin
- Laura Melhuish: violin
- Amanda Britton: violin
- Sally Herbert: violin
- Marcus Holloway: cello
- Ian Burdge: cello
## Singles chart positions | [
"## Origins and recording",
"## Musical structure",
"## Critical response",
"## Track listing",
"## Personnel",
"## Singles chart positions"
] | 1,472 | 35,127 |
50,938,400 | Murder of Dora Bloch | 1,143,019,871 | Hostage murdered after Operation Entebbe | [
"1970s missing person cases",
"1976 murders in Africa",
"Burials at Har HaMenuchot",
"Deaths by firearm in Uganda",
"Deaths by person in Africa",
"Female murder victims",
"Formerly missing people",
"Jewish martyrs",
"Missing person cases in Greece",
"Operation Entebbe",
"People from Jaffa",
"Uganda–United Kingdom relations",
"Violence against women in Uganda"
] | Dora Bloch (Hebrew: דורה בלוך) née Feinberg, a dual Israeli-British citizen, was a hostage on Air France Flight 139 from Tel Aviv to Paris. The flight was hijacked on 27 June 1976 after a stopover in Athens and rerouted to Entebbe, Uganda. Bloch became ill on the plane and was taken to a hospital in Kampala, the capital of Uganda. She was not rescued with the other hostages during Operation Entebbe, and went missing from the hospital. Her disappearance led to Britain cutting diplomatic ties with Uganda. Her body was discovered in 1979 in a sugar plantation near the capital. In February 2007, declassified British documents confirmed that she was murdered on the order of Ugandan president Idi Amin.
## Biography
Dora Feinberg was born in Jaffa, then a part of the Ottoman Empire and later part of Israel. Her father, Joseph Feinberg [he], was among the founders of the village of Rishon LeZion along with his brother, Dora's uncle, Israel Feinberg. After her father's death, she was raised by an uncle in Egypt. She moved to Jerusalem as an adult. She spoke Hebrew, Arabic, Russian, German, Italian, and English. In 1920, she met Aharon Bloch (Hebrew: אהרון אהרן בלוך) whilst he was serving in the British Army in the mandate of Palestine. The two married in 1925. As Aharon Bloch was a naturalised citizen of the United Kingdom, this gave Dora British citizenship. They had three sons. In 1976 she was a grandmother and a widow living in Tel Aviv.
## Disappearance
On 27 June 1976, Bloch, aged 74 or 75, was on Air France Flight 139, an Airbus A300 plane, travelling to New York City for her youngest son Daniel's wedding. The flight was hijacked by terrorists after a stopover in Athens and was redirected to Entebbe, Uganda. With her fluency in languages, Bloch served as an interpreter between the hostages and hijackers.
Bloch became ill on the plane and was transferred to Mulago Hospital in Kampala. She is believed to have choked on food, and Foreign and Commonwealth Office papers say that she was also being treated for leg ulcers while at the hospital. Bloch's son Ilan Hartuv, who was freed during the subsequent Operation Entebbe counter-terrorist hostage-rescue mission, was able to speak to a Ugandan doctor about his mother's health. Henry Kyemba, then Uganda's Minister of Health, said that he had allowed Bloch to stay in hospital for an extra night before being returned to the other hostages. As a result of this, Bloch was not with the other hostages, and so was not freed during the Operation Entebbe raid.
During Operation Entebbe, Bloch's family in Israel were taken to the HaKirya military complex in Tel Aviv, before going to the airport. Once at the airport, they were told that Bloch was still in Uganda. They spent an hour observing the traditional mourning ritual (shiva), but no longer as she was not confirmed dead.
On 4 July, the British Government were informed that Bloch was not among the hostages released during Operation Entebbe. As a result, she was visited by James Hennessy, then-High Commissioner of the United Kingdom to Uganda, and Peter Chandley, second secretary of the British High Commission in Kampala. Bloch told Chandley that she had been treated well in the hospital, but did not like the food. They were also told that Bloch was going to be moved to the Grand Imperial Hotel in Kampala. Chandley and his wife went to get some food for Bloch, but when they returned, they were denied entry to the hospital. The reason for this was that four men including Farouk Minawa, head of the State Research Bureau (Ugandan secret police) and Idi Amin's Chief of Protocol Nasur Ondoga had taken Bloch from her hospital bed and murdered her. The policeman guarding Bloch was also killed.
## Aftermath
A search by Ugandan police did not find Bloch, and the Ugandan government informed the UK that they "had no responsibility" for Bloch after Operation Entebbe. In early July, a Ugandan traveller reported seeing a body, which he believed to be Bloch, near a group of Ugandan soldiers, around 11 miles (18 km) from Kampala. On 9 July, the United Nations debated the Entebbe hijacking incident. The United Kingdom suggested a resolution that condemned both the hijack and the loss of life, so as not to endanger the lives of Britons in Uganda, including Bloch. During the debate, the Ugandan government reiterated their claim that Bloch had been returned to Entebbe airport.
On 13 July, Minister of State for the Foreign and Commonwealth Office Ted Rowlands said that Bloch was presumed dead. On 15 July, the British Government demanded a full search for "Bloch or her body", a request that was never fulfilled. A suggested motive for her killing was retaliation for the deaths of 50 Ugandan soldiers during Operation Entebbe. Amin later expelled Chandley from the High Commission, alleging that he was pro-Israeli and had supported the death of Ugandan troops.
As a result of Bloch's disappearance, Britain withdrew their High Commissioner to Uganda, and on 28 July, Britain cut all diplomatic ties with Uganda. It was the first time in 30 years that Britain had severed ties with a Commonwealth country. The British Government said that the main reason for cutting ties was the disappearance of Bloch, although other events during Amin's leadership had also contributed. In retaliation, Amin declared himself the "Conqueror of the British Empire (CBE)", and the unofficial King of Scotland. He added "Conqueror of the British Empire" to his list of official titles. After the fall of Amin in 1979, Britain recommenced diplomatic relations with Uganda.
In 1987, Kyemba said that Bloch had been dragged from her hospital bed and murdered by members of the Ugandan Army loyal to Amin. Declassified British documents released in February 2007 confirmed that Bloch had been killed on Amin's orders. According to the documents, a Ugandan citizen told the British High Commissioner in Kampala that Bloch had been shot and her body deposited into the boot of a car with Ugandan intelligence services number plates. The documents also showed that Britain continued to press Amin for information on Bloch's whereabouts, and that Amin continually denied knowledge of her fate.
### Recovery of body
After the Uganda–Tanzania War, Tanzanian troops discovered Bloch's body in 1979 in a sugar plantation around 20 miles (32 km) from Kampala, near the Jinja Road. Visual identification was impossible because her face was badly burned, but the corpse showed signs of a leg ulcer. A pathologist working with the Israel Defense Forces formally identified Bloch from the remains. Her remains were returned to her son in Israel, where she was given an Israeli state funeral. She was buried in Jerusalem's Har HaMenuchot Cemetery. | [
"## Biography",
"## Disappearance",
"## Aftermath",
"### Recovery of body"
] | 1,536 | 34,469 |
1,247,000 | Kir'Shara | 1,171,738,954 | null | [
"2004 American television episodes",
"Star Trek: Enterprise (season 4) episodes",
"Television episodes directed by David Livingston",
"Vulcans"
] | "Kir'Shara" is the ninth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Enterprise. It was writer Michael Sussman's third episode of the season, while it was director David Livingston's second. The episode was the third in a three-part story arc, following on from the episodes "The Forge" and "Awakening". The title "Kir'Shara" refers to a Vulcan religious relic, and the three part Vulcan story arc explored themes relating to the Protestant Reformation resulting in comparisons to books such as The Da Vinci Code and The Celestine Prophecy, while the Kir'Shara itself was compared to the Nag Hammadi library.
Set in the 22nd century, the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise, registration NX-01. In this episode, Enterprise attempts to avert a war, and is caught in a crossfire between Vulcan and Andorian starships. Meanwhile. Captain Archer, Commander T'Pol and T'Pau aim to take the Kir'Shara to the Vulcan capital, and use it to reveal Administrator V'Las' plot to the rest of the Vulcan High Command.
In addition to the guest stars returning from the previous arc episodes, or the episode "Home", Jeffrey Combs returned as Shran. The episode was shot across seven days using mostly standing sets, with only an Andorian brig built specifically for this episode. "Kir'Shara" also saw the return of the Vulcan lirpa, a weapon which had been first introduced in the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "Amok Time". The episode originally aired on December 3, 2004 on UPN. It received a Nielsen rating of 2.1/4 percent, which equalled the highest ratings seen during the fourth season. It was warmly received by critics who praised Combs' performance and noted that this episode was an indication of the improving quality of the series. However, there was mixed opinion regarding the ending of the episode.
## Plot
Enterprise heads to Andoria after Ambassador Soval informs them that the Vulcans believe they have been developing Xindi weapon technology. Soval guides Enterprise to a nebula where the Andorian fleet is hiding. Commander Shran is dubious, and abducts and tortures Soval. After believing him, Enterprise joins a fleet of six Andorian ships to intercept the Vulcans. Commander Tucker attempts to buy time by ordering Enterprise directly between the two fleets — this works for a while until Administrator V'Las orders them to be targeted too.
Meanwhile, at The Forge, Captain Archer, Commander T'Pol and T'Pau, having found the sacred Kir'Shara (which the Syrrannites believe will usher a Vulcan enlightenment), endeavor to take it to the capital. En route, T'Pol and T'Pau discuss the taboo of mind-melds, and T'Pau offers to mind-meld with T'Pol. She states the meld is safe when performed by those trained in the art, and that Pa'nar Syndrome is merely the by-product of an improperly conducted meld. The trio are then attacked by Major Talok and Vulcan commandos, and T'Pol is captured while the others escape. She tells her captors that they are headed to Mount Seleya in order to mislead them from their true destination.
She is then taken to the capital. Archer and T'Pau also arrive after T'Pol's husband, Koss, provides transporter security codes. They present the Kir'Shara to the High Command and reveal that the embassy bombing was merely a pretext to weaken the pacifist Syrrannites prior to the Andorian strike. Visibly angered, V'Las lunges for the Kir'Shara, but is stunned by High Minister Kuvak, who orders the fleet to stand down. Enterprise returns to Vulcan, and Koss visits to release T'Pol from their marriage. Meanwhile, the Vulcan High Command is dissolved, granting Earth greater autonomy, and the katra of Surak is transferred to a Vulcan high priest. V'Las, relieved of his post, meets secretly with Talok, revealed to be a Romulan agent, who states that the reunification of their worlds is only a matter of time.
## Production
Like "Home", "Kir'Shara" was written by Michael Sussman and was his third script during the fourth season. David Livingston directed the episode, which was his second episode of the season having previously directed "Borderland". Most of the guest stars had appeared in the previous episode "Awakening", including Robert Foxworth as Administrator V'Las, Kara Zediker as T'Pau and John Rubinstein as Kuvak. In addition, Michael Reilly Burke resumes his role as Koss for the third time, having appeared in the role both in "Home" and "The Forge". Also appearing, having appeared in "Home", was Jack Donner as a Vulcan priest. Donner appeared in The Original Series episode "The Enterprise Incident" as the Romulan Commander Subcommander Tal. "Kir'Shara" also saw the return of Jeffrey Combs as the Andorian Commander Shran for the sixth time as well as Gary Graham as Ambassador Soval, who has appeared as a recurring character in Enterprise since the pilot episode "Broken Bow".
Filming began on October 4, 2004 and continued until October 12. Despite the desert locations, all filming took place on soundstages. These represented a variety of places throughout the Vulcan desert-like Forge. The remaining sets used were either standing sets, or those which had been constructed for the previous two episodes. The exceptions to that were two sets to represent scenes on board Commander Shran's Andorian vessel. The Andorian bridge set, which had been used previously in the series, had a single wall brought out of storage in order to appear as a backdrop for Shran when he appears on the Enterprise viewscreen. The Andorian brig was built specifically for this episode for scenes with Shran and Soval.
Re-appearing in "Kir'Shara" were the traditional Vulcan weapon, the lirpa, which was first introduced in The Original Series episode "Amok Time". The lirpa is a long shaft with a crescent blade on one end and a spiked cudgel on the other. Brand new props were built for this episode, modifying the original design by making them more lightweight. They were wielded in "Kir'Shara" by Vulcan commandos, who were all played by stunt actors in non-speaking roles. Additional stunt doubles were required for Archer, T'Pol, T'Pau and Talok while two puppeteers were needed for the Andorian antennae seen on screen.
## Themes
"Kir'Shara" followed up the events of the previous two episodes in the story arc as well some of the elements seen earlier in the season in the episode "Home". "The Forge" sees Captain Jonathan Archer (Scott Bakula) and T'Pol (Jolene Blalock) travel into the Vulcan desert known as the Forge in order to find a renegade faction of Vulcans, known as the Syrrannites. During the journey, Archer has the katra of Surak transferred into him. In "Awakening", the duo meet the Syrrannites and find out they are peaceful. After Enterprise leaves orbit, the Vulcans start bombarding the caves where the Syrrannites are located, killing T'Pol's mother, T'Les (Joanna Cassidy).
Speaking about "Awakening", show runner Manny Coto had previously said that he envisaged the story arc to be about a Vulcan reformation as a metaphor to the real-world 16th century Protestant Reformation with T'Pau playing the role of Martin Luther. This view was supported by the 2010 book Star Trek As Myth, which saw the original Vulcan religion prior to the Reformation arc seen from "The Forge" onwards as equating to the Catholic Church while the Syrannites were the Protestants. In doing so, Administrator V'Las is therefore linked to the Antichrist in much the same way that the Protestant Reformation saw the Pope as the Antichrist. In this role, the Romulans in the story take the place of the subversive devils to form an unholy alliance.
It was also suggested that the Kir'Shara itself was similar in context to the Nag Hammadi library, which was a collection of thirteen codices found in Nag Hammadi, Egypt, in 1945 that date back to between the 2nd to 5th centuries. Unlike those codices, the Vulcan High Council attempts to suppress the revelation of the Kir'Shara in a similar manner to the Catholic Church's suppression seen in other fictional works such as Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code or James Redfield's The Celestine Prophecy.
## Reception
"Kir'Shara" was first aired in the United States on UPN on December 3, 2004. The broadcast saw the episode come in fourth place during the timeslot, with a Nielsen rating of 2.1/4 percent. This means that it was seen by 2.1 percent of all households, and four percent of all those watching television at the time of broadcast. It gained higher ratings than The WB, who aired What I Like About You and Grounded for Life. The ratings equalled the highest ratings of the season so far, which were previously achieved by "Borderland", "Cold Station 12" and "The Augments".
TV Guide listed "Kir'Shara" on its Hot List for the day. IGN gave the episode 4.5 out of five and said that the show "finally grows up and becomes a Star Trek series this week". It described "Kir'Shara" as "far from a perfectly executed Trek story but they get enough right to make it a lot easier to overlook the few things they miss." It said that there had been an overall improvement in the fourth season, and that "this could become some of the best Star Trek ever made". In Matthew Kappell's book Star Trek As Myth, he said that he felt that the revelation that the previous Vulcan administration was working with the Romulans all along "suddenly makes sense of years of previously incomprehensible Vulcan policy" and linked to The Next Generation episode "Unification".
Herc, in his review for Ain't It Cool News, praised the reliability of Jeffrey Combs as Shran, but thought that there were no major surprises. Herc did say that the biggest shock was the revelation that the Romulans were behind the bombing of the Human Embassy. He gave it a rating of three out of five. Michelle Erica Green reviewed the episode for TrekNation, calling it an "absolutely gripping episode" except for the "ludicrousness of the ending". She made the admission about the ending that, "I suppose the Romulans had to show up at some point, I guess Vulcan is as good a place as any." She thought that the torture scenes were "pointless", but was pleased with the characterisation seen in Archer, T'Pol and Tucker. Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website Jammer's Reviews said that the episode was "not perfect, but good" with an "intriguing" ending. He also praised Jeffrey Combs as Shran, and thought that the torture scenes were potent but that the ending was rushed. He gave the episode a rating of three out of four.
In 2018, Screen Rant praised casting actress Kara Zediker as the Vulcan character T'Pau. In 2020, James Whitbrook of Io9 highlighted this episode as a "must watch" episode of the series.
In 2021, The Digital Fix said this was the best episode of the fourth season, calling it a "well-paced, satisfying resolution" to the Vulcan storyline in the series. They felt the episode successfully capitalizes on the story elements established the previous episode "The Forge".
## Home media release
The first home media release of "Kir'Shara" was in the season four DVD box set of Enterprise, originally released in the United States on November 1, 2005. The Blu-ray edition was released on April 1, 2014. | [
"## Plot",
"## Production",
"## Themes",
"## Reception",
"## Home media release"
] | 2,550 | 30,568 |
24,101,846 | Tropical Storm Amy (1975) | 1,171,670,353 | Atlantic tropical storm in 1975 | [
"1975 Atlantic hurricane season",
"1975 in North Carolina",
"Atlantic tropical storms",
"Hurricanes in North Carolina"
] | Tropical Storm Amy was the first tropical cyclone to develop during the 1975 Atlantic hurricane season. Forming on June 28 from a trough of low pressure, Amy gradually attained tropical storm status off the coast of North Carolina. A rapidly approaching trough caused Amy to turn sharply eastward before the storm took a general northeastward track. On July 2, the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 70 mph (110 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 981 mbar (hPa; 28.97 inHg). During most of the storm's existence, Amy featured many subtropical characteristics but was not classified as such due to the proximity to land. By July 4, the system moved southeast of Newfoundland before becoming extratropical.
The main effects from Amy were rough seas, reaching up to 15 ft (4.6 m) in height, that were felt from North Carolina to New Jersey, inflicting minor coastal flooding and beach erosion. On June 30, a schooner carrying four people capsized off the North Carolina coastline, resulting in the death of the father of the other three crew members. They remained at sea for roughly 15 days before being rescued by a Greek merchant ship.
## Meteorological history
Tropical Storm Amy originated from a weak trough on June 24 accompanied by scattered showers and thunderstorms over Florida. The system tracked westward in response to an upper-tropospheric low over Georgia. By June 26, a surface circulation developed north of the Bahamas and satellite imagery showed a significant increase in convective activity and the National Hurricane Center (NHC) classified the system as a tropical depression early on June 27. On June 28, the system attained tropical storm-status while tracking north-northeast off the coast of North Carolina.
By June 29, a trough, moving through the westerlies, rapidly approached the storm, causing the newly designated Amy to turn sharply toward the east. Strong wind shear disorganized the system slightly, leading to Amy featuring subtropical characteristics. By the evening, the strongest winds were not located around the center, but were instead situated between 60 and 90 mi (95 and 140 km) from the center. Convection became displaced from the center of circulation but the storm continued to intensify. Over the following several days, Amy tracked generally northeastward but underwent eastward jogs in response to rapidly moving troughs to the north.
Amy neared hurricane intensity several times, beginning on June 30 as maximum winds increased to 70 mph (110 km/h); however, the storm was unable to acquire enough tropical features, and remained predominately subtropical. Gale-force winds at this time extended roughly 125 mi (210 km) out from the center to the north and east. Despite being subtropical at this point, the NHC decided against renaming it due to Amy's proximity to land. On July 2, a barometric pressure of 981 mbar (hPa; 28.97 inHg) was recorded, the lowest in relation to Amy. The following day, another trough caused the storm to accelerate northeastward. On July 4, Amy passed roughly 170 mi (270 km) southeast of Cape Race, Newfoundland before becoming an extratropical cyclone.
## Preparations and impact
Rough seas from the storm resulted in minor coastal flooding and beach erosion in North Carolina. Small craft advisories were issued along the Virginia and North Carolina coastlines as waves up to 15 ft (4.6 m) affected the region. Several beaches were closed due to the rough conditions. By July 2, the small craft advisories were discontinued as Amy tracked away from land. Tides up to 4 ft (1.2 m) in Virginia resulted in some beach erosion and coastal flooding due to the prolonged duration of the event. Although no warnings were issued, boaters in Newfoundland were advised to closely monitor the storm. In Hampton, Virginia, a funnel cloud spawned by a squall line associated with Amy formed just offshore.
As a tropical depression, Amy produced scattered rainfall in Florida, peaking around 3 in (76 mm) near the Georgia border. Along the North Carolina coast, heavy rain fell as the center of Amy tracked nearby. Many coastal areas recorded more than 3 in (76 mm) with a peak amount of 5.87 in (149 mm) falling in Belhaven, North Carolina.
Offshore, a schooner carrying four people capsized in rough seas roughly 250 mi (400 km) east of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina on June 30. The four crew were a father and his three kids. A diabetic, the 30-year-old father searched for his insulin pen in the capsized ship; however, for the fifteen days they were stranded, he was unable to find it. During the event, he slipped into a coma and later died on July 4, leaving his kids on the boat. On July 14, the three kids were rescued by the Ellinora, a Greek merchant ship.
## See also
- 1975 Atlantic hurricane season | [
"## Meteorological history",
"## Preparations and impact",
"## See also"
] | 1,044 | 13,079 |
31,345,075 | Waterlooplein metro station | 1,170,367,569 | Metro station in Amsterdam | [
"Amsterdam Metro stations",
"Railway stations in the Netherlands opened in the 1980s",
"Railway stations opened in 1980"
] | Waterlooplein is an underground metro station in the city centre of Amsterdam, Netherlands. Served by metro lines 51, 53 and 54 of the Amsterdam Metro, the station was constructed by sinking caissons with a length of 40 metres (130 ft), with the first one being lowered in 1972. There were "open tube" days in 1975 showcasing the station, which was the first time the public got access to the underground tunnels of the metro system.
The station, opened to metro traffic on 11 October 1980, has an island platform of 180 metres (590 ft) and two halls with a total of five entrances. Waterlooplein, along with other stations on the East Line, had a major renovation in 2016 that brought back the brutalist architecture used in the original station. There are two pieces of artwork located in the station: one in a station hall and the other on the platform level.
## Layout
The station was designed by two architects from the Government of Amsterdam: Ben Spangberg and Sier van Rhijn [nl]. It has an island platform of 180 metres (590 ft) long and 8 metres (26 ft) wide, located 12 metres (39 ft) under the surface. Each end of the platform goes up to its own hall, with a total of five entrances into the station. Four entrances lead up to the square of the same name, two of which go to the Stopera—the town hall of Amsterdam—while the fifth entrance is located at the Nieuwe Herengracht. There are columns in the middle of the platform, roughly 7 metres (23 ft) apart from each other. A restaurant serving Surinamese food is located inside the station. Between Waterlooplein station and Weesperplein, the line makes a turn as the following curve from Nieuwmarkt to Amsterdam Centraal would have been too tight otherwise.
## History
### Construction and opening
In a 1968 metro plan released by the information office of the municipality, the station was called Stadhuis instead of Waterlooplein. In 1970, it was announced that the market organized above on the square would be able to continue despite the construction. Work on the new town hall of the city commenced just before the station.
Most underground areas of the line were constructed by using caissons, which made pumping out groundwater unnecessary. The caissons were built above ground on-site, and had a length of 40 metres (130 ft) and a width of 10–18 metres (33–59 ft). The earth below the caissons were rinsed with water and pumped out, lowering them into their place. There were protests against the construction of the metro, as this method required the demolition of the houses above the line. The resistance at Waterooplein was limited as the neighbourhood had been in a decline. Many of its residents were deported and later killed during World War II, leaving a significant amount of the houses around the square in a bad condition.
Work around the area started in February 1971. The first caisson at Waterlooplein was lowered in January 1972, which immediately resulted in delays as it hit a previously unknown wall 8 metres (26 ft) under ground dating back to the 16th century. Several oak revetments of the Amstel river were found during construction, causing more delays to the lowering of the caissons. From August to October 1975, an "open tube" event was organized inside the station, which was the first time that locals were able to see what the metro system of the city would look like. The section of the tunnel from Waterlooplein to Amsterdam Centraal was opened on 11 October 1980.
### Later developments
The station was renovated in 2004 together with Reigersbos as part of the Neat & Tidy project. Another renovation was planned to happen from March to September 2011. The start was delayed several times and eventually started after May. Metro traffic was stopped on 23 July, in accordance with the plan, and restarted on 5 September while the work was still ongoing.
All stations on the East Line were set for another renovation in 2016. The renovation of Waterlooplein commenced in September. The architect of the renovation wanted to revert to the brutalist architecture used in the original station design. Paint on the walls were removed to reveal the bare concrete. Metro traffic still continued as entrances were closed one by one. Some of the features added after initial construction, such as the usage of primary colours and a black ceiling, were kept after the renovation. Windows were created at two of the entrances. Cables, cable ducts and pipes were concealed for tidiness. Het Parool wrote that after the renovation "[the station] suddenly look[s] as if [it is] no longer just from the past, but also a bit from now." In April 2017, the Gemeente Vervoerbedrijf started to play music through the speakers of underground metro stations as a test. The type of music would depend on the time of day: slow and calming music during rush hours, and energetic music during the afternoon.
## Artwork
Artists were invited by officials for artwork inside the stations on the East Line, with the exception of Weesperplein and Bijlmer.
Waterloo by Willem Sandberg consists of blue and red letters on the platform walls spelling out the name of the work. The typographic artwork consists of basic shapes—circles, rectangles, triangles and trapezoids—with frayed edges. The letters were planned to be removed during the 2016 renovation, as well as a few other artworks in different stations, as they were damaged. They were kept in the end due to their "cultural-historical value". Smoke screen panels were installed on the artwork to stop the spread of smoke in case of a fire. The advertisements on the walls near the letters were also removed.
Located on one of the station halls, Sporen van verlichte voetstappen by Dirk Müller is made up of several plexiglass plates of footsteps that leave a trace on the floor which continues on to a wall. The lights of the footprints illuminate one by one creating a walking motion. The footsteps were initially planned to be on Spaklerweg station, but were given to Waterlooplein due to delays with the work at Spaklerweg.
## Services
The station is served by metro lines 51, 53 and 54. North-bound, all three lines use the same track and end at Amsterdam Centraal. South-bound, M53 ends at Gaasperplas, while M54 ends at Gein. M51 used to serve the Amstelveen suburb by heading south after Amsterdam Zuid station and end at Westwijk. The section after Zuid was closed in 2019 and replaced by a tramline. M51 now continues west-bound after Zuid and ends at Isolatorweg. A tram stop near the entrance shares the same name as the metro station and is served by tram line 14 during the day. At night, night buses N85, N86, N87, N89, N91 and N93 stop near the station. | [
"## Layout",
"## History",
"### Construction and opening",
"### Later developments",
"## Artwork",
"## Services"
] | 1,506 | 9,463 |
62,666,835 | Teraupo'o | 1,085,190,516 | Tahitian resistance leader | [
"1855 births",
"1910 deaths",
"Deaths from Spanish flu",
"French Polynesian exiles",
"French Polynesian royalty",
"French prisoners and detainees",
"People from Raiatea"
] | Teraupo'o (c. 1855 – 23 December 1918) was a Tahitian (Maohi) resistance leader of the islands of Raiatea and Tahaa who fought off French rule from 1887 to 1897 during the decade-long Leeward Islands War.
Born during the decades following the Franco-Tahitian War (1844–1847), Teraupo'o was a lesser chief from the village of Avera, on the east coast of Raiatea. He grew to resent the French after being mistreated by an officer. After King Tamatoa VI of Raiatea submitted to French annexation, Teraupo'o refused to surrender and led the native resistance against the French and installed a resistance government under Tuarii as queen at Avera. He and his followers, dubbed the Teraupiste, included a majority of the natives of Raiatea and Tahaa. They fought off French colonial rule from 1887 until 1897 while attempting to convince the British to support their cause to remain independent.
The French under Governor Gustave Gallet sent for reinforcement to quell the native resistance and defeated the native forces of Raiatea in battle and the subsequent guerilla campaign that followed. Teraupo'o was captured on the night of 15–16 February 1897. After he was defeated and captured, he was exiled to New Caledonia until 1905 when he was allowed to return to Raiatea. He lived out the rest of his life as a recluse and died in 1918 of the Spanish flu epidemic.
## Early life
He was born in c. 1855 with the name Hapaitahaa a Etau, at Avera, a village on the east coast of the island of Raiatea in the Leeward Islands, a part of the larger Society Islands group. He also initially bore the name Taraiupo'o, meaning "Headhunter", while his later adopted name Teraupo'o, meaning "This Head" in the Tahitian language. Teraupo'o was considered a "chief of a minor lineage".
The Society Islands were evangelized by British missionaries and converted to Protestant Christianity by the London Missionary Society (LMS) in the early 19th century. The ari'i rahi (supreme rulers) were early patrons of the British Protestants. By the mid-19th century, the adoption of a British parliamentary system of government eroded the traditional supremacy of the ari'i rahi in favor of the ra'atira (freemen) class. Local chiefs and tāvana (district governors) gain greater power and autonomy at the expense of the nominal island monarchs especially in Raiatea-Tahaa. A decade before Teraupo'o's birth, the neighboring Kingdom of Tahiti had been subjugated under a protectorate in the Franco-Tahitian War (1844–1847) but the kingdoms of the Leeward Islands including Raiatea-Tahaa were ensured independence by France and Great Britain under the Jarnac Convention or the Anglo-French Convention of 1847.
According to French historian Auguste Charles Eugène Caillot, Teraupo'o grew to resent the French after he was kicked by a French captain or pilot in Raiatea. He allegedly received a kick from the officer in “dans la partie la moins noble de son individu" (the least noble part of his person).
## French annexation
In 1880, King Tahitoe of Raiatea accepted the provisional protectorate by French commissioner Isidore Chessé. Tahitoe was deposed by his subjects for requesting the protectorate and his daughter and successor Queen Tehauroa unsuccessfully attempted to enlist the protection of the British to preserve the independence of Raiatea in accordance with the Convention of 1847. On 16 March 1888, the French annexed Raiatea and Tahaa after formal negotiation between Great Britain and France abrogated the 1847 Convention.
The last independent monarch of Raiatea-Tahaa, King Tamatoa VI was originally from the royal family of Huahine. On 25 September 1887, five chiefs of Raiatea petitioned Papeete to send a French resident administrator. Teraupo'o refused to comply with the order of King Tamatoa VI to surrender to the French, and he built up a resistance force in 1887. Two French warships and government schooner was landed in Raiatea to override the ruling of the native courts to the advantage of a few European residents disgruntled with the recent economic depression of the copra and cotton trade. This action resulted in greater resentment within the rank of the anti-French faction of the population. LMS missionary William Edward Richards wrote that Tamatoa "abdicated rather than become the tool of the native French party" and "One or two villages [were] shelled and a great many native houses burnt down" by the French...and this made the Raiateans still more ‘resolute’ not to ‘yield quietly’ as the missionary advised". Tamatoa VI returned to Huahine to become a tāvana (district governor) and left the government of Raiatea without a king.
## War of resistance
Richards wrote in 1888 that "the whole of the Raiatean Government (save one governor Teraupoo) were enrolled as Frenchmen and nearly the whole of the people banded together as one man to resist them." Teraupo'o led the native resistance against the French in the place of Tamatoa VI. He installed a resistance government under Tuarii (a younger daughter of Tahitoe) as queen at Avera. The French established themselves at the former capital of Uturoa and appointed a résident, Marie Maximilien Gustave Alby, and had the support of Tahaa chief Tavana who became known as the viceroy of Raiatea-Tahaa. A prolonged war prevented the French from entering the rural areas of Raiatea as the native resorted to guerilla warfare. The conflict leading to the annexation of the Leeward Islands became known as the Leewards War, the Raiatean rebellion or the Teraupo’o War.
Bearing his rifle, the "'oporo 'ute'ute" or "red pepper", Teraupo'o was able to muster a force of 800 men or nearly one third of the population of the island although Newbury noted that "hardly more than 359 Ra'iateans [were] under arms". The followers of the rebel chief were referred to as the Teraupiste. Teraupo'o's brother Hupe served as his généralissime or general-in-chief. The courageous chiefess Mai of Tevaitoa and her husband Moti Roi and the chief Faterehau of Opoa and his wife, a half-white woman, named Taupe allied themselves with the Teraupiste. Foreign residents were also attracted to his cause. Jose Jordan, son of American settler and blacksmith Joseph Jordan, was a partisan of Teraupo'o, and was exiled for his involvement. The German G. Neuffer became an adopted son of Teraupo'o and supplied him with arms and funds.
From the few surviving letters of Teraupo'o, he was known to have been resolute in the belief that Great Britain would intervene on the behalf of their cause and rescue the natives from the French. The Raiateans unsuccessfully appealed to Robert Teesdale Simons, the British Consul in Tahiti, for assistance and offered their country to the "Great White Queen". In 1895, Queen Tuarii travelled to the British protectorate Rarontonga to seek help from the British Resident Frederick Moss who refused to meet with her.
Attempts were made to mediate the conflict by Consul Simons and Tati Salmon, an Anglo-Tahitian businessman of royal descent. The French Protestant missionary Jean-Frédéric Vernier, former chaplain of Tahiti's Queen Pōmare IV, also unsuccessfully attempted to sway the natives. Teraupo'o also controlled the Raiatean pastors. French Protestant missionary Pastor Gaston Brunel, who took charge of the Protestant schools on the island in 1894 and was largely sympathetic to the natives, visited the camp of the resistance leader often and gain valuable insight into the rebellion. French artist Paul Gauguin, who witnessed the final phase of the rebellion, noted that diplomacy failed to persuade the natives of Raiatea to surrender. Gauguin also witnessed the 1896 expedition to Raiatea.
The French appointed Governor Gustave Gallet to suppress the entrenched rebellion. Gallet had previous experience with suppressing the 1878 Kanak rebellion in New Caledonia. In 1896, two French warships, the Duguay Trouin and L'Aube arrived from New Caledonia with two hundred French soldiers to quell the native resistance. The invasion force was further reinforced with a company of Tahitian volunteers. On 27 December 1896, Governor Gallet attempted to parley with the rebels to avoid bloodshed. He set an ultimatum for the rebels to surrender by 1 January 1897. The rebel government at Avera under Queen Tuarii and 1700 rebels reluctantly surrendered. Teraupo'o and the rebels of Tahaa and the district of Tevaitoa refused the call, prompting the French to land and engage the remaining armed natives. The French routed the underequipped and disorganized native forces and many fled into the mountains to escape capture.
The armed native resistance ended with the capture of Teraupo'o. He and his wife and daughter fled into the mountains of Vaiaau. They evaded the French expeditionary force by hiding in the cave in the Faneuhi mountain (located at ) and rolling a boulder in front of the entrance during the day. The hiding place was discovered on the night of 15 February and 16 February 1897 when light from a fire within the cave gave the location away. On orders to capture him alive, Teraupo'o was led out of the cave by gunpoint while his family remained defiant. French historian Bruno Saura credited the discovery to "two Polynesians in the service of the French" while American historian Edward Dodd credited to an "astute French lieutenant". The casualties of the six-week campaign were nearly fifty deaths mainly on the side of the Raiateans.
## Exile and death
After the capture of Teraupo'o, the Chamber of Deputies in Paris proclaimed "the victorious end of the last military campaign in our islands". The Chamber ratified annexation on 19 November 1897. The captured resistance leaders were deported to Nouméa, New Caledonia and their followers were deported to the Ua Huka in the Marquesas Islands while others were conscripted as forced laborers to improve the roads of Raiatea. Teraupo'o, his wife and his brother Hupe were exiled in New Caledonia until 1905.
Teraupo'o was allowed to return to Raiatea in 1905 and lived out the rest of his life as a "silent, unreconstructed recluse". He died at Vaiaau on 23 December 1918, at the height of the Spanish flu epidemic. His grave is currently located at Pamatai point (located at ) under a road. The next indigenous leader to advocate French resistance and Tahitian separatism was Pouvanaa a Oopa in 1958. | [
"## Early life",
"## French annexation",
"## War of resistance",
"## Exile and death"
] | 2,403 | 5,814 |
50,897,475 | No. 75 Wing RAAF | 994,297,164 | null | [
"Military units and formations disestablished in 1944",
"Military units and formations established in 1943",
"RAAF wings"
] | No. 75 Wing was a Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) wing that operated during World War II. It was formed in October 1943 at Townsville, Queensland, under North-Eastern Area Command. The wing soon deployed to Horn Island to take control of RAAF units based there and at Thursday Island and Cape York Peninsula. Responsible for air defence and maritime patrol in the Torres Strait, No. 75 Wing's flying units operated P-40 Kittyhawk fighters, Bristol Beaufort reconnaissance bombers, and A-31 Vengeance dive bombers. The wing was disbanded in August 1944.
## History
No. 75 Wing was raised on 13 October 1943 at Garbutt in Townsville, Queensland, under the command of Wing Commander (later Group Captain) Edgar Bruce Courtney. On formation it had a staff of ten, including three officers. The wing was responsible for RAAF units at Horn Island, Thursday Island, and Higgins Field on Cape York Peninsula. An advance party departed Garbutt for Horn Island on 21 October, and the wing headquarters was fully established there six days later. The same month, No. 84 Squadron, based at Horn Island and recently converted from CAC Boomerangs to P-40 Kittyhawks, was transferred from the control of No. 72 Wing (headquartered at Merauke, New Guinea) to No. 75 Wing.
Other units at Horn Island included No. 28 Operational Base Unit, which had been located there since being formed in May 1942; No. 112 Mobile Fighter Sector Headquarters (formerly No. 12 Mobile Fighter Sector Headquarters); and a detachment of No. 7 Squadron (headquartered at Townsville), operating Bristol Beaufort reconnaissance bombers. No. 33 Operational Base Unit, formed at Townsville in April 1943, established itself at Higgins Field on 23 October. No. 1 Repair and Salvage Unit was also headquartered at Higgins, but maintained a detachment on Thursday Island. No. 23 Air Stores Park, based on Thursday Island, was responsible for logistical support of No. 75 Wing units.
No. 84 Squadron had been responsible for air defence in the Torres Strait since arriving at Horn Island in April 1943, and No. 7 Squadron for anti-shipping duties. A Beaufort of No. 7 Squadron was credited with shooting down a Japanese "Jake" seaplane during a patrol west of Horn Island on 11 November. The Beauforts undertook their first bombing and strafing mission from Horn Island against targets in Dutch New Guinea on 27 November. By the end of the year, No. 75 Wing headquarters had a strength of 144 staff, including twenty-three officers, and one de Havilland DH.84. According to George Odgers, "Although the Merauke and Horn Island squadrons had relatively slight contact with the enemy in 1943 they fulfilled a very useful purpose in conjunction with the North-Western Area squadrons in securing the flank of MacArthur's forces".
In February 1944, No. 75 Wing headquarters moved from Horn Island to Higgins Field, where it was soon joined by No. 7 Squadron and another unit now under the wing's control, No. 23 Squadron. The advance party from No. 75 Wing headquarters left Horn Island on 7 February, and the main party departed for Higgins by air and sea eleven days later. No. 7 Squadron moved to Higgins between 3 and 26 March, and No. 23 Squadron between 13 and 31 March. On 19 March, No. 112 Fighter Control Unit was re-formed at Horn Island as No. 32 Zone Filter Centre under No. 75 Wing. By the end of the month, wing headquarters staff numbered 121, including twenty officers, and the DH.84 had been augmented by a Supermarine Walrus.
On 11 March 1944, No. 84 Squadron was hurriedly redeployed to North-Western Area to replace the Supermarine Spitfires of No. 1 Wing, which had been despatched to Perth in response to a feared Japanese naval attack. No attack took place, and No. 84 Squadron returned to Horn Island less than two weeks later. On 17 May, the squadron departed Horn Island for Townsville, and was subsequently reduced to cadre. No. 7 Squadron continued operations in the Dutch East Indies from Higgins, generally in conjunction with other forces such as B-25 Mitchells from North-Western Area, before its tasking was reduced in August pending transfer to No. 71 Wing in New Guinea. No. 23 Squadron was equipped with A-31 Vengeance dive bombers and undertook army-cooperation duties out of Higgins until being declared non-operational in June. That month, a squadron leader from North-Eastern Area Command arrived at No. 75 Wing headquarters to investigate Vengeance accidents and unserviceability; on departure his Vengeance crash-landed on the beach at Princess Charlotte Bay and the crew had to be rescued by an aircraft of No. 9 Squadron. No. 23 Squadron was subsequently re-equipped with B-24 Liberator heavy bombers and transferred to North-Western Area.
By the end of July 1944, No. 75 Wing headquarters strength was sixty-three staff, including eighteen officers, and a DH.84. The wing ceased operations on 21 August, still under Courtney's command, and was disbanded four days later. Its remaining units then became the direct responsibility of North-Eastern Area headquarters. | [
"## History"
] | 1,143 | 7,257 |
34,593,796 | Zennor Head | 1,083,709,176 | Headland on the north coast of Cornwall, England | [
"Headlands of Cornwall",
"National Trust properties in Cornwall",
"Zennor"
] | Zennor Head /ˈzɛnʊər hɛd/ is a 750-metre (2,460 ft) long promontory on the Cornish coast of England, between Pendour Cove and Porthzennor Cove. Facing the Atlantic Ocean, it lies 1 kilometre north-west of the village of Zennor and 1.6 kilometres east of the next promontory, Gurnard's Head. The granite (Killas) cliffs rise over 200 feet (60 m) from the sea and the highest point of the headland is 314 feet (96 m) above sea level, with an Ordnance Survey triangulation station. Zennor Head is on the South West Coast Path, which follows the cliff edge closely, skirting the entire perimeter of the headland. The promontory is part of the Penwith Heritage Coast, and is the largest coastal feature in the United Kingdom that begins with the letter "Z". It gets its name from a local saint, Senara. Zennor Head was mined for copper and tin in the Victorian Era. There is no longer any residential or commercial occupancy on the headland, but it is occupied by a variety of coastal animals and plants, such as kestrels and gorse.
## Etymology
The name "Zennor Head" originates from the name of a local saint, Senara. According to local legend, Senara was thrown off a headland in Brittany in a barrel after being falsely accused of adultery by her husband and washed up on the Cornish coast, founding Zennor and giving her name to the eponymous village (and subsequently Zennor Head, Zennor Quoit and Porthzennor Cove), before continuing to Ireland. The "s" changed to a "z", an occurrence common in the West Country but rare elsewhere, and as such is the largest coastal feature in the United Kingdom to begin with the letter "Z".
## History
The headland is bordered by Cornish granite hedges, and the farming system dates from about 4000 BC, the time of the Bronze Age in Cornwall. The surrounding area and village of Zennor has been continually occupied for over 4,000 years. Zennor Head was mined extensively for copper and tin in the 19th century, and drainage adits remain visible on the eastern side.
The promontory was donated to the National Trust in December 1953. The Southwest Coast Path was created in 1978, and runs along the top of Zennor Head as part of its 630 miles (1,010 km), following the edge of the cliffs closely. Zennor in Darkness, the 1994 McKitterick Prize-winning novel by Helen Dunmore, was partly set around Zennor Head. In 2009 the headland suffered flooding which affected the cliff-top footpath. The promontory has been designated as part of the Penwith Heritage Coast.
## Geography and geology
Zennor Head is located on the north coast of Cornwall, England, facing the Atlantic Ocean. A headland extending some 750 metres (2,460 ft), it is surrounded by steep cliffs plunging into the sea below. It is west of the town of St Ives, and north-east of the town of Penzance. The nearest human settlement is the village of Zennor, and the headland is flanked by two coves, Pendour and Porthzennor. The nearest headland is Gurnard's Head, 1.6 kilometres to the west. Access is from the South West Coast Path, or the B3306 road (West Cornwall coast road). There is a deep inlet known as Horseback Zawn on the western side, where seabirds nest. The headland is topped by an Ordnance Survey "Trig Point". The Killas strata, which is exposed over the majority of Zennor Head, is a sedimentary rock formation laid down in the Devonian period, between approximately 415 and 375 million years ago (myr). Zennor Head is on the surface boundary of the so-called "Land's End Granite", part of the Cornubian batholith which dates from 279 to 274 myr. However, the intrusion of the granite into the Killas strata altered it metamorphically into a shale-type rock.
## Fauna and Flora
Zennor Head is home to a variety of wildlife, including the Cornish chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax). Grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) have been sighted off the coast. Many seabirds nest on the cliffs, especially around Horseback Zawn, including herring gulls (Larus argentatus) and fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis). Kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) hunt inland of the shoreline.
The headland is primarily covered with grass, as well as heather (Calluna vulgaris), bracken (Pteridium aquilinum), thyme (Thymus polytrichus) and western gorse (Ulex gallii). In 1962, specimens of the comparatively rare western clover (Trifolium occidentale) were found on Zennor Head. The lichen Dirina massiliensis has also been found high on the acid schist cliffs on the north-, seaward-side of the headland. The parasitic plant dodder (Cuscuta epithymum) is found growing on gorse. There are also typical coastal flowering plants such as kidney vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria), sea campion (Silene uniflora), and thrift (Armeria maritima).
## Gallery | [
"## Etymology",
"## History",
"## Geography and geology",
"## Fauna and Flora",
"## Gallery"
] | 1,205 | 20,025 |
22,012,768 | Intimacy Remixed | 1,171,632,265 | null | [
"2009 remix albums",
"Albums produced by Jacknife Lee",
"Albums produced by Paul Epworth",
"Bloc Party remix albums",
"Electro house remix albums",
"Wichita Recordings remix albums"
] | Intimacy Remixed is the remix album to Intimacy, the third album by indie rock band Bloc Party. It was released on 11 May 2009 in the United Kingdom through Wichita Recordings, the band's primary label, in limited edition CD and triple LP formats to coincide with Bloc Party's worldwide touring schedule. The record entered the UK Album Chart at number 79. In the United States, it achieved a peak of number 15 on the Billboard Dance/Electronic Albums chart.
The band members gave each of the original tracks, including those on the deluxe edition of Intimacy, to a number of musicians from different genres; Mogwai, Filthy Dukes, and No Age were amongst those who reworked the songs. "Signs (Armand Van Helden Remix)" was released as a single and a music video was also made for "Ares (Villains Remix)". Critics often considered the record as a poor showcase for electronic music, although a minority of reviewers commented that it was a forward-thinking piece of work.
## Release
Intimacy Remixed is the second remix album of Bloc Party's work following Silent Alarm Remixed, the remix album to debut full-length release Silent Alarm. Details of the record and its track listing were confirmed on 16 March 2009 after the band's European tour in support of Intimacy. Several dance acts, DJs, and alternative music groups were asked to rework tracks. Mogwai, whose debut album Mogwai Young Team is frontman Kele Okereke's musical "Year Zero", were drafted in to remix "Biko". "Talons (Phones R.I.P Remix)" is Intimacy co-producer Paul Epworth's last song remix under the "Phones" name. Pitchfork Media's reaction to the release news was mixed; Tom Breihan indicated that the concept could be successful, but noted that the idea of remix albums in rock music has become stagnant.
Bloc Party spent much of March and April 2009 touring in the US and Canada in support of Intimacy Remixed. The band members invited fans attending their one-off London Olympia concerts on 11–12 April to film the performances on their mobiles and send the recordings to the band online. A music video for "Ares (Villains Remix)" was created by collating the resulting footage and was webcast. "Signs (Armand Van Helden Remix)" was released as a promotional single on 27 April 2009. Intimacy Remixed was released in Europe on 11 May 2009. The album was distributed in the rest of the world on 26–27 May but no physical copies were released on US record labels. The cover art is a negative of the close-up of a couple kissing by freelance photographer Perry Curties used on Intimacy.
## Critical reception
Media response to Intimacy Remixed was generally negative: AnyDecentMusic? sums up critical consensus as a 2.9 out of 10, based on five reviews, making it one of the lowest-rated albums on the site. Emily Tartanella of PopMatters explained that the remixers' efforts ultimately make Bloc Party's work "less engaging, less meaningful". Ben Patashnik of NME stated that the album is largely monotonous and includes too many pedestrian experiments in dance music. Drowned in Sound's Chris Power indicated that "in putting their names to the album Bloc Party seem to be saying they either don't care about what they ask fans to spend their money on or they don't know much about electronic music".
BBC's Lou Thomas was more receptive and commented that Intimacy Remixed is unprecedented in its field and entirely better than Intimacy. James Hendicott of State.ie described the album as "something special" that should appeal to both Bloc Party fans and dance music lovers due to its "highly listenable, subtly energetic sound". Pitchfork Media's Ian Cohen was largely disappointed with the record and concluded, "Remix albums all but acknowledge their own inessentiality—why not take more chances when only the diehards are going to subject themselves to 60 minutes of someone else's idea of what Intimacy could sound like?"
## Composition
Electronic music duo Villains reworked "Ares" by replacing the big beat percussion of the original with electronic drums and synthesisers. The result was compared to the music of French band Justice by Lou Thomas of the BBC. British DJ Hervé's mix of Mercury" removes the horns of the original and instead includes keyboards in an electro house-like composition. We Have Band's version of "Halo" is the only dub song on the Intimacy Remixed and incorporates a modulating synth line on top of cut-up vocals. Alex Hibbert of Rockfeedback noted its "euphoric" percussion. Scottish post-rockers Mogwai infused Bloc Party's blueprint in "Biko" with electronica elements.
"Trojan Horse" was given a drum and bass reworking by English DJ John B, while another U.S. DJ, Armand Van Helden, remixed "Signs" through the inclusion of trance beats and studio effects such as high-pass filters. Synthpop group Filthy Dukes took charge of "One Month Off" and created an electro house version of the track according to Chris Power of Drowned in Sound. Paul Epworth's "Talons (Phones R.I.P Remix)" contains samples from "You Don't Know Nothing About Love" by Carl Hall and the use of a vocoder. "Better Than Heaven" was remixed by American noise pop duo No Age and begins with a rhythmic pattern on the piano. The song features feedback, distorted drumming, and backmasked vocals.
London-based Italian solo act Alessio Andalusia, under his Banjo or Freakout alias, provided the remix for "Ion Square" and created an ambient version of the original. The track infuses Bloc Party's blueprint with keyboards, looped strings, and ethereal vocals. Power concluded, "By taking the percolating synth from the end of the original version and wrapping the sweet ee cummings-borrowed lyric—"I carry your heart here with me"—in a dense cloud of treated, looped guitar, he produces a remix that ... offers an interesting, possibly even superior, reading of its source material." Album closer "Your Visits Are Getting Shorter (Optothetic Remix)" was named as a "generic commercial dance music" song by Lee White of This Is Fake DIY.
## Track listing
All songs originally written and composed by Bloc Party and remixed by each credited artist.
- The limited edition UK triple LP version and the Japanese edition include "Your Visits Are Getting Shorter" (Double D Remix) as track 13.
Bonus tracks on the Japanese edition
1. <li value="14">
"Talons" (Acoustic) – 4:32
2. "Signs" (Acoustic) – 3:24
## Release history
## Chart positions
Album
Singles
"—" denotes releases that did not chart. | [
"## Release",
"## Critical reception",
"## Composition",
"## Track listing",
"## Release history",
"## Chart positions"
] | 1,469 | 12,454 |
16,964,345 | Typhoon Neoguri (2008) | 1,163,805,195 | Pacific typhoon in 2008 | [
"2008 Pacific typhoon season",
"2008 disasters in the Philippines",
"Tropical cyclones in 2008",
"Typhoons",
"Typhoons in China",
"Typhoons in Hong Kong",
"Typhoons in the Philippines"
] | Typhoon Neoguri (), known in the Philippines as Typhoon Ambo, was the earliest tropical cyclone on record to strike China. The first named storm in the 2008 Pacific typhoon season, named after the Korean word for raccoon dog, it formed from a low pressure area on April 13 to the east of the Philippine island of Mindanao, and after crossing the island it intensified into a tropical storm in the South China Sea. Environmental conditions allowed for quick strengthening, with Neoguri attaining typhoon status on April 16. The typhoon reached its peak intensity on April 18 as it approached the island of Hainan, and subsequently it turned northward. Due to increased wind shear and cooler waters, Neoguri rapidly weakened and made landfall as a minimal tropical storm in southern China on April 19.
In the southern Philippines, the storm brought heavy rainfall, which left a person missing when a boat capsized. The typhoon left 40 fishermen missing in the South China Sea. Neoguri brought heavy rainfall as it made its final landfall on China, causing moderate damage totaling over ¥296 million (2008 RMB, \$42 million 2008 USD). Three deaths occurred in China.
## Meteorological history
An area of disorganized convection persisted east-northeast of Palau on April 11 in association with a sharp easterly wave, and within the system, a low pressure area was evident between Palau and Yap. Located beneath a developing anticyclone, with limited wind shear and enhanced diffluence, the system encountered favorable conditions for development. By April 13, a low-level circulation had formed and started consolidating about 260 km (160 mi) southeast of Bislig on Mindanao island in the Philippines. At around the same time, weak rainbands began wrapping into the center. At 1200 UTC on April 13, the JMA classified it as a weak tropical depression. Its development was impeded somewhat as it crossed Mindanao and Negros island, though the circulation consolidated while convective banding features increased. Later that day, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) classified the system as Tropical Depression Ambo, and early on April 14 the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) classified it as Tropical Depression 02W about 300 km (185 mi north of the Zamboanga Peninsula). Also, PAGASA declared "Ambo" at 0300 UTC April 14 to be within Dumaguete.
The depression continued westward, along the southern periphery of a strong subtropical ridge extending from southeastern Asia to north of Luzon. After it entered the Sulu Sea, the convection and circulation continued to consolidate, while its anticyclone aloft provided excellent outflow. Based on satellite intensity estimates using the Dvorak technique, the JTWC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm 02W midday on April 14. At 0000 UTC on April 15, the JMA classified the system as a full tropical depression, and six hours later the agency upgraded it to Tropical Storm Neoguri after it crossed Palawan island into the South China Sea. Shortly thereafter, the PAGASA issued its last advisory on the cyclone as the storm moved out of their area of warning responsibility.
After attaining tropical storm status, significant intensification was limited due to a slight increase in wind shear as well as impeded outflow. The slowing of the strengthening trend was temporary, and by early on April 16 the organization had rapidly improved. As a result, the JMA upgraded Neoguri to a severe tropical storm. Warm water temperatures contributed to further intensification, and an eye formed in the center of the convection. At 1200 UTC on April 16, the JMA classified Neoguri as a typhoon about 350 km (220 mi) east of Qui Nhon, Vietnam. An approaching mid-level trough turned the typhoon northwestward, which enhanced outflow and contributed to further intensification. Late on April 17, the JTWC assessed Neoguri as attaining peak winds of 175 km/h (110 mph), averaged over a duration of one minute, near the Paracel Islands. Early the next day, the JMA estimated Neoguri reached its peak intensity with ten-minute sustained winds of 150 km/h (90 mph), about 190 km (120 mi) east of Sanya on the southern tip of Hainan.
Typhoon Neoguri underwent an eyewall replacement cycle around the time it reached peak intensity; the inner eyewall collapsed, and the outer eyewall contracted to a diameter of 65 km (40 mi). Upon attaining peak winds, the typhoon had turned northward, and the China Meteorological Administration assessed Neoguri as moving ashore along Hainan island near Wenchang. However, other agencies assessed the typhoon as tracking parallel to the eastern coastline just offshore. Land interaction and wind shear weakened the typhoon, and by April 19 it had weakened to a tropical storm. Cooler waters contributed to further weakening, causing its convection to diminish significantly and for its circulation to become elongated. After turning to the north-northeast, Neoguri made landfall on Guangdong province in southern China, a short distance west of Macau as a weak tropical storm. Neoguri made landfall on China earlier than any other tropical cyclone on record, about two weeks prior to the previous record set by Typhoon Wanda in 1971. Shortly after moving ashore, the JTWC issued its final warning as the cyclone began dissipating.
## Preparations and impact
As Ambo (Neoguri) passed directly through many parts Visayas and Mindanao, PAGASA issued Public Storm Warning Signals for these areas. Signal number one was issued for southern Negros, Siquijor and Camiguin. This storm signal was later scaled back up until the storm reached Palawan and the South China Sea.
As a tropical depression, Neoguri (Ambo) brought heavy rainfall to many portions of the Philippines, including even Metro Manila. In Cebu City, the precipitation caused flooding, which forced 62 people to evacuate their houses. In the Camotes Islands, rough waves capsized a motorboat with six passengers; five were rescued, with the other reported missing. But the storm at least alleviated for a few days the heat that has been experienced over Luzon from the past weeks. However, the storm did not stop the Palarong Pambansa (National Games in the Philippines) which was held in Puerto Princesa City in Palawan, one of the areas said by PAGASA to see stormy weather.
In preparation for the storm, about 21,800 fishing boats in the Chinese province of Hainan returned to port, and about 120,000 people evacuated from fish farms and low-lying areas on the island. Officials halted ferry service between Hainan and the Leizhou Peninsula in Guangdong province. Offshore, 56 fishermen rode out the storm in a shelter on the Paracel Islands; 38 people were rescued shortly after the storm, and initially eighteen people were reported missing. The eighteen missing fishermen were found thirty hours after Neoguri struck. The ship they were on had sunk, and the crew clung to debris and made makeshift rafts to survive in the waters. However, another 18 Chinese fisherman and 22 Vietnamese fisherman remain missing. On Hainan island, the storm left the city of Wenchang without power.
Along the mainland, ferry service was temporarily stopped between Hong Kong and Macau. At the Hong Kong International Airport, over 200 flights were delayed due to the threat of the storm; additionally, around 30 were canceled, and 66 others were deviated elsewhere. The Hong Kong Observatory issued a standby warning signal on April 17, which was the second earliest standby signal on record. One day later, the No. 3 strong wind signal was issued, the earliest in record. As it moved ashore, the storm brought heavy rainfall, with one station reporting 237 mm (9.35 in) in one day. Strong winds downed coconut and banana trees, with agricultural damage totaling over ¥200 million (2008 RMB, \$28 million 2008 USD). Structural damage amounted to ¥96 million (2008 RMB, \$14 million 2008 USD). Three fatalities were confirmed in China, two due to a road being covered in a mud flow, and another due to winds blowing a sheet of aluminum into a person, throwing them off the roof of a stadium.
## See also
- Other tropical cyclones named Neoguri
- Other tropical cyclones named Ambo
- Timeline of the 2008 Pacific typhoon season | [
"## Meteorological history",
"## Preparations and impact",
"## See also"
] | 1,827 | 44,414 |
14,370,828 | HMS Renown (1895) | 1,116,692,963 | British predreadnought battleship | [
"1895 ships",
"Centurion-class battleships",
"Ships built in Pembroke Dock",
"Victorian-era battleships of the United Kingdom"
] | HMS Renown was a second-class predreadnought battleship built for the Royal Navy in the early 1890s. Intended to command cruiser squadrons operating on foreign stations, the ship served as the flagship of the North America and West Indies Station and the Mediterranean Fleet early in her career. Becoming obsolete as cruiser speeds increased, Renown became a royal yacht and had all of her secondary armament removed to make her more suitable for such duties. She became a stoker's training ship in 1909 and was listed for disposal in 1913. The ship was sold for scrap in early 1914.
## Design and description
Production of a new 12-inch gun was behind schedule and the three battleships planned for the 1892 Naval Programme that were intended to use the new gun had to be delayed. In their stead, an improved Centurion-class battleship design was chosen to keep the workers at Pembroke Dockyard fully employed. No formal requirement for a second-class battleship suitable for use as the flagship on foreign stations or to reinforce cruiser squadrons existed at the time, but the decision to build the ship was strongly influenced by the views of the Controller of the Navy, Rear Admiral John A. "Jacky" Fisher and the Director of Naval Intelligence, Captain Cyprian Bridge who favoured smaller ships with a smaller main armament and large secondary armament. They pressed for additional ships of this type as substitutes for the two other battleships originally programmed, but this was rejected by the Admiralty as there was no demand for additional second-class battleships.
The Director of Naval Construction, William Henry White, submitted three designs in early April 1892 and the smallest one was chosen on 11 April. The design was quite innovative in several different ways. It was the first battleship to use Harvey armour, which allowed the secondary casemates to be armoured, the first to use a sloping armour deck and the first to provide armoured shields over the main armament.
### General characteristics
Renown had an overall length of 412 feet 3 inches (125.7 m), a beam of 72 feet 4 inches (22.0 m), and a draught of 27 feet 3 inches (8.3 m) at deep load. She displaced 11,690 long tons (11,880 t) at normal load and 12,865 long tons (13,071 t) at deep load. The ship had a metacentric height of 3.75 feet (1.1 m) at deep load.
In 1903, the crew numbered between 651 and 674 officers and ratings. She was considered to handle well by her captains and was a good sea-boat. In view of her intended duties abroad, her bottom was coppered to reduce biofouling.
### Propulsion
Renown was powered by a pair of three-cylinder vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving a single propeller. Steam for the engines was provided by eight cylindrical boilers at a working pressure of 155 psi (1,069 kPa; 11 kgf/cm<sup>2</sup>). The engines were designed to produce a total of 10,000 indicated horsepower (7,500 kW) which was intended to allow her to reach a speed of 17 knots (31 km/h; 20 mph). The engines proved to be more powerful than anticipated and Renown reached 18.75 knots (34.73 km/h; 21.58 mph) during sea trials under forced draught. The ship carried a maximum of 1,890 long tons (1,920 t) of coal, enough to steam 6,400 nautical miles (11,900 km; 7,400 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph).
### Armament
She was armed with four 32-calibre, breech-loading 10-inch Mk III guns in two twin-gun barbettes, one forward and one aft. Each gun was provided with 105 shells. Her secondary armament consisted of ten 40-calibre quick-firing (QF) 6-inch Mk II guns. Half a dozen of these guns were mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull and the remaining guns were mounted on the upper deck in casemates in the superstructure. Defence against torpedo boats was provided by a dozen QF 12-pounder 12 cwt guns. Eight of these were mounted on the upper deck amidships. They fired 3-inch (76 mm), 12.5-pound (5.7 kg) shells at a muzzle velocity of 2,548 ft/s (777 m/s). 200 rounds per gun were carried by each ship. Renown also carried eight QF 3-pounder Hotchkiss guns. Each gun was provided with 500 rounds of ammunition. She had five 18-inch torpedo tubes, one in the stern above water and two on each broadside underwater.
### Armour
The ship's protection was generally composed of Harvey armour and her waterline main belt was 6–8 inches (152–203 mm) thick. It was 210 feet (64.0 m) long amidships and 7.5 feet (2.3 m) high of which 5 feet (1.5 m) was below the waterline at normal load. Fore and aft oblique bulkheads, 10 inches (254.0 mm) and 6 inches (152 mm)] thick, connected the belt armour to the barbettes. The upper strake of six-inch armour was 180 feet (54.9 m) long and 6.75 feet (2.1 m) high. It covered the ship's side between the rear of the barbettes up to the level of the main deck. Oblique bulkheads six inches thick connected the upper armour to the barbettes.
Renown was the first British battleship to be built with a sloped armoured deck behind the main belt as was commonly used on British protected cruisers. The top of the protective deck was even with the top of the main armoured belt and sloped down at 45° angle to meet the bottom of the belt. It was 2 inches (51 mm) thick on the flat and 3 inches (76 mm) on the slope and ran between the barbettes. Outside the barbettes, the lower deck was three inches thick and ran towards the ends of the ship.
The barbettes were protected by 10-inch (254 mm) armour plates. The gun turrets that protected the main armament were six inches thick on their face, with three-inch sides and a 1-inch (25 mm) roof. They were initially built without a rear plate because of weight distribution problems with the turrets. The upper deck casemates were protected by 4-inch (102 mm) plates on the front and sides, but the main deck casemates had six-inch faces and sides. The stern torpedo tube was protected by a mantlet three to six inches thick. The sides of the forward conning tower were 9 inches (229 mm) thick while those of the rear conning tower were only three inches in thickness.
## Construction and career
Renown was laid down at Pembroke Dockyard on 1 February 1893 and launched on 8 May 1895. She was completed in January 1897 at a cost of £751,206, but then underwent lengthy sea trials that included the changing of her propeller blades that lasted until June. The ship commissioned on 8 June 1897 and served as flagship for the Commander-in-Chief, Vice Admiral Sir Nowell Salmon, VC, on 26 June, at the Fleet Review at Spithead for the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, with the Prince of Wales aboard. She was briefly attached to the 1st Division, of the Channel Squadron, from 7 to 12 July for manoeuvres off the south coast of Ireland. On 24 August, Renown became Fisher's flagship, relieving the protected cruiser Crescent as flagship of the North America and West Indies Station. The ship continued as such until beginning a refit in May 1899.
Upon completion of her refit in July, she transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet, once again becoming Fisher's flagship. A strong proponent of the design of Renown, Fisher also found her highly desirable for the hosting of the social events required of a flagship in peacetime. Captain Hugh Tyrwhitt was appointed in command on 19 March 1900. Renown also underwent a special refit at Malta from February to May 1900 to meet Fisher's requirements for her. This included the transfer of the main deck 12-pounders to the superstructure. The ship recommissioned on 19 November 1900, and served as flagship until Fisher ended his tour as Commander-in-Chief on 4 June 1902, after which she continued to serve in the Mediterranean Fleet as a private ship under a new captain, Arthur Murray Farquhar. Renown participated in combined manoeuvres off Cephalonia and Morea between 29 September and 6 October 1902.
After the manoeuvres ended, she was detached from the Mediterranean Fleet and returned to the United Kingdom to be specially fitted out at Portsmouth to carry the Duke and Duchess of Connaught on a royal tour of India. These modifications included removal of the main deck six-inch guns. After the modifications, she was nicknamed the "Battleship Yacht." Renown carried the Duke and Duchess on their royal tour of India from November 1902 to March 1903. The ship rejoined the Mediterranean Fleet in April. In August, she relieved Venerable as flagship of the fleet so that the latter ship could undergo a refit. From 5 to 9 August 1903, Renown participated in manoeuvres off the coast of Portugal.
Renown was placed into reserve at Devon on 15 May 1904, although she participated in manoeuvres the following month. On 21 February 1905, the ship began a special refit at Portsmouth to configure her as a royal yacht. During the refit, the remainder of her secondary armament was removed to increase her accommodations. On 8 October, Renown left Portsmouth bound for Genoa, Italy. At Genoa, the Prince and Princess of Wales—the future King George V and Queen Mary—embarked for a royal tour of India. The first-class protected cruiser Terrible escorted the ship during the tour. At the conclusion of the tour, Renown departed Karachi on 23 March 1906 and arrived at Portsmouth on 7 May. She was placed into reserve on 31 May.
In May 1907, Renown was attached to the Home Fleet as a "subsidiary yacht". Between October and December 1907, Renown carried King Alfonso XIII and Queen Victoria Eugenia of Spain on an official trip to and from the United Kingdom. The ship was transferred to the 4th Division, Home Fleet, at Portsmouth on 1 April 1909. Five months later, 25 September, she began a refit in Portsmouth Dockyard to convert her for use as a stoker's training ship.
Renown briefly served as a tender to HMS Victory in October before her refit was completed in November. During the Coronation Review at Spithead on 24 June 1911 for King George V, the ship was used as an accommodation ship. She was slightly damaged when water tanker Aid rammed her on 26 November 1911. Renown was offered for sale on 31 January 1913 and partially dismantled. In December 1913, she was moored at the Motherbank, awaiting disposal. On 1 April 1914 she was sold at auction to Hughes Bolckow for scrap at a price of £39,000. She was broken up at Blyth. | [
"## Design and description",
"### General characteristics",
"### Propulsion",
"### Armament",
"### Armour",
"## Construction and career"
] | 2,468 | 32,589 |
4,370,098 | Take Me Home (Cher song) | 1,169,233,143 | 1979 single by Cher | [
"1978 songs",
"1979 singles",
"2001 debut singles",
"American disco songs",
"Casablanca Records singles",
"Cher songs",
"Music videos directed by Sophie Muller",
"Number-one singles in Scotland",
"Polydor Records singles",
"Songs written by Bob Esty",
"Sophie Ellis-Bextor songs"
] | "Take Me Home" is a song recorded by American singer and actress Cher for her fifteenth studio album. The album, released in 1979, bore the same name as the single. "Take Me Home" is a disco song conceived after Cher was recommended to venture into said genre after the commercial failure of her previous albums. The lyrics center around the request of a woman to be taken home by her lover. It was released as the lead single from the Take Me Home album in January 1979 through Casablanca Records, pressed as a 12-inch single.
Music critics gave positive reviews of "Take Me Home", highlighting its sound and melody. The single fared well in the United States charts, peaking at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 and entering three of its component charts. In Oceania, it entered the singles chart of New Zealand at number 49. It was also a hit in Canada, reaching the top-ten of the singles chart.
## Background and composition
After releasing the studio albums Stars (1975), I'd Rather Believe in You (1976), Cherished and Two the Hard Way (1977), which became commercial failures, Cher went to the headquarters of Casablanca Records, in order to start recording for a new full-length record. She was hoping to record rock and roll-tinged music, though she was quickly advised by Neil Bogart to delve into disco music before recording with a genre that, according to him, she was not very good at. She was reluctant to take his advice, as she regarded disco as a "superficial" genre and did not believe it was "serious music". However, she took his advice, and started working with Bob Esty, who arranged and produced records for Donna Summer and Barbra Streisand. Esty was skeptical of Cher's decision to record disco music, although he changed his mind after he began recording with her. The first song he played her was a demo of "Take Me Home", which Cher said she liked.
"Take Me Home" is a disco song running at a length of six minutes and forty-five seconds (6:45). Its lyrics see Cher asking her partner to "take her home", which is an indirect way of expressing her desire to have sexual intercourse. For the book The Persistence of Sentiment: Display and Feeling in Popular Music of the 1970s, Mitchell Morris commented on the song: "Ostensibly a plea to be chosen, the song relies on the musical force of the arrangement combined with Cher's vocal presence to turn this plea into an irresistible demand, the auditory equivalent of the showgirl's direct gaze."
## Release and reception
"Take Me Home" was released in the United States as a 12-inch single at a 33 1⁄3 rpm by Casablanca Records, containing the original version of "Take Me Home" and B-side "Wasn't It Good". Therefore, it served as the album's lead single. Promotional versions were also sent to radio stations in the United States with a different coloring on the vinyl, although with the same track listing. In Germany and France, the vinyl was pressed by Philips and branded as a "Super Single" and substituted "Wasn't It Good" with "My Song (Far Too Gone)". Some international pressings' vinyl sleeves had the same image as that of its parent album printed, featuring Cher dressed in a "gilded Viking warrior get-up", a winged bikini bottom, wings and a gold scabbard attached to her hip. UGO Networks' K. Thor Jensen considered the sleeve to be her "bad taste highwater mark", and named her outfit "Flash Gordon-esque". In the United Kingdom, when "Wasn't It Good" was issued as a vinyl single, "Take Me Home" served as its B-side.
The staff of Billboard magazine picked it as a recommended disco single and wrote: "[The song] is an upbeat, cleanly produced sound with a light, easy melody. It's sure to catch the ears of the disco set." A reviewer for AllMusic singled out the track from its parent album, feeling it was one of its "track picks". Having spent in total 20 weeks on the US Billboard Hot 100, "Take Me Home" peaked at number eight, thus making it Cher's first top 10 single since 1974's "Dark Lady". It also entered its component charts of Adult Contemporary, Hot Dance Club Play (now the Hot Dance Club Songs) and Hot Soul Singles (now Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs) charts, respectively, at numbers 19, two and 21. It was certified Gold in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on May 3, 1979. Billboard ran an article on Cher's biggest hits on the Hot 100, where "Take Me Home" was listed as the eleventh. The single was a hit in Canada, where it reached the top 10 on the charts. In New Zealand it reached number 49 and stayed for two weeks before leaving the chart.
## Live performances
Cher performed the song on her Take Me Home Tour wearing a shiny silver wig along with a matching silver sequin dress. She performed the song for the first time in twenty years on her concerts from her Do You Believe? Tour, which ran from 1999 to 2000, wearing an almost identical silver sequined outfit she wore during the Take Me Home tour. During her Living Proof: The Farewell Tour (2002–05), she performed it in a similar fashion, changing the wig and shirt-and-pants set's color to a sparkly red. At her residence in Las Vegas at Caesars Palace, in the show Cher at the Colosseum, Cher performed the song in a similar costume in turquoise color. Cher also performed the song in her Classic Cher shows with the turquoise costume from Caesars Palace.
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## Sophie Ellis-Bextor cover
"Take Me Home" (also known as "Take Me Home (A Girl Like Me)") was covered by English recording artist Sophie Ellis-Bextor for her debut studio album Read My Lips (2001). It contains rewritten lyrics by Ellis-Bextor, while British musician Damian LeGassick handled production and a few other tasks. Polydor Records released it as both a digital download and a CD single on August 13, 2001, alongside a remix and B-side track "Sparkle".
An accompanying music video, directed by Sophie Muller, was included in the CD single release and features Ellis-Bextor in a variety of outfits and high-couture clothes. In 2018, "Take Me Home" was released in a re-recorded orchestral version as the second single off Ellis-Bextor's greatest hits compilation The Song Diaries.
### Background
Ellis-Bextor first ventured into the music business as the frontwoman for indie rock band theaudience. A moderately successful band, they released an album with Mercury Records and eLLeFFe, which spawned various singles, including "I Know Enough (I Don't Get Enough)", which reached number twenty-five on the UK Singles Chart. After finishing up the promotion for their debut album, they recorded a demo tape for a potential second album, however, Mercury dropped them and they split shortly afterwards. Following the disbandment of the group, Ellis-Bextor recorded vocals for DJ Spiller's single "Groovejet (If This Ain't Love)", which ultimately became a commercial success, peaking at number one on the UK Singles Chart in 2000.
### Production and composition
The track was produced by British musician Damian LeGassick, who also mixed and engineered the song. He additionally played the keyboards and the guitar while programming them. The bass guitar was played by Guy Pratt and programmed by Yoad Nevo. Jake Davis served as an engineer for mix; he also helmed the additional programming and sound design. The sound was remixed and additionally produced by Jeremy Wheatley at the Townhouse studios, while Ellis-Bextor's vocals were produced and recorded by Bacon & Quarmby at the Strongroom studios.
Being a cover of Cher's song, the song retains writing credits for Bob Esty and Michele Aller, while Ellis-Bextor included new lyrics written by herself. While both versions address sexual intercourse, the publication noted that in the original version, Cher "sings romantically about 'makin' love'" while Ellis-Bextor sings "more aggressive" lyrics such as "only fair I get my way". Even before Ellis-Bextor had released the cover, Cher's management deemed the rewritten lyrics overly sexual. To NME, Ellis-Bextor stated:
> I was told by my publishers that Cher heard my version and she doesn't like my new lyrics. She thinks it's too overtly sexual. But the original writers were happy for me to do that—Cher didn't actually write it so she didn't get approval about what happened to the song. Now apparently she's heard what I've done and she doesn't like it.
### Release and reception
"Take Me Home" was released by Polydor Records in the United Kingdom on August 13, 2001, and in the United States as an import. It was released as a legal digital download and an enhanced maxi CD single; both featured the Ellis-Bextor cover, B-side "Sparkle" and a Jewels & Stone remix, while the latter contained the song's music video for the song. The single was also pressed as an edition dubbed the "Mixes & Remixes" EP, released only in France. A 12-inch single was also pressed in the United Kingdom, with remixes. Two AllMusic writers reviewed the song. Upon its release as a single, Dean Carlson gave it a negative rating of one and a half star out of five, commenting: "[...] Ellis Bextor is well aware of what's required for beating the likes of Victoria Beckham and Emma Bunton at their own game—simply take Cher's "Take Me Home" and add one disco beat circa ABBA's 'Fernando', being mindful to avoid its cocaine harmonies and the air of free love [...], techno-fy it with random fiddly bits, sing with the breathless detachment of someone getting a massage from a lumberjack, and chuck in some remixes just so everybody knows that you're not utterly out of step." After its parent album's release, Kelvin Hayes denoted it as one of the album's strongest tracks, as did Toby Manning from Q. For Yahoo! Music, Gary Crossing wrote that the album "start[ed] well with the song", while describing it as Spiller-esque. Betty Clarke of The Guardian regarded "Take Me Home" as a "pleasant enough song", though she called the production and Ellis-Bextor's vocals "more tired than sexy".
On the UK Singles Chart, the song was a commercial success, debuting and peaking at number 2. While extensively analyzing the song, Justin Myers from the Official Charts Company observed that although the song had reached the runner-up position on the UK Singles Chart, it was largely overshadowed by "Murder on the Dancefloor". In Netherlands and Germany, the song peaked at number 79, respectively on the Dutch Top 40 and Media Control Charts—staying on each chart for respectively 12 and 5 weeks. The song also reached top 20 on the Recorded Music NZ singles chart of New Zealand, where it stayed for 14 weeks before leaving the chart.
### Promotion
To promote the song, Sophie Muller filmed a music video for "Take Me Home" which was released on the song's CD single. The video was also included in her video album Watch My Lips (2002).' It opens with Ellis-Bextor, dressed in a black one-strap dress, in front of a yellow-toned painting of a woman with red lips. Throughout the music video, Ellis-Bextor is seen in a variety of dresses and outfits—she appears standing in front of a green mural with a flowery large tablecloth, while dressing a see-through shirt, which reveals her black bra; other scene shows her with a dark green gown; other shows her with a flower and leaves pattern and holding a in front of a projected image which shows the Eiffel Tower from far. She also appears dressed in a green trench coat in another scene. Usually, costume and location scenes are accompanied by a change of gradient color, which are projected onto Ellis-Bextor. By the middle of the video, she walks across a street, surrounded by formally-dressed men, who dance around her and lift her. After the song's middle 8 plays, the lights of the street turn on and various French event posters are shown. The video concludes as they all enter a disco club. She also performed the track at the Read My Lips Tour (2002–03), serving as its encore. Ellis-Bextor would shortly introduce the song, with green eye makeup and red lipstick, dressed in a cream-colored dress and pink heels. As the backing track started playing, she would start singing and clapping her hands as the public imitated her, and the audience was showered with confetti.
### Charts
#### Weekly charts
#### Year-end charts
### Certifications
### Release history | [
"## Background and composition",
"## Release and reception",
"## Live performances",
"## Charts",
"### Weekly charts",
"### Year-end charts",
"## Certifications",
"## Sophie Ellis-Bextor cover",
"### Background",
"### Production and composition",
"### Release and reception",
"### Promotion",
"### Charts",
"#### Weekly charts",
"#### Year-end charts",
"### Certifications",
"### Release history"
] | 2,765 | 3,661 |
27,959,089 | Marshall S. Cornwell | 1,162,655,681 | American writer and newspaper publisher | [
"1871 births",
"1898 deaths",
"19th-century American essayists",
"19th-century American male writers",
"19th-century American newspaper editors",
"19th-century American newspaper publishers (people)",
"19th-century American poets",
"19th-century deaths from tuberculosis",
"American columnists",
"American male journalists",
"American male poets",
"American people of Welsh descent",
"Burials at Indian Mound Cemetery",
"Cornwell family",
"Editors of West Virginia newspapers",
"English-language poets",
"Legislative clerks",
"People from Elkins, West Virginia",
"People from Petersburg, West Virginia",
"People from Romney, West Virginia",
"People of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind",
"Tuberculosis deaths in West Virginia",
"West Virginia Republicans",
"Writers from West Virginia"
] | Marshall Silas Cornwell (October 18, 1871 – May 26, 1898) was a 19th-century American newspaper publisher and editor, writer and poet in the U.S. state of West Virginia. Cornwell was a younger brother of railroad and timber executive William B. Cornwell (1864–1926) and West Virginia Governor John Jacob Cornwell (1867–1953).
He was born on his family's farm on South Branch Mountain near Springfield, West Virginia in 1871 and received his education at home and in nearby rural schools. He left his family's farm and became editor and publisher of the South Branch Gazette newspaper in Petersburg, West Virginia in 1893. The newspaper prospered under his leadership and his editorials received the attention of United States Senator Stephen Benton Elkins. He was briefly the editor of The Mountain Breeze newspaper in Petersburg in 1894. At the invitation of Elkins, Cornwell began operating The Inter-Mountain newspaper in Elkins, West Virginia that same year, and its circulation increased under his leadership. During his tenure there, Cornwell served as an assistant clerk of the West Virginia House of Delegates under Chief Clerk William M. O. Dawson, who later served as Governor of West Virginia. In 1896 Cornwell represented Randolph County as a delegate to the West Virginia Republican Party 2nd Congressional District convention.
Cornwell's health declined in 1896, possibly due to tuberculosis, and he subsequently resigned as the editor of The Inter-Mountain to concentrate on improving his health. During the winter of 1896–97, Cornwell traveled to the eastern shore of Florida and wrote poetry. He returned to Hampshire County in 1897, where he was appointed secretary of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind Board of Regents. He also wrote a column in his brothers' Hampshire Review newspaper entitled "Wheat and Chaff." Cornwell traveled to the Rio Grande in southwest Texas throughout the winter of 1897–98 to improve his health in the warmer climate. He continued writing short essays about his travels and the places he encountered. Cornwell returned to his home in Romney in 1898 where he died from tuberculosis at age 26. Following his death, his brothers William and John Jacob published a collection of his poetry in 1899 in a volume entitled Wheat and Chaff. After this, newspapers across the United States, including the St. Louis Globe-Democrat, The Baltimore Sun, The Morning Post in Raleigh and The Railroad Trainman republished his poem "Success".
## Early life and education
Marshall Silas Cornwell was born on his family's farm on South Branch Mountain (also known as "Jersey Mountain") near Springfield, 12 miles (19 km) from Romney, in Hampshire County, West Virginia on October 18, 1871. He was the third-eldest son and child of Jacob H. Cornwell and his wife Mary Eleanor Taylor Cornwell. Cornwell's older brothers were railroad and timber executive William B. Cornwell (1864–1926) and John Jacob Cornwell (1867–1953), who served as the 15th Governor of West Virginia (1917–21).
Cornwell grew to adulthood on his family's farm and although he did not have access to a liberal education, he received his education at home and in rural schools. As an autodidact in various subjects, he was well-read, exhibited an "insatiable thirst for knowledge" and possessed a remarkable memory.
## Career as newspaper editor and publisher
In 1890 Cornwell's elder brothers William and John Jacob Cornwell purchased The Review newspaper in Romney. Later that year, the Cornwell brothers purchased The Review's rival newspaper in Romney, the South Branch Intelligencer. Following this acquisition, the Cornwell brothers added Hampshire to the newspaper's name and included and the South Branch Intelligencer in smaller print within the masthead underneath The Hampshire Review. His brothers' newspaper work may have inspired Cornwell's interest in becoming a newspaper editor and publisher.
In 1893 Cornwell left his family's farm and became the editor and publisher of the South Branch Gazette newspaper in Petersburg in Grant County, West Virginia. When he became managing editor of the South Branch Gazette, The Clarksburg Telegram praised Cornwell "as one of the rising young men of the Little Mountain State." The Gazette became a profitable newspaper under his leadership and its success, and his well-written editorials, received the attention of United States Senator Stephen Benton Elkins. In 1894, Cornwell became the editor of The Mountain Breeze newspaper in Petersburg.
Elkins invited Cornwell to take charge of The Inter-Mountain newspaper in Elkins in Randolph County. Cornwell accepted the position from Elkins in 1894 and made a success of the paper just as he had done with the Gazette in Petersburg. The circulation of The Inter-Mountain increased under his leadership. The Clarksburg Telegram again remarked upon Cornwell's abilities as a newspaper editor in June 1895, stating that The Inter-Mountain was "destined to play a prominent part in the journalism of this State if it continues long under the management of that energetic and wide awake young West Virginian, M. S. Cornwell." In July 1895, Cornwell and Tygart's Valley News editor Z. F. Collett jointly published an eight-page, eight-columned illustrated paper celebrating the notable businesspersons and industries of Elkins and other towns along the West Virginia Central Railroad. This special edition paper earned praise from the Cumberland Evening Times newspaper in nearby Cumberland, Maryland. Cornwell specially wrote and recited his poem "The Blue and the Gray" at a joint celebration of Washington's Birthday by a Grand Army of the Republic post and a United Confederate Veterans camp in Elkins.
In addition to his newspaper work, Cornwell also became active in the West Virginia Republican Party. In 1895, he served as an assistant clerk of the West Virginia House of Delegates under Chief Clerk William M. O. Dawson during a session of the West Virginia Legislature. Dawson later served as the 12th Governor of West Virginia (1905–09). On June 23, 1896, Cornwell represented Randolph County as a delegate to the West Virginia Republican Party 2nd Congressional District convention in Morgantown.
## Writing and poetry career
Cornwell's health began to fail, possibly as a result of tuberculosis, and he resigned from his position as editor of The Inter-Mountain in 1896. Throughout his career as a newspaper editor, Cornwell wrote poetry in his spare time and had some of it published. J. Slidell Brown, president of the West Virginia Editorial Association, asked Cornwell compose a special poem to commemorate the association's annual meeting in Elkins in 1896. He wrote an ode to editors entitled "The Editor-Man"; however he had grown too ill to attend the conference and Brown read the poem in his absence. "The Editor Man" was later published in the Buffalo Evening News in August 1897.
Cornwell traveled to the eastern coast of Florida in search of a cure for his worsening illness in late 1896. In Florida he studied the "character of the country and people" and continued to write poetry. He returned to Hampshire County, West Virginia in early 1897 and initiated a correspondence with American writer and poet James Whitcomb Riley. In a letter dated March 12, 1897, from Indianapolis, Riley commended Cornwell on a collection of his poems with special attention given to his poem "Success". Of "Success" Riley wrote "your gift seems genuine and far above that indicated in verse, meeting general approval." "Success" had previously earned Cornwell a first place, cash prize in a poetry competition sponsored by West Virginia University's Athenaeum newspaper, which featured his poem in their paper.
In June 1897 the Board of Regents of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind selected Cornwell to serve as its secretary. While in Romney, Cornwell wrote a column for his brothers' Hampshire Review newspaper, entitled "Wheat and Chaff."
During the winter of 1897–98 Cornwell again traveled to a warmer climate to recuperate from his illness; this time to El Paso, Texas and other locations along the Rio Grande in Texas. He continued to write throughout his travels, and authored short essays about the new places and people he encountered. His brothers William and John Jacob Cornwell published some of these works in the Hampshire Review. While in El Paso Cornwell sent a message to his family in Romney informing them he "had given up the battle and was coming home to die." Cornwell returned to his home in Romney, where he remained during the final stages of his illness. Family members surrounded Cornwell during his last hour. He succumbed to tuberculosis and died at his home in Romney on the morning of May 26, 1898, at age 26. Cornwell was interred in Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney. During his graveside service, Reverend Washburn read Cornwell's poem "Some Day."
## Literary works
Cornwell addressed a variety of topics in his writing. While much of his earlier poetry was concerned with weather and the natural environment and landscapes, he authored "Only A Tramp", honoring an unnamed man killed by a Cumberland and Pennsylvania Railroad train. Author Kenneth R. Bailey described the poem as "a sensitive piece about a less fortunate man whose story would never be known but whose life was not to be scorned". According to Bailey, as his health deteriorated from his terminal illness, his later poetry was "introspective, poignant, even philosophical, but not sad".
After Cornwell's death, his brothers William and John Jacob received numerous requests for copies of his poetry. In response, and as a memorial to their brother, William and John Jacob published a collection of Cornwell's poetry in 1899 entitled Wheat and Chaff. Wheat and Chaff, the name of his column in the Hampshire Review, was a pocket-sized volume of around 95 pages, containing poetry, letters and extracts from correspondence written throughout the course of Cornwell's journeys.
According to West Virginia historian Virgil Anson Lewis in his History and Government of West Virginia (1912), Wheat and Chaff was Cornwell's "best and most enduring monument". Cornwell's poem "Success" was republished in the St. Louis Globe-Democrat, The Baltimore Sun (1904) along with an abbreviated biography, The Morning Post in Raleigh (1904), and The Railroad Trainman (1906). | [
"## Early life and education",
"## Career as newspaper editor and publisher",
"## Writing and poetry career",
"## Literary works"
] | 2,175 | 28,980 |
218,677 | Yasunori Mitsuda | 1,172,539,255 | Japanese composer (born 1972) | [
"1972 births",
"20th-century Japanese composers",
"20th-century Japanese male musicians",
"20th-century Japanese pianists",
"21st-century Japanese composers",
"21st-century Japanese male musicians",
"21st-century Japanese pianists",
"Anime composers",
"Freelance musicians",
"Japanese composers",
"Japanese male composers",
"Japanese male pianists",
"Japanese music arrangers",
"Japanese pianists",
"Japanese sound designers",
"Living people",
"Musicians from Yamaguchi Prefecture",
"Square Enix people",
"Video game composers"
] | Yasunori Mitsuda (光田 康典, Mitsuda Yasunori, born January 21, 1972) is a Japanese composer and musician. He is best known for his work in video games, primarily for the Chrono, Xeno, Shadow Hearts, and Inazuma Eleven franchises, among various others. Mitsuda began composing music for his own games in high school, later attending a music college in Tokyo. While still a student, he was granted an intern position at the game development studio Wolf Team.
Mitsuda joined Square upon graduation in 1992 and worked there as a sound effects designer for two years before telling Square's vice president Hironobu Sakaguchi he would quit unless he could write music for their games. Shortly after, Sakaguchi assigned him to work on the soundtrack for Chrono Trigger (1995), whose music has since been cited as among the best in video games.
Mitsuda went on to compose for several other games at Square, including Xenogears (1998) and Chrono Cross (1999). He left the company and became independent in 1998. In 2001, he respectively founded his own music production studio and record company, Procyon Studio and Sleigh Bells. Mitsuda has also worked on anime series, films, and television programs.
## Biography
### Early life
Mitsuda was born in Tokuyama, Japan, on January 21, 1972, and was raised in the Kumage District of Yamaguchi Prefecture. He took piano lessons beginning at the age of five, but was more interested in sports at the time and did not take music seriously, quitting by the age of six. For a while, he wanted to become a professional golfer. By high school, Mitsuda wanted to become a music composer, inspired by Vangelis' Blade Runner and Henry Mancini's The Pink Panther film scores. He became interested in PCs after his father bought him one, which was a rare item at the time. He started to program computer games and compose music for them, as well as take more technically oriented classes.
After high school, Mitsuda decided to leave town and become independent. With encouragement from his father and sister, he moved to Tokyo and enrolled in the Junior College of Music. Despite the school's low prestige, Mitsuda received solid instruction from his professors, most of them practicing musicians who would take Mitsuda to gigs with them to help carry and set up equipment. At the cost of being used for free physical labor, Mitsuda got a first-hand view of the Japanese music world and valuable training both in and out of the classroom. As part of his college course, he was granted an intern position at the game development studio Wolf Team studying under composer Motoi Sakuraba.
During this work experience, with his school term ending, Mitsuda saw an advertisement for a sound producer at Square in a copy of Famitsu magazine at a game company he was visiting. With no clear plans as to what he wanted to do after school, he applied for the position. Mitsuda sent a demo which won him an interview at the game studio. Despite the self-described "disastrous" interview with composer Nobuo Uematsu and sound programmer Minoru Akao, in which he claimed to only want the job as a "stepping stone" in his career and admitted that he had never played many of Square's biggest games, such as the Final Fantasy series, Mitsuda was offered a position on the company's sound team in April 1992.
### Career
Although his official job title was as a composer, Mitsuda found himself working more as a sound engineer. Over the next two years, he created sound effects for Hanjuku Hero, Final Fantasy V, Secret of Mana, and Romancing SaGa 2. In 1994, realizing that he would never get a chance to move up to a real composition duty without some drastic action and feeling concerned about his low pay, he gave Square's vice president, Hironobu Sakaguchi, an ultimatum: let him compose, or he would quit. Sakaguchi assigned the young musician to the team working on Chrono Trigger, telling him that "after you finish it, maybe your salary will go up". Mitsuda was assigned as the sole composer for the game, in the end creating 54 tracks for the final release. Mitsuda drove himself to work hard on the score, frequently working until he passed out, and would awake with ideas for songs such as the ending theme for the game. He worked himself so hard that he developed stomach ulcers and had to be hospitalized, which led Uematsu to finish the remaining tracks for him.
Chrono Trigger proved a great success, and the soundtrack proved popular with fans. Mitsuda claims that it is his "landmark" title, which "matured" him. He attributes its success to folk and jazz music, rather than the "semi-orchestral" style popular in game music at the time. Following Chrono Trigger, Mitsuda composed the soundtrack for Front Mission: Gun Hazard, again with Uematsu. According to Uematsu, Mitsuda again worked so much that he eventually defecated blood out of stress and physical problems. Mitsuda worked on three more titles for Square: Tobal No. 1 and Radical Dreamers: Nusumenai Hōseki both in 1996, and Xenogears in 1998, which featured the first ballad in a Square game, the Celtic ending theme "Small Two of Pieces" sung by Joanne Hogg. Mitsuda also during this period produced albums of arranged music of his original scores, creating acid jazz remixes in Chrono Trigger Arranged Version: The Brink of Time and a Celtic arrangement album of Xenogears music, Creid. In July 1998, following up on what he had said in his original interview with the company, Mitsuda left Square to work as a freelance composer, the first of several of Square's composers to do so.
Following his leaving, Mitsuda has only worked on one more original game with Square, composing for 1999's Chrono Cross, the sequel to Chrono Trigger. He has worked on over a dozen games since then, including the spiritual sequel to Xenogears, Xenosaga Episode I: Der Wille zur Macht, and major games such as Shadow Hearts and Luminous Arc. In addition to video games, Mitsuda has composed music for the anime Inazuma Eleven and for the independent album Kirite. On November 22, 2001, Mitsuda formed Procyon Studio as a company to produce his music, along with a record label, Sleigh Bells. The company consisted of only Mitsuda as composer along with a few sound producers for several years but has since expanded to include other composers. Mitsuda and Procyon Studio have also produced more arranged albums, such as Sailing to the World and 2009's Colours of Light, a compilation album of vocal pieces Mitsuda had composed. The studio was also involved in co-designing the KORG DS-10 synthesizer program for the Nintendo DS, and its successor for the Nintendo 3DS, KORG M01D.
By the late 2000s, Mitsuda began working as a producer for a team of artists. Scores in the 2010s include the Inazuma Eleven series, Soul Sacrifice, and Valkyria Revolution, with the latter marking his first fully solo game soundtrack in nearly a decade. Around the same time, Mitsuda also began to compose for non-video game media, including several NHK-produced television shows, as well as anime series such as Black Butler and adaptions of Inazuma Eleven. In addition to serving as the lead composer for 2017's Xenoblade Chronicles 2, he also was in charge of the game's audio budget, musician booking, schedule management, and music sheet proofreading, for which he claimed was the largest project he ever worked on. He also composed for its expansion pack, Torna – The Golden Country, and Xenoblade Chronicles 3.
## Musical style and influences
Mitsuda claims to compose by "just fool[ing] around on my keyboard" and letting the melodies come to him. He also sometimes comes up with songs while asleep, including the ending theme to Chrono Trigger and "Bonds of Sea and Fire" from Xenogears, though his main inspiration is visual items, "paintings or other things". His music is frequently minimalistic, and he has cited Minimalism as an influence. His final battle themes for Chrono Trigger and Xenogears are based on only a few chords each, with the latter containing only two. Mitsuda has listened to a great number of musical genres throughout his life, which he learned from his father, and is especially inspired by jazz music. He grew up listening mainly to his father's favourite jazz musician Art Blakey, in addition to the Japanese electronic music band Yellow Magic Orchestra, before getting into classical music. He is also inspired by Celtic music, and has created two albums of music in that style. His soundtrack for Chrono Trigger also shows the influence of Asian music, including the sounds of Japanese shakuhachi flutes, Indian tabla drums and the sitar. He has cited Maurice Ravel, J.S. Bach, Pyotr Tchaikovsky, Claude Debussy, Robert Schumann, Antonín Dvořák, and Gustav Holst as his favorite classical composers, claiming that his modern influences are too numerous to name as he listens to so much music.
Mitsuda names his favorite works as the soundtracks to the Chrono series, Xenogears, Xenosaga Episode I, and the original album Kirite, though he also says that all of his soundtracks are "representational works", as they represent who he was as a composer when he made them. His favorite pieces overall are "The Girl Who Closed Her Heart" and "Pain" from Xenosaga Episode I and pieces from Kirite. When he starts to compose a soundtrack, he first takes one month to gather information and artwork about the game world and scenario, so that his music will fit in with the game. He also finds it easier to be inspired if he has a visual representation. Mitsuda claims that he does not save his best work for more popular games, as he tries to compose each piece to correspond to how it is going to be used in a specific game. He also tries to compose good pieces even for games he feels do not live up to them, so that they will be a redeeming point about the game for the players. The majority of his video game soundtracks are for role-playing games, but he likes projects that are different from what he has done before and is interested in working in other genres.
> I think [game music] is something that should last with the player. It's interesting because it can't just be some random music, but something that can make its way into the player's heart. In that sense, this not only applies to game music, but I feel very strongly about composing songs that will leave a lasting impression...What I must not forget is that it must be entertaining to those who are listening. I don't think there's much else to it, to be honest. I don't do anything too audacious, so as long as the listeners like it, or feel that it's a really great song, then I've done my job.
## Legacy
Mitsuda's music from Chrono Trigger was first performed live by the Tokyo Symphony Orchestra in 1996 at the Orchestral Game Concert in Tokyo, Japan, and released on an accompanying album. The first symphonic performance of his music outside Japan took place in 2005 at the Symphonic Game Music Concert in Leipzig, Germany when music from Chrono Cross was presented. Mitsuda has arranged versions of music from Trigger and Cross for Play! A Video Game Symphony video game music concerts in 2006. Music from the two games has also been performed in other video game concert tours such as the Video Games Live concert series and in concerts by the Eminence Orchestra. Chrono Trigger and Chrono Cross music made up one fourth of the music of the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in September 2009 at the Kölner Philharmonie which were produced by Thomas Böcker as a part of the Game Concerts series. "Scars of Time" from Chrono Cross was played at the Fantasy Comes Alive concert in Singapore on April 30, 2010.
Mitsuda's music for Xenogears has also sparked fan-made albums; an officially licensed tribute album titled Xenogears Light: An Arranged Album, was published in limited quantities by the fan group OneUp Studios in 2005. The album features 20 tracks arranged from the Xenogears score and performed with acoustic instruments, such as piano, flute, guitar and violin. Another, unofficial album of remixes titled Humans + Gears was produced as a digital album by OverClocked Remix on October 19, 2009, consisting of 33 tracks. Selections of remixes of Mitsuda's work also appear on Japanese remix albums, called Dōjin, and on English remixing websites such as OverClocked Remix. Music from the Chrono Trigger soundtrack has been arranged for the piano and published as sheet music by DOREMI Music Publishing. Sheet music for Chrono Cross tracks arranged for both solo guitar and guitar duets has been released by Procyon Studio.
For the 20th anniversary of Chrono Trigger in 2015, Mitsuda, along with his performing group Millennial Fair, performed songs from the game at the Tokyo Globe in Tokyo, Japan on July 25 and 26. The event, titled "The Brink of Time", included Mitsuda performing on the piano, guitar, and Irish bouzouki. During the event, Mitsuda also announced that the long requested Chrono series arrangement album, entitled To Far Away Times: Chrono Trigger & Chrono Cross Arrangement Album, would be released by Square Enix Music on October 14, 2015.
## Works
### Video games
### Anime
### Other notable projects | [
"## Biography",
"### Early life",
"### Career",
"## Musical style and influences",
"## Legacy",
"## Works",
"### Video games",
"### Anime",
"### Other notable projects"
] | 2,947 | 11,209 |
214,340 | Pavo (constellation) | 1,172,043,755 | Constellation in the southern celestial hemisphere | [
"Constellations",
"Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius",
"Pavo (constellation)",
"Southern constellations"
] | Pavo is a constellation in the southern sky whose name is Latin for . Pavo first appeared on a 35-cm (14 in) diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Petrus Plancius and Jodocus Hondius and was depicted in Johann Bayer's star atlas Uranometria of 1603, and was likely conceived by Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. French explorer and astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille gave its stars Bayer designations in 1756. The constellations Pavo, Grus, Phoenix and Tucana are collectively known as the "Southern Birds".
The constellation's brightest member, Alpha Pavonis, is also known as Peacock and appears as a 1.91-magnitude blue-white star, but is actually a spectroscopic binary. Delta Pavonis is a nearby Sun-like star some 19.9 light-years distant. Six of the star systems in Pavo have been found to host planets, including HD 181433 with a super-Earth, and HD 172555 with evidence of a major interplanetary collision in the past few thousand years. The constellation contains NGC 6752, the fourth-brightest globular cluster in the sky, and the spiral galaxy NGC 6744, which closely resembles the Milky Way but is twice as large. Pavo displays an annual meteor shower known as the Delta Pavonids, whose radiant is near the star δ Pav.
## History and mythology
### History of the modern constellation
Pavo was one of the twelve constellations established by Petrus Plancius from the observations of the southern sky by explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman, who had sailed on the first Dutch trading expedition, known as the Eerste Schipvaart, to the East Indies. It first appeared on a 35 cm (14 in) diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius. The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas was in German cartographer Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603. De Houtman included it in his southern star catalogue the same year under the Dutch name De Pauww . Pavo and the nearby constellations Phoenix, Grus, and Tucana are collectively called the "Southern Birds".
### The peacock in Greek mythology
According to Mark Chartrand, former executive director of the National Space Institute, Plancius may not have been the first to designate this group of stars as a peacock: "In Greek myth the stars that are now the Peacock were Argos [or Argus], builder of the ship Argo. He was changed by the goddess Juno into a peacock and placed in the sky along with his ship." Indeed, the peacock "symboliz[ed] the starry firmament" for the Greeks, and the goddess Hera was believed to drive through the heavens in a chariot drawn by peacocks.
The peacock and the "Argus" nomenclature are also prominent in a different myth, in which Io, a beautiful princess of Argos, was lusted after by Zeus (Jupiter). Zeus changed Io into a heifer to deceive his wife (and sister) Hera and couple with her. Hera saw through Zeus's scheme and asked for the heifer as a gift. Zeus, unable to refuse such a reasonable request, reluctantly gave the heifer to Hera, who promptly banished Io and arranged for Argus Panoptes, a creature with one hundred eyes, to guard the now-pregnant Io from Zeus. Meanwhile, Zeus entreated Hermes to save Io; Hermes used music to lull Argus Panoptes to sleep, then slew him. Hera adorned the tail of a peacock—her favorite bird—with Argus's eyes in his honor.
As recounted in Ovid's Metamorphoses, the death of Argus Panoptes also contains an explicit celestial reference: "Argus lay dead; so many eyes, so bright quenched, and all hundred shrouded in one night. Saturnia [Hera] retrieved those eyes to set in place among the feathers of her bird [the peacock, Pavo] and filled his tail with starry jewels."
It is uncertain whether the Dutch astronomers had the Greek mythos in mind when creating Pavo but, in keeping with other constellations introduced by Plancius through Keyser and De Houtmann, the "peacock" in the new constellation likely referred to the green peacock, which the explorers would have encountered in the East Indies, rather than the blue peacock known to the ancient Greeks.
### Equivalents in other cultures
The Wardaman people of the Northern Territory in Australia saw the stars of Pavo and the neighbouring constellation Ara as flying foxes.
## Characteristics
Pavo is bordered by Telescopium to the north, Apus and Ara to the west, Octans to the south, and Indus to the east and northeast. Covering 378 square degrees, it ranks 44th of the 88 modern constellations in size and covers 0.916% of the night sky. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "Pav". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 10 segments. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −56.59° and −74.98°. As one of the deep southern constellations, it remains below the horizon at latitudes north of the 30th parallel in the Northern Hemisphere, and is circumpolar at latitudes south of the 50th parallel in the Southern Hemisphere.
## Features
### Stars
Although he depicted Pavo on his chart, Bayer did not assign its stars Bayer designations. French explorer and astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille labelled them Alpha to Omega in 1756, but omitted Psi and Xi, and labelled two pairs of stars close together Mu and Phi Pavonis. In 1879, American astronomer Benjamin Gould designated a star Xi Pavonis as he felt its brightness warranted a name, but dropped Chi Pavonis due to its faintness.
Lying near the constellation's northern border with Telescopium is Alpha Pavonis, the brightest star in Pavo. Its proper name—Peacock—is an English translation of the constellation's name. It was assigned by the British HM Nautical Almanac Office in the late 1930s; the Royal Air Force insisted that all bright stars must have names, the star hitherto having lacked a proper name. Alpha has an apparent (or visual) magnitude of 1.91 and spectral type B2IV. It is a spectroscopic binary system, one estimate placing the distance between the pair of stars as 0.21 astronomical units (AU), or half the distance between Mercury and the Sun. The two stars rotate around each other in a mere 11 days and 18 hours. The star system is located around 180 light years away from Earth.
With an apparent magnitude of 3.43, Beta Pavonis is the second-brightest star in the constellation. A white giant of spectral class A7III, it is an aging star that has used up the hydrogen fuel at its core and has expanded and cooled after moving off the main sequence. It lies 135 light years away from the Solar System.
Lying a few degrees west of Beta is Delta Pavonis, a nearby Sun-like but more evolved star; this is a yellow subgiant of spectral type G8IV and apparent magnitude 3.56 that is only 19.9 light years distant from Earth. East of Beta and at the constellation's eastern border with Indus is Gamma Pavonis, a fainter, solar-type star 30 light years from Earth with a magnitude of 4.22 and stellar class F9V. Other nearby stars in Pavo are much fainter: SCR 1845-6357 (the nearest star in Pavo) is a binary system with an apparent magnitude of 17.4 consisting of a red dwarf and brown dwarf companion lying around 12.6 light years distant, while Gliese 693 is a red dwarf of magnitude 10.78 lying 19 light years away.
Pavo contains several variable stars of note. Lambda Pavonis is a bright irregular variable ranging between magnitudes 3.4 and 4.4; this variation can be observed with the unaided eye. Classed as a Gamma Cassiopeiae variable or shell star, it is of spectral type B2II-IIIe and lies around 1430 light years distant from Earth. Kappa Pavonis is a W Virginis variable—a subclass of Type II Cepheid. It ranges from magnitude 3.91 to 4.78 over 9 days and is a yellow-white supergiant pulsating between spectral classes F5I-II and G5I-II. NU and V Pavonis are pulsating semiregular variable red giant stars. NU has a spectral type M6III and ranges from magnitude 4.9 to 5.3, while V Pavonis ranges from magnitude 6.3 to 8.2 over two periods of 225.4 and 3735 days concurrently. V is a carbon star of spectral type C6,4(Nb) with a prominent red hue.
Located in the west of the constellation and depicting the peacock's tail are Eta and Xi Pavonis. At apparent magnitude 3.6, Eta is a luminous orange giant of spectral type K2II some 350 light years distant from Earth. Xi Pavonis is a multiple star system visible in small telescopes as a brighter orange star and fainter white companion. Located around 470 light years from Earth, the system has a magnitude of 4.38. AR Pavonis is a faint but well-studied eclipsing binary composed of a red giant and smaller hotter star some 18000 light years from Earth. It has some features of a cataclysmic variable, the smaller component most likely having an accretion disc. The visual magnitude ranges from 7.4 to 13.6 over 605 days.
In November 2018, the 8th magnitude star, HD 186302 became the second star identified to be a solar sibling, this one being particularly sun like, same spectra G2, virtually the same mass as well, with a twin spectra revealing identical metallicity.
### Planetary systems and debris disks
Six stars with planetary systems have been found. Three planets have been discovered in the system of the orange star HD 181433, an inner super-Earth with an orbital period of 9.4 days and two outer gas giants with periods of 2.6 and 6 years respectively. HD 196050 and HD 175167 are yellow G-class Sun-like stars, while HD 190984 is an F-class main sequence star slightly larger and hotter than the Sun; all three are accompanied by a gas giant companion. HD 172555 is a young white A-type main sequence star, two planets of which appear to have had a major collision in the past few thousand years. Spectrographic evidence of large amounts of silicon dioxide gas indicates the smaller of the two, which had been at least the size of Earth's moon, was destroyed, and the larger, which was at least the size of Mercury, was severely damaged. Evidence of the collision was detected by NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope. In the south of the constellation, Epsilon Pavonis is a 3.95-magnitude white main sequence star of spectral type A0Va located around 105 light years distant from Earth. It appears to be surrounded by a narrow ring of dust at a distance of 107 AU.
### Deep-sky objects
The deep-sky objects in Pavo include NGC 6752, the fourth-brightest globular cluster in the sky, after Omega Centauri, 47 Tucanae and Messier 22. An estimated 100 light years across, it is thought to contain 100,000 stars. Barely visible behind the cluster is a dwarf spheroidal galaxy known as Bedin I. Lying three degrees to the south is NGC 6744, a spiral galaxy around 30 million light years away from Earth that resembles the Milky Way, but is twice its diameter. A type 1c supernova was discovered in the galaxy in 2005; known as SN2005at, it peaked at magnitude 16.8. The dwarf galaxy IC 4662 lies 10 arcminutes northeast of Eta Pavonis, and is of magnitude 11.62. Located only 8 million light years away, it has several regions of high star formation. The 14th-magnitude galaxy IC 4965 lies 1.7 degrees west of Alpha Pavonis, and is a central member of the Shapley Supercluster. The galactic wind bearing NGC 6810 and the interacting NGC 6872/IC 4970 galaxies lie 87 and 212 million light-years away from Earth respectively.
### Meteor showers
Pavo is the radiant of two annual meteor showers: the Delta Pavonids and August Pavonids. Appearing from 21 March to 8 April and generally peaking around 5 and 6 April, Delta Pavonids are thought to be associated with Comet Grigg-Mellish. The shower was discovered by Michael Buhagiar from Perth, Australia, who observed meteors on six occasions between 1969 and 1980. The August Pavonids peak around 31 August and are thought to be associated with the Halley-type Comet Levy (P/1991 L3).
## See also
- Pavo in Chinese astronomy | [
"## History and mythology",
"### History of the modern constellation",
"### The peacock in Greek mythology",
"### Equivalents in other cultures",
"## Characteristics",
"## Features",
"### Stars",
"### Planetary systems and debris disks",
"### Deep-sky objects",
"### Meteor showers",
"## See also"
] | 2,908 | 42,058 |
5,048,914 | 76th Infantry Division (United Kingdom) | 1,173,467,123 | null | [
"Infantry divisions of the British Army in World War II",
"Military units and formations disestablished in 1944",
"Military units and formations established in 1941"
] | The 76th Infantry Division was an infantry division of the British Army, which was formed in November 1941 and served during the Second World War. It was created when the Norfolk County Division, initially raised in 1940 to defend the Norfolk coast from a potential German invasion, was redesignated. The division maintained the defensive duties that had been assigned to it, prior to it being renamed, until late 1942 when it became a training formation. It was then responsible for providing final tactical and field training to soldiers who had already passed their initial training. After five additional weeks of training, the soldiers were posted to fighting formations overseas. The formation was used as a source of reinforcements for the 21st Army Group, that was fighting in the Normandy campaign. After all available British troops had left the United Kingdom for France, the division was disbanded in September 1944.
In addition to the actual formation, a phantom 76th Infantry Division was formed for deception purposes. The phantom division was part of the notional British Fourth Army, to be used for the fictitious Operation Trolleycar. This operation aimed to deceive the Germans into believing that an Allied landing would occur along the northern German coast. While the deception effort was not a complete success, it managed to divert German attention to the northern flank for the remainder of the war.
## Background
In the early stages of the Second World War following the Battle of France in 1940, the United Kingdom was under threat of invasion from Germany but during the summer, the Battle of Britain dampened this threat. As the year progressed, the size of the British Army increased dramatically as 140 new infantry battalions were raised. In late 1940, with the possibility of a German invasion during 1941, these new battalions were formed into independent infantry brigades that were then loaned to newly created County Divisions.
The County Divisions, including the Norfolk County Division, were around 10,000 men strong and assigned to defend the coast of threatened sections of the country, undertaking defensive tasks including the manning of coastal artillery. These divisions were largely static, lacking mobility and also divisional assets such as artillery, engineers and reconnaissance forces. Using the new formations in this manner allowed the pre-war regular infantry divisions to undertake training and form an all-important reserve that could be used to counter-attack any possible German landing.
On 22 June, Germany launched Operation Barbarossa the invasion of the Soviet Union; this attack all but removed the German threat to the United Kingdom. The British still had to consider the threat of an invasion, due to the possibility that the Soviet Union could collapse under the German onslaught, after which Germany could easily transfer troops back to the west. With the arrival of winter in late 1941, the threat of invasion subsided. This, coupled with the production of new equipment for the British army, allowed the War Office to begin steps to better balance the army, due to the large number of infantry units formed during the preceding year and a half; as part of this reform, the County Divisions were disbanded.
## History
### Home defence
During the war, the divisions of the British Army were divided between "Higher Establishment" and "Lower Establishment" formations. The former were intended for deployment overseas and combat, whereas the latter were strictly for home defence in a static role. On 18 November 1941, the Norfolk County Division was abolished and reformed as the 76th Infantry Division, a "Lower Establishment" division. The division, like its predecessor, comprised the 213th, the 220th and the 222nd Infantry Brigades. That day, the division was assigned artillery, an anti-tank regiment, engineers and signallers; reconnaissance troops joined the division in January 1942. The paper strength of an infantry division at this time was 17,298 men. Major-General William Ozanne, who had commanded the Norfolk County Division since its inception, retained command of the division. The 76th Division was assigned to II Corps and maintained its previous mission of defending the Norfolk coastline. The Imperial War Museum comments that the division insignia, a "red Norfolk wherry, under sail", underscored "the association of the Division with Norfolk". After the division became a training formation, the insignia was only worn by the permanent division members.
The division was involved in establishing the ability of the Abwehr (German military intelligence). A German-published order of battle of the British army based within the United Kingdom, dated 10 April 1942, was captured. This document included the division and had a near perfect listing of its subordinate units, with one exception. Rather than including the 1st Battalion, Leicestershire Regiment, the Germans believed the 18th Battalion, Welch Regiment had already replaced it. This and similar errors led the British to understand the capability of the Germans to intercept wireless communications in the United Kingdom. In 1943, this, in part, led to the Operation Fortitude a plan to exploit the German ability and deceive their intelligence community about future Allied operations like Operation Overlord.
### Training formation
During the winter of 1942–43, the army overhauled the training of recruits. The 76th Division, along with the 48th Infantry and 77th Infantry divisions, was changed from a "Lower Establishment" unit to a "Reserve Division". On 20 December, the division was renamed the 76th Infantry (Reserve) Division, becoming a training formation in the process. These three divisions were supplemented by a fourth training formation, the 80th Infantry (Reserve) Division, which was raised on 1 January 1943. The 76th Infantry (Reserve) Division was assigned to Eastern Command, and moved to Norwich. Soldiers who had completed their corps training, were sent to these training divisions. The soldiers were given five weeks of additional training at the section, platoon and company level, before undertaking a final three-day exercise. Troops would then be ready to be sent overseas to join other formations. Training was handled in this manner to relieve the "Higher Establishment" divisions from being milked for replacements for other units and to allow them to intensively train without the interruption of having to handle new recruits. For example, the 9th Battalion, Dorsetshire Regiment provided recruits to other battalions within the regiment as well as the Royal Norfolk Regiment. During this period, command of the division changed several times. On 21 December 1943, Ozanne was replaced by Major-General Colin Callander who in turn was replaced by Major-General John Utterson-Kelso on 13 March 1944.
On 30 June 1944, the 76th Infantry (Reserve) Division, along with the other training divisions, had a combined total of 22,355 men. Of this number, only 1,100 were immediately available as replacements for the 21st Army Group. The remaining 21,255 men were considered ineligible for service abroad, due to a variety of reasons, ranging from medical, not being considered fully fit or not yet fully trained. Over the following six months, up to 75 per cent of these men would be deployed to reinforce the 21st Army Group, following the completion of their training and having met the required fitness levels. Stephen Hart comments that, by September, the 21st Army Group "had bled Home Forces dry of draftable riflemen", due to the losses suffered during the Normandy Campaign, leaving the army in Britain, with the exception of the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division, with just "young lads, old men, and the unfit". On 1 September 1944, the division was disbanded. Utterson-Kelso assumed command of the 47th Infantry (Reserve) Division, which took over the role of the 76th Division.
### Deception
The creation of the fictitious division arose from an actual reorganisation of British forces. During 1944, the British Army was facing a manpower crisis. The army did not have enough men to replace the losses to front line infantry. While efforts were made to address this (such as transferring men from the Royal Artillery and Royal Air Force to be retrained as infantry), the War Office began disbanding divisions to reduce the size of the army and to transfer the surplus men to other units to help keep those as close to full strength as possible. The 76th Infantry (Reserve) Division was one of several "Lower Establishment" divisions in the United Kingdom, chosen to be disbanded.
R Force, the Fortitude deception staff, seized upon this opportunity to retain the division as a phantom unit. A cover story was established to explain the change in the division's status. It was claimed that with the war nearing an end, several Territorial Army divisions would revert to their peacetime recruiting role and release their equipment and resources to other units. For the 76th, this was the 47th Division. With the transfer of equipment, the 76th was notionally raised to the "Higher Establishment" and assigned to reinforce the 21st Army Group.
As a deception unit, the division was assigned to the bogus Operation Trolleycar. Trolleycar was initially envisioned as a fictitious amphibious assault upon the coast of the Netherlands, by the phantom British Fourth Army, to exploit the success of the authentic Operation Market Garden. When the Battle of Arnhem failed, the notional invasion plan was temporarily scrapped. Trolleycar was revived to convince the Germans that the Fourth Army would land near Emden, in support of an imaginary assault by the First Canadian Army, that would be launched west of Arnhem and through the Netherlands. The deception effort was kept up until 1945, being wound down in January. Despite the British ceasing their attempts to deceive the Germans about this possible landing and the Germans not believing all that had been reported to them, the Germans remained anxious about a landing along the northern coast for the remainder of the war.
## General officers commanding
## Order of battle
## See also
- List of British divisions in World War II | [
"## Background",
"## History",
"### Home defence",
"### Training formation",
"### Deception",
"## General officers commanding",
"## Order of battle",
"## See also"
] | 2,088 | 36,503 |
50,894,452 | Sherpa Fire | 1,169,113,533 | 2016 wildfire in California | [
"2016 California wildfires",
"Santa Ynez Mountains",
"Wildfires in Santa Barbara County, California"
] | The Sherpa Fire was a wildfire that burned in the Santa Ynez Mountains along the Gaviota Coast in the southwestern part of Santa Barbara County, California in June 2016. In a matter of hours the fire spread to over 1,400 acres (570 ha) as the fire was propelled by downslope sundowner winds. This offshore northerly wind contrasts with the more typical onshore flow and sent the fire down the canyons towards the ocean with gusts of over 35 miles per hour (56 km/h). The wildfire resulted in evacuations at two state beach campgrounds and some residences together with intermittent interruption of traffic on a state transportation route.
## Events
The fire was first reported shortly before 4:00pm on Wednesday June 15, 2016 in the Los Padres National Forest in an area that includes private inholdings. In a matter of hours the fire had grown to over 1,400 acres (5.7 km<sup>2</sup>). According to the United States Forest Service, the fire was propelled by downslope sundowner winds which sent the fire down canyons in the Santa Ynez Mountains with gusts of over 35 miles per hour (56 km/h). These contrasted with the typical onshore flow so the fire alternated directions between day and night as it continued to spread. As the fire grew, evacuations were ordered for El Capitán State Beach, Refugio State Beach and residences in El Capitán Canyon. Both a Red Cross evacuation shelter and a livestock evacuation center were established as the fire was burning in an area with a number of large ranches. As the fire ran down the slope, it forced the intermittent closure of the coastal highway designated as U.S. Route 101 and California State Route 1 along with regional and interstate passenger trains and freight service on the adjacent rail line. The fire grew to 4,000 acres (1,600 ha) overnight and destroyed the water system for El Capitán State Beach.
By Thursday morning, the smoke was visible as far south as South Bay, Los Angeles as well as in Antelope Valley prompting the Los Angeles Fire Department to issue a statement regarding multiple 9-1-1 calls being received for the smell of smoke. On the evening of Thursday 16, the sundowner winds resurfaced and once again forced the closure of the 101.
On Friday morning, the Santa Barbara County office of emergency services declared a state of emergency for the region. Additionally a Red flag warning was issued for the region effective through Saturday at 6:00am. While firefighters battled the fire into the weekend, they were aided by weather changes which included reduced winds and higher humidities as the red flag conditions never truly emerged.
On June 27, officials announced that the estimated containment date had been delayed until July 7. According to a Forest Service Spokesman, the final 7% of the perimeter was in extremely rough terrain that was close to impossible for hand crews or bulldozers to reach. Due to the difficulty of access the fire remained only 96% contained on July 9 and the estimated containment date was pushed back to July 21. Due to favorable conditions, on July 12, the Sherpa fire was 100% contained ahead of schedule. Because of the threat of flare ups within the burn area, patrols continued for several days.
## Effects
At the peak of the fire, nearly 2,000 firefighters were assigned to the incident. Approximately 19 residents lost power as Southern California Edison was forced to shut down transmission lines that passed through the fire ground.
More than a week after the fire broke out, Refugio State Beach reopened to visitors on June 26. While no specific monetary assessment was made public, owners of the general store that services campers in the campground said they "lost a lot of business during the time the campground was closed."
Following the fire, the El Capitán State Beach Campground was expected to remain closed for weeks. The campground itself was not damaged but a water treatment plant that services the campground sustained major damage.
Air quality advisories were put into effect on June 17 as haze and falling ash were visible in Los Angeles County. The Santa Barbara County AIr Pollution Control District released a statement that said, in part, that while winds are dispersing some of the smoke, there are still pockets of poor air quality as a result of smoky conditions.
## Name
The fire, which started on La Scherpa Ranch, had its name misspelled in the first written dispatches of the incident. While intended to be named after the ranch on which the fire started, the 'c' in Scherpa was omitted. According to a spokesman with the United States Forest Service, "once the name of a fire is entered into the national fire reporting and naming system, it can't be changed. Doing so would confuse administrators, make the name unsearchable in records, and so on."
## See also
- 2016 California wildfires | [
"## Events",
"## Effects",
"## Name",
"## See also"
] | 1,026 | 1,391 |
36,861,528 | Great World MRT station | 1,170,849,551 | Mass Rapid Transit station in Singapore | [
"Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore) stations",
"Railway stations in Singapore opened in 2022"
] | Great World MRT station is an underground Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) station on the Thomson–East Coast line (TEL). Located in River Valley, Singapore, the station is near the Great World shopping mall and surrounding residential developments. The station is operated by SMRT Trains.
First announced in August 2012 as part of the Thomson line (TSL), the station was constructed as part of TEL Phase 3 (TEL 3) with the merger of the TSL and the Eastern Region line. The station opened on 13 November 2022 with only two out of five entrances completed due to construction difficulties at the site. Great World station features an Art-in-Transit artwork Great World, Great Times by Deanna Ng.
## History
The station was first announced on 29 August 2012 as part of the Thomson line (TSL). The contract for the design and construction of the station and associated tunnels was awarded to a joint venture between Tiong Seng Contractors and Dongah Geological Engineering (Singapore branch) for S\$316 million (US\$ million) in May 2014. Construction started in 2014, with an expected completion date in 2021.
On 15 August 2014, the Land Transport Authority (LTA) announced that TSL would merge with the Eastern Region line to form the Thomson–East Coast line (TEL). Great World station was constructed as part of Phase 3, consisting of 13 stations between the Mount Pleasant and Gardens by the Bay stations.
On the morning of 11 June 2015, residents of Bukit Merah, Outram, Tanjong Pagar and Tiong Bahru were affected by an Internet outage. A section of fibre optic cables was damaged during the station's construction. The disruption lasted more than eight hours and affected all the major Internet service providers in Singapore. The LTA issued an apology for the disruption. On 19 December 2015, a Bangladeshi construction worker guiding an excavator was killed when the excavator's bucket dislodged and fell on him. He was taken to Singapore General Hospital but was pronounced dead on arrival.
With restrictions imposed on construction due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the TEL3 completion date was pushed by a year to 2022. On 9 March 2022, Transport Minister S. Iswaran announced in Parliament that TEL3 would open in the second half of that year. As confirmed during a visit by Iswaran at the and stations on 7 October 2022, the station began operations on 13 November.
Due to the presence of multiple steel beams and plates underground initially absent from historical records, contractors have to use the cut-and-cover method alongside micro tunnel boring to construct the Kim Seng underpass. The additional cut-and-cover works, including diverting traffic, delayed the opening of the other station entrances. The other entrances were expected to be completed by the end of 2023.
## Description
Great World station serves the TEL and is between the Orchard and Havelock stations. The official station code is TE15. Being part of the TEL, the station is operated by SMRT Trains. Train frequencies on the TEL range from 5 to 6 minutes.
The station is near the eponymous Great World City, connected via three entrances. Situated along River Valley Green, the station serves various residential developments including Grand Copthorne Waterfront, Riva Lodge and The Trillum. It also serves River Valley Primary School and Church of St. Bernadette.
Great World, Great Times by Deanna Ng is displayed at this station as part of the Art-in-Transit programme, a showcase of public artworks on the MRT network. The collage of advertisements, which includes old movie posters, reflects an era of the 70s when the Great World Amusement Park was still operating. Many of the advertisements were recreated using modern-day participants such as a choral troupe for cabaret girls, while the movie poster was reproduced with permission from The Shaw Organisation. Also included is Ng's parents' wedding photo taken near Great World Amusement Park, which inspired the artwork. | [
"## History",
"## Description"
] | 852 | 2,176 |
29,439,869 | Hurricane Beth | 1,167,301,581 | Category 1 Atlantic hurricane in 1971 | [
"1971 Atlantic hurricane season",
"Category 1 Atlantic hurricanes",
"Hurricanes in Canada"
] | Hurricane Beth was a short-lived tropical cyclone which traveled from Florida to Nova Scotia in the middle of August 1971. The second named storm of the 1971 Atlantic hurricane season, Beth's genesis was impeded by a cold environment surrounding the storm. However, as it continued on its northeastward course, it achieved fully tropical characteristics and peaked as a modest Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The cyclone struck Nova Scotia on August 16 before dissipating shortly after. Beth produced substantial precipitation, and the resultant flooding inflicted severe damage to infrastructure and crops.
## Meteorological history
On August 9, a low pressure system in the upper levels of the atmosphere formed off the east coast of Florida. It became a surface low by the next day and acquired the characteristics of a tropical cyclone; it is officially stated to have become a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on August 10. The depression slowly advanced northeastward within a relatively cold environment, and as such, it did not intensify for several days. The system turned more toward the east as it approached the coast of North Carolina, at which time its structure became conducive to further development. On August 14, the depression was declared a tropical storm and assigned the name Beth following recent data from a reconnaissance aircraft.
Several hundred miles off the U.S. East Coast, Beth accelerated somewhat – reaching forward speeds of up to 19 mph (31 km/h) as it resumed a northeastward course. Its minimum central pressure deepened to 990 millibars (29 inHg), and correspondingly, maximum sustained winds increased. In response, the cyclone was recognized as a Category 1 hurricane. It continued to mature as it passed east of Cape Cod, achieving peak winds of 85 mph (137 km/h) and a pressure of 977 mb (28.9 inHg). Subsequently, the hurricane weakened slightly while nearing Nova Scotia. On August 16, it made landfall near Copper Lake before crossing Cape Breton Island. Shortly thereafter, Beth was swept up by a nearby cold front and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone.
## Preparations and impact
In advance of Hurricane Beth, hurricane warnings were issued for coastal and marine areas of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. In Halifax, bus service was disrupted by the storm, and in Antigonish, business owners closed their stores and filled sandbags to prepare.
The hurricane left extensive damage in its wake, especially to crops and infrastructure. Halifax International Airport reported 10.49 in (266 mm) of rainfall over 30 hours. The heavy precipitation throughout the country triggered severe flooding, stranding hundreds of travelers. The mayor of Dartmouth reported that the area was a "disaster", as 500 homes were reportedly inundated. Antigonish also experienced significant flooding; waters there approached the top of parking meters. Impacted crops in the region included cereal grain, corn, and tobacco, whose inundated fields resembled vast lakes.
Transport suffered severely: several main roads, including part of the Trans-Canada Highway and Nova Scotia Highway 102, in northeastern Nova Scotia received flood damage and were temporarily blocked off. Additionally, the rising waters washed out several bridges in the region and swept away automobiles. Railways were covered by water, forcing trains to suspend their operation. Drinking water in Dartmouth was contaminated due to excessive runoff into Lake Antigonish, and a trailer park in Antigonish flooded, prompting 600 residents to evacuate. Overall monetary damage from Beth is estimated at between \$3.5 million and US\$5.1 million. One person was indirectly killed by the hurricane in a traffic accident induced by heavy rain.
## See also
- Other storms with the same name
- List of Canada hurricanes
- Geography of Canada | [
"## Meteorological history",
"## Preparations and impact",
"## See also"
] | 775 | 28,071 |
9,748,523 | Hoodoo Butte | 1,147,867,988 | Mountain in Oregon, United States | [
"Buttes of Oregon",
"Cascade Range",
"Cascade Volcanoes",
"Cinder cones of the United States",
"Mountains of Oregon",
"Subduction volcanoes",
"Volcanoes of Linn County, Oregon",
"Volcanoes of Oregon",
"Volcanoes of the United States"
] | Hoodoo Butte is a cinder cone butte in the Cascade Range of northern Oregon, located near Santiam Pass. Immediately to the east lies Hayrick Butte, a prime example of a tuya; the two mountains' names were likely mistaken for each other, but stuck with them over time. The area has been subjected to a number of historic fires. Hoodoo is sometimes considered a subfeature of the Mount Washington shield volcano, and it forms part of the Sisters Reach, which extends from South Cinder Peak to Crane Prairie Reservoir, running for 56 miles (90 km). This region has a high vent density, with many mafic (rich in magnesium and iron) volcanoes of Pleistocene to Holocene age, such as Hoodoo. While Hoodoo has an intact summit crater that was blocked from erosion by glaciers, it has an irregular topography, giving it an open appearance.
A ski area, also named Hoodoo, is located on the northwest through northeast flanks of the cone, and includes five chairlifts. Other recreational activities popular in the area include snowshoeing and snowmobiling during the winter, and fishing, hiking, camping, mountain biking, windsurfing, and water skiing popular during the summer season.
## Geography
Hoodoo Butte lies in Linn County, in the northern part of the U.S. state of Oregon. With an elevation of 5,597 feet (1,706 m), it has a large, rounded shape, rising about 500 feet (150 m) above the surrounding platform. The volcano lies 44 miles (71 km) northwest of the city of Bend and about 130 miles (210 km) southeast of Portland.
### Physical geography
In 1967, a stand replacement fire (a fire that kills most if not all of the living upper canopy layer in the forest and initiates succession or regrowth) burned through 5,000 acres (20 km<sup>2</sup>) of the surrounding Santiam Pass area. It reached the vegetation on the eastern and southern flanks of Hoodoo Butte, leaving patches of trees compared to the denser forest on the northern slope. Forest fires tore through the region again during the summer of 2003.
Soil on the mountain ranges from shallow to moderately deep with loam, and tends to be loose and cindery.
### Ecology
Bird species near Hoodoo include woodpeckers and bald eagles. Deer and American black bears frequent the surrounding area.
## Geology
Hoodoo Butte lies near the Santiam Pass area, in the eastern segment of the Cascade Range known as the High Cascades, which trends north–south. Constructed towards the end of the Pleistocene epoch, these mountains are underlain by more ancient volcanoes that subsided due to parallel north–south faulting in the surrounding region. In the region stretching south from Mount Jefferson to Santiam Pass, shield volcanoes dominate, forming a broad ridge with cinder cones. Eruptions at these vents have produced rocks with compositions ranging from basaltic andesite to andesite and basalt lavas. The majority of rock in the region consists of normally polarized material less than 730,000 years old.
Hoodoo Butte is part of the Sisters Reach, which extends from South Cinder Peak to Crane Prairie Reservoir, running for 56 miles (90 km). With at least 466 volcanoes active during the Quaternary, it has a high vent density, with many mafic (rich in magnesium and iron) volcanoes of Pleistocene to Holocene age. Hoodoo Butte is one of the larger mafic volcanoes, along with Three Fingered Jack, North Sister, and the vents of the Mount Bachelor chain.
Sometimes considered a subfeature of the Mount Washington shield volcano, Hoodoo forms one of several glaciated remnants of Pleistocene volcanoes in the region, other nearby examples including Maxwell Butte and Cache Mountain. It is a cinder cone and possesses an intact summit crater, since the neighboring andesite lava dome of Hayrick Butte prevented Pleistocene glaciers from reaching Hoodoo's summit. The crater is open to the east as a result of its irregular topography, which led to uneven distribution of ejected material such that most of the volcanic rock that forms the edifice was deposited elsewhere. The cinder cone is surrounded by volcanic ash from the Sand Mountain Cones that was moved by water, and some of this ash forms a layer on the floor of the summit crater.
## Human history
According to one local story, a cartographer accidentally switched the names for Hoodoo Butte and the nearby tuya Hayrick Butte. The word "hoodoo" refers to rock buttresses like those observed at the nearby Hayrick Butte, while "hayrick" is a synonym for haystack, a more fitting name for Hoodoo Butte, which has a profile that resembles a haystack shape. Whether or not this error actually occurred remains unclear, but the names remain to present day. The name Hoodoo Butte was confirmed by the United States Board on Geographic Names on November 28, 1980.
The top of Hoodoo Butte has electronic communication relay sites, which are owned by AT&T and Bend Telecommunications.
## Recreation
The Hoodoo ski area, a popular winter sports destination, sits on Hoodoo Butte. It encompasses 800 acres (3.2 km<sup>2</sup>) with 34 trail runs, five chairlifts, a snow tubing park, night skiing, lodges, rental and repair stores, and a day-care building. First built in 1938, the original ski area was supported by a group funded by Ed Thurston of Eugene. Following World War II, the ski area embarked on improvements, including lodging and chairlifts. The oldest ski area in the Central Cascades, the Hoodoo area offers terrains for all levels of skiing. It closes to off-road motorized vehicle use from November 1 through May 15.
In addition to skiing, snowshoeing and snowmobiling are popular winter activities in the area, with fishing, hiking, camping, and mountain biking popular during the summer season. The Hoodoo Ski Bowl offers scenic views of the local region. Fishing is a popular recreational activity in the area, particularly for brook and cutthroat trout at Big Lake, 3 miles (4.8 km) south via the ski area's access road. Recreational boating, windsurfing, and water skiing are also common during the summer.
## See also
- Santiam Highway
- Hogg Rock | [
"## Geography",
"### Physical geography",
"### Ecology",
"## Geology",
"## Human history",
"## Recreation",
"## See also"
] | 1,362 | 13,770 |
68,332,737 | Sawmill Fire (2017) | 1,171,889,720 | 2017 wildfire in Arizona, United States | [
"2017 Arizona wildfires",
"April 2017 events in the United States",
"History of Pima County, Arizona",
"Wildfires in Pima County, Arizona"
] | The Sawmill Fire was a wildfire that burned 46,991 acres (190 km<sup>2</sup>) in the U.S. state of Arizona in April 2017. The fire was caused by the detonation of a target packed with Tannerite at a gender reveal party in the Coronado National Forest. No injuries or fatalities resulted from the fire, nor were any buildings destroyed, though the fire did come close to the historic Empire Ranch, a National Register of Historic Places property. Over 800 personnel from various federal, state, and local agencies and organizations worked to contain and then extinguish the Sawmill Fire at a cost of \$8,200,000.
The fire was started by accident on April 23, 2017, by Dennis Dickey, an off-duty U.S. Border Patrol agent who had shot the Tannerite target. Dickey immediately informed first responders of the fire, which spread rapidly until it was contained on April 30. The U.S. Attorney's Office charged Dickey with a misdemeanor charge to which he pleaded guilty, fined him \$220,000 in restitution, and sentenced him to five years' probation. When the U.S. Forest Service released footage of the fire's inception in November 2018 at the request of a local news agency, the concept and practice of gender reveal parties became the subject of widespread ridicule and online mockery, a pattern repeated after later wildfires started at such events.
## Background
Wildfires are a natural part of the ecological cycle of the Southwestern United States. The Sawmill Fire was one of 2,321 wildfires that burned 429,564 acres (173,838 ha) in Arizona in 2017. The State of Arizona expected a "normal" season but one with high fire potential in the state's southern grasslands because of high temperatures, low humidity, and an abundance of fuels. By August 2017, wildfires had burned the most amount of land since the 2011 season. In May 2018, the Ecological Restoration Institute at Northern Arizona University published a study of the 2017 wildfire season in Arizona and New Mexico and observed that more land had burned in Arizona than the average of the previous ten years. Eleven fires were studied, of which ten were in Arizona and included the Sawmill Fire.
## Cause
The fire began at around 11 am (MST) on April 23, 2017, in the Coronado National Forest, a state-owned property in south-central Arizona, 26 miles (42 km) south of Tucson, Arizona. The cause of the fire was a detonation at a gender reveal party hosted by the Dickey family of a target packed with blue dye to indicate the male gender of their child, and Tannerite, a highly explosive substance, by Dennis Dickey, an off-duty U.S. Border Patrol agent and the child's father. Dickey fired at the target four times, striking and detonating it with the fourth shot; the explosion immediately set the nearby grass on fire. According to his attorney, Dickey attempted to put out the fire but was unsuccessful because of the speed at which it was spreading. Afterward, Dickey alerted law enforcement and admitted culpability for the fire, and subsequently cooperated with authorities.
## Fire
At the time the Sawmill Fire began, a fire warning for the area from the National Weather Service was in effect, as local wind speeds were as high as 40 miles per hour (64 km/h), and precipitation was abnormally low for the region. These conditions allowed the fire to spread quickly, and by the time elements of the Green Valley Fire Department arrived at 11:11 am (MDT), the Sawmill Fire had grown to 300 acres (120 ha) and was spreading to the north and east. Firefighters began to attempt suppression of the fire, which was difficult in the rough terrain of the Santa Rita Mountains. By April 24, the fire had consumed about 7,500 acres (3,000 ha), despite the assistance of five airtankers and three helicopters carrying water. That night, the fire crossed and damaged Arizona State Route 83, which runs south through the Coronado National Forest and had been closed earlier that day, and headed east across the Santa Rita Mountains.
As the fire continued to spread, about 100 area residents were evacuated and 100 others east of Route 83 received pre-evacuation notices. The local chapter of the American Red Cross opened two shelters in Sonoita and Tucson on April 24 and 25, but they were almost totally unused and were closed on April 29. By April 25, 363 first responders were fighting the Sawmill Fire, which had grown to 17,000–20,000 acres (6,900–8,100 ha) because of continued low humidity and high winds that made aerial firefighting impossible. Winds subsided the night of April 25–26, allowing the now approximately 600 firefighters present to halt the southern spread of the fire near Empire Ranch, where flames came as close as 50 feet (15 m) to the ranch's historic buildings. The fire's area nonetheless doubled to 40,356 acres (16,331 ha) and conditions were expected to worsen because of a storm system in northern Arizona. Arizona State Route 83 and Interstate 10 were closed on April 27.
By 11:00 am (MST) April 27, the Sawmill Fire had burned 46,954 acres (19,002 ha), and efforts to suppress it had by then cost \$1,000,000 (\$, adjusted for inflation). About 800 firefighters were present and made progress containing the fire with firebreaks on April 28 and 29, despite aircraft again being grounded by the wind. Route 83 was reopened and evacuation orders for people to its west were lifted on April 27. Despite winds as fast as 45 miles per hour (72 km/h) on April 28, the fire was fully contained and all evacuation orders were lifted by April 30. The firefighters were demobilized on May 1.
## Aftermath
The Sawmill Fire burned 46,991 acres (19,017 ha) over 11 days, growing to its greatest extent on April 29, and cost \$8,200,000 (\$, adjusted for inflation) to suppress. The state-owned Santa Rita Experimental Range and Wildlife Area and the Las Cienegas National Conservation Area (LCNCA), managed by the Bureau of Land Management, made up most of the burned area; 28% of the LCNCA, roughly 12,000 acres (4,900 ha), was burned and was closed from April 28 to May 23. Of the total area burned, about a third of it suffered total foliage mortality, concentrated in the west. 412 people were evacuated, but there were no fatalities, serious injuries, or buildings destroyed. After repairs to Route 83, it reopened in early May 2017.
### Legal action against Dickey
The investigation and prosecution of the Sawmill Fire were turned over to the U.S. Attorney's Office in August 2017 as, though the fire started on the property of the State of Arizona, federal property had been burned. On September 20, 2018, Dickey was charged with starting a fire without a permit, a misdemeanor offense, and was summoned to appear at the United States District Court for the District of Arizona on September 29. He pleaded guilty to the charge, saying that the fire was an accident and that April 23, 2017, was "one of the worst days of [his] life". On October 9, 2018, Dickey was sentenced to five years' probation and agreed to pay the cost of the fire in restitution. This was reduced to \$220,000 by a federal court in October 2018. Dickey also agreed to appear in a public service announcement for the USFS regarding the fire.
In July 2017, lawmakers in Pima County proposed the ban of the possession, creation, and distribution of explosive targets in response to the Sawmill Fire and other fires caused by exploding targets. Footage of Dickey shooting the target became public when, in November 2018, the Arizona Daily Star acquired it via a Freedom of Information Act request. The video brought the fire back into the public consciousness, resulting in both the party itself and the concept of gender reveal parties being mocked online. The Sawmill Fire was the first wildfire known to be ignited by a gender reveal party, but was not the last, as it was followed in 2020 by the El Dorado Fire in California, which sparked more public outrage. | [
"## Background",
"## Cause",
"## Fire",
"## Aftermath",
"### Legal action against Dickey"
] | 1,781 | 42,123 |
31,360,531 | Jacob L. Beilhart | 1,143,031,541 | Founder of the Spirit Fruit Society | [
"1867 births",
"1908 deaths",
"Founders of utopian communities",
"People from Lisbon, Ohio",
"People from Ottawa, Kansas"
] | Jacob L. Beilhart (March 4, 1867 – November 24, 1908) was the founder and leader of a communitarian group known as the Spirit Fruit Society. Beilhart believed that jealousy, materialism, and the fear of losing another's love were at the root of much of the illness in the world. Under his direction, the Spirit Fruit Society sought to model and practice those beliefs.
Beilhart was born in Ohio and raised in the Lutheran faith. He moved to Kansas when he was 18 and embraced Seventh-day Adventism. He later attended college to become a licensed preacher. Eventually, Beilhart came to believe that it was more important to put faith into practice helping others so he left preaching to study nursing and work in a sanitarium. He returned to Ohio in 1899 to start the Spirit Fruit Society, an intentional community based on his experiences, learning, and views. Beilhart led the group for nine years before he died of appendicitis and peritonitis in 1908. Beilhart's commune survived for another 22 years making it one of the longest surviving communes in America.
## Biography
Beilhart was born March 4, 1867, in Columbiana County, Ohio, to a Lutheran father and a Mennonite mother. The ninth of 11 children, Beilhart was raised in the Lutheran church and his early home environment was strictly religious. Jacob did not receive much in the way of formal education. His father died when he was six or seven years old so Jacob attended only elementary school. At the age of 17, Beilhart went to work at his brother-in-law's harness shop in southern Ohio and, when they moved to Ottawa, Kansas, Jacob went with them.
Beilhart left his brother-in-law's home a year later and went to live and work on a sheep farm. The family he lived with were devout Seventh Day Adventists. During this time, he became convinced that their view of the Bible and its teachings were quite different than what he had been raised to understand, but he accepted their religion entirely.
Although it is not known for certain, it is possible that the sheep farmer was the father of Olive Louema Blow, whom Beilhart married in 1887. Jacob and Louema attended Healdsburg College in California where Jacob received a license to preach. Beilhart returned to Kansas to begin a career in preaching. After two years, however, faced with the prospect of being sent to teach in other areas, Beilhart left preaching. He maintained that he wanted to do something "besides talk." Beilhart felt a strong need to help the sick so he enrolled in a nursing program at the Battle Creek Sanitarium that was run by Dr. John Harvey Kellogg.
Once, while working at the Sanitarium, Beilhart was called to the bedside of a young girl for whom doctors had given up hope. When Beilhart prayed for her, she experienced a quick and complete recovery. Beilhart's conviction that faith healing was the remedy for illness put him in disfavor with the sanitarium officials and he was asked to resign.
Beilhart became friends with C. W. Post, who was a patient at the sanitarium, but Post was healed by a Christian Science faith healer, Mrs Elizabeth K. Gregory. In 1892, Post started La Vita Inn, a sanitarium of his own and brought Beilhart on as an associate. The two men took instruction in Christian Science. Both Post and Beilhart rejected the doctrine of the religion but they embraced the view that illness was an illusion and could be overcome by mental suggestion, prayer, and self-sacrifice.
After the birth of their daughter, Edith in 1896, Louema revealed that the father of both Edith and her older brother, Harvey (1893), was C. W. Post. Though Post offered him financial interest in La Vita Inn and his prospective famous breakfast drink, Postum, provided Beilhart he would stay and work at the Inn. Outraged at his friend's betrayal, Beilhart ordered Post out of his house and left Battle Creek for Ohio. Louema left Jacob and took the children back to her family in Kansas in 1897. This experience undoubtedly had a profound effect upon Beilhart's view of marriage.
## The Spirit Fruit Society
In 1896, Beilhart returned to Ohio and settled in Lisbon, close to where he had grown up. In 1899 he decided to create an intentional community in order to practice his newly developed beliefs and to model this practice for others. Beilhart also started two newspapers called Spirit Fruit and Spirit Voice that were distributed widely by subscription. The Spirit Fruit Society was incorporated as a religious organization in 1901. The stated goal in the incorporation documents was to, "teach mankind how to apply the truths taught by Jesus Christ". Jacob made no effort to solicit members for his commune other than through his newspapers and sometimes rejected applicants when he felt they were not fit candidates. The commune attracted only about a dozen residents – mostly from outside the Ohio area.
Beilhart preached in Chicago and elsewhere, but was not known to proselytize strongly; however, although the group typically kept to themselves, their mysterious nature led to misconceptions and suspicion in the press. In 1904, numerous newspaper articles and editorials were written, mostly in Chicago, about the Society. Those articles were often sensationalist and served to put the Society in a bad light. The views and practices of the Society, particularly those against marriage and promoting free love, were not well accepted in the small Ohio community. Thus, in 1904, the group left Lisbon for Chicago where they expected their progressive ideas might be better tolerated.
## Chicago and Jacob's death
Beilhart had preached in Chicago on a number of occasions and felt that the reception of the Society by that community would be better. Unfavorable publicity followed the group to Chicago however, and this period lasted only a relatively short time. In 1906 Beilhart purchased the 90 acre "Dalziel Farm" on the shores of Wooster Lake. Owing to his beliefs against personal property, almost immediately after the purchase he had his name removed from the deed because he did not want anything in his name.
In November 1908, returning from a meeting in Chicago, Beilhart fell ill with stomach pains. He was diagnosed with appendicitis, and a surgeon was brought in. There is some discrepancy concerning the diagnosis once surgery was performed. One doctor indicated that his appendix was healthy while another maintained that it had ruptured. Beilhart developed peritonitis and died on November 24, 1908.
In accordance with his beliefs, the Society buried Beilhart in an unmarked grave on the farm overlooking Wooster Lake. Although most of the area is now covered by a residential development, Beilhart's grave site has been preserved, surrounded by brush. | [
"## Biography",
"## The Spirit Fruit Society",
"## Chicago and Jacob's death"
] | 1,445 | 18,946 |
3,974,477 | Azerbaijan at the 2006 Winter Olympics | 1,115,482,296 | null | [
"2006 in Azerbaijani sport",
"Azerbaijan at the Winter Olympics by year",
"Nations at the 2006 Winter Olympics"
] | Azerbaijan sent a delegation to compete at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy from 10–26 February 2006. The nation was making its third appearance at a Winter Olympics. The Azerbaijani delegation consisted of two athletes, an ice dancing team of American-born Kristin Fraser and Russian-born Igor Lukanin. They finished the competition in 19th place. As of the conclusion of these Olympics, Azerbaijan has never won a Winter Olympics medal.
## Background
The National Olympic Committee of the Azerbaijani Republic was created in 1992 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and was recognized by the International Olympic Committee on 1 January 1993. Azerbaijan has sent delegations to every Olympics since the 1996 Summer Olympics, first entering the Winter Olympics in Nagano in 1998. While the nation has won many medals in the Summer Olympics, they have never won a medal in the Winter Olympics. The Azerbaijani delegation to Turin consisted of a single ice dancing team, Kristin Fraser and Igor Lukanin. Teymur Jafarov, an assistant of the National Olympic Committee, carried the flag for the closing ceremony.
## Figure skating
Kristin Frasier is from in Montclair, New Jersey, while Igor Lukanin was born in Yekaterinburg, Russia. They had previously, as a team, represented Azerbaijan at the 2002 Winter Olympics. At the time of the Turin Olympics, Frasier was 25 years old, and Lukanin was 30 years old. The ice dancing event took place over three phases, each held on a separate days. There were 24 teams taking part in the competition. On 17 February, in the compulsory dance, the Azerbaijanis scored 27.27 points. Two nights later, they scored 43.83 points in the original dance, while the following evening they scored 77.14 points in the free dance. Their combined score of 148.24 points put the Azerbajiani team in 19th place.
Key: CD = Compulsory Dance, FD = Free Dance, OD = Original Dance | [
"## Background",
"## Figure skating"
] | 439 | 3,149 |
38,359,076 | Moving On (The Office) | 1,144,827,848 | null | [
"2013 American television episodes",
"Television episodes directed by Jon Favreau",
"The Office (American season 9) episodes"
] | "Moving On" is the sixteenth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the 192nd episode overall. The episode was written by Graham Wagner and directed by Jon Favreau. It originally aired on NBC on February 14, 2013. The episode guest stars Bob Odenkirk, Mary Gillis, Collette Wolfe, and Andy Buckley. The episode also features the return of former series regular Zach Woods as Gabe Lewis.
The series—presented as if it were a real documentary—depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania, branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. In this episode, Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) interviews for a job in Philadelphia, but her potential manager (Odenkirk) reminds her of her former boss, Michael Scott. Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) recruits Angela Martin (Angela Kinsey) to help give his elderly aunt (Gillis) a bath. Meanwhile, Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) attempts to make Pete Miller (Jake Lacy) and Erin Hannon (Ellie Kemper) feel uncomfortable by hiring their ex-lovers.
On February 8, 2013, NBC announced that the episode would be expanded to fill a one-hour television block, although it still counts as one official episode. The episode received largely positive reviews, although many were critical of the episode's extended length, which they argued felt padded. The episode was viewed by 4.06 million viewers and received a 2/6 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. The episode ranked third in its timeslot, and it was the highest-rated NBC series of the night.
## Synopsis
David Wallace (Andy Buckley) scolds Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) for lying about his three-month absence from the office. David later tells Andy that he will not fire him, thanking him for helping him buy the company, but warns Andy that he is on very thin ice. Andy learns that Erin Hannon (Ellie Kemper) is dating Pete Miller (Jake Lacy), which they have been holding in secrecy from him in order to make his breakup with Erin easier. Though Andy doesn't figure this out at first, having called Pete "Plop" for so long he forgot his name, he realizes the truth upon finding a lunch bag with his name on it.
Andy attempts to fire Pete, but Toby Flenderson (Paul Lieberstein) points out that he cannot do this since Pete and Erin already disclosed their relationship and that he can’t fire people simply over grudges. Erin and Pete then both lecture Andy about moving on, claiming that working alongside one's ex-lover does not have to be awkward. To refute this claim, Andy hires both Pete's ex-girlfriend Alice (Collette Wolfe) and Erin's ex-boyfriend Gabe Lewis (Zach Woods). After giving Pete and Erin time to appreciate how uncomfortable this is, he holds a meeting with them and their ex-lovers, leading the two couples to argue with each other. Andy tells the camera that seeing Erin and Pete unhappy has made him feel better.
Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) leaves the office to interview for a job in Philadelphia; when Andy tries to assert his authority by asking where she is going, Pam snaps "not on a three-month boat trip" and walks out as Andy looks on in defeat while the rest of the office looks at him with disgust. At the interview, Pam finds her potential manager, Mark (Bob Odenkirk), is remarkably like her former Dunder Mifflin regional manager Michael Scott. While this initially amuses her, Pam gradually realizes that the prospect of working under another Michael Scott is abhorrent, and her horror increases when Mark reveals that she is interviewing for a glorified receptionist's job. During a romantic dinner, Pam finally admits to Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) that even had the prospective job and boss been perfect she would not have wanted to take it, since she does not really want to move to Philadelphia, despite Jim having started his own business there. The two are not angry at each other but look deeply upset over this divide.
Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) requests the help of Angela Lipton (Angela Kinsey) in caring for his ailing Aunt Shirley. Angela initially refuses, but gives in when Dwight begins describing her ailments in grotesque detail. At the house, Angela is horrified by Dwight's treatment of his Aunt: he consistently speaks to her in a condescending tone, proposes to cut off her worn-out clothing with a utility knife, and "bathes" her by spraying her with a high-pressure water hose like a cow. After subduing Dwight by spraying him with the hose, Angela insists on washing and grooming Shirley in a more dignified manner. Through the process, Dwight and Angela recall their feelings for each other. At the end of the day, they begin kissing, but Angela reminds Dwight that she is married and says she will not leave her husband even though he does not care for her. Dwight accepts this, admitting that he would want that same loyalty from her if she were his wife.
Toby has been discussing the details of the Scranton Strangler case with Nellie Bertram (Catherine Tate) for some time, feeling the guilty verdict he helped deliver was rushed. Having grown weary of the subject, she snaps at him that he should do something about it. Toby accordingly goes to the local prison to talk to the person convicted of being the notorious local murderer and tell him he believes he is innocent. Offscreen, the convict begins strangling Toby for his part in the conviction. However, Toby does have his spirits lifted, realizing he was guilty and after Nellie gives him a lift from the hospital and commends him for his bravery.
Oscar Martinez (Oscar Nunez) queues up a television show on his computer, and while the ad loads, he does gravity boot sit-ups. While he is struggling to get down, the camera zooms in on an upcoming television guide on Oscar's computer screen that reveals that the in-series documentary—called The Office: An American Workplace—will air in May.
## Production
"Moving On" was written by series producer Graham Wagner, making it his second episode for the series after the earlier ninth season episode "The Target". The episode was directed by filmmaker Jon Favreau, marking his first directing credit for the series and the first time he has directed for a television comedy since Fox's Undeclared. Fischer noted that, because Favreau got his start as an actor in "quiet, character based comedies", his directing of The Office was a "return to that" type of comedy. On February 8, 2013, NBC announced that the episode would be expanded to fill a one-hour television block, although it still counts as one official episode.
The episode guest stars Bob Odenkirk—who had previously been considered for the role of Michael Scott—as Pam's potential employer, Mary Gillis as Aunt Shirley, and Andy Buckley as David Wallace. The episode also features the return of former series regular Zach Woods as Gabe Lewis. Woods was introduced in the sixth season episode "Sabre" and was added to the series as a regular with the premiere of the seventh season. Woods's contract was not renewed at the beginning of the ninth season, but series showrunner Greg Daniels revealed that Woods would be returning; he noted "It's kind of a neat story turn ... He's going to come back and we're all excited to see him back".
## Cultural references
When he is being yelled at by Wallace, Andy references American rapper Vanilla Ice and musician Jon Bon Jovi. Andy gives Clark (Clark Duke) various nicknames, including Clarker Posey (a reference to American actress Parker Posey), Clarkwork Orange (a reference to the novel A Clockwork Orange and the film of the same name), and Zero Clark Thirty (a reference to the film Zero Dark Thirty). At the Philadelphia office, Mark alludes to pop culture, with references to the 2011 film Horrible Bosses and the 2012 film Django Unchained. He also sings the K-pop hit "Gangnam Style" by Psy, and reads Pam's resume as if he were Bob Dylan. Mark also makes a reference to the Spanish Inquisition sketch from Monty Python, but misattributes it to the Canadian sketch comedy group The Kids in the Hall. Near the end of Pam's interview, Mark questions her on whether she enjoys the HBO series Curb Your Enthusiasm; Odenkirk actually had a role in the third episode of the first season of Curb Your Enthusiasm. The title of the in-series documentary, The Office: An American Workplace, is the name given to the series itself when it was broadcast in the UK to differentiate it from the British version of the show.
## Broadcast and reception
### Ratings
"Moving On" originally aired on NBC on February 14, 2013. In its original American broadcast, the episode was viewed by an estimated 4.06 million viewers and received a 2.0 rating/6 percent share. This means that it was seen by 2.0 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and 6 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. This marked a slight decrease in the ratings from the previous episode, "Vandalism". The Office ranked third in its timeslot, being beaten by an episode of the CBS police procedural Person of Interest which received a 3.0/8 percent rating, and an entry of the ABC series Grey's Anatomy which received a 2.8/8 percent rating. The ratings for "Moving On" were the best for NBC in the 9–10 pm Thursday timeslot since November 8, 2012.
### Reviews
Jeff Alexander of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an "A−". Damon Houx of Screen Crush called the episode the "highlight" of the season. In particular, he was pleased with the way Pam and Jim's strife was portrayed; he wrote that "tonight the ... drama felt earned in a way it hadn't previous" and that "Jim and Pam were used well". Houx was also extremely pleased with Odenkirk's performance, writing that, "Even if Odenkirk is doing an impression of Steve Carell's character, not only is it great for the non-comedy comedy, but you can totally see a parallel universe where Odenkirk played Michael Scott and nailed it as well as Carell did." He concluded that, with Odenkirk's presence, "In about twenty seconds this became the best episode of the season." Kelly West of Cinema Blend gave a moderately positive review, noting that the entry "dealt with some of the ongoing issues among the staff of Dunder Mifflin. With the exception of a pretty great guest appearance by Breaking Bad's Bob Odenkirk (Better call Saul!) and some interesting developments in the relationship department for some of the characters, the episode was fairly standard. And then came the very end, which offered an interesting reveal and a teaser of something big."
IGN writer Roth Cornet awarded the episode a 6.9, denoting an "okay" episode. She called the episode "the real beginning of the end". Cornet, however, was critical of the episode's length, specifically pin-pointing the Philadelphia scenes, noting that they "went on too long". She concluded that "I feel for the writers, who I honestly believe were forced to stretch their content this season", as well as for the episode. Nick Campbell of TV.com was unhappy that the episode did not show or comment on Pam and Jim's fight in the previous episode. He felt that the beginning of the dinner scene was nice, due to the two's banter. However, he felt that the end pretended as if they had not discussed the move in any previous episodes. Campbell felt that Odenkirk was used in a good way, but that was "a waste of amazing talent at the real estate office". He also felt that Dwight and Angela's kiss was a good progression for their story.
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode "C−", and criticized its extended nature. He said that it was "both brimming with narrative yet straining to fill its allotted time." Adams argued that elements, like Toby's visit to the prison, seemed like tacked on codas intended to increase the length of the show. He also felt that Odenkirk's performance was humorous, but dragged on too long and played the joke too far. Adams, however, was complimentary towards Angela and Dwight's subplot, calling it the most "daring" of the episode's various subplots, and saying it provided momentum for the episode. Alan Sepinwall of HitFix called the episode "unpleasant', largely due to Andy's presence; he felt that the character "continues to dominate the action and crush all the goodwill generated earlier in the season". However, he was very pleased with Odenkirk's performance, calling his acting "a pretty spot-on recreation of the early years [of The Office]". Bob Odenkirk's performance was later submitted by the producers of The Office for an "Outstanding Guest Actor in Comedy Series" Emmy consideration. | [
"## Synopsis",
"## Production",
"## Cultural references",
"## Broadcast and reception",
"### Ratings",
"### Reviews"
] | 2,774 | 8,379 |
12,431,178 | Black cuckoo-dove | 1,134,187,592 | Species of bird from the Lesser Sunda Islands | [
"Birds described in 1835",
"Birds of Timor",
"Birds of Wetar",
"Near threatened animals",
"Near threatened biota of Asia",
"Taxonomy articles created by Polbot",
"Turacoena"
] | The black cuckoo-dove (Turacoena modesta), also known as the slaty cuckoo-dove, is a species of bird in the family Columbidae. It is endemic to the Lesser Sunda Islands, being found on Timor, Wetar, Rote, and Atauro. It inhabits primary and secondary monsoon forest, eucalyptus forest, and woodlands. It is 38.5 cm (15.2 in) long on average and is mainly dark bluish-gray, lighter on the head and underparts and darker on the wings and tail. It has yellow orbital skin.
The black cuckoo-dove feeds on fruit. It is listed as being near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in the IUCN Red List. It is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.
## Taxonomy and systematics
The black cuckoo-dove was first described as Columba modesta by the Dutch zoologist Coenraad Temminck in 1835 based on a specimen from Timor. It was then moved to the genus Macropygia by the English zoologist George Robert Gray in 1844, before finally being moved to Turacoena in 1856. The name of the genus, Turacoena, is after the genus Turacus (now treated as a synonym of Tauraco) and the Ancient Greek word oinas, meaning pigeon. The specific name modesta is from the Latin word modestus, meaning plain or modest. Black cuckoo-dove is the official common name designated by the International Ornithologists' Union. Other common names for the species include black dove, Timor cuckoo-dove, Timor black cuckoo-dove, Timor black pigeon, and slate-colored cuckoo-dove.
The black cuckoo-dove is one of three species in the genus Turacoena and is most closely related to the white-faced cuckoo dove. It does not have any subspecies.
## Description
The black cuckoo-dove is a medium-sized cuckoo-dove with a length of 38.5–42 cm (15.2–16.5 in). Both sexes are similar in appearance. It is mainly dark bluish-gray, with the color being lighter on the head and underparts and almost black on the wings and tail. The feathers on the top of the head, nape, neck, breast and upper back have iridescent green or purple fringes. The orbital skin is yellow, while the iris has a yellow inner ring and a red outer ring. The legs and beak are black. Juveniles are duller, with brownish-grey plumage, and have light fawn-white fringes to feathers.
### Vocalizations
The advertising call is a long crrruah...crrruah..rrah.rah.ra.ra.ra-ra-ra-r-r-r-r which starts with purrs that are similar to those of the European turtle dove and then becomes a series of stuttering notes before fading. It lasts for 6–8 seconds and consists of 20–25 notes. It is repeated around every half minute.
## Distribution and habitat
The black cuckoo-dove is endemic to the Lesser Sunda Islands and is found on Timor, Wetar, Rote, and Atauro. It inhabits primary and secondary monsoon forest, eucalyptus forest, and woodland at elevations of up to 1,770 m (5,810 ft) and is moderately tolerant of habitat destruction. It is thought to migrate seasonally depending on food availability.
## Behaviour and ecology
The black cuckoo-dove is mainly found singly or in pairs in the subcanopy. It is a quiet species and flies swiftly to nearby perches when flushed. It feeds on fruit and forages singly or in pairs in bushes and small trees. Flocks also congregate at fruiting trees. It is parasitized by the quill mite Meitingsunes turacoenas, which is present on its flight feathers.
## Status
The species is listed as being near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in the IUCN Red List due to population declines and restricted distribution. Its population is estimated to be 1,500–7,000 mature adults and 2,500–9,999 total individuals. Threats to the species include severe deforestation caused by grazing, burning, agriculture, and logging. It is also threatened by intensive hunting in Timor. | [
"## Taxonomy and systematics",
"## Description",
"### Vocalizations",
"## Distribution and habitat",
"## Behaviour and ecology",
"## Status"
] | 933 | 16,553 |
30,332,168 | Cairanoolithus | 1,134,161,656 | Oogenus of dinosaur egg | [
"Cretaceous France",
"Cretaceous Spain",
"Dinosaur reproduction",
"Egg fossils",
"Fossil parataxa described in 1994",
"Fossils of France",
"Fossils of Spain",
"Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of Europe",
"Maastrichtian life",
"Ornithischians",
"Tremp Formation"
] | Cairanoolithus is an oogenus of dinosaur egg which is found in Southwestern Europe. The eggs are large (15–19 centimetres or 6–7+1⁄2 inches in diameter) and spherical. Their outer surface is either smooth, or covered with a subdued pattern of ridges interspersed with pits and grooves. Multiple fossil egg clutches are known but the nest structure is unclear.
The parent of Cairanoolithus is probably some kind of non-ornithopod ornithischian, possibly the nodosaurid Struthiosaurus.
The eggs were first named in 1994, when the two oospecies were classified in distinct oogenera as Cairanoolithus dughii and Dughioolithus roussetensis. They are now considered to belong in a single oogenus, possibly even a single oospecies. Though it has been classified as a megaloolithid, Cairanoolithus is now placed in its own oofamily, Cairanoolithidae.
## Description
Cairanoolithus eggs are spherical and fairly large, measuring 15–19 cm (6–7+1⁄2 in) in diameter. The outer surface is smooth or covered with a subdued netlike pattern of ridges, interspersed with pits and grooves (sagenotuberculate ornamentation). The eggshells are made up of partially interlocking column-shaped shell units and range from 1.10 to 2.65 mm (3⁄64 to 13⁄128 in) thick.
Several egg clutches of C. dughii are known, containing as many as 25 fossilized eggs. Unfortunately, taphonomical alterations (changes during the fossilization process) make it difficult to determine the original structure of the nest. Cousin (2002) hypothesized that Cairanoolithus eggs were laid on the surface of the ground, possibly buried beneath a mound of plant matter. Tanaka et al. (2015) noted that the shell had a high rate of water vapor conductance. Therefore, they concluded that Cairanoolithus nests were covered by organic or inorganic material, similar to modern eggs with high vapor conductance.
### Oospecies
Two oospecies of Cairanoolithus have been described:
- Cairanoolithus dughii is the type oospecies. At 1.57–2.41 mm (1⁄16–3⁄32 in), its eggshell is slightly thicker than that of C. roussetensis. It has slender, partially fused columnar eggshell units. Their outer surface is almost without ornamentation, and the inner surface is covered with hollows once filled by organic cores. C. dughii'''s eggshell exhibits an angusticanaliculate pore system, i.e. its pores are long, narrow, and straight.
- Cairanoolithus roussetensis, which was formerly classified in its own oogenus, Dughioolithus, can be distinguished from C. dughii by its thinner eggshell (measuring 1.11–1.77 mm or 3⁄64–9⁄128 in thick), its broader eggshell units, and the relative prominence of its ornamentation. Like C. dughii, C. roussetensis typically has an angusticanaliculate pore system, though some specimens have prolatocanaliculate pores, meaning they have variable diameter across their length.
Some authors consider the two oospecies to be synonymous. Cousin (2002) argued that the differences between them were due to intraspecific variation or due to taphonomy. He also described several eggshell fragments that possibly belong to an additional distinct oospecies of Cairanoolithus; however these specimens were referred to C. roussetensis by Selles and Galobart (2015).
## Classification
While it was formerly considered a megaloolithid, Cairanoolithus is now considered to belong its own monotypic oofamily, Cairanoolithidae. It belongs to the dinosauroid-spherulitic basic type, a group including sauropod eggs and ornithischian eggs, but paraphyletically excluding theropod eggs.
The cladistic analysis done by Selles and Galobart in 2015 recovered Cairanoolithus as a sister taxon to the clade of ornithopod eggs Guegoolithus, Spheroolithus, and Ovaloolithus. Therefore, they considered it likely that Cairanoolithus belongs to a non-ornithopod ornithischian dinosaur.
### Parentage
Since embryos are unknown in cairanoolithid eggs, the identity of their parent is uncertain. They have long been considered to be eggs of titanosaurs or ornithopods (like Rhabdodon). However, numerous characteristics distinguish Cairanoolithus from sauropod eggs (oofamilies Megaloolithidae and Faveoloolithidae), even though they bear superficial similarities in size and shape. Cairanoolithus's columnar eggshell units are quite unlike the fan-shaped ones seen in Megaloolithus, Faveoloolithus, or Fusioolithus. Also, its subdued ornamentation contrasts strongly with the heavily sculpted eggshells of sauropod eggs, and it has a different pore system. Eggs of ornithopods (Spheroolithidae and Ovaloolithidae), on the other hand, show much closer similarity to cairanoolithids in ornamentation and pore system. However, ornithopod eggs are typically much smaller, and the crystal structure of their eggshell units is distinct.
The cladistic analysis by Sellés and Galobart in 2015 supported an ornithischian parentage. Late Campanian to early Maastrichtian ornithischians from Southwestern Europe are restricted to rhabdodontids and the nodosaurid Struthiosaurus. When Sellés and Galobart analyzed the pelvises of Rhabdodon (the largest known rhabdodontid) and Struthiosaurus, they found that Rhabdodon could not have laid eggs as big as Cairanoolithus. On the other hand, even though Struthiosaurus was relatively small, the unique orientation of its ischia would have easily allowed it to lay eggs as large as a 19 cm (7+1⁄2 in) cairanoolithid egg. However, interpreting Cairanoolithus as the eggs of a nodosaur does raise the question of why Cairanoolithus or similar eggs have not been found in areas with a greater nodosaur abundance.
## Distribution
Cairanoolithus is native to Southwestern Europe, including southern France and northern Iberia. Its fossils date to the late Campanian to early Maastrichtian. They are usually found in the Aix-en-Provence Basin below the Rognac Limestone. C. dughii is from the La Cairanne site in Bouches du Rhône, France, from Roquehautes-Grand Creux and from the Villeveyrac Basin. C. roussetensis is found in the northern part of Iberia (Tremp Group of Spain), and from southern France (in Rousset Village, Roquehautes-Crete du Marbre, the Villeveyrac Basin, and Argelliers-Montamaud).
## Paleoecology
The Late Cretaceous ecosystems of Europe (which was then an island archipelago) show complex mixing of taxa originating from Africa, Asia, and North America. In Southwestern Europe, Cairanoolithus co-occurs with numerous other types of fossil eggs; Megaloolithus is particularly common, but theropod eggs such as Prismatoolithus and the ornithopod egg Guegoolithus are also present. Dinosaur body fossils are also common, including nodosaurids, rhabdodontids, titanosaurs, dromaeosaurids, basal iguanodontians, hadrosaurids, neoceratosaurians, and coelurosaurs. Other vertebrates include bony fish, squamates, cryptodiran turtles, alligatorids, and mammals.
## History
The Aix Basin was first excavated for fossils in 1869 by French paleontologist Philippe Matheron. In the 1950s, Raymond Dughi and Francois Sirugue, a pair of French paleontologists working for the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle Aix-en-Provence, extensively studied the basin's fossil eggshells. They divided the eggs they had found into ten different types, but they did not describe them in detail. In the 1970s and 1980s, further work was done by the French paleontologist P. Kerourio and the German paleontologist H. K. Erben.
In his 1983 doctoral thesis, M. M. Penner devised one of the early classification schemes for egg fossils. He was the first to recognize the eggs now named Cairanoolithus as a distinct type; under his classification scheme, they were called "Group 2". In 1994, French paleontologists M. Vianey-Liaud, P. Mallan, O. Buscail and C. Montgelard described them under the modern parataxonomic system as Cairanoolithus dughii and "Dughioolithus" roussetensis. They did not assign either of them to any oofamily, but both oogenera were classified in the oofamily Megaloolithidae by the Russian paleontologist Konstantin Mikhailov in 1996. Following further discoveries in 2001, Géraldine Garcia and Monique Vianey-Liaud synomized the two oogenera. In 2002, French paleontologist R. Cousin took a step further and synonymized the two oospecies.
In 2012, the first Cairanoolithus fossils discovered outside of France were first reported by Albert G. Selles in his PhD thesis at Universitat de Barcelona, in which he also proposed that Cairanoolithus be moved into its own oofamily. Three years later, Selles and Angel Galobart published a comprehensive reanalysis of Cairanoolithus, in which they formally named the new oofamily, Cairanoolithidae, to contain Cairanaoolithus. Contrary to Cousin's conclusions, Selles and Galobart separated the oospecies C. dughii and C. roussetensis. Also, they demonstrated that Cairanoolithus'' was not the eggs of an ornithopod or sauropod and conjectured that it could be the eggs of a nodosaur. | [
"## Description",
"### Oospecies",
"## Classification",
"### Parentage",
"## Distribution",
"## Paleoecology",
"## History"
] | 2,314 | 5,516 |
33,255,851 | Hurricane Ophelia (2011) | 1,171,667,069 | Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 2011 | [
"2011 Atlantic hurricane season",
"Cape Verde hurricanes",
"Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes",
"Hurricanes in Bermuda",
"Hurricanes in Canada",
"Hurricanes in Europe",
"Tropical cyclones in 2011"
] | Hurricane Ophelia was the most intense hurricane of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season. The seventeenth tropical cyclone, sixteenth tropical storm, fifth hurricane, and third major hurricane, Ophelia originated in a tropical wave in the central Atlantic, forming approximately midway between the Cape Verde Islands and the Lesser Antilles on September 17. Tracking generally west-northwestward, Ophelia was upgraded to a tropical storm on September 21, and reached an initial peak of 65 mph (105 km/h) on September 22. As the storm entered a region of higher wind shear it began to weaken, and was subsequently downgraded to a remnant low on September 25. The following day, however, the remnants of the system began to reorganize as wind shear lessened, and on September 27, the National Hurricane Center once again began advisories on the system. Moving northward, Ophelia regained tropical storm status early on September 28, and rapidly deepened to attain its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph (230 km/h) several days later. The system weakened as it entered cooler sea surface temperatures and began a gradual transition to an extratropical cyclone, a process it completed by October 3.
Following the development of Ophelia, numerous storm watches and warnings were issued for the northeastern Caribbean Islands. Residents were urged to prepare for strong winds and substantial flooding. As the system made its closest approach, Ophelia produced several inches of rainfall, leading to mudslides and several road rescues. While light rain totals and gusty winds below tropical storm force were recorded on the island of Bermuda, storm surge and dangerous rip currents along the coast caused minimal damage. In Newfoundland, heavy rainfall contributed to floods that destroyed roads and many buildings. Following Ophelia's transition into an extratropical cyclone, residents across Europe were urged to prepare for strong winds in excess of 75 mph (121 km/h) in some locations, as well as rainfall accumulations up to 4 in (100 mm). In northern Ireland, a combination of moisture and significantly cooler weather produced several inches of snow across the region, cutting electricity to hundreds. Overall, there were no deaths reported in association with Ophelia, and damage was minimal.
## Meteorological history
The formation of Hurricane Ophelia is attributed in part to a low-latitude tropical wave that emerged off the western coast of Africa in mid-September. As the wave tracked westward, it began to interact with the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), and was subsequently introduced with a low chance of tropical development in the National Hurricane Center's (NHC) 48-hour Tropical Weather Outlook. Though atmospheric wind shear was only marginally favorable, the cloud pattern organized, and a surface low-pressure area developed in association with the disturbance. Deep shower and thunderstorm activity continued to fire as the disturbance moved in a general westward motion, and it was assessed with a high chance of development by early on September 19. Following satellite trends and data from the Advanced Scatterometer, the disturbance was upgraded to a tropical depression at 1800 UTC the following day, while positioned roughly 1,300 mi (2,100 km) east of the Lesser Antilles, and to a tropical storm six hours later.
Tropical Storm Ophelia continued to intensify as it moved west-northwest. Curved convective bands became prominent in the northern semicircle of the cyclone, and deep convection developed near the center. This intensification trend was short-lived, however, as increased wind shear from a nearby upper-level low caused the low-level center to become partially exposed. Despite the poor presentation on satellite imagery, data from a nearby buoy revealed that the system was stronger than previously thought, with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph (105 km/h) on September 22. As the upper-level low moved closer to Ophelia, inducing increasingly unfavorable shear on the storm, it caused the low-pressure area to become completely void of thunderstorms. While deep convection waned significantly early on September 23, it made a comeback by that afternoon, and an Air Force Reserve reconnaissance aircraft found 60 mph (97 km/h) winds in the system, much stronger than the intensity of 45 mph (72 km/h) the system was assessed with before the flight. This intensity did not maintain long as the cloud pattern once again became disorganized. The low-level center became exposed once again during the pre-dawn hours of September 25, and without the return of organized shower and thunderstorm activity, led to the NHC declaring Ophelia as a remnant area of low pressure, while situated 180 mi (290 km) east of the northern Leeward Islands.
Though the low-level center dissipated later that afternoon, a well-defined mid-level center lingered. The National Hurricane Center initially assessed the remnants of Ophelia with a low chance of regeneration as deep convection fired in association with the low, but these odds were subsequently increased to a medium chance by the afternoon hours of September 26. A new low-level circulation developed within the well-organized cloud mass, and the system was once again given a high chance of tropical cyclone formation that evening. Following an Air Force Reserve reconnaissance flight into the system, the disturbance was upgraded to Tropical Depression Ophelia at 1200 UTC on September 27, and was once again upgraded to a tropical storm with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph (72 km/h) 18 hours later. As the cyclone reached the western periphery of the subtropical ridge positioned across the central Atlantic, it began to curve northward and intensify once again. Deep convection blossomed atop the center late on September 28, and microwave imagery depicted the development of an eye. Upper-level outflow expanded in all four quadrants of the cyclone by the afternoon hours of September 29, and satellite intensity estimates continued to rise, prompting the NHC to upgrade Ophelia to a Category 1 hurricane by 1800 UTC that day.
An unexpected period of rapid deepening began early on September 30 as a well-defined eye became clearly visible on satellite imagery. Ophelia intensified into a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph (160 km/h) by 0600 UTC and became the season's third major hurricane—a Category 3 or higher on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale—twelve hours later. Cloud tops continued to cool in the system's eyewall late on October 1, with cloud tops in the eye of the system warming. Ophelia intensified into a Category 4 hurricane at 0000 UTC on October 2 and simultaneously attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph (230 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 940 mbar (940 hPa; 28 inHg) as it passed east of Bermuda. Weakening ensued the following day as the hurricane entered cooler sea surface temperatures and an environment characterized by significantly more stable air. Ophelia weakened below major hurricane intensity by 1800 UTC and became a tropical storm for the final time by 0600 UTC on October 3. The system lost its tropical characteristics and was subsequently declared an extratropical cyclone four hours later while positioned just southwest of Newfoundland. The extratropical low was absorbed by a larger weather system by the afternoon hours of the following day.
## Preparations and impact
Though the center of Ophelia remained 205 mi (330 km) east of the Lesser Antilles, its outer bands produced heavy rains across the region. In Dominica, more than 4 in (100 mm) of rain fell over parts of the country, triggering flooding along several rivers. Nearly 1,600 people were stranded and many cars were washed away by the flooding, while landslides severed access to several communities. Several businesses and schools were closed in preparation of the storm. As Ophelia made its closest approach to the region, heavy rainfall submerged Canefield Airport, and numerous roads, buildings and farms were damaged, leaving residents trapped. Gusty winds, reaching 37 mph (60 km/h) at times, and scattered thunderstorms affected portions of Guadeloupe.
Following Ophelia's upgrade to hurricane status on September 29, the Bermuda Weather Service (BWS) issued a tropical storm watch for the entirety of the island. Over the following days, the threat of damaging winds gradually decreased as the storm's forecast track took it far enough east of the territory to spare the region of a direct hit. Correspondingly, the BWS discontinued the watch on the evening of October 1. Four flights from the United States to Bermuda were canceled due to stormy conditions. Along the coast, the Department of Parks raised high surf warnings for the entire south shore and temporarily closed Horseshoe Beach. Additionally, a few local events were postponed. Passing roughly 140 mi (230 km) east of Bermuda, the outer bands of Ophelia produced 0.38 in (9.7 mm) of rain and wind gusts up to 35 mph (56 km/h) across the islands.
On October 1, Environment Canada issued a tropical storm watch for the Avalon Peninsula. Throughout Newfoundland, residents were warned of heavy rains approaching 4 in (100 mm). Striking the region just over a year after Hurricane Igor, Ophelia revealed that repairs made in the wake of the previous hurricane were occasionally inadequate. Six roads on the Burin and Bonavista peninsulas were shut down during the storm; two of the works sustained significant damage. Several culverts installed after Igor were washed away by Ophelia.
While Ophelia was still impacting Newfoundland, forecasters in the United Kingdom warned residents that the remnants of the storm would bring unsettled weather to the nation within a few days. In the midst of a record-breaking heat wave, with temperatures reaching an all-time monthly record high of 86 °F (30 °C), the storm was expected to bring much cooler weather across the region. Strong winds and heavy rains were also anticipated, leading to the cancellation of ferry services. Plummeting temperatures in association with the remnants of the storm were expected to produce snowfall across the United Kingdom as well. In County Donegal the first snows of the season fell, leaving hundreds of residents without electricity.
## See also
- Hurricane Erin (2001)
- Hurricane Gonzalo
- Hurricane Teddy
- List of Bermuda hurricanes
- List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes
- Other storms with the same name | [
"## Meteorological history",
"## Preparations and impact",
"## See also"
] | 2,168 | 23,230 |
62,086,597 | 2019 FIA GT World Cup | 1,173,136,156 | 5th World Cup for GT3-spec race cars in Macau | [
"2019 in Chinese motorsport",
"2019 in Macau sport",
"November 2019 sports events in Asia"
] | The 2019 FIA GT World Cup (formally the SJM Macau GT Cup – FIA GT World Cup) was a Grand Touring (GT) sports car race held on the Guia Circuit in Macau on 17 November. It was the fifth edition of the FIA GT World Cup and the twelfth GT3 car race to be held in Macau. The event promoter, the Automobile General Association Macau-China, appointed the motorsports organiser Stéphane Ratel Organisation (SRO) to form a grid. The edition itself was made up of two races: a 12-lap qualifying race and an 18-lap main event.
Raffaele Marciello of Mercedes-AMG Team GruppeM Racing won both the qualifying and main races from pole position. Marciello led every lap of both races to achieve Mercedes-Benz's third victory in the FIA GT World Cup since Maro Engel won in 2015 and Edoardo Mortara won in 2017. Second place went to Porsche driver Laurens Vanthoor of Rowe Racing, with his teammate Earl Bamber completing the podium in third.
## Background and entry list
The 2019 FIA GT World Cup was confirmed at the FIA World Motor Sport Council meeting on 6 December 2018, in Saint Petersburg, Russia. It was part of the 2019 Macau Grand Prix undercard. It took place on the 6.120 km (3.803 mi) Guia Circuit in the streets of Macau on 17 November 2019 after three days of practice and qualifying. It was the fifth FIA GT World Cup and the twelfth GT3 race in Macau since 2008. The Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), which oversaw motor racing, and the Stéphane Ratel Organisation jointly managed it. According to the event rules, the manufacturers' championship was presented to the manufacturer of the winning entrant's car.
Drivers had to have competed in an FIA-regulated championship race based on GT3 regulations in the previous two seasons or have significant experience in Grand Touring (GT) cars to enter the race. The event was open to drivers with platinum or gold licences. Following lobbying by GT3 manufacturers and privateers, the FIA allowed amateur drivers (dubbed gentlemen drivers) to race in the 2019 event by reintroducing the silver rated category class for the first time since the 2016 edition. Only Bronze rated competitors could not race. Entries were open from 2 July to 31 August. The FIA released the entry list on 17 October. There were 17 drivers (11 factory drivers) representing 13 nationalities and four manufacturers: Audi, BMW, Mercedes-AMG, and Porsche. This was a two-driver increase from 2018, and it included all four previous FIA GT World Cup winners: Maro Engel, Augusto Farfus, Edoardo Mortara and Laurens Vanthoor.
An FIA investigation into Sophia Flörsch's accident at the 2018 Macau Grand Prix resulted in various track safety improvements. SAFER barriers were retrofitted at Lisboa and San Francisco Bend turns, and the barriers between Reservoir and San Francisco Bend corners were realigned. Hospital Bend turn's wall was moved back by 2 m (6.6 ft) and the photographers' bunker at Lisboa corner was dismantled.
## Practice and qualifying
There were two half-an-hour practice sessions preceding the 18 November race. Earl Bamber's No. 98 Rowe Racing Porsche 911 GT3 R led the first practice session on the afternoon of November 14 before improving to a time of 2 minutes, 17.058 seconds on his final lap. His teammate Laurens Vanthoor was second-quickest, followed by Mercedes-AMG Team GruppeM Racing's Engel and Raffaele Marciello and Craft-Bamboo Racing's Mortara in positions third through fifth. Mortara had been faster late in practice, but he overshot the Lisboa corner entry and made slight contact with the outside barrier. Engel also went off the circuit but continued. Bamber lapped fastest at 2 minutes, 17.360 seconds in the second practice session on the afternoon of 15 November. His teammate Laurens Vanthoor was second, with Kelvin van der Linde of Audi Sport Team Rutronik, Phoenix Racing's Christopher Haase, and Marciello were third to fifth. Weian Chen caused the first of two stoppages when he ran onto some oil and struck the Reservoir Bend turn barrier. Soon after, Engel stopped his car with apparent mechanical trouble. The session resumed once both cars were removed. A high-speed collision for Absolute Racing's Kevin Estre at Mandarin Oriental Bend corner barrier caused a second stoppage.
Friday afternoon's half-hour qualifying session determined the qualification race's starting order with each driver's fastest lap times. The setting sun resulted in lower track temperatures. Marciello, the 2018 Blancpain GT Series champion, set a lap time of 2 minutes, 15.699 seconds in the No. 999 GruppeM Racing Mercedes-AMG GT3 at the session's end to achieve his second consecutive pole position for the qualifying race. He demoted the highest-placed Audi driver Dries Vanthoor for Audi Sport Team WRT to second after lacking pace in practice. Rowe's Bamber and Laurens Vanthoor were not as quick as they had been in practise, qualifying, third and fourth, separated by two-tenths of a second. Engel was third before falling to fifth late on, being joined by his teammate Mortara in sixth. Audi drivers occupied seventh and eighth with Haase (who was fastest early on but sustained a puncture later on) ahead of Van Der Linde. Alexandre Imperatori and Charles Weerts of Team WRT took ninth and tenth. FIST-AAI Team's Joel Eriksson was the highest-placed BMW driver in 11th, ahead of his brandmate Farfus in 12th. Craft-Bamboo Racing's Alessio Picariello qualified 13th with Estre 14th, Solite Indigo Racing's Roelof Bruins in 15th, Zun Motorsport Crew's Adderly Fong 16th and Chen completing the starting order in 17th. Separate accidents involving Fong and Chen caused stoppages to qualifying.
### Qualifying classification
## Qualifying race
The 12-lap qualifying race to set the main race's starting order was scheduled to start in an air temperature of 25 °C (77 °F) at 13:05 Macau Standard Time (UTC+08:00) on 16 November, but was delayed for half an hour due to race management noticing a technical issue with the starting lights gantry. Picariello was forced off the grid and into the pit lane after his car would not start during the formation lap. There, he started after some quick troubleshooting. Dries Vanthoor attempted to overtake pole-position starter Marciello at the start by slipstreaming him, but instead he crashed into the outside wall of the Mandarin Bend corner with the rear of his car. Dries Vanthoor stopped at the entry to Lisboa turn due to car bodywork damage and a left-rear puncture. Further round the lap, Chen lost control of his car and stopped briefly before continuing. At the conclusion of the first lap, the safety car was used for the first time to move Dries Vanthoor's car to a safe area. Racing resumed on lap four and Maricello began to pull away from Rowe teammates Bamber and Laurens Vanthoor who were close behind one another in second and third.
Engel attempted to pass van der Linde for fifth on the outside at the braking zone for Lisboa turn on lap five, but made minor contact with the latter's car's rear. As he drove onto the rumble strips, Engel lost control of his vehicle, slammed into the inside guardrail, and struck Mortara in the side. Both Engel and Mortara retired with car damaged and the safety car was deployed again so that the cars could be extricated. Van Der Linde was able to enter the pit lane to retire with car damage. The incident promoted Haase and Farfus to fourth and fifth. Five laps remained when racing resumed, with Marciello again leading Bamber in second. Farfus overtook Haase for fourth into Lisboa turn on the eighth lap, as the top three pulled away from the rest of the field. IN the final laps, Bamber and Laurens Vanthoor appeared to be quicker in the track's tighter sections but could not match Marciello's overall pace. Maricello thus led for the remainder of the event, claiming victory and pole position for the main race. Bamber was 0.866 seconds behind in second, with teammate Laurens Vanthoor in third. Farfus finished fourth after starting 12th, and Haase finished fifth. Imperatori, Weerts, and Estre finished sixth through eighth. Eriksson, ninth, had anti-lock braking system issues, causing him to frequently lock his tyres and brake early for corners. Fong, Bruins and Picariello were the final finishers.
### Qualification Race classification
## Main race
At 12:25 p.m. local time on November 17, the 18-lap main race began in dry weather of 26 °C (79 °F).. Due to the collision with Mortara in the qualifying event, Engel was penalised with a pit lane start. Laurens Vanthoor got off to a faster start than Bamber, passing his teammate for second place as Maricello maintained the lead. The leading trio pulled away from the field, as Bamber held off Farfus in the first lap. Estre attempted to pass Imperatori on the inside into Lisboa corner on the second lap, but collided with the side of his teammate's car. Imperatori was sent into the Lisboa tyre barrier and retired from the race shortly after. On lap three, Dries Vanthoor passed Weerts for tenth. Estre lost control of his car on the inside of the kerb through the quick Mandarin Oriental Bend corner two laps later. In an incident similar to Dries Vanthoor's the day before, he made high-speed contact with the guardrail wall at the turn's exit. A wheel from Estre's car detached and rolled across the track, but no other driver hit it, and debris from his car littered the track. Estre pulled over to the side of the track, and the safety car was dispatched to move the Porsche off the track.
Following the removal of Estre's car from the track, racing resumed at the conclusion of lap eight. Farfus made a quick restart and used his faster straightline speed to briefly pass Bamber's slower starting car for third into the Mandarin Oriental Bend turn. Bamber was able to reclaim third on the inside entering Lisboa corner when Farfus had to slow for Laurens Vanthoor, who made slight contact with the rear of Marciello's car. On lap 10, van der Linde passed Bruins for tenth. With a gap of more than a second on lap 13 due to Maricello's personal best sector times, Vanthoor let his teammate Bamber take second, allowing Bamber to close in on Marciello. Bamber was six-tenths of a second faster than Maricello and close behind him. On the 15th lap, Bamber made slight contact with the barrier after running wide at the Police Bend corner and lost his left exterior wing mirror.
When Marciello was cautious entering the Melco hairpin, Bamber closed in on him again, making slight contact with the rear of his vehicle on the final lap. Marciello led all of the racing laps over the weekend in only his third FIA GT World Cup start, achieving Mercedes' third victory in the event, following Engel in 2015 and Mortara in 2017. In accordance with a pre-race agreement, Bamber purposefully slowed through the R Bend corner and the start/finish straight, giving his teammate second as Bamber finished third. Farfus finished fourth, leading the close group of Haase, Mortara, Eriksson, Dries Vanthoor, Engel and Van Der Linde in positions five through ten. The final classified finishers were Bruins, Weerts and Weian with Fong and Picariello the two other retirements.
The sixth running of the FIA GT World Cup was scheduled for 2020, but the FIA cancelled it due to the COVID-19 pandemic and replaced it with the Macau GT Cup, which was only open to racers from local racing series.
### Main Race classification
## See also
- 2019 Macau Grand Prix | [
"## Background and entry list",
"## Practice and qualifying",
"### Qualifying classification",
"## Qualifying race",
"### Qualification Race classification",
"## Main race",
"### Main Race classification",
"## See also"
] | 2,679 | 17,945 |
19,555,210 | William Y. Slack | 1,173,066,214 | American lawyer, politician and military officer | [
"1816 births",
"1862 deaths",
"19th-century American lawyers",
"19th-century American politicians",
"American military personnel of the Mexican–American War",
"Confederate States of America military personnel killed in the American Civil War",
"Confederate militia generals",
"Democratic Party members of the Missouri House of Representatives",
"Missouri State Guard",
"Missouri lawyers",
"People from Chillicothe, Missouri",
"People from Mason County, Kentucky",
"People of Missouri in the American Civil War",
"Proslavery activists killed in the American Civil War"
] | William Yarnel Slack (August 1, 1816 – March 21, 1862) was an American lawyer, politician and military officer who fought for the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. Born in Kentucky, Slack moved to Missouri as a child and later entered the legal profession. After serving in the Missouri General Assembly from 1842 to 1843, he served as a captain in the United States Army for fourteen months during the Mexican-American War, beginning in 1846. He saw action at the Battle of Embudo Pass and the Siege of Pueblo de Taos. Returning to a legal career, Slack became influential in his local area.
After the outbreak of the American Civil War in April 1861, Slack, who had supported slavery before the war, supported the Confederate cause. When the Missouri State Guard (MSG) was formed the next month to oppose the Federals, he was appointed as a brigadier general in the MSG's 4th Division. After participating in the Battle of Carthage in July, he fought in the Battle of Wilson's Creek on August 10. After a surprise Federal Army attack, Slack's deployment of his division bought time for further Confederate States Army and MSG troops to deploy. Suffering a bad hip wound at Wilson's Creek, he was unable to rejoin his command until October.
Along with other Missouri State Guard officers, Slack transferred to the Confederate States Army in late 1861 where he commanded a brigade with the rank of colonel. On March 7, 1862, during the Battle of Pea Ridge, Slack suffered another wound that was close to the injury he had received at Wilson's Creek. Infection set in, and he died on March 21. He was posthumously promoted to brigadier general in the Confederate army on April 17; the Confederate States Senate may not have known that he was dead at the time of the promotion.
## Early life and career
William Yarnel Slack was born on August 1, 1816, in Mason County, Kentucky. His father, John Slack, farmed and made pottery; his mother's name was Mary J. Caldwell Slack. The family moved to Columbia in the Missouri Territory to pursue agricultural opportunities there, in 1819. Slack's father became a justice of the peace and grew tobacco. The younger Slack was educated in the Columbia area, studying law under one J. B. Gordon, but returned to Kentucky in 1837 to pursue a legal career. After returning to Columbia in 1839, he was admitted to the bar and relocated to Chillicothe where he opened a law office, as there were more opportunities for new lawyers in that town. According to historian Jeffery S. Prushankin, Slack gained a reputation for "coolness under pressure as well as for his honesty and integrity". Entering into politics in 1842 as a member of the Democratic Party, he was elected to the Missouri General Assembly. His term ended in 1843. Three years later he was part of Missouri's state constitutional convention. Slack married Mary E. Woodward in 1842 and they had two children during the 1840s.
Despite opposing war in general, Slack organized a company in 1846 for service in the Mexican-American War. The unit became part of the 2nd Missouri Mounted Volunteers, and Slack was voted captain of Company L. The 2nd Missouri Volunteers served under Sterling Price during the war, and Slack was in the army for fourteen months. Engaged in the fighting that took place in the Santa Fe area, Slack's conduct at the Battle of Embudo Pass in January 1847 gained praise from Price, and Slack's men blocked the enemy's retreat route in the Siege of Pueblo de Taos.
After his military service ended, Slack returned to Chillicothe and legal practice. Continuing to be involved in politics, he was influential in his local area. Supporting slavery and states' rights, he adhered to strict constructionism and opposed secession during the 1850s. Slack's wife died in 1858; he wed Isabella R. Bower the next year and they had two more children. During the 1860 United States presidential election, he supported the candidacy of John C. Breckinridge. After Abraham Lincoln won the election in 1860, Slack considered that secession and war were likely.
## Civil War service
### Recruiting and Battle of Carthage
Following Lincoln's election, a number of slave states in the American south seceded from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America. The American Civil War began in April 1861 when secessionist forces attacked Fort Sumter. After the attack on the fort, Slack became a leading secessionist in his local area. Tensions grew in Missouri, with Governor Claiborne Fox Jackson mobilizing pro-secession militia to oppose Federal forces. Federal forces commanded by Brigadier General Nathaniel Lyon dispersed Jackson's militia in the Camp Jackson affair that ended in a bloody riot. After the events at Camp Jackson and the riot, the state legislature formed a new militia organization known as the Missouri State Guard (MSG), which was commanded by Major General Sterling Price. The MSG was composed of nine divisions based on regions of the state, with each division commanded by a brigadier general.
On May 18, Slack was appointed a brigadier general in the MSG by Jackson. Slack's command was later designated the Fourth Division, and it included Chillicothe. From a base along the Chariton River, he recruited and trained soldiers for the MSG, but he left the recruiting area in June as Federal forces were moving into it. Slack moved his men to the Lexington area, but by that time the MSG had abandoned Jefferson City, the state capital, and had been defeated in the Battle of Boonville. The defeat at Boonville and loss of the capital forced Price to withdraw the MSG to southern Missouri, where he hoped to cooperate with Confederate forces in Arkansas commanded by Ben McCulloch. Brigadier General James S. Rains, who commanded the Eighth Division of the MSG, and Slack were ordered to organize their MSG units in the Lexington area and then move south.
Jackson had gathered together MSG troops near Lamar, and in early July began moving to join Price in southern Missouri. Late on July 4, Jackson learned that Federal forces commanded by Franz Sigel were near Carthage. Jackson formed his troops – the divisions of Slack, Rains, John B. Clark Sr., and Mosby Monroe Parsons – in preparation to defend against an attack. Slack's command at this time numbered about 1,200 men, and had components of both infantry and cavalry. In the ensuing Battle of Carthage, Jackson remained in the rear and did not exercise overall command, leaving Slack and the other MSG commanders to operate largely independently. Sigel attacked the MSG lines but was repulsed and driven back through Carthage itself. During the fighting at Carthage, Slack's infantry was formed in the middle of the Confederate line, while his cavalry component was detached with other MSG cavalry to operate on the Federal flank. Slack's infantry was most heavily engaged during the later stages of the battle, when the retreating Federal soldiers were being pursued near the town.
### Wilson's Creek
The MSG then gathered at Cowskin Prairie in McDonald County, but it moved to Cassville to unite with McCulloch's command. The two forces united in late July. By then, Lyon's Federal forces had occupied Springfield. In early August, the combined forces of McCulloch and Price had begun an advance towards Springfield and encamped along Wilson's Creek on August 7. Late on August 9, Slack and several other officers supported Price in pushing McCulloch to order an attack against Springfield, which was scheduled to begin the next morning. However, Lyon struck the Confederate camp in a surprise attack on the morning of August 10, bringing on the Battle of Wilson's Creek. An acoustic shadow prevented Confederate troops from hearing the firing at the beginning of the battle, and Slack's cavalry component was surprised to encounter Lyon's troops. Slack's cavalry, under the command of Colonel Benjamin A. Rives, made a brief stand that bought Confederate troops elsewhere time to reorganize, but was driven back. Slack quickly deployed his infantry into line next to some other Confederate cavalry to face the Federal troops. This deployment bought Price time to deploy other units into line. This infantry was later engaged in assaulting a position that Federal troops had taken up on a prominence known as Bloody Hill, at one point holding the right of the Confederate line. Three Confederate assaults were repulsed between 7:50 am and 11:00 am, but the Federal troops withdrew from the field, with Lyon dead, a Federal flanking attack repulsed, and ammunition running low.
McCulloch's post-battle report praised Slack, although he suffered a bad hip wound while leading an assault. Because of his wound, Slack missed the campaign associated with the Siege of Lexington, but he was able to resume command on October 11. In November, a portion of the Missouri state government voted to secede, creating the Confederate government of Missouri, which functioned as a government-in-exile. It is most likely that this portion of the legislature lacked a proper quorum to declare such an action. While the Confederates recognized this government, the United States government recognized the Provisional Government of Missouri, which had been formed several months earlier by the majority of an earlier constitutional convention and had declared the prior elected offices to be vacant. Many members of the MSG formally joined the Confederate army, including Slack. Price gave Slack a commission as a colonel in the Confederate army, although Price may not have had authorization to do this. After the Confederate Army of the West was formed, Slack was given command of the 2nd Missouri Brigade, a roughly 1,100-man organization that included both Confederate and MSG troops, on January 23, 1862.
### Pea Ridge and death
In January 1862, Price abandoned Missouri and fell back into Arkansas, having been pressured by Federal forces commanded by Brigadier General Samuel R. Curtis. Major General Earl Van Dorn was placed in command of Confederate forces in the Trans-Mississippi, and he began a campaign to retake Missouri. Van Dorn sent his army on a hard march to reach the rear of Curtis's position, but the Federal commander was able to rotate his forces to meet the attack; bringing on the Battle of Pea Ridge on March 7. Advancing that morning, Slack's brigade held the right of Price's forward line. After driving back a Federal cavalry regiment, Slack's men encountered a stronger Federal line, resulting in a brief clash of skirmishers during which time Slack was shot.
Confederate Colonel Thomas H. Rosser stated that the bullet hit Slack in the hip, taking a downward path to exit his body, while another of Slack's soldiers later wrote that the bullet had deflected off of a tree limb and then struck Slack in the groin. Partially paralyzed by the wound, Slack was removed from the field. The wound was very close to where he had been injured at Wilson's Creek. Initially transported to a private home, east of the field, he was moved to another location 7 miles (11 km) to the east to avoid capture by Federal forces. The wound became infected after the move, and he died on March 21. The Confederate government promoted Slack to brigadier general in the Confederate army on April 17; it is possible that news of his death had not reached the Confederate States Senate. The historian Ezra J. Warner writes that Slack was buried "in the yard" at the place where he died, while Prushankin states that he was buried in the Roller Ridge Cemetery. Slack was reburied on May 27, 1880, in the Fayetteville Confederate Cemetery. In 1887, a memorial was installed at the Pea Ridge battlefield to honor the Confederate soldiers killed there. Three Confederate generals who died in the battle were named on the memorial: Slack, McCulloch, and James M. McIntosh.
The historians William L. Shea and Earl J. Hess report that Slack was competent and popular, but had a tendency to be reckless when it came to his personal safety. After Pea Ridge, Price wrote that Slack was one of his "best and bravest officers". According to Rosser, Slack's men were "devotedly attached to him" and that he was a "model of soldierly bearing". Prushankin writes that Confederate veterans generally viewed Slack as "a person of integrity and courage", and states that he views his primary service to the Confederacy as having been his "ability to inspire and motivate his men".
## See also
- List of American Civil War generals (Confederate) | [
"## Early life and career",
"## Civil War service",
"### Recruiting and Battle of Carthage",
"### Wilson's Creek",
"### Pea Ridge and death",
"## See also"
] | 2,643 | 24,210 |
8,988,546 | Lord of the Universe | 1,163,714,289 | 1974 film by Michael Shamberg | [
"1970s American films",
"1970s English-language films",
"1974 documentary films",
"1974 films",
"American documentary television films",
"Films about religion",
"Films set in Texas",
"Prem Rawat",
"Television series by WNET"
] | Lord of the Universe is a 1974 American documentary film about Prem Rawat (at the time known as Guru Maharaj Ji) at an event in November 1973 at the Houston Astrodome called "Millennium '73". Lord of the Universe was first broadcast on PBS on February 2, 1974, and released in VHS format on November 1, 1991. The documentary chronicles Maharaj Ji, his followers and anti-Vietnam War activist Rennie Davis who was a spokesperson of the Divine Light Mission at the time. A counterpoint is presented by Davis' Chicago Seven co-defendant Abbie Hoffman, who appears as a commentator. It includes interviews with several individuals, including followers, ex-followers, a mahatma, a born-again Christian, and a follower of Hare Krishna.
The production team of Top Value Television produced the documentary, using Portapak video cameras. The TVTV team followed Maharaj Ji across the United States over a period of six weeks, and edited a large amount of tape down to the fifty-eight-minute piece. It was the first documentary made on 1⁄2 in (13 mm) video tape broadcast nationally, and also the first independent video documentary shown on national public television.
The documentary was generally well-received, and garnered its TVTV production team the 1974 Alfred I. du Pont/Columbia University Award in Broadcast Journalism. The documentary received a negative review in the New York Post, and positive reviews in The New York Times, The Boston Globe, the Los Angeles Times, and the Chicago Sun-Times. The San Francisco Bay Guardian wrote that the TVTV team had improved since their previous work but wanted them to move on to more challenging subjects.
## Content
The documentary chronicles Guru Maharaj Ji, the Divine Light Mission, his followers and anti-Vietnam War activist Rennie Davis at "Millennium '73", an event held at the Houston Astrodome in November 1973. Rennie Davis, a follower of Guru Maharaj Ji, was one of the spokespersons and speakers at the "Millennium '73" event. His speech is featured in the documentary.
Abbie Hoffman appears as a commentator in the documentary and addresses some points raised in Davis's speech, stating: "It's rather arrogant of Rennie to say that he has found God and has his Telex number in his wallet." The TVTV crew interviewed different "premies", or followers of Prem Rawat, throughout the film, and one teenage boy is shown stating: "Before I came to the Guru I was a freak, smoking dope and dropping out – and my parents were happier then than they are with this." In a later part of the film, a loudspeaker voice announces: "Those premies who came in private cars can leave now. Those who came in rented buses can stay and meditate until further notice." Adherents of other belief systems also appear in the documentary, including a born-again Christian who criticizes devotees for "following the devil", and a Hare Krishna follower.
A separate storyline is seen concurrently through the coverage of the "Millennium '73" event, involving a man named Michael who has come to Houston, Texas, to receive "Knowledge" from Maharaj Ji. Once Michael has received the "Knowledge", he defends the secrecy behind the rituals. Michael's experiences are contrasted in the documentary with interviews with "ex-premies" or former followers of Maharaj Ji, recounting their initiation and later disillusionment with Maharaj Ji's teachings. One of them says that after receiving "Knowledge" from Maharaj Ji, he was told that this free gift required lifetime devotion and donations of "worldly goods".
Maharaj Ji is shown in a scene in the Astrodome relating a satsang to the attendants. He is seen dressed in gold-colored clothing and a crown, and sits on a platform throne. The story he relates to the crowd involves a young boy who comes to Houston, while searching for a Superman comic book. While seated on the platform, Maharaj Ji is surrounded by flashing moon signs and women wearing decorative garlands, while the band Blue Aquarius plays his theme song. The stage is decorated with glitter and neon lights, and Maharaj Ji's brother performs rock music songs. Abbie Hoffman gives a final comment in the documentary, stating: "If this guy is God, this is the God the United States of America deserves."
## Production
The documentary was produced by Top Value Television (TVTV) in association with TV Lab, and was primarily directed by Michael Shamberg. TVTV had received initial funding for the documentary through a small grant from the Stern Foundation, and an additional promise from the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. David Loxton arranged a post-production budget of US\$4,000, and the total production costs for the documentary amounted to \$36,000 – about forty-five percent of the average costs for a PBS film production at the time. Several camera crews used 1⁄2 in (13 mm) black and white portapaks and followed Maharaj Ji and his group across the United States for six weeks. The TVTV production team debated whether to include the secret techniques of Maharaj Ji in the documentary and finally decided that it was vital to disclose these practices in the piece. They chose to have an ex-premie divulge these practices rather than use a narration, but they were fearful of potential repercussions, which never came. TVTV member Tom Weinberg found a man who demonstrated meditation techniques in the documentary, which he described as being the "Knowledge". Producer Megan Williams stated that TVTV crew members empathized with the experiences of Maharaj Ji's followers, because there was very little age difference between them and the TVTV production team. Nevertheless, many in the crew of TVTV felt superior to these "lost souls" describing the followers as "gurunoids".
At the end of filming, eighty-two hours of tape were edited to the final fifty-eight-minute documentary piece. TVTV's team utilized graphics, live music, and wide angle lens shots. Stop-action sequences where quotations flash on the screen were also used for effect. The production was the first Portapak video documentary made for national television, and the "first program originally made on 1⁄2 in (13 mm) video tape to be broadcast nationally". Lord of the Universe was also: "The first independent video documentary made for national broadcast on public television." The trailer was originally broadcast on WNET Channel Thirteen television. Lord of the Universe was shown to a national audience in the United States on February 2, 1974, broadcast on 240 stations of the Public Broadcasting Service. It aired a second time on July 12, 1974. Later TVTV productions broadcast on public television included Gerald Ford's America, and a 1975 program on Cajuns The Good Times Are Killing Me.
In 1989, the documentary was included in an exhibition at the Whitney Museum of American Art on video art called "Image World: Art and Media Culture". The documentary was re-released to VHS on November 1, 1991, by Subtle Communications. On the packaging it is claimed that Guru Maharaj Ji "promised to levitate the Astrodome". Sources including TVRO, the library of the University of California, Santa Cruz, and Art Journal repeat this statement in varying forms. The documentary was screened in August 2006 at The Centre for Contemporary Arts in Glasgow, Scotland, as part of the Camcorder Guerilla cinema programme.
## Reception
### Reviews
Ron Powers of the Chicago Sun Times called the documentary "highly recommended viewing", and described it as: "... both as an example of skeptical, unimpressed (but never vicious) journalism, and as a peek into the future of television ... a clever, ironic and eventually devastating documentary". Electronic Arts Intermix described Lord of the Universe as "a forceful expose on the sixteen-year-old Guru Maharaj Ji and the national gathering of his followers at the Houston Astrodome". Michael Blowen of The Boston Globe wrote that the documentary "captures the absurdity of Millennium '73", and that "The desperation of flower people alienated from politics is both touching and hilarious as they offer hope for eternal life to other converts."
Dick Adler of the Los Angeles Times gave the documentary a positive review, writing: "'The Lord of the Universe' doesn't really take sides, which doesn't mean it's a bland hour trying to please everybody. Its considerable bite comes first from the material TVTV so carefully gathered and there from the artfully wise frame in which it chose to present it." Deirdre Boyle wrote in Art Journal that the piece was "the zenith of TVTV's guerrilla-TV style". According to Boyle's Subject to Change: Guerrilla Television Revisited, as in all TVTV tapes, everyone in the documentary comes across as foolish, describing the production's sarcasm as the "ultimate leveler" using equal irony "both with the mighty and the lowly".
Katy Butler wrote in the San Francisco Bay Guardian that the TVTV style had improved since their previous work: "This show has fewer interjections from TVTV personnel, fewer moments that drag, more technological razzle-dazzle (color footage, slow motion, stop motion, tight and rapid cutting)." However, she described Guru Maharaj Ji and his entourage as "an easy target" and wrote that "anybody can look like a fool when a smartass wide angle lens distorts their face, and teenage ex-dopers who think a fat boy is God don't stand a chance". Butler wished that TVTV would move on to more challenging subjects for their future work. Bob Williams of the New York Post called the documentary a "deplorable film" and "flat, pointless, television". He wrote: "The hour-long program was remiss in not providing some small examination of the available box-office take of the goofy kid guru, much less telling prospective contributors how it got involved in spending how much of its foundation grants and viewer subscription money in such a questionable venture without more inquisitive journalistic endeavor, or ignoring gurus."
A review in The Oakland Tribune described the film as "a fascinating hour documentary on the guru's three-day happening at the Houston Astrodome", and commented that the event was "deftly captured by the mobile video cameras of TVTV, a group of talented young tapemakers". John J. O'Connor of The New York Times described TVTV's work as "a terrific documentary" and complimented the team on the visual results of the piece: "After TVTV superbly dissected the guru, his 'holy family' and his followers, more objective viewers might have chosen to laugh, cry, or throw up." In a later piece by O'Connor in 1975, he wrote that TVTV "gained a respectable measure of national success with 'The Lord of the Universe'".
### Accolades
The documentary received the 1974 "Alfred I. du Pont/Columbia University Award in Broadcast Journalism" (DuPont Award). The jurors from the 1974 DuPont-Columbia awards stated that the documentary was: "hectic, hilarious and not a little disquieting. With a heavier and less sure hand, the subject would have been squashed beneath the reporters’ irony or contempt. As it was, cult religion was handed to us, live and quivering, to make of it what we would." The group's work impressed WNET president John Jay Iselin, and he raised additional funds that helped TVTV to produce five more programs, including Gerald Ford's America.
## Credits
## See also
- List of American films of 1974 | [
"## Content",
"## Production",
"## Reception",
"### Reviews",
"### Accolades",
"## Credits",
"## See also"
] | 2,413 | 40,173 |
623,574 | Marco Polo (Doctor Who) | 1,147,844,411 | null | [
"1964 British television episodes",
"Cultural depictions of Kublai Khan",
"Cultural depictions of Marco Polo",
"Doctor Who historical serials",
"Doctor Who missing episodes",
"Doctor Who serials novelised by John Lucarotti",
"Fiction set in the 1280s",
"Films directed by Waris Hussein",
"First Doctor serials",
"Television episodes set in China",
"Yuan dynasty in fiction"
] | Marco Polo is the fourth serial of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. It was first broadcast on BBC TV in seven weekly parts from 22 February to 4 April 1964. It was written by John Lucarotti and directed largely by Waris Hussein; John Crockett directed the fourth episode. The story is set in Yuan-era China in the year 1289, where the Doctor (William Hartnell), his granddaughter Susan Foreman (Carole Ann Ford), and her teachers Ian Chesterton (William Russell) and Barbara Wright (Jacqueline Hill) meet the Italian merchant-explorer Marco Polo (Mark Eden) and Mongolian Emperor Kublai Khan (Martin Miller).
Lucarotti—who had previously written works based on Marco Polo's adventures—was suggested to producers by Doctor Who creator Sydney Newman when the show was early in development. Throughout production, the script was rewritten to make the story more personal to Polo. Barry Newbery, the serial's designer, used several historical books for research of the old designs, taking inspiration from 1900 Korean architecture. The serial premiered with nine million viewers, and maintained audience figures throughout its seven-week run. It received generally positive responses from critics and was sold widely overseas, but was erased by the BBC in 1967; the entire serial is missing as a result. The serial received later print adaptations, and soundtrack releases using the surviving audio.
## Plot
The TARDIS, badly damaged, lands in the Pamir Mountains of the Himalayas in 1289, and the crew are picked up by Marco Polo's (Mark Eden) caravan on its way along the fabled Silk Road to see the Emperor Kublai Khan (Martin Miller). The story concerns the First Doctor (William Hartnell), his granddaughter Susan Foreman (Carole Ann Ford) and her teachers Ian Chesterton (William Russell) and Barbara Wright (Jacqueline Hill), and their attempts to thwart the machinations of Tegana (Derren Nesbitt), who attempts to sabotage the caravan along its travels through the Pamir Plateau and across the treacherous Gobi Desert, and ultimately to assassinate Kublai Khan in Peking, at the height of his imperial power. The Doctor and his companions also attempt to regain the TARDIS, which Marco Polo has taken to give to Kublai Khan in effort to regain the Emperor's good graces. Susan gets the TARDIS key from Ping-Cho (Zienia Merton) but is captured by Tegana before they can depart. They are finally able to thwart Tegana, who kills himself before he can be executed, restoring the Emperor's respect for Marco Polo, and the Emperor allows them to depart.
## Production
### Conception and writing
Show creator Sydney Newman suggested writer John Lucarotti, an old colleague from the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, to the production team during the show's early development. Story editor David Whitaker contacted Lucarotti to write for the programme; Lucarotti, who had recently worked on the 18-part radio serial The Three Journeys of Marco Polo (1955), was commissioned on 9 July 1963 to write a seven-part serial about Italian merchant and explorer Marco Polo, titled Dr Who and a Journey to Cathay. While developing the storyline Lucarotti struggled with the fourth episode, and used anecdotal material from Polo's memoirs, The Travels of Marco Polo, to pad out the plot. The serial was originally placed third in the show's running order, to begin broadcast on 18 January 1964, but was pushed back to fourth to accommodate the two-part "filler" serial The Edge of Destruction. Waris Hussein, who worked on the show's first serial, was selected as the director for Marco Polo; John Crockett directed the fourth episode in Hussein's absence.
Like most serials in the show's early history, the costumes for Marco Polo were designed by Daphne Dare. The serial's designer, Barry Newbery, used Aurel Stein's Ruins of Desert Cathay (1912) and Nelson Ikon Wu's Chinese and Indian Architecture (1963) for research of the 13th century designs. Newbery also found that Korean architecture from 1900 was similar to that of the 13th century. The incidental music for the serial was composed by Tristram Cary, who previously worked on The Daleks. Cary used conventional instruments for the score, including flute, harp and percussion, and he recorded electronic voices for the second episode's sandstorm scenes.
### Casting and characters
Mark Eden was cast as Marco Polo; Hussein had seen Eden in the Royal Shakespeare Company's production of A Penny for a Song in 1962. While the serial's narration was originally scripted for the Doctor, Ian and Barbara, Hussein decided to make the story more personal to Polo, and the narration was rewritten for Eden. Derren Nesbitt, who had appeared in several historical film series in the 1950s, was cast as Tegana. For the role of Ping-Cho, Hussein wanted an "oriental" actress who had not appeared in the West End production of The World of Suzie Wong or the film 55 Days at Peking (1963), due to the prominence of those productions. Actress Zienia Merton auditioned at Hussein's home, and was offered the role. William Russell was unhappy with sudden rewrites minimising the role of his character, Ian Chesterton, in the serial, and his agent wrote to BBC's head of serials Donald Wilson; Wilson replied to Russell's agent, assuring that he would "be watching very carefully" to ensure the scripts "use [Russell's] talents to the maximum". The fifth episode featured an untrained spider monkey, which the cast found difficult to work with; Carole Ann Ford recalled that "it was a nasty little thing peeing all over the place and biting anyone who came near it".
### Filming
A week of shooting took place at Ealing Studios from 13 to 17 January 1964, consisting mostly of inserts of locations and props for the montage sequences. Rehearsals for the first episode ran from 27 to 30 January, and the episodes were recorded weekly at Lime Grove Studio D from 31 January to 13 March. When William Hartnell became ill in the first week of February, quick rewrites were performed on the second episode to eliminate the Doctor from most scenes; Hartnell only had one line of dialogue in the episode. For the sandstorm in the second episode, a wind machine was used, with other footage superimposed on top; Hussein was unhappy with the effectiveness of the effect, later stating that "it looked like everyone's aerials had blown over". Merton recalled the wind machine blowing sawdust into her eyes, rendering her unable to see for the rest of the scene. During camera rehearsals for the sixth episode, Eden's right hand was accidentally lacerated by a dagger used by Nesbitt.
## Reception
### Broadcast and ratings
The first episode was broadcast on BBC TV on 22 February 1964, and was watched by 9.4 million viewers. The following two episodes maintained the same viewing figures, rising to 9.9 million for the fourth episode, before dropping to 9.4 million for the fifth and 8.4 million for the sixth; from the sixth episode, the show's broadcast time was pushed a further fifteen minutes, from 5:15pm to 5:30pm, overlapping with competitor programme ITN News. The final episode was watched by 10.4 million viewers. The Appreciation Index dropped slightly across the seven episodes, from 63 to 59. The serial was sold widely overseas, but was erased by the BBC on 17 August 1967; the entire serial is missing as a result. It is one of three stories of which no footage whatsoever is known to have survived, though tele-snaps (images of the show during transmission, photographed from a television) of episodes 1–3 and 5–7 exist, and were subsequently released with the original audio soundtrack, which was recorded "off air" during the original transmission. The serial gained the attention of two sources for further development: in June 1964, Young World Publications showed interest in adapting the serial for the Super Mag comic series, but were turned down as the comic rights had been sold to TV Comic; and in July 1964, The Walt Disney Company approached the BBC for the film rights to Marco Polo, though no developments were made.
### Critical response
The serial received positive reviews from television critics and viewers. Following the broadcast of the first episode, the BBC Programme Review Board noted that there were "several appreciative notes" on the show. Philip Purser of The Sunday Telegraph noted that Eden impersonated Marco Polo "with sartorial dash", but felt that the main characters were poorly written, describing Barbara as "a persistent drip". In The Discontinuity Guide (1995), Paul Cornell, Martin Day, and Keith Topping wrote that the story was "wonderful, but a little too loose and unstructured to be the all conquering classic of repute". In The Television Companion (1998), David J. Howe and Stephen James Walker described the serial as "an amazing tour de force", praising Lucarrotti's scripts, dialogue, and characters, Hussein's direction, Newbery's sets, Dare's costumes, Cary's score, and the cast performances. In a 2008 review, Mark Braxton of Radio Times praised the serial, stating that "the historical landscape was rarely mapped with such poetry and elegance", though he noted inconsistencies in the foreign characters' accents. In Doctor Who: The Complete History (2016), editor John Ainsworth described the serial as "exotic and arresting", praising the simplicity of the narrative and the exploration of the characters.
## Commercial releases
A novelisation of this serial, written by Lucarotti based on his original scripts, was published in hardback by W. H. Allen & Co. in December 1984, with a cover painting by David McAllister; the paperback was published by Target Books in April 1985. A three-CD set of the audio soundtrack was released in November 2003, as part of the show's 40th anniversary, with linking narration by William Russell and a fold-out map of Polo's journey. This was later re-released as part of Doctor Who: The Lost TV Episodes: Collection One in August 2010 by AudioGO, along with the original camera scripts of the episodes, and released as a vinyl record by Demon Records in September 2020. An audiobook of Lucarotti's novel was released in December 2018, narrated by Zienia Merton in her final professional engagement before her death.
A condensed 30-minute reconstruction of the serial, compiled by Derek Handley using telesnaps, photographs and the off-air soundtrack recording, was released as a special feature on the DVD release of The Edge of Destruction, as part of the Doctor Who: The Beginning box set, on 30 January 2006. The telesnaps were also published in a Doctor Who Magazine special edition, The Missing Episodes – The First Doctor, in March 2013. Charles Norton, director of several animated reconstructions, noted in 2019 that an animated version of Marco Polo was unlikely in the near future due to the significant resources required, such as costumes and characters. | [
"## Plot",
"## Production",
"### Conception and writing",
"### Casting and characters",
"### Filming",
"## Reception",
"### Broadcast and ratings",
"### Critical response",
"## Commercial releases"
] | 2,367 | 29,602 |
27,634,986 | Monster (Lady Gaga song) | 1,146,703,039 | 2009 song by Lady Gaga | [
"2009 songs",
"Lady Gaga songs",
"Song recordings produced by Lady Gaga",
"Song recordings produced by RedOne",
"Songs written by Lady Gaga",
"Songs written by RedOne",
"Songs written by Space Cowboy (musician)"
] | "Monster" is a song by American singer Lady Gaga from her third EP, The Fame Monster (2009). Inspired by her "Fear of Attachment Monster", the record was produced by Nadir "RedOne" Khayat, and written by Gaga, RedOne and Space Cowboy. Gaga had explained that "Monster" describes her fear of sex and relationships, and described the lyrics as being in love with the bad boy all the time, but instead of running away, one keeps going back to the same person. She added that the fear in "Monster" erupted from her need to have a stable relationship. Incorporating the usage of heavy bass lines, descending keyboard lines and "massive" choruses, "Monster" contains zombie-like metaphors and a reference to Gaga's debut single "Just Dance".
"Monster" received generally positive reviews from critics who appreciated the song's musical arrangement and frequently rated it as a top track from The Fame Monster, while some disliked its lyrics. "Monster" enjoyed brief commercial success in 2010, charting on four singles charts, as well as the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs and Latin Pop Airplay. "Monster" was performed on Gaga's concert tours The Monster Ball (2009–11) and The Chromatica Ball (2022), with other performances including an appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show and her 2014 residency show at Roseland Ballroom.
## Writing and production
"Monster" was written by Lady Gaga, RedOne and Space Cowboy, with RedOne producing the track. The song was recorded at the Record Plant Studio in Los Angeles. In an interview with MTV News, Gaga said that "Monster" describes her fear of sex and relationships and the literal meaning is about a "guy with a big dick". She elaborated, "It's the fear of attachment and the fear of loving something that's bad for you... If you listen to the lyrics, it's like being in love with the bad boy all the time, and you keep going back for more." Gaga added that the fear in "Monster" erupted from her need to have a stable relationship. She explained "I keep falling in love with the monster... But what I really need is the security and the safety and the womanhood, responsibility of my femininity. And so that's what that song is about."
## Composition
A Europop and dance-pop song, "Monster" begins with Gaga's voice uttering the line, "Don't call me Gaga". It contains stuttering synths and 1980s drums that, according to PopMatters' Evan Sawdey, create a playful environment. The track uses heavy bass lines, descending keyboard lines and "massive" choruses, while a male voice sounding like Timbaland sings about Gaga being "hot as hell". Gaga belts during the break down like segment in the middle, with incorporation of chiptune like music.
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony/ATV Music Publishing, "Monster" is set in the time signature of common time, and composed in the key of C major, with a tempo of 120 beats per minute and Gaga's vocal range spanning from the low note of E<sub>3</sub> to the high note of B<sub>4</sub>. "Monster" has a basic sequence of F–G–Am–Em as its chord progression. Lyrically, "Monster" contains zombie-like metaphors about having one's heart eaten. The song also features references to "Just Dance", Gaga's debut single, with the line "I wanna ‘Just Dance’/ But he took me home instead". Michael Hubbard from MusicOMH believed that the lines in the last verse "get a bit gruesome at the end" with the lines saying "He tore my clothes right off/ He ate my heart and then he ate my brain."
## Critical reception
The song received generally positive reviews from critics. Michael Hubbard from MusicOMH called "Monster" "a potential single", praising its musical composition, but criticizing the lyrics. Evan Sawdey from PopMatters also criticized the metaphors contained in the lyrics of the song, but ultimately called it "one surprisingly effective pop cocktail". Ben Patashnik from NME felt that it was "slightly too disposable". Scott Plagenhoef of Pitchfork saw similarities between Gaga's voice on "Monster" and the work of Kylie Minogue. Brian Linder from IGN felt that the track was lighter compared to the other songs on The Fame Monster, and complimented the line "We French kissed on a subway train / He tore my clothes right off / He ate my heart and then he ate my brain", calling it a lyrical gem. He also added that "Monster" was a "dance floor riot". Jaime Gill from Yahoo! felt that "'Monster' is a squirmy little beast that wriggles into your brain slowly and is almost impossible to remove." Monica Herrera from Billboard called the song "80s adoring". A Vulture article considered "Monster" to be "among the best pop songs ever written about losing your innocence — how sex and intimacy can feel like you're being eaten alive." In 2022, NME's Nick Levine wrote about "Monster" that "it says a lot about Gaga's rock-solid songwriting at the start of her career that a 12-year-old deep cut still sounds like it should have been a single."
## Chart performance
In the United Kingdom, "Monster" debuted on the UK Singles Chart at 68, on December 12, 2009, but slipped off the chart the next week. On August 16, 2010, the song debuted at number 30 on the New Zealand Singles Chart due to digital downloads and radio airplay, and later peaked at number 29. The song was present on the chart for seven weeks. In Hungary, it debuted on the Mahasz Single Top 10 lista chart at number six on November 23, 2009, but fell off the next week. "Monster" debuted and peaked on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart at number 80 on the issue dated November 30, 2009. The song debuted on the United States Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs at number 49 on September 18, 2010, before moving to its highest position of number 29 on October 9, 2010, where it remained for another week. It fell off the chart after eight weeks. On the Latin Pop Airplay chart, the song was initially seen at number 32, and later peaked at number 22. "Monster" spent 14 weeks on the chart. According to Nielsen SoundScan, the song has sold 207,000 digital downloads in the US.
## Live performances
On January 15, 2010, Gaga performed "Monster" as part of a three-song medley on The Oprah Winfrey Show. The performance began with Gaga appearing on the stage wearing a dress, that looked both like a pantsuit and dress. Her hair was in spikes and she held a spiked ball and chain in her hand. "Monster" was the first song of the medley that she performed, others being "Bad Romance" and "Speechless". She also performed the song on all legs of The Monster Ball Tour. The performance was preceded by a video interlude featuring snarling dogs and brooding ravens. "Monster" began with Gaga emerging in a black feathered jacket and performing dance moves reminiscent of Michael Jackson. The backdrop featured the close-up of a black bird's wings.
During the 2010–2011 shows of the tour, the performance of "Monster" was revamped with new outfits and a new ending, which sees Gaga portrayed as getting killed by a murderer in blood, after which she lies "dying" in a pool of blood. Her performance of that scene in Manchester, England, triggered protests from family groups and fans in the aftermath of the Cumbria shootings, in which 12 people were murdered by a taxi driver. "What happened in Bradford is very fresh in people's minds and given all the violence which happened in Cumbria just hours earlier, it was insensitive," said Lynn Costello of Mothers Against Violence. Chris Rock later defended her flamboyant, provocative behavior. "Well, she's Lady Gaga," he said. "She's not 'Lady Behave Yourself.' Do you want great behavior from a person named Gaga? Is this what you were expecting?"
"Monster" was part of the setlist of Gaga's 2014 residency show, Lady Gaga Live at Roseland Ballroom. She performed the song while playing on a keytar decorated with red roses, wearing a crimson leather body suit. The intro of Gaga's Joanne World Tour (2017–2018) started with the line "Don't call me Gaga", taken from the song, before Gaga declaring that she instead wants to be called Joanne, and starting the show. In 2022, Gaga performed "Monster" at The Chromatica Ball stadium tour, retaining the choreography from the Monster Ball Tour. During the performance, Gaga put on an oversized red jacket which alluded to Michael Jackson's Thriller-era.
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Fame Monster.
- Lady Gaga – vocals, songwriter, co-producer, vocal arrangement, background vocals
- Nadir "RedOne" Khayat – songwriter, producer, vocal editing, vocal arrangement, background vocals, audio engineering, instrumentation, programming, recording at Record Plant Studios, Los Angeles, California
- Nicolas Jean-Pierre "Space Cowboy" Jean-Pierre Dresti – songwriter, recording, background vocals
- Johnny Severin – vocal editing and audio engineering
- Dave Russel – audio engineering
- Robert Orton – audio mixing at Sarm Studios, London, England
- Gene Grimaldi – audio mastering at Oasis Mastering, Burbank, California
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications | [
"## Writing and production",
"## Composition",
"## Critical reception",
"## Chart performance",
"## Live performances",
"## Credits and personnel",
"## Charts",
"### Weekly charts",
"### Year-end charts",
"## Certifications"
] | 2,051 | 26,544 |
8,314,439 | Ailladie | 1,169,146,216 | Limestone sea cliff in the Burren, Ireland | [
"Climbing areas of Ireland",
"Geography of County Clare",
"Tourist attractions in County Clare"
] | Ailladie (Irish: Aill an Daill, lit. 'Blind Man's Cliff'; also known locally as the Ballyreen Cliffs), is an 800-metre-long (2,600 ft) west-facing limestone sea cliff, that varies in height from 8 metres (26 ft) to 35 metres (115 ft), situated on the coast of The Burren in County Clare, Ireland. Ailladie is one of Ireland's most highly regarded rock-climbing locations, particularly for high technical grade single pitch traditional climbing routes and deep-water soloing routes. It is also a location for shore-angling competitions, and, with its cliffs and view of the Aran Islands, is a popular photography stop for tourists.
## Naming
The name Ailladie is an anglicized translation from the Irish language name, Aill an Daill, which means 'The Blind Man's Cliff' or 'Cliff of the Blind Person'. The cliffs are also referred to locally, and by anglers, as Ballyreen Cliffs and Ballyreen Point, which is an anglicised version of the name given to Ailladie's local townland of Irish: Baile Uí Rinn; 'Ó Rinn's homestead'.
## Geography
Ailladie is an 800-metre (2,600 ft) long west-facing limestone sea-cliff, varying in height from 8 metres (26 ft) metres to 35 metres (115 ft) metres, that is situated on the coast of The Burren in County Clare, in Ireland. The northernmost sections are not sea-cliffs, and their bases can be accessed by short descent routes (see Access) to flat limestone shelves below. The southernmost sections are all sea-cliffs that can only be accessed by rope abseil. The cliff straddles the Clare townlands of Ballyryan (southern section), and Crumlin (northern section).
### Access
The cliffs of Ailladie are hidden from direct view, and are situated just a short walk from the R477 road, 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi), at a point before the road turns inland and south-east to Lisdoonvarna. The Ailladie car-park (grid ), is marked on online maps, and it lies directly opposite the Stone Wall section of the cliffs (see Ailladie map below). Beside the car park, to the southeast, is the smaller rock climbing crag known as Ballyryan (climbers on the Ballyryan crag can be seen by the passing R477 traffic).
Access to the base of the cliff is only possible without abseiling at the northernmost end, where a 3-metre (9.8 ft) roped fisherman's descent gives access to a large limestone platform at the cliff-base of Ailladie.
## Rock climbing
### Reputation
Ailladie is a traditional climbing crag, with no bolted or sport climbing routes. With few exceptions, the vast majority of the climbing routes are single pitch 25–35-metre (82–115 ft) long traditional climbs. Where bolts and pitons have appeared, they have generally been removed.
Ailladie has remained at the "cutting edge" of Irish outdoor traditional rock climbing, along with the dolerite cliff of Fair Head in County Antrim. The UKC described Ailladie as "Best coastal limestone in the world! Fact!". The Irish Examiner said, "The mecca for rock climbing in Ireland is Ailladie". The Irish Times called it "one of Ireland's best rock-climbing sites". In 2007, American free solo climber Michael Reardon made the first of several visits to Ailladie and said that it was "redefining everything I know about the mental game of climbing", and that it was "one of my favorite places on the planet".
In 2019, On Reflection (E6 6a), on the Mirror Wall section, was listed in UK Climbing's "The Five Best E6 Routes in the UK and Ireland".
### Layout
Ailladie's northern half includes the sections known to climbers as the Dancing Ledges and the Aran Wall, and sits above a large rock platform that is accessible, via the 3-metre roped fisherman's descent (see Access), regardless of tides. Experienced climbers use a climber's descent at O'Conner's Corner (10-metre, Diff). The Dancing Ledges are the lowest cliffs of Ailladie with routes of 10–15 metres and many below the E-grade, which makes them the most popular section for intermediate climbers; whereas the Aran Wall routes are up to 30-metres in height and mostly E-grade.
The first part of Ailladie's southern-half is Mirror Wall (mostly graded E4–E7), and it is accessible by boulder-hopping at low-tide, although climbers also abseil down to start routes. The remainder of the southern-half of Ailladie, the Stone Wall, An Falla Uaigneach, and Boulder Wall sections, require abseils for access. Many of the climbs in the imposing An Falla Uaigneach sector are started from a hanging belay, and the sector also offers extreme deep water soloing (DWS) routes (e.g. The Jelly Situation 7c+ S1, and King Crozzle, 7b+ S1), and with significant 30-metre (98 ft) drops.
The rock is limestone, of a clean blue/grey quality and mostly hanging in a sheer vertical form, with both vertical and horizontal cracks described as reminiscent of granite routes, and texture described as "varies from smooth, in the few small areas recently exposed by rockfall, to a sharp popcorn texture which provides excellent friction". Most climbs follow steep narrow finger-crack lines, and the rock climbing protection is considered to be good. The last guidebook, published in 2008, lists 170 climbs (the current Ailladie online database, see below, has over 200), nearly all single-pitches, with grades up to E7 6c (e.g. Snell's Law, No Reflection, Black Mirror, all at E7 6c and over 35-metres in length). Most Ailladie routes are at, and above, E1 5b grades; there is little quality below VS 4c graded routes, although Ailladie has several classic VS and HVS routes. The lower sections of some routes, and the grade, can change due to the movements of boulders in sea storms, and hence why many Mirror Wall climbers start from a hanging belay.
### History
The climbing potential of Ailladie was discovered in August 1972, when it was visited by a group of Dublin climbers who would return several times culminating in the November 1972 ascent of one of Ireland's most classic rock climbs, the 30-metre corner of Pis Fluich (HVS 5a) by Jim McKenzie. Word of Ailladie's quality spread, and development also began alongside the smaller nearby crags in The Burren area, which became the only on-shore limestone rock climbing locations in Ireland; the others being mainly granite, sandstone and dolerite. Early pioneers of the crag in the late 1970s included Dermot Somers and Calvin Torrans (The Ramp E1 5b, 5a), but it was with the arrival of Tom Ryan and Keefe Murphy, that many of the crag's most important classics began to appear by the early 1980s, including Skywalker (E3 5c), Kleptomaniac (E3 6a), Through the Looking Glass (E3 6a), and Wall of Fossils (E4 6a). Throughout the 1980s, classic lines were put up by Eddie Cooper including Quicksilver (E5 6a), Damn the Torpedoes (E5 6a), and White Witch (E5 6b), and a visiting British climbing team of Gary Gibson, John Codling and Martin Manson, who added Ice Queen (E5 6a), Refraction (E5 6a), The Cutter (E4 6a), On Reflection (E6 6a), and Prism Sentance (E5 6a, 6b) in a June 1985 visit.
The 1990s saw new harder 3-starred routes such as Welsh climber George Smith's Very Big Springs (E6 6b, 1993), and Seeing Things (E6 6b, with Alan Wainwright, 1993), and Peak District climbers Dominic and Daniel Lee's Phoenix in the Mirror (E6 6c, 1996). The following years saw more E6 and E7 graded routes from some of the leading Irish-based climbers such as Dalkey Quarry regulars Ronan Browner and Herbert Hebblethwaite (Earthling and Forbidden Kink both E6 6c, 1997), and by Ricky Bell (The Happiness that Hurts and The Power of the Hobo both E7 6c, 2006), and Andy Long (The Vein and Forever Young both E7 6c, 2004, and Faith E7 6c, 2005). In addition, Bell, free soloist Julian Lines, and later, Colm Shannon, developed the DWS potential of the An Falla Uaignech section, establishing extreme DWS routes at grades of up to 7c+ S2/3. In 2007, Belgian climber Sean Villanueva O’Driscoll [fr] established a new E7 on Mirror Wall that he named Snell's Law (E7 6c), and in 2021, Irish climber Conor McGovern added two further E7s on Mirror Wall, named No Reflection (E7 6c), and Black Mirror (E7 6c).
### Facilities
Visiting climbers either camp in the fields above the crag (however, there is no source of freshwater), or stay at one of the many hostels in the surrounding villages (particularly Doolin for nightlife and additional bouldering, or Fanore for serviced camping grounds). There are several nearby inland 10–20 metres (33–66 ft) high limestone crags with a good range of graded rock climbs, especially in the grades below VS, that are within walking distance (e.g. Ballyryan) or a short driving distance (e.g. Murroughkilly, Aill na Cronain and Oughtdarra), from Ailladie; however, these do not have anything like the quality or popularity of Ailladie.
## Other sports
### Cave diving
Starting at circa 9.5 m (31 ft) below sea level, Cliff Cave (also known as Mirror Wall Cave or Pollaillte), extends inland from the crag. It was discovered in 2012, and containing over 2.7 km (1.7 mi) of passages, is the longest-known marine cave in Ireland. Exploration of the cave can only be undertaken after a prolonged period of calm and stable conditions to avoid becoming trapped.
### Shore angling
The limestone ledges at the base of Ailladie's cliffs (at the far north and far south ends), are regarded for their shore-angling and are described as providing "superb bottom fishing". Anglers know the area as Ballyreen-south of Fanore, and several of the rocks have numbers painted on them for shore-angling competitions. Ballyreen is noted as one of the few shore-angling locations in Clare where sharks (porbeagle and blue), and conger eels have been successfully landed.
Because of the proximity of these low limestone ledges to deep Atlantic waters, the ledges have seen several fatalities over the years of anglers who were caught by sudden swells or large waves, and were carried out to sea.
## Accidents
As well as accidents from rock-climbing activities (there are no recorded rock climbing fatalities at Ailladie), and accidents and fatalities from shore-angling activities, Ailladie has also seen a number of accidents and fatalities from tourist activities as a result of falls at the cliffs.
## Filmography
- Ricky Bell in Ailladie and Fair Head (Antrim):
## See also
- Aill na Cronain, inland rock climbing limestone crag in County Clare, right beside the Aillwee Cave
- Ballyryan, inland rock climbing limestone crag in County Clare, right beside Ailladie
- Fair Head, major rock climbing dolerite mountain crag in County Antrim
- Dalkey Quarry, major rock climbing granite quarry in Dublin
- List of long-distance trails in the Republic of Ireland
- List of mountains in Ireland | [
"## Naming",
"## Geography",
"### Access",
"## Rock climbing",
"### Reputation",
"### Layout",
"### History",
"### Facilities",
"## Other sports",
"### Cave diving",
"### Shore angling",
"## Accidents",
"## Filmography",
"## See also"
] | 2,712 | 18,408 |
3,488,611 | Eastern Province, Zambia | 1,148,151,310 | Province of Zambia | [
"Eastern Province, Zambia",
"Provinces of Zambia"
] | Eastern Province is one of Zambia's ten provinces. The province lies between the Luangwa River and borders with Malawi to the east and Mozambique to the south, from Isoka in the northeast to the north of Luangwa in the south. The provincial capital is Chipata. Eastern province has an area of 51,476 km<sup>2</sup> (19,875 sq mi), locally shares border with three other provinces of the country and is divided into fifteen districts.
As per the 2010 Zambian census, Eastern Province had a population of 1,592,661, accounting to 12.16% of the total Zambian population. The sex ratio was 1,030 for every 1,000 males. As of 2010, Chewa was the largest community in the region with 39.7 per cent of the total population and Chewa was the most widely spoken language with 34.6 per cent speaking it. On the tourism front, the province has four national parks. The province has two significant traditional ceremonies being the Nc'wala festival celebrated in Chipata District by the Ngoni tribe during February and the Chewa Kulamba ceremony celebrated in Katete District by the Chewa Kingdom which is held annually on the last Saturday in August. The Kulamba ceremony, which is attended by over 200,000 people, was banned by the Colonial regime and gathers Chewa chiefs from across the Kingdom in Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique who come to pay homage to their King and update him of events in the Kingdom. Agriculture is the major occupation in the province which accounts for 20.41 per cent of the total area cultivated in Zambia. The province accounted for 19.61 per cent of the total agricultural production in the country with sunflower being the major crop. Chipata Airport and Mfuwe Airport are the two airports in the province.
## History
The history of the province is centered around the Chewa people who under the rule of the Chewa King, His Majesty Kalonga Gawa Undi, established a vast empire extending to modern day Central Malawi and the northeastern part of Tete Province in Mozambique. The chieftains of the empire exercised control over the territory in modern times. The most notable of them was His Majesty Kalonga Gawa Undi X, whose regime started in 1954. By 1957, he joined Harry Mwaanga Nkumbula's political party that supported the British Colonial Empire. By the time he completed his European tour and returned to his province, nationalism had almost spread in the entire province. To avoid uprising, periodic fatalities and loyalty he enjoyed among masses, he supported the nationalist movement. After the independence of Zambia, during the 1960s, some of the districts in the province had unprecedented growth in infrastructure and agriculture. However, the growth of the province was terminated along with that of the country due falling copper prices.
As of 2010, Chewa was the largest community in the region with 39.7 per cent population and Chewa was the widely spoken language in Eastern province with 34.6 per cent speaking it. The province was claimed as a part of Malawi in 1968 by the then Malawian President Dr. Hastings Kamazu Banda who was a supporter of the apartheid in South Africa against the wishes of Organization of African Unity (OAU). The then Zambian president Kenneth Kaunda openly asked Malawi to go on war with Zambia to claim the province and also affirmed that Zambia would not have trade relations with Malawi until the claim on territory was withdrawn. The expansionist ambition of Malawi was discontinued and the Eastern Province remained with Zambia.
## Geography
The south-east corner of the province borders Malawi to its east and Mozambique to its south. Luangwa Valley rifting the highlands dividing Zambia and Malawi, is located in the region. A small portion of Nyika Plateau above Lake Nyasa is located in the northern portion of the province. Chipata is the most developed city in the province and the fifth most developed in the nation, followed by Lundazi and Petauke. The province is bordered by Muchinga Province to the north-west and Central Province and Lusaka Province to the south-west. There are isolated hills on the eastern border, some of which raise to a height of 6,000 ft (1,800 m) to 7,000 ft (2,100 m). The province, like seven other provinces except for Luapala and Northern provinces, lies in the watershed region between Congo and Zambezi river systems.
## Demographics
As per the 2010 Zambian census, Eastern Province had a population of 1,592,661 accounting to 12.16 per cent of the total Zambian population of 13,092,666. There were 784,680 males and 807,981 females, making the sex ratio to 1,030 for every 1,000 males, compared to the national average of 1,028. The literacy rate stood at 54.40 per cent against a national average of 70.2 per cent. The rural population constituted 87.42 per cent, while the urban population was 12.58 per cent. The total area of the province was 51,476 km<sup>2</sup> and the population density was 30.90 per km<sup>2</sup>. The population density during 2000 Zambian census stood at 17.8. The decadal population growth of the province was 2.60 per cent. The province recorded the highest rural population of 1,392,338 in 2010 among all provinces in the country. The lowest median age of 20.1 years was recorded in the province as of 2010. The median age in the province at the time of marriage was 20.1. The average household size was 5.2, with the families headed by females being 4.3 and 5.5 for families headed by men. The total eligible voters in the province constituted 60.30 per cent. The unemployment rate of the province was 8.80 per cent. The total fertility rate was 6.6, complete birth rate was 6.3, crude birth rate was 38.0, child women population at birth was 819, general fertility rate was 168, gross reproduction rate was 2.6 and net reproduction rate was 1.8. The total labour force constituted 58.70 per cent of the total population. Out of the labour force 67.4 per cent were men and 50.7 per cent were women. The annual growth rate of labour force was 1.8 per cent. Nyanja was the most spoken language with more than 70.00 per cent speaking it. The total population in the province with the condition Albinism stood at 3,225. The life expectancy at birth stood at 46 compared to the national average of 51.
## Culture and wildlife parks
The Luangwa Valley in Eastern Province has one of the best managed wild life areas in Zambia. South Luangwa National Park (although most of it lies outside the province, its management and the only public road access is from the province), North Luangwa National Park in Northern Province, Luambe National Park and Lukusuzi National Park are the major national parks in Eastern province. Game management areas cover most of the Luangwa Valley outside the national parks, and many animals migrate through the Province between the valley and game reserves in the highlands of neighbouring Malawi.
The Kulamba ceremony is the largest traditional ceremony in Zambia and is celebrated in Katete District by the Chewa tribe during August, the Nc'wala festival is celebrated in Chipata District by the Ngoni tribe during February, Kulonga festival celebrated in Lundazi District by Tumbuka tribe during August, Malaila festival celebrated in Mambwe District by Kunda tribe during August, Zengani festival celebrated in Lundazi District by Tumbuka tribe during October, Tuwimba festival celebrated in Petauke District by Nsenga tribe during October are the major festivals in the province. Kulamba Ceremony is the gathering of the Chewa in Zambia, Mozambique and Malawi. The Chewa chiefs pay homage to their King, His Majesty Kalonga Gawa. Historically, the Chiefs and the people of the Kingdom petitioned the King with their troubles, while in modern times, after Kulamba was resurrected after being banned by the colonial regime, the ceremony has been focussed on the Chiefs updating their King on events within the Kingdom. The Kulamba ceremony originated during the 15th century. N'cwala is the annual gathering of the Ngoni tribe and is also dubbed as first fruits ceremony. It is held during the last week of February to the first week of March for three days. The members of the tribe and onlookers attend the event in thousands and arrive at Mutenguleni villages near the city of Chipata.
## Administration
Provincial administration in Zambia is set up purely for administrative purposes. The province is headed by a minister appointed by the President, as of 2018 Makebi Zulu, and there are ministries of the central government for each province. The administrative head of the province is the Permanent Secretary, appointed by the President. There are a Deputy Permanent Secretary, heads of government departments and civil servants at the provincial level. Eastern Province is divided into fifteen districts as follows: Chadiza District, Chama District, Chasefu District, Chipangali District, Chipata District, Kasenengwa District, Katete District, Lumezi District, Lundazi District, Lusangazi District, Mambwe District, Nyimba District, Petauke District, Sinda District and Vubwi District. All the district headquarters are the same as the district names. There are fourteen councils in the province, each headed by an elected representative, called councillor. Each councillor holds the office for three years.
The administrative staff of the council is selected based on Local Government Service Commission from within or outside the district. The office of the provincial government is located in each of the district headquarters and has provincial local government officers and auditors. Each council is responsible for raising and collecting local taxes, and the budgets of the council are audited and submitted every year after the annual budget. The elected members of the council do not draw salaries, but are paid allowances from the council. Eastern Province is a predominantly rural area and hence there are no city or municipal councils. The government stipulates 63 different functions for the councils with the majority of them being infrastructure management and local administration.
Councils are mandated to maintain each of their community centres, zoos, local parks, drainage system, playgrounds, cemeteries, caravan sites, libraries, museums and art galleries. They also work along with specific government departments for helping in agriculture, conservation of natural resources, postal service, establishing and maintaining hospitals, schools and colleges. The councils prepare schemes that encourage community participation. Chama District from the province was aligned to the newly created Muchinga Province in 2011 but re-aligned back to the province in 2021 when President Hakainde Hichilema took office.
## Economy, health and education
As of 2004, the province had 861 basic schools, 41 high schools and the number of school children out of school in ages between 7 and 15 stood at 861. The unemployment rate was 6 per cent and the general unemployment rate for youth stood at 12 per cent as of 2008. The province had 36 doctors as of 2005. There were 447 Malaria incidence for every 1,000 people in the province as of 2005 and there were 9,338 AIDS death as of 2010. As of 2010, the province had the lowest literacy rate of 54.4 per cent among all provinces in the country.
The total area of crops planted during the year 2014 in the province was 387,273.09 hectares which constituted 20.41 per cent of the total area cultivated in Zambia. The net production stood at 799,026 metric tonnes, which formed 19.61 per cent of the total agricultural production in the country. Sunflower was the major crop in the province with 24,053 metric tonnes, constituting 70.20 per cent of the national output.
Chipata Airport and Mfuwe Airport are the two airports in the province. | [
"## History",
"## Geography",
"## Demographics",
"## Culture and wildlife parks",
"## Administration",
"## Economy, health and education"
] | 2,601 | 19,843 |
63,076,367 | OV2-1 | 1,061,113,142 | US Air Force satellite | [
"Spacecraft launched in 1965"
] | Orbiting Vehicle 2-1 (COSPAR ID: 1965–82C, also known as OV2-1), the first satellite of the second series of the United States Air Force's Orbiting Vehicle program, was an American life science research satellite. Its purpose was to determine the extent of the threat posed to astronauts by the Van Allen radiation belts. Launched 15 October 1965, the mission resulted in failure when the upper stage of OV2-1's Titan IIIC booster broke up.
## Background
The Orbiting Vehicle satellite program arose from a US Air Force initiative, begun in the early 1960s, to reduce the expense of space research. Through this initiative, satellites would be standardized to improve reliability and cost-efficiency, and where possible, they would fly on test vehicles or be piggybacked with other satellites. In 1961, the Air Force Office of Aerospace Research (OAR) created the Aerospace Research Support Program (ARSP) to request satellite research proposals and choose mission experiments. The USAF Space and Missiles Organization created their own analog of the ARSP called the Space Experiments Support Program (SESP), which sponsored a greater proportion of technological experiments than the ARSP. Five distinct OV series of standardized satellites were developed under the auspices of these agencies.
The OV2 series of satellites was originally designed as part of the ARENTS (Advanced Research Environmental Test Satellite) program, intended to obtain supporting data for the Vela satellites, which monitored the Earth for violations of the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty. Upon the cancellation of ARENTS due to delays in the Centaur rocket stage, the program's hardware (developed by General Dynamics) was repurposed to fly on the Titan III (initially the A, ultimately the C) booster test launches. The USAF contracted Northrop to produce these satellites, with William C. Armstrong of Northrop Space Laboratories serving as the program manager.
## Spacecraft design
OV2-1 was built to the configuration standard to all of the OV2 satellites, with a roughly cubical structure of aluminum honeycomb, .61 m (2.0 ft) in height, and .58 m (1.9 ft) wide. Four 2.3 m (7.5 ft) paddle-like solar panels, each with 20,160 solar cells, were mounted at the four upper corners of the main body. The power system, which included NiCd batteries for night-time operations, provided 63 W of power. As with the other craft in the OV2 series, experiments were generally mounted outside the cube while satellite systems, including tape recorder, command receiver, and PAM/FM/FM telemetry system, were installed inside. Four small solid rocket motors spun, one on each paddle, were designed to spin the OV2 satellites upon reaching orbit, providing gyroscopic stability. Cold-gas jets maintained this stability, receiving information on the satellite's alignment with respect to the Sun via an onboard solar aspect sensor, and with respect to the local magnetic field via two onboard fluxgate magnetometers. A damper kept the satellite from precessing (wobbling around its spin axis). Passive thermal control kept the satellite from overheating. The entire satellite weighed 170.097 kg (375.00 lb).
## Experiments
OV2-1 was designed to evaluate the long-term hazards of the Earth's Van Allen Belts to astronauts and satellites. Over the course of a year-long mission, the solar-powered satellite would measure nuclear particles, electromagnetic field strength, very low frequency radio waves, and radiation effects on tissue equivalents.
The Air Force's Cambridge Research Center, Weapons Laboratory, and Aerospace Corporation designed the 59 kg (130 lb) scientific and engineering experiment package of fourteen instruments. They included the "Phantom" tissue-equivalent ion chamber (comprising gas-filled tubes simulating the heart, kidneys and lung tissue topped with a Plexiglass cover simulating skin), as well as a Cerenkov counter, a charged particle flux counter, a Faraday Cup electrometer, a magnetic spectrometer, an omnidirectional spectrometer, a scintillation spectrometer, and a plasma wave detector.
Also included as an engineering experiment on OV2-1 was a low-thrust, subliming solid rocket type, developed by Rocket Research Corporation in Seattle, to manage OV2-1's rate of spin.
## Mission
In its original conception, OV2-1 was to have been launched via Titan 3A rocket to an apogee of 2,400 nmi (4,400 km) and a perigee of 100 nmi (190 km). OV2-1 ultimately was scheduled for launch on the second Titan IIIC test flight on 8 October 1965. However, tests at the Martin/Denver plant determined that there might be issues with the Transtage's pressurization valves; a malfunction of one of the valves had caused a premature shutdown of a Titan 3A test the prior year. The flight was thus delayed one week. A further delay, from 14 October to 15 October, was caused both by bad weather and battery problems in the two "stage zero" solid -propellant side boosters of the Titan IIIC rocket.
OV2-1, along with LCS-2, a 1.12 m (3.7 ft), 34 kg (75 lb) radar calibration sphere, finally made it to space after its Titan IIIC took off on 15 October 1965 at 17:23:59 UT from Cape Canaveral LC40. Once in orbit, the Titan IIIC's Transtage (upper stage) was scheduled to fire ten times, ultimately boosting OV2-1 into its operational orbit. 56 minutes and 10 seconds into the mission, however, at the end of a 24-second burn, one of the two Transtage engines failed to shut down. The booster tumbled and then exploded, stranding the satellite amidst the debris in a nearly circular orbit about 750 km (470 mi) above the Earth.
## Legacy and status
The satellite and large pieces of the transtage are still in orbit as of February 2020, and LCS-2 reentered on 25 August 1982. Though its mission was a failure, seven of OV2-1's experiments were reflown on the successful (smaller) OV3-3 mission, launched 4 August 1966.
Two follow-on satellites (OV2-2 and -3) with different mission objectives were originally planned when the OV2 program began. The OV2 series was ultimately expanded to five satellites, all with different goals. Only one, the radiation and astronomical satellite OV2-5, achieved a degree of success. | [
"## Background",
"## Spacecraft design",
"## Experiments",
"## Mission",
"## Legacy and status"
] | 1,390 | 44,364 |
3,131,784 | Oklahoma State Highway 9 | 1,171,535,775 | Highway in Oklahoma | [
"State highways in Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Caddo County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Cleveland County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Grady County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Greer County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Harmon County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Haskell County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Hughes County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Kiowa County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Le Flore County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in McClain County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in McIntosh County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Pottawatomie County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Seminole County, Oklahoma"
] | State Highway 9, abbreviated as SH-9, OK-9, or simply Highway 9, is a major east–west highway in the U.S. state of Oklahoma. Spanning across the central part of the state, SH-9 begins at the Texas state line west of Vinson, Oklahoma, and ends at the Arkansas state line near Fort Smith, Arkansas. State Highway 9 is a major highway around the Norman area. At 348.1 miles (560.2 km), SH-9 is Oklahoma's second-longest state highway (second to State Highway 3).
## Route description
### West of Interstate 35
From the western terminus at State Highway 203 along the Texas border, the highway travels due east for five miles (8.0 km) and intersects with SH-30 between Madge and Vinson. SH-9 continues east for 23 miles (37 km) without intersecting another highway until meeting US-283 and SH-34 two miles (3.2 km) north of Mangum. The highway overlaps the other two routes for four miles (6.4 km), going north, before splitting off and heading east again through Granite and Lone Wolf. East of Lone Wolf, the highway forms a concurrency with SH-44. Near Hobart, SH-9 overlaps US-183 for 4 miles (6.4 km)(again going northward) before splitting off again.
Continuing east, SH-9 passes through Gotebo, Mountain View, and Carnegie. Around Fort Cobb, Oklahoma, the highway begins nine miles (14 km) of travel to the south. There, the route links up with the concurrent U.S. Highways 62 and 281. While US-281 will split off in Anadarko, SH-9 and US-62 remain concurrent until Newcastle. In Chickasha, US-277 joins to form another three-route concurrency with US-62 and SH-9. On the eastern edge of Chickasha, US-62/277/SH-9 have an interchange with I-44, or more commonly known as the H.E. Bailey Turnpike.
Traveling northeast from Chickasha, US-62/277/SH-9 are routed to the town of Blanchard. Four miles later, SH-9 splits away from the two U.S. routes at a diamond interchange that also serves as the eastern terminus of the H.E. Bailey Turnpike Spur. SH-9 remains without any concurrent routes until Goldsby. The section of road east of US-62/277, recently upgraded to a four-lane divided highway, provides a link from the H.E. Bailey Turnpike Spur to Interstate 35. At the interstate, SH-9 merges onto I-35 northbound to cross the Canadian River into Norman.
### East of Interstate 35
Through Norman, Highway 9 serves as a major artery providing access to the University of Oklahoma campus (in particular, the Lloyd Noble Center). Around the area, the route is a four-lane divided expressway (with surface crossings and stoplights). However, after a full interchange with 72nd Avenue SE, the road becomes a two lane highway again.
SH-9 continues eastward, passing Lake Thunderbird State Park, before reaching the towns of Tecumseh and Seminole. The road intersects the Indian Nation Turnpike near Hanna, and US-69 near Eufaula. SH-9 provides access to the south side of Lake Eufaula before reaching Stigler.
SH-9 overlaps US-59 for 5 miles (8.0 km), after which the road becomes concurrent with US-271. Both remain concurrent, until the highway ends at the Arkansas border. After passing the Arkansas state line, State Highway 9 becomes I-540, and US-271 continues over the state line concurrent with the Interstate.
## History
Officially designated on August 24, 1924, the original route encompassed all of current SH-9 west of Blanchard. East of Blanchard, SH-9 followed a more northerly route. Bypassing Norman, SH-9 ran north to Oklahoma City before going east through Harrah, Meeker, Prague, Henryetta, and Checotah. The highway ended at the original SH-3 in Spiro. Upon the creation of the United States Numbered Routes system in 1926, the section between Oklahoma City and Warner was overlaid with US-266. Four years later in 1930, SH-9 was truncated to Chickasha. By this time, much of the route had become part of US-62.
On 1935-08-27, the route was extended eastward, taking over the original SH-37. SH-9's eastern terminus became SH-48 near Seminole. On 1937-08-25, the route was brought further east to end at US-69 in Eufaula. Part of the newly commissioned section was rescinded on 1937-10-19, when a small segment just east of SH-48 and the entire Hughes County portion were dropped from the highway. These sections were re-added on 1938-09-27.
SH-9 was extended eastward twice in the route's history. The first extension occurred on 1941-02-26, and extended SH-9 to SH-2 at Whitefield. The final extension brought SH-9 to the Arkansas state line on 1941-11-12. The only major realignment in SH-9's history since 1941 was the Norman expressway bypass, which was designated as SH-9 on 1971-11-08.
After the I-40 bridge disaster, parts of SH-9 in eastern Oklahoma served as an emergency detour for eastbound I-40 traffic. All eastbound traffic was routed along the section of SH-9 between SH-2 in Whitefield and US-59. In addition, the section of SH-9 between US-59 and the Arkansas state line were used for eastbound traffic for commercial trucks.
Discussions to widen SH-9 to four lanes east of US-77 in Norman began in 2008. The City of Norman and ODOT have conflict in their proposals for the design of the widened highway. ODOT has proposed a 16-foot (4.9 m) paved median, with 12-foot (3.7 m) shoulders to accommodate bicyclists. Norman's proposal includes a grass median and a separate bike path along the north side of the right-of-way, running from 24th Avenue S.E. to Lake Thunderbird. ODOT criticized the city's plan as too expensive. The city then proposed, with a narrower raised concrete median and separate bike path. By 2014, the plan for the widening had been finalized and work had begun from US 77 eastward. As of 2023, SH-9 has been widened to four lanes to 108th Avenue S.E. Future plans call for the highway to be widened to four lanes from Pecan Creek to SH-102.
The I-35 and SH-9 West interchange in Goldsby is also expected to be reconfigured into a Diverging diamond interchange. The new design is expected to "accommodate large volumes of turning traffic by shifting traffic to the left side of a divided roadway through a series of coordinated signals for safer and more efficient left turns." This follows a large project that reconfigured the I-35 exits at West Lindsey Street into Single Point Urban Interchange and the SH-9 east exit to a trumpet interchange in Norman. That project started in March 2015 and was completed and opened in October 2017.
## Spurs
State Highway 9 creates three spur highways throughout the state. Additionally, it has two business routes, serving towns the main route bypasses. These routes are:
- Business SH-9, a three-mile (5 km) loop through Hobart.
- Another instance of Business SH-9 that loops through Gotebo. (This is not shown on the state highway map.)
- SH-9A is a designation for three distinct highways:
- A highway that intersects SH-9 in Earlsboro and links the parent highway to I-40 and SH-39 in Konawa. The spur also passes through the town of Maud.
- A connector highway from US-69 to SH-9 south of Eufaula.
- A spur route to SH-112 in Arkoma. This section is a former alignment of U.S. Highway 271.
## Junction list | [
"## Route description",
"### West of Interstate 35",
"### East of Interstate 35",
"## History",
"## Spurs",
"## Junction list"
] | 1,773 | 20,736 |
65,892,429 | Hurricane Chris (2018) | 1,163,649,961 | Category 2 Atlantic hurricane in 2018 | [
"Hurricanes in Bermuda",
"Hurricanes in Canada",
"Hurricanes in North Carolina",
"Tropical cyclones in 2018"
] | Hurricane Chris was a moderately strong tropical cyclone that affected the East Coast of the United States and Atlantic Canada in July 2018. The third tropical or subtropical cyclone, third named storm, and second hurricane of the 2018 Atlantic hurricane season, Chris originated from a frontal system that moved offshore the coast of the northeastern United States on June 29. The front evolved into a non-tropical low by July 3. After further organization, a tropical depression formed on July 6, several hundred miles south-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Two days later, the depression strengthened into a tropical storm and received the name Chris. Chris slowly strengthened as it drifted into warmer waters. These favorable conditions allowed Chris to rapidly intensify into a hurricane on July 10. The hurricane reached its peak intensity with winds of 105 mph (165 km/h) and a pressure of 969 mbar (28.61 inHg) at. This peak intensity was short-lived though, as Chris began to undergo extratropical transition. At 12:00 UTC on July 12, Chris became an extratropical cyclone well southeast of Newfoundland. The low continued northeastward over the Atlantic for the next few days, before weakening and finally dissipating southeast of Iceland on July 17.
Numerous marine warnings were issued for the East Coast of the United States. The storm brought high surf and rip currents to much of the East Coast. Dozens of beach rescues were reported in the Carolinas, and a coastal state park was closed in Massachusetts. A man drowned in North Carolina after being swept away in a rip current. Rainbands from the cyclone caused some minor rainfall in Bermuda. Chris also affected Atlantic Canada as an extratropical cyclone. Two oil drilling companies, BP Canada and ExxonMobil, had to call a temporary hiatus in drilling until after the storm passed. Swells of more than 10 ft (3.0 m) affected the coastline of Newfoundland and Labrador. Strong wind gusts and several inches of rain were reported. Overall damage was minimal.
## Meteorological history
A frontal system moved offshore the coast of the northeastern United States on June 29. The frontal system headed southeast and dissipated by July 2. On that day, a large mid- to upper-level low formed north of Bermuda and moved southwestward beneath a strengthening ridge over eastern North America. The National Hurricane Center (NHC) first mentioned the possibility of tropical cyclogenesis, expecting an area of low pressure to form midway between Bermuda and the Southeastern United States. The remaining convection, or shower and thunderstorm activity, of the front and a new upper-level disturbance formed a surface low on July 4. The low gradually became better defined the next day. After deep convection developed over the center, a tropical depression formed around 12:00 UTC on July 6 about 345 mi (555 km) south-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina.
Despite being located over the Gulf Stream, which usually fuels the formation of thunderstorms, the depression's convection diminished greatly due to dry air, and the center was nearly devoid of thunderstorms early on July 7. An Air Force Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance aircraft found that the strongest winds remained displaced to a rainband south of the center. At 06:00 UTC on July 8, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Chris, though the low-level circulation center remained exposed north of the convection. Pulled slowly southeastward by a passing cold front, Chris intensified steadily throughout the rest of the day, as it was located in an area of warm sea surface temperatures and low wind shear. A National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Hurricane Hunter plane found that the wind field was becoming more symmetric and the pressure was dropping. Both banding and central convection increased, though a dry air intrusion put a halt to the strengthening trend early on July 9. Weak steering currents led Chris to stall a few hundred miles offshore Morehead City, as the cyclone was trapped in a large break in the subtropical ridge. Some dry air around Chris eroded its banding, causing the storm to acquire annular characteristics. A large cloud-filled eye became present, and a partial eyewall was detected by aircraft reconnaissance. However, significant upwelling prevented quick intensification initially, and Chris remained at tropical storm strength up to midday on July 10.
By late on July 10, a weakening mid-level ridge over the central Atlantic and a new trough over the northeastern United States began to accelerate the cyclone eastward. At 12:00 UTC on July 10, Chris became a hurricane as it moved quicker to the northeast. The storm's new movement forced the center out of the upwelled water, and Chris proceeded to rapidly intensify late on July 10. Chris peaked as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 105 mph (165 km/h) and a pressure of 969 mbar (28.61 inHg) at 00:00 UTC on July 11, with the convective ring in its core transforming into a full eyewall. Early on July 11, Chris began weakening as it moved out of the Gulf Stream, with its eye being obscured by clouds. Although the eye briefly became visible again, it quickly disappeared beneath the clouds as the cyclone's structure slowly steadily degraded. The storm began extratropical transition late on July 11, with the rain shield expanding to the northwest quadrant. At 12:00 UTC on July 12, Chris weakened to a tropical storm, and six hours later, it transitioned to an extratropical cyclone a few hundred miles southeast of Newfoundland. The extratropical storm made landfall by 00:00 UTC on July 13 in Newfoundland and Labrador. The low continued northeastward over the Atlantic for the next few days, before weakening and finally dissipating southeast of Iceland on July 17.
## Preparations and impact
While offshore, Chris brought large swells to the East Coast of the United States, sparking hundreds of water rescues, especially along the coasts of North Carolina, Maryland, New Jersey, and New England. "No swimming" signs were posted at beaches in the Outer Banks of North Carolina. More than 75 people had been rescued from Wrightsville Beach from July 4 to 8. On July 4, 24 people were rescued from Carolina Beach, and on July 6, 15 people were the same location. On July 7, a man drowned in rough seas attributed to the storm at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina. A vacation home in Rodanthe was declared uninhabitable after swells generated by Chris eroded away the base of the building. In Maryland, more than 225 rescues were reported by beach patrol in Ocean City. On July 11, a Coastal Flood Advisory was issued for the Jersey Shore. Two teenage surfers rescued a swimmer caught by a rip current in New Jersey. In Spring Lake, volunteer lifeguards rescued a man from drowning. A High Surf Warning was issued for parts of coastal southern New England. Horseneck Beach State Reservation in Massachusetts was closed by the Department of Conservation and Recreation.
Before Chris hit Newfoundland and Labrador, ExxonMobil moved many non-essential employees working on offshore oil platforms out of the path of the storm. Simultaneously, BP Canada disconnected and moved the West Aquarius exploration drilling rig. Wind warnings were issued by Environment Canada for southeast Avalon and St. John's districts. In addition, rainfall warnings were in effect for much of southern Newfoundland. The mayor of St. John's ordered crews to be on standby. The city's public works department placed sandbags ahead of the cyclone. As an extratropical cyclone, the system brought high swells, locally heavy rain and gusty winds to Newfoundland and Labrador. Abnormally high water levels were recorded along the southern Avalon Peninsula with swells of 20 to 26 ft (6 to 8 m). Rainfall accumulations in Newfoundland and Labrador peaked at 3.0 in (76 mm) in Gander, while gusts reached 60 mph (96 km/h) in Ferryland. Rainfall accumulations in all of Canada was highest on Sable Island, at 4.39 in (111.6 mm). The brunt of the rain spared St. John's, with St. John's International Airport only getting 0.15 in (3.8 mm) of precipitation. However, the city still reported strong winds. Overall damage in Canada was minimal.
The Bermuda Weather Service deemed the storm a "potential threat" for thunderstorms, rip currents and high waves. The storm caused moderate showers from as it stalled to the southwest of the island. Rainfall peaked at 0.64 inches (16 mm) on July 9. The agency issued a small craft warning for the island on July 10; it was extended to July 11. Eventually, Chris passed a few hundred miles to the northwest on July 11, leaving little to no damage.
## See also
- Other storms of the same name
- List of Category 2 Atlantic hurricanes
- Hurricane Alex (2004) – took a similar track
- Hurricane Cristobal (2014) – took a similar track
- Hurricane Gert (2017) – took a similar track | [
"## Meteorological history",
"## Preparations and impact",
"## See also"
] | 1,918 | 2,527 |
950,800 | M-46 (Michigan highway) | 1,166,824,617 | State highway in Michigan, United States | [
"State highways in Michigan",
"Transportation in Gratiot County, Michigan",
"Transportation in Kent County, Michigan",
"Transportation in Montcalm County, Michigan",
"Transportation in Muskegon County, Michigan",
"Transportation in Saginaw County, Michigan",
"Transportation in Sanilac County, Michigan",
"Transportation in Tuscola County, Michigan"
] | M-46 is an east–west state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan between Muskegon and Port Sanilac, terminating near Lake Michigan and Lake Huron on each end. Except for the north–south segment that corresponds with the US Highway 131 (US 131) freeway between Cedar Springs and Howard City, M-46 is practically a due east–west surface highway. The road runs through rural sections of the Lower Peninsula connecting several freeways including US 31, US 131, US 127 and Interstate 75 (I-75).
The highway was formed by July 1, 1919, along two discontinuous sections of its current corridor. The gap was filled in by 1927, but a second break in the routing was created in the 1930s. This second interruption in the corridor was eliminated within a year. The various paths that M-46 has followed have been straightened over the intervening years, producing the modern corridor by the 1970s. Other changes have been made to the location of the western terminus in Muskegon, but it has remained fixed in its current location since 1984.
## Route description
M-46 is one of three trans-peninsular highways in the Lower Peninsula, starting blocks away from Lake Michigan in Muskegon and running almost to Lake Huron in Port Sanilac. The other two highways that do this are M-55 (Manistee – Tawas City) and M-72 (Empire–Harrisville). The highway is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) like all other state trunkline highways in the state. The department tracks the traffic volumes along all state highway highways as a part of its maintenance responsibilities using a metric called average annual daily traffic (AADT). This measurement is a calculation of the traffic level along a segment of roadway for any average day of the year. In 2009, MDOT figured that lowest traffic levels were the 1,855 vehicles used the highway daily near the eastern terminus. The peak traffic volumes were the 30,505 vehicles AADT along the section of M-46 immediately east of the US 31 freeway near Muskegon. The trunkline has been listed on the National Highway System (NHS) between the western terminus and US 31, and between Cedar Springs and the M-53 junction in Sanilac County. The NHS is a network of roadways important to the nation's economy, defense, and mobility.
### Muskegon to Saginaw
M-46 starts at an intersection between Muskegon and Apple avenues near the downtown Muskegon business district. The highway follows Apple Avenue eastward through the edge of the district and through a residential area in Muskegon to an interchange with the US 31 freeway. On the other side of the freeway, Apple Avenue runs farther east, leaving the Muskegon area and passing through the rural woodlands of Muskegon County. Along the way, the road passes the Hall Drain, an artificial reservoir. At Casnovia, M-37 merges in from the north at a roundabout intersection, and the two highways run concurrently across the county line into Kent County, turning to the southeast. A few miles later in Kent City, M-46 turns due east again and leaves M-37 to run independently along 17 Mile Road. The highway runs through more mixed agricultural land to Cedar Springs, where M-46 turns north along the US 131 freeway.
US 131/M-46 runs northwards through the northern Kent and western Montcalm counties for about 16 miles (26 km) near Sand Lake and Pierson. Near Howard City. M-46 leaves the freeway and turns eastward independently along Howard City – Edmore Road. The highway runs through the north side of Montcalm County connecting the communities of Lakeview and Edmore. Between Six Lakes and Edmore, M-66 runs along M-46, a distance of around 3.5 miles (5.6 km). The trunkline passes several small lakes and crosses the Maple River near Vestaburg before crossing into Gratiot County. The highway, now called Monroe Road crosses more farm fields as it approaches Alma. North of downtown, M-46 intersects the north–south leg of the Alma business loop before meeting the US 127 freeway. East of this freeway interchange, M-46 picks up the east–west leg of the US 127 business loop for St. Louis. Although similar, the separate business loop follows M-46 along Monroe Road over the Pine River to Main Street, where it turns south through downtown. M-46 continues eastward from town through farm fields to Breckenridge. At Meridian Road, the highway follows Gratiot Road into Saginaw County east through Merrill and Hemlock to the Saginaw area. East of Hemlock, M-46 meets the northern terminus of M-52 and then the southern terminus of M-47 in Saginaw Charter Township near its crossing of the Tittabawassee River.
### Saginaw to Port Sanilac
As M-46 enters Saginaw proper, it follows Gratiot Avenue past the Saginaw Country Club. The area around the club is filled with residential subdivisions as the roadway approaches the Saginaw River. M-46 follows Stephens Street southeasterly and Rust Avenue eastward to cross the river. The highway continues along Rust Avenue to Warren Avenue where it turns north. The highway then follows Holland Avenue, which is the continuation of Gratiot Avenue on the east side of the river. M-46 passes through an interchange with I-75/US 23 and leaves the Saginaw area. The highway continues eastward through rural Saginaw County into the region of the Lower Peninsula known as The Thumb. In Tuscola County, M-46 passes through the Vassar State Game Area and crosses the Cass River north of Vassar.
The area near the river east to the M-24 junction is forested. As M-46 approaches Kingston, farms dominate the landscape again. M-46 crosses into Sanilac County just west of the M-53 junction at Van Dyke Road. Between Elmer and Sandusky, M-19 follows M-46 for about 5 miles (8.0 km). The highway crosses the Black River near Carsonville. The eastern end of M-46 is in Port Sanilac, just blocks west of the city's marina on Lake Huron at an intersection with M-25.
## History
M-46 was designated by July 1, 1919, on a discontinuous route that ran between Howard City and Saginaw and between rural Tuscola County and Port Sanilac. The highway followed a different routing in place than it does today. The western terminus was in downtown Howard City, rather than north of town. The road ran farther south in Gratiot County so that it went into downtown Alma. By the end of 1927, the Michigan State Highway Department (MSHD) filled in the gap between Saginaw and Tuscola County, and the department extended the western end to Muskegon. M-46 followed the contemporary US 131 between Cedar Springs and Howard City and the modern routing west to Muskegon ending at US 31 downtown. In the middle of the 1930s, the section north of Howard City was straightened, removing the angled route between Amble and Howard City in favor of a more direct connection to US 131. The US 131 and M-37 concurrencies were removed, however, when the section between Kent City and Cedar Springs was removed from the highway system. That gap was eliminated in late 1936 when M-46 was routed down US 131 to Howard City and along M-82 to Newaygo. From there, it followed M-37 south to Casnovia. A new road was opened in early 1937 between Vestaburg and Alma, which was designated as part of M-46 by the end of the year. The western terminus was extended farther west through Muskegon to the outlet of Muskegon Lake on Lake Michigan as well. The M-82 concurrency was removed in 1938, and a more direct routing between Six Lakes and Edmore opened at the same time.
By the end of the 1950s, the routing through Muskegon was altered. Instead of terminating in the park at the outlet of Muskegon Lake into Lake Michigan, M-46 was routed to follow US 16 to the car ferry docks. The last section of gravel highway was also paved in Newaygo County near the Montcalm County line. The routing of M-46 between Casnovia and Howard City was altered in 1973 when the US 131 freeway was opened north of Cedar Springs by then-Congressman Gerald R. Ford. M-46 was restored to the Kent City–Cedar Springs roadway it used in the 1930s and routed concurrently along US 131 again.
`In the process, M-46 replaced a section of M-57 that had been designated along 17 Mile Road in late 1948 or early 1949. The last change to M-46's routing was made in the early 1980s. The extension through Muskegon to the car ferry docks was reversed, truncating the highway to its current terminus at then-Bus. US 31 in 1984. The business loop was shifted away from this location in 2007, leaving M-46 to terminate at a junction with a city street instead of another state highway.`
## Major intersections
## See also | [
"## Route description",
"### Muskegon to Saginaw",
"### Saginaw to Port Sanilac",
"## History",
"## Major intersections",
"## See also"
] | 2,005 | 12,931 |
43,143,515 | SNCASO SO.8000 Narval | 1,126,749,644 | French carrier-based strike fighter designed by Sud-Ouest in the late 1940s | [
"1940s French fighter aircraft",
"Aircraft first flown in 1949",
"Aircraft with contra-rotating propellers",
"Low-wing aircraft",
"Single-engined pusher aircraft",
"Sud-Ouest aircraft",
"Twin-boom aircraft"
] | The SNCASO SO.8000 Narval (English: Narwhal) was a French carrier-based strike fighter designed by Sud-Ouest in the late 1940s. The French Navy (Marine nationale) ordered two prototypes in 1946 and they made their maiden flights three years later. They were plagued by aerodynamic problems and unreliability issues with their piston engines. The aircraft proved to be slow, lacking in lateral and longitudinal stability and unsuitable for carrier operations; it did not enter production.
## Design and development
The French Navy ordered two prototype SO.8000 strike fighters on 31 May 1946 to equip its aircraft carriers. If the prototypes were successful, it planned to order five pre-production models and sixty-five production aircraft. Designer Jean Dupuy developed a twin-boom pusher configuration design with a crescent wing and tricycle landing gear. The horizontal stabilizer was connected at the tops of the vertical stabilizers at the ends of the booms to avoid turbulence from the contra-rotating propeller. The pilot was provided with an ejection seat and the aircraft was intended to be fitted with six 20-millimeter (0.8 in) MG 151 autocannon in the nose and to be able to carry 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb) of ordnance under the wings. A radar system was planned to be fitted in the lower front portion of the booms while the fuel was stowed between the cockpit and the engine. Dupuy wanted to use a British Rolls-Royce Griffon engine, but it proved to be too difficult to obtain. He planned to substitute a Hispano-Suiza 12Z instead, but the engine was still too immature to be used and he had to settle for an Arsenal 12H (a copy of the Junkers Jumo 213) driving the contra-rotating propeller. Ducts on the sides of the fuselage provided air for the engine radiator while the engine's air was provided by a prominent scoop on the left side of the fuselage.
Only the first prototype was intended to be fitted with the nose guns, so the second prototype was completed first, beginning taxiing tests in December 1948. Test pilot Jacques Guignard attempted to make the first flight on 13 January 1949, but he was unable to take off despite achieving a speed of 200 kilometers per hour (124 mph). Despite some modifications made to alleviate the problem, the second prototype still failed to take off on 25 January. The design team resorted to cutting V-shapes into the booms to give it an angle of 2°15' which would allow the aircraft to be trimmed nose-upwards to facilitate a takeoff. Further high-speed taxiing trials were made in February with promising results, but the elevator had to be enlarged from an area of 1.75 to 2.6 m<sup>2</sup> (18.8 to 28.0 sq ft), extending it past the vertical stabilizers, before it could make its maiden flight on 1 April. After modifications to its spoiler, elevator and landing gear doors, the aircraft made its next flight on 21 April.
The Narval was exhibited in that year's Paris Air Show in May and resumed flight testing. On 24 May it reached a speed of 500 km/h (311 mph) at which time it began pitching oscillations and the controls became harder to move. The aircraft's airframe and engine were modified in August and the engine's crankshaft broke during a flight on 7 September. The Chauvière propeller proved to be a disappointment and plans were made to replace with a Rotol model although this was never implemented. During a speed run with the engine limited to 3,000 rpm on 3 November, the Narval only reached 560 km/h (348 mph) at 5,800 m (19,000 ft). A week later the aircraft was flown to the Air Force's flight-test center at Brétigny for the service evaluation. The report was damning, judging its performance and stability inadequate, which meant that it would not be a good gun platform. The test pilots noted that the Narval tended to go into a dive when engine power was reduced, something that would make carrier landings very difficult, and that it demonstrated poor flying characteristics whenever the flap were retracted or extended.
The first prototype finally made its first flight on 9 December, the test pilot, Roger Carpentier, complaining that he had to struggle to keep the wings level in flight. During a flight on the second prototype on 16 December, Carpentier confirmed most of the official observations, commenting that he found it impossible to perform an aileron roll at a speed of 460 km/h (290 mph). Another pilot discovered that the first prototype behaved differently from the second one when the flaps were retracted, it banked to the right instead of diving. Flight testing ended on 7 January after the first prototype had only flown twice and the second one forty-four times for a total of 25 hours and 50 minutes of flight time. The aircraft were scrapped after the Narval program was cancelled in April. Contributing factors to the decision was the American delivery of Grumman F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair carrier fighters and that other French fighter projects used turbojets for power, which rendered the Narval fundamentally obsolete, despite a proposal by SNCASO in October 1948 to replace the Arsenal 12H with the British Rolls-Royce Nene turbojet as the SO.8010.
## Specifications | [
"## Design and development",
"## Specifications"
] | 1,159 | 2,845 |
48,854,854 | Business routes of U.S. Route 23 in Michigan | 1,144,058,980 | Routes of a highway in Michigan | [
"U.S. Highways in Michigan",
"U.S. Route 23"
] | There have been five different business routes of US Highway 23 in the state of Michigan. These business routes were designated along former sections of US Highway 23 (US 23) to provide signed access from the main highway to the downtowns of cities bypassed by new routings of US 23. Two are still extant, connecting through downtown Ann Arbor and Rogers City. Three others have been decommissioned. The former Business US 23 (Bus. US 23) in Fenton was split in half during the 1970s and later completely turned back to local control in 2006. The former business loops through Saginaw and Bay City were renumbered as business loops of Interstate 75 in the 1960s.
## Ann Arbor
Business US Highway 23 (Bus. US 23) is a business loop of US 23 through downtown Ann Arbor. The southern end is at an interchange with US 23 on the city line with Pittsfield Township. This interchange also marks the western terminus of M-17, and the eastern end of a concurrency with Business Loop Interstate 94 (BL I-94). From this interchange westward, BL I-94/ Bus. US 23 follows Washtenaw Avenue along a five-lane street past commercial areas to County Farm Park and then continues as a four-lane roadway through residential neighborhoods. Washtenaw Avenue turns more northwesterly at the intersection with Stadium Boulevard southeast of Burns Park. Near the Central Campus of the University of Michigan, Washtenaw Avenue turns due north to cross part of campus before BL I-94/Bus. US 23 turns due west onto Huron Street near Palmer Field. Bus. US 23 follows BL I-94 and the four-lane Huron Street into downtown Ann Arbor to the intersection with Main Street. There, Bus. US 23 turns northward onto Main Street and exits downtown. Main Street has four lanes as it runs northward into a residential area. It parallels part of the Huron River before ending at an interchange with the M-14 freeway about a mile and a third (2.2 km) north of downtown. At that interchange, Bus. US 23 merges onto the freeway and runs concurrently with M-14, crossing the Huron River. There is one interchange for Barton Drive and Whitmore Lake Road on the northern bank of the river. The freeway runs through a wooded area and then after about one mile (1.6 km), it meets US 23 at an interchange in Ann Arbor Township that marks the northern terminus of the business loop.
In 1962, the northern and eastern freeway bypass of Ann Arbor was completed. At that time, the former routing of US 23 through downtown and a section of freeway north of the Huron River was redesignated as Bus. US 23. Two years later, M-14 was rerouted to follow the US 23 freeway around the north side of Ann Arbor. It overlapped the business loop from the northern end of its freeway segment to Main Street and along Main Street into downtown. The next year, in 1965, this overlap was shortened when the rest of the M-14 freeway westward from Main Street to I-94 was completed.
Major intersections
## Fenton
Business US Highway 23 (Bus. US 23) was a business route through downtown Fenton. At the time it was turned over to local control, it was signed as business spur from downtown to the US 23 freeway, but the state maintained a southern section that previously completed the route as a loop. At the southern end, this unsigned highway started at US 23 at the Owen Road interchange (exit 78) and continued eastward on Owen Road past Fenton High School and various businesses. At the intersection with Shiawassee Avenue, Bus. US 23 followed Shiawassee through a residential area toward the southern end of downtown. At the intersection with LeRoy Street, the unsigned business loop turned northward and across the Shiawassee River. At the intersection with River Street, state maintenance ended. On the northern end of downtown at the intersection of LeRoy Street and Silver Lake Road, it resumed. Bus. US 23 followed Silver Lake Road westward out of downtown through a residential area and northwesterly to an interchange with US 23 at exit 79.
The US 23 bypass of Fenton opened as a freeway west of downtown in 1958. The former route of US 23 along Shiawassee Avenue and LeRoy Street in Fenton was redesignated as a business loop at this time, and the state assumed control of Silver Lake Road to connect it back to the freeway northwest of town. Three years later, the US 23 freeway was extended southward from the Livingston–Genesee county line; at that time, the freeway connections were reconfigured and Bus. US 23 was shifted to use Owen Road between a new freeway interchange and the rest of the business loop at Shiawassee Avenue. In the middle of the 1970s, city officials redeveloped downtown and closed two blocks of LeRoy Street in 1975. After this closure, the business loop was split into two sections, and only the northern one was retained as a signed state highway. The southern segment was retained as an unsigned state highway until both segments were turned over to local control in 2006.
Major intersections
## Saginaw
Business US Highway 23 (Bus. US 23) was a business loop that ran through downtown Saginaw. It started at an intersection between US 10 and US 23 in Bridgeport southeast of Saginaw. From there, it ran concurrently along US 10 (Dixie Highway) northwesterly into Saginaw. Once in downtown, the business loop turned northward on Washington Street, running parallel to the eastern banks of the Saginaw River through downtown. At the intersection between Washington Avenue, Washington Road and Veterans Memorial Parkway, Bus. US 23 terminated.
In 1953, the initial eastern bypass of Saginaw was built as a two-lane highway, and the former routing through downtown was redesignated Bus. US 23. This bypass was upgraded in 1961 to a full freeway as part of I-75/US 23, and the business loop through downtown was redesignated Business Loop I-75.
Major intersections
## Bay City
Business US Highway 23 (Bus. US 23) was a business loop through downtown Bay City. It started at the intersection of where US 23 turned off Broadway Street westward onto Lafayette Avenue. From this point, Bus. US 23 ran east on Lafayette Avenue for two blocks and then turned northward onto Garfield Avenue, running parallel to, but inland from, the Saginaw River into downtown Bay City. As it approached downtown, the business loop jogged off Garfield onto Washington Avenue. At the intersection with 7th Street, Bus. US 23 turned westward to cross the Saginaw River. On the opposite side, the business loop followed Jenny Street westbound and Thomas Street eastbound along a one-way pairing of streets. At the intersection with US 23 (Euclid Avenue), the business loop terminated.
With the construction of a new bridge across the Saginaw River in 1941 to connect Lafayette and Salzburg avenues, US 23 was rerouted to use that new bridge. The former routing of the mainline highway through downtown was redesignated Bus. US 23 at that time. Twenty years later, with the opening of the new freeway for Interstate 75 (I-75) near Bay City, US 23 was rerouted to follow I-75. The route of Bus. US 23 was redesignated as a part of Business Loop I-75 at this time.
Major intersections
## Rogers City
Business US Highway 23 (Bus. US 23) is a business loop that runs through downtown Rogers City on two-lane streets. The highway starts at an intersection with US 23 in Belknap Township south of downtown and passes the location of Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company's quarry on Petersville Road, the largest such quarry in the world. Farther north, the business loop passes the eastern end of the Rogers City Airport and turns northwesterly, parallel to, but inland from, the Lake Huron shoreline. Now following 3rd Street, Bus. US 23 runs through a residential area on the southern side of town before entering downtown. At the intersection with Erie Street, Bus. US 23 meets the eastern terminus of M-68. Four blocks later, the business loop comes the closest to Lake Huron in another residential area before turning to the west. Anorther five blocks to the west of this curve, Bus. US 23 terminates at an intersection with US 23 on the western edge of the city. The business route carries the section of the Lake Huron Circle Tour (LHCT) through Rogers City.
In 1940, a new highway routing for US 23 opened between Rogers City and Cheboygan. At the time, the former routing of US 23 through downtown Rogers City was renumbered as a part of M-65, which was also extended northward along the segment of M-91 that was not subsumed into the new US 23 routing. Just two years later, M-65 was pared back to end at US 23 southeast of Rogers City, and the section of M-65 through downtown was renumbered as Bus. US 23.
Major intersections
## See also | [
"## Ann Arbor",
"## Fenton",
"## Saginaw",
"## Bay City",
"## Rogers City",
"## See also"
] | 1,981 | 11,810 |
7,993,810 | M-156 (Michigan highway) | 1,167,465,849 | State highway in Lenawee County, Michigan, United States | [
"State highways in Michigan",
"Transportation in Lenawee County, Michigan"
] | M-156 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan. The highway is entirely within Lenawee County and begins in Morenci at the Ohio state line with State Route 108 (SR 108) and runs north to M-34 at Clayton. The highway runs through farm land along Lime Creek outside of the two communities, providing access to the Lake Hudson State Recreation Area. The trunkline dates back to the early 1930s, and has been unchanged since a realignment in 1980.
## Route description
SR 108 crosses into Michigan on the southern edge of Morenci where it becomes M-156. From there the road continues northward on East Street through residential neighborhoods for about two-thirds mile (1.1 km) to Main Street near downtown where it turns west. The trunkline follows Main Street for three few blocks before turning north on North Street. The highway exits town near the Oak Grove Cemetery. M-156 follows Lime Creek Highway, which runs parallel to the stream of the same name, through farm land. Near the intersection with Morenci Highway, M-156 crosses a line of the Norfolk Southern Railway in the community of Seneca. North of the rail crossing, M-156 follows Morenci Highway northward and passes to the east of Lake Hudson and the Lake Hudson State Recreation Area before terminating at a junction with M-34 in Clayton.
Like other state highways in Michigan, M-156 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT). In 2011, the department's traffic surveys showed that on average, 4,235 vehicles used the highway daily along Main Street in Morenci and 1,412 vehicles did so each day near the state line, the highest and lowest counts along the highway, respectively. No section of M-156 is listed on the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility.
## History
M-156 was designated along its current routing in late 1931 or early 1932. It was fully paved by the middle of 1936. The highway was unchanged until a series of curves were changed north of Morenci. After the construction was finished, the former segments of highway were abandoned as a public roadway on April 3, 1980.
## Major intersections
## See also | [
"## Route description",
"## History",
"## Major intersections",
"## See also"
] | 480 | 5,341 |
18,970,513 | Alexander von Monts | 1,132,971,887 | German admiral (1832–1889) | [
"1818 births",
"1896 deaths",
"German Empire politicians",
"Members of the Prussian House of Lords",
"Military personnel from Berlin",
"Politicians from Berlin",
"Prussian naval officers",
"Vice admirals of the Imperial German Navy"
] | Alexander Graf von Monts de Mazin (born 9 August 1832 in Berlin; died 19 January 1889) was an officer in the Prussian Navy and later the German Imperial Navy. He saw action during the Second Schleswig War at the Battle of Jasmund on 17 March 1864 as the commander of the paddle steamer SMS Loreley. He served in a variety of roles through the 1860s and 1870s, including as the commander of the ironclad SMS Grosser Kurfürst, which sank after being rammed accidentally by the ironclad König Wilhelm on the former's maiden voyage in May 1875. Monts was ultimately cleared of wrongdoing in four courts-martial held by the chief of the German Imperial Admiralty, Albrecht von Stosch in an attempt to drive him from the navy. In 1883, Stosch was replaced by Leo von Caprivi, who appointed Monts the chief of the North Sea Naval Station. In 1888, he became the third chief of the Admiralty after Caprivi retired, though Monts remained in the position for just six months before he died.
## Early career
Monts was born on 9 August 1832 in Berlin, the son of Karl von Monts and his wife Karoline Luise Wilhelmine Antoinette von Byern. His father was a lieutenant general in the Prussian Army. Monts joined the Prussian Navy on 29 November 1849, being a number of "firsts" for the Prussian fleet. He was the first officer to have entered from a Gymnasium rather than from the merchant marine; he was the first Graf (Count) to enter the navy, and he was the first son of a general of the Prussian Army to opt for naval service. Monts began his basic training at the Marineschule (naval school) in Stettin on entering service, which lasted until 12 May 1850. The next day, he was assigned to the corvette SMS Amazone, where he served until 30 September. He then transferred to the training ship Mercur on 1 October. Monts left the ship on 2 November 1851, returning to the Marineschule for another period of instruction from 3 November 1851 to 10 May 1852. The following day he was assigned to the sailing frigate Gefion, and he remained aboard until 29 April 1854. He was promoted to what was then the rank of Leutnant zur See II Klasse (second lieutenant, second class) on 27 November 1856. Monts thereafter spent nearly two years aboard vessels of the British Royal Navy. Between 30 April 1854 and 19 January 1856, he served aboard the screw ship of the line HMS St George, the fourth-rate Indefatigable, the fifth-rate Active, and the iron gunvessel Sharpshooter.
After returning to Germany, he served several periods as watch officer aboard Mercur, Gefion, and the frigate Arcona, alternating between sea assignments and postings in Berlin at the sea cadet institute for various training courses. From 29 July to 22 October 1859, he served at the Königliche Werft (Royal Shipyard) in Danzig, after which he returned to Arcona for another assignment as watch officer and adjutant. Beginning on 16 January 1860, he also served as the flag lieutenant for the squadron. He remained aboard Arcona until 10 August 1862. Over the course of 1863, he served as the first officer and then commander aboard the yacht Grille and the commander of the gunboat Delphin. From 25 November 1863 to 14 January 1864, he served as the watch officer aboard the corvette Nymphe.
## Wars of German unification
On 12 March 1864, Monts was promoted to the rank of Leutnant zur See I Klasse, which on 20 May was renamed as Kapitänleutnant. During the Second Schleswig War in 1864 he commanded the armed paddle steamer Loreley. He took part in the Battle of Jasmund on 17 March under the command of Eduard von Jachmann. After the war, he was posted for three years to the German Imperial Naval High Command in Berlin. There, he served as an adjutant and as a member of the commission for torpedo construction. The short Austro-Prussian War of the summer of 1866 took place during this period; since Monts did not have a posting at sea, he saw no action. He served aboard Niobe from 1 August 1867 to 27 May 1868. In November 1867, the Prussian Navy became the North German Federal Navy. On 20 February 1868 Monts was promoted to Korvettenkapitän (lieutenant commander) as part of the section for naval and coastal artillery. Monts became the commander of the Torpedo Command at Wilhelmshaven on 16 July 1870, three days before the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War. The French Navy attempted to blockade Wilhelmshaven in the early months of the war, but the French ironclads lacked the coal capacity to remain on station long enough to maintain the blockade, and they did not attack the port directly; as a result, Monts saw no action during the war.
After the war, Monts became the commander of the I Torpedo Detachment, and concurrently served as the Inspector of Torpedo Systems. This role was created by the chief of the admiralty, Albrecht von Stosch, and was tasked with evaluating the effectiveness of the new Whitehead torpedoes; Stosch placed Monts in charge of the tests. He later commanded the artillery school ship Renown from 16 April 1873 to 31 August 1875, interrupted by a stint with the Artillery Testing Commission in late 1873 and early 1874. During this period, on 2 May 1874, he was promoted to the rank of Kapitän zur See. From 1 September 1875 to 17 November 1877, he commanded the frigate Vineta; during this period the ship went on an extended cruise around the world. While in East Asian waters, Monts was the senior-most officer of the German ship captains in the region, and thus he served as the overall commander.
## Grosser Kurfürst sinking
The following year, he captained the newly commissioned ironclad SMS Grosser Kurfürst during the ship's accidental ramming and sinking by the ironclad König Wilhelm on 31 May 1878. The two ships (along with the ironclad Preussen) had been steaming off the coast of Great Britain, under the command of Carl Ferdinand Batsch, when they encountered a pair of sailing vessels. König Wilhelm turned to port too slowly and accidentally rammed Grosser Kurfürst, tearing a large hole in her hull below the waterline. The ship's inexperienced crew had left the watertight doors open, which led her to sink quickly. Monts himself was pulled from the water, but half of the ship's crew were killed in the sinking.
In the aftermath of the sinking, rivalries between Stosch and his opponents led Stosch to pursue four courts-martial to drive Monts from the navy in an effort to save Batsch, his own protege. Stosch also sought to suppress criticism Monts had leveled against Stosch's administration during the initial investigation. Stosch, an army officer, was infuriated that the proceedings had been allowed to become a forum for criticism of his policies, for which he blamed Konteradmiral (Rear Admiral) Reinhold von Werner, the chairman of the investigation. He appealed to Kaiser Wilhelm I, stating that the inquiry had unfairly blamed Admiral Batsch, and requested a new court martial for the officers involved in the incident. Simultaneously, Stosch began a campaign to force Werner out of the navy. This was in part to ensure that Batsch, his protégé, would be next in line after Stosch retired. The second court martial again found Batsch guilty and Monts innocent of negligence.
A third investigation, held in January 1879, reversed the decision of the previous verdicts and sentenced Monts to a prison term of one month and two days, though the Kaiser refused to implement the punishment. This necessitated another trial, which returned to the initial verdict and sentenced Batsch to six months in prison. The Kaiser commuted Batsch's sentence after he had served two months' time. Disappointed that his protégé had taken the blame for the sinking, Stosch requested another court martial for Monts, who was found not guilty. The Kaiser officially approved the verdict, which put an end to the series of trials over the sinking of Grosser Kurfürst. The situation became complicated for Stosch when Batsch agreed with Mont's critiques on the lack of emphasis Stosch had made on training. Wilhelm I refused to allow Stosch to fire Monts, in part owing to the fact that he had been acquitted by the courts-martial.
## Later career and Admiralty chief
On 12 April 1881 Monts was promoted to Konteradmiral. He became the chief of North Sea Naval Station on 23 July 1883. This appointment came after Leo von Caprivi replaced Stosch, which in turn led to Batsch retiring in protest for not having been named Stosch's replacement. Monts remained the chief of the North Sea Naval Station for five years. In January 1884, Caprivi, another army officer, formed an Admiralty Council that included Monts to advise him. Among the topics discussed was the direction the navy should adopt in terms of future construction; Monts and the other admirals advocated a continuation of the ironclad program begun under Stosch, but Caprivi preferred—and enacted—a program centered on coastal defense ships and torpedo boats. From 22 April to 15 September that year, Monts also held the role of commander of the training squadron. This included commanding the annual fleet training exercises from his flagship, the ironclad Baden. During the exercises, Caprivi instructed Monts to abandon the useless parade exercises of the Stosch era in favor of more practical training like night torpedo attacks. On 12 September, he was promoted to the rank of Vizeadmiral (Vice Admiral).
In late 1887, he again commanded the annual fleet maneuvers. In 1888, Kaiser William II appointed him head of the admiralty. Monts was the first naval officer to command the navy, and he was the last chief of the admiralty. In his new role, he did not correct the strategic confusion that marked the Caprivi era, where the German fleet acquired a mix of obsolescent ironclads, fully rigged corvettes, and ineffectual armored gunboats. Monts continued construction of the small Siegfried and Odin classes, but also included four large, ocean-going pre-dreadnought battleships of the Brandenburg class. The construction program also included a host of smaller vessels.
He died on 19 January 1889 in Berlin, after only six months in office. He did not live to see the passage of his construction program, and with his death, Wilhelm II abolished the Chief of the Admiralty position, dividing its responsibilities among three new offices. Monts was replaced by Baron Max von der Goltz in the Imperial Naval High Command and Karl Eduard Heusner became the State Secretary of the Reichsmarineamt (Imperial Naval Office). Monts was survived by his wife, Klara, who later died on 18 May 1902. | [
"## Early career",
"## Wars of German unification",
"## Grosser Kurfürst sinking",
"## Later career and Admiralty chief"
] | 2,494 | 15,807 |
63,584,346 | French cruiser Linois (1894) | 1,154,452,877 | Protected cruiser of the French Navy | [
"1894 ships",
"Linois-class cruisers",
"Ships built in France"
] | Linois was the lead ship of her class of protected cruisers built for the French Navy in the 1890s. The class was ordered as part of a construction program directed at strengthening the fleet's cruiser force. At the time, France was concerned with the growing naval threat of the Italian and German fleets, and the new cruisers were intended to serve with the main fleet, and overseas in the French colonial empire. Linois was armed with a main battery of four 138.6 mm (5.5 in) guns, was protected by an armored deck 40 mm (1.6 in) thick, and had a top speed of 20.5 knots (38.0 km/h; 23.6 mph).
Linois was completed in 1895 and joined the Mediterranean Squadron the next year, serving as part of the cruiser force of the main French battle fleet. She took part in training exercises during this period, which sometimes included joint maneuvers with the Northern Squadron. The ship was involved in a show of force meant to intimidate the Ottoman Empire in 1902 during a period of tension with France. Linois remained in service with the squadron until 1905, and was struck from the naval register in 1910 and broken up for scrap.
## Design
In response to a war scare with Italy in the late 1880s, the French Navy embarked on a major construction program in 1890 to counter the threat of the fleets of Italy and its ally Germany. The plan called for a total of seventy cruisers for use in home waters and overseas in the French colonial empire. The Linois class was ordered as part of the program, and the design was based on the earlier Forbin class.
Linois was 98 m (321 ft 6 in) long overall, with a beam of 10.62 m (34 ft 10 in) and a draft of 5.44 m (17 ft 10 in). She displaced 2,285 to 2,318 long tons (2,322 to 2,355 t). Her crew varied over the course of her career, amounting to 250–269 officers and enlisted men. The ship's propulsion system consisted of a pair of triple-expansion steam engines driving two screw propellers. Steam was provided by six coal-burning fire-tube boilers that were ducted into two funnels. Her machinery was rated to produce 6,800 indicated horsepower (5,100 kW) for a top speed of 20.5 knots (38.0 km/h; 23.6 mph). She had a cruising radius of 3,000 nautical miles (5,600 km; 3,500 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) and 600 nmi (1,100 km; 690 mi) at 20.5 knots.
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 138.6 mm (5.5 in) 45-caliber guns in individual pivot mounts, all in sponsons located amidships with two guns per broadside. These were supported by a secondary battery that consisted of a pair of 100 mm (3.9 in) guns, one at the bow and the other at the stern. For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried eight 47 mm (1.9 in) 3-pounder Hotchkiss guns, two 37 mm (1.5 in) guns, and four 37 mm Hotchkiss revolver cannon. She was also armed with four 450 mm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes in her hull above the waterline, and she could carry up to 120 naval mines. Armor protection consisted of a curved armor deck 40 mm (1.6 in) thick, and 138 mm (5 in) plating on the conning tower.
## Service history
Linois was built at the Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne-sur-Mer. She was laid down in August 1892, the first member of her class to begin construction. She was launched on 30 January 1894, and completed in 1895. The ship conducted her sea trials later that year, including tests in July and August. Linois was assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron in 1896, serving in the cruiser force for the main French fleet, along with three armored cruisers, three protected cruisers, and four torpedo cruisers. The maneuvers for that year took place from 6 to 30 July. She remained with the unit through 1897. By 1899, the unit had been strengthened with new ships, allowing older, less effective vessels to be sent elsewhere. By that time, the unit consisted of six pre-dreadnought battleships, three armored cruisers, seven other protected cruisers, and several smaller vessels in addition to Linois. The unit remained largely unchanged in 1900, apart from the reduction in the number of protected cruisers to five, including Linois.
She operated with the Mediterranean Squadron in 1901. That year, the annual fleet maneuvers were conducted from 3 to 28 July. During the exercises, the Northern Squadron steamed south for joint maneuvers with the Mediterranean Squadron. The Northern Squadron ships formed part of the hostile force, and as it was entering the Mediterranean from the Atlantic, represented a German squadron attempting to meet its Italian allies. On 30 October, Linois joined elements of the Mediterranean Squadron to conduct what were purported to be tests with wireless telegraphy, but was in fact a show of force in the Aegean Sea to intimidate the Ottoman Empire. Relations between the two were poor at the time. On 6 November, two of the battleships and several cruisers, including Linois, were detached to sail east for the operation. The cruisers proceeded independently from the battleships and met them at Mytilene on the island of Lesbos. The ships then re-formed and arrived back in Toulon on 9 December.
The ship continued to serve in the squadron through 1902. During the 1902 fleet maneuvers, which began on 7 July, the Northern Squadron attempted to force a passage through the Strait of Gibraltar. The cruisers of the Mediterranean Squadron, including Linois, conducted patrols from their base at Mers El Kébir to observe their entrance and signal the rest of the fleet. After successfully detecting the simulated enemy squadron, they shadowed the vessels until the rest of the Mediterranean Squadron assembled, but the Northern Squadron commander was able to shake his pursuers long enough to prevent them from intercepting his force before the end of the exercises on 15 July. Further maneuvers with the combined fleet took place, concluding on 5 August. The ship remained in service with the squadron through 1905. In March 1905, in late March, she and the cruiser Du Chayla were present in Tangier during a visit by the German armored cruiser Friedrich Carl and the passenger steamer SS Hamburg, carrying German Kaiser Wilhelm II. The visit precipitated the First Moroccan Crisis between France and Germany. She was struck from the naval register in 1910 and sold to ship breakers for disposal. | [
"## Design",
"## Service history"
] | 1,486 | 24,316 |
51,410,400 | The Gambia at the 2016 Summer Paralympics | 1,146,950,297 | null | [
"2016 in Gambian sport",
"Nations at the 2016 Summer Paralympics",
"The Gambia at the Paralympics"
] | The Gambia sent a delegation to compete at the 2016 Summer Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 7–18 September 2016. This was the nation's second appearance at a Paralympics, following their first participation in the 2012 London Paralympics. The Gambia sent one athlete, Demba Jarju, who failed to advance from his heat in the men's 100 meters T54 event.
## Background
The Gambia had made its debut in Paralympic competition at the 2012 Summer Paralympics., but have never won a Paralympic medal. The Gambia has participated in every Summer Olympic Games since the 1984 Los Angeles Games. The 2016 Summer Paralympics were held from 7–18 September 2016 with a total of 4,328 athletes representing 159 National Paralympic Committees taking part. The only athlete sent by the Gambia to Rio was Demba Jarju. He was chosen as the flag bearer for the opening ceremony.
## Disability classifications
Every participant at the Paralympics has their disability grouped into one of five disability categories: amputation, which may be congenital or sustained through injury or illness; cerebral palsy; wheelchair athletes, though there is often overlap between this and other categories; visual impairment, including blindness; and Les autres, which is any physical disability that does not fall strictly under one of the other categories, like dwarfism or multiple sclerosis. Each Paralympic sport then has its own classifications, dependent upon the specific physical demands of competition. Events are given a code, made of numbers and letters, describing the type of event and classification of the athletes competing. Some sports, such as athletics, divide athletes by both the category and severity of their disabilities. Other sports, for example swimming, group competitors from different categories together, the only separation being based on the severity of the disability.
## Athletics
Demba Jarju was 27 years old at the time of the Rio Paralympics. He made his second Paralympic, having first represented The Gambia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics. He lost the use of both legs from contracting polio at the age of ten, and races in a wheelchair. He qualified for these Paralympics at an event in Morocco. On 16 September, he competed in the heats of the men's 100 meters T54. Drawn into the first heat, he completed the race with a time of 18.82 seconds, which put him seventh and last in his heat, and therefore unable to advance to the final eight. The gold medal was ultimately won by Leo-Pekka Tähti of Finland, the silver by China's Liu Yang, and the bronze medal was taken by Kenny van Weeghel of the Netherlands.
## See also
- The Gambia at the 2016 Summer Olympics | [
"## Background",
"## Disability classifications",
"## Athletics",
"## See also"
] | 603 | 7,077 |
32,980,105 | Winton W. Marshall | 1,133,242,343 | United States Air Force general | [
"1919 births",
"2015 deaths",
"American Korean War flying aces",
"American Vietnam War pilots",
"Aviators from Michigan",
"Burials at Arlington National Cemetery",
"Military personnel from Detroit",
"Order of National Security Merit members",
"Recipients of the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal",
"Recipients of the Air Medal",
"Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)",
"Recipients of the Legion of Merit",
"Recipients of the National Order of Vietnam",
"Recipients of the Order of Military Merit (Korea)",
"Recipients of the Silver Star",
"United States Air Force generals",
"United States Air Force personnel of the Vietnam War",
"United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II"
] | Lieutenant General Winton Whittier Marshall (July 9, 1919 – September 19, 2015) was a United States Air Force general and flying ace. He was deputy commander in chief, U.S. Readiness Command, with headquarters at MacDill Air Force Base in Florida before retiring in 1977.
## Early life
Winton Whittier Marshall was born on July 6, 1919, in Detroit, Michigan.
## Military career
Marshall began his military career as an aviation cadet in 1942. He completed flight training at Yuma Army Air Base in Arizona, and received his pilot's wings and commission as a second lieutenant in April 1943. Assigned to Las Vegas Army Air Field in Nevada, he began as a pilot with the 326th Fighter Gunnery Training Group before becoming chief of the Bell P-39 Airacobra Training Section there. In February 1945 he went to the Panama Canal Zone as a pilot with the 28th Fighter Squadron and as operations officer of the 32nd Fighter Squadron, later redesignated the 23rd Fighter Squadron, 36th Fighter Group.
In July 1947, he was transferred to Dow Field, Maine, as operations officer of the 48th Fighter Squadron, 14th Fighter Group, the first squadron to be assigned the F-84 Thunderjet, and participated in service testing the F-84 at Edwards Air Force Base in California.
Marshall entered the Air Tactical School at Tyndall Air Force Base in Florida, in August 1948 and four months later became operations officer of the 84th Fighter Squadron at Hamilton Air Force Base in California.
### Korean War
In May 1951, Marshall was appointed as commander of the 335th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, during the Korean War. Stationed at Kimpo Air Base in South Korea, he flew missions in the F-86 Sabre. Marshall shot down his first and second MiG-15s on September 1 and 2, 1951, respectively, over Sinanju.
Marshall shot down two more MiG-15s, including a shared destruction, on November 28. One of these fighters was flown by German Shatalov, a Soviet flying ace with five aerial victories against U.S. aircraft. On November 30, 1951, the 335th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron and other squadrons within the 4th Fighter-Interceptor Wing intercepted a People's Liberation Army Air Force aerial formation consisting of nine Tupolev Tu-2 bombers and 16 Lavochkin La-11s, that was attempting an aerial raid on the Cho'do Island. Marshall shot down one Tu-2 and one La-11, crediting with his fourth and fifth aerial victories and thus earning the title of flying ace. As he was attempting to shoot another La-11, which was flown by Chinese pilot Wang Tianbao, Marshall overshot as the La-11 turned hard left, resulting in the La-11 making a long deflection shot which struck the left wing of Marshall's F-86. Wang saw the F-86 going down in a spin and claimed an F-86 kill, after he returned back to his base in Northeast China. However, Marshall managed to regain consciousness and recovered his F-86 from the spin. He flew his crippled aircraft to Suwon Air Base, where it was repaired and Marshall was treated for his wounds. For his heroism during the aerial combat on November 30, he was awarded the Silver Star.
After his recovery, Marshall continued flying combat missions. He shot down his fourth MiG-15 and sixth overall aerial victory on December 5, 1951. Marshall became the fifth jet ace of the Korean War, credited with 6 1/2 enemy aircraft destroyed, seven probable, and six damaged, while flying 100 missions. In January 1952, he returned to the United States to command the 93rd Fighter-Interceptor Squadron at Kirtland Air Force Base in New Mexico.
### Post war
Marshall was assigned as commander of the 15th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Arizona, in July 1953. There, Marshall was credited with saving a Strategic Air Command B-47 bomber which was on fire at the end of a runway. Seeing no crash or fire-fighting equipment coming, and noting that the crew had escaped, he taxied his F-86 to the burning aircraft and blew out the fire with his jet exhaust. For this action, Marshall was named to the Strategic Air Command's Heads-Up Club. He flew in the 1953 Bendix transcontinental air race, and captained the Central Air Defense Force Team in the 1953 and 1954 Air Defense Command Weapons Meet.
In July 1954, Marshall became chief of the Central Air Defense Force Tactical Evaluation Board at Richards-Gebaur Air Force Base in Missouri, where he established the first tactical evaluation system in the Air Defense Command; developed the first wind-driven tow reel target system; and headed a team of military and civilian technicians that extended radar search capability (later known as the Marshall fix) of fighter-interceptor aircraft from 30 to 200 miles (50 to 300 km). In 1957, he was chief of the Central Air Defense Force Bendix Trophy Race Team flying the F-102 Delta Dagger, with his team taking first and second place.
Marshall entered the Air War College at Maxwell Air Force Base in Alabama, in 1958, and on graduation was assigned to the 49th Tactical Fighter Wing in France as deputy commander for operations. The wing was transferred to Spangdahlem, West Germany, where he was instrumental in getting the first strobe light landing system on an operational military base in Europe. Marshall assumed command of NATO's Allied Defense Sector in the 86th Air Division at Ramstein Air Base in West Germany, in January 1961. There he was credited with the development of an open-loop combat air defense communications network providing an immediate reaction system to cope with the East German and Czechoslovakian MiG threat. He also played a key role in the programming and installation of the 412-L Semi-automatic Air Defense System linking the 86th Air Division and the U.S. Army surface-to-air missile system. He went to Headquarters U.S. Air Force at the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., in June 1964, to serve in the Directorate of Operations successively as deputy chief and chief of the Air Defense Division, and as deputy director for forces. From June 1966 to July 1967, he served in the Joint Chiefs of Staff as deputy director of operations, J-3 in the National Military Command Center, and chief of the European Division, Directorate of Plans, J-5.
In May 1968, Marshall was assigned as chief of staff, Allied Air Forces Southern Europe in Naples, Italy, and in September 1969 became director of plans, J-5, U.S. European Command, at Vaihingen, West Germany. During the Vietnam War, he was appointed as vice commander of the Seventh Air Force at Tan Son Nhut Air Base in South Vietnam, in September 1971. During this time, he flew 88 combat missions in various fighter and attack aircraft. The following September, he moved to Headquarters Pacific Air Forces at Hickam Air Force Base in Hawaii, as deputy chief of staff, plans and operations.
Marshall was promoted to the grade of lieutenant general effective September 1, 1974, with date of rank August 27, 1974. He was appointed vice commander in chief of the Pacific Air Forces, in September 1974. His final assignment was as Deputy Commander in Chief of U.S. Readiness Command at MacDill Air Force Base in Florida, from June 1975 until his retirement on September 1, 1977.
## Later life
Marshall died at Tripler Army Medical Center in Hawaii, on September 19, 2015. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery.
## Awards and decorations
His military decorations and awards include the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal with oak leaf cluster; Silver Star; Legion of Merit with three oak leaf clusters; Distinguished Flying Cross with two oak leaf clusters; Bronze Star Medal; Air Medal with five oak leaf clusters; Purple Heart; from the Republic of Korea: the Order of Military Merit, Chungmu Medal with gold star and the Order of National Security Merit; and from the Republic of Vietnam: the National Order of Vietnam, 5th Class, and the Gallantry Cross with palm.
### Silver Star citation
Marshall, Winton W.
Colonel, U.S. Air Force
335th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 4th Fighter-Interceptor Wing, Fifth Air Force
Date of Action: November 30, 1951
Citation:
> The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Silver Star to Colonel Winton Whittier Marshall, United States Air Force, for gallantry in action in aerial combat over North Korea on 30 November 1951. While leading a squadron of twelve F-86 aircraft in the 335th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 4th Fighter-Interceptor Wing, Fifth Air Force, on a combat air patrol, he sighted nine TU-2 enemy bombers headed southward in the area of Namsi-Dong, North Korea, escorted by large numbers of fighter aircraft. Although realizing that the friendly forces were greatly outnumbered and were faced with intense and accurate cannon fire, Colonel Marshall displayed outstanding courage and tactical skill in leading his squadron in an immediate and aggressive attack on the enemy bombers. He coolly and skillfully deployed his forces to obtain the maximum tactical advantage and then led them in on the initial attack, during which he personally destroyed one TU-2 bomber. Expertly regrouping his force, he launched successive and continuing attacks affording the enemy no opportunity to reorganize. On the third pass, his F-86 sustained major damage from two direct hits by enemy cannon fire. One hit was in the leading edge of the left wing, the projectile exploding in the area of the fuel cell. The second projectile exploded against the head rest, destroying the canopy completely and badly damaging his parachute. He received numerous lacerations about the face, head, neck and back. Partially stunned from the force of the second explosion he recovered control of his aircraft but found himself separated from his flight. Although bleeding profusely and suffering from severe shock and exposure to sub-freezing temperatures and despite the sluggish reactions of his damaged aircraft, he rejoined his comrades in battle, against overwhelming odds. Totally disregarding his own safety, Colonel Marshall continued to carry the offensive, and largely through his own inspiring leadership and heroic personal example, the enemy formation was completely disrupted. When he has expended his ammunition and was low on fuel, he was forced to break off the attack and return to home base. Despite his wounds and the adverse flight conditions imposed by loss of his canopy, complicated further by the fact that he was without radio communication or radio compass as a result of battle damage, he managed to land his F-86 safely. At the time of this deed, Colonel Marshall had flown a total of 64 missions in the Korean campaign. The gallantry and selfless devotion to duty displayed by Colonel Marshall in this action of high personal courage reflected great credit upon himself, the Far East Air Forces, and the United States Air Force. | [
"## Early life",
"## Military career",
"### Korean War",
"### Post war",
"## Later life",
"## Awards and decorations",
"### Silver Star citation"
] | 2,375 | 7,353 |
1,553,994 | Manic Monday | 1,173,191,164 | 1986 single by the Bangles | [
"1986 singles",
"1986 songs",
"Columbia Records singles",
"Drifters (Swedish band) songs",
"Number-one singles in South Africa",
"Song recordings produced by David Kahne",
"Songs written by Prince (musician)",
"The Bangles songs"
] | "Manic Monday" is a song written by American musician Prince, but is better known from the version recorded by the American pop rock band the Bangles, which was the first single released from their second studio album, Different Light (1986). Prince used the pseudonym "Christopher" for the song's writing credits and originally it was intended for the group Apollonia 6 in 1984. Lyrically, it describes a woman who is waking up to go to work on Monday, wishing it was still Sunday so that she could continue relaxing.
The single, released by Columbia Records on Monday, January 27, 1986, received generally positive reviews from music critics, with comparisons being made to the Mamas & the Papas' "Monday, Monday". It became the Bangles' first hit, reaching No. 2 in the United States, the United Kingdom, Austria, Canada, Germany, and Ireland, and peaked within the Top 5 in Australia, New Zealand, Norway, and Switzerland. It was later certified silver in the UK by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI).
## Background and composition
Prince wrote "Manic Monday" in 1984, and recorded it as a duet for the band Apollonia 6's self-titled album; however, he eventually pulled the song. Two years later, he offered the single to the Bangles under the pseudonym "Christopher", a character he played in the 1986 film Under the Cherry Moon. It was rumored by various writers that after Prince listened to the band's 1984 debut album All Over the Place, he gave the song to Bangles rhythm guitarist Susanna Hoffs, in hopes of winning her affection. An original demo with Apollonia and Prince appeared in the 2001 bootleg, "The Work - Volume 1." It would be another 18 years before an official version was posthumously released with Prince as the primary vocalist. That recording appears on the 2019 demo compilation, Originals.
In an interview with MTV UK in 1989 Debbi Peterson explained why Prince gave them the song: "[Prince] really liked our first album. He liked the song 'Hero Takes a Fall', which is a great compliment, because we liked his music. He contacted us, and said, 'I've got a couple of songs for you. I'd like to know if you're interested,' and of course we were. One of the songs Prince brought to the group was 'Manic Monday', written under the pseudonym of Christopher." Peterson talked about the evolution of what Prince brought them: "It was a Banglefication of a Prince arrangement. He had a demo, that was very specifically him. It was a good song, but we didn't record it like 'This is our first hit single! Oh my God! I can feel it in my veins!' We just did the song, and the album, and then sat back and thought about it."
A pop song written in D major, "Manic Monday" moves at a tempo of 116 beats per minute and is set in common time. The song has a sequence of D–A<sub>7</sub>–G–D–A<sub>7</sub>–G as its chord progression. Lyrically, the song is about someone waking up from a romantic dream at six o'clock on Monday morning, and facing a hectic journey to work when she would prefer to still be enjoying relaxing on Sunday—her "I-don't-have-to-run day". Actor Rudolph Valentino is referred to in the first verse.
## Reception
### Critical response
Some critics compared the song with the single "Monday, Monday" by the band the Mamas & the Papas. In a retrospective review for AllMusic, Mark Deming said that the single "was a far cry from anything the Bangles had recorded before"; while Matthew Greenwald, also from the website, said
> It's a clever and deceptively simple pop narrative, an infectious pop confection ... There is also an excellently written bridge that shows Prince/Christopher to be an excellent craftsman, and, to their credit, the Bangles carry it off with style and wit.
Robert Hilburn from Los Angeles Times called the song "a candidate for best single of the year". The Guardian music critic Dorian Lynskey commented about the painful rhyming of "Sunday" with "I-don't-have-to-run day."
Mark Moses from The Phoenix said "the lack of lyrical substance is so glaring that Prince's lame 'Manic Monday' seems like a thematic highlight". Greg Baker of The Miami News wrote in the album's review that "the song should put the Bangles on the 'pop 'n' roll' map". A writer in Toledo Blade noted that "Manic Monday" was "infectious" and, along with "If She Knew What She Wants", both were "refreshingly melodic". Chris Willman from the Los Angeles Times commented: "The first single 'Manic Monday' represents slumming songwriter Prince's attempt mostly successful save for the inevitable getting down interlude to concoct a modern day Mamas and the Papas hit."
### Chart performance
"Manic Monday" debuted at number 86 on the Billboard Hot 100, on the week ending January 25, 1986, and reached a peak of number two, on the issue dated April 19, 1986, behind Prince and the Revolution's single "Kiss". In the United Kingdom, "Manic Monday" debuted at number 85 on February 8, 1986, and entered the top 40, at number 24, on February 22, 1986. The song eventually reached its peak position, at number two, the next month. In Germany, the single debuted at number 29 on March 17, 1986, reaching the top 10 in the next three weeks, and its peak, also at number two, on April 14, 1986, where it stayed two weeks. It remained in the top 10 for four more weeks, leaving the charts on July 20, 1986.
In Switzerland, "Manic Monday" debuted at number 12 on March 30, 1986, becoming the highest debut of the week. It reached its peak two weeks later at number four, where it remained another week. In the Netherlands, the single debuted at number 43 on February 22, 1986; and managed to reach number 24. It stayed on the chart for seven weeks. In Norway, "Manic Monday" debuted at number nine in the 10th week of 1986, becoming the second-highest debut of the week. It also reached the number four two weeks later, where it stayed another two. The song also peaked within the top five in the Austrian, the Irish, and the New Zealand charts.
## Track listing and formats
7" single
1. A. "Manic Monday" – 3:03
2. B. "In a Different Light" – 2:50
12" maxi (1985)
1. A. "Manic Monday" – 3:03
2. A. "In a Different Light" – 2:50
3. B. "Going Down to Liverpool" – 3:19
4. B. "Dover Beach" – 3:42
12" maxi (1986)
1. A. "Manic Monday" – 3:03
2. B. "Manic Monday" (Extended version) – 4:38
3. B. "In a Different Light" – 2:50
Digital single
1. "Manic Monday" – 3:06
Starbox
1. "Manic Monday" (Extended "California" Version) – 4:59
## Credits and personnel
The Bangles version
- Susanna Hoffs – lead vocals, acoustic guitar
- Prince as "Christopher" – writer, composer
- Vicki Peterson – electric guitar, backing vocals
- Michael Steele – bass, backing vocals
- David Kahne – keyboards, producer
- Debbi Peterson – drums
Prince version
Credits sourced from Duane Tudahl, Benoît Clerc and Guitarcloud
- Prince – lead and backing vocals, piano, Yamaha DX7, Oberheim OB-X, acoustic guitar, bass guitar, drums
- Brenda Bennett – backing vocals
- Jill Jones – backing vocals
## Cover versions
In 2020, Billie Joe Armstrong, vocalist of Green Day, covered the song for his No Fun Mondays series. Susanna Hoffs plays the guitar and provides backing vocals that, according to Andrew Trendell of NME, "match Armstrong's silky sentimental side". Ryan Reed wrote for Rolling Stone that the version replaces the "twinkling synths and clean strums with palm-muted crunch".
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications | [
"## Background and composition",
"## Reception",
"### Critical response",
"### Chart performance",
"## Track listing and formats",
"## Credits and personnel",
"## Cover versions",
"## Charts",
"### Weekly charts",
"### Year-end charts",
"## Certifications"
] | 1,869 | 32,819 |
41,810,887 | Thomas Pilcher | 1,131,941,608 | British Army officer | [
"1858 births",
"1928 deaths",
"Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment officers",
"British Army generals of World War I",
"British Army major generals",
"British Army personnel of the Second Boer War",
"British political candidates",
"Cheshire Regiment officers",
"Companions of the Order of the Bath",
"Deaths from pneumonia in the United Kingdom",
"English fascists",
"English male writers",
"Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley",
"Military personnel from Rome",
"People educated at Harrow School",
"Royal Northumberland Fusiliers officers",
"Royal West African Frontier Force officers"
] | Major-General Thomas David Pilcher, CB (8 July 1858 – 14 December 1928) was a British Army officer, who commanded a mounted infantry unit in the Second Boer War and the 17th (Northern) Division during the First World War, before being removed from command in disgrace during the Battle of the Somme.
Pilcher spent his early career as an infantry officer, first seeing active service on colonial campaigns in Nigeria in the late 1890s followed by field command in the Second Boer War (1899–1902), on which he published a book of lessons learned in 1903. Following the war, he held a number of senior commands in India. However, further promotion was checked by his having come into conflict with his commander-in-chief, who regarded him as unsuited for senior command in part because of his writings; Pilcher was a keen student of the German army and its operational methods, and an active theorist who published a number of controversial books advocating the adoption of new military techniques as well as an anonymous invasion novel.
On the outbreak of the First World War he was on leave in England, and eventually obtained the command of 17th (Northern) Division, a New Army volunteer unit. The division supported the initial attacks at the Battle of the Somme in July 1916, where Pilcher again clashed with his superiors over his refusal to push on an attack without pausing for preparations, believing it would result in failure and heavy casualties. After ten days of fighting, Pilcher was sacked and sent to command a reserve centre in England. From here, he wrote a series of books before retiring in 1919. He ran as a parliamentary candidate for the splinter right-wing National Party in the 1918 general election, and continued a loose involvement with right-wing politics which extended to membership in the early British Fascisti.
Pilcher had married Kathleen Gonne, daughter of a cavalry officer, in 1889; the marriage was strained, partly through Pilcher's gambling habits and adultery, and partly through his dislike for Maud Gonne, Kathleen's sister and a prominent Irish nationalist. The couple divorced in 1911, having had four children; one would later become a High Court judge, while another died on the Western Front in 1915. Pilcher remarried in 1913, and remained married to his second wife Millicent until his death in 1928.
## Early career
Pilcher was born in Rome in 1858, the son of Thomas Webb Pilcher, of Harrow, and his wife, Sophia (née Robinson). He was the eldest of five children (four surviving infancy); his younger brother, Percy, would go on to become a pioneering aeronautical engineer, assisted by their sister Ella who undertook the fabric work on the aircraft's wings. Pilcher was educated at Harrow School, but after his father died in October 1874, he left the school the following year (aged 17). Following his father's death, in an attempt to save money on living expenses, his mother took the family to live in Celle, where she herself died in 1877. Thomas brought his three younger siblings home, and entered the Army, commissioned in the Dublin City Artillery Militia in August 1878. Commissions in the Militia were often used as a stepping-stone to a regular commission, and Pilcher rapidly transferred out, first to the 22nd Regiment of Foot, then almost immediately to the 5th Fusiliers (later the Northumberland Fusiliers).
After a period of regimental service, Pilcher attended the Staff College, Camberley, passing the course in 1892, and from 1895 to 1897 was appointed as the deputy assistant adjutant-general for Dublin District. From here, he took a posting in colonial West Africa in the late 1890s, where he was involved in raising a battalion of the West African Frontier Force and commanded an expedition to Lapai and Argeyah.
In 1899 Pilcher transferred regiments for the third time, to the Bedfordshire Regiment, where he took command of the 2nd Battalion. It served in the Second Boer War from 1899 to 1902, during which time Pilcher was also given command of a column of mounted infantry, including a large contingent of Australians. He was promoted to lieutenant-colonel on 20 October 1900, and to colonel on 29 November 1900, and in 1901 he was made an aide-de-camp to King Edward VII. During early 1902 he was stationed in the Orange River Colony, operating from Boshof, and later assisted in convoying supplies to garrisons west of Kimberley in Cape Colony. Following the end of the war, he returned to the United Kingdom in early June 1902. For his services during the war, he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) on 29 November 1900, but was not invested until he was back in England, by King Edward VII at Buckingham Palace on 8 August 1902. He commanded regular brigades at Aldershot from 1902 to 1907. From here, he was posted to India, where he held a variety of commands, culminating in that of the Burma Division, the senior military officer in the colony, from 1912 to 1914. From 1914 to 1928 he was Colonel of the Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment. At the time of the outbreak of war, though still holding the Burmese posting, he was on leave in England.
## Personal life and writing
In 1889, Pilcher married Kathleen Mary Gonne, daughter of Colonel Thomas Gonne of the 17th Lancers; her sister, Maude Gonne, later became a prominent Irish nationalist and mother of the politician and Nobel laureate Seán MacBride, as well as a close associate and muse of W. B. Yeats. Pilcher disapproved of his sister-in-law, particularly after her marriage to John MacBride, and relations were frequently strained; however, the two sisters remained close. The couple would have a daughter, Thora, and three sons – Toby, Tommy, and Pat. The elder son, Sir Gonne Pilcher ("Toby", to his family), became a High Court judge, while Tommy would be killed at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in 1915, aged 21.
Pilcher's marriage was not a happy one; a gambler and womaniser, he expected his independently wealthy wife to bail out his debts and turn a blind eye to his mistresses. The two gradually drifted into separate lives, and after finally confronted with an affair becoming public, Kathleen sued for divorce. The precipitating event was Pilcher having been named as co-respondent in a divorce suit; it was alleged that he had committed adultery with Millicent Knight-Bruce, the wife of Major James Knight-Bruce. The case dragged on through 1910, delayed by Pilcher's inability to return from India to attend the court. Pilcher did not contest his wife's suit, and his own divorce was granted in 1911; he married Millicent, now divorced, in 1913.
Pilcher was a particularly active observer of the German army, studying their military methods and attending German army manoeuvres. He would later publish a translation of Clausewitz. His writing was sometimes controversial, beginning with the 1896 Artillery from an Infantry Officer's Point of View, in which he argued strongly in favour of adopting indirect fire techniques from concealed locations. Conventional doctrine held that artillery should be used to fire directly on its targets, as much from principle as from practical effect, with one prominent artillerist arguing that "firing from cover ... will destroy the whole spirit of the arm". The argument ran for two years. As well as provoking debate, his writing proved problematic for his career; in part because of a 1907 pamphlet, Fire Problems, he was twice blocked for promotion by the Commander-in-Chief India. In it, he had encouraged the development of machine-gun tactics, and much heavier concentration and use of the weapons, an unusual position for the pre-war period.
In 1906, Pilcher had also published an anonymous invasion novel, The Writing on the Wall, which described a German invasion of Britain; The war he theorised was an invasion by Germany followed by a rapid collapse of the British forces, particularly the volunteers, which he saw as unfit for purpose; he advocated a form of conscription and a mandatory reserve system to strengthen the Army. The Spectator was dismissive, comparing the novel unfavourably to The Invasion of 1910 ("many useful hints are given as to practical lessons ... [but] the general plot entirely destroys any value it might otherwise possess") and noting that the suggestions were "highly typical", but that it was counterproductive to simply malign the Army and encourage the country to adopt German military policies. It was translated and published in Germany the same year, as Mene Mene Tekel Upharsin: Englands überwältigung durch Deutschland.
## First World War
At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 Pilcher was on leave in England, and offered his services to the War Office, but was initially turned down as unsuitable for command by Sir John French; however, in January 1915 he was appointed to command the newly formed 17th (Northern) Division, a New Army division predominantly drawn from northern England.
The division moved to France in July 1915, where it held a sector near Ypres for the remainder of the year. It fought the Actions of St Eloi Craters in March 1916, following which Douglas Haig considered relieving Pilcher of his command – he was not highly rated by his superior officers – but in the end his corps commander, Hew Fanshawe, was sacked instead. Pilcher was perceived by many as old-fashioned and disengaged, rarely visiting the trenches; the journalist Philip Gibbs remarked on his "courteous old-fashioned dignity and gentleness of manner", but concluded simply that "modern warfare was too brutal for him". Pilcher's command was certainly slack; an observer in the summer of 1916, recently appointed to 17th Division as a staff officer, recalled finding a completely disorganised unit, with no central co-ordination, no effective provision of laundry or comforts for front-line units, and described the divisional staff as simply "of no value".
The 17th was deployed for the Battle of the Somme in July. It was engaged on the first day of the Somme, 1 July, where it supported the capture of Fricourt and lost 1,155 men killed or wounded. Following this, it was involved in the capture of Contalmaison and the capture of Mametz, and had taken a total of 4,771 casualties by the time it was relieved on 11 July. Many of these casualties stemmed from an unsuccessful attack on the "Quadrangle Trench Support" on 7 July; the division had captured the main trench system on 5 July and Pilcher ordered it to pause and prepare for a subsequent assault. However, he was over-ruled by higher command, who forced an attack the next night – which failed – followed by a daylight attack on 7 July, which Pilcher strongly protested but eventually acquiesced in. He ordered an attack with the minimal number of men necessary, assuming it would inevitably be doomed to failure and high casualties, which outraged his superiors. Pilcher later wrote that "It is very easy to sit a few miles in the rear and get credit for allowing men to be killed in an undertaking foredoomed to failure, but the part did not appeal to me and my protests against these useless attacks were not well received."
Following the division's withdrawal, Pilcher was promptly sacked by his corps commander, Henry Horne, along with the commander of the neighbouring 38th (Welsh) Division; Horne considered him lacking in "initiative, drive, and readiness", while Haig simply dismissed him as "unequal to the task" of divisional command. Pilcher was succeeded by Philip Robertson on 13 July 1916. He was later appointed to command the Eastern Reserve Centre at St. Albans, and retired from the Army in 1919.
## Later life
Following the end of the war, Pilcher contested the seat of Thornbury in the 1918 general election. He opposed the sitting Liberal member Athelstan Rendall, a Coalition Coupon candidate, representing the splinter right-wing National Party of Conservatives opposed to the Coalition. He was heavily defeated, taking only 38% of the vote in what had previously been a relatively close seat. He continued a loose association with right-wing politics, chairing the anti-Bolshevik National Security Union, and joining the anti-socialist and protectionist British Commonwealth Union. When the British Fascisti was formed in the early 1920s, Pilcher became a member and an official of its London branch.
Pilcher died in 1928, aged 70, of pneumonia. He was survived by his second wife.
## Publications
Pilcher published a number of books through his career:
- Manœuvre block (1895)
- Artillery from an Infantry Officer's Point of View (1896[?])
- Some Lessons from the Boer War, 1899–1902 (1903) – digital copy
- Some considerations connected with the formations of infantry in attack and defence (1906)
- The writing on the wall [published anonymously as "General Staff"] (1906)
- Fire problems (1912)
- A general's letters to his son on obtaining his commission [published anonymously] (1917) – digital copy
- A General's letters to his son on minor tactics [published anonymously as "X. Y. Z."] (1918) – digital copy
- War according to Clausewitz [edited, with commentary] (1918)
- East is East: stories of Indian life (1922) – digital copy | [
"## Early career",
"## Personal life and writing",
"## First World War",
"## Later life",
"## Publications"
] | 2,948 | 10,255 |
30,830,273 | 6955 kHz | 1,171,554,017 | null | [
"2010 American television episodes",
"Fringe (season 3) episodes"
] | "6955 kHz" is the sixth episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe. It first aired on November 11, 2010 in the United States. The third season spent much of its time alternating between the prime and parallel universes, and "6955 kHz" was set in the former. The storyline followed the Fringe team's investigation into a numbers station that mysteriously gave its listeners amnesia, a case that ultimately ties to a doomsday device.
The episode was written by story editors Robert Chiappetta and Glen Whitman, and was directed by Joe Chappelle. Its broadcast took place on the Fox network, and according to Nielsen Media Research, an estimated 4.8 million viewers tuned in. Reviews of the episode ranged from positive to mixed, as some reviewers disagreed about the introduction of a "First People" mythology.
## Plot
Fauxlivia, Olivia Dunham's doppelgänger from the parallel universe, continues to pose as Olivia as part of the Fringe division. The Fringe team is brought in on a case where several people, part of an online group attempting to decode the information sent by a numbers station, have been stricken with amnesia. They discover the station broadcasting the signal, finding its workers killed and a strange box connected to the broadcast equipment. They identify fingerprints on the box of a Joseph Feller, but his current location is unknown. Walter attempts to decipher the workings of the box, while giving hope to some of the affected people that they will get their memories back in time.
Peter discovers that the rare book shopkeeper, Edward Markham (Clark Middleton), was part of the online group but did not listen that night. Edward provides his theory of the numbers stations to Peter and Fauxlivia: that it is a signal left by the "First People", an advanced civilization that existed before a mass extinction event. He provides them with a book about the First People. As they return the book to Walter, Peter notices numbers in the astrological charts in the book are the same as the broadcast numbers. They give the book to Astrid, a skilled decoder, along with copious volumes of data from biotechnology corporation Massive Dynamic about the numbers stations.
Later, the crash of a small commuter aircraft is attributed to a similar signal from a numbers station, and when Fringe division identifies the source, they find a second box. Taking the box to Walter, Peter identifies one of the electronic components as rare, and engages his contacts to find Feller's address from its purchase. Fauxlivia feigns returning to headquarters to instead travel to Feller's apartment, warning him that Fringe is onto him, but he insists on continuing his job. She throws him out the window as the Fringe team arrives, killing him and revealing him to be a shapeshifter. Fauxlivia claims she killed the man in self-defense.
Meanwhile, Astrid has decoded the numbers as a series of geographical coordinates. The closest one is in Milton, Massachusetts, the site of where a mysterious box was found ("The Box"). Teams are quickly sent to the other sites given across the globe, and they discover many more parts of what Walter and Peter believe to be the same doomsday machine that Walternate, Walter's doppelgänger, has already constructed in the parallel universe, and which the First People book claims can destroy or create universes. Fauxlivia later communicates this finding to the parallel universe through the typewriter shop, and is ordered to initiate "phase two".
The episode ends in the parallel universe where Olivia, having broken Walternate's conditioning making her believe herself to be Fauxlivia, is told that no further tests are needed. A vision of Peter warns Olivia that her usefulness to Walternate has ended and her life is in danger.
## Production
"6955 kHz" was written by story editors Robert Chiappetta and Glen Whitman, while frequent Fringe collaborator Joe Chappelle served as the director. Leading up to the episode's broadcast, actress Anna Torv revealed in an official Fox interview that "[The next] episode is all about these co-ordinates that keep getting broadcast on the radio. This is all... a ploy to get Walter and Peter working on Walternate's machine." Chappelle also added that Fauxlivia would be working "to protect Walternate's plan... These pirate broadcasts are created on the other side... by Walternate, to help him in his plans with our universe."
The episode featured performances by guest actors Kevin Weisman, Mark Acheson, Minh Ly, Paula Lindberg, Tyler McClendon, and Vincent Tong; previous guest stars Ryan McDonald and Clark Middleton returned as scientist Brandon Fayette and rare bookseller Edward Markham, respectively.
As with other Fringe episodes, Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children, focusing on the science seen in "6955 kHz", with the intention of having "students learn about information encoding, which is [the] process of converting a piece of information into another form or representation."
Torv later remarked in a DVD special featurette that "this episode is actually a nice one because I think she's kind of starting to look at these people as more than just a project. I think she's starting to think about who they are"
## Reception
### Ratings
On its first American broadcast on November 11, 2010, "6955 kHz" was watched by an estimated 4.8 million viewers, earning a 2.9/5 rating for all households and 1.7/5 for adults 18 to 49. Fringe and its lead-in show Bones helped Fox place third for the night in a tie with NBC. Time shifted viewing increased the episode's ratings by 53 percent among adults, resulting in a rise from 1.7 to 2.6. This number tied with the NBC series The Event as the largest increase of the week in time-shifting viewers.
### Reviews
The episode received positive to mixed reviews. Writing for Entertainment Weekly, critic Ken Tucker noted and appreciated that "many key details were provided by characters who don't often serve that function", such as with Broyles and the numbers stations. He called it "a terrific, almost Astrid-centric episode." Los Angeles Times writer Andrew Hanson enjoyed the episode's many puzzles and expressed appreciation for the "First People" revelation as well as Walternate's "long con" concerning the doomsday device. Hanson was skeptical that Peter had not yet figured out Fauxlivia's true identity, but praised Anna Torv's performance ("Anyone who doubted [her] acting chops in the first couple of seasons should be eating their words").
Like Andrew Hanson, The A.V. Club's Noel Murray called the introduction of the First People "a masterstroke on the part of the Fringe writers". Murray graded the episode with a B+, explaining it "was a strange Fringe for me. The dialogue was often painfully expository, with liberal doses of ADR to make sure that we viewers didn't miss any of the massive amounts of significant information we need to understand as the story moves forward...And yet the episode was also funky and philosophical in the way I like my Fringe to be, using the plot and even the setting to put across more than just pieces of the series' mythology."
Fearnet critic Alyse Wax wrote "This episode made my brain hurt. And I mean that in the nicest way possible. They were throwing a lot of weird shit at us. It was great because I feel like we are finally getting answers, like we will finally get some closure, and just maybe get rid of the Red universe stiffs. This episode was so ridiculously dense I am sure I missed some of the deeper scientific facts. I got the gist of it, though, and frankly, I much prefer these jam-packed episodes. I like when the puzzle pieces start falling into place. It's calming." SFScope's Sarah Stegall believed the episode "start[ed] out interestingly enough", but unlike other reviewers, she was very critical of the First People mythology, stating "This is where my disbelief not only stopped being suspended, it got up and walked out of the room... I still don't like the premise of the evolution of an entire hominid species that left not one single solitary fossil behind. It's more like fantasy than science fiction." Stegall praised Torv's acting as she plays "two people very subtly, very convincingly", and concluded her review by commenting she will continue to watch the series because she trusts the writers will "supply us with plausible answers from time to time", but is "losing some respect for it". | [
"## Plot",
"## Production",
"## Reception",
"### Ratings",
"### Reviews"
] | 1,794 | 20,312 |
29,507,953 | Psilocybe pelliculosa | 1,130,473,034 | Species of fungus | [
"Entheogens",
"Fungi described in 1937",
"Fungi of Europe",
"Fungi of North America",
"Psilocybe",
"Psychedelic tryptamine carriers",
"Psychoactive fungi",
"Taxa named by Alexander H. Smith"
] | Psilocybe pelliculosa is a species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae. The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, have a conical brownish cap up to 2 cm (3⁄4 in) in diameter atop a slender stem up to 8 cm (3+1⁄8 in) long. It has a white partial veil that does not leave a ring on the stem. American mycologist Alexander H. Smith first described the species in 1937 as a member of the genus known today as Psathyrella; it was transferred to Psilocybe by Rolf Singer in 1958.
Psilocybe pelliculosa is found in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada, where it grows on the ground in groups or clusters along trails or forest roads in coniferous woods. A single collection has also been reported from Finland, and also in Norway. The mushrooms contain the psychedelic compounds psilocybin and baeocystin, although at relatively low concentrations. Several mushroom species that are similar in appearance to P. pelliculosa can be distinguished by subtle differences in the form of the fruit body, or by microscopic characteristics.
## Taxonomy
The species was first described scientifically by Alexander H. Smith in 1937 as Psathyra pelliculosa, based on specimens he collected in Washington and Oregon. The type specimen was collected near Tahkenitch Lake, Oregon, in November 1935. In a 1941 publication, Smith revised his opinion, and considered the species to be the same as Hypholoma silvatica (later Psilocybe silvatica), as he thought that the slight differences between the two were of no taxonomic significance. After reevaluating these two species in addition to several others closely related, Rolf Singer and Smith later reestablished the taxon and transferred it to Psilocybe in 1958. Psilocybe authority Gastón Guzmán classified the species in the section Semilanceatae, a grouping of related species characterized by having roughly ellipsoid, usually thick-walled spores, and lacking pleurocystidia.
The specific epithet pelliculosa is derived from the Latin pellicula, meaning "film", and refers to the gelatinous pellicle of the cap. The mushroom is commonly known as the "conifer Psilocybe" or the "striate Psilocybe".
## Description
The cap of P. pelliculosa is initially sharply cone-shaped, and expands slightly over time to become broadly bell-shaped, but it never expands to become completely flat. The cap margin is pressed against the stem initially, and for a short time is appendiculate (has partial veil fragments hanging from the margin). The caps of mature specimens are smooth, sticky, and have translucent radial striations that reach dimensions of 0.8 to 2 cm (3⁄8 to 3⁄4 in) in diameter. The color ranges from umber to isabella (dark dingy yellow-brown) when the mushroom is moist, and changes to pinkish-buff when dry. The cap margin can have a greenish-gray tinge. The cap cuticle is a thin gelatinous covering that can be peeled off.
The gills have an adnate attachment to the cap, are narrow to moderately broad, closely spaced, and eventually separate from the stem. Young gills are cinnamon-brown in color, with lighter edges, but darken in maturity because they become covered with the dark spores. The stem is 6 to 8 cm (2+3⁄8 to 3+1⁄8 in) long by 1.5 to 2 mm (1⁄16 to 3⁄32 in) thick, and roughly equal in width throughout except for a slightly enlarged base. The lower region of the stem is brownish in color and has silky "hairs" pressed against the stem; the upper region is grayish and pruinose (lightly dusted with powdery white granules). The flesh turns slightly bluish or greenish where it has been injured. The application of a drop of dilute potassium hydroxide solution on the cap or flesh will cause a color change to pale to dark yellowish to reddish brown; a drop on the stem produces a less intense or no color change.
The spore print is purplish brown. Under the microscope, the spores appear dull purple-brown. They are ellipsoid to somewhat egg-shaped, and, according to Singer's original description, measure 8–10 by 4–5 μm. A later study of specimens collected from British Columbia, Canada, instead reported a larger spore size range of 10–13 by 6–7 μm. The spores have an apical germ pore. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored, hyaline (translucent), and measure 22–35 by 7–10 μm. There are abundant cystidia that form a sterile band on the edges of the gills (cheilocystidia); these cystidia are smooth, inflated, and fusoid-ventricose (enlarged in the middle and tapered toward both ends) with a sharp tip, and measure 25–30 by 6–9 μm. The cap cuticle (an ixocutis) is made of a layer of roughly horizontal, gelatinized, wavy, hyaline hyphae that are 0.8–5.5 μm in diameter.
### Similar species
The overall stature of the fruit bodies of P. pelliculosa is generally similar to those of Mycena, Galerina, or Hypholoma. Smith noted a superficial resemblance to Psathyrella fagicola, based on similarities in the nature of the cap cuticle, the coloring, and the stem base covered in silky fibers. Psilocybe pelliculosa may be distinguished from Psathyra fagicola by the presence of a partial veil, firm gills, and smaller fruit bodies. P. pelliculosa is frequently mistaken for the widespread P. semilanceata, but the latter can be distinguished by its larger spores and a conical, papillate cap. Another similar species is Psilocybe silvatica, and a microscope is needed to reliably distinguish between the two species. P. silvatica, found from New York to Michigan and north to Canada, has longer spores. P. pelliculosa has a general resemblance to Hypholoma dispersum, a species found in northern North America and Europe.
## Habitat and distribution
The fruit bodies of P. pelliculosa grow in groups or clusters on moss, forest debris, and humus in coniferous forests. The fungus prefers to fruit in disturbed areas such as trails and abandoned forest roads; it is not commonly found in grasslands. It is known from the Pacific Northwest region of North America where it has been collected in California, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, and it is widely distributed in British Columbia, Canada. It is also found in northern Europe, a single collection from Finland. The fungus often fruits along forest paths and abandoned logging roads where alders and firs are growing. Fruit bodies tend to appear in late summer to early winter after cool, wet weather.
## Psychoactivity
Psilocybe pelliculosa contains the psychoactive compounds psilocybin and baeocystin, and is used as a recreational drug. In terms of psychoactive potency, Stamets considers the species "relatively weak". Psilocybin levels have been reported to range from 1.2 to 1.7 milligrams per gram of dried mushroom, while baeocystin was measured at 0.04%.
## See also
- List of Psilocybe species
- List of Psilocybin mushrooms
- Psilocybin mushrooms | [
"## Taxonomy",
"## Description",
"### Similar species",
"## Habitat and distribution",
"## Psychoactivity",
"## See also"
] | 1,657 | 4,247 |
44,506,279 | The Boat Race 1953 | 1,130,254,257 | null | [
"1953 in English sport",
"1953 in rowing",
"1953 sports events in London",
"March 1953 sports events in the United Kingdom",
"The Boat Race"
] | The 99th Boat Race took place on 28 March 1953. Held annually, the Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. The race, in which the Oxford crew was slightly heavier than their opponents, was umpired by former rower Gerald Ellison. Cambridge won by eight lengths in a time of 19 minutes 54 seconds. It was their sixth win in seven years and took the overall record in the event to 54–44 in their favour.
## Background
The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). First held in 1829, the race takes place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and, as of 2014, broadcast worldwide. Oxford went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 1952 race by a canvas, with Cambridge leading overall with 53 victories to Oxford's 44 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877).
Cambridge were coached by James Crowden (who had represented Cambridge in the 1951 and 1952 races), David Jennens (who rowed three times between 1949 and 1951), Roy Meldrum (a coach for Lady Margaret Boat Club) and R. H. H. Symonds (who had rowed in the 1931 race). Oxford's coaches were A. J. M. Durand (who had rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1920 race), Hugh "Jumbo" Edwards (who rowed for Oxford in 1926 and 1930), R. D. Hill (who rowed in the 1940 wartime race) and J. H. Page. The race was umpired for the second time by former Oxford rower and Gerald Ellison, the Bishop of Willesden.
In the build-up to the race, opinions were divided on which crew was favourite to win. According to the rowing correspondent of The Manchester Guardian, upon arrival at Putney, Oxford demonstrated "great superiority" over Cambridge, yet the Light Blues had improved, and had "the pace, if not the form, to win". The Times had declared "Oxford the stronger crew" on the day of the race. Queen Mary had died four days prior to the race; the coxes wore black armbands and the flag post on the umpire's launch was draped in black as marks of respect. The umpire was accompanied on his launch by Lord Tedder, the Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.
## Crews
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 13 lb (81.9 kg), 3 pounds (1.4 kg) per rower more than their opponents. Cambridge saw two rowers return to their crew: J. S. M. Jones at number two and G. T. Marshall at number four. Oxford's crew contained three rowers with Boat Race experience: A. J. Smith, M. L. Thomas and H. M. C. Quick. Two of the participants in the race were registered as non-British: Oxford's Smith was Australian while Cambridge's L. B. McCagg was from the United States. The rowing correspondent for The Times described Oxford's crew as containing "no outstanding individuals" yet "no weak links". Conversely, Cambridge's crew was "variable" in quality but in former Harvard University rower Louis McCagg, they had the "outstanding oarsman in either crew".
## Race
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station, handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford. On a poor tide and in a strong south-westerly wind, umpire Ellison started the race at 12 noon. Both crews rated 36 for the first minute, after which the Light Blues held a quarter-length lead. Passing Beverley Brook, the bend in the river began to favour Oxford but Cambridge continued to pull away and were clear by a length as the crews passed the Mile Post. They increased the lead by a further half-length as they passed the Crab Tree pub, and although Oxford made several bursts, they passed below Hammersmith Bridge six seconds behind the Light Blues, and fell in behind them, the "first visible gesture of despair" according to The Manchester Guardian'''s rowing correspondent.
Pushing away from the bridge, Oxford stayed in touch with Cambridge for a brief period, although could not reduce their lead. Rowing into rough water towards Chiswick Eyot, Cambridge moved across to seek shelter closer to the Surrey shore, while Oxford continued in the difficult conditions. A lead of 14 seconds by Chiswick Steps was calmly extended to 20 seconds by the time the crews passed below Barnes Bridge. Cambridge won by eight lengths in a time of 19 minutes 54 seconds, a time which "could have been shortened by at least half a minute had the winners been pressed". It was their sixth victory in the past seven and the fastest winning time since the 1949 race. The rowing correspondent for The Times'' described the result as a "spectacular reversal of form" having failed to show the pace they demonstrated in practice. | [
"## Background",
"## Crews",
"## Race"
] | 1,121 | 3,334 |
39,076,885 | Japan Echo | 1,067,622,806 | English language Japanese periodical | [
"1974 establishments in Japan",
"2010 disestablishments in Japan",
"Bi-monthly magazines",
"Defunct political magazines published in Japan",
"English-language magazines",
"Japanese studies",
"Magazines disestablished in 2010",
"Magazines established in 1974",
"Magazines published in Tokyo",
"Quarterly magazines"
] | Japan Echo was an English-language periodical on Japanese issues which was initially published in print form by Japan Echo Inc. between 1974 and 2010. Consisting mainly of translations into English of magazine and news articles originally published in Japanese, Japan Echo was launched with the support of Japan's Foreign Affairs Ministry "to enable people abroad to learn what the Japanese themselves are thinking and writing about the issues of the day." Though independently published, the Japanese government provided most of Japan Echos funding for the duration of its existence.
In 2010 budget cuts compelled the magazine to rebrand itself as Japan Echo Web, a purely online magazine published on a website operated by the Foreign Affairs Ministry. However, two years later the Japanese government shut it down and replaced it with a similar project called the Japan Foreign Policy Forum.
## Origin and content
Japan Echo was the brainchild of Kazutoshi Hasegawa, an employee at the Overseas Public Relations Division of the Japanese Foreign Affairs Ministry, who was disturbed by what he perceived to be misinformation and misunderstandings about Japan printed in the foreign press. Hasegawa recruited Yoshihiko Seki, a social scientist teaching at Tokyo Metropolitan University, to be the first editor of the new journal, which was to be published independently by a new company called Japan Echo Inc. founded in June 1974 by Jiji Press reporter Takeshi Mochida.
Most of Japan Echos contents were translations, sometimes abridged, of Japanese language essays. For each issue the journal's editors selected what they considered the best articles published in major Japanese magazines on topics which were of Japanese or international significance at that time. For instance the first issue of November 1974 included eighteen articles from periodicals including Chūōkōron, Shokun!, Jiyū, Shūkan Gendai, Bungeishunjū, and Seiron grouped into topics like the oil crisis, the Solzhenitsyn case, Japanese relations with southeast Asia where Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka's state visits had been greeted by mass protests, and the case of Lieutenant Hiroo Onoda. The editors of Japan Echo said that they desired to "faithfully reflect a spectrum of responsible and informed Japanese opinion", though most of its editors were considered to be politically right-of-center.
Japan Echo was at first released on a quarterly basis, but switched to a bimonthly format from 1997 and onward. It also had a French language edition which existed from 1979 and 2009 and a Spanish language edition from 1988 to 2009.
Sumiko Iwao, a member of the editorial board from 1985 until 2007, also served as the magazine's editor-in-chief from 1997 until her retirement in 2007.
## Sources of funding and support
At the magazine's founding the Japanese Foreign Affairs Ministry promised Japan Echo Inc. CEO Takeshi Mochida that it would not interfere with the selection of articles, but even so Japan Echo was always highly reliant on support from the Japanese government. Throughout the journal's existence the Japanese government bought 70 percent of its print run, amounting to 50,000 copies annually, and distributing it free of charge to its embassies and consulates and then in turn to universities, libraries, and researchers. The Economist magazine concluded that the Foreign Affairs Ministry continued to sponsor Japan Echo because it presented "a view of the country that the Japanese government likes the world to see."
However, Japan Echo magazine also earned revenue from other sources including private subscriptions, bulk sales to Toyota Motors and Japan Airlines, and from the independent translation services provided by Japan Echo Inc.
## Praise and criticism
The reference book, Magazines for Libraries described Japan Echo as an "excellent quarterly" which was "particularly valuable because it presents the Japanese in their own terms, unmediated by foreign 'experts'." "Controversial topics", the book noted, "are not avoided."
Japan Echo was also praised by Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau for its quality and readability. Its 1987 special edition on Tokyo was described by a The Japan Times columnist as "one of the best pieces ever done" on the subject and its coverage of the controversy over the Nanking Massacre was endorsed by the newspaper Yomiuri Shimbun for its "focus on facts, rather than getting caught up in emotional bluster."
Many scholars supported the magazine including Hugh Cortazzi, although he also condemned one issue from 2006 which reprinted an interview between Shōichi Watanabe and Tarō Asō in which Watanabe denied the Nanking Massacre and advocated Japanese exceptionalism. In the same vein The Globe and Mail was highly critical of a 1984 issue in which a series of authors seemed to be watering down Japan's responsibility for World War II by arguing that "Japan, simply to assure its own survival, was given little choice but to wage war with the United States."
Roy Andrew Miller's book Japan's Modern Myth includes an extended criticism of Japan Echo, which he accuses of being a "public-relations organ" promoting the same discredited ideas of Japanese linguistic and cultural uniqueness found in the Kokutai no Hongi.
## End of the print magazine
To deal with Japan's mounting fiscal deficits, the newly elected government of Yukio Hatoyama formed the Government Revitalization Unit in 2009 to look for areas where the budget could be trimmed. The Unit recommended that the government cease purchasing and distributing foreign language periodicals like Japan Echo.
The government initially followed through with this recommendation but the move was widely disapproved of by scholars of Japanese affairs including Cortazzi and thanks in part to their protests the Foreign Affairs Ministry eventually agreed to revive Japan Echo as an online magazine, which would be produced on an annual basis by whichever company put forward the best bid.
## Japan Echo Web
Japan Echo Inc. won the first competitive bid to publish Japan Echo Web in 2010. The new online magazine would be released bimonthly in English and Chinese on a website owned by the Japanese Foreign Affairs Ministry, though as before the editors of Japan Echo Inc. had the final say over its contents "in order to keep the publication from being government propaganda." The launch of the new magazine was praised in the journal Asian Politics & Policy for eschewing propaganda and providing "up-to-date, reliable information on current events".
In 2011 Japan Echo Inc. concluded that annual bidding for its status as publisher of Japan Echo Web was "not a sustainable business model" and broke with the Japanese government after 37 years of cooperation. Japan Echo Inc. became the Nippon Communications Foundation which today has its own online magazine Nippon.com "driven by the same spirit that inspired the journal Japan Echo".
A new group called The Japan Journal took over the magazine for the next fiscal year, after which the government terminated the Japan Echo brand for good and replaced it on November 26, 2012 with an official successor called Japan Foreign Policy Forum.
## See also
- Contemporary Japan | [
"## Origin and content",
"## Sources of funding and support",
"## Praise and criticism",
"## End of the print magazine",
"## Japan Echo Web",
"## See also"
] | 1,434 | 44,470 |
208,995 | South of Heaven | 1,172,925,214 | null | [
"1988 albums",
"Albums produced by Rick Rubin",
"American Recordings (record label) albums",
"Def Jam Recordings albums",
"Slayer albums"
] | South of Heaven is the fourth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer. It was released in July 1988 on Rick Rubin's label Def Jam Recordings. The album was their band's second album produced by Rubin, following Reign in Blood (1986). Given the innovative speed metal pace of Reign in Blood, Slayer deliberately slowed the tempo on South of Heaven and used undistorted guitars and toned-down vocals.
South of Heaven reached number 57 on the Billboard 200. While some critics praised the change in the band's sound, those preferring the style of their earlier recordings were disappointed. The songs "Mandatory Suicide" and the title track have become permanent features of Slayer's live setlist. In 1992, South of Heaven was certified gold by the RIAA. The album was the band's last for Def Jam.
## Background
The album was recorded in Los Angeles with Reign in Blood producer Rick Rubin. According to PopMatters reviewer Adrien Begrand, "Rubin's production emphasizes Lombardo's drums and places them high on the mix". Guitarist Jeff Hanneman has said that South of Heaven was the only album the band members discussed before writing the music. Aware that they "couldn't top Reign in Blood", and that whatever they recorded would be "compared to that album", he believed they "had to slow down", something they had never done on previous albums. Guitarist Kerry King cited the need to "keep people guessing" as another reason for the musical shift. The band wanted to contrast the aggressiveness of Reign in Blood by slowing the tempo of the songs and adding undistorted guitars and toned-down vocals.
King has been critical of his performance, describing it as "lackluster". King attributes this to the fact he had recently married and relocated from New York to Phoenix, Arizona. Describing himself as "probably the odd man out at that point", he said he "didn't participate as much because of that". According to Hanneman: "We go through dry spells sometimes, but the good thing about having two guitar players that can write music is that you are never gonna go without. I guess at that time, Kerry was hitting a dry spell." King has also been critical of the album in general, describing it as one of his least favorite Slayer albums. He felt vocalist Tom Araya moved too far away from his regular vocal style, and "added too much singing". Drummer Dave Lombardo has since observed: "There was fire on all the records, but it started dimming when South of Heaven came into the picture."
Judas Priest's "Dissident Aggressor" is the first cover to appear on a Slayer studio album. It was chosen because of its war-themed lyrics and because it was one of Hanneman and King's favorite songs. Meanwhile, "Cleanse the Soul" has been heavily criticized by King who said that he hates the track. The Slayer boxset Soundtrack to the Apocalypse featured, along with four songs off the album, an early version of the title track, recorded at Hanneman's home.
## Photography and illustration
Artist Larry Carroll and illustrator Howard Schwartzberg were commissioned to design the album's artwork, having earlier worked on Slayer's previous album Reign in Blood. Photographer Glen E. Friedman took the promotional shot used as the back cover of South of Heaven, which he had taken around the time of Reign in Blood. Lombardo felt it made the band seem as though they "had matured a little bit", while Friedman described it as a "really cool back cover" and "one of the most classic shots of them [Slayer] ever".
## Critical reception
South of Heaven was released on July 5, 1988, and was the final Slayer album distributed via Def Jam Records. When label co-founders Russell Simmons and Rubin parted ways, Slayer signed to Rubin's newly founded Def American Recordings label. The album peaked at number 57 on the Billboard 200 album chart, and on November 20, 1992, became Slayer's second album to be certified gold in the United States. South of Heaven was awarded silver certification in the United Kingdom in January 1993, Slayer's first record to do so in that country. Alex Henderson of AllMusic described the record as "disturbing and powerful," while Joe Matera of Ultimate Guitar wrote that the slow pace did not inhibit the heaviness of Slayer's earlier music.
In 2003 Adrien Begrand of PopMatters wrote that the album was "their most underrated" to date. A positive review in 2006 by KNAC.com'''s Peter Atkinson described the album as having a "grandiosity and imposing presence". Grave's Ola Lindgren and Bolt Thrower's Karl Willetts both rate South of Heaven as amongst the top five albums of all time, while Max Kolesne of Brazilian death metal group Krisiun remembers hearing the song "Silent Scream" for the first time: "It just blew me away. It was like fast double-bass, fast kicks during the whole song. That was very inspiring for me." When discussing Slayer in an October 2007 interview, Evile frontman Matt Drake stated that while Reign in Blood "was just speed", South of Heaven proved that the group could write "slow material as well". Metal Forces reviewer gives "the band credit for at least making an effort to try something new and not being afraid to experiment at such a crucial stage of their career", creating "one of the more original sounding thrash / speed metal albums he heard in a long while". He remarks, however, that "if you're expecting to hear Reign in Blood Part Two, you'll be in for a major disappointment".
Kim Neely of Rolling Stone dismissed the album as "genuinely offensive satanic drivel". However, the magazine would later rank the album 47th on their 2017 "100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time" list. Michael Roberts of Westworld Online said that some fan's disappointment of the album was due to some of the numbers moving "at the sludgier speed of Black Sabbath". Araya commented that the "album was a late bloomer – it wasn't really received well, but it kind of grew on everybody later". Decibel inducted South of Heaven into the Decibel Magazine Hall of Fame in January 2013. Due to Hanneman's passing in May of that year, South of Heaven became be the second but final classic Slayer album to receive an induction into Decibel's Hall of Fame.
## Cover versions
Both the title track and "Mandatory Suicide" have been covered, particularly on Slayer tribute albums. Toni Ferguson recorded string quartet adaptations of both tracks on the album The String Quartet Tribute to Slayer: The Evil You Dread. His version of "South of Heaven" was described as having "menacing" chord progression" by AllMusic critic Johnny Loftus.
The 1995 Slayer tribute album Slatanic Slaughter features three songs from South of Heaven: "South of Heaven", "Mandatory Suicide" and "Spill the Blood" were interpreted by the band's Cemetary, Crown of Thorns and Grope, respectively. Its 1998 follow up Slatanic Slaughter, Vol. 2 featured the album tracks: "Silent Scream", arranged by Vader, and "Read Between the Lies", interpreted by Anathema. 1999's Straight to Hell: A Tribute to Slayer collected four Slayer renditions which originated on the album, with versions of "South of Heaven" performed by Abaddon, (Venom) and Electric Hellfire Club, "Mandatory Suicide" cut by Chapter 7 and "Behind the Crooked Cross" adapted by Gigantor. The 2006 Argentine tribute album Al Sur Del Abismo (Tributo Argentino A Slayer) saw Nafak and Climatic Terra also respectively cover "South of Heaven" and "Mandatory Suicide".
## Live performances
The songs "Mandatory Suicide" and "South of Heaven" became live favorites, and appear on the live DVDs Live Intrusion, War at the Warfield, Still Reigning, Soundtrack to the Apocalypse's deluxe edition's bonus live disc, and the live double album Decade of Aggression.
Adrien Begrand of PopMatters described the album as "an unorthodox set opener in theory", noting that the "song went over like a megaton bomb detonating the place: dozens of inverted crosses projected behind the high drum riser, the sinewy opening notes kicked in, followed by an overture of bass, cymbal crashes, and tom fills, leading up to the slowly building crescendo" in a concert review. Lombardo remembers listening to a live rendition of "South of Heaven" and thinking, "'Man! There's just so much groove in that song.' To my kids I was saying, 'Listen to that! Listen to how groovy that is!' And it's heavy." A live version of the track featured on the JÄGERMUSIC Rarities 2004 promotional CD, given away to attendees at the Spring 2004 Jägermeister Music Tour. A live rendition of "South of Heaven" was included on a bonus DVD which came with the group's 2007 re-release of ninth studio album Christ Illusion, shot in Vancouver, British Columbia, during 2006's Unholy Alliance tour.
Because Hanneman disliked the track "Behind the Crooked Cross", it was rarely performed live. King said that he likes playing it because it's got "a cool intro", overall he also does not rate it highly. Similarly, he has said that he personally dislikes "Ghosts of War", although "everybody always wants to hear" it performed live. Slayer has considered creating a live set mixed with selections from the album and 1990's Seasons in the Abyss, though Hanneman said it is something which has not been "seriously considered". Metal Maniacs asked Slayer in a 2006 interview whether they would consider playing South of Heaven in the footsteps of the Still Reigning tour, to which Araya replied, "It's becoming a trendy thing now. I don't know. We have some really cool albums, but I don't think we'll ever do that again." King was equally unsure, commenting, "Probably not. And I just don't like enough songs off South of Heaven''."
## Track listing
All music by Jeff Hanneman unless noted.
## Personnel
### Slayer
- Tom Araya – bass, vocals
- Kerry King – guitars
- Jeff Hanneman – guitars
- Dave Lombardo – drums
### Production
- Rick Rubin – production
- Larry Carroll – artwork
- Howie Weinberg – mastering
- Andy Wallace – mixing
## Charts
## Certifications | [
"## Background",
"## Photography and illustration",
"## Critical reception",
"## Cover versions",
"## Live performances",
"## Track listing",
"## Personnel",
"### Slayer",
"### Production",
"## Charts",
"## Certifications"
] | 2,219 | 38,706 |
15,955,754 | Multi-scale camouflage | 1,172,741,866 | Patterns designed to work as camouflage at different scales and distances | [
"Camouflage",
"Camouflage patterns",
"Military camouflage",
"Military technology"
] | Multi-scale camouflage is a type of military camouflage combining patterns at two or more scales, often (though not necessarily) with a digital camouflage pattern created with computer assistance. The function is to provide camouflage over a range of distances, or equivalently over a range of scales (scale-invariant camouflage), in the manner of fractals, so some approaches are called fractal camouflage. Not all multiscale patterns are composed of rectangular pixels, even if they were designed using a computer. Further, not all pixellated patterns work at different scales, so being pixellated or digital does not of itself guarantee improved performance.
The first standardized pattern to be issued was the single-scale Italian telo mimetico. The root of the modern multi-scale camouflage patterns can be traced back to 1930s experiments in Europe for the German and Soviet armies. This was followed by the Canadian development of the Canadian Disruptive Pattern (CADPAT), first issued in 2002, and then with US work which created the Marine pattern (MARPAT), launched between 2002 and 2004.
## Principle
### Scale invariance
The scale of camouflage patterns is related to their function. Large structures need larger patterns than individual soldiers to disrupt their shape. At the same time, large patterns are more effective from afar, while small scale patterns work better up close. Traditional single scale patterns work well in their optimal range from the observer, but an observer at other distances will not see the pattern optimally. Nature itself is very often fractal, where plants and rock formations exhibit similar patterns across several magnitudes of scale. The idea behind multi-scale patterns is both to mimic the self-similarity of nature, and also to offer scale invariant or so-called fractal camouflage.
Animals such as the flounder have the ability to adapt their camouflage patterns to suit the background, and they do so extremely effectively, selecting patterns that match the spatial scales of the current background.
### Design trade-offs
A pattern being called digital most often means that it is visibly composed of computer-generated pixels. The term is sometimes also used of computer generated patterns like the non-pixellated MultiCam and the Italian fractal Vegetato pattern. Neither pixellation nor digitization contributes to the camouflaging effect. The pixellated style, however, simplifies design and eases printing on fabric, compared to traditional patterns. While digital patterns are becoming widespread, critics maintain that the pixellated look is a question of fashion rather than function.
The design process involves trading-off different factors, including colour, contrast, and overall disruptive effect. A failure to consider all elements of pattern design tends to result in poor results. The US Army's Universal Camouflage Pattern (UCP), for example, adopted after limited testing in 2003 abd 2004, performed poorly because of low pattern contrast ("isoluminance"—beyond very close range, the design looks like a field of solid light grey, failing to disrupt an object's outlines) and arbitrary colour selection, neither of which could be saved by quantizing (digitizing) the pattern geometry. The design was replaced from 2015 with Operational Camouflage Pattern, a non-pixellated pattern.
## History
### Interwar development in Europe
The idea of patterned camouflage extends back to the interwar period in Europe. The first printed camouflage pattern was the 1929 Italian telo mimetico, which used irregular areas of three colours at a single scale.
### German WWII experiments
During the Second World War, Johann Georg Otto Schick designed a series of patterns such as Platanenmuster (plane tree pattern) and Erbsenmuster (pea-dot pattern) for the Waffen-SS, combining micro- and macro-patterns in one scheme.
The German Army developed the idea further in the 1970s into Flecktarn, which combines smaller shapes with dithering; this softens the edges of the large scale pattern, making the underlying objects harder to discern.
### Soviet WWII experiments
Pixel-like shapes pre-date computer-aided design by many years, already being used in Soviet Union experiments with camouflage patterns, such as "TTsMKK" developed in 1944 or 1945. The pattern uses areas of olive green, sand, and black running together in broken patches at a range of scales.
### 1976 research by Timothy O'Neill
In 1976, Timothy O'Neill created a pixellated pattern named "Dual-Tex". He called the digital approach "texture match". The initial work was done by hand on a retired M113 armoured personnel carrier; O'Neill painted the pattern on with a 2-inch (5.1 cm) roller, forming squares of colour by hand. Field testing showed that the result was good compared to the U. S. Army's existing camouflage patterns, and O'Neill went on to become an instructor and camouflage researcher at West Point military academy.
### 2000s fractal-like digital patterns
By 2000, development was underway to create pixellated camouflage patterns for combat uniforms like the Canadian Forces' CADPAT, which was developed in 1997 and later issued in 2002, and then the US Marines' MARPAT, rolled out between 2002 and 2004. The CADPAT and MARPAT patterns were somewhat self-similar (in the manner of fractals and patterns in nature such as vegetation), designed to work at two different scales. A genuinely fractal pattern would be statistically similar at all scales. A target camouflaged with MARPAT takes about 2.5 times longer to detect than older NATO camouflage which worked at only one scale, while recognition, which begins after detection, took 20 percent longer than with older camouflage.
Fractal-like patterns work because the human visual system efficiently discriminates images that have different fractal dimension or other second-order statistics like Fourier spatial amplitude spectra; objects simply appear to pop out from the background. Timothy O'Neill helped the Marine Corps to develop first a digital pattern for vehicles, then fabric for uniforms, which had two colour schemes, one designed for woodland, one for desert. | [
"## Principle",
"### Scale invariance",
"### Design trade-offs",
"## History",
"### Interwar development in Europe",
"### German WWII experiments",
"### Soviet WWII experiments",
"### 1976 research by Timothy O'Neill",
"### 2000s fractal-like digital patterns"
] | 1,252 | 22,563 |
370,337 | Kennington tube station | 1,160,406,535 | London Underground station | [
"Domes",
"Former City and South London Railway stations",
"Kennington",
"London Underground Night Tube stations",
"Northern line stations",
"Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1890",
"Tube stations in the London Borough of Southwark"
] | Kennington is a London Underground station on Kennington Park Road in Kennington within the London Borough of Southwark. The station is at the junction of the Charing Cross and Bank branches of the Northern line to the north and the Morden and Battersea Power Station branches to the south. Its neighbouring stations to the north are Waterloo on the Charing Cross branch and Elephant & Castle on the Bank branch; the next stations to the south are Oval and Nine Elms. The station is in both Travelcard Zones 1 and 2.
The station was opened in 1890 as part of the world's first underground electric railway and its surface building remains largely unaltered. In the 1920s, the underground parts of the station were reconstructed so that the line could be extended and larger trains could be used. Two additional platforms and later several cross passages were provided for interchanges between the branches.
## History
### City and South London Railway
In 1884, the City of London and Southwark Subway (CL&SS) was granted parliamentary approval to construct an underground railway from King William Street in the City of London to Elephant & Castle in Southwark. Unlike previous underground railways in London that had been constructed using the cut and cover method, the CL&SS was to be constructed in a pair of deep-level tunnels bored using tunnelling shields with circular segmental cast-iron tunnel linings. James Henry Greathead was the engineer for the railway and had used the tunnelling method on the Tower Subway bored under the River Thames in 1869.
Construction work began in 1886, and in 1887 the railway was granted additional approval for an extension to Kennington, Oval and Stockwell. The CL&SS was originally designed to be operated using a cabled-hauled system of trains, but the haulage method was changed in January 1899 to use electric locomotives, making it the world's first underground electric railway. The CL&SS changed its name to the City and South London Railway (C&SLR) early in 1890.
From Elephant & Castle northwards, the CL&SS's running tunnels were bored to a diameter of 10 feet 2 inches (3.10 m); on the extension through Kennington they were bored to a larger diameter of 10 feet 6 inches (3.20 m). Station platform tunnels 200 feet (61 m) long and 20 by 16 feet (6.1 by 4.9 m) were formed in brick construction with an arched top and flat base. The platforms at Kennington and most of the other intermediate stations were constructed at different levels, with one side wall of the upper platform tunnel supported on the side wall of the lower platform tunnel. Travel between the surface and the platforms was by hydraulic lift or spiral stairs with the lower lift landing being at a level between the two platforms with steps or ramps up and down to the platforms.
The station building is a single-storey structure topped by a dome which originally housed the hydraulic equipment for the lifts. It was designed by T. P. Figgis and occupies the northern corner of the junction of Kennington Park Road and Braganza Street (previously New Street). Before opening, the C&SLR considered naming the station New Street. The station was opened on 18 December 1890 along with the rest of the line.
### Reconstruction and connection to Hampstead Tube
The small diameter of the running tunnels meant that the train carriages were cramped compared to the deep-level tube railways that were constructed with larger diameter tunnels. In 1913, the C&SLR obtained permission to enlarge the tunnels to enable it to use new modern rolling stock, but World War I delayed the works. After the war, the C&SLR obtained renewed permission for the enlargement works. These were undertaken as part of a programme of works including an extension of the Hampstead Tube from Embankment to Kennington.
The UERL planned to enlarge most of the C&SLR's tunnels whilst the railway remained in operation, with enlargement taking place at night and trains running during the day. Special tunnelling shields were constructed with openings that trains could run through. To facilitate the enlargement works, Kennington station was closed on 1 June 1923 and used as a depot for the construction works. The platforms were removed and sidings installed for spoil wagons. A new shaft was sunk from the garden of an adjacent house to provide access to the tunnels and the passenger lifts were used to transfer the wagons between the tunnels and the surface.
To achieve a convenient arrangement for the interchange between the existing tunnels and the new ones to Embankment, several changes were made to the organisation of the station below ground. Two new platform tunnels were constructed parallel with and at the same level as the corresponding existing tunnels with the new tunnels on the outside of the existing ones. Linking passages were constructed between each pair of platforms to enable cross-platform interchanges. Both of the existing platforms had been accessed from the east, so, to make the link to the new northbound tunnel, the platform in the existing northbound tunnel was reconstructed on the other side, and the tracks were repositioned.
The existing passage between the platforms and the lifts was severed by the new southbound platform so each pair of platforms was connected to new entrance and exit passages leading to and from the lifts. These passages were at a higher level than before, so the bottom landings of the lifts and the emergency stairs were raised by 11 feet (3.4 m) to match them. Along with the construction of the new tunnels, the existing station tunnels were increased in length to 350 feet (110 m) by enlarging the running tunnels. The enlargement was done with standard segmental iron linings, rather than the original brick.
At the lower levels of the station, the platform walls and passages were decorated with a new tiling scheme by Charles Holden, matching that used on new stations on the Morden extension and the new stations from Embankment. Other C&SLR stations were rebuilt during the 1920s modernisation (including the replacement of lifts with escalators at some), but the surface building at Kennington station was left largely unaltered. It is therefore the only station of the C&SLR's original section still in a condition close to its original design and the only one to be a listed building.
To enable trains from Waterloo to reverse, a loop tunnel was constructed connecting the new southbound and northbound platforms. A siding constructed between the two existing tunnels provided a reversing facility for trains coming from Elephant & Castle. Because the original southbound running tunnel was lower than the original northbound tunnel, a section of the siding was constructed at a 1:40 gradient to bring trains up to the level of the northbound tunnel before the reversing siding, which can accommodate two trains.
Following the completion of the extension and reconstruction works, the C&SLR and the Hampstead Tube operated as a single line, although they retained their own identities into the 1930s. A variety of names were used before "Northern line" was adopted in 1937.
### Post-war plans
After World War II, a review of rail transport in the London area produced a report in 1946 that proposed many new lines and identified the Morden branch as being the most overcrowded section of the London Underground, needing additional capacity. To relieve the congestion, the report recommended construction of a second pair of tunnels beneath the Northern line's tunnels between Kennington and Tooting Broadway to provide an express service. Charing Cross branch trains would use the express tunnels and run to Morden. Trains using the existing tunnels would start and end at Tooting Broadway. Designated as routes 10, this proposal was not developed by the London Passenger Transport Board or its successor organisations.
### Refurbishment
Refurbishment work at Kennington was completed in 2005. This included replacement of the 1920s tiles on platform and passage walls with matching tiles. Travel between surface and platform level continues to be via passenger lifts or stairs.
### Extension to Battersea Power Station
In 2014, Transport for London (TfL) was granted parliamentary approval to construct an extension of the Charing Cross branch from Kennington to Battersea Power Station via Nine Elms. The new extension tunnels connect to the reversing loop tunnel in step plate junctions constructed from temporary construction shafts in Radcot Street and Harmsworth Street. Two chambers were constructed on the line of the new tunnels at Kennington Green and Kennington Park for ventilation and emergency access.
TfL assessed that the Battersea extension will not significantly impact the number of passengers entering and exiting the station, but, to accommodate additional interchanges between the branches, additional cross-platform passageways were constructed between each pair of platforms. The 3 km (1.9 mi)-long extension opened on 20 September 2021.
## Services and connections
The station is in Travelcard zones 1 and 2, between Nine Elms and Waterloo or Oval and Elephant & Castle stations. Train frequencies vary throughout the day but generally operate every 3–6 minutes between 05:37 and 00:33 northbound to Edgware, High Barnet or Mill Hill East via the Charing Cross or Bank branches and every 2–5 minutes between 06:01 and 00:46 southbound. For most of the day, Charing Cross Branch trains generally run to or from Battersea Power Station, or start or terminate at Kennington, using the Kennington loop, while Bank Branch trains all run to or from Morden. During Peak hours, there are some limited Charing Cross Branch trains that also run to or from Morden. During Night Tube operations, all Charing Cross Branch trains run to Morden, while the Bank and Battersea Branches lack night tube services.
London Bus routes 133, 155, 333 and 415 with night routes N133 and N155 serve the station. | [
"## History",
"### City and South London Railway",
"### Reconstruction and connection to Hampstead Tube",
"### Post-war plans",
"### Refurbishment",
"### Extension to Battersea Power Station",
"## Services and connections"
] | 2,075 | 21,793 |
7,580,621 | Cheap at Half the Price | 1,168,030,311 | null | [
"1983 albums",
"Albums produced by Fred Frith",
"Albums recorded in a home studio",
"Fred Frith albums",
"Fred Records albums",
"Lo-fi music albums",
"Ralph Records albums",
"RecRec Music albums"
] | Cheap at Half the Price is a 1983 solo album by English guitarist, composer and improviser Fred Frith. It was Frith's fifth solo album, and was originally released in the United States on LP record on the Residents' Ralph record label. It was the third of three solo albums Frith made for the label.
Cheap at Half the Price was recorded by Frith at his home in New York City on a 4-track machine. He played all the instruments himself, with the exception of bass guitar on two tracks, and drums, for which he used tapes and samples previously recorded by other drummers. The record differed from Frith's previous experimental albums in that it consisted largely of pop-like songs, and he sang for the first time.
The LP's release in 1983 caused a stir in progressive circles because of its "apparent simplicity" and its departure from the experimental music Frith had become known for. But a remastered version of the album released on CD in 2004 was better received by critics, who admitted that they had overlooked what Frith had been doing at the time.
## Background and recording
Cheap at Half the Price was the third in a series of three solo albums Frith made for the Residents' record label, Ralph Records, the first being Gravity (1980), an avant-garde "dance" record that drew on rhythm and dance from folk music across the world, and the second being Speechless (1981), a mixture of folk music, free improvisation, avant-rock and noise. He had recorded with the Residents in the late 1970s and early 1980s, and appeared on several of their albums. Both Gravity and Speechless were well received by critics.
Frith recorded Cheap at Half the Price at his home in New York City on a 4-track machine. Unlike his two previous albums for Ralph Records, where he used backing bands, on this album Frith played all the instruments himself, with the exception of bass guitar on two tracks, and drums. Bill Laswell from Frith's band Massacre played bass on "Same Old Me", and Tina Curran played bass on "Too Much, Too Little". For the drumming Frith used samples that had been previously recorded of drummers he had worked with, namely Frank Wuyts of Aksak Maboul, Fred Maher from Massacre, Paul Sears of the Muffins, and Hans Bruniusson from Samla Mammas Manna.
## Composition
Cheap at Half the Price differed from Frith's previous experimental albums in that it featured a collection of short songs and instrumentals in a "tongue-in-cheek pop vein". He also played a "cheap" Casio-101 on all the tracks and sang for the first time. AllMusic described Frith's singing on the album as "strange[ly] high-pitched", and the songs as "pop-like ditties" with a "simple and repetitive" structure. Leonardo Digital Reviews said most of the tracks had a "happy-go-lucky" feel to them.
The lyrics on Cheap at Half the Price are politically oriented, set during US President Ronald Reagan's first term of office, with socialist commentaries on, amongst other things, dogs and insects. Despite Frith's apparent departure from his previous progressive albums, some of the tracks on this album have ties to his earlier work. "Some Clouds Do" has a similar "driving rhythm" to Paul Sears' drumming on "What a Dilemma" on Gravity. "Absent Friends", a traditional Swedish melody arranged by Frith, has the same "fun and dance" feel that occurs at the end of "Don't Cry for Me", also on Gravity. "Absent Friends" is also the only track on Cheap at Half the Price that departs from the album's "pop vein".
In contrast to the high-pitched singing on most of the songs, "Same Old Me", one of the few "dark" tracks on the album, is a "gloomily introspective" song featuring some "rough lyrics" that have been slowed to a drawl over "angry riffing" and "relentless bass and percussion". Leonardo Digital Reviews said that this and many of the other songs on the album had a complex structure beneath the apparent "carefree and beaming surface".
## Reception and influence
Followers of Fred Frith's music generally had trouble coming to terms with Cheap at Half the Price. To them Frith was "progressive, genre-bending music's last great hope", and on this album he appeared to have abandoned this role. When the album was released on LP in 1983, Recommended Records, founded and run by Chris Cutler (Frith's band-mate from Henry Cow), elected not to stock it because Cutler felt it was not "terribly good". Trouser Press said that the quality of the record suffered from the lo-fi experiment of recording "at home on a 4-track".
In 1985 Michael Bloom of The Boston Phoenix wrote that Cheap at Half the Price "will never get the hearing it deserves". He said that Frith was trying to shake off this "progressive" mould he had been cast in, and believed that the songs on the album should be judged on their own merit and not as "rarefied art rock". One 1984 reviewer found the album "a very enjoyable recording", and stated that Frith's music "is changing the way many musicians look at the sounds that they take so seriously". The New Gibraltar Encyclopedia of Progressive Rock described Cheap at Half the Price as Frith's response to punk, a low-tech approach to performing songs. It called the album a "twisted pop" record, saying that it is "as uncompromising as everything else Frith recorded". François Couture in a review of Frith's 2002 album, Prints called Cheap at Half the Price "the best tongue-in-cheek take at the New Wave".
Despite the criticism the LP received at the time of its release, the remastered CD issued 21 years later was generally well received. In the 2004 Recommended Records catalogue, Cutler wrote that the album had "raised eyebrows at the time (from, as Fred calls them 'progressive music snobs'—of which I guess I was one) for its apparent simplicity and departure from what was then thought of as Fred Style." René van Peer of Leonardo Digital Reviews admitted in 2005 that he was "one of those snobs" and wrote "I am astonished and embarrassed to find how little I grasped back then of what Frith had put into it." Looking at Frith's projects after Cheap at Half the Price made it clear that what he did on the album was not a departure from his musical experiments, as people saw it at the time, but rather a part of it. Van Peer said (in retrospect) that Cheap at Half the Price "bursts with inventiveness, and eradiates [sic] the irrepressible joy of playful creativity".
Frith's exploration of song forms on this album was later developed further with Tom Cora in Skeleton Crew, where Frith and Cora played "deceptively simple catchy songs", often using melodies derived from Scandinavian and Eastern European traditional music. Songs from Cheap at Half the Price appeared in several of Frith's later projects. Step Across the Border (1990), a film on Frith, and its accompanying soundtrack, featured three such songs, "Same Old Me", "Evolution" and "Too Much Too Little". Keep the Dog, a 1989–1991 Fred Frith review band, played a number of arrangements of songs from this album, including "Walking Song", "Some Clouds Do" and "Instant Party".
## Track listing
All tracks by Fred Frith, except where noted.
### Original 1983 release
### 1991 CD release
♯ donates bonus tracks
## Personnel
- Fred Frith – guitar, 6-string bass, Casio-101, violin, xylophone, homemade instruments, voice
- Frank Wuyts – drums
- Fred Maher – drums
- Paul Sears – drums
- Hans Bruniusson – drum samples
- Tina Curran – bass guitar ("Too Much, Too Little")
- Bill Laswell – bass guitar ("Same Old Me")
- Aksak Maboul – clapping ("Absent Friends")
- Sheena Dupuis – voice ("True Love")
- George Cartwright – alto saxophone ("Person To Person")
### Recording and production
Recorded in August 1983 at Fred Frith's home in New York City by Frith on a 4-track recorder, except for "True Love" (recorded at Noise in New York City) and "Person To Person" (recorded at BC Studio in New York City).
- Fred Frith – engineer, producer (except "True Love", "Person To Person")
- Kramer – engineer ("True Love")
- Martin Bisi – engineer ("Person To Person")
- Paul Zinman – digital mastering
- Peter Bäder – album cover layout
- Busag, Zürich – album cover lithography
- Tina Curran – album cover photography
## CD reissues
In 1991 East Side Digital Records and RecRec Music re-issued Cheap at Half the Price on CD with two additional tracks by Frith: "True Love", from The 20th Anniversary of the Summer of Love (1987) by various artists; and "Person to Person", from North America (1985) by Curlew. In 2004 Fred Records, Frith's own record label and an imprint of Recommended Records, issued a remastered version on CD of the original Cheap at Half the Price LP with no extra tracks. | [
"## Background and recording",
"## Composition",
"## Reception and influence",
"## Track listing",
"### Original 1983 release",
"### 1991 CD release",
"## Personnel",
"### Recording and production",
"## CD reissues"
] | 2,017 | 12,745 |
37,119,350 | Flat Bastion | 1,085,169,760 | Bastion in Gibraltar | [
"Bastions in Gibraltar"
] | Flat Bastion is a bastion which projects southward from the Charles V Wall in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. Once known as the St. Jago's Bastion or the Baluarte de Santiago in Spanish, the fortification was built by the Spanish in the mid 16th century and formed part of the southern defences of the city of Gibraltar, together with Charles V Wall, Southport Gates, Southport Ditch, and South Bastion. In 1859, six guns, four 12-pounders and two 12-pound carronades, were installed on the bastion, and four years later, five 32-pounders were mounted on the fortification.
Flat Bastion takes its name from the angle that its south-facing walls form with each other and with the Charles V Wall. Within the eastern portion of Flat Bastion is Flat Bastion Magazine. The bastion and magazine within it are separately listed with the Gibraltar Heritage Trust. The magazine has been restored and converted into a research facility.
## Background
Flat Bastion is a fortification in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. Its north end is along the Charles V Wall, from which it projects southward. Prince Edward's Gate, Prince Edward's Road, and Trafalgar Cemetery are just to the west of the bastion. Flat Bastion Road extends to the bastion at the east side of its north face at the Charles V Wall and traverses the bastion at which point it becomes Gardiner's Road.
The name of the bastion refers to the faces of the fortification and not to the slope of the ground on which it was built; Flat Bastion was constructed on sloping ground. A 1908 map of the Flat Bastion confirms that its south faces join at an obtuse angle which is relatively flat, and nearly parallel to the Charles V Wall. Flat Bastion includes Flat Bastion Magazine within its eastern portion, now a geological research and exhibition facility. The bastion is a listed building with the Gibraltar Heritage Trust. While St. Jago's Bastion has been said to be an early name for Flat Bastion, it has a separate listing with the Gibraltar Heritage Trust, next to those for Flat Bastion and Flat Bastion Magazine.
## History and features
The Spanish began construction of Flat Bastion in the 16th century, in 1552, at which time it was referred to as St. Jago's or Santiago's Bastion (Spanish: Baluarte de Santiago). According to Dr. Darren Fa and Professor Clive Finlayson, both of the Gibraltar Museum, Flat Bastion was built by 1627. He speculated that Alsatian fortress architect and cartographer Daniel Specklin (1536-1589) may have designed it, as its outline was essentially identical to that in the architect's book, including the presence of a retired flank. An earlier 1608 map of Gibraltar by Cristóbal de Rojas includes Flat Bastion and South Bastion, although the British claimed that the Spanish had never finished the construction of Flat Bastion.
In 1859, six guns, four 12-pounders and two 12-pound carronades, were installed on the bastion, and four years later, five 32-pounders were mounted on the fortification. The earliest defences of the southern end of the city of Gibraltar included the 16th century Charles V Wall, Flat Bastion, South Bastion, Southport Gate, and Southport Ditch. The complex of defences also included Southport Ditch which was depicted in the 1627 map of Gibraltar by Spanish engineer Luis Bravo de Acuña. On that map which is held by the British Museum, the ditch is shown as a Fosso south of Southport Gate. It was a large trench which extended from the southwestern aspect of the 16th century South Bastion to the Flat Bastion at Prince Edward's Gate. The width of the ditch is now indicated by that of Ragged Staff Gates, which initially served as a water gate. By the late 19th century, the ditch was utilised as an ordnance depot, with a magazine constructed in the 1880s. However, by the early 20th century, that same magazine was used as a pump house. After World War I and reclamation of land, the Ragged Staff Gates were opened to vehicular traffic. Gibraltar's Sunken Gardens, a 19th-century market garden, were a remnant of the western portion of the Southport Ditch, and were filled in at the time of the 1967 Referendum Gate. Trafalgar Cemetery represents an eastern remnant of the ditch.
## Gates
Flat Bastion and South Bastion (Spanish: Baluarte de Nuestra Señora del Rosario) were elements in the defence of the Africa Gate (Puerta de Africa), now Southport Gates. Southport Gate is the smallest of a trio of gates, west of Flat Bastion and adjacent to Trafalgar Cemetery, that are known as the Southport Gates. That smallest gate was the first of the three and was constructed by Italian engineer Giovanni Battista Calvi at the same time that he designed the Charles V Wall, in 1552. The gate in the middle of the trio is ornamented with the arms of Queen Victoria and Governor of Gibraltar General Sir John Miller Adye and was built in 1883. The third gate is the largest and was constructed in 1967. Entitled the Referendum Gate, it commemorates the votes cast by Gibraltarians in their sovereignty referendum of 1967. Southport Gates are listed with the Gibraltar Heritage Trust.
Prince Edward's Gate extends from the northwest corner of the bastion and overlooks Trafalgar Cemetery to the southwest and the former St. Jago's Cemetery to the northwest. It was constructed adjacent to the retired flank and behind the orillon of the bastion's west wall, which aided the gate's defence. The gate was named after Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn. At the time the gate was opened in the Charles V Wall, in 1790, the prince was serving with the military in Gibraltar. Prince Edward's Gate is listed with the Gibraltar Heritage Trust.
## Flat Bastion Magazine
The 1908 Ordnance Survey map of Gibraltar reveals Flat Bastion Magazine within the east side of the bastion. The British version of the magazine dates back to at least 1873, as documented on a keystone above one of the magazine's doorways (pictured right). It is considered likely that a magazine was present at that site previously. The magazine was constructed on scree breccia, with underlying limestone bedrock. The road through the bastion is positioned just to the west of the magazine.
The British magazine was constructed to store about five thousands barrels of gunpowder. The main area has been described as a "room within a room" as it is surrounded by a narrow hallway. Numerous wood supports are still present in the magazine. The walls of the magazine were built with bricks to help absorb the impact of explosions. In addition, the oak doors of the magazine date back five or six centuries, well before the British version of the magazine.
Flat Bastion Magazine had been abandoned for years when geology enthusiast Freddie Gomez undertook its restoration. Gomez, whose interests include both history and geology, converted the magazine to a geological research facility and exhibition centre. While much of the contents of the large collection of rocks and minerals are from his collection, other specimens have been donated. The men of the 150 (Yorkshire) Transport Regiment also spent a day performing repairs at the magazine. Gomez aspires to open the site to the public.
The Gibraltar Heritage Trust has presented the Gibraltar Heritage Award annually since 1993. In 2001, the restoration of the Flat Bastion Magazine earned Gomez the 2001 award for "his enthusiasm and single-minded dedication to the restoration and preservation of Flat Bastion Magazine." Flat Bastion Magazine is also listed with the Gibraltar Heritage Trust (in addition to the listing for the bastion itself).
## Gallery | [
"## Background",
"## History and features",
"## Gates",
"## Flat Bastion Magazine",
"## Gallery"
] | 1,673 | 29,555 |
40,356,227 | Typhoon Ellen (1983) | 1,170,304,871 | Pacific typhoon in 1983 | [
"1983 Pacific typhoon season",
"1983 in China",
"Tropical cyclones in 1983",
"Typhoons",
"Typhoons in China"
] | Typhoon Ellen, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Herming, was considered the worst typhoon to hit China since 1979. Typhoon Ellen was first noted as a tropical disturbance east of the International Date Line on August 26, 1983, and became a tropical storm soon after crossing the dateline on the morning of August 29. Initially, strong wind shear inhibited development over the next five days, and the cyclone began to track south of west. On September 2, conditions aloft finally improved and the cyclone strengthened into a typhoon on September 4 as it tracked west-northwest. Approaching Luzon late on September 5, Ellen intensified rapidly into a strong typhoon with winds of 200 km/h (125 mph) before interaction with Luzon began to weaken the cyclone. Its final landfall was at Portuguese Macau on the morning of September 9 as a minimal typhoon. The next day, Ellen ceased to exist.
Despite passing north of the Philippines, the storm killed three and left 15 persons injured. Damage in the country totaled \$680,000 (1983 USD). While passing near British Hong Kong, 50,000 people lost electrical services. Around 200 homes were destroyed; a total 2,000 people lost their homes, 1,600 of whom sought shelter. Throughout the city, eight people perished and 339 were hurt, including 120 seriously. Ellen spawned the second tornado ever recorded in Hong Kong, and the first ever recorded during a typhoon. Elsewhere, in Portuguese Macau, little damage was reported. Offshore, 40 crew members were rescued in a shipwreck. In a separate incident, eight people were lost at sea. Furthermore, ten Taiwan fishing boats capsized in the South China Sea, resulting in 48 fishermen missing, though 103 persons also survived. Overall, damage totaled \$79 million and 23 people died.
## Meteorological history
Typhoon Ellen originated from a tropical disturbance located 500 km (310 mi) south-southwest of the Johnston Atoll on August 26. Based on the development of rainbands, satellite intensity estimates via the Dvorak technique indicated winds of 55 km/h (35 mph). The disturbance crossed the dateline two days later and a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert (TCFA) was subsequently issued. At 0000 UTC on August 29, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) first classified the system. Initially, the storm did not develop significantly due to strong wind shear caused by an intense high pressure area north of the cyclone. This also caused Ellen to turn west-southwest. On August 31, however, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) started warning on the system, declaring it a tropical storm. The next day, the JTWC briefly downgraded the system into a tropical depression; however, the JMA held the storm's intensity to 65 km/h (40 mph) for several days. On September 2, the storm began to turn west-northwest and environmental conditions became much more favorable for development. The JMA upgraded Ellen into a severe tropical storm early the following morning. Later on September 3, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PASAGA) started tracking the storm and assigned it with the local name Herming. At 1200 UTC, the JTWC upgraded Ellen into a typhoon, though the JMA did not follow suit until early on September 4.
After maintaining this intensity for 12 hours, Ellen deepened slightly that evening, though the JTWC suggests that the storm intensified into a Category 2 hurricane on the United States Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale. By midday on September 5, data from both agencies indicated that Ellen developed winds 110 mph (175 km/h) while located 370 km (230 mi) west of Luzon. Thereafter, Ellen began to rapidly intensify and according to the JTWC, the pressure decreased by 28 mbar (0.83 inHg). At 0600 UTC on September 6, Ellen reached peak intensity, with the JMA estimating winds of 120 mph (195 km/h) and a pressure of 925 mbar (27.3 inHg). Meanwhile, the JTWC suggests that Ellen reached a peak intensity of 125 mph (200 km/h) and a slightly higher pressure of 928 mbar (27.4 inHg).
Ellen's peak intensity was short-lived; Typhoon Ellen soon began to weaken steadily as it moved through the Luzon Straits while interacting with Luzon. After turning northwest, the JMA reported the winds had reduced to 90 mph (145 km/h) at 0000 UTC on September 7. At that time, the JTWC noted that Ellen's winds were equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane. However, the JMA suggests that the weakening trend leveled off late on September 7. The next day, PASAGA ceased monitoring the system as it was no longer a threat to the Philippines. According to the JMA, the system moved ashore near Macao at 0000 UTC on September 9 as an 85 mph (135 km/h) typhoon, though the JTWC estimates that the storm was a little weaker at landfall. Ellen dissipated rapidly overland, and the JTWC downgraded Ellen into a tropical depression 12 hours later. However, the JMA kept watching the system until 0600 UTC on September 10.
## Preparations and impact
Due to the storm's threat to Hong Kong, a no. 10 hurricane signal was issued. Across Hong Kong, schools and government offices were ordered to be closed and 250 shelters were opened. In addition, most shops and restaurants as well as all financial markets were closed.
Despite passing north of the Philippines, the storm killed three and 15 people sustained injuries. Damage in the country totaled \$680,000. A total of 605 dwellings were damaged, excluding 105 that were destroyed. Upon making landfall in , winds gusted to 154 km/h (96 mph) at Stanley. Rainfall totaled 231.8 mm (9.13 in) at Hong Kong's Royal Observatory (RO or ROHK, now HKO). Twenty-two ships were wrecked, including a 21,000-ton freighter, forcing the rescue of all 40 crew members. A 185 ft (56 m) yacht Osprey carried nine people, eight of which were lost and presumed dead. Several minor collisions were reported between ships. Along the coastal province Guandong in southern China, communications and public services were disrupted. Ferry services from Hong Kong to Macao were suspended. On September 8, ten Taiwan fishing boats capsized in the South China Sea; consequently, 48 fishermen were missing, though 103 persons survived and later took refuge at Pratas Island, Taiwan (ROC).
In Hong Kong, 50,000 people lost power. About 200 houses were destroyed. More than 2,000 people were left homeless; 1,600 of the homeless sought emergency shelter. Flights to the Kai Tak Airport were cancelled as the airport was closed for 12 hours. Large areas of farmland were damaged. Throughout the city, eight people perished, including a girl that was crushed by a falling cabinet. Two sisters were killed via a landslide while a fireman died when trying to rescue someone. Additionally, 339 people were injured, including 120 seriously. Forty-five people were injured due to flying glass and failing objects. Typhoon Ellen also spawned the second tornado ever recorded in Hong Kong, and the first ever recorded during the passage of a typhoon. According to the HKO, Ellen was Hong Kong's worst typhoon since Typhoon Hope of 1979.
In nearby Macao, minor property damage was reported and 15 people were initially rendered as missing. However, by October 13, 10 people remained missing and were then presumed dead. In all, damage totaled \$79 million (1983 USD) and 20 people were killed due to Typhoon Ellen in mainland China.
## See also
- Typhoon Ora (1972)
- Typhoon Mangkhut - a typhoon in 2018, that followed the same track as Ellen. | [
"## Meteorological history",
"## Preparations and impact",
"## See also"
] | 1,714 | 1,209 |
1,022,685 | Chitinozoan | 1,170,553,773 | Group of marine microfossils | [
"Early Ordovician first appearances",
"Enigmatic animal taxa",
"Palynology",
"Pennsylvanian extinctions",
"Prehistoric marine animals"
] | Chitinozoa (singular: chitinozoan, plural: chitinozoans) are a group of flask-shaped, organic walled marine microfossils produced by an as yet unknown organism. Common from the Ordovician to Devonian periods (i.e. the mid-Paleozoic), the millimetre-scale organisms are abundant in almost all types of marine sediment across the globe. This wide distribution, and their rapid pace of evolution, makes them valuable biostratigraphic markers.
Their bizarre form has made classification and ecological reconstruction difficult. Since their discovery in 1931, suggestions of protist, plant, and fungal affinities have all been entertained. The organisms have been better understood as improvements in microscopy facilitated the study of their fine structure, and it has been suggested that they represent either the eggs or juvenile stage of a marine animal. However, recent research has suggested that they represent the hard shell of a group of protists with uncertain affinities.
Chitinozoan ecology is also open to speculation; some may have floated in the water column, where others may have attached themselves to other organisms. Most species were particular about their living conditions, and tend to be most common in specific paleoenvironments. Their abundance also varied with the seasons.
## Anatomy
Chitinozoa range in length from around 50 to 2000 micrometres. They appear dark to almost opaque when viewed under an optical microscope. Their anatomy is based around the broad chamber, a radially symmetrical region involving a central cavity encased by two layers of a chitin-like substance. The chamber narrows towards the main opening (the aperture), though a circular plug prevents direct contact between the central cavity and its surroundings. This plug may be called an operculum (if it lies at the tip of the aperture) or a prosome (if it lies deep within the narrowed region or neck). The rim of the aperture, known as the collarette, often has a distinctive form or texture.
The base of the chitinozoan lies at the opposite end from the aperture. The base may involve various ornamentation derived from the internal layer. The edge of the base (basal margin) may extend into a sharp radial plate, the carina. Alternatively, it could send out large spines or branches, known as processes. In chitinozoans which attach to substrates or each other in large chains, the center of the base is augmented with apical structures which project down to assist attachment.
External ornamentation is often preserved on the surface of the fossils, in the form of hairs, loops or protrusions, which are sometimes as large as the chamber itself. The range and complexity of ornament increased with time, against a backdrop of decreasing organism size. The earliest Ordovician species were large and smooth-walled; by the mid-Ordovician a large and expanding variety of ornament, and of hollow appendages, was evident. While shorter appendages are generally solid, larger protrusions tend to be hollow, with some of the largest displaying a spongy internal structure. However, even hollow appendages leave no mark on the inner wall of the organisms: this may suggest that they were secreted or attached from the outside. There is some debate about the number of layers present in the organisms' walls: up to three layers have been reported, with the internal wall often ornamented; some specimens only appear to display one such wall layer. The multitude of walls may indeed reflect the construction of the organism, but could be a result of the preservational process.
"Immature" or juvenile examples of chitinozoans have not been found; this may suggest that either they did not "grow", that they were moults (unlikely), or that the fossilisable parts of the organism only formed after the developmental process was complete. However in 2019 a study found that morphological variation of specimens of Desmochitina likely represented a growth series.
Many chitinozoans are found as isolated fossils, but chains of multiple tests, joined from aperture to base, have been reported for all genera. Very long chains twist into helical (spring-shaped) forms. Occasionally, clusters or condensed chains are found, packed in an organic "cocoon".
## Classification
Alfred Eisenack's original description of the Chitinozoans placed them in three families, spanning seven genera, based on morphological grounds. Further genera were identified, at first on an annual basis, as time progressed. Since its publication in 1931, Eisenack's original classification has been much honed by these additional discoveries, as well as advances in microscopy. The advent of the scanning electron microscope in the 1970s allowed the improved detection of surface ornamentation which is hugely important in identification—as can be appreciated by a comparison of the images on this page. Even the light microscope image here is of far greater quality than could have been achieved earlier in the century, using poorly preserved specimens and less advanced microscopes.
The original three families proposed by Eisenack represented the best classification possible with available data, based largely on the presence or absence of chains of organisms and the chamber's shape. The orders were subsequently revised to conform better to Linnean taxonomy, placing related organisms more closely together. This was made possible as scientific advances permitted the identification of distinctive traits in organisms across Eisenack's groups. Features of the base and neck, the presence of spines, and perforations or connections are now considered the most useful diagnostic features.
Chitinozoans are placed into two orders. The order Operculatifera includes those with an operculum over the aperture and no distinct neck. The order Prosomatifera includes those with a clearly discernable neck and an internal prosome.
## Affinities
### Young graptolites
The graptolites are colonial organic walled fossils which also occurred from the Ordovician to the Devonian; only part of their life cycle is known and it is not clear how they reproduced. It has been suggested that the Chitinozoa may represent the pre-sicula stages of graptolites—the period between the colony's sexual reproduction, and the formation of a new colony. This hypothesis appears to be supported by the co-occurrence of graptolite and chitinozoan fossils, whose abundances appear to mirror one another. The similar chemical composition of the fossils has been seized by both sides of the argument. Proponents suggest that the use of the same chemical framework is an indicator that the two may be related. However, this factor means that situations favouring the preservation of one will also tend to preserve the other—and the preparation techniques used to extract the fossils will also favour or disfavour the two groups equally. Therefore, the apparent co-occurrence of the two fossils may merely be an artifact of their similar composition. The hypothesis struggles to explain the continuing abundance of chitinozoans after the middle Devonian, when graptolites became increasingly rare.
### Eggs
The test of the Chitinozoa was fixed—there was no scope for any parts of it to move or rotate. This makes it seem likely that the tests were containers, to protect whatever was inside—whether that was a "hibernating" or encysted organism, or a clutch of hatching eggs. There are several arguments behind an association of the chitinozoans with annelids or gastropods, and it is not impossible that the chitinozoans are a convergent phenomenon laid by both groups. In fact, the spirally coiled nature of chitinozoan chains has been used to suggest that they were laid by a spirally coiled organism, such as the gastropods; were this inference true, uncoiled chains could be attributed to the (straight) annelid worms or other organisms.
Recent excavations of the Soom Shale, an Ordovician konservat-lagerstätten in South Africa, have yielded chitinozoans alongside a wide range of other organisms. It has been suggested that if whatever organism created the Chitinozoa was fossilisable, it would be present in the Soom biota—from which gastropods and graptolites are notable in their absence. Most organisms present in the shale can be ruled out for a variety of reasons, but polychaete worms, Promissum conodonts and orthocone cephalopods remain as likely candidates. However, further evidence connecting chitinozoans to any of these groups is circumstantial at best.
### Protists
Alfred Eisenack's original guess was that the Chitinozoa were amoebae, specifically the rhizopod order Testacea, since similar chitin-based tests were produced by the extant members of this group. However, the chemistry of these tests differs from that of the fossils, and modern Testacea are almost exclusively fresh-water—an extremely different environment. Within a year, he had abandoned this initial idea.
Arguments put forwards by Obut (1973) proposed that the organisms were one-celled "plants" similar to the dinoflagellates, which would now be grouped into the Alveolata. However, as mentioned previously, spines and appendages are attached from the exterior of the vessel: only animals have the cellular machinery necessary to perform such a feat. Further, no analogy for the cocoon envelope can be found in this kingdom.
The cyst forms of a particular group of ciliates, the tintinnids have been suggested to be affiliated to chitinozoans.
In 2020, exceptionally preserved remains of Chitinozoans were described, showing the remains of smaller tests within larger ones, suggesting asexual reproduction.
## Ecology
It is not immediately clear what mode of life was occupied by these improbably shaped fossils, and an answer only becomes apparent after following several lines of reasoning.
The fossils' restriction to marine sediments can be taken as sound evidence that the organisms dwelt in the Palæozoic seas—which presents three main modes of life:
- Infaunal – living within the sediment—the "burrowers"
- Benthic – dwelling upon the sea floor, perhaps anchored in place—the "sitters"
- Pelagic – free-floating in the water column—the "drifters"
An infaunal mode of life can be quickly ruled out, as the fossils are sometimes found in alignment with the depositing current; as nothing attached them to the bottom, they must have fallen from the water column.
The ornament of the chitinozoans may cast light on the question. Whilst in some cases a defensive role—by making the vessel larger, and thus less digestible by would-be predators—seems probable, it is not impossible that the protrusions may have anchored the organisms to the sea floor. However, their low-density construction makes this unlikely: perhaps more plausible is that they acted to attach to other organisms. Longer spines also make the organisms more buoyant, by decreasing their Rayleigh number (i.e. increasing the relative importance of water's viscosity)—it is therefore possible that at least the long-spined chitinozoans were planktonic "floaters". On the other hand, the walls of some chitinozoans were probably too thick and dense to allow them to float.
Whilst little is known about their interactions with other organisms, small holes in the tests of some chitinozoans are evidence that they were hosts to some parasites. Although some forms have been reinterpreted as "pock-marks" caused by the disintegration of the diagenetic mineral pyrite, the clustering of cylindrical holes around the chamber—where the flesh of the organism was likely to be concentrated—is evidence for a biological cause. Corals in Gotland with daily growth markings have been found in association with abundant chitinozoans, which allow the detection of seasonal variation in chitinozoan abundance. A peak in abundance during the late autumn months is observed, with the maxima for different species occurring on different dates. Such a pattern is also observed in modern-day tropical zooplankton. The diversity of living habits is also reflected by the depth of water and distance from the shore. Different species are found in highest abundance at different depths. While deeper waters around 40 km from the shoreline are generally the optimal environment, some species appear to prefer very shallow water. On the whole, chitinozoans are less abundant in turbulent waters or reef environments, implying an aversion to such regimes when alive, if it is not an effect of sedimentary focusing. Chitinozoans also become rarer in shallower water—although the reverse is not necessarily true. They cannot survive freshwater input.
## Stratigraphic application
Since Alfred Eisenack first recognised and named the group in 1930, the Chitinozoa have proven incredibly useful as a stratigraphic markers in biostratigraphy during the Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian periods. Their utility is due to the rapidity of their morphological evolution, their abundance—the most productive samples bearing almost a thousand tests per gram—and the easy identification (due largely to the large variation in shapes) and short lifetimes (\<10 million years) of most species. They are also widely distributed and appear in a variety of marine depositional settings, making correlation easier; better still, they can often be recognised in even quite strongly metamorphosed rocks. However, convergence of morphological form to similar environments sometimes leads to the mistaken identification of a species in several areas separated by vast differences in space and time, but sharing a similar depositional environment; clearly, this can cause major problems if the organisms are interpreted as being the same species. Aside from the acritarchs, chitinozoans were the only reliable means of correlating palæozoic units until the late 1960s, when the detailed study of conodonts and graptolites fully unleashed their stratigraphic potential.
The oldest know chitinozoans appear to be phosphatized remains tentatively referred to the genus Eisenackitina. They were recovered from the Middle Cambrian (Stage 5)–age Gaotai Formation, more than 20 million years before the group is found elsewhere in the Ordovician. Chitinozoans appear to have become extinct at the end of the Devonian; rare Carboniferous and Permian remains may represent reworked fossils or fungal spores. | [
"## Anatomy",
"## Classification",
"## Affinities",
"### Young graptolites",
"### Eggs",
"### Protists",
"## Ecology",
"## Stratigraphic application"
] | 2,989 | 23,140 |
8,420,878 | Grosmont Castle | 1,132,367,508 | Castle ruins in Monmouthshire, Wales | [
"Castle ruins in Wales",
"Grade I listed castles in Monmouthshire",
"Scheduled monuments in Monmouthshire"
] | Grosmont Castle is a ruined castle in the village of Grosmont, Monmouthshire, Wales. The fortification was established by the Normans in the wake of the invasion of England in 1066, to protect the route from Wales to Hereford. Possibly commissioned by William fitz Osbern, the Earl of Hereford, it was originally an earthwork design with timber defences. In 1135, a major Welsh revolt took place, and in response King Stephen brought together Grosmont Castle and its sister fortifications of Skenfrith and White Castle to form a lordship known as the "Three Castles", which continued to play a role in defending the region from Welsh attack for several centuries.
King John gave the castle to a powerful royal official, Hubert de Burgh, in 1201. During the course of the next few decades it passed back and forth between several owners, including Hubert, the rival de Braose family, and the Crown. Hubert rebuilt the castle in stone, beginning with a new hall and then, on regaining the property in 1219, adding a curtain wall, gatehouse and mural towers. In 1233, a royal army camped outside the castle was attacked by rebel forces under the command of Richard Marshal. Edmund, the Earl of Lancaster, gained possession of the castle in 1267, and it remained in the hands of the earldom and later Duchy of Lancaster until 1825.
Edward I's conquest of Wales in 1282 removed much of Grosmont Castle's military utility, although it was besieged in 1405 during the Glyndŵr Rising. By the 16th century it had fallen into disuse and ruin. The castle was placed into the care of the state in 1922, and is now managed by the Cadw Welsh heritage agency.
## History
### 11th–12th centuries
Grosmont Castle was built following the Norman conquest of England in 1066. Shortly after the invasion, the Normans pushed up into the Welsh Marches, and William the Conqueror made William fitz Osbern the Earl of Hereford. The new Earl then added to his estate by capturing the towns of Monmouth and Chepstow. The Normans used castles extensively to subdue the Welsh, establish new settlements and exert their claims of lordship over the territories.
Grosmont was one of three fortifications built in the Monnow valley around this time to protect the route from Wales to Hereford, possibly by the earl himself. The first castle on the site was built from earth and timber, with a keep and a motte protected by a palisade and a ditch. The Normans established a borough alongside the castle, which later became the village of Grosmont.
The earl's landholdings in the region were slowly broken up after William fitz Osbern's son, Roger de Breteuil, rebelled against the Crown in 1075. By the early 12th century, Grosmont was owned by the Anglo-Norman nobleman Pain fitzJohn. In 1135, a major Welsh revolt took place, and in response King Stephen restructured the landholdings along this section of the Marches, bringing Grosmont Castle and its sister fortifications of Skenfrith and White Castle back under the control of the Crown to form a lordship known as the "Three Castles".
Conflict with the Welsh continued, and following a period of détente under Henry II in the 1160s, the de Braose and de Mortimer Marcher families attacked their Welsh rivals during the 1170s, leading to a Welsh assault on nearby Abergavenny Castle in 1182. In response, the Crown readied Grosmont to face a potential Welsh attack. Over the next three years, £15 was spent on the castle under the supervision of Ralph of Grosmont, a royal official, probably for works on the timber fortifications.
### 13th–17th centuries
In 1201, King John gave the "Three Castles" title to Hubert de Burgh. Hubert was a minor landowner who had become King John's household chamberlain while still a prince, and went on to become an increasingly powerful royal official once King John inherited the throne. Hubert began to upgrade his new castles, starting with Grosmont, where he rebuilt the hall block in stone. Hubert was captured fighting the French in 1205 and, while he was imprisoned, King John took back the castles and gave them to William de Braose, one of Hubert's rivals. King John subsequently fell out with William and dispossessed him of his lands in 1207, but de Braose's son, also called William, took the opportunity of the chaos during the First Barons' War to retake the castles.
Once released from captivity, Hubert regained his grip on power, becoming the royal justiciar and being made the Earl of Kent, before finally recovering the Three Castles in 1219 during the reign of Henry III. He resumed his work at Grosmont, rebuilding the timber walls in stone and adding three mural towers and a gatehouse to its defences. The result was secure, high-status accommodation. Hubert fell from power in 1232 and was stripped of the castles, which were placed under the command of Walerund Teutonicus, a royal servant. King Henry led an army into Wales in 1233 against the rebellious Richard Marshal, the Earl of Pembroke, and his Welsh allies, and camped outside Grosmont Castle that November. Richard carried out a night attack on their encampment and, while not taking the castle itself, forced the rest of the King's army to flee in confusion.
Hubert was reconciled with the King in 1234 and the castles were returned to him, only for him to fall out with King Henry III again in 1239: Grosmont was taken back and put under the command of Walerund. Walerund completed some of Hubert's work, including building a new chapel. In 1254, Grosmont Castle and her sister fortifications were granted to King Henry's eldest son and later king, Edward. The Welsh threat persisted, and in 1262 the castle was readied in response to Prince Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's attack on Abergavenny in 1262; commanded by its constable Gilbert Talbot, Grosmont was ordered to be garrisoned "by every man, and at whatever cost". The threat passed without incident.
Edmund, the Earl of Lancaster and the capitaneus of the royal forces in Wales, was given the Three Castles in 1267 and for many centuries they were held by the earldom, and later duchy, of Lancaster. King Edward I's conquest of Wales in 1282 removed much of Grosmont's military utility, but, under either Henry of Lancaster or his son Henry of Grosmont, the interior of the castle was modernised in the first half of the 14th century to create a suite of high quality apartments. A deer park was maintained around the castle. The historian Jeremy Knight describes the castle at this time as forming "a small but very comfortable residence".
The castle's final military role was during the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr at the start of the 15th century. There was a battle between the Welsh and Richard Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick near Grosmont in 1404, leading to an English victory. The castle was besieged the next year by Owain's son, Gruffudd, but the castle was relieved by an English force sent by Prince Henry. By 1538, Grosmont Castle had fallen into disuse and then into ruin; a 1563 survey notes that its bridge had collapsed and that, although the outer walls were intact, the interior was in decay and its building materials inside had either been removed or were rotten. A 1613 description noted that it was "ruynous and decayed".
### 18th–21st centuries
In 1825, the Three Castles estates were sold off to Henry Somerset, the 6th Duke of Beaufort. In 1902, Henry Somerset, the 9th Duke, sold Grosmont Castle to Sir Joseph Bradney, a soldier and local historian. Evidence was given to the Royal Commission on Ancient Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire in 1909, stating that Grosmont was exceptionally well looked after. The castle was placed into the care of the state in 1922 by Frances Lucas-Scudamore, and conservation work was carried out, including clearing the basement of the north block of debris. In the 21st century, Grosmont Castle is managed by the Welsh heritage organisation Cadw and is protected under UK law as a grade I listed building.
## Architecture
Grosmont Castle overlooks the village of the same name, and in its current form dates mostly from the work carried out by Hubert de Burgh with later 14th-century additions. It originally comprised an inner and an outer ward, but the latter has been encroached upon by local gardens. The outer ward would have held a rectangular storehouse or stable. The inner ward forms a stone castle with a gatehouse, two circular mural towers, a hall and a north accommodation block, the whole being protected by a ditch. Originally other timber buildings would have been raised against the outer stone wall as accommodation for the castle's servants, but only limited traces of these survive.
The gatehouse was originally a two-storey, rectangular tower with 14th-century additions, including a buttressed drawbridge pit, but only limited parts of it now survive. The south-west tower was converted into a three-storey suite of rooms in the 14th century; its basement was filled in. The three-storey west tower was also altered during the 14th century, and the basement filled in. The north block is primarily a 14th-century addition to the castle, built over the remains of one of the circular towers and the old postern gate. It comprises three distinct buildings, the largest being a three-storey residential tower. The block has a distinctive octagonal chimney with a carved top.
The hall block is a pilaster-buttressed, two-storey building, 96 by 32 feet (29.3 by 9.8 m) across, with the floors originally linked by a spiral staircase. The first floor of the block contained the hall and a solar room separated by a wooden divide; the hall had a fireplace in the middle of its exterior wall, with two large windows on either side. The ground floor had two service rooms lit by narrow loop windows. An external wooden staircase would have led up directly into the main hall from the inner ward. The block would have closely resembled de Burgh's hall at Christchurch Castle in Dorset.
### Interior of castle
## See also
- Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
- List of castles in Wales
- Three Castles Walk | [
"## History",
"### 11th–12th centuries",
"### 13th–17th centuries",
"### 18th–21st centuries",
"## Architecture",
"### Interior of castle",
"## See also"
] | 2,314 | 28,731 |
3,499,721 | Getty Villa | 1,173,512,797 | Art museum in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, United States | [
"1954 establishments in California",
"1970s architecture in the United States",
"Art museums and galleries in Los Angeles",
"Art museums established in 1954",
"Buildings and structures completed in 1974",
"Culture of Los Angeles",
"Gardens in California",
"J. Paul Getty Museum",
"J. Paul Getty Trust",
"Landmarks in Los Angeles",
"Museums of ancient Greece in the United States",
"Museums of ancient Rome in the United States",
"Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles",
"Replica buildings",
"Sculpture galleries in the United States",
"Sculpture gardens, trails and parks in California",
"Villas in the United States"
] | The Getty Villa is an educational center and art museum located at the easterly end of the Malibu coast in the Pacific Palisades neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, United States. One of two campuses of the J. Paul Getty Museum, the Getty Villa is dedicated to the study of the arts and cultures of ancient Greece, Rome, and Etruria. The collection has 44,000 Greek, Roman, and Etruscan antiquities dating from 6,500 BC to 400 AD, including the Lansdowne Heracles and the Victorious Youth. The UCLA/Getty Master's Program in Archaeological and Ethnographic Conservation is housed on this campus.
## History
In 1954, oil tycoon J. Paul Getty opened a gallery adjacent to his home in Pacific Palisades. Quickly running out of room, he built a second museum, the Getty Villa, on the property down the hill from the original gallery. The villa design was inspired by the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum and incorporated additional details from several other ancient sites. It was designed by architects Robert E. Langdon, Jr., and Ernest C. Wilson, Jr., in consultation with archeologist Norman Neuerburg. It opened in 1974, but was never visited by Getty, who died in 1976. Following his death, the museum inherited \$661 million and began planning a much larger campus, the Getty Center, in nearby Brentwood. The museum overcame neighborhood opposition to its new campus plan by agreeing to limit the total size of the development on the Getty Center site. To meet the museum's total space needs, the museum decided to split between the two locations with the Getty Villa housing the Greek, Roman, and Etruscan antiquities. In 1993, the Getty Trust selected the Boston architects Rodolfo Machado and Jorge Silvetti to design a renovation of the Getty Villa and its campus. In 1997, portions of the museum's collection of Greek, Roman and Etruscan antiquities were moved to the Getty Center for display, and the Getty Villa was closed for renovation. The collection was restored during the renovation.
In 2004, during the renovation, the museum and the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), began holding summer institutes in Turkey, studying the conservation of Middle Eastern Art.
Reopened on January 28, 2006, the Getty Villa shows Greek, Roman, and Etruscan antiquities within Roman-inspired architecture and surrounded by Roman-style gardens. The art is arranged by themes, e.g., Gods and Goddesses, Dionysos and the Theater, and Stories of the Trojan War. The new architectural plan surrounding the Villa – which was conceived by Machado and Silvetti Associates (who were also responsible for the plans for the renovated museum) – is designed to simulate an archaeological dig. Architectural Record has praised their work on the Getty Villa as "a near miracle – a museum that elicits no smirks from the art world ... a masterful job ... crafting a sophisticated ensemble of buildings, plazas, and landscaping that finally provides a real home for a relic of another time and place."
In 2016–2018 the collection was reinstalled in a chronological arrangement emphasizing art-historical themes.
There has been controversy surrounding the Greek and Italian governments' claim that objects in the collection were looted and should be repatriated. In 2006, the Getty returned or promised to return four looted objects to Greece: a stele (grave marker), a marble relief, a gold funerary wreath, and a marble statue. In 2007, the Getty signed an agreement to return 40 looted items to Italy.
The villa was host to leaders of the Western Hemisphere for dinner, held by President Joe Biden and First Lady Jill Biden in honor of the 9th Summit of the Americas on June 9, 2022, which was a first for the Villa.
## Facility and programs
The Getty Villa hosts live performances in both its indoor auditorium and its outdoor theatre. Indoor play-readings included The Trojan Women, Aristophanes' The Frogs, and Euripides' Helen. Indoor musical performances, which typically relate to art exhibits, included: Musica Angelica, De Organographia, and Songs from the Fifth Age: Sones de México in Concert. The auditorium also held a public reading of Homer's Iliad. Outdoor performances included Aristophanes' Peace, Aeschylus's Agamemnon, and Sophocles' Elektra. The Getty Villa also hosts visiting exhibitions beyond its own collections. For example, in March 2011 "In Search of Biblical Lands" was a photographic exhibition which included scenes of the Middle East dating back to the 1840s.
The Getty Villa offers special educational programs for children. A special Family Forum gallery offers activities including decorating Greek vases and projecting shadows onto a screen that represents a Greek urn. The room also has polystyrene props from Greek and Roman culture for children to handle and use to cast shadows. The Getty Villa also offers children's guides to the other exhibits.
The Getty Conservation Institute offers a Master's Program in Archaeological and Ethnographic Conservation in association with the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA. Classes and research are conducted in the museum wing of the ranch house. The program was the first of its kind in the United States.
## Campus
The Villa self-identifies with Malibu as it is located just east of the city limits of Malibu in the city of Los Angeles in the community of Pacific Palisades. The 64 acres (26 ha) museum complex sits on a hill overlooking the Pacific Ocean, which is about 100 yards (91 m) from the entrance to the property. An outdoor 2,500-square-foot (230 m<sup>2</sup>) entry pavilion is also built into the hill near the 248-car, four story, South Parking garage at the southern end of the Outer Peristyle. To the west of the Museum is a 450-seat outdoor Greek theater where evening performances are staged, named in honor of Barbara and Lawrence Fleischman. The theater faces the west side of the Villa and uses its entrance as a stage. To the northwest of the theatre is a three-story, 15,500-square-foot (1,440 m<sup>2</sup>) building built into the hill that contains the museum store on the lower level, a cafe on the second level, and a private dining room on the top level. North of the Villa is a 10,000 sq ft (930 m<sup>2</sup>) indoor 250-seat auditorium. On the hill above the museum are Getty's original private ranch house and the museum wing that Getty added to his home in 1954. They are now used for curatorial offices, meeting rooms and as a library. Although not open to the public, the campus includes J. Paul Getty's grave on the hill behind his ranch house. A 200-car North Parking Garage is behind the ranch complex. The 105,500-square-foot (9,800 m<sup>2</sup>) museum building is arranged in a square opening into the Inner Peristyle courtyard. The 2006 museum renovation added 58 windows facing the Inner Peristyle and a retractable skylight over the atrium. It also replaced the terrazzo floors in the galleries and added seismic protection with new steel reinforcing beams and new isolators in the bases of statues and display cases. The museum has 48,000 sq ft (4,500 m<sup>2</sup>) of gallery space.
Writing in 2008, the architectural critic Calum Storrie described the overall effect:
> What the Getty Villa achieves, first by seclusion, then by control of access, and ultimately through the architecture, is a sense of detachment from its immediate environment.
### Gardens
There are four different gardens on the grounds of the Getty Villa, planted with plants native to the Mediterranean and known to have been cultivated by the ancient Romans. The largest garden is that of the Outer Peristyle, an exact proportional replica of the one at the Villa dei Papiri. The garden is 308 by 105 feet (94 m × 32 m), with a 220 feet (67 m) long pool at the center. Traditional Roman landscaping designs are replicated with manicured bay laurel, boxwood, oleander, and viburnum shrubs. There are rows of date palms lining each of the long sides of the Outer Peristyle garden, while each corner features pomegranate trees surrounded by ornamental plants like acanthus, ivy, hellebore, lavender, and iris. Copies of Roman bronzes excavated at the Villa dei Papiri and elsewhere are scattered throughout the garden.
Just west of the Outer Peristyle is the Herb Garden, where traditional herbs sourced from ancient Roman texts are cultivated along with a variety of fruit trees: pomegranate, fig, apricot, apple, citrus, and pear. The garden is surrounded by grapevines, and bounded by an olive grove planted on terraces above the garden. The East Garden is small and secluded, surrounded by laurel and plane trees. Its chief feature is an exact replica of the famous shell and mosaic fountain at the House of the Great Fountain in Pompeii, but there is also a circular fountain at the center of a basin filled with aquatic plants, around which the garden is oriented. The fourth and final garden is that of the Inner Peristyle. Like the Outer Peristyle, a long, narrow, marble lined pool forms the centerpiece of the landscaping; along each side are replicas of bronze female statues from the Villa dei Papiri, modelled to appear as if they are drawing water from the pool. In each corner of the garden is a replica white marble fountain, and there are also several bronze copies of famous Greek sculptures like the Doryphoros and busts of Greek philosophers like Pythagoras and Democritus.
## Collection
The collection has 44,000 Greek, Roman, and Etruscan antiquities dating from 6,500 BC to 400 AD, of which approximately 1,400 are on view.
Among the outstanding items is Victorious Youth, one of few life-size Greek bronze statues to have survived to modern times. The Lansdowne Heracles is a Hadrianic Roman sculpture in the manner of Lysippus. The Villa also has jewelry and coin collections and an extensive 20,000 volume library of books covering art from these periods. The Villa also displays the Getty kouros, which the museum lists as "Greek, about 530 B.C., or modern forgery" because scientific analysis is inconclusive as to whether the marble statue can be dated to Greek times. If genuine, the Getty kouros is one of only twelve remaining intact lifesize kouroi. The Marbury Hall Zeus is an 81 in (2.1 m) tall marble statue that was recovered from ruins at Tivoli near Rome.
### GettyGuide
Detailed information about the J. Paul Getty Museum's collection, audio tours, and maps of the Museum are provided on the "GettyGuide" app.
## Gallery
## See also
- Camillo Paderni described parts the Villa of the Papyri | [
"## History",
"## Facility and programs",
"## Campus",
"### Gardens",
"## Collection",
"### GettyGuide",
"## Gallery",
"## See also"
] | 2,351 | 25,074 |
21,771,468 | Scutellinia scutellata | 1,114,832,075 | Species of fungus | [
"Fungi described in 1753",
"Fungi of Africa",
"Fungi of Asia",
"Fungi of Colombia",
"Fungi of Europe",
"Fungi of Iceland",
"Fungi of New Guinea",
"Fungi of North America",
"Fungi of Oceania",
"Fungi of South America",
"Fungi without expected TNC conservation status",
"Human eyelashes",
"Inedible fungi",
"Pyronemataceae",
"Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus"
] | Scutellinia scutellata, commonly known as the eyelash cup, the Molly eye-winker, the scarlet elf cap, the eyelash fungus or the eyelash pixie cup, is a small saprophytic fungus of the genus Scutellinia. It is the type species of Scutellinia, as well as being the most common and widespread. The fruiting bodies are small red cups with distinct long, dark hairs or "eyelashes". These eyelashes are the most distinctive feature and are easily visible with a magnifying glass. The species is common in North America and Europe, and has been recorded on every continent. S. scutellata is found on rotting wood and in other damp habitats, typically growing in small groups, sometimes forming clusters. It is sometimes described as inedible, but its small size means it is not suitable for culinary use. Despite this, it is popular among mushroom hunters due to its unusual "eyelash" hairs, making it memorable and easy to identify.
## Taxonomy
Scutellinia scutellata was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in his book Species Plantarum as Peziza scutellata, and it was given its current name by Jean Baptiste Émil Lambotte in Memoires societe royale des sciences de Liege in 1887. It was also named Patella scutellata in 1902. The specific name scutellata is from the Latin for "like a small shield". Common names include the eyelash fungus, the eyelash cup, the scarlet elf cap, the Molly eye-winker and the eyelash pixie cup.
The genus Scutellinia is currently placed in the family Pyronemataceae. However, genera of the Pyronemataceae lack unifying macroscopic or microscopic characteristics; this lack of uniting characters has led various authors to propose a variety of classification schemes. A 1996 study of British specimens of Scutellinia revealed that the species S. crinita, originally described as Peziza crinita in 1789 by French botanist Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard, was synonymous with S. scutellata.
## Description
The fruiting body of S. scutellata is a shallow disc shape, typically between 0.2 to 1 cm (0.1 to 0.4 in) in diameter. The youngest specimens are almost entirely spherical; the cups open up and expand to a disc during maturity. The inner surface of the cup (the fertile spore-bearing surface, known as the hymenium) is bright orange-red, while the outer surface (the sterile surface) is pale brown. The flesh is red and thin. The outer surface is covered in dark coloured, stiff hairs, measuring up to 1 centimetre (0.4 in) in length. At the base, these hairs are up to 40 μm (0.0016 in) thick, and they taper towards the pointed apices. The hairs form distinctive "eyelashes" on the margin of the cup that are visible to the naked eye. or easily visible through a magnifying glass. S. scutellata is sessile—it does not have a stalk.
### Microscopic features
Scutellinia scutellata has asci of approximately 300 μm by 25 μm in size, and releases elliptical spores measuring 18 to 19 μm by 10 to 12 μm. The translucent (hyaline) ascospores have a rough exterior, (with very small warts) and contain small droplets of oil. They are white when present in large numbers, like a spore print. The paraphyses are cylindrical in shape and feature septa partitioning the hypha into distinct cells. Electron microscopy of the top of the ascus has revealed a roughly delimited operculum (a flap-like covering of the ascus) and ascostome (a pore in the apex of the ascus), and a subapical ring.
## Edibility
Scutellinia scutellata is inedible. David Arora considers it too small to be of any culinary interest, and it lacks a distinctive smell or taste.
## Distribution and habitat
Scutellinia scutellata is common in both Europe, where it can be found from late spring to late autumn, and North America, where it fruits in winter and spring. It has also been collected in Cameroon, Colombia, East Asia, India, Iceland, Israel, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, Russia, and Turkey.
A saprobic species, it grows generally in subalpine regions, fruiting on rotten wood and damp soil, and can also sometimes be found on ashes, wet leaves or bracket fungi. In Alaska it has been found growing on humus in the tundra. A six-year study of the succession of fungal flora appearing on freshly cut stumps of Poplar trees (Populus canadensis) showed that S. scutellata appeared roughly in the middle of the fungal succession (about 2–4 years after the tree had been cut), along with the species Ascocoryne sarcoides, Scutellinia cervorum, and Lasiosphaeria spermoides. When growing on wood, it is often obscured by surrounding moss. Though sometimes found alone, they typically fruit in groups, sometimes forming dense clusters on rotting wood or other plant detritus. Due to its small size, it is often overlooked, but mycologist Vera Evenson has observed that "the discovery of the Eyelash Cup is always a great pleasure", due to "the beauty of the eyelashes". Vera McKnight describes it as "a most attractive little fungus", and claims it is easy to notice due to its bright colouration.
## Carotenoids
The carotenoids are pigmented molecules found naturally in plants, and some types of fungi, including S. scutellata. A 1965 study reported the carotenoid composition of this fungus, found to contain a high proportion of monocyclic carotenes—carotenes with only one cyclohexene ring, such as beta-carotene. Also present were minor amounts of xanthophyll, a molecule structurally related to the carotenes.
## Similar species
Of more than a dozen species of Scutellinia, S. scutellata is the most common and widespread, though a microscope is required to differentiate between some of them. It is also the type species of the genus. It is differentiated from most other Scutellinia by its larger size, and its distinctive "eyelashes". Although David Arora describes S. scutellata as "easily recognizable", it can be mistaken for S. umbrarum (which has a larger fruiting body and larger spores, as well as having shorter, less obvious hairs) S. erinaceus (which is slightly smaller, and orange to yellow in colour, with smooth spores), Cheilymenia crucipila (which is much smaller, with short, pale hairs and spores lacking oil droplets) and Melastiza chateri, which is bright orange with small brown hairs. The "Pennsylvania eyelash cup" (S. pennsylvanica) is a smaller North American version that has smaller hairs and spores that are more coarsely warted than S. scutellata. S. barlae is very similar as well, and can only be reliably distinguished by its roughly spherical ascospores that are typically 17–23 μm in diameter. Species from the genus Lamprospora are smaller and hairless. Similar fungi that favour dung over rotting wood include Cheilymenia coprinaria, C. theleboides, and Coprobia granulata while species such as Anthracobia macrocystis, Anthracobia melaloma, Trichophaea abundans, Pyronema omphalodes, Pulvinula carbonaria and Pulvinula archeri are cup fungi that favour burned-over ground. Another similar species is Lachnellula arida. | [
"## Taxonomy",
"## Description",
"### Microscopic features",
"## Edibility",
"## Distribution and habitat",
"## Carotenoids",
"## Similar species"
] | 1,704 | 6,890 |
52,252,501 | Joseph Heleluhe | 1,161,673,163 | Hawaiian nobleman | [
"1855 births",
"1900 deaths",
"19th-century deaths from tuberculosis",
"Burials at Kawaiahaʻo Church",
"Hawaiian Kingdom people",
"Hawaiian nobility",
"Hilo Boarding School alumni",
"People from Hawaii (island)",
"Secretaries",
"Tuberculosis deaths in Hawaii"
] | Joseph Hewahewa Kaimihakulani Heleluhe (June 2, 1855 – July 8, 1900) was a member of the Hawaiian nobility who served as a retainer and private secretary of Queen Liliʻuokalani, the last monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii, and accompanied her on her trips to the United States and Washington, D.C., from 1896 to 1900 to prevent the American annexation of Hawaii.
## Life
### Early life
He was born on June 2, 1855, on the island of Hawaiʻi. English language newspapers claimed he was a native of Kaʻū while the Ke Aloha Aina, a Hawaiian language newspaper, claimed he was born in Kapoho, Puna. His parents were Heleluhe and Kanoa. He had four known sisters: Keoki, Kaioewa, Kanoa, and Ana. From his mother Kanoa, he descended from Alapaʻinui and his son Keaweʻōpala, the kings of the island of Hawaiʻi prior to the accession of Kalaniʻōpuʻu. His father was possibly the same individual as J. H. Heleluhe, who served in the legislature of the kingdom as a member of the House of Representatives for the district of Puna during the legislative assembly of 1855, 1862, 1864, 1866 and 1867.
He attended the local schools in the Puna district and later studied at the Hilo Boarding School under American missionary David Belden Lyman. After finishing his education, he did physical labor in the district of Kaʻū for a time before going to Honolulu to serve King Kalākaua.
### Service to the Hawaiian monarchy
After coming to Honolulu, Heleluhe worked as a retainer for the royal family. He served King Kalākaua as an under-secretary. He also worked as a steward for Kalākaua's sister and successor Liliʻuokalani, and accompanied her to the leper settlement at Kalaupapa on Molokai in 1891. He steadily rose in rank until he was appointed her private secretary in 1896. In 1892. Heleluhe was nominated as a National Reform Party candidate for the House of Representatives for Oʻahu's first ward. He lost this election. After the overthrow of the monarchy in 1893, Heleluhe and his wife Wakeke Ululani remained loyal to the royalist cause and supported the deposed Queen Liliʻuokalani. Following the outbreak of the unsuccessful 1895 Counter-Revolution, Heleluhe was arrested, held as a political prisoner, and temporarily imprisoned by forces loyal to the Republic of Hawaii in order for him to "disclose the queen's treachery." Queen Liliʻuokalani, who was also imprisoned in the former ʻIolani Palace, described the ordeal Heleluhe had to endure in her 1898 memoir Hawaii's Story by Hawaii's Queen:
> Mr. Heleluhe was taken by the government officers, stripped of all clothing, placed in a dark cell without light, food, air, or water, and was kept there for hours in hopes that the discomfort of his position would induce him to disclose something of my affairs. After this was found to be fruitless, he was imprisoned for about six weeks; when, finding their efforts in vain, his tormentors released him. No charge was ever brought against him in any way, which is true of about two hundred persons who were similarly confined.
Between 1896 and 1900, Heleluhe accompanied Queen Liliʻuokalani on her many trips abroad to the United States and Washington, D.C., to campaign against the American annexation of Hawaii and then assisted her in her attempts to reclaim the crown land after 1898. Initially, Elizabeth Kia Nahaolelua was chosen to be her lady-in-waiting but after the trips were extended, Heleluhe's wife Wakeke replaced her in the royal party as lady-in-waiting to the queen. From 1897 to 1898, Heleluke was also actively involved in rallying Hawaiians in signing the Kūʻē Petitions and petitioning against annexation. In 1897, he wrote to US President William McKinley and Secretary of State John Sherman with the petitions collected by Hui Aloha ʻĀina (Hawaiian Patriotic League) and Hui Kālaiʻāina (Hawaiian Political Association).
Following Liliʻuokalani's return to Hawaii in 1900, the 45-year-old Heleluhe succumbed to tuberculosis, on July 8, 1900. When it became evident his death was near, his final request was to die at Washington Place. Although he expired before arrival at the queen's residence, his funeral was held there. He was buried at the Kawaiahaʻo Church cemetery.
## Family
Heleluhe married Wakeke Ululani Heleluhe, from Maui, who served as a lady-in-waiting to Queen Liliʻuokalani. They had two children: Jack Paokalani Heleluhe (1880–1958) and Myra Kailipanio Heleluhe Iona (1879–1934). Jack, also known as "Prince Jack Heleluhe", worked as a musician and member of the Royal Hawaiian Band; he became one of the first musicians to play Hawaiian music in the United States and was featured on N. B. Bailey's 1914 book A Practical Method for Self Instruction on the Ukulele and Banjo Ukulele. Myra, sometimes referred to as Heleluhe's stepdaughter, became a protège of the queen at a young age and accompanied her to Washington, D.C., with her family. She later served as an associate of Princess Elizabeth Kahanu Kalanianaʻole and Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole.
In 1906, Wakeke lost favor with the queen after an attempt to discredit Lydia Kaʻonohiponiponiokalani Aholo, the queen's hānai daughter, backfired, and she was evicted from the houses she occupied at Washington Place and the queen's residence in Waikiki by the queen and her financial agent Joseph O. Carter. The reasons given for the queen's anger was Wakeke's "disloyalty to me and dishonesty"; she had lied to Aholo that the queen never wished to see her again. She may have later reconciled with the queen because Wakeke and Onaala were listed as two of her old retainers at the deathbed of the queen. She, her daughter Myra and Lahilahi Webb stood vigil by Liliʻuokalani's casket while her body laid in the Royal Mausoleum prior to her final interment in the vault of the Kalākaua Crypt. Wakeke died at her Honolulu home, on November 21, 1921. | [
"## Life",
"### Early life",
"### Service to the Hawaiian monarchy",
"## Family"
] | 1,529 | 29,044 |
15,577,066 | Literary Hall | 1,065,162,433 | A mid-19th-century library and museum in Romney, West Virginia | [
"1870 establishments in West Virginia",
"Buildings and structures in Romney, West Virginia",
"Clubhouses on the National Register of Historic Places in West Virginia",
"Federal architecture in West Virginia",
"Former Masonic buildings in West Virginia",
"Former library buildings in the United States",
"Greek Revival architecture in West Virginia",
"Hampshire County, West Virginia, in the American Civil War",
"Libraries on the National Register of Historic Places in West Virginia",
"Library buildings completed in 1870",
"Museums in Hampshire County, West Virginia",
"National Register of Historic Places in Hampshire County, West Virginia",
"Romney Literary Society",
"Victorian architecture in West Virginia"
] | Literary Hall is a mid-19th-century brick library, building and museum located in Romney, a city in the U.S. state of West Virginia. It is located at the intersection of North High Street (West Virginia Route 28) and West Main Street (U.S. Route 50). Literary Hall was constructed between 1869 and 1870 by the Romney Literary Society.
Founded in 1819, the Romney Literary Society was the first literary organization of its kind in the present-day state of West Virginia, and one of the first in the United States. In 1846, the society constructed a building which housed the Romney Classical Institute and its library. The Romney Literary Society and the Romney Classical Institute both flourished and continued to grow in importance and influence until the onset of the American Civil War in 1861.
During the war, the contents of the society's library were plundered by Union Army forces, and many of its 3,000 volumes were either scattered or destroyed. After a reorganization in 1869, the society commenced construction of the present Literary Hall in downtown Romney. It transferred ownership of its Romney Classical Institute campus to the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind in 1870 and in that year completed Literary Hall, where the society reconstituted its library collection and revived its literary activities.
The Romney Literary Society's last meeting was held at Literary Hall in 1886. From that point to 1973 the building was used as a meeting space by the Clinton Lodge of Ancient Free and Accepted Masons and the Order of the Eastern Star. In 1973, the building was purchased by prominent Romney lawyer Ralph Haines, who used it as a law office and museum. From 1937 to the early 1940s the building also housed a community library. Literary Hall was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 29, 1979.
## Geography and setting
Literary Hall is located in the center of downtown Romney, West Virginia, at the intersection of North High Street (West Virginia Route 28) and West Main Street (U.S. Route 50) on a city lot less than one acre (0.40 ha) in size. The Hampshire County Courthouse is immediately to its east across North High Street, and the Romney First United Methodist Church is situated immediately to the building's north. The Old National Building is located to the immediate south of Literary Hall across West Main Street. Literary Hall stands at an elevation of 820.3 feet (250.0 m) above sea level.
## History
### Location
The land upon which Literary Hall was established was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary, a land grant that the exiled Charles II awarded to seven of his supporters in 1649 during the English Interregnum. Following the Restoration in 1660, Charles II finally ascended to the English throne. Charles II renewed the Northern Neck Proprietary grant in 1662, revised it in 1669, and again renewed the original grant favoring original grantee Thomas Colepeper, 2nd Baron Colepeper and Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington in 1672. In 1681, Bennet sold his share to Lord Colepeper, and Lord Colepeper received a new charter for the entire land grant from James II in 1688. Following the deaths of Lord Colepeper, his wife Margaret, and his daughter Katherine, the Northern Neck Proprietary passed to Katherine's son Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron in 1719.
Literary Hall was built upon a land lot designated "Lot 56" to the immediate west of the public square of Romney. In 1790, the trustees of the Town of Romney commissioned John Mitchel to draft a cadastral survey map of Romney. Prior to this survey, Lord Fairfax had commissioned a similar cadastral survey of Romney sometime before the town's incorporation on December 23, 1762. On June 30, 1790, Mitchel submitted to the trustees a "Plan of the Town of Romney", which divided the town into 100 land lots of equal size, with four lots adjacent to the courthouse comprising the public square.
### Romney Literary Society
The Romney Literary Society, which built Literary Hall between 1869 and 1870, was organized by nine prominent men in Romney on January 30, 1819. With its establishment in 1819, the Romney Literary Society became the first literary organization of its kind in the present-day state of West Virginia, and one of the first in the United States. On February 4, 1819, the constitution of the society was adopted, which provided that the organization should be known as the "Polemic Society of Romney". The society founded its library in 1819 with the acquisition of two books, and by 1861 the society's humble library had grown to contain approximately 3,000 volumes, consisting of books on literature, science, history and art.
The Romney Literary Society commenced a movement to establish an institution for "the higher education of the youth of the community". As a result of this initiative, the teaching of the classics was introduced into the curriculum of Romney Academy in 1820, thus making the institution the first school of higher education in the Eastern Panhandle. In 1846, the society constructed a new building to house the Romney Classical Institute and its library, both of which fell under the society's supervision.
The Romney Literary Society and the Romney Classical Institute both flourished and continued to grow in importance and influence until the onset of the Civil War in 1861. During the war, many members fought for the Confederate States Army forces and were killed during the conflict. The contents of the society's library were plundered by Union Army forces, and many of its 3,000 volumes were either scattered or destroyed. Following the war's end, only 400 of those volumes could be recovered, with just 200 remaining on the library's shelves.
The Romney Literary Society reorganized on May 15, 1869. Following the reorganization, the society built Literary Hall between 1869 and 1870 while also undertaking an initiative to bring the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind to its old Romney Classical Institute campus. The construction of Literary Hall was part of the society's effort to revive the organization and reassemble its original library. The society set about recovering original volumes and purchasing new ones, and the library reopened with 700 volumes. For a period of ten years between 1870 and 1880, much of Romney's intellectual life centered on Literary Hall. As older members died, interest in the society began to dwindle. The society's meetings were held less frequently, and its last recorded meeting was held on February 15, 1886.
### Clinton Lodge
The Clinton Lodge of Ancient Free and Accepted Masons was the second organization to utilize Literary Hall as a meeting place. The Clinton Lodge was the first Masonic lodge to be chartered in Hampshire County and is among the earliest Masonic lodges to be established in present-day West Virginia. It was chartered by the Grand Lodge of Virginia on December 13, 1825. The lodge underwent four periods of hiatus: first, between 1838 and December 15, 1846; a second time between 1855 and its rechartering on July 3, 1857; a third time between 1861 and December 11, 1867, during the Civil War and Reconstruction; and a fourth time between November 29, 1881, and November 12, 1890, when it was again reactivated.
Following the completion of Literary Hall in 1870, the Clinton Lodge Masons regularly utilized the first floor of the building as a meeting space, while the Romney Literary Society maintained its use of the second floor as a library. Between its various periods of dormancy, the Clinton Lodge and the associated Order of the Eastern Star, which was organized in July 1919, utilized Literary Hall as a meeting space, and following the Romney Literary Society's disestablishment, the Masons and Eastern Star continued their use of the building. In 1973, prominent Romney lawyer Ralph Haines purchased Literary Hall from the Clinton Lodge Masons to rescue the old building from demolition and provided the lodge with a land lot for the construction of a new Masonic Temple at the corner of Washington and Center Streets in Romney. Following his purchase of Literary Hall, Haines restored the building to its original state and used it as a law office building and private museum. Haines later relocated his law offices to an adjacent commercial building. Under Haines's ownership, Literary Hall was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 29, 1979.
### Hampshire County Public Library
The building again served as a library in March 1937, when Romney's community library was relocated to the first floor of Literary Hall from its previous facility in the basement of the Hampshire County Courthouse. The library had been established on April 11, 1935, as a project by the American Legion Auxiliary, and was housed in a room of the courthouse basement where it was staffed by volunteers and open from 2pm to 4pm on Saturday afternoons. When the library's collection of both purchased and donated books outgrew its space in the courthouse basement, the Clinton Lodge Masons granted permission to the library to house its collection at Literary Hall in 1937. Following its move to Literary Hall, the library expanded its hours, and expanded them again, to five afternoons a week, through the assistance of the National Youth Administration and the Works Progress Administration.
In January 1942, a meeting was held for the purpose of establishing a more extensive library service. Later that month, on January 29, a charter was issued by West Virginia Secretary of State William Smith O'Brien for the creation of the non-profit Hampshire County Library Association. Following its incorporation, the library was relocated from Literary Hall to two rear adjoining rooms on the second story of the Hampshire County Courthouse. The association continued to house its library collection in the courthouse until 1967, when the new Hampshire County Public Library building at 153 West Main Street was formally dedicated on September 28, 1967. The library had been built on land donated by sisters Kate and Mary Davis, who had been engaged in the restoration of Literary Hall and whose father, Charles Maurice Davis, had been a member of both the Romney Literary Society and the Clinton Lodge Masons, which had both held meetings in the building.
## Architecture
The interior and exterior of Literary Hall remain largely intact. At two stories, the building is tall in its proportion and incorporates elements from both early American and Victorian styles, which were common in academic buildings built during this period.
Architectural historian S. Allen Chambers described Literary Hall as an anomaly because the basic design and fenestration patterns, which invoke early Federal and Greek Revival design elements, are adorned with details more characteristic of the Victorian era.
According to architectural historian Michael J. Pauley of the West Virginia Department of Culture and History's Historic Preservation Unit, Literary Hall's unique structural features make the building "one of Romney's and Hampshire County's most notable landmarks, and one in which this community is justifiably proud". Pauley further averred that the building is "highly representative of the development of education and literature in the early United States". In describing its impact on Romney's streetscape, Chambers described Literary Hall as "adding distinction to Romney's major street intersection". Chambers also noted the building's resemblance and "strong architectural kinship" to the Romney Presbyterian Church.
Literary Hall is a two-story red brick structure, rectangular in plan, and topped with a gable roof. The first floor of Literary Hall consists of four rooms, and the second story is a single large ballroom. Fused with symmetrical elements evoking Federal and Greek Revival architectural styles are exterior decorative moldings and brick corbeling in the Victorian style.
The main façade (south elevation) of Literary Hall is divided into three bays, and its west and east elevations are divided into five bays. Each of the building's bays consists of a double-hung sash wooden window, with nine panes of glass within each sash. The windows are symmetrically placed within recessed brick panels that are defined at the first and second stories of the building with elementary brick ribs, or pseudo-pilasters, that form the outer surface of the building's exterior walls and provide separation of the three bays of the main façade and the five bays of the west and east elevations. The windows are framed by white wooden louvered window shutters. The building's brick is laid in an American bond pattern, with five courses of stretchers between every course of headers.
The main façade is topped by a simple wooden raking cornice that surmounts an ornamental corbel brick pendant. A semicircular fanlight, or lunette, is located in the center of the gable of the building's main façade, providing lighting to the building's attic. Chambers described this window as the most antiquated of the building's architectural elements and may have been based on the fanlight of the county's earlier courthouse built in 1833, which was located to the building's east.
Each of the main façade's first- and second-story windows and the entrance are adorned with white wooden label moldings. The main entrance is composed of a tall double wooden entrance door, with its original handle and locks. Each door consists of four vertical wooden panels. A rectangular transom light of four vertical glass panels tops the main entryway's double wooden doors. Outside the entryway is a spacious brick stoop that is accessed by a cement walkway from West Main Street. Its brick steps leading up to the stoop were last restored in the late 1970s.
Literary Hall is flanked by two interior side chimneys, between the second and third bays of the west and east elevations of the building. The building rests on a sandstone, ashlar block foundation. Its gable roof is sheathed with standing seam tin sheeting. | [
"## Geography and setting",
"## History",
"### Location",
"### Romney Literary Society",
"### Clinton Lodge",
"### Hampshire County Public Library",
"## Architecture"
] | 2,926 | 43,592 |
60,770,791 | Operation Aderlass | 1,170,964,235 | Doping investigation | [
"2019 in Austrian sport",
"2019 in German sport",
"2019 in cycle racing",
"Doping cases in cross-country skiing",
"Doping cases in cycling",
"Doping cases in speed skating",
"Doping in sport"
] | Operation Aderlass (English: Operation Bloodletting) was an investigation in Austria and Germany into doping practices carried out by Erfurt-based German physician Mark Schmidt. Athletes from various disciplines were named as alleged customers of Schmidt's, receiving illegal blood transfusion for the purpose of enhancing performances, with several of them later confessing. The investigation centred around athletes from cross-country skiing and cycling.
The investigation was sparked following a confession by cross-country skier Johannes Dürr in early 2019, leading to arrests and raids in both Schmidt's Erfurt offices as well as during the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2019. Over the following months, prominent athletes such as cyclists Alessandro Petacchi and Danilo Hondo were charged with having used Schmidt's services for the purposes of doping. The investigations concluded with a prison sentence for main defendant Schmidt in January 2021.
## History
The case first came to light through admissions by cross-country skier Johannes Dürr in late February 2019. He named Mark Schmidt, a physician based in the German city of Erfurt, as the head of an operation which carried out systematic blood doping. Schmidt had earlier been team doctor at the Gerolsteiner cycling team. In October 2009, Bernhard Kohl, who had been caught in a doping control while riding for Gerolsteiner in 2008, accused Schmidt of having overseen the doping practices. Schmidt denied the accusations and was cleared by an Austrian court in early 2010. A statement of the court read: "It could not be determined that the plaintiff knew of the defendant's doping practices or helped him by the process of doping or with covering it up." Schmidt at this time worked for Team Milram. Following Dürr's statements, the police raided Schmidt's Erfurt offices on 27 February 2019. The investigation was carried out by the doping task force of the Munich police.
### Involved athletes
On 20 March 2019, the state prosecutors in Bavaria confirmed that a total of 21 athletes were under suspicion of having been customers of Mark Schmidt. Not all names were initially reported, so as not to disturb investigative measures.
#### Winter sports
Following Dürr's statements, Austrian police arrested five athletes at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2019 in Seefeld in Tirol. These were the cross-country skiers Max Hauke and Dominik Baldauf from Austria, Andreas Veerpalu and Karel Tammjärv from Estonia, as well as Alexey Poltoranin from Kazakhstan.
Initial revelations suggested that a German speed skater was also involved with Schmidt. On 27 May 2019, the media reported that alpine ski racer Hannes Reichelt was interviewed by the police in the preceding week, concerning possible involvement in the affair. Reichelt vehemently denied the accusations. The charges against Reichelt were dropped on 16 October 2019.
Max Hauke received a suspended five-month sentence on 30 October 2019 from an Innsbruck court for doping violations reaching back to 2015. Dominik Baldauf also received a suspended five-month sentence on 14 January 2020 from the same court. Both athletes had received four-year bans from competition from the Austrian Anti-Doping Agency on 23 July 2019. On 27 January 2020, Johannes Dürr was given a suspended 15-month jail sentence for his involvement in the affair, after pleading guilty. He did however deny having set up connections between Schmidt and fellow cross-country skiers Hauke and Baldauf, as they had claimed. A report by German newspaper Der Tagesspiegel claimed that Dürr had contemplated taking over the doping operations from Schmidt.
The International Ski Federation (FIS) handed four-year bans from competition to Andreas Veerpalu, Karel Tammjärv, and Algo Kärp as well as two Estonian coaches on 29 November 2019. All three athletes had earlier admitted their involvement in the doping practices. Alexey Poltoranin, who had earlier admitted to doping as well, retracted his confession on 8 March 2019. On 12 March, the Kazakh Ministry of Culture and Sports cleared Poltoranin of any charges of having doped, claiming that he only intended to do so and "Fortunately [...] did not use blood doping". He was nevertheless handed a four-year ban from competition by FIS on 6 January 2020.
#### Cycling
On 3 March 2019, Stefan Denifl, who last rode for the Aqua Blue Sport team, confessed to using blood doping under the assistance of Schmidt. One day later, Georg Preidler, riding for at the time, also confessed to having had two blood extractions with Schmidt in late 2018, but denied having actually doped. He nevertheless terminated his contract with the team. Both Denifl and Preidler were provisionally suspended by the sport's governing body, the UCI. Both were handed four-year bans by the Austrian anti-doping organisation on 27 June 2019, and faced charges for commercial sports fraud in addition to their suspensions. On 22 July 2020, Preidler was found guilty of fraud by the Innsbruck Regional Court and handed a twelve-month suspended prison sentence as well as being fined €2,880. Denifl meanwhile was convicted of sports fraud by an Austrian court in January 2021, receiving a 24-month prison sentence, 16 of which were on probation. In November 2021, Denifl's sentence was overturned on appeal, even though he had partly confessed.
Danilo Hondo confessed in an interview with German broadcaster ARD on 13 May 2019 to having used blood doping under Schmidt during 2011, when riding with . He was subsequently fired from his job as coach for the Swiss cycling federation. The following day, French newspaper Le Monde announced that retired Italian sprinter Alessandro Petacchi had allegedly worked with Schmidt in 2012 and 2013. Petacchi denied the accusations, but was nevertheless provisionally suspended by the UCI one day later. On 24 August 2019, Petacchi was given a two-year period of ineligibility from the UCI. Alongside Petacchi, Kristijan Koren (), Kristijan Đurasek (), and Borut Božič were also implicated and provisionally suspended. Koren and Đurasek were at the time riding the 2019 Giro d'Italia and the 2019 Tour of California respectively, while Božič worked as a directeur sportif for the Bahrain–Mérida team. Later the same day, Bahrain–Mérida and UAE Team Emirates confirmed that they had pulled their riders from the races. On 9 October, the UCI handed both Koren and Božič two-year bans from competition. On 13 November 2019, Đurasek was given a four-year ban from the UCI for his part in the doping practices.
On 19 May 2019, Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera reported links by Slovenian Milan Eržen to Operation Aderlass, while Eržen was serving as managing director of the Bahrain–Mérida team. Three days later, it was announced that the UCI had been following the activities of Eržen and Slovenian cycling in general in several investigations. Also in May 2019, the UCI suspended mountain biker Christina Kollmann due to blood doping violations in relation to Operation Aderlass. She was subsequently banned from competition for four years and received an eight-month suspended jail sentence from an Austrian court in August 2019. On 27 November 2019, the UCI announced that they had requested anti-doping samples from 2016 and 2017 to be retested, citing information gathered from Austrian authorities.
Retired cyclist Pirmin Lang, who last rode for , admitted to his involvement with Aderlass on 22 February 2020, following investigations by Swiss newspaper Neue Zürcher Zeitung. He was subsequently dismissed by Swiss Racing Academy, a team he had co-founded and where he was employed as manager and directeur sportif.
In September 2021, Björn Thurau was suspended from competition for nine years and six months, after his involvement came to light due to chat messages he had exchanged with Lang. The German National Anti-Doping Agency (NADA) chose a particularly hard sentence, the longest ever imposed on a German athlete, due to the fact that he not only used, but also distributed performance-enhancing substances. Thurau never publicly acknowledged the accusations. He was stripped of all results from December 2010 onwards.
## Trial
The court trial against Schmidt began on 16 September 2020 at the Oberlandesgericht Munich. In its opening statement, the defense accused the prosecution of procedural errors, including illegal surveillance methods, incomplete paperwork, and undue custody.
On 29 September 2020, Schmidt took the stand and confessed to almost all of the 150 counts laid out against him. He admitted to having extracted blood from clients for the purposes of doping from as early as 2012. He did however deny to have acted for financial gain, claiming to have only received money to cover his costs, and insisted that the health of his clients had never been in danger. A day later, Johannes Dürr backed up Schmidt's claims. When testifying as a witness, Dürr claimed to have always "felt in safe, professional hands" with Schmidt. He furthermore refused to blame Schmidt for the doping, a decision he claimed to have taken with his coach. Three of the four co-defendants of Schmidt's also confessed, while another accused, a contractor, refused to testify. The contractor, Dirk Q., was sentenced to two years on probation in 2008 for bodily harm resulting in death, following an incident in January 2003, in which he allegedly assaulted two people, one of whom later died. Dirk Q. was—according to media reports—part of Erfurt's neo-Nazi scene. In this trial, Q. was accused of having worked together with Schmidt, transporting blood as well as doing transfusions. In November, Hondo testified in court, claiming that he doped with blood transfusions under Schmidt's guidance together with Petacchi during 2012. He testified that he had been contacted by Schmidt in late 2011 and then paid €25,000 for doping services over the course of the following year, at the end of which he ended the partnership. Hondo also described the usage of codenames, similar to Operación Puerto, with Hondo being known as "James Bond". At the end of the trial, Schmidt was sentenced to 4 years and 10 months in prison on 16 January 2021.
## Aftermath
In total, 50 people from nine countries were charged by the authorities during the Operation Aderlass investigation. According to the Austrian National Anti-Doping Agency (NADA Austria), 16 athletes were suspended by them following involvement in the practices. According to NADA Austria, the operation led to a change in control practices for doping, including testing closer to the beginning of competitions in certain disciplines as well as an update in the rules for anti-doping work in order to be able to react quicker to signs of blood doping. Insights from Operation Aderlass were also used when Austria updated their anti-doping laws in 2021. This included a provision for domestic Austrian sports organizations to work closely with NADA on doping prevention.
Mark Schmidt was released from prison early in June 2022, having served three quarters of his sentence, with the remaining time changed to probation.
## See also
- List of doping cases in cycling | [
"## History",
"### Involved athletes",
"#### Winter sports",
"#### Cycling",
"## Trial",
"## Aftermath",
"## See also"
] | 2,443 | 25,761 |
66,826,935 | 104 (barge) | 1,098,636,735 | American whaleback barge | [
"1890 ships",
"Barges of the United States",
"Maritime incidents in 1896",
"Maritime incidents in 1898",
"Merchant ships of the United States",
"Ships built in Duluth, Minnesota",
"Ships sunk in storms",
"Shipwrecks of Lake Erie",
"Shipwrecks of the Ohio coast",
"Whaleback ships"
] | 104 (also known as Barge 104, or No.104) was an American whaleback barge in service between 1890 and 1898. The fourth whaleback constructed, she was built between October 1889 and February 1890, in Duluth, Minnesota by Alexander McDougall's American Steel Barge Company, for McDougall's fleet of the same name, based in Buffalo, New York. She was a whaleback, a class of distinctive, experimental ship designed and built by McDougall. The whalebacks were designed to be more stable in high seas. They had rounded decks, and lacked the normal straight sides seen on traditional lake freighters. 104 entered service on April 21, hauling iron ore from Two Harbors, Minnesota.
On November 10, 1898, while being towed out of Cleveland harbour with a cargo of coal bound for Duluth, she broke away from the tug Alva B. 104 crashed into Cleveland's west breakwater. She sank quickly, with her crew being rescued by the Cleveland United States Life-Saving Service. 104 was a total loss, becoming the first whaleback to be lost on the Great Lakes.
## History
### Background
104 was a whaleback, an innovative but not widely accepted ship design of the late 1880s, designed by Alexander McDougall. A Scottish immigrant, Great Lakes captain, inventor and entrepreneur, McDougall developed the idea of the whaleback as a way to improve the ability of barges to follow a towing vessel in heavy seas. Whalebacks were characterized by distinctive hull shapes with rounded tops, lacking conventional vertical sides, and conoidal ends. Their rounded hulls enabled water to easily slide off their decks, minimising friction, and letting them sail quickly and smoothly through the water. Their superstructure was located on turrets mounted on the main deck. The rounded contours of whalebacks gave them an unconventional appearance, and McDougall's ship and barge designs were received with considerable skepticism, resistance, and derision. As they had porcine-looking snouts for bows, some observers called them "pig boats".
After McDougall was unable to persuade existing shipbuilders to try his designs, he founded the American Steel Barge Company in Superior, Wisconsin in 1888, and built them himself. McDougall actively promoted his design and company by sending the steamer Charles W. Wetmore to London, and starting another shipyard in Everett, Washington, which built the steamer City of Everett. Despite McDougall's further efforts to promote the design with the excursion liner Christopher Columbus, whalebacks never caught on, with only 44 of them being built.
### Design and construction
104 (also known as Barge 104, or No.104) was constructed between October 1889 and February 1890 in Duluth, Minnesota by the American Steel Barge Company. Her first hull frames were laid down on October 23, 1889. 104 was launched on February 6, 1890, becoming the fourth whaleback built by Alexander McDougall's company. 104 was identical to 105 and 107, launched in April 1890 in Duluth, and August 1890 in Superior, Wisconsin, respectively. She had an overall length of 288 feet (87.8 m) (length between perpendiculars of 276.5 feet (84.3 m) or 276 feet (84.1 m)). Her hull was 36.1 feet (11.0 m) (or 36 feet (11.0 m)) wide, and 18.9 feet (5.8 m) (or 19 feet (5.8 m)) deep. 104 had a gross tonnage of 1,295 (or 1,295.44, tons) tons, and a net tonnage of 1,230 (some sources state 1,230.69, or 1,231) tons. She had a cargo carrying capacity of 3,300 tons. 104 was an unrigged barge, and was towed by a steam-powered ship.
### Service history
104 was built by the American Steel Barge Company for the fleet of the same name based in Buffalo, New York. She was enrolled in Duluth, Minnesota, on April 12, 1890 and was given the US official number \#53257. Her home port was Buffalo. 104 entered service on April 21, carrying iron ore from Two Harbors, Minnesota. In 1895, management of the American Steel Barge Company fleet was taken over by Pickands Mather & Company of Cleveland, Ohio.
On April 24, 1896 while upbound, in tow of the whaleback freighter A.D. Thompson in the Detroit River near a coal dock in Detroit, Michigan, 104 was struck amidships, near the waterline by the wooden bulk freighter Philip Minch. A.D. Thompson and 104 proceeded up the Detroit River, as 104 did not immediately begin to fill with water, and her pumps kept her dry. However, as the two vessels entered Lake St. Clair, 104's pumps could no longer keep up with the influx of water, causing her to sink into 16 feet (4.9 m) (or 17 feet (5.2 m)) of water. The wrecking tug Saginaw, equipped with a steam pump, was immediately dispatched to pump 104 dry.
On June 8, 1896, 104 and the whaleback barge 134 broke away from the whaleback freighter James B. Colgate in a storm. As neither of them had enough time to drop anchors in order to avoid grounding, both of them ran aground on Chequamegon Point. 104 and 134 were found to be aground in 2 feet (0.6 m) of water, embedded in sand and intact. They were released by James B. Colgate and the tugs B.B. Inman and J.W. Ward.
### Final voyage
Late in the evening on November 10, 1898, 104, with 7 crewmen on board, was being towed out of Cleveland harbour by the tug Alva B. in a heavy storm. She was loaded with a cargo of coal bound for Duluth, Minnesota. Due to the heavy seas, 104 broke away from Alva B., and crashed into Cleveland's west breakwater, approximately 0.5 miles (0.8 km) northwest of the Cleveland United States Life-Saving Service. After pounding against the breakwater, 104 rapidly sank. Cleveland United States Life-Saving Service were notified of 104's situation, arriving at the scene with a lifeboat. The poor weather prevented the rescuers from throwing a line to 104. Instead, they maneuvered their life boat inside the breakwater. Using ropes and heaving sticks, the rescuers managed to remove 104's crew, and put them on the breakwater. There were no injuries, or loss of life in the wreck. 104's enrollment surrendered on January 14, 1899 in Buffalo, New York. An article published on November 14, in The Times Herald of Port Huron, Michigan reported that 104 had already broken up. She was a total loss, becoming the first whaleback to be lost on the Great Lakes. | [
"## History",
"### Background",
"### Design and construction",
"### Service history",
"### Final voyage"
] | 1,531 | 8,479 |
42,102,864 | Still Alice | 1,170,129,534 | 2014 film by Richard Glatzer and Wash Westmoreland | [
"2010s American films",
"2010s English-language films",
"2014 drama films",
"2014 films",
"2014 independent films",
"American drama films",
"American films about Alzheimer's disease",
"American independent films",
"BAFTA winners (films)",
"Films about educators",
"Films about mother–daughter relationships",
"Films based on American novels",
"Films directed by Wash West",
"Films featuring a Best Actress Academy Award-winning performance",
"Films featuring a Best Drama Actress Golden Globe-winning performance",
"Films scored by Ilan Eshkeri",
"Films set in New York City",
"Films shot in New York (state)",
"Killer Films films",
"Sony Pictures Classics films"
] | Still Alice is a 2014 American drama film written and directed by Richard Glatzer and Wash Westmoreland and based on the 2007 novel by Lisa Genova. It stars Julianne Moore as Alice Howland, a linguistics professor diagnosed with familial Alzheimer's disease shortly after her 50th birthday. Alec Baldwin plays her husband, John, and Kristen Stewart, Kate Bosworth, and Hunter Parrish play her children.
Glatzer and Westmoreland were approached by Lex Lutzus and James Brown to adapt Genova's novel in 2011, when Glatzer had just been diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Moore was their first choice for the lead role. She researched Alzheimer's disease for months to prepare for the role. The film was shot in New York in March 2014, with a budget of \$4 million.
Still Alice had its world premiere at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival on September 8, 2014. It was one of several films stolen in the Sony Pictures hack incident and leaked online on November 27, 2014. The film was released theatrically on January 16, 2015, and grossed \$43.9 million at the international box office. It received critical acclaim, with praise for Moore's performance which won numerous awards including the Academy Award for Best Actress. She dedicated her Academy Award win to Glatzer, who died from ALS in March 2015. The film was included among the year's top ten independent films by the National Board of Review.
## Plot
Alice Howland, a linguistics professor at Columbia University, celebrates her 50th birthday with her physician husband John and their three adult children. After she forgets a word during a lecture and becomes lost during a jog on campus, Alice's doctor diagnoses her with early onset familial Alzheimer's disease. Alice's elder daughter, Anna, and son, Tom, take a genetic test to find out if they will develop the disease. Alice's younger daughter Lydia, an aspiring actress, decides not to be tested.
As Alice's memory begins to fade, she daydreams of her mother and sister, who died in a car crash when she was a teenager. She memorizes words and sets a series of personal questions on her phone, which she answers every morning. She hides sleeping pills in her room, and records a video message instructing her future self to end her own life by overdosing on the pills when she can no longer answer the personal questions. As her disease advances, she becomes unable to give focused lectures and loses her job. She also becomes lost searching for the bathroom in her own vacation home and does not recognize Lydia after seeing her perform in a play.
John is offered a job at the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota. Alice asks him to postpone accepting the job, but he feels this is impossible. At her doctor's suggestion, Alice delivers a speech at an Alzheimer's conference about her experience with the disease, using a highlighter to remind herself which parts of the speech she has already spoken, and receives a standing ovation.
Alice begins to have difficulty answering the questions on her phone. At one point, she loses the phone and becomes distressed; John finds it a month later in the freezer, but Alice thinks it has only been missing for a day.
After a video call with Lydia, Alice inadvertently opens the video with the suicide instructions. With some difficulty, she finds the pills and is about to swallow them, but when she is interrupted by the arrival of her caregiver, she drops the pills on the floor and forgets what she was doing.
John, unable to watch his wife continue to deteriorate, moves to Minnesota. Lydia, who has been living in California, moves back home to care for Alice. Lydia reads her a section of the play Angels in America and asks her what she thinks it is about. Alice, now barely able to speak, responds with a single word: "love.”
## Cast
## Production
Still Alice is based on a novel of the same name published in 2007. The novel was written by Lisa Genova, a neuroscientist who was inspired by her grandmother's development of Alzheimer's disease to write about the disease from a firsthand perspective. British film producers Lex Lutzus and James Brown bought the rights to a film adaptation of the novel and pitched the project to their friends, filmmaking partners and married couple Richard Glatzer and Wash Westmoreland, in 2011. Glatzer and Westmoreland were initially hesitant to write and direct the film because Glatzer had just been diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS); they thought that writing about Alzheimer's disease, another neurodegenerative disease, "may be a little too close to the bone". They ultimately took up the offer and wrote a screenplay based on Genova's novel in early 2012. Elements of the story were lifted from Glatzer's experience with ALS and Westmoreland's role as his primary caregiver.
Julianne Moore was Glatzer and Westmoreland's first choice for the lead role. Moore prepared for the role over four months, watching documentaries about Alzheimer's disease. She met with Elizabeth Gelfand Stearns, the co-producer of the film and the head of The Judy Fund, which partners with the Alzheimer's Association in the fight to cure Alzheimer's Disease. Introductions were made to Dr. Mary Sano, the director of Alzheimer's disease research at Mount Sinai Hospital. Through Skype, she talked to three women with early-onset Alzheimer's disease; she also visited a support group for women with Alzheimer's disease and a long-term care facility for Alzheimer's patients. She also undertook the cognitive testing used for diagnosing dementia with a neuropsychiatrist. Moore suggested Alec Baldwin to play Alice's husband, since they had previously worked together on the sitcom 30 Rock. Kate Bosworth was cast after she told Glatzer and Westmoreland "how important and personal the subject matter was" to her; she had family members with Alzheimer's disease and, after reading Genova's book, set out to become involved in the film adaptation.
Principal photography took place in New York over 23 days in March 2014. Most of the film was shot in a townhouse on West 162nd Street in Manhattan. Some scenes were filmed in an apartment building in Yonkers and a senior's home in Hastings-on-Hudson. The film was shot by French cinematographer Denis Lenoir, whom Glatzer and Westmoreland had met at a film screening in 1999; they had wanted to work with him ever since. During filming, Glatzer and Westmoreland attempted to divide the directing duties equally between themselves, even though Glatzer's physical condition had deteriorated to the point that he could only communicate by typing on an iPad with a single finger.
The production's \$4-5 million budget was funded by the French financier BSM Studio. Post-production on the film was completed ten days before its premiere at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival. The score was composed by Ilan Eshkeri, who wanted to work on Still Alice because of his experience with people affected by Alzheimer's disease in his personal life. He had worked on several Alzheimer's-related projects before, including the 2012 film Ashes, Tim Wheeler's 2014 album Lost Domain, and an advertising campaign for the Alzheimer's Society; he said of working on Still Alice, "in many ways this was a culmination of an artistic expression of something that has deeply touched me." Eshkeri wrote the score to be performed on piano, which he intended to represent Alice's family life, and by a string trio, of which he thought the challenge of composition was similar to "the challenge of coping with the disease".
## Release
Still Alice had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 8, 2014. Sony Pictures Classics, which bought the U.S. distribution rights for the film, gave it a one-week release in December 2014 so that it would qualify for that year's Academy Awards. After making the deal with Sony, Westmoreland and Glatzer were eager to have the film released as early as possible, partly because of Glatzer's declining health. The film began its proper theatrical run with a limited release on January 16, 2015, earning \$197,000 from 12 locations on its opening weekend. On February 20, it was given a wide release, expanding to 765 theaters across the U.S. Overall, the film grossed \$18,754,371 over 14 weeks in American theaters. It earned \$25,130,281 in other countries for a worldwide gross of \$43,884,652.
### Piracy
The film was part of the confidential data stolen in the Sony Pictures hack incident; it was leaked onto peer-to-peer file sharing websites on November 27, 2014, over a month ahead of its scheduled release. Along with it came Fury and three other unreleased Sony Pictures films (Annie, Mr. Turner, and To Write Love on Her Arms). Within three days of the leak, Still Alice had been downloaded by an estimated 103,832 unique IP addresses.
## Reception
### Critical response
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Still Alice has a "Certified Fresh" rating of 85% based on 206 reviews, with an average rating of 7.4/10. The site's consensus reads, "Elevated by a gripping performance from Julianne Moore, Still Alice is a heartfelt drama that honors its delicate themes with bravery and sensitivity." On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 reviews from film critics, the film has a score of 72 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Rolling Stone critic Peter Travers wrote of "the blazing artistry" of Moore's performance, which he said was "alive with ferocity and feeling and committed to truth". Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle described Moore's portrayal of Alice as "convincing, disturbing and personal", while Entertainment Weekly's Chris Nashawaty cited it as being "among her most devastating performances". In a review for The Globe and Mail, Liam Lacey wrote of her "transparent emotional presence", though he felt that "the part [of Alice] barely scratches the surface of her ability". The Daily Telegraph critic Tim Robey felt that Moore's "astonishingly delicate and sad" performance was one of her career highlights, and characterized the film as a whole as "gorgeous [and] piercing".
Empire magazine's David Hughes gave Still Alice five out of five stars, highlighting Moore's "note-perfect performance" and Glatzer and Westmoreland's "sensitivity and scalpel-sharp precision". Deborah Young, reviewing the film for The Hollywood Reporter, praised the directors' "restrained, understated approach" to the story, which she saw as "the best insurance against sloppy sentimentality". The Los Angeles Times critic Kenneth Turan attributed the film's success to Moore and Stewart's ability "to keep things honest" despite parts of it seeming "contrived and overly familiar". Peter Debruge of Variety complimented Glatzer and Westmoreland's "dignified" and "personal" approach to the subject matter, as well as their decision to tell the story from Alice's point of view.
Other critics gave the film lukewarm reviews. A. O. Scott of The New York Times praised Moore's and Stewart's performances, but felt that the story was "too removed from life to carry the full measure of pain that Alice deserves". The New Yorker critic Anthony Lane criticized Glatzer and Westmoreland for "flinch[ing]" when it came to showing Alice's deterioration and its effect on her family, and found the film's sentimental aspects "manipulative—and effective". The Austin Chronicle's Josh Kupecki gave the film 2.5 out of 5 stars, finding it clichéd and melodramatic, and likening it to a public service announcement. Richard Roeper, writing for the Chicago Sun-Times, described Moore as giving "a four-star performance in a two-star movie", drawing attention to the "intrusive" score and the "maddeningly overwrought and heavy-handed" storytelling.
### Accolades
For her performance as Alice Howland, Julianne Moore won the Academy Award, BAFTA Award, Golden Globe Award, Screen Actors Guild Award, and Critics' Choice Movie Award. Still Alice marked her first Academy Award win after four previous nominations. Although she was widely considered to be the Best Actress frontrunner in anticipation of the Academy Awards ceremony, some critics felt that Still Alice was not among Moore's greatest performances and did not deserve to win. Moore dedicated her Academy Award win to Glatzer, who died from ALS several weeks later on March 10, 2015. | [
"## Plot",
"## Cast",
"## Production",
"## Release",
"### Piracy",
"## Reception",
"### Critical response",
"### Accolades"
] | 2,673 | 14,742 |
56,898,528 | Da share z0ne | 1,169,083,723 | Satirical social media user | [
"American satirists",
"Card games introduced in 2018",
"Collectible card games",
"Computer-related introductions in 2015",
"Electronic literature",
"Fictional skeletons",
"Internet humor",
"Parody social media accounts",
"Pseudonymous writers",
"Twitter accounts",
"Unidentified people",
"Weird Twitter",
"Year of birth unknown"
] | @dasharez0ne (also known as da share z0ne, Da motha fuckin share z0ne, da z0ne, DSZ, and other variations) is a social media account on Twitter, Facebook, and Mastodon, known for posting image macros pairing skeleton art and absurdist or ironic captions. Da share z0ne's posts are an elaborate parody of online hyper-masculinity; specifically, da share z0ne's posts mimic "tough guy" memes with characteristics like macho posturing, poor graphic design, and juvenile fondness for generically "cool" imagery like skeletons, leather jackets, grim reapers, tombstones, flames, and guns.
The creator or creators of da share z0ne operate anonymously. The account is supposedly operated by a fictitious skeleton character known as Admin. All the posts, as well as responses to press inquiries, are made in-character as Admin. In ironic contrast to the over-the-top macho aesthetic of the imagery, the Admin character himself is neurotic, emotionally sensitive, "woke", and preoccupied with mundane aspects of everyday life. The juxtaposition provides much of the satirical effect.
Journalists have praised da share z0ne for its distinct, off-kilter brand of humor and the rich characterization of Admin. In 2018, da share z0ne launched an original trading card game called The Devil's Level with the help of artistic collaborators, including fellow Twitter user dril, Drew Fairweather, and numerous comics artists.
## Social media posts
Da share z0ne began posting in September 2015. The account is best-known for image macros that combine artwork of skeletons, compiled from various Internet sources, with superimposed captions in assorted typefaces. The account is loosely affiliated with the "Weird Twitter" subculture. The account is an extended parody of a particular style of overtly masculine meme page on social media. In the words of The A.V. Club's Gabe Worgaftik, the target of its parody is "the kind of Facebook page that posts tough-guy memes over pictures of skeletons that your fuck-up cousin shares ... this generation's version of a 'Keep honking, I'm reloading' bumper sticker." Writing for Dazed, Luke O'Neil called da share z0ne a "riff on the style of toxic masculinity that can be found on specific corners of the meme-based internet ... where dudes are dudes, motorcycles and guns kick ass, and everything you need to know about a guy can be crammed onto a horribly designed image macro of clashing fonts, unreadable texts, and shoddy looking graphics."
In November 2018, The Columbus Dispatch reported that webcomic artist Drew Fairweather runs da share z0ne.
In February 2020, Admin posted several tweets endorsing Bernie Sanders for the Democratic primary in 2020.
### Visual aesthetic
Da share z0ne posts are characterized by purposefully poor graphic design, using multiple tacky fonts in a single image and a different watermark in almost every image. The visual style of da share z0ne was described by Slate's Jacob Brogan as a "borderline comical gothic aesthetic" with a "mock-fascination with fatalist cool," but with "silly" captions that "operate in winkingly awkward contradistinction to the pictures." Motherboard's Rachel Pick called the account's aesthetic a "mash-up of what guys who own Harleys and stoned 14-year-olds think looks cool." According to Zack Boehm of Uloop, a typical da share z0ne meme is a "configuration of the following: The gaunt visage of a demonic skeleton (this is a DSZ staple), fire, guns, motorcycles, leather jackets, Viking garb, laptops, and short missives like 'Why do bad people get to have good pets?' or 'Thinkin about getting really into Japan' spelled out in Windows '95 word art."
Archer Angel at The Daily Dot compared da share z0ne's format to the approach pioneered by Gangster Popeye, a satirical page likewise "inspired by the 'tough guy' memes from pages like KrazyTrain and Check Dis Shit Out—macros that feature text on themes such as being a badass and not taking shit from anyone, superimposed on pictures of skeletons (often holding weapons)." Roisin Kiberd of Motherboard connected da share z0ne within a history of repurposing skeleton art in Internet culture—"memetic memento mori"—dating back to the 1990s.
### "Admin" character
Da share z0ne is run by an anonymous person or group of people. The fictional character who purportedly runs da share z0ne is a skeleton named Admin. The creator or creators of da share z0ne respond in-character as Admin to press inquiries, and Admin has given interviews with Herb.co, Dazed, Vice Media's Motherboard, Newsweek, and New York magazine. In his posts and other messages, Admin usually types in all caps with numerous misspellings.
Admin has been described as an everyman (or "every-skeleton") character whose "relatable" struggles mirror everyday struggles and the impact of Internet culture on his generation. Admin hates his job, enjoys marijuana, and has lowbrow taste. In da share z0ne posts, Admin has complained of irritable bowel syndrome, experiences of social anxiety, and depression. Admin frequently breaks the fourth wall in posts; for example, they describe running da share z0ne itself, boast about their inflated sense of the account's popularity, reference their own computer problems, and accidentally type out and submit web searches as tweets. Miles Klee wrote that the Admin's defining trait is their "nerdy white-collar warriorhood."
An important aspect of Admin's persona is their social consciousness; Kiberd described Admin as an "unlikely—but lovable—social justice hero." The character's usage and love of hyper-masculine imagery ironically contrasts with their actual personality, which is neurotic, unintelligent, awkward, and lonely, yet also deeply sensitive, essentially decent, and even socially conscious. Diverging from the latent racism, misogyny, homophobia and transphobia commonly found on the pages that da share z0ne parodies, Admin "explicitly performs 'wokeness'" with consciousness-raising, albeit "deeply campy," slogans in its posts on topics such as gender, immigration, refugees, consent, and safe spaces. Admin's socially conscious posts are, according to Emily Gaudette at Newsweek, "like reading the private thoughts of a liberal goth kid whose taste in art hasn't yet caught up to their advanced understanding of mental health and politics."
The detailed characterization of Admin—particularly the stark contrast between their character and the "cool" imagery—supplies much of da share z0ne's ironic humor and satirical content. Boehm notes that the "jarring dissonance" between Admin's "vulnerable, pitiable" text and the "gothic, biker-horror imagery" is crucial to the page's satirical effect, applying the creators' knowledge of "the kind of strange macho, anonymously aggressive internet culture that [da share z0ne is] trying to spoof" to "deftly needle at the hypocritical constructs of masculinity with a gnarled, bony skeleton finger." O'Neil writes that the contrast reveals the subtext of loneliness behind the online "tough guy" archetype that Admin caricatures. Jay Hathaway at The Daily Dot wrote that a "character-driven Twitter account hasn't blended macho attitude and complete personal dysfunction this perfectly" since Karl Welzein (@dadboner), a Twitter character written by comedian Mike Burns who is "a divorced, middle-aged Detroit dude who loves to rock hard and scope babes, but mainly hangs around the parking lot at Applebee's."
### Popularity and reception
Vice Media reported that da share z0ne had accumulated almost 88,000 followers on Twitter by January 2018. The account hit 100,000 followers in June 2018. According to Hathaway, da share z0ne has a "universal appeal" that "crosses cliquish social boundaries," as its memes are "retweeted by everyone from Weird Twitter chuckleboys to cool, queer, indie gamers to dry and boring media-marketing types." Jacob Brogan of Slate quoted and agreed with Hathaway's assessment of the account's "universal appeal," praising the persona of the account for "gently making light of the way we all present ourselves on social media—of the way we attempt to show off the best, brightest versions of our lives, only to accidentally reveal just how lame we really are." Luke O'Neil at Dazed praised the sharpness of da share z0ne's satire, as well as its surprising emotional depth and warmth:
> The surface level appeal of the account ... will be obvious to anyone fluent in the world of absurdist, shit-posting meme pages on Facebook and Reddit and the like. But as the juxtaposition of traditionally hyper-masculine signifiers and Admin's foibles at the heart of each post points up, there's a significant departure from the norm here: Da Share Z0ne has heart. Unlike so much other internet humour, there's nothing malicious about it, unless you count yourself among the type of brutish bore it's parodying in the first place.
Will Menaker, a cohost on the political comedy podcast Chapo Trap House, made a tongue-in-cheek call for da share z0ne to receive the MacArthur "Genius Grant" in June 2016. Mic named a post from da share z0ne as one of 101 "canonical" tweets. In October 2017, Jerry Saltz, senior art critic for New York magazine, replied to a post by da share z0ne to call the account "Very late Francis Bacon?" In December 2017, Alex Greenberger of ARTnews included da share z0ne in a round-up of the year's best art on screens—including onscreen art installations at galleries and museums, cinema, television, and art "on my laptop"—saying "[i]t's art if I say it is—and da share z0ne is art." Da share z0ne was nominated in the "weird" category for the 10th Shorty Awards, an annual awards show by Sawhorse Media that recognizes exceptional short-form content on the social web, but it did not place as a finalist.
Da Share Z0ne was named one of "The 100 best, worst, and weirdest things we saw on the internet in the 2010s" in 2019 by the AV Club.
## The Devil's Level card game
The Devil's Level is a trading card game based on da share z0ne. Funded via Kickstarter, The Devil's Level reached its initial fundraising goal of \$28,000 within hours of its launch on January 22, 2018. By the campaign's conclusion a month later, the game had reached \$227,250 in funding. It is expected to ship in September 2018.
The Devil's Level features a core deck of 144 cards, plus three 36-card expansion packs, with cards encased in a foil-embossed skull box designed by Oliver Leach. The game's rules have been compared to Magic: The Gathering and Cards Against Humanity.
### Guest artists
Admin claimed responsibility for "most" of the card artwork and credited the following guest artists (listed with their Twitter handles, as they are on the Kickstarter page) for making contributions:
- Natalie Dee (@nataliedee) — known as a co-creator of the webcomic Married to the Sea
- Drew Toothpaste (@drewtoothpaste) — known for the webcomic Toothpaste for Dinner and as a co-creator of Married to the Sea)
- dril
- KC Green (@kcgreenn) — known for the webcomic Gunshow
- Oliver Leach (@bakkooonn)
- Will Laren (@larenwill)
- Greg Pollock (@weedguy420boner)
## See also
- Twitterature
- dril
- Married to the Sea
- Toothpaste for Dinner
- Natalie Dee
- Skeleton (undead)
- Death (personification) | [
"## Social media posts",
"### Visual aesthetic",
"### \"Admin\" character",
"### Popularity and reception",
"## The Devil's Level card game",
"### Guest artists",
"## See also"
] | 2,549 | 9,055 |
42,154,097 | Myrmecia nigrocincta | 1,058,412,837 | Species of ant | [
"Hymenoptera of Australia",
"Insects described in 1858",
"Myrmeciinae",
"Slave-making ants"
] | Myrmecia nigrocincta, commonly known as the jumper ant or jumping jack, is an ant of the genus Myrmecia. The species was first described by Frederick Smith in 1858. Colonies of this ant are abundant in eastern Australia. Ants of this species are known for their ability to jump up to 10 centimetres, and they also have a powerful, venomous sting. Rather than foraging on the ground, M. nigrocincta prefer to forage in trees where they are known to pollinate certain flowers.
This ant is a large species, some workers can grow to over 15 mm (0.6 in) in length. They have a distinctive pattern of orange-red and black which distinguishes them from other Myrmecia species. M. nigrocincta possess the gamergates gene which allows workers to reproduce, either in the presence of a queen or in a colony where the queen is missing. Life expectancy of a worker ant is over one year. They are known to enslave ants of other species as workers for their colony, and they are aggressive when attacking intruders.
## Distribution
Abundant in eastern Australia, M. nigrocincta ants prefer temperate bushlands, and are usually located in dry to semi-dry forests and sclerophyll woodlands. The species is found in the eastern states of Australia, mostly on the coastal plains where much suitable dry forest habitat can be found. They prefer tropical climates and warm temperatures. They can also be found in other types of habitat at elevations ranging from 80 - 1,220 metres (262 ft - 4,000 ft).
M. nigrocincta colonies have been recorded from Cairns, Atherton, Mackay, Mt. Tamborine, Brisbane, Blackall Range and Fletcher in Queensland. In New South Wales, this ant occurs in Lismore, Dorrigo, Armidale and Sydney (notably in the suburbs of Heathcote and Como), while in Victoria it is found in Trafalgar and Millgrove. Several colonies have also been recorded in South Australia.
## Taxonomy
M. nigrocincta was first identified by British entomologist Frederick Smith in 1858, after syntype workers were collected and described in his work Catalogue of hymenopterous insects in the collection of the British Museum part VI. In a study on phylogenetic relationships among species group of the genus Myrmecia, four species with an occipital carina including M. nigrocincta were found to form a paraphyletic and basal assemblage, while other Myrmecia species lacking an occipital carina were shown to have a supported monophyletic assemblage. The type specimen is located in the British Museum.
## Description
Ants of genus Myrmecia are generally referred to as "bulldog ants" and M. nigrocincta, like other species in the genus, has elongated mandibles. M. nigrocincta ants are primarily black and orange-red in colour. They have mandibles which are either black or yellow depending on where the ants are found. The gaster, head, legs and mesonotum are black while the pronotum, propodeum, petiole and post-petiole are red. The ant has linear ridges along the front of its head. It also has apical spurs on the tibia of both its middle leg and hind leg. The legs are thin and become more slender away from the body. M. nigrocincta can be distinguished from other species in the genus Myrmecia by the bi-coloured thorax and post-petiole which are yellowish-red and black and the yellowish-red node.
The workers are 13 to 15 millimetres (0.51 to 0.59 in) long, the males 16 to 17 millimetres (0.63 to 0.67 in) while the female (queen) is 17 to 19 millimetres (0.67 to 0.75 in). The development of the queen's wings is rudimentary and the stubby, reduced wings render the queen flightless.
## Behaviour and ecology
M. nigrocincta is an accomplished jumper with leaps ranging from 76 to 102 millimetres (3 to 4 in). It has good vision and can be observed running amongst plants and leaves, occasionally jumping from one branch to another. It is mostly found foraging on plants, trees, and other vegetation, but it sometimes forages on the ground. It propels its jumps by a sudden extension of its middle and hind legs.
M. nigrocincta ants are diurnal and do not hibernate. They are omnivores, and feed on other insects including caterpillars and spiders, as well as honey water. M. nigrocincta has been observed to prey on the larvae of imperial hairstreak butterflies, even jumping while carrying them. Predators of M. nigrocincta (and the genus Myrmecia as a whole) include spiders, birds, lizards, mammals and other predatory invertebrates, including assassin bugs and redbacks. The ants have been recorded visiting flowers of Eucalyptus regnans and Senna acclinis and are considered as a possible pollination vector for E. regnans trees. Although Senna acclinis is self-compatible, the inability of M. nigrocincta to appropriately release pollen would restrict capacity to effect pollination.
These ants live in nests in sandy soil which sometimes have a mound, which resembles a molehill. M. nigrocincta ants labor to conceal their nests using twigs and leaves. Depending on the type of habitat in which the colony is located, they decorate the nest with plant material and gravel. Other materials that are used to camouflage M. nigrocincta colonies include dry leaves, rocks, vegetation, and twigs. Nests are beside a clump of grass or bush or at the base of a tree.
The colonies of M. nigrocincta ants are monogyne, i.e. they have only one queen per colony. The queen is semi-claustral, meaning that during the founding of the new colony, the queen has to forage so that she has enough food to raise her brood. Colonies have between 400 and 1200 individuals and are thus considered to be "large" colonies. M. nigrocinta is known to enslave Leptomyrmex and other species of ants.
The worker and scout M. nigrocincta ants use pheromones for communication. They are quick to defend their nests and may react aggressively even to a shadow crossing their nest. Wheeler (1922) describes the reaction of M. nigrocincta to the disturbance of their nest as "they bound out of their small mound nest in a series of short hops like Lilliputian cavalry galloping to battle." The ants aggressively defend their colony, causing multiple bites and willingly sacrificing themselves to protect the queen and the colony.
## Life cycle
M. nigrocincta is a gamergate species, which allows female workers to be fertile, and these are then able to reproduce in both queenless and queenright (colonies with a queen) colonies. This means a colony which loses its queen can still thrive in the absence of the queen. In laboratory colonies of M. nigrocincta where there was no queen present, worker-laid eggs were reared to mature males, showing that workers are highly fertile. The average life expectancy of an adult worker M. nigrocincta ant is 1.1 to 1.2 years, with a maximum expectancy of 1.3 years (400 or more days). Larvae collected from M. nigrocincta are 4.7mm in length but increase to 9.7mm when matured.
## Venom
M. nigrocincta ants have highly venomous stings which are painful and produce intense burning sensations. The sensations last for many days and the sting itches. If left untreated, the sting may develop into an ulcer. The venom of a closely related species, M. pilosula, is amongst the strongest of the Formicidae and contains active ingredients such as acid and alkaline phosphatases, hyaluronidase, as well as phospholipases A2 and B. In a 2011 Australian ant allergy venom study, the objective of which was to determine what native Australian ants were associated with ant sting anaphylaxis, it was shown that 265 of the 376 participants taking part of the study reacted to the sting of several Myrmecia species. Of these, 176 reacted to the M. pilosula, 15 to M. nigrocincta, three to M. ludlowi, and 56 to other Myrmecia ants. The study concluded that four main groups of Australian ants were responsible for causing anaphylaxis. Besides Myrmecia species, these included the green-head ant (Rhytidoponera metallica).
## See also
- Ant stings
- Ants of medical importance | [
"## Distribution",
"## Taxonomy",
"## Description",
"## Behaviour and ecology",
"## Life cycle",
"## Venom",
"## See also"
] | 1,917 | 22,233 |
6,935,369 | Hurricane Bob (1985) | 1,165,418,909 | Category 1 Atlantic hurricane | [
"1985 Atlantic hurricane season",
"1985 natural disasters in the United States",
"Category 1 Atlantic hurricanes",
"Hurricanes in Florida",
"Hurricanes in Maryland",
"Hurricanes in New England",
"Hurricanes in North Carolina",
"Hurricanes in South Carolina",
"Hurricanes in Virginia",
"Hurricanes in Washington, D.C.",
"Hurricanes in West Virginia",
"Tropical cyclones in 1985"
] | Hurricane Bob was the first of six hurricanes to strike the United States during the 1985 Atlantic hurricane season. The second tropical storm and first hurricane of the year, Bob developed from a tropical wave on July 21 in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. Bob began moving east, making landfall southwestern Florida as a weak tropical storm. The storm then turned to the north and quickly intensified to hurricane status on July 24. The next day, it made landfall near Beaufort, South Carolina, becoming one of a record-tying six hurricanes to hit the United States during a single season. Bob quickly weakened over land, and was absorbed by a frontal trough over eastern West Virginia on July 26.
Bob caused \$20 million in damage as well as five indirect deaths. In Florida, the storm produced heavy rainfall, peaking at over 20 inches (508 mm) in Everglades City. In most areas, the rainfall was beneficial due to dry conditions that had persisted throughout the year. Damage was minimal in South Carolina, where the hurricane made its final landfall. In Virginia, the storm spawned three tornadoes, one of which destroyed two houses.
## Meteorological history
The remnants of a tropical wave entered the eastern Gulf of Mexico on July 20. An area of low pressure formed and developed into a tropical depression on July 21. Under weak steering currents, the tropical depression drifted southeast, then turned northeast and later east. Based on reports from Hurricane Hunters, the system intensified into Tropical Storm Bob late on July 22. Bob failed to organize significantly as it tracked east through the Gulf, and made landfall between Naples and Fort Myers, Florida, on July 23 as a 45 mph (70 km/h) tropical storm. At the time, most of the convection was concentrated south and east of the center.
While moving across Florida, Bob turned to the northeast, then to the north. It subsequently left the peninsula, entering the Atlantic Ocean near Vero Beach early on July 24. As it moved over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, it quickly organized and intensified into a Category 1 hurricane while 70 mi (115 km) east of Jacksonville, Florida. Because it was embedded within the western extension of the subtropical ridge, Bob retained higher-than-average atmospheric pressures throughout its lifespan. The hurricane continued north, and made landfall near Beaufort, South Carolina, early on July 25 while maintaining winds of 75 mph (120 km/h). Bob quickly weakened over land, decaying into a tropical storm three hours after landfall. About 12 hours later, it degenerated into a tropical depression near the North Carolina – Virginia border. Bob's remnants turned north-northeast, and were absorbed by a frontal trough over eastern West Virginia on July 26. An associated area of disturbed weather remained separate from the trough, and continued northeast through the Mid-Atlantic and New England.
## Preparations
When Bob was designated a tropical storm, the National Hurricane Center issued gale warnings for the Florida Keys west of Craig Key, and from Flamingo to Venice. Gale warnings were later posted for the Atlantic coast of Florida northward through St. Augustine. Small craft south of St. Augustine were advised to remain in port. While the storm was situated off the east-central coast of Florida, the National Hurricane Center issued a gale warning and a hurricane watch from Savannah, Georgia, to Little River, South Carolina. The hurricane watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning after Bob's intensification to Category 1 status.
Thousands of residents evacuated coastal areas of South Carolina, many of whom stayed at inland hotels; 850 people sought protection in shelters, including 500 at an elementary school in Horry County and 240 in a shelter in the Grand Strand. In Beaufort County, city and county offices were closed early and businesses were advised to send their workers home prematurely. Officials in Chatham County, Georgia, evacuated nursing homes on Tybee Island, and encouraged others to leave due to the potential for high tides to isolate the island by cutting off U.S. Route 80.
## Impact
Hurricane Bob inflicted \$20 million in damages and caused five indirect deaths. Damage from the storm was not severe enough to justify retirement of the name "Bob", and as such it was re-used during the 1991 season.
### Florida
In southern Florida, the heaviest rainfall remained to the south and east of the storm's center; 21.5 inches (546 mm) of precipitation was recorded in Everglades City. Northern parts of the state reported trace amounts to several inches of precipitation. At Naples, sustained winds reached 40 mph (65 km/h), with a peak gust of 58 mph (93 km/h). Rough surf and above-average tides caused moderate to severe beach erosion in portions of coastal Manatee, Sarasota, and Charlotte counties. Before landfall, Tropical Storm Bob spawned an F0 tornado in Brevard County that caused \$2,500 in damage (1985 USD, \$4,700 2006 USD) along its 1-mile (1.6 km) path.
Tropical Storm Bob flooded roads and downed trees in Florida. Rough seas broke over sea walls in southwestern parts of the state, and the combination of high tides and heavy rain caused forced the closure of causeways to Sanibel Island and Marco Island, leaving the islands temporarily isolated. They were re-opened when the waters receded, though the causeway to Sanibel Island sustained some damage. Florida Power & Light Co. reported that 1,200 to 1,500 residences were without power on July 23. In Palm Beach County, rainfall from the storm caused agricultural damage.
Overall damage was minimal and primarily confined to minor property near the coast. The storm's rainfall was beneficial in areas that had suffered dry conditions. In northeastern Florida and Georgia, beach erosion occurred along the coast. Bob was one of four July tropical cyclones to affect Palm Beach County since 1878.
### Carolinas
The strongest winds from Hurricane Bob were confined to areas east of its center when it came ashore around 1 am Eastern Standard Time (EST). Along the barrier islands off the coast of Charleston, windows were broken and power lines knocked down. Further inland, the lack of damage in spite of high winds was described as "almost unbelievable". Georgetown, South Carolina, 105 miles (170 km) northeast of where the storm made landfall, recorded sustained winds of 58 mph (93 km/h), and a spiral rainband produced a peak wind gust of 83 mph (134 km/h) in Holden Beach. Upon moving ashore, the hurricane produced an estimated storm tide of 2.6 feet (0.79 m) in Edisto Beach. Rainfall in the Carolinas was moderate; portions of coastal South Carolina received over 5 inches (127 mm) of precipitation. Myrtle Beach reported a statewide peak of 7.79 inches (198 mm). Hurricane-force wind gusts downed trees and power lines, leaving over 32,000 people without power, including more than 25,000 in the Charleston area. Near the coast, high winds shattered windows.
Strong waves broke over sea walls in Charleston, spilling floodwaters onto coastal streets and homes. Damage in the state was relatively light, and no serious injuries were reported. However, a gas station in Folly Beach was torn apart by the winds, and some structures along the coast sustained roof damage. In the Charleston Harbor, an empty tanker was forced aground on a sandbar by the winds. Throughout most areas, the storm was insignificant; a police sergeant in Summerville commented, "All we've had were some trees blown over, hardly enough to make it worth staying up so late."
Much of North Carolina received over 1 inch (25.4 mm) of rain; as much as 7 inches (178 mm) fell in Beaufort County. The storm caused one traffic-related fatality in the state.
### Mid-Atlantic and New England
In Virginia, a large band of thunderstorms associated with the hurricane brought strong winds and spawned three tornadoes. A funnel cloud formed in Albemarle County evolved into an F3 tornado after crossing into Greene County. It destroyed two houses and uprooted several trees, inflicting \$250,000 in damage (1985 USD, \$470,000 2006 USD). F0 tornadoes were also generated in Goochland County and Hanover County; the two tornadoes damaged a total of ten houses. Funnel clouds were sighted throughout the Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area.
Heavy precipitation and high winds disrupted the 1985 Boy Scouts of America National Scout Jamboree at Fort A. P. Hill near Fredericksburg, Virginia, knocking over hundreds of tents and fifty portable toilets. One scout was struck by a falling gateway and several others sustained minor cuts and bruises. The storm produced winds of 48 mph (77 km/h) at the Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, and about 30,000 people near Washington, D.C., and 125,000 in Baltimore were left without power. Moderate winds downed a sea plane near Hains Point in the Washington Channel. Rough seas capsized a few boats along the Potomac River, and rainfall from Bob's remnants forced the cancellation of a Richmond Braves game. and collapsed a house under construction in Great Falls, Maryland. A dam in Northeastern Virginia sustained storm-related damage. Slick roads led to several traffic accidents; one person in Washington, D.C., and three in Maryland were killed. High winds in the Washington, D.C., area also flipped over a pontoon-equipped Cessna 210 airplane near Hains Point, holding a five-man television crew. The crew, who worked for the television series Lime Street had been preparing to film a chase scene for the television drama. All five escaped the plane safely with the aid of the Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia harbor patrol.
Rainfall in the Mid-Atlantic and New England states was around 1 inch (25.4 mm), with isolated reports of over 3 inches (76 mm). About 0.5 inches (13 mm) of precipitation fell in Atlantic City, New Jersey, within a period of 10 minutes. In Maryland, the rainfall helped to relieve persistent dry conditions.
## See also
- List of Atlantic hurricanes
- List of United States hurricanes
- List of Florida hurricanes
- List of North Carolina hurricanes
- List of New England hurricanes | [
"## Meteorological history",
"## Preparations",
"## Impact",
"### Florida",
"### Carolinas",
"### Mid-Atlantic and New England",
"## See also"
] | 2,155 | 40,723 |
7,739,880 | Greek destroyer Vasilissa Olga | 1,092,274,654 | Greek G and H-class destroyer | [
"1938 ships",
"Destroyers sunk by aircraft",
"Dodecanese campaign",
"Maritime incidents in September 1943",
"Ships built on the River Clyde",
"Ships sunk by German aircraft",
"Vasilefs Georgios-class destroyers",
"World War II destroyers of Greece",
"World War II shipwrecks in the Aegean Sea"
] | Vasilissa Olga (Greek: ΒΠ Βασίλισσα Όλγα) (Queen Olga) was the second and last destroyer of her class built for the Royal Hellenic Navy in Great Britain before the Second World War. She participated in the Greco-Italian War in 1940–1941, escorting convoys and unsuccessfully attacking Italian shipping in the Adriatic Sea. After the German invasion of Greece in April 1941, the ship escorted convoys between Egypt and Greece until she evacuated part of the government to Crete later that month and then to Egypt in May. After the Greek surrender on 1 June, Vasilissa Olga served with British forces for the rest of her career.
She escorted convoys in the Eastern Mediterranean for the next several months before she was sent to India for a refit. The ship resumed convoy escort duties upon its completion at the beginning of 1942 in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. In December of that year, now operating in the Central Mediterranean, Vasilissa Olga and a British destroyer briefly captured an Italian submarine, but it sank while under tow. The following month, the ship, together with a pair of British destroyers, sank a small Italian transport ship. She was briefly tasked to escort an Australian troop convoy in the Red Sea in February 1943 before returning to the Mediterranean. Together with a British destroyer, Vasilissa Olga sank at least two ships from an Italian convoy in June. Over the next several months, she escorted British ships as the Allies invaded Sicily (Operation Husky) and mainland Italy (Operation Avalanche).
The ship was transferred back to the Eastern Mediterranean in September to participate in the Dodecanese Campaign. Together with two British destroyers, she helped to destroy a small German convoy in the islands before beginning to ferry troops and supplies to the small British garrison on the island of Leros. After completing one such mission, she was sunk by German bombers in Lakki harbor on 26 September with the loss of 72 men.
## Design and description
The Vasilefs Georgios-class ships were derived from the British G-class destroyers, modified with German guns and fire-control systems. They had an overall length of 98.4 meters (322 ft 10 in), a beam of 10.05 meters (33 ft 0 in), and a draft of 2.51 meters (8 ft 3 in). They displaced 1,371 metric tons (1,349 long tons) at standard load and 1,879 metric tons (1,849 long tons) at deep load. The two Parsons geared steam turbine sets, each driving one propeller shaft, were designed to produce 34,000 shaft horsepower (25,000 kW) using steam provided by three Admiralty three-drum boilers for a designed speed of 36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph). During her sea trials on 19 December 1938, Vasilissa Olga reached a speed of 36.1 knots (66.9 km/h; 41.5 mph) from 33,683 shp (25,117 kW), although her armament was not yet installed. The ships carried a maximum of 399 metric tons (393 long tons) of fuel oil which gave a range of 3,760 nautical miles (6,960 km; 4,330 mi) at 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph). Their crew consisted of 162 officers and crewmen. Unlike her sister ship Vasilefs Georgios, Vasilissa Olga was not fitted out to accommodate an admiral and his staff.
The ships carried four 12.7-centimeter (5.0 in) SK C/34 guns in single mounts with gun shields, designated 'A', 'B', 'X' and 'Y', from front to rear, one pair each superfiring forward and aft of the superstructure. Her anti-aircraft (AA) armament consisted of four 3.7-centimeter (1.5 in) guns in four single mounts amidships and two quadruple mounts for Vickers 0.5 in (12.7 mm) AA machineguns. The Vasilefs Georgios class carried eight above-water 53.3-centimeter (21 in) torpedo tubes in two quadruple mounts. They had two depth charge launchers and a single rack for their 17 depth charges.
### Wartime modifications
During her late 1941 refit in Calcutta, India, Vasilissa Olga's armament was revised to better suit her role as a convoy escort. The rear set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 3-inch (76.2 mm) AA gun and 'Y' gun was removed to increase the number of depth charge throwers and depth charge stowage. To reduce topweight, the 3.7 cm guns were replaced by 20 mm (0.8 in) Oerlikon autocannon. Her mainmast was removed and her aft funnel shortened to improve the arcs of fire of her AA guns. The ship was fitted with a Type 128 Asdic to improve her ability to detect submarines.
## Construction and service
The Vasilefs Georgios-class ships were ordered on 29 January 1937 as part of a naval rearmament plan that was intended to include one light cruiser and at least four destroyers, one pair of which were to be built in Britain and the other pair in Greece. Vasilissa Olga was laid down at Yarrow & Company's shipyard in Scotstoun, Scotland, in February 1937, launched on 2 June 1938, and commissioned on 4 February 1939 without her armament, which was installed later in Greece.
After the Italian submarine Delfino sank the elderly protected cruiser Elli in a sneak attack on 15 August 1940 off the island of Tinos, Vasilissa Olga and her sister were sent to Tinos to escort the merchant ships there home. During the Greco-Italian War she escorted convoys and participated in raids against Italian lines of communication in the Strait of Otranto on the nights of 14/15 November 1940 and 4/5 January 1941 that failed to locate any ships. The sisters ferried the Greek gold reserves to Crete on 1 March.
After the German invasion of Greece on 6 April, the sisters began to escort convoys between Greece and Egypt via Crete. On 22 April, Vasilissa Olga was ordered to evacuate elements of the Greek government to Crete, including Vice Admiral Alexandros Sakellariou who was the Minister for Naval Affairs, Chief of the Navy General Staff and Deputy Prime Minister. The following month she proceeded to Alexandria, Egypt, and then escorted convoys in the Eastern Mediterranean before departing for India to be modernized on 9 October.
The refit was completed on 5 January 1942 and the ship escorted convoys in the Arabian and Red Seas before arriving back in Alexandria on 22 February. Together with the British destroyer HMS Jaguar, Vasilissa Olga was escorting the oil tanker RFA Slavol off Mersa Matruh, Egypt, when they detected and unsuccessfully attacked the on 26 March. Later that day, the submarine sank both Jaguar and Slavol. Vasilissa Olga ran aground in early May while escorting a convoy between Alexandria and Tobruk and damaged her propellers. After repairs the ship was transferred to the Indian Ocean where she escorted convoys there and in the Red Sea until December when she returned to the Mediterranean.
On 14 December, Vasilissa Olga and the destroyer HMS Petard forced the Italian submarine Uarsciek to the surface off Malta. The submarine's crew was unable to scuttle their boat and it was taken in tow, although it later sank. The following month, on the night of 18/19 January 1943, Vasilissa Olga, along with the destroyers HMS Pakenham and HMS Nubian, intercepted and sank the 475-gross register ton (GRT) Italian freighter SS Stromboli off the Libyan coast. The following month, the ship was assigned to escort the ocean liners transporting the Australian Army's 9th Division home from Egypt (Operation Pamphlet) as they passed through the Red Sea between 7 and 24 February.
On 2 June, during the preparatory stages of Operation Corkscrew (the Allied invasion of the Italian island of Pantelleria), Vasilissa Olga and the destroyer HMS Jervis engaged an Italian convoy, sinking its lone escort, the torpedo boat Castore off Cape Spartivento. The convoy, however, managed to limp away. The following month, the ship was assigned to escort the ships of the British Covering Force in the Ionian Sea during Operation Husky and later bombarded Catania, Sicily. After the Italian armistice on 8 September, Vasilissa Olga was one of the ships that escorted Italian ships to Malta on 10 September. The next day, she returned to Italian waters to escort the ships involved in Operation Avalanche.
The ship was transferred to the Eastern Mediterranean to support British forces involved in the Dodecanese Campaign in the Aegean Sea less than a week later, arriving at Alexandria on 16 September. On the night of 17/18 September, she engaged a German convoy off the coast of Stampalia, together with the destroyers HMS Faulknor and HMS Eclipse, sinking the transports Pluto and Paula and forced the crew of the escorting whale catcher, Uj 2104, to beach itself. Vasilissa Olga transported 36 long tons (37 t) of supplies and 300 men of the Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment from Haifa, Palestine, to reinforce the British garrison on Leros. After another supply run, she was sunk by Junkers Ju 88 bombers of LG 1 in Lakki on the morning of 26 September, with the loss of 72 men. | [
"## Design and description",
"### Wartime modifications",
"## Construction and service"
] | 2,085 | 2,562 |
13,796,111 | Wiesbaden-class cruiser | 1,167,590,590 | Class of light cruisers of the German Imperial Navy | [
"1915 ships",
"Cruiser classes",
"Wiesbaden-class cruisers",
"World War I cruisers of Germany"
] | The Wiesbaden class of light cruisers was a class of ships built by the German Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy) shortly before the outbreak of World War I. Two ships were built in this class, Wiesbaden and Frankfurt. They were very similar to the preceding design, the Graudenz class, though they were armed with eight 15 cm SK L/45 guns instead of the twelve 10.5 cm SK L/45 guns on the earlier vessels. The ships had a top speed of 27.5 knots (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph).
Wiesbaden saw only one major action, the Battle of Jutland, on 31 May – 1 June 1916. She was badly damaged and immobilized during the battle and became the center of a melee as both sides fought over the crippled ship. She eventually sank in the early morning hours of 1 June, with only one survivor. Frankfurt was only lightly damaged at Jutland and saw extensive service with the II Scouting Group, including during Operation Albion against the Russians in the Baltic and at the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight, both in 1917. She was interned with the rest of the fleet at the end of the war and scuttled at Scapa Flow, though British sailors prevented her from sinking. Frankfurt was ceded to the US Navy as a war prize and eventually expended as a target in July 1921.
## Design
### Dimensions and machinery
The ships were 141.70 meters (464 ft 11 in) long at the waterline and 145.30 m (476 ft 8 in) long overall. They had a beam of 13.90 m (45 ft 7 in) and a draft of 5.76 m (18 ft 11 in) forward and 6.06 m (19 ft 11 in) aft. They displaced 5,180 metric tons (5,100 long tons) as designed and 6,601 t (6,497 long tons) at full load. The hull were built with longitudinal steel frames and contained seventeen watertight compartments and a double bottom that extended for forty-seven percent of the length of the keel. Steering was controlled by a single rudder. Wiesbaden and Frankfurt had a crew of 17 officers and 457 enlisted men. They carried a number of smaller craft, including one picket boat, one barge, one cutter, two yawls, and two dinghies.
Their propulsion systems consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two 3.5-meter (11 ft) screw propellers. They were designed to give 31,000 shaft horsepower (23,000 kW). These were powered by ten coal-fired Marine-type water-tube boilers and two oil-fired double-ended boilers. These gave the ship a top speed of 27.5 knots (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph). The ships of the class carried 1,280 metric tons (1,260 long tons; 1,410 short tons) of coal, and an additional 470 metric tons (460 long tons; 520 short tons) of oil that gave them a range of 4,800 nautical miles (8,900 km; 5,500 mi) at 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph). At 25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph), the cruising radius dropped significantly, to 1,200 nmi (2,200 km; 1,400 mi). Wiesbaden was equipped with a pair of turbo generators and one diesel generator rated at a combined 300 kilowatts (400 hp) at 220 Volts. Frankfurt only had the two turbo generators, which provided 240 kW (320 hp).
### Armament and armor
The ships of the Wiesbaden class were armed with a main battery of eight 15 cm (5.9 in) SK L/45 guns in single pedestal mounts. Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle, four were located amidships, two on either side, and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft. The guns could engage targets out to 17,600 m (19,200 yd). They were supplied with 1,024 rounds of ammunition, for 128 shells per gun. The ships' antiaircraft armament initially consisted of four 5.2 cm (2 in) L/55 guns, though these were replaced with a pair of 8.8 cm (3.5 in) SK L/45 anti-aircraft guns. The ships were also equipped with four 50 cm (19.7 in) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes. Two were submerged in the hull on the broadside and two were mounted on the upper deck amidships. They could also carry 120 mines.
Wiesbaden and Frankfurt were protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm (2.4 in) thick amidships; the belt was reduced to 18 mm (0.71 in) forward. The stern was not armored. The conning tower had 100 mm (3.9 in) thick sides and a 20 mm (0.79 in) thick roof. The rangefinder atop the conning tower had 30 mm (1.2 in) worth of armor protection. The deck was covered with 60 mm thick armor plate forward, 40 mm (1.6 in) amidships, and 20 mm aft. Sloped armor 40 mm thick connected the deck to the belt armor. The main battery gun shields were 50 mm (2 in) thick.
## Service history
### Wiesbaden
Wiesbaden' was ordered under the contract name "Ersatz Gefion" and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1913 and launched on 20 January 1915, after which fitting-out work commenced. She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 23 August 1915, after being rushed through trials. The ship saw only one major action, the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916. The ship was badly damaged by gunfire from the battlecruiser HMS Invincible. Immobilized between the two battle fleets, Wiesbaden became the center of a hard-fought action that saw the destruction of two British armored cruisers. Heavy fire from the British fleet prevented evacuation of the ship's crew. Wiesbaden remained afloat until the early hours of 1 June and sank sometime between 01:45 and 02:45. Only one crew member survived the sinking; the wreck was located by German Navy divers in 1983.
### Frankfurt
Frankfurt was ordered under the contract name "Ersatz Hela" and was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel in 1913 and launched on 20 March 1915. The ships was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 20 August 1915. Frankfurt saw extensive action with the High Seas Fleet during World War I. She served primarily in the North Sea, and participated in the Bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft and the battles of Jutland and Second Heligoland. At Jutland, she was lightly damaged by a British cruiser and her crew suffered minor casualties. The ship was also present during Operation Albion in the Baltic Sea in October 1917. At the end of the war, she was interned with the bulk of the German fleet in Scapa Flow. When the fleet was scuttled in June 1919, Frankfurt was one of the few ships that were not successfully sunk. She was ceded to the US Navy as a war prize and ultimately expended as a bomb target in tests conducted by the US Navy and Army Air Force in July 1921. | [
"## Design",
"### Dimensions and machinery",
"### Armament and armor",
"## Service history",
"### Wiesbaden",
"### Frankfurt"
] | 1,637 | 20,880 |
Subsets and Splits