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22,219,085	Handkea utriformis	1,136,423,217	Species of fungus	[ "Edible fungi", "Fungi described in 1790", "Fungi of Asia", "Fungi of Europe", "Fungi of New Zealand", "Fungi of North America", "Lycoperdaceae", "Puffballs" ]	Handkea utriformis, synonymous with Lycoperdon utriforme, Lycoperdon caelatum or Calvatia utriformis, is a species of the puffball family Lycoperdaceae. A rather large mushroom, it may reach dimensions of up to 25 cm (10 in) broad by 20 cm (8 in) tall. It is commonly known as the mosaic puffball, a reference to the polygonal-shaped segments the outer surface of the fruiting body develops as it matures. Widespread in northern temperate zones, it is found frequently on pastures and sandy heaths, and is edible when young. H. utriformis has antibiotic activity against a number of bacteria, and can bioaccumulate the trace metals copper and zinc to relatively high concentrations. ## Taxonomy This puffball was originally described in 1790 by French botanist Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard as Lycoperdon utriforme, and since then, has been variously placed in the genera Bovista, Lycoperdon, Calvatia, and Utraria. In 1989, German mycologist Hanns Kreisel described the genus Handkea to include species of Calvatia that had distinct microscopic features: Handkea species have a unique type of capillitium (coarse thick-walled hyphae in the gleba), with curvy slits instead of the usual pores. Although accepted by some authors, the genus concept has been rejected by others. In the past, the species (when it was known as Calvatia utriformis) has been separated into three varieties (C. utriformis var. utriformis, C. utriformis var. hungarica and C. utriformis var. gruberi) based on differences in the ornamentation of the exoperidium (outer tissue layer of the wall, or peridium) and spores. However, a 1997 study of these characters revealed that the three varieties are not clearly demarcated. This study and others suggest that variations in the environmental conditions in which the specimens are grown can affect the development of these characteristics. Phylogenetic analyses published in 2008 shows that Handkea may be grouped in a clade along with species from several other genera, including Lycoperdon, Vascellum, Morganella, Bovistella, and Calvatia. Published in the same year, another DNA analysis of the structure of ITS2 rDNA transcript confirmed that H. utriformis is closely related to Lycoperdon echinatum. ## Description Like all puffballs, Handkea utriformis has a gasteroid basidiocarp, meaning the spores are produced internally, and are only released as the mature fruiting body ages and dries, or is broken. Young puffballs are typically 6 to 12 cm (2+1⁄2 to 4+1⁄2 in) across, white, or pale grey-brown; in maturity it may attain dimensions of 25 cm (10 in) broad by 20 cm (8 in) tall. The exoperidum is tomentose—densely covered with a layer of fine matted hairs. The species derives its common name "mosaic puffball" from the mosaic pattern across the top and sides that develops as the fruiting body matures and the outer wall (exoperidium) breaks up into polygonal patches. The underside of the puffball is attached to the ground by a root-like assemblage of hyphae called a rhizomorph. It is squat in appearance and roughly pear-shaped, not usually taller than it is wide. The flesh (gleba, or spore bearing mass) is white when young, but becomes brown and powdery upon maturity. The upper skin eventually disintegrates weeks or even months after the puffball's appearance, and the brown spores are released into the air; this process is often hastened by rain, or by being trodden on by cattle. Eventually, all that remains is the sterile cup-shaped base, which can sometimes hold water. This feature may have been the source of the specific epithet, as utrarius is Latin for ‘water carrier’. ### Microscopic features The spores of H. utriformis are roughly spherical, smooth, and thick-walled, with a single oil droplet. They have dimensions of 4.5–5.5 μm. ### Similar species A number of puffball species resemble H. utriformis, including Calvatia cyathiformiss, C. booniana, and C. pachyderma. Calvatia cyathiformis has a purple-colored gleba with a smooth exoperidium; C. booniana has an exoperidium that resembles felt or has tufts of soft "hairs" like H. utriformis but does not have any stem and has a capillitium with rounded rather than sinuous pits; C. pachyderma has an exoperidium that is thicker and smoother than H. utriformis. ## Distribution and habitat Handkea utriformis is widespread, and frequent in northern temperate zones. It is found in Europe, continental Asia, Japan, eastern atlantic North America, Mexico, and South Africa. It has also been collected in Chile, and New Zealand. Growing alone or in small groups, it favors sandy open pastures, or heaths, and is often found in coastal regions. It typically fruits in summer through late autumn (July - November in the UK). ## Edibility This fairly large puffball is edible only when the spore bearing flesh is young, and white. It is said to lack texture, and the taste and odor of the young fruiting bodies are described as "not distinctive". A 2007 study of the fatty acid composition of various edible Lycoperdaceae species determined the lipid content of H. utriformis to be quite low, approximately 1.8% (wet weight). The fatty acid content was largely linoleic acid (42.4%), oleic acid (23%), palmitic acid (12.2%), and stearic acid (3.6%); 17 other fatty acids of various chain lengths and degrees of unsaturation contributed to the total fatty acid composition. ## Antibiotic activity A 2005 study of the antimicrobial activity of several Lycoperdaceae revealed that Handkea utriformis has "significantly active" against a number of bacteria, including Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Mycobacterium smegmatis. On the other hand, H. utriformis has low antifungal activity against the species Candida albicans, Rhodotorula rubra, and Kluyveromyces fragilis. ## Bioaccumulation A study of the copper and zinc concentrations in 28 different species of edible mushroom showed that H. utriformis selectively bioaccumulated both copper (251.9 mg of copper per kilogram of mushroom) and zinc (282.1 mg Zn/kg mushroom) to higher levels than all other mushrooms tested. The authors note that although these trace elements are important nutritional requirements for humans, and that H. utriformis may be considered a good source of these elements, it is known that absorption of the elements (bioavailability) from mushrooms is "low due to limited absorption from the small intestine".	[ "## Taxonomy", "## Description", "### Microscopic features", "### Similar species", "## Distribution and habitat", "## Edibility", "## Antibiotic activity", "## Bioaccumulation" ]	1,614	14,486
23,875,475	Diamond Tooth Lil	1,072,891,793	Early 20th century American cultural icon of wealth and libertine burlesque	[ "1975 deaths", "American entertainers", "American gold rushes", "People of the American Old West" ]	Diamond Tooth Lil was an American cultural figure popular in the early 20th century as an icon of wealth and libertine burlesque. Several individuals called themselves "Diamond Lil" or "Diamond Tooth", creating an amalgamated legacy clouded by myth. These individuals include a vaudeville entertainer in the Yukon during the 1890s Klondike Gold Rush, a madam in the American West during the early 1900s, and the titular character of Mae West's Diamond Lil, who embodied these traits and popularized the name in the 1920s. ## Overview Multiple women of the American West have used the name "Diamond Tooth" and "Diamond Lil". In the case of the two most prominent, historians have often confused the lives of Honora Ornstein and Evelyn Hildegard, who both went by the name Diamond Lil around the turn of the 20th century, both emigrants from Austria, with similar ages, careers in entertainment, and diamond-inset teeth. They did differ, however, in where they lived: Ornstein in the Klondike and Seattle, and Hildegard in California and Nevada. Lil became known as enigmatic figure, and has been variously attributed as a "dance hall girl, gambler, prostitute, or madam who smoked cigars and carried a gun"—a legacy clouded with myth. By the 1920s, Diamond Tooth Lil was a household name. ## Klondike Lil The first Diamond Tooth Lil was a woman named Honora Ornstein, born in 1882. Details about her early years are unclear and sometimes contradictory. The Master File of the Social Security Death Index gives her birthplace as Austria (then Austria-Hungary). The 1920 United States Census gives her birthplace as France. Information about her family's emigration to the United States is also unclear. A 1936 article in The Washington Post stated that she was the daughter of a Jewish family and had formerly been known as Lillian Orinstein. Newspapers in the 1960s reported that she was the daughter of wealthy cattle ranchers from Montana. Ornstein arrived in the Yukon town of Dawson in 1898 or 1899. She became famous during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Yukon before the turn of the century on the Pantages vaudeville circuit, where she was a star entertainer for the region's spendthrift "sourdough" gold seekers. A nearby gambling house owner said that Lil spent three or four years there. Her stage name, Diamond Tooth Lil, is based on her several diamond-inset dental fillings, including ones in her front and canine teeth. She also collected and wore other diamond-studded jewelry, including a white gold snake bracelet studded with 125 real diamonds that scaled the length of her arm. Around 1908, she had moved to Seattle and was remembered for ostentatiously spending money during a Klondikers' parade. She married Robert Ernst Snelgrove in 1918. It is unclear if they divorced or he died, or when this occurred; she is reported as having married George Miller "later". Shortly before she divorced her last husband around 1928, she lived in an apartment she had purchased in Seattle and inherited \$150,000 from her mother, equivalent to \$ in . Lil made newspaper headlines in 1936 when she was committed to Western State Hospital, a psychiatric hospital in Washington, and reported as near-death. By this time, she had sold the diamonds from her teeth but was thought to still have considerable wealth—only she was unable to speak and her relatives were not in contact. Her reputation limited the market for her jewelry collection, which she struggled to sell in the 1950s. Lil's lawyer reported that her assets had been exhausted by 1961. After spending the remainder of her life in state institutions, Lil died in a Yakima, Washington, nursing home on June 18, 1975. She was buried in a simple grave and had no known relatives. The New York Times remembered Lil as a "dance hall queen" and "the toast of the North". ## Sierra Nevada Lil Evelyn Fialla was also born in Austria-Hungary, in approximately 1877. Her family emigrated to the United States and settled in Youngstown, Ohio. She met Percy Hildegard when she was fourteen and eloped with him to Chicago, where she became a saloon singer. She divorced him on an unspecified date, and went on to marry several more times over the course of her life. Sources such as Ripley's Believe It Or Not! reported thirteen marriages. Hildegard herself put the number at eight. As a traveling dancer, she worked her way from Ohio across the West to San Francisco, California. After the 1906 San Francisco earthquake left the city in ruins, Hildegard moved to Goldfield, Nevada, a boomtown of the California Gold Rush. Hildegard was paid handsomely for her exceptionally popular act at the town's Northern Saloon. Though she ultimately spent less than a year in Goldfield, she quickly opened her own dance hall and had a relationship with prospector Diamondfield Jack. Hildegard was said to have won her title of Diamond Tooth Lil in a successful bet with a Reno dentist, who set a diamond in her front tooth. Lil was said to have entertained and managed multiple profitable brothels across the West, including Death Valley, California, Denver, Colorado, and Boise, Idaho, where her "Star Rooms" in Boise had amenities including steam heating and both hot and cold water. She had reached Boise by the early 1940s. In 1944, she announced that her famous front tooth diamond would be willed to the Idaho Children's Home orphanage upon her death. By 1966, she had sold her jewelry and was penniless in California. She died at the Claremont Sanitarium of Pomona in 1967. ## Mae West Diamond Lil, the successful Broadway play written and acted by Mae West in 1928, is assumed but not confirmed to be based on the Lils' lives. The show was later adapted into the 1933 film She Done Him Wrong. West said that her inspiration for the name likely came from her father's nickname for her mother, "Til", short for "Matilda", and sometimes with her drink of choice, "Champagne Til". West based the character on herself and viewed Lil as an alter ego. "The femme fatale of the Bowery", declared The New York Times of West's Lil in the play's 1949 revival, "bowling her leading men over one by one with her classical impersonation of a storybook strumpet", dressed in "some of the gaudiest finery of the century" with a "snaky walk, torso wriggle, stealthy eyes, frozen smile, flat, condescending voice, [and] queenly gestures"—in all, "a triumph of nostalgic vulgarity". West won a lawsuit in 1966 against a Los Angeles performer for infringement of the name "Diamond Lil".	[ "## Overview", "## Klondike Lil", "## Sierra Nevada Lil", "## Mae West" ]	1,473	18,840
55,284,396	FAE grp	1,135,550,660	British entertainment company	[ "British record labels", "Companies based in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham", "Pop record labels", "Record labels based in London" ]	FAE grp (also known as First Access Entertainment Group) is an entertainment company founded by Sarah Stennett and owner of Access Industries and Len Blavatnik, with offices in London, New York City and Los Angeles. It launched in 2015 and is the successor to Stennett's first company Turn First Artists, which was absorbed into the new venture. Since then, the activities of the company have evolved to include a record label (Access Records), publishing (First Access Publishing), Sports Management (First Access Sports), and a seed funding venture called "Fund by First Access Entertainment". The company is most known for managing recording artists Iggy Azalea, Ellie Goulding, Jessie J, Rita Ora, and Madison Beer. Prior to his death in 2017, then upcoming-rapper Lil Peep was managed through a joint-venture with FAE. His music has since been released posthumously through the company and Peep's estate. Also in 2019, American burlesque-come-recording group the Pussycat Dolls reformed and released new music with Access Records. Later that year Blavatnik would resign as a director from the company. ## History First Access Entertainment's origins can be traced back to an earlier company, Turn First Artists, an artist management and development agency based out of West London, founded by music manager Sarah Stennett. With the agency, Stennett has been responsible for launching the careers of artists including Iggy Azalea, Rita Ora, Ellie Goulding, Zayn and Jessie J. Stennett also co-founded law firm SSB, which represents Adele, alongside setting up the Grammy Award-winning songwriting and production team the Invisible Men that includes her husband George Astasio. In October 2015, Turn First was absorbed into a new joint venture launched by Stennett and Len Blavatnik's Access Industries, a privately held industrial group with major holdings in the music, media and telecommunications sectors. The new venture would be called First Access Entertainment (FEA) and encompassed both artist management and label services. Founded in 2015, the company offers services across artist and model management, recorded music, music publishing, strategic brand partnerships, TV/film development and sports management. It has offices in London, Los Angeles and New York. In 2017, Oscar Scivier joined Access Records as their vice president of A&R from Ultra Records. Blavatnik would resign as a company director in October 2019 and was replaced with Stephen John Hendry. Upon announcing their reformation, American burlesque group-come recording group the Pussycat Dolls confirmed in 2020 that they would be releasing new music, including the song "React", through Access Records. "React" is their first independent release, as well as the group's first release in a decade. Scherzinger told Rap-Up that being "able to release our music independently at this moment in time feels incredibly empowering". In July 2022, A&R Executives Jesse Dixon and Jay Grey were promoted to the positions of Co-Vice Presidents of Music at FAE Group. Grey will lead on "publishing, records and management roster of talent" while Dixon will focus on growth and development of their roster of artists. ## Access Records and artist management services ### Roster As of 2021, First Access Entertainment is home to a range of acts including, but not limited to: - Algee Smith - Ashlee Simpson - Bebe Rexha - Brian D. Lee - Conor Maynard - Evan Ross - iLoveMakonnen - Jack & Jack - Kara Marni - Kiya Juliet - Lil Peep - Lion Babe - MadeinTYO - Madison Beer - Ray BLK - Rita Ora - The Invisible Men - Travis Mills - MJ Rodriguez ### Former clients - Charles Hamilton (from 2015-2017) - Nicole Scherzinger - The Pussycat Dolls (record label services, 2019-2020) - Zayn (from 2015-2018) ### Digital tours FEA has also worked on several digital tours in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. A 2020 feature in the Los Angeles Times covered senior VP of A&R at First Access Records, Le'Roy Benros, and how he oversaw "geofenced digital tours" for the artists Lion Babe and Kwamie Liv. Explaining the concept, Benros said "the economy has taken a big hit, and brands are trying to find creative and effective ways to reach their demographic. Brands also know that a main source of an independent artist's revenue stream has been depleted. I think it's a mutually beneficial partnership as long as it doesn't compromise the integrity and aesthetic of the artist." Benros explained that geofencing meant that free tickets available only to fans in the area where the artists would have performed anyway. Benros noted that in future, he would expect fans to pay for such opportunities. ## Other ventures ### First Access Publishing Following its first 18 months in service, FAE signed a joint agreement with publishing company Warner/Chappell to provide global support for FAE's "publishing roster for synchronization in film, TV, advertising, games and other media, as well as provide global copyright administration." Warner/Chappell CEO Jon Platt said of the venture, "we're very pleased to partner with the terrific team at First Access Entertainment." Platt noted that the venture would utilise skills at both companies and build "long, successful careers for diverse and accomplished songwriters, now and in the future." Stennett also commented on the venture during a press release, saying "I'm very much looking forward to working hand-in-hand with the incredible team at Warner/Chappell on developing and maximising the full scope of our artist's repertoire across a broad range of media and entertainment platforms." ### First Access Sports In 2018, FAE further diversified its operations, launching a sports management agency to represent sports stars from all fields. First Access Sports focusses on services aimed at young athletes. Stennett expanded on the company's purpose during an interview with Music Week, where she recognised youth athletes as "youth culture stars" and as being "powerful individuals", with "enormous cultural presence and influence." She said: "our mission is to create the foundations for exemplary performance within the scope of their core discipline and to enhance their visibility and ancillary value." Co-CEO Len Blavatnik agreed noting that FEA has foundations and previous successes in attracting, retaining and representing talent, he said: "FEA has a proven track record in talent discovery and representation. We have a team in place that can push the boundaries of traditional sports management." ### Fund by Access Entertainment Also in 2018, the company joined forces with Simon Tikhman to launch "Fund by Access Entertainment," a seed funding initiative for entrepreneurs launching ventures centred around youth culture. Of the venture, Tikhman said, "This is a natural next step – by seeding, incubating and giving aspiring companies access to the extensive global infrastructure of First Access Entertainment, they will have all the tools they need to take their ideas to the next level." ### The Qube First Access was also a founding investor in "The Qube", a "first of its kind venue and community for music professionals to connect and collaborate." The flagship West London venue is a 22,000 square-foot premise designed by Munro Acoustics, featuring 30 state of the art soundproofed recording studios, breakout spaces, and a tranquil garden terrace is due to open in January 2020. Other partners in the venture include; Riz Ahmed, Krept & Konan, Rudimental's Amir Amor, Mixcloud co-founder Nikhil Shah, and Concord Music. ## Controversies ### Death of Lil Peep In 2017, American rapper Lil Peep died of an accidental drug overdose; he was managed by FAE. The rapper's mother Liza Womack filed wrongful death charges against FAE in 2019, accusing them of "negligence and other breaches of contract which, the lawsuit alleges, contributed to his death in 2017 of an accidental drugs overdose." Among the claims in the lawsuit are that FAE was complicit in providing access to "illegal drugs" and "prescription medications", and that the company knowingly allowed drug use to take place during the rapper's tour "despite being aware of his addiction". At one point, the lawsuit charges that FAE encouraged the star to take drugs. In a responding statement, FAE expressed disappointment in the lawsuit: > "Lil Peep's death from an accidental drug overdose was a terrible tragedy. However, the claim that First Access Entertainment, any of its employees, or Chase Ortega, or anyone else under our auspices, was somehow responsible for, complicit in, or contributed to his death is categorically untrue. In fact, we consistently encouraged Peep to stop abusing drugs and to distance himself from the negative influence of the drug users and enablers with whom he chose to associate." FAE formally filed court documents at the Los Angeles County Superior Court on 23 December 2019 to dispute all claims, including claims of negligence, breach of contract, "and wrongful death". Stennett told Rolling Stone that "[she] felt very protective of Lil Peep from day one." In later documents and court filings, the company said that their work with Lil Peep was an "arm's length business arrangement", something disputed by the rapper's mother. Despite court filings, FAE supported the release of Peep's first posthumous album Come Over When You're Sober, Pt. 2 (2019), which reached number four on the US Billboard 200 chart, a career-best for the rapper. At the start of 2020, the company released statements about their belief that they had no contractual responsibility for Lil Peep's personal life, and that a ruling to suggest so would damage management businesses, "Imposing a duty on FAE Ltd. or FAE LLC to prevent [Lil Peep's] drug overdose would extend the boundaries of legal obligations far beyond any precedent, and far beyond the contractual obligations and reasonable expectations of parties doing business. It would convert businesses engaged in the music and entertainment industries into full-time babysitters for artists. That clearly was not the parties' intent upon entering 'the JVA [(joint-venture agreement)].'" ### Adam Lublin Adam Lublin, a former executive of AEG, worked for FAE as a consultant. In 2019, he was charged with "two counts of burglary and one count of sexual abuse" at the Manhattan Criminal Court, before being charged "on a second count of sexual abuse and burglary against the first victim's roommate". The company subsequently terminated all business with Lublin.	[ "## History", "## Access Records and artist management services", "### Roster", "### Former clients", "### Digital tours", "## Other ventures", "### First Access Publishing", "### First Access Sports", "### Fund by Access Entertainment", "### The Qube", "## Controversies", "### Death of Lil Peep", "### Adam Lublin" ]	2,269	44,698
61,907,854	Starblade: Operation Blue Planet	1,083,078,198	Unreleased arcade video game	[ "Arcade video games", "Cancelled arcade video games", "Namco arcade games", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games scored by Nobuyoshi Sano" ]	is an unreleased 3D rail shooter arcade game in development by Namco. A sequel to the game Starblade (1991), the player controls the GeoCalibur starship in its mission to wipe out an alien race known as the Unknown Intelligent Mechanized Species. Gameplay involved using a flight-yoke controller to control a crosshair and shoot down enemies, while avoiding incoming obstacles and projectiles. The player has a shield that depletes when inflicted with enemy fire. Only one level was completed. It ran on the PlayStation 2-based Namco System 246 arcade hardware. The game was created to utilize an arcade cabinet known as the Over Reality Booster System (O.R.B.S.), which featured a globular mirror and retractable seat. Development of the game was made to be simple and easy to understand, a response to the diminishing Japanese arcade game industry at the time, and to show off the technological capabilities of the O.R.B.S. machine. It was revealed to the public at the 2001 Amusement Machine Show in Japan and became one of the show's most popular titles, having a 70-minute wait time to play it. Critics applauded the game's detailed graphics and immersive experience. It was quietly cancelled following its unveiling, said to have been the result of a sharp decline of arcades and high manufacturing costs of the O.R.B.S. cabinet. ## Gameplay Starblade: Operation Blue Planet is a 3D rail shooter video game, and a sequel to the arcade game Starblade. Controlling the GeoCalibur starship, a successor to the GeoSword from the original, the player is tasked with wiping out an alien race known as the Unknown Intelligent Mechanized Species (UIMS) and their mechanical fortress named Megamouth before they destroy the United Galaxy Space Force, an intergalactic organization ran by humans to protect Earth. The player uses a flight-yoke controller to move a crosshair around the screen, which is used to shoot down enemies and their projectiles. The GeoCalibur has a shield at the top left of the screen that depletes when it is inflicted with damage from enemies, and should it fully deplete the game ends. An unseen announcer alerts the player of incoming enemies or obstacles. Only one level was completed, displaying a "TO BE CONTINUED" message upon completion. ## History ### Development Starblade: Operation Blue Planet was directed by Higashiyama Asahi, and was created for a new arcade cabinet in production by Namco called the "Over Reality Booster System" (O.R.B.S.), a motion-based machine featured a retractable seat, air blowers, a 5.1 channel Dolby Digital audio system, and a large, globular projector screen. The cabinet was originally designed in 1999, and was made to create a more immersive experience in arcade games. Early versions of O.R.B.S. had a rotating screen that moved based on actions performed in the game, in a manner similar to Sega's R-360 motion-based cabinet from several years prior. While the production team brainstormed ideas for which game to make first for the cabinet, designer Higashiyama Asahi suggested a sequel to Starblade, as he was a fan of the original and thought its first-person gameplay would work well — the team thought the idea would be interesting, and began work on a new Starblade game for the O.R.B.S. cabinet. Due to the shrinking arcade industry in Japan, gameplay was made to be simplistic and easy to understand for new players. The game ran on the Namco System 246 arcade board, designed after the internal hardware of the PlayStation 2. Development was assisted by "Sadahiro", a designer for Galaxian3: Project Dragoon and its sequel Attack of the Zolgear, alongside Yusuke Watanabe and Satoshi Shida. Asahi recalls development being "jerky" due to lack of staff and a small budget to make the game. The team focused on making the game exciting and thrilling, and to show off the technical capabilities of the O.R.B.S. arcade cabinet and System 246 hardware. The game's flat-textured look was based on an assumption by planner "Kobayashi", who thought that the development team behind Starblade would keep the original's graphical style as a sort of "ancestor respect". ### Promotion and cancellation Starblade: Operation Blue Planet was revealed on September 20, 2001 at the 39th Amusement Machine Show (AMS) arcade game expo in the Tokyo Big Sight convention center in Tokyo, Japan. A prototype O.R.B.S. cabinet was presented, as was a playable one-level demo of the game. It was shown off alongside several of Namco's other arcade games, including the racing game Wangan Midnight: Maximum Tune and the tennis game Smash Court Pro Tournament. Namco promoted the game as being "beyond real" for its immersive gameplay experience and detailed graphics. The company also stated that they would consider bringing the game overseas if demand was high. It became one of the most popular titles presented at the expo, posing a 70-minute wait time to play it. Only 200 people were able to play the game, which GAME Watch cites as being due to technical difficulties with the hardware. GameSpot wrote that despite Namco's "poor" presence there, the game was one of the "biggest surprises" shown for its realistic graphics and sound effect, saying the game "couldn't have returned at a better time". GAME Watch liked the game's "beautiful" graphics and ambitious arcade cabinet, particularly for its large globular dome-like screen. Rez creator Tetsuya Mizuguchi expressed interest in his game being compatible with the O.R.B.S. cabinet. Shortly after the expo's conclusion, Namco quietly cancelled both Operation Blue Planet and the O.R.B.S. machine, a fact attributed to the latter's high cost and sharp decline in Japanese arcades. Retrospectively, Kotaku expressed disappointment towards the game's sudden cancellation, saying that the game "could have been just the kind of thing the dying arcade scene was in need of". Retro Gamer magazine also showed disappointment towards its cancellation. ## Legacy The concept for O.R.B.S. was later re-used by Namco Bandai Games for their "Panoramic Optical Display" (P.O.D.) arcade cabinet, made to support their Gundam arcade games in Japan. A video showing the entirety of the demo was uploaded to YouTube by Namco Bandai on October 5, 2011. In a 2015 interview with Kazushi Imoto, the lead producer for Star Wars Battle Pod, he noted that Operation Blue Planet and other similar cancelled projects could potentially see a revival if there is enough fan demand.	[ "## Gameplay", "## History", "### Development", "### Promotion and cancellation", "## Legacy" ]	1,382	30,822
6,052,578	Oakland Coliseum station	1,173,903,229	Rail station in Oakland, California, US	[ "1972 establishments in California", "Amtrak stations in Alameda County, California", "Bay Area Rapid Transit stations in Alameda County, California", "Bus stations in Alameda County, California", "Railway stations in Oakland, California", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 1972", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 2005", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 2014", "Stations on the Beige Line (BART)", "Stations on the Blue Line (BART)", "Stations on the Green Line (BART)", "Stations on the Orange Line (BART)", "Transit centers in the United States" ]	The station complex of Amtrak's Oakland Coliseum station and Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART)'s Coliseum station is located in the East Oakland area of Oakland, California, United States. The two stations, located about 600 feet (180 m) apart, are connected to each other and to the Oakland Coliseum/Oakland Arena sports complex with an accessible pedestrian bridge. The BART station opened in 1972, serving the then-new Oakland Coliseum and the surrounding neighborhood. The Amtrak platform was added in 2005, making it one of two transfer points between BART and Amtrak's Capitol Corridor service. In 2014, the complex became the terminus of the Coliseum–Oakland International Airport line, providing a rail connection to Oakland International Airport. The station also serves as a transfer point for AC Transit buses and business park shuttles. ## History Coliseum station opened as part of the first segment of the BART system on September 11, 1972. It was soon connected to its namesake, the Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum/Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum Arena sports complex, by a 950-foot (290 m) pedestrian bridge over San Leandro Street and the Union Pacific Railroad's right-of-way located adjacent to the sports complex. The bridge initially opened for a brief period in October 1974 for the American League playoffs and the 1974 World Series; it closed on October 18 due to excessive swaying, but reopened in 1975. AirBART bus service to Oakland International Airport began on July 1, 1977, and the station was renamed Coliseum/Oakland Airport to reflect the new connection to the airport. Amtrak's long-distance Coast Starlight service has used the Union Pacific right-of-way since its inception in 1971, but served only the main downtown stops in Oakland at 16th Street station, then Jack London Square station when it replaced the former. Capitol Corridor service began in 1991, but did not initially stop at the Oakland Coliseum site. In 2002, the Capitol Corridor Joint Powers Authority (CCJPA), in conjunction with Caltrans and the City of Oakland, decided to build a Capitol Corridor station at Oakland Coliseum. The new \$6.6 million Oakland Coliseum station opened on June 6, 2005; it included a newly built accessible connection to the original BART-Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum pedestrian bridge, facilitating a grade separated transfer between the Capitol Corridor and BART. BART considered plans for a rail link to Oakland International Airport as early as 1970, including a bi-directional loop off the main line, but no significant progress was made until the early 1990s. In 2009, the Oakland City Council approved the construction of the Oakland Airport Connector, a 3.2-mile (5.1 km) automated guideway transit line. Construction on the line began in October 2010; it was renamed the Coliseum-Oakland International Airport line by BART. The line's Coliseum station opened on November 21, 2014, along with the rest of the line. AirBART bus service between the station and the airport was discontinued. The name of the conventional BART station was changed back to Coliseum, allowing the terminus station at the airport to be named as Oakland International Airport station. In the early 2000s, planning began for transit-oriented development to replace a station parking lot. The Coliseum Connections project, a modular structure with 110 mixed-income units on a 1.3-acre (0.53 ha) site, was constructed from November 2017 to April 4, 2019. The developers of the project lease the site from BART. In August 2020, a mural by seven Oakland Unified School District students was completed in the pedestrian tunnel. Thirteen BART stations, including Coliseum, did not originally have faregates for passengers using the elevator. In 2020, BART started a project to add faregates to elevators at these stations. The new faregate in the BART lobby at Coliseum was installed in August 2020. ## Station layout ### Amtrak station The Amtrak station is an unstaffed grade-level station located at the western end of the 73rd Avenue cul-de-sac. The station has few amenities other than benches sheltered by open-air canopies. An QuikTrak ticket machine that was previously located at the station was removed due to vandalism issues. The Union Pacific Railroad (UP) Niles Subdivision has three tracks at the station — two mainline tracks used by Union Pacific freight trains (and the Coast Starlight), and a siding track with a single side platform serving Capitol Corridor trains. Oakland Coliseum is primarily served by through trains between Sacramento and San Jose, but also functions as a part-time terminal for some Capitol Corridor service traveling to/from Sacramento. An accessible ramp structure connects the platform to the pedestrian bridge. ### BART station The BART station is an elevated three-level structure. Fare control and concessions are located on the ground level, east of San Leandro Street, underneath the northern end of the platform. Conventional BART trains serve an island platform on the elevated second level. The grade-level UP Oakland Subdivision runs parallel to BART on the east side of the station, separating it from the adjacent Coliseum neighborhood. An accessible pedestrian underpass tunnel with a stairlift runs underneath the Union Pacific right-of-way and connects the fare control area with the parking area and Snell Street. A taxi stand is located along the western side of San Leandro Street just north of 71st Avenue, with a secondary taxi loading zone also located along the eastern side of Snell Street near the bicycle locker area. #### Oakland Airport Connector The Beige Line station is located on the third level of the Oakland Coliseum station complex. It has one track serving one side platform. It has no direct non-emergency street access and can only be reached from the main BART platform. Unlike conventional BART stations, platform screen doors provide a barrier between the platform and the guideway of the driverless system. The fare for the line is charged at Coliseum station for travel in both directions. The walls of the platform area feature an artwork titled A-Round Oakland by Gordon Huether. The \$300,000 artwork consists of around 50 colorful dichroic glass circles ranging from 18–36 inches (460–910 mm) in diameter. ### Bus service Coliseum station is one of the main bus-rail interchanges for East Oakland (along with Fruitvale station) and is served 24/7 by various bus services. It is served by eight AC Transit bus routes, which stop on both sides of San Leandro Street: - Local routes 45, 73, 90, and 98 - All Nighter route 805 - Limited-stop route 46L - School routes 646 and 657 In addition, several fare-free local shuttle routes stop at the BART passenger loading zone on the southeastern corner of San Leandro Street and 71st Avenue. These include the Alameda County East Oakland Shuttle, which connects the station with county offices at Eastmont Town Center, Edgewater Drive, and Enterprise Way, as well as shuttle buses serving the nearby Harbor Bay Business Park.	[ "## History", "## Station layout", "### Amtrak station", "### BART station", "#### Oakland Airport Connector", "### Bus service" ]	1,527	23,550
12,499,276	USS Philadelphia (1776)	1,163,024,150	American Gunboat in 1776	[ "1776 ships", "Artifacts in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution", "Individual sailing vessels", "Lake Champlain", "Maritime incidents in 1776", "Museum ships in Washington, D.C.", "National Historic Landmarks in Washington, D.C.", "Row galleys of the Continental Navy", "Ships on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C.", "Ships preserved in museums" ]	USS Philadelphia is a gunboat (referred to in contemporary documents as a gundalow or gondola) of the Continental Navy. She was constructed from July–August 1776 for service during the American Revolutionary War. Manned by Continental Army soldiers, she was part of a fleet under the command of General Benedict Arnold that fought against the British Royal Navy in the Battle of Valcour Island on Lake Champlain. Philadelphia was sunk during the battle on 11 October 1776. In 1935, amateur military marine archaeologist Lorenzo Hagglund located her remains standing upright at the bottom of Lake Champlain. The wreck was raised to the surface and salvaged. In 1961 she was bequeathed to the Smithsonian Institution. Philadelphia and associated artifacts are now part of the permanent collection of the National Museum of American History, in Washington, D.C., where curator Philip K. Lundeberg was responsible for arranging her initial display. The vessel is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a National Historic Landmark. ## Background The American Revolutionary War, which began in April 1775 with the Battles of Lexington and Concord, widened in September 1775 when the Continental Army embarked on an invasion of the British Province of Quebec. The province was viewed by the Second Continental Congress as a potential avenue for British forces to attack and divide the rebellious colonies and was lightly defended. The invasion reached a peak on 31 December 1775, when the Battle of Quebec ended in disaster for the Americans. In the spring of 1776, 10,000 British and German troops arrived in Quebec, and General Guy Carleton, the provincial governor, drove the Continental Army out of Quebec and back to Fort Ticonderoga. Carleton then launched his own offensive intended to reach the Hudson River, whose navigable length begins south of Lake Champlain and extends down to New York City. Control of the upper Hudson would enable the British to link their forces in Quebec with those in New York, recently captured in the New York campaign by Major General William Howe. This strategy would separate the American colonies of New England from those farther south and potentially quash the rebellion. Following the American retreat from Quebec, the only ships on the lake were those of a small fleet of lightly armed ships that Benedict Arnold had assembled following the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775. This fleet, even if it had been in British hands, was too small to transport the large British army to Fort Ticonderoga. ## Fleet development During their retreat from Quebec, the Americans carefully took or destroyed all ships on Lake Champlain that might prove useful to the British. When Arnold and his troops, making up the rear guard of the army, abandoned Fort Saint-Jean, they burned or sank all the boats that they could not use and set fire to the sawmill and the fort. These actions effectively denied the British any hope of immediately moving onto the lake. The two sides set about building fleets: the British at Saint-Jean and the Americans at the other end of the lake in Skenesborough (present-day Whitehall, New York). While planning Quebec's general defenses in 1775, General Carleton had anticipated the problem of transportation on Lake Champlain, and had requested the provisioning of prefabricated ships from Europe. Because of this planning, the British were able to assemble a fleet that significantly overpowered that of the Americans. In total, the British fleet (25 armed vessels) had more firepower than the Americans' 15 vessels, with more than 80 guns outweighing the 74 smaller American guns. The American shipbuilding effort at Skenesborough was overseen by Hermanus Schuyler (possibly a relation of Major General Philip Schuyler), and the outfitting was managed by military engineer Jeduthan Baldwin. Schuyler began work in April to produce boats larger and more suitable for combat than the small shallow-draft boats known as bateaux that were used for transport on the lake. The process eventually came to involve General Benedict Arnold, who was an experienced ship's captain, and David Waterbury, a Connecticut militia leader with maritime experience. Major General Horatio Gates, in charge of the overall defense of the lake, eventually asked Arnold to take more responsibility in the shipbuilding effort because "I am intirely uninform'd as to Marine Affairs." ## Construction of Philadelphia Philadelphia was one of eight gundalows (also called gondolas in contemporary documents) constructed at Skenesboro. She was laid down early in July 1776 and launched in mid-August. Constructed primarily of oak, she was larger than a bateaux at 53 ft 2 in (16.21 m) long with a beam of 15 ft 2 in (4.62 m). She featured a single 36-foot (10.97 m) mast with square-rigged sail and topsail, and mounted three cannons, one 12-pounder (5.4 kg) facing forward and two 9 pounders (4.1 kg) facing port and starboard respectively. She also had mounting points for up to eight swivel guns, and was estimated by the Smithsonian to displace 29 long tons (32.5 short tons; 29.5 t). Late in her construction General Arnold ordered that her aft deck be raised to accommodate a mortar. After the mortar exploded during a test firing at Fort Ticonderoga, this modification was undone. To maintain equilibrium, ballast rocks were probably used in the aft portion of the boat once the mortar was removed. For the relative comfort of its crew, the boat had a canvas awning aft of the mast, and fascines were probably lashed to its sides to diffuse musket fire aimed at the boat. ## Service history Philadelphia was placed in service under Captain Benjamin Rue of Philadelphia shortly after completion. Late in August, General Arnold assembled his fleet and cruised provocatively on the northern stretches of Lake Champlain. On 23 September, in anticipation of the larger British fleet's arrival, he stationed his ships in Valcour Bay, the strait separating the western shore of the lake from Valcour Island. When the two forces clashed on 11 October, Philadelphia was under the command of Benjamin Rue, and was part of the formation Arnold established in the Valcour strait. Early in the six-hour fight the 12-gun schooner Royal Savage ran aground and was burned. Toward dusk the British guns holed Philadelphia with a 24-pound (10.9 kg) shot and she soon sank. Darkness ended the action, and Arnold was able to slip away during the night. Many of his remaining ships were burned, sunk, or captured over the next two days as the British pursued him toward Ticonderoga. In sea trials of the replica Philadelphia II, the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum determined that the boat was not particularly maneuverable: contemporary accounts of sailing the vessels include reports that the gondolas skipped across the waters of the lake, blown by the wind, and needed safe shelter when winds were high. ## Raising the wreck In the 1930s, Lorenzo Hagglund, a veteran of World War I and a history buff, began searching the strait for remains of the battle. In 1932 he found the remains of Royal Savage's hull, which he successfully raised in 1935. Hagglund followed up his discovery of Royal Savage with the discovery of Philadelphia's remains in 1935, sitting upright on the lake bottom. He raised her that year; in addition to the guns and hull, hundreds of other items were recovered from the vessel. These relics included shot, cooking utensils, tools, buttons, buckles and human bones. Philadelphia was exhibited at various locations on Lake Champlain and the Hudson River before becoming a long-term display at Exeter, New York. Lorenzo Hagglund spent years searching for other ships in Arnold's fleet, and raised another gunboat in 1952. Funding for a structure to house that find and Royal Savage fell through, and that boat's remains were eventually ruined through neglect and looting. In the wake of that failure Hagglund approached the Smithsonian Institution to preserve Philadelphia, and in 1961, bequeathed her and associated artifacts to that organization. According to the Whitehall Times, the remains had suffered more damage during their time above water than below. The boat and artifacts are now part of the permanent collection of the National Museum of American History, in Washington, D.C. She is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is designated a National Historic Landmark. She remains in precarious condition: as of 2001 the wood and iron fittings continued to show signs of deterioration despite attempts to stabilize them. In 1997, another pristine underwater wreck was located during a survey by the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum. Two years later, it was conclusively identified as the gundalow Spitfire. ## See also	[ "## Background", "## Fleet development", "## Construction of Philadelphia", "## Service history", "## Raising the wreck", "## See also" ]	1,839	22,172
60,140,552	Cathy Whims	1,171,279,580	American chef and restaurateur	[ "1956 births", "21st-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American women", "American restaurateurs", "American women chefs", "American women restaurateurs", "Businesspeople from North Carolina", "Businesspeople from Portland, Oregon", "Chefs from North Carolina", "Chefs from Oregon", "Living people", "People from Chapel Hill, North Carolina", "Restaurant founders" ]	Cathy Whims (born 1956) is an American chef and restaurateur in Portland, Oregon. She has been a James Beard Foundation Award finalist six times. The restaurants she has owned in Portland include Genoa, Nostrana, and the pizzeria Oven and Shaker. ## Early life Cathy Whims, the daughter of Harold Carter Whims Jr. and Ann Virginia Thomas (née Thomas) Whims, was born in 1956 and raised in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. ## Career Whims' mother was "from the Julia Child–era school" of cooking, and Whims has said she "started cooking because it was my passion". Whims has been influenced by Italian-born cooking writer Marcella Hazan and French chef and restaurateur Madeleine Kamman. Whims studied with Hazan in Venice in 1998, and later worked in restaurants in Italy's Langhe region. Early in her career, Whims was the bread-and-pastry chef in a local natural-food restaurant; she catered private dinners in Chapel Hill and later worked at kitchens in the San Francisco Bay Area. She relocated to Portland in 1979 and immediately began working at Produce Row Café. Whims served as a prep cook at the Italian restaurant Genoa, and she later became executive chef. After eighteen years at the restaurant, she became a co-owner of the business, which was credited "for bringing fine-dining to Portland", before it closed in 2014. Whims opened several restaurants in Portland, including Nostrana (2005–present), Hamlet (2015–2017), and the pizzeria/bar Oven and Shaker (2011–present). Nostrana serves classic Italian cuisine and has been described as "Portland's capital of the Negroni". In 2015, Portland Monthly named Hamlet one of Portland's best restaurants. Oven and Shaker specializes in Neapolitan pizza and was named a "best new pizza place" by Food & Wine. In 2017, Whims served as Oregon's ambassador for the James Beard Foundation's Smart Catch program, which promotes sustainable seafood practices. She opened the 40-seat European wine bar Enoteca Nostrana, adjacent to Nostrana, in 2018. ### Recognition After opening Nostrana, Cathy Whims received six consecutive James Beard Foundation Award nominations for Best Chef: Northwest, each year from 2008 to 2013. She was also nominated for a 2016 James Beard Foundation Journalism Award in the "Home Cooking" category for a story called "Into the Woods", which she co-wrote with Langdon Cook and was published in EatingWell magazine. Whims won the first "Wild About Game Cook-Off", which was held in Welches, a town about 40 miles (64 km) southeast of Portland, with her "Qualgie Con Fiche", a dish consisting of a brace of semi-boneless quail pan-roasted with a fig jam sauce; the dish was accompanied by braised greens, polenta, and a glass of Three Rivers 1999 Syrah. Portland Monthly's Benjamin Tepler has described Whims as "the unofficial doyenne of Italian cooking" for the Pacific Northwest. Katie Chang of Food Republic wrote; "Whims also helped train and usher in a new generation of talented chefs and restaurateurs ... whom many credit with cementing Portland's status as a world-class dining destination". Her recipes have been published in cookbooks and a variety of other publications such as Epicurious, The Seattle Times, and The Wall Street Journal. ## Personal life Whims is married and lives in Portland, Oregon. Her partner David West co-owns Nostrana and Enoteca Nostrana. She has described herself as a "born-again Italian". Whims has a sister who also works in the restaurant industry. Following her mentor Hazan's death in 2013, Whims commemorated her by creating a special tribute menu at Nostrana. Nostrana's menu has featured recipes that were inspired by Hazan, as well as dessert recipes Whims learned from American chef, baker, and writer Nancy Silverton. ## See also - List of American restaurateurs - List of people from Portland, Oregon	[ "## Early life", "## Career", "### Recognition", "## Personal life", "## See also" ]	878	28,985
4,485,820	Clinton Railroad Bridge	1,171,784,553	Bridge in United States of America	[ "Bridges completed in 1864", "Bridges completed in 1909", "Bridges in Clinton County, Iowa", "Bridges over the Mississippi River", "Buildings and structures in Clinton, Iowa", "Chicago and North Western Railway", "Interstate railroad bridges in the United States", "Parker truss bridges in the United States", "Railroad bridges in Illinois", "Railroad bridges in Iowa", "Swing bridges in the United States", "Truss bridges in the United States", "Union Pacific Railroad bridges" ]	The Clinton Railroad Bridge, also called the Chicago and Northwestern Railway Bridge or more simply the Clinton Bridge, is a bridge that carries double tracked rail lines across the Mississippi River between Clinton, Iowa, and Fulton (Albany), Illinois. The bridge is a truss bridge with a swing span crossing the main river channel and is adjacent to the Gateway Bridge. The original bridge was constructed in 1858, and the first train crossed the bridge on January 19, 1860. The bridge was the second railroad crossing over the Mississippi River. In 1870, the bridge was declared a post route, therefore stopping the occupation of steamboats and approval of railroads. From 1859 to 1908, the mileage in operation increased from 28,789 to 229,230, prompting the Chicago and North Western Railway to replace the bridge with a new structure in 1900. The current bridge was built by the Pennsylvania Steel Company. Construction of the new bridge was planned in 1901, and on February 7, 1907, Congress authorized its construction. Construction of the bridge ended in 1907, and the bridge opened in 1909. During that year, the first train crossed the new bridge, and the old bridge was taken down. There are still piers from predecessor bridges next to the current bridge. Through its purchase of Chicago and North Western Railway in 1995, Union Pacific Railroad is the current owner of the bridge. There are possibilities that the current bridge would be replaced. The bridge was listed as “hazard to navigation” by United States Coast Guard in 1996 and by the Iowa Department of Transportation in 2009. In preparation of a replacement bridge, a new depot was purchased in 2017 and new land were purchased in 2018. During December 2020, the Illinois Department of Resources gave notice that a new bridge was planned to begin construction in 2021 with demolition of the existing one to occur in 2025. ## Description The Clinton Railroad Bridge is a two-tracked swing Parker truss bridge with a 460-foot (140 m) swing span and an overall length of 855 m (2,805 ft). This bridge contains four spans: a swing span, a deck girder span, a Parker through truss span, and a quadrangular truss span. The bridge's vertical clearance is 18.7 ft (5.7 m), and has estimate of 15 m (49 ft) above ground. At the end of the swing span is a Warren-style truss configuration, and the tower portion of the bridge has a very narrow appearance. ## History ### Original bridge (1864–1909) #### Planning In 1835, a former riverboat pilot, Elijah Buell, along with his business partner, John Baker, located a ferry service at a place north of the current bridge location called "the Narrows." Baker established himself on the Illinois side of the river, and Buell settled on the Iowa side. Baker's settlement eventually became the City of Fulton, Illinois. Buell's settlement was chartered by Buell and three partners (George Harlan, Dennis Warren, and Chalkey Hoag) in 1837 as Lyons, Iowa, named for the city of the same name in France. Because of the popularity of the river ferry, both Fulton and Lyons grew very rapidly. In 1852, citizens of Lyons learnt that a new railroad would be built westward of Iowa, which led to possibilities of a Mississippi River railroad crossing between Lyons and Fulton. The Iowa Land Company was organized in 1855 with the announcement that a railroad crossing was to be attempted south of Lyons and Fulton. The land company bought Bartlett's holdings on the Iowa side of the river and re-platted them under the name Clinton, Iowa, in honor of the Governor of New York, DeWitt Clinton. The Chicago, Iowa, and Nebraska (C&IN) Railroad Company was formed to effect the railroad crossing at Little Rock Island, between the new city of Clinton and the village of Albany, Illinois. However, C&IN went bankrupt in 1862, and was later purchased by the Cedar Rapids and Missouri River Railroad. #### Construction In 1858, Chicago, Iowa & Nebraska Railroad began construction of the bridge. On January 15, 1859, the first piers for the bridge was driven and on December 14 that year, the last span was dropped. The first railroad bridge at Clinton was declared open for operation at noon on January 19, 1860, as the first train crossed the bridge. It would be the second railway crossing over the entire Mississippi River. However, the entire span was not yet complete, and railway cars had to be ferried across the main channel of the river between Little Rock Island and the Iowa shoreline. The final segment of the original span was completed in 1864, the same year that the C&IN merged with the Galena & Chicago Union Railroad to form the Chicago and North Western (C&NW) Railroad. This company operated the bridge, and its successor, the current bridge, constructed in 1907, until the Union Pacific Railway Company purchased the C&NW in 1995. The bridge was completed on January 6, 1865, and the first Chicago freight train crossed it six days later. The bridge's total length was 3,750 ft (1,143 m), and its draw span was 300 ft (91 m) long. From the beginning of its construction, the Clinton Railroad Bridge was the subject of several lawsuits brought by river steamboat operators. In 1870, a third lawsuit was settled by the United States Supreme Court in favor of the railroad. The bridge was declared a post route, therefore stopping the occupation of steamboats and approval of railroads. The mileage in operation increased from 28,789 in 1859 to 229,230 in 1908, with more than 150 trains using the bridge on some days, prompted the Chicago and North Western Railroad to replace the bridge with a new structure in 1900. The old bridge was torn down in 1909. ## Current bridge (1907–present) Planning for construction on the new bridge began in 1901. On February 6, 1907, Congress authorized construction of the new bridge. On May 4 of that year, the secretary of war approved plans for it. During the time of construction, the draw span was one of the largest spans on the Mississippi Rver. On March 21, 1907, a formal order authorized the necessary expenditures for the bridge. On May 18, 1907, a contract for the entire sub-structure was entered, which was made for erection of the slough spans and east channel spans. In February 1908, a contract for constructing the west channel spans was made. The new bridge opened in 1909, and in late winter during that year, the first train crossed the bridge. The cost for the new bridge was \$1 million. In October 1958, the bridge caught on fire and suffered \$250,000 in loss. In June 1959, the bridge suffered another fire, but the damage was slight. The cause of the blaze was not determined, but firefighters said that 25 ties were damaged by heat and would need to be replaced. On August 7, 2007, eleven coal cars derailed on the bridge. The train was traveling from Wyoming to Illinois. The bridge reopened on Wednesday August 8, 2007. ### Future replacement There has been possibilities that the current Clinton Railroad Bridge may be replaced. In 1996, the United States Coast Guard listed the bridge as a "hazard to navigation", and this declaration helped put the bridge on track for replacement once federal funds would be available to do it. During that year, the Coast Guard issued an order to "alter the bridge" to the Union Pacific and cited it as an "unreasonable obstruction to navigation". In a 2009 report, the Iowa Department of Transportation described the bridge as a "persistent hazard to navigation that causes a significant loss of America's economic competitiveness due to delays it creates". In 2013, Union Pacific planned to build a new \$400 million span bridge to replace the current one. In 2017, Union Pacific purchased a depot in preparation for a new railroad bridge. In 2018, Union Pacific purchased new land near the Garden Plain Township in Illinois. ## See also - List of crossings of the Upper Mississippi River	[ "## Description", "## History", "### Original bridge (1864–1909)", "#### Planning", "#### Construction", "## Current bridge (1907–present)", "### Future replacement", "## See also" ]	1,754	11,413
16,248,703	Devourment	1,169,069,612	American death metal band	[ "American death metal musical groups", "Heavy metal musical groups from Texas", "Musical groups established in 1995", "Musical groups from Dallas" ]	Devourment is an American death metal band from Dallas, Texas. Formed in 1995, the band has split up and reformed three times leaving Brad Fincher as the only original member. The current lineup is Ruben Rosas, Chris Andrews, Dave Spencer and Brad Fincher. The band is currently signed to Relapse Records, and was previously signed to Brutal Bands, United Guttural and Corpse Gristle Records. Devourment has also had albums re-released by other labels. Since the band's foundation, Devourment released a demo, Impaled, and an album, Molesting the Decapitated, before disbanding due to the jailing of vocalist Ruben Rosas. There was a brief reformation of the band during his incarceration, which saw the initial release of the compilation album 1.3.8., and a brief reformation upon his release in 2002. The band reformed for a third time in 2005, and has since released two reissues of 1.3.8., two DVDs, and four full-length albums: Butcher the Weak, Unleash the Carnivore, Conceived in Sewage and Obscene Majesty. ## History ### Early years Devourment was formed in 1995 following the breakup of Dallas death metal band Necrocide. Necrocide's drummer, Brad Fincher, and guitarist, Braxton Henry, met up with former Meatus vocalist Wayne Knupp to play brutal death metal. However, the newly formed band achieved little—Knupp moved back to his hometown of Chicago, and Fincher moved to San Antonio for educational reasons. Months later, when the two of them had moved back to Dallas, Henry had formed his own band—Dead Industry. Knupp got in contact with someone he had known years earlier, Brian "Brain" Wynn, and they reformed the band. This lineup is often cited as the "original". The band then developed its first promo, featuring two songs, "Shroud of Encryption" and "Festering Vomitous Mass", which was produced by former and future guitarist Braxton Henry. Over the next few months, Kevin Clark (formerly of Sintury) joined the band as a secondary guitarist, and Mike Majewski joined on bass. Majewski had previously worked publicizing the band and providing artwork. He had first seen Devourment when the band's only song was "Shroud of Encryption". The band recorded "Choking on Bile" which they added to their original demo. This was released in 1997 by Corpse Gristle Records under the name of Impaled. Knupp later left the band "due to some internal problems". He was replaced by Ruben Rosas, who played guitars and provided vocals in a local band called Detrimental. In 1999, Devourment signed a record deal with United Guttural and started developing its first album, Molesting the Decapitated, again produced by Braxton. The album was released later that year. Reviews were positive, with Blas, of Global Domination, who praised the album for being so brutal, claiming that "if you look up the word 'Brutal' in the dictionary right now, you'd see Devourment's logo right next to the definition". He praised the vocals, but said that the drums, in places, let the album down due to them being too fast. Dan Staige, of Metal Review, said that the instruments were "remarkably balanced and crisp", and his only criticism was that the "ultra heavy breakdowns" "may sound a little monotonous", but that "you will still bang your head". The band had a release show for the album in Colorado. Although Majewski claimed that this was in 1998, the album was apparently released in 1999, so he was probably mistaken. This show was alongside Macabre and Cephalic Carnage, among others. Shortly afterwards, Rosas was arrested and jailed for two and a half years, meaning the members of the band went their separate ways. Rosas's arrest was described by Majewski as the "last straw", as the band was becoming more and more business-like, with Wynn and his wife arranging concerts without consulting the rest of the band. ### Reformation Devourment reformed during Rosas's incarceration, with Knupp taking Rosas's place on vocals, and Braxton Henry rejoining the band in the place of Brian Wynn. The band recorded a single song, named "Babykiller", which was featured on a compilation album named Southern Uprising. The song was also featured on the band's own compilation album, 1.3.8., the title of which represents the one song, "Babykiller", with the three songs from Impaled, and the eight songs from Molesting the Decapitated. The compilation was released four times—once on Corpse Gristle Records while Rosas was in jail, once on Unmatched Brutality in 2004, once after Rosas's release while the band was working on new material, including the band's first DVD, on Displeased Records, and finally as a limited edition record by the label Night of the Vinyl Dead. Upon Rosas's release in 2002, he reformed the band with new members, featuring himself on vocals, guitarists Robert Moore and Kevin Clark, Jeremy Peterson on drums and Joseph Fontenot (later of Jacknife) on bass. Clark was then replaced by Chris Hutto of Ingurgitate. Rosas's new lineup played a few shows, but then split up again. Majewski later referred to the time between the band's two full-length albums, explaining that "Ruben and I both made attempts to get the band going again but both failed". A few years later, Knupp, Rosas, and Majewski finally properly reformed Devourment. Eric Park, formerly of Suture, filled out the lineup which would record the second Devourment album. The band entered the studio in August 2005 to begin recording Butcher the Weak, and the completed album was released in November 2005. For this album, Majewski performed vocals, Rosas provided guitars and bass, and Park was on drums. According to Josh Thorne of fourteen g, the "production is a lot better" than it was on Molesting the Decapitated, but Majewski explained that both albums had been recorded in the same studio. The album contained artwork by Majewski, who works for a special effects company. Felix Schoonen of Vampire Magazine said it was odd that the album was self-released by the band, asking, "why should a band like Devourment release their own album... every week countless useless releases are thrown on the market by bands that nobody will ever care for and Devourment is somehow forced to release its own album." In 2005, former Kill the Client drummer Chris Andrews joined the band on bass to round out the lineup for live shows. In 2006, the band signed a two-album deal with label Brutal Bands, and proceeded to re-record and re-release Butcher the Weak. The new release's cover was yellow, while the self-released version sported a green cover, though they bore the same design. On September 15, 2007, Wayne Knupp died of multiple organ failure due to alcohol abuse. Despite no longer being with Devourment, his links with the band were widely reported, including his guest appearance with Devourment at the Central Illinois Metalfest earlier in the year. Knupp's girlfriend posted a message on his Myspace profile confirming his death and thanking people for their support and messages. In an interview with SMNnews.com, Majewski spoke of the impact of the death on the band, saying, > It had a big impact. He was a founding member and really created the vocal style we are known for. Just felt like part of the band died too. Like when he died, it was just weird to think about doing shows or recording without him around, even if he was no longer in the band. He was a good person and definitely deserves to be remembered. Since Butcher the Weak, Devourment recorded new material for compilation albums and continued to tour. The band appeared at various festivals, including Central Illinois Metalfest, The Goregrowler's Ball and Germany's Fuck the Commerce. Devourment also released its second DVD in January 2007. In an interview with SMNnews.com in October 2007, Majewski said that the band aimed to complete a third studio album by mid-2008 which saw them performing less in 2008. ### 2009-present Devourment's third full-length studio album, Unleash the Carnivore, was released in 2009 through Brutal Bands. The cover features artwork by artists Dan Seagrave and Pär Olofsson. Unleash the Carnivore was followed in 2010 with the "Unleash the Carnivore tour". On July 14, 2010, Devourment announced that the band had signed with Relapse. Devourment began writing new material in 2011, and traveled to St. Petersburg, Florida in June 2012 to record its fourth album. In January 2013, Devourment released a single for the song "Fifty Ton War Machine". The new album, titled Conceived in Sewage, was recorded with Erik Rutan, and was released on February 19, 2013. The band intended to play a 2013 fall US tour headlined by Dying Fetus and supported by Exhumed, Waking the Cadaver and Abiotic, but dropped off the tour roughly three months in advance. This caused speculation that the band had broken up or would be breaking up due to it being Devourment's second planned line of concert appearances that year that went abandoned. The rumors that the band had broken up were later dispelled by Majewski, with the statement, "Just to squash rumors, Your ol pals Devo are not broken up!" On May 19, 2014, Devourment announced that Majewski and drummer Eric Park quit the band. Ruben Rosas moved from his position from guitar to vocals while bassist Chris Andrews moved to playing guitar. Brad Fincher (who quit Devourment in 2001) rejoined the band on drums, and Meshiha bass player Dave Spencer joined on bass. Devourment began writing new songs with the revamped line-up in late 2014. They entered the studio in late-2018 to record their fifth full-length album, Obscene Majesty, with Producer D. Braxton Henry. The first single, "Cognitive Sedation Butchery", launched online June 18, 2019. This is their first album in six years and first with Ruben Rosas on vocals and Brad Fincher on drums since Molesting the Decapitated in 1999. The album was released on August 16 through Relapse Records. Loudwire named it one of the 50 best metal albums of 2019. ## Members ### Current members - Ruben Rosas – vocals (1999, 2002, 2014–present), guitars, backing vocals (2005–2014) - Brad Fincher – drums (1995–1999, 2001, 2014–present) - Chris Andrews – guitars, backing vocals (2014–present), bass (2005–2014) - Dave Spencer – bass (2014–present) ### Former members - Braxton Henry – guitars (1995, 2001) - Wayne Knupp – vocals (1995–1999, 2001), backing vocals (2005–2007) - Brian Wynn – guitars (1997–1999), bass (1997) - Kevin Clark – guitars (1997–1999, 2001, 2002, 2017) - Mike Majewski – bass (1997–1999, 2001, 2005), vocals (2005–2014) - Gabriel Ayala – bass (2002) - Joseph Fontenot – bass (2002) - Jeremy Peterson – drums (2002) - Robert Moore – guitars (2002) - Chris Hutto – guitars (2002) - Eric Park – drums (2005–2014) ## Discography ### Studio albums ### Demos - Impaled – Corpse Gristle Records (1997) - Promo 1997 (1997) - Promo 1999 (1999) ### Singles - "Kill That Fucking Bitch" (rehearsal, 2002) - "Fifty Ton War Machine" (promo, 2012) ### Compilations - 1.3.8. – Corpse Gristle Records (2000), Unmatched Brutality (2004), Displeased Records (2004), Night of the Vinyl Dead (2006) ## See also - Music of Dallas	[ "## History", "### Early years", "### Reformation", "### 2009-present", "## Members", "### Current members", "### Former members", "## Discography", "### Studio albums", "### Demos", "### Singles", "### Compilations", "## See also" ]	2,743	16,192
22,279,618	Urnula craterium	1,170,113,694	Species of fungus	[ "Fungi described in 1822", "Fungi of Asia", "Fungi of Europe", "Fungi of North America", "Inedible fungi", "Pezizales", "Taxa named by Lewis David de Schweinitz" ]	Urnula craterium is a species of cup fungus in the family Sarcosomataceae. It is parasitic on oak and various other hardwood species; it is also saprobic, as the fruit bodies develop on dead wood after it has fallen to the ground. Appearing in early spring, its distinctive goblet-shaped and dark-colored fruit bodies have earned it the common names devil's urn and the gray urn. The distribution of U. craterium includes eastern North America, Europe, and Asia. It produces bioactive compounds that can inhibit the growth of other fungi. The asexual (imperfect), or conidial stage of U. craterium is a plant pathogen known as Conoplea globosa, which causes a canker disease of oak and several other hardwood tree species. ## History and taxonomy Urnula craterium was first described in 1822 by American botanist Lewis David de Schweinitz as Peziza craterium, based on a specimen found in North Carolina. The species first appeared in the scientific literature under its current name when Elias Magnus Fries described the new genus Urnula in 1849, and set Peziza craterium as the type species. In 1896, German mycologist Heinrich Rehm removed the species from Urnula – transferring it to the genus Geopyxis – and replaced the type species with Urnula terrestris, a peripherally related species. This restructuring resulted in a taxomically untenable situation in which the genus Urnula consisted of a single species with ambiguous resemblance to the original species (described by Fries) upon which the genus was based. According to Elsie Kupfer, who had written Rehm to clarify the rationale for his decision: > Urnula craterium was placed with its related species under Geopyxis, because Geopyxis was established by Persoon before Urnula by Fries; and that in order to retain the genus Urnula, under which Saccardo had placed Podophacidium terrestre of Niessl, he (Rehm) restricted the genus to this latter fungus. As Kupfer explains, Rehm did not justify why he believed Urnula craterium should be allied to Geopyxis, or why Podophacidium terrestre should be considered an Urnula. Kupfer's macro- and microscopic analysis of tissues from these and related genera clearly showed the inconsistency in Rehm's taxonomical choices, and that Urnula craterium represented an entirely different genus not related to Geopyxis; Fries's naming was restored. The genus name means "little urn"; the specific epithet is derived from the Latin cratera, referring to a type of bowl used in antiquity to mix wine with water. It is commonly known as the devil's urn and the gray urn. ## Description The fruit bodies begin from dense, black mycelium on the surface of oak branches in contact with the ground. Starting out as rolls of cylindrical tissue 1 or more centimeters long and 3–4 mm wide, they expand slowly over the winter, and grow rapidly in the spring when the weather becomes warmer.The goblet-shaped fruit body (technically an ascocarp) is 3–4 cm (1.2–1.6 in) in diameter and 4–6 cm (1.6–2.4 in) deep; initially it is closed, but opens as it matures, leaving a ragged or smooth inrolled margin around a round opening. The flesh of the ascocarp walls is tough and initially gelatinous, later becoming leathery. The exterior of the ascocarp is brownish black to black, with a velvety surface, while the interior spore-bearing surface, the hymenium, is brownish black in color, usually somewhat paler than the outside. The outer surface may be partially covered with small flakelike patches of tissue. When viewed with a magnifying glass, the "hairs" (fungal hyphae) making up the outer velvety surface are variable in length, and are thick-walled, blunt, and appear to wind from side to side (flexuous). The ascocarp is connected to a stalk that is typically 3–4 cm (1.2–1.6 in) long by 0.4–0.8 cm (0.2–0.3 in) thick, with black mycelia at its base. ### Microscopic features The spores are ellipsoid or sausage-shaped (allantoid), smooth, and thin-walled. They are non-amyloid (not taking up iodine stain), and hyaline (translucent), with dimensions of 22–37 by 10–15 μm. The spore-bearing cells, the asci are eight-spored, cylindrical, and measure 600 by 15–17 μm. They are operculate, analogous to having a flip-top lid mechanism to release the spores. Interspersed among the asci are thin, filamentous, branched paraphyses that extend beyond the tops of the asci. Viewed with a microscope, the wall of the apothecium is made of three tissue layers of roughly equal thickness. The first layer of tissue is black, leathery and compact, and covered with a fine layer of brownish-black hairs (a tomentum); the second layer consists of loosely interlaced brown hyphae suspended in a gelatinous matrix. The third layer is the fertile, spore-bearing surface, the brownish-black hymenium. ### Imperfect state The life cycle of Urnula craterium allows for both an imperfect (making asexual spores, or conidia) or perfect (making sexual spores) form; as has often happened in fungal taxonomy, the imperfect form was given a different name, because the relationship between the perfect and imperfect forms of the same species was not then known. The imperfect stage of Urnula craterium is the plant pathogenic species Conoplea globosa, known to cause a canker disease (Strumella canker) of oak and several other hardwoods. ### Edibility This species is often listed in field guides as inedible, or not recommended for consumption due to its tough texture. Michael Kuo, in his 2007 book on edible mushrooms, lists the taste as "mediocre", and comments "the devil's urn is not as bad as I thought it was going to be. It's not good, mind you, but it would be possible to eat it with a forced smile if your Aunt Wanda served it to you." ### Similar species The cup fungus Plectania melastoma is also black, but it is smaller and the cup not as deep. ## Spore development The spores of U. craterium have a rapid and high percentage of germination. Germination requires only 1.5 hours, a relatively short time compared to another inoperculate species in the same family, Sarcoscypha coccinea, which requires 48 hours. Furthermore, germination is possible under a wide temperature range, from 5 °C (41 °F) to 35 °C (95 °F), and wide soil pH range; the quality and quantity of light does not affect germination, although prolonged exposure to light does reduce germination efficiency. ## Ecology, habitat and distribution Urnula craterium grows singly or clustered together, usually attached to sticks and branches (especially oak) that are partially buried in the ground. The teleomorph state is saprobic, and decomposes hardwood; the anamorph state is parasitic, and causes a canker of various hardwoods, including oaks, hickories, basswood and beech. It is often found in deciduous forests, although it is sometimes inconspicuous due to its dark color, and because it may be partially covered with leaf litter. One of the first fleshy fungi to appear from March to May, U. craterium has been dubbed a "harbinger of spring", and is sometimes encountered under melting snow. The distribution of U. craterium includes eastern North America, Europe (including the Czech Republic, Finland, Spain,) Japan, and China. It is red-listed as critically endangered in the Czech Republic. ## Bioactive compounds Urnula craterium, when grown in liquid culture, produces bioactive chemicals that inhibit the growth of other fungi that are pathogenic to aspen; specifically, these chemical are antagonistic to aspen blue-stain fungi Ophiostoma crassivaginatum and O. piliferum, as well as the wood-decay fungus Phellinus tremulae. Chemicals produced by U. craterium include pestalotin, 5,6-dehydropestalotin, 4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyran-2-one, and (4S)-3,4-dihydro-4,8-dihydroxy-1(2H)-napthalenone. However, none of these isolated compounds inhibits the aspen pathogens in vitro, suggesting the true nature of the antifungal mechanism in the devil's urn has not yet been resolved.	[ "## History and taxonomy", "## Description", "### Microscopic features", "### Imperfect state", "### Edibility", "### Similar species", "## Spore development", "## Ecology, habitat and distribution", "## Bioactive compounds" ]	1,929	15,792
70,539,221	Squatting in Kenya	1,146,023,155	Residential occupation in farms and cities	[ "20th century in Kenya", "21st century in Kenya", "Squatting in Kenya" ]	During the colonial occupation of Kenya, Black Africans working on farms owned by white settlers were called "squatters" by the British. As of 1945, there were over 200,000 such squatters in the Highlands and more than half were Kikuyu. The Mau Mau rebellion began amongst these squatters in the late 1940s and after independence in the early 1960s, peasants started squatting land in rural areas without the permission of the owner. In recent years, community groups including indigenous peoples and squatters have challenged agricultural companies over land they regard as belonging to them following the foundation of the National Land Commission. In 2007, 55 per cent of Kenya's urban population lived in slums, in which people either owned, rented or squatted their houses and as of 2019, 4.39 million people lived in the capital Nairobi, with around half living in informal settlements such as Huruma, Kibera and Mathare. ## History The Kenyan part of the East Africa Protectorate became the Kenya Colony, a British Crown colony, in 1920. White settlers took 7 million acres (28,000 km<sup>2</sup>), including some of the most fertile areas. This land was named the "White Highlands" and native peoples were moved into reserves. For example, the Kikuyu people had most of their land confiscated and by 1948, 1.25 million Kikuyus were confined to 1.3 million acres (5,300 km<sup>2</sup>) and 30,000 settlers occupied 7.7 million acres (31,000 km<sup>2</sup>). Kenyan labourers who worked for white settlers were permitted a small amount of land where they lived and grew food. By the 1920s, these labourers had become known as "squatters" by the British. A similar process occurred in Southern Rhodesia and South Africa; by World War I there were estimated to be 100,000 such squatters in Kenya. Some Kikuyu squatters moved to the Rift Valley because the land was more fertile than where they had previously lived and also settlers protected the men from conscription. The farmers grew pyrethrum and produced tea and coffee. Tabitha Kanogo argues in Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau, 1905-63 that in the Rift Valley Province the settlers needed labourers and the squatters also wanted land to farm, so "each group needed to exploit the resources controlled by the other". She notes that alongside the squatting system there was also illegal squatting and a system in which labourers paid the settlers to use their land; in 1910, there were 20,000 Kikuyu farmers of the latter type. During World War I, the labourers maintained the farms on behalf of the settlers. The 1918 Resident Native Labourers Ordinance was brought in as an attempt to regulate illegal squatting and to control labourers, with measures such as the restriction of labourers paying to farm land they did not own and the insistence that labourers must work at least 180 days in the year at a specific farm. Labourers reacted by going on strike, leaving their jobs, engaging in sabotage and starting to squat illegally. Settler attempts to control the squatters culminated in the 1937 Resident Native Labourers Ordinance, which stated squatters only had rights to live in the Highlands when allowed by a settler and enforced a limit on how much squatters could farm. Whilst World War II slowed its implementation, in the late 1940s its effects were felt and labourers were forced to organise in groups such as the Kikuyu Highlands Squatters Association. As of 1945, there were over 200,000 licensed squatters in the Highlands and over half were Kikuyu. Tensions between these squatters and the government continued to rise, and a flashpoint occurred when the government attempted to house displaced Kikuyu people in the Olenguruone settlement and the former squatters objected to being made into tenants. The Mau Mau rebellion began amongst squatters in the late 1940s and by September 1952, 412 people had been jailed for allegedly being part of the insurrection. The events led to a forced displacement of squatters from the Highlands to reserves and there was a period of armed struggle between 1952 and 1956. The 1954 Swynnerton Plan recommended a new land registration scheme. After independence in the early 1960s, peasants started squatting land in rural areas in the centre of the country and on the coast. The Land Development and Settlement Board, founded in 1961, declared that Africans could now buy and farm land in the "White Highlands". From 1963 until 1978, squatters successfully resisted a World Bank funded forestation project in Turbo by settling lands and ripping out trees. They appealed to Jomo Kenyatta who was first Prime Minister and later President. ## 21st-century The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) estimated in 2007 that 55 per cent of Kenya's urban population lived in slums, in which people either owned, rented or squatted their houses. As of 2019, 4.39 million people lived in the capital Nairobi and around half lived in informal settlements, occupying just 1 per cent of the city's land. Many slums (for example Huruma, Kibera and Mathare) were clustered in a belt around 4 km from the Central Business District. Research in 2020 using Geographic information system (GIS) technology suggested the population of Kibera was around 283,000, lower than mainstream media estimates; the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) had previously estimated there to be between 350,000 and 1 million inhabitants. Mathare is a collection of squatted villages in the valley of the Mathare River, which were founded in the 1960s. GIS analysis was also used to plot occupations in the Chyulu Hills, where squatters who want to farm the land have come into conflict with conservationists, who want to preserve it. This dispute has resulted in violent evictions by the Kenya Wildlife Service. In 2014, the government sent the military to the Embobut forest in order to evict over 15,000 Sengwer people from their own land. International groups such as Survival International and Forest Peoples Programme condemned the evictions, saying they were illegal and further that the government should not call the Sengwer squatters. In 2009, the government began to evict squatters from the Mau forest, citing concerns over the energy, tea and tourism industries. Conservationists had urged action to protect the whole Rift valley ecosystem from deforestation and water scarcity. Community groups including indigenous peoples and squatters have challenged agricultural companies such as Del Monte Kenya and Kakuzi Limited over land they regard as belonging to them following the foundation of the National Land Commission in 2012. The following year, the National Land Titling Programme was launched. In 2020, President Uhuru Kenyatta pledged to give two thirds of all Kenyans title to their land over the next two years. Land at Mikanjuni in Kilifi, Coast Province, was purchased by the state to give to 1,300 squatter families; Member of Parliament Gideon Mung'aro praised the initiative and commented that some squatters had been waiting 30 years to gain title to their land. By July 2022, the National Land Titling Programme intended to issue over one million titles in 42 counties. ## See also - List of slums in Kenya	[ "## History", "## 21st-century", "## See also" ]	1,609	18,525
938,316	Walter Skinner	1,163,839,519	X-Files character	[ "Fictional United States Marine Corps personnel", "Fictional Vietnam War veterans", "Fictional characters with post-traumatic stress disorder", "Fictional executives of the Federal Bureau of Investigation", "Television characters introduced in 1994", "The X-Files characters" ]	FBI Assistant Director Walter Sergei Skinner is a fictional character portrayed by American actor Mitch Pileggi on The X-Files and its short-lived spin-off The Lone Gunmen, both broadcast on Fox. In the science fiction-supernatural series, Skinner supervised the X-Files office, which is concerned with unresolved FBI cases of mysterious or possibly supernatural circumstances. Fox Mulder, the FBI agent in charge of the X-Files, considers the X-Files the truth behind the supposed conspiracy. Skinner was a main character in the ninth, tenth and eleventh seasons of the show and a recurring character throughout the first eight seasons. Skinner made his first appearance in the first season 1994 episode "Tooms". At the start of the series, Skinner was dismissive towards Mulder's belief in extraterrestrial and other strange phenomena. However, throughout the series Skinner has moved on to respect and agree with Mulder's idea, which is finally proven in "Requiem", when he saw an Alien spacecraft. Skinner has received critical acclaim and has become a fan favorite. Pileggi received the role of Walter Skinner after "two or three" auditions for the role. Beginning with only a small cameo, his character frequently made more appearances during the second season. ## Character arc Skinner is a former Marine and a Vietnam War veteran. In the war he once killed a boy at a very short distance, an experience which has scarred him for life. He is married to Sharon Skinner. He has been treated at a sleep disorder clinic, suffering from recurring dreams of an old woman, which may either be a hallucination arising from drug use during Vietnam or a succubus. Skinner's hobbies include jogging and boxing, the latter of which has been shown in his ability to outfight Fox Mulder and X and to defend himself reasonably well when he was attacked by Alex Krycek and his men. Skinner took personal administrative charge of the X-Files in the latter haIf of Season 1, replacing Section Chief Scott Blevins. Initially, Skinner acts solely as a supervisor to Agent Mulder and Dana Scully's investigations of the paranormal. In the early episodes, it is unclear whether he is entirely independent of his actions or controlled by men such as the "Cigarette Smoking Man". Eventually, Skinner begins trusting Mulder and Scully and becomes their ally, saving both of their lives on multiple occasions. He stands up to the conspirators that tried to control him, for which he frequently pays throughout the series. After Skinner has long broken free of the "Cigarette Smoking Man", he is again forced to take orders, this time from Alex Krycek. He is covertly infected with nanotechnology, which gives Krycek the leverage to control him. Two years later, Skinner is finally able to rid himself of Krycek, when during an attempt by Krycek on Mulder's life, Skinner fatally shoots Krycek. At Mulder's murder trial, Skinner is asked to act as Mulder's lawyer, having become a supporter of Mulder's cause. Later, Skinner and Deputy Director Alvin Kersh confront the "Toothpick Man" in Kersh's office, after Agents John Doggett and Monica Reyes discover that the X-Files office had been emptied out. This results in another, apparently permanent, closing of the X-Files division. Six years later, with the X-Files still closed down, Skinner assists Scully in finding Mulder after he goes missing while consulting on the FBI's investigation into the disappearance of a missing agent. Mulder and Skinner are shown to still be on friendly terms, despite Mulder's animosity towards the FBI for the events following the trial. ## Conceptual history ### Creation and development The role of Walter Skinner was played by actor Mitch Pileggi, who had unsuccessfully auditioned for two or three other characters on The X-Files before getting the part. At first, the fact that he was asked back to audition for the recurring role slightly puzzled him, until he discovered the reason he had not previously been cast in those roles — Chris Carter had been unable to envision Pileggi as any of those characters, due to the fact that the actor had been shaving his head. When the actor had attended the audition for Walter Skinner, he had been in a grumpy mood and had allowed his small amount of hair to grow back. Pileggi's attitude fit well with Walter Skinner's character, causing Carter to assume that the actor was only pretending to be grumpy. After successfully auditioning for the role, Pileggi thought he had been lucky that he had not been cast in one of the earlier roles, as he believed he would have appeared in only a single episode and would have missed the opportunity to play the recurring role of Walter Skinner. Pileggi himself thought he got the role because of Gillian Anderson's (who portrayed Dana Scully) pregnancy during the second season, saying the producers felt they needed to take the "show in a different direction" while she was pregnant. So Pileggi felt at the start that he "compensated" for the situation of the show, and after a while the character started to grow on the producers and fellow cast, as Pileggi puts it, "the character just started kind of clicking and working". At the end of the second season, the producers wanted Pileggi to return in future episodes, so he signed a six-year contract with them. In an interview with X-Files fan site host Robin Mayhall, Pileggi commented once that he felt David Duchovny's (portrayed Fox Mulder) semi-departure in season eight and the introduction of Robert Patrick's John Doggett, and the fact that he started to believe in Aliens at the end of season seven, Skinner was given the "opportunity to grow", further stating "new avenues" had been opened. While Pileggi stated that he missed Duchovny's presence in The X-Files, he continued saying that he did not have the opportunity to work with him during the seventh season. He even went as far as saying that there was no "interaction between" the two characters. He was positive to the new storyline conceived during Duchovny's departure, saying it gave the show a "shot in the arm," which reinvented the show. ### I Want to Believe As writers Carter and Frank Spotnitz aimed to avoid complicating the storyline of The X-Files: I Want to Believe with superfluous appearances of characters from the television series, Skinner is the only returning character in the movie. He was included in the film's plot only when a fitting opportunity to involve him arose, and Spotnitz and Carter were very happy to write Skinner into the story. The scenes of The X-Files: I Want to Believe that include Skinner were filmed very late in the movie's filming schedule, and the particular scene that acts as the character's introduction in the movie was filmed, for reasons of time, in two different locations. ## Reception The character received critical acclaim from fans and critics alike and since became a fan's favourite of the show. Mitch Pileggi received acclaim for his portrayal of the character. While not winning or getting nominated for any of his work alone in The X-Files, Mitch Pileggi and several other cast members were nominated in the category "Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series" by the Screen Actors Guild Awards in 1997, 1998 and 1999 but did not win. Following the broadcast of "One Breath", in which Skinner recalls serving as a US Marine during the Vietnam War, Pileggi received several fan letters from Vietnam veterans. Ben-Rawson Jones named the character of Skinner a "Spy cult icon" in 2008, describing him as the "corporate middle man". George Avalos and Michael Liedtke from the Contra Costa Times both reacted positively to the death of Alex Krycek at the hands of Skinner, saying it was the best scene of the eighth season finale, "Existence". Another review from the same site and writers said the season eight episode, "Via Negativa", said the story "clicked" largely thanks to Skinner along with Alvin Kersh, saying that Skinner "delivered another Mulderesque". In a review of The X-Files feature film, Soren Andersen from The News Tribune said the character was "underused" both in the series and film. Entertainment Weekly reviewer Bruce Fretts said Skinner brought "a real element of danger to the show."	[ "## Character arc", "## Conceptual history", "### Creation and development", "### I Want to Believe", "## Reception" ]	1,769	9,879
1,475,308	Hamdallah Mustawfi	1,170,915,703	Persian historian, writer and scholar	[ "1281 births", "14th-century Iranian historians", "14th-century Persian-language poets", "14th-century deaths", "14th-century geographers", "Burials in Iran", "Geographers of the medieval Islamic world", "Historians from the Ilkhanate", "Iranian people of Arab descent", "Medieval Iranian geographers", "Officials of the Ilkhanate", "People from Qazvin" ]	Hamdallah Mustawfi Qazvini (Persian: حمدالله مستوفى قزوینی, romanized: Ḥamdallāh Mustawfī Qazvīnī; 1281 – after 1339/40) was a Persian official, historian, geographer and poet. He lived during the last era of the Mongol Ilkhanate, and the interregnum that followed. A native of Qazvin, Mustawfi belonged to family of mustawfis (financial accountants), thus his name. He was a close associate of the prominent vizier and historian Rashid al-Din Hamadani, who inspired him to write historical and geographical works. Mustawfi is the author of three works; Tarikh-i guzida ("Excerpt History"), Zafarnamah ("Book of Victory") and Nuzhat al-Qulub ("Hearts' Bliss"), respectively. A highly influential figure, Mustawfi's way of conceptualizing the history and geography of Iran has been emulated by other historians since the 13th-century. He is buried in a dome-shaped mausoleum in his native Qazvin. ## Biography Mustawfi was born in 1281 in the town of Qazvin, located in Persian Iraq (Irāq-i Ajam), a region corresponding to the western part of Iran. His family was descended from Arabs that had occupied the governorship of the town in the 9th and 10th-centuries, later to serve as mustawfis (high-ranking financial accountants) at the advent of the Ghaznavids. Mustawfi's great-grandfather Amin al-Din Nasr had served as the mustawfi of Iraq, which had since then been the moniker of the family. Amin al-Din Nasr, during his retirement, was killed in 1220 by raiding Mongols after the sack of Qazvin, during the Mongol invasion of Iran. Regardless, Mustawfi's family still greatly served the Mongols and even rose to further prominence during this period; his older cousin Fakhr al-Din Mustawfi briefly served as vizier of the Ilkhanate, while his brother Zayn al-Din was an assistant of the prominent vizier and historian Rashid al-Din Hamadani. Mustawfi's family was thus amongst those many families from Persian Iraq who rose to prominence during the Mongol era. Rivalry soon arose between the Persian Iraqis and the already established Khurasanis, particularly between the Mustawfis and the Juvayni family, which is evident in Mustawfi's work, where mention of the Juvaynis are omitted in some cases. Mustawfi followed in the footsteps of his family, being in 1311 appointed as the financial accountant of his native Qazvin, as well as other neighbouring districts, including Abhar, Zanjan and Tarumayn. He had been appointed to this post by Rashid al-Din, who made him gain an interest in history, inspiring him to start writing the Zafarnamah ("Book of Victory") in 1320, as a continuation of Ferdowsi's Shahnameh ("Book of Kings"). He completed the work in 1334, consisting of 75,000 verses, reporting the history of the Islamic era up until the Ilkhanate era. Before that, he had also written a similar chronicle; the Tarikh-i guzida ("Excerpt History") in 1330, which was his first work. The chronicle, made for Rashid al-Din's son Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad, was a world history, narrating the events of the prophets, the pre-Islamic kings of Iran, and the Islamic world. Nothing is known of Mustawfi's life during the end of the Ilkhanate, except that he travelled between Tabriz and Baghdad. In the summer of 1339, Mustawfi was at Sawa, working for Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad's son-in-law Hajji Shams al-Din Zakariya, who was the vizier of the Jalayirid ruler Hasan Buzurg (r. 1336–1356). There he tried to help with the management of the divan, but soon found himself unemployed after Hasan Buzurg's retreat to Baghdad due to a defeat by the Chobanid prince Hasan Kuchak. Mustawfi was ambivalent whether to return to his native Qazvin or flee to the much more secure southern Iran. He eventually choose to leave for the southern Iranian city of Shiraz to seek better fortunes, but was let down by the reception he received at the court of the Injuid ruler Amir Mas'ud Shah (r. 1338–1342). Nevertheless, he remained there for ten months more, until he chose to leave due to the chaos that ensued during the Injuid dynastic struggle for the throne. He returned up north, where he was well received in Awa, Sawa, Kashan and Isfahan, finally returning to Qazvin at the end of 1340. He mentions the turmoil he went through during this period in several of his poems, and also went through illness (or possibly boredom), until he recouped after gaining sympathy from an unknown patron, possibly Hasan Buzurg. It was around this time that Mustawfi completed his cosmographical and geographical work Nuzhat al-Qulub ("Hearts' Bliss"). He died sometime after 1339/40 in Qazvin, where he was buried in a dome-shaped mausoleum. ## Works ### Tarikh-i guzida Mustawfi's first work was the Tarikh-i guzida ("Excerpt History"), a world history, narrating the events of the prophets, the pre-Islamic kings of Iran, and the Islamic world. Based on the then-incomplete Zafarnamah, the work was based on earlier sources, which are in a thorough manner credited by Mustawfi. Tarikh-i guzida contains important information after the death of the Ilkhanate monarch Ghazan in 1304. The political tale concludes in a positive tone, with Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad being appointed to vizierate of the Ilkhanate. The penultimate chapter contains describes the lives of distinguished scholars and poets, whilst the last describes Qazvin and gives a reportage of its history. ### Zafarnamah Mustawfi's second work was the Zafarnamah ("Book of Victory"), a continuation of Ferdowsi's Shahnameh ("Book of Kings"). Its name is a loan translation of the Middle Persian book Piruzinamak. He completed the work in 1334, consisting of 75,000 verses, reporting the history of the Islamic era up until the Ilkhanate era. Albeit the early part depends heavily on the work of Rashid al-Din (which Mustawfi also mentions), it is less noticeable compared to his Tarikh-i guzida. The work also has aspects which resemble that of the contemporary verse narrative, the Shahnameh-ye Chengizi, by Shams al-Din Kashani. Regardless, the Zafarnamah is a unique primary source for the reign of the Ilkhanate monarch Öljaitü (r. 1304–1316) and that of his successor, Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan (r. 1316–1335). The importance of the work was acknowledged by the Timurid-era historian Hafiz-i Abru, who incorporated much of it in his Dhayl-e Jame al-tawarikh. Like the Tarikh-i guzida, the Zafarnamah has a positive conclusion, with Abu Sai'd Bahadur Khan successfully quelling a revolt, followed by peace. However, Mustawfi may have completed his work prematurely, possibly due to the chaotic events that followed during the disintegration of the Ilkhanate. This is supported by the fact he later composed a prose continuation of the Zafarnamah, which mentions Abu Sai'd Bahar Khan's death and the turmoil that followed in Iran. ### Nuzhat al-qulub Mustawfi's most prominent work is the Nuzhat al-Qulub ("Hearts' Bliss"), which is virtually the only source to describe the geography and affairs of the Ilkhanate era. The source gives vital information about the government, commerce, economic life, sectarian conflicts, tax-collection and other similar topics. Just like his Tarikh-i guzida and Zafarnamah, Mustawfi rejects to have expertise in the field, and states that he was encouraged by his friends to write the work. He also thought that an available source in Persian would be helpful, due to most geographical sources about Iran being in Arabic (such as the works of Abu Zayd al-Balkhi and Ibn Khordadbeh). The work is also considered a substantial contribution to the ethno-national history of Iran. Mustawfi notably uses the term "Iran" in his work. Since the fall of the Iranian Sasanian Empire in 651, the idea of Iran or Iranzamin ("the land of Iran") as a political entity had disappeared. However, it did remain as an element of the national sentiment of the Iranians, and was occasionally mentioned in the works of other people. With the advent of the Ilkhanate, the idea experienced a resurgence. According to the modern historian Peter Jackson (2017), the reason behind this resurgence was the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258 and the "relative disenfranchisement of political Islam." Mustawfi describes the borders of Iran extending from the Indus River to Khwarazm and Transoxiana in the east to Byzantium and Syria in the west, corresponding to the territory of the Sasanian Empire. He defines the provinces of Iran in 20 chapters; Iraq ("Arab Iraq") or the "heart of Iranshahr", Persian Iraq, Arran, Mughan, Shirvan, Georgia, Byzantium, Armenia, Rabi'a, Kurdistan, Khuzestan, Fars, Shabankara, Kirman, Mukran, Hormuz, Nimruz, Khorasan, Mazandaran, Qumis, Tabaristan and Gilan. This way of conceptualizing the history and geography of Iran has been emulated by other historians since the 13th-century. ## Beliefs Hamdallah was reportedly a "convinced Shia", and there is much evidence that supports this claim, such as his detailed report of the history of the Twelve Imams in the Tarikh-i guzida, and that of the Shia neighborhoods in Iran in the Nuzhat al-Qulub. However, he disliked Shi'ites such as Sa'd al-Din Savaji, whom he refers to as a rafezi, and also the Shi'ite amir, Hajji al-Dilqandi, whom he condemned for omitting the first three caliphs in the khutba. The Iranologist Charles P. Melville suggests that Hamdallah may have in reality been a Sunni Shafi'ite, which was the predominant madhhab (school of thought) at the time in Qazvin, and also the school of thought of Rashid al-Din Hamadani.	[ "## Biography", "## Works", "### Tarikh-i guzida", "### Zafarnamah", "### Nuzhat al-qulub", "## Beliefs" ]	2,401	13,924
3,191,669	Ride a White Horse	1,169,903,588	2006 single by Goldfrapp	[ "2005 songs", "2006 singles", "Disco songs", "Goldfrapp songs", "Music videos directed by Diane Martel", "Mute Records singles", "Songs written by Alison Goldfrapp", "Songs written by Will Gregory" ]	"Ride a White Horse" is a song by English electronic music duo Goldfrapp. The song was written by Alison Goldfrapp, Will Gregory and Nick Batt for Goldfrapp's third album Supernature (2005). The song was inspired by the disco era nightclub Studio 54. The song was released as the album's third single in February 2006 to positive reviews from music critics. It was a commercial success, reaching the top forty on the majority of the charts it entered. The song has been remixed a number of times and was featured in the American television program The L Word. ## Background and writing "Ride a White Horse" is an electronic–dance song that was inspired by the disco era. Alison Goldfrapp had grown up listening to T.Rex and Polish disco music, and many assumed that she based the song's lyrics around Bianca Jagger's infamous entrance into Studio 54 on a white horse. The song was composed as a collaborative effort between Goldfrapp and Will Gregory in late 2004 in a rented cottage in the countryside of Bath, England. The song was written and recorded while Goldfrapp and Gregory were "jamming in the recording studio, bouncing song ideas off each other". "Ride a White Horse" is written in the common verse-chorus form and features instrumentation from synthesizers and a bass guitar. The US maxi CD single featured a cover version of "Boys Will Be Boys" as its B-side. The song was originally performed by British rock group the Ordinary Boys. ## Music video The music video for "Ride a White Horse" was directed by Diane Martel and filmed in London, England in December 2005. The video features Alison Goldfrapp dressed in a white romper, posing within (or superimposed over) multiple bizarre, borderline-disturbing scenarios. The video begins with Goldfrapp, her back to the camera, trailing toilet paper from one of her spike heels, singing into a microphone made of a cardboard roll and aluminium foil. As she sings, she is superimposed over piles of rotting, wasted food, trash, and other refuse. She is then shown biting into a slice of “pizza” covered in “cigarette butts” and “bottlecaps”. The next scenes feature Goldfrapp pulling a large plastic dog, resembling an animal statue of Ancient Egyptian style. In the following scenario, oblivious to her presence, is a man wrapped completely in toilet paper—or possibly portraying an Egyptian mummy—and eating from a garbage can. The final scenes show Goldfrapp singing amongst her visibly dirty background dancers, all with wigs to resemble straggly, unkempt hair and mud smeared over their bodies, wearing nothing but what appear to be loincloths. The dancers, who themselves resemble cavemen or even Neanderthals, appear as they climb out of a trash dumpster in their underwear. The video concludes with Goldfrapp forcing the leg of the bandaged man into a toilet. In 2006, the video was nominated at the Festival International des Arts du Clip in the "Off Competition" category for its audacity and off-beat sense of humour. The complete version of "Ride a White Horse" featured in the music video has been released commercially through CD singles and digital downloads, and some include remixes by Serge Santiágo and Ewan Pearson. An alternate music video was also filmed live at the Brixton Academy in London, England on 6 October 2005. The video was directed by Matthew Amos and released on the song's DVD single. ## Critical reception "Ride a White Horse" received positive reviews from music critics. MusicOMH.com's Michael Hubbard called the song "one of the most glamorous and erotic tracks" on Supernature, and Stylus Magazine described it as "memorable" because of its "combination of a decently danceable groove and some nicely arch vocals". In a review for PopMatters, Adrien Begrand wrote that "Ride a White Horse" was "destined for club hit status", comparing Alison Goldfrapp's "cold, husky croon" to Kate Bush. ## Marketing and release In March 2007, "Ride a White Horse" was featured on an episode of the American television program The L Word. The episode titled "Literary License to Kill" featured the group performing the song at The Planet while the characters celebrated a birthday. A radio edit of the song was also featured on the program's soundtrack released in January 2007. "Ride a White Horse" was released as a various formats throughout the world. While most territories received a CD single and digital download release, the single was released as two CD singles on 13 February 2006 in the UK. A DVD single was also issued and included behind the scenes footage of Goldfrapp on tour and a live music video for "Ride a White Horse". On 27 February 2006, two 12-inch vinyl singles were issued. In Australia, a CD single was issued on 6 March 2006. ## Commercial performance "Ride a White Horse" entered the UK Singles Chart on 25 February 2006 at number 15, remaining on the chart for three weeks. The song proved popular on UK radio, charting at number 23 on the airplay chart. In Ireland, the song reached number 36 on the singles chart before exiting the following week. In the United States, "Ride a White Horse" was released as the album's final single. The song did not perform as well as its predecessors on the Billboard Dance Chart, reaching only number 29. The song, however, did peak at number three on the Hot Dance Singles Sales chart. ## Track listings - CD single 1 1. "Ride a White Horse" (single version) – 3:46 2. "Slide In" (DFA remix (edit)) – 5:24 - CD single 2 1. "Ride a White Horse" (Serge Santiágo re-edit) – 8:09 2. "Ride a White Horse" (FK-EK vocal version) – 7:48 3. "Ride a White Horse" (FK Disco Whores dub) – 7:40 4. "Ride a White Horse" (Ewan Pearson Disco Odyssey Parts 1 + 2) – 15:13 - DVD single 1. "Ride a White Horse" (live in London)\* – 7:12 2. "Supernature Tour Access All Areas" – 4:25 3. "Number 1" (Múm remix) (audio) – 2:37 - 12-inch single 1 1. "Ride a White Horse" (Serge Santiágo re-edit) – 8:05 2. "Ride a White Horse" (FK-EK vocal version) – 7:45 - Filmed at Brixton Academy, 6 October 2005 - 12-inch single 2 1. "Ride a White Horse" (Ewan Pearson Disco Odyssey Parts 1 + 2) – 15:12 2. "Ride a White Horse" (FK Disco Whores dub) – 7:37 - Digital single (2019) 1. "Ride a White Horse" (single version) – 3:44 2. "Slide In" (DFA remix) (edit) – 5:21 3. "Ride a White Horse" (Serge Santiágo re-edit) – 8:07 4. "Ride a White Horse" (FK-EK vocal version) – 7:48 5. "Ride a White Horse" (FK Disco Whores dub) – 7:41 6. "Ride a White Horse" (Ewan Pearson Disco Odyssey Pt. 1) – 6:53 7. "Ride a White Horse" (Ewan Pearson Disco Odyssey Pts. 1 + 2) – 15:13 8. "Number 1" (Múm remix) – 2:33 ## Personnel The following people contributed to Ride a White Horse: - Alison Goldfrapp – lead vocals, backing vocals, synthesizer - Nick Batt – synthesizer, programming - Will Gregory – synthesizer - Daniel Miller – synthesizer - Charlie Jones – bass - Ewan Pearson – programming - Mark "Spike" Stent – mixing - Ted Jensen – mastering ## Charts ## Release history	[ "## Background and writing", "## Music video", "## Critical reception", "## Marketing and release", "## Commercial performance", "## Track listings", "## Personnel", "## Charts", "## Release history" ]	1,809	33,457
226,741	Earth in science fiction	1,168,915,384	null	[ "Earth", "Fiction about Earth", "Fiction about terrestrial planets", "Science fiction themes" ]	An overwhelming majority of fiction is set on or features the Earth, as the only planet home to humans. This also holds true of science fiction, despite perceptions to the contrary. Works that focus specifically on Earth may do so holistically, treating the planet as one semi-biological entity. Counterfactual depictions of the shape of the Earth, be it flat or hollow, are occasionally featured. A personified, living Earth appears in a handful of works. In works set in the far future, Earth can be a center of space-faring human civilization, or just one of many inhabited planets of a galactic empire, and sometimes destroyed by ecological disaster or nuclear war or otherwise forgotten or lost. ## Related vocabulary In a number of works of science fiction, Earth's English name has become less popular, and the planet is instead known as Terra or Tellus, Latin words for Earth. Inhabitants of Earth can be referred to as Earthlings, Earthers, Earthborn, Earthfolk, Earthians, Earthies (this term being often seen as derogatory), Earthmen (and Earthwomen), Earthpersons, Earthsiders, Solarians, Tellurians, Terrestrials, Terrestrians, or Terrans. In addition, science fiction vocabulary includes terms like Earthfall for landing of a spaceship on planet Earth; or Earth-type, Earthlike, Earthnorm(al) and terrestrial for the concept of "resembling planet Earth or conditions on it". The concept of modifying planets to be more Earth-like is known as terraforming. The concept of terraforming developed from both science fiction and actual science. In science, Carl Sagan, an astronomer, proposed the terraforming of Venus in 1961, which is considered one of the first accounts of the concept. The term itself, however, was coined by Jack Williamson in a science-fiction short story ("Collision Orbit") published in 1942 in Astounding Science Fiction, although the concept of terraforming in popular culture predates this work; for example, the idea of turning the Moon into a habitable environment with atmosphere was already present in La Journée d'un Parisien au XXI<sup>e</sup> siècle ("A Day of a Parisian in the 21st Century", 1910) by Octave Béliard [fr]. ## Themes In general, the vast majority of fiction, including science fiction, takes place on Earth. To the extent that Earth is more than the obvious but forgettable background where the action of the story takes place, a number of themes have been identified. ### Earth Many works of science fiction focus on the outer space, but many others still take place on Earth; this distinction has been subject to debates among the science fiction authors, visible for example in J. G. Ballard's 1962 essay Which Way to Inner Space?. Some critics of the "outer space adventures" have pointed to the importance of "earthly" concepts and imagery closer to contemporary readers' everyday experience. While it has been argued that a planet can be considered "too large, and its lifetime too long, to be comfortably accommodated within fiction as a topic in its own right," this has not prevented some writers from engaging with said topic. Some works that focus on Earth as an entity have been influenced by holistic, "big picture" concepts such as the Gaia hypothesis, noosphere and the Omega Point, and the popularizing of the photography of Earth from space. Others works have addressed the concept of Earth as a Goddess Gaia (from Greek mythology; another prominent goddess of Earth whose name influenced science fiction was the Roman Terra or Tellus). Bridging these ideas, and treating Earth as a semi-biological or even sentient entity, are classic works like Arthur Conan Doyle's When the World Screamed (1928) and Jack Williamson's Born of the Sun (1934). ### Shape Depictions of the Earth as being flat are uncommon in modern works, the sphericity of the planet having been proved around 200 B.C. by Archimedes and Eratosthenes. Exceptions to this include Terry Pratchett's satirical Discworld series—which was inspired by Hindu cosmology—and deliberately provocative works like S. Fowler Wright's novel Beyond the Rim from 1932. There have also been fictional accounts of a hollow Earth, such as Edgar Allan Poe's 1838 novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket inspired by John Cleves Symmes Jr.'s model featuring openings at the north and south poles whereby the interior can be accessed. A few writers have likewise engaged with another old fringe theory, that of Counter-Earth – a hypothetical body of the Solar System that orbits on the other side of the solar system from Earth. Many stories portray Earth as known to modern science, but the exploration of its subterrean depths, relatively consistent with the knowledge of modern geology, is still subject to a number of works. Brian Stableford listed among "notable accounts of burrowing expeditions" into such an Earth works such as Harry Harrison's "Rock Diver" (1951). ### Planetary engineering Large scale planetary engineering includes ideas such as adjusting the Earth's axial tilt, or moving the Earth from its orbit. Some works deal with geoengineering, a term usually referred to large-scale projects attempting to deal with the problem of climate change; a theme common in many works of climate fiction. In the extreme case, Earth can be consumed in its entirety, all of its mass repurposed in construction of megastructures such as a Dyson sphere. ### The end of Earth Various versions of the future of Earth have been imagined. Some works focus on the end of the planet; those have been written in all forms – some focused on "ostentatious mourning"; others more of a slapstick comedy; yet others take this opportunity to explore themes of astronomy or sociology. The genre of climate fiction can often mix the themes of near and far future consequences of the climate change, whether anthropogenic or accidental. In other works, often found in the apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction and the Dying Earth genres, Earth has been destroyed or at least ruined for generations to come; many such works are therefore set in the background of Earth changed into a wasteland. Some of the works in these genres overlap with the climate change genre, as climate change and resulting ecological disasters are a commonly used plot device for events that trigger the fall of human civilization (other plots involve the destruction of Earth from human warfare, alien invasions, or from various sorts of man-made incidents or accidental disasters). Many such works, set either during the disaster, or in its aftermath, are metaphors for environmental concerns or otherwise warnings about issues the writers think humanity needs to be concerned about. ### One planet among many For many works set in the far future, Earth is just one of many inhabited planets of a galactic empire, federation or larger civilization, and many similar planets have been found or created (common themes in space opera), all of which challenges the idea of Earth's uniqueness. In some works, Earth is still a center of the known universe, or at least a significant player on the galactic scene. In others, Earth has become of so little importance that it is a mostly forgotten backwards world. In Clifford D. Simak's Cemetery World (1973) Earth is a planet-size cemetery and in Gordon R. Dickson's Call Him Lord (1966), a museum. At its extreme, in some settings, knowledge of Earth has been simply lost, making it a mythological place, whose existence is questioned by the few who even know the legends about it. In some of these works, a major plotline can involve future civilizations or intrepid explorers seeking the "lost cradle" or Earth. Finally, some stories told from the perspective of aliens focus on their discovery of Earth. ### A different history Some works look backwards – or perhaps sideways, not to the future of Earth, but to its past; here, works of science fiction can overlap with historic fiction as well as prehistoric fiction. This can happen particularly through the genres of alternate history as well as time travel (where as Gary Westfahl observed, most time travellers travel through time much more than space, visiting the past or future versions of Earth). ## See also - Class M planet - Earth Is Room Enough - Ecofiction - Moon in fiction - Mythopoeia - Near future in fiction	[ "## Related vocabulary", "## Themes", "### Earth", "### Shape", "### Planetary engineering", "### The end of Earth", "### One planet among many", "### A different history", "## See also" ]	1,731	426
38,368,155	Hopeville Pond State Park	1,152,273,532	Park in Griswold, Connecticut, US	[ "1938 establishments in Connecticut", "Beaches of Connecticut", "Civilian Conservation Corps in Connecticut", "Griswold, Connecticut", "Parks in New London County, Connecticut", "Protected areas established in 1938", "State parks of Connecticut" ]	Hopeville Pond State Park is a public recreation area located on Hopeville Pond, an impoundment of the Pachaug River, in the town of Griswold, Connecticut. A portion of the 554-acre (224 ha) state park occupies the site of the lost village of Hopeville. The park manager's house occupies Avery House, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The park offers fishing, swimming, camping, and trails for hiking and biking. It is managed by the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection. ## History Before European colonization, the Mohegan people constructed stone weirs to harvest fish from the Pachaug River. The weirs directed water flow and fish to the center of the stream for easy capture in fishing baskets. Village In 1711, Stephen Gates was granted 14 acres of land lying within the modern state park's boundaries. Gates constructed a gristmill and sawmill, inundating the waterfall on the Pachaug River in the process. In 1818, Elizah Abel added a woolen mill to the site. Later, John Slater purchased the three mills and constructed a satinet mill which he named the "Hope Mill," the village, pond and state park names all having subsequently derived from his inspiration. By 1840, Hopeville was a "thriving village" according to Daniel L. Phillips, author of Griswold - a history. On November 4, 1850, a meeting was held to discuss the construction of a house of worship. A church was erected for \$1,700 and dedicated on December 12, 1852. The village of Hopeville reached its peak in 1860 and was well known for its production of woolens. In 1881, the mill, then owned by Edwin Lanthrop and Company, was destroyed in a fire and not rebuilt. The Ashland Cotton Company would later acquire the property. In 1900, the church and four houses also burned. In 1908, the original gristmill from 1711 was also destroyed by fire. Sometime before 1917, the Ashland Cotton Company erected a dam on the site and created the 145 acre reservoir; the dam was used to generate electrical power for its mills in Jewett City. Avery House The Avery House, also known as Hopeville Pond Park House, is a 20 feet (6.1 m) by 40 feet (12 m), the two-story central-chimney Colonial dating to circa 1770. The central chimney is on a stone base and has a built-in root cellar. In 1935, the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) rehabilitated the property for park use. The alterations in the house changed the traditional five-room first floor plan by eliminating the keeping rooms and the removal of the kitchen fireplace. It retains much of its original door frames and wrought-iron latch hardware. After the rehabilitation of the property, the Avery House became the Hopeville Park manager's residence. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986. Park The Civilian Conservation Corps, encamped in nearby Pachaug State Forest, developed the state park in the 1930s. Their efforts included adapting the Avery House for park use. Hopeville Pond was designated as a state park in 1938. ## Activities The park's recreational activities include biking, hiking, camping, fishing, boating, and swimming. The park's campground features 80 campsites. Fish found in 137-acre (55 ha) Hopeville Pond include channel catfish, northern pike, largemouth bass, chain pickerel, and yellow perch. Hopeville Pond was included in an 11-mile bike trail in Connecticut: Rides for the Casual Cyclist. The Lake Lubbers website states that Hopeville Pond is a popular location for fishing, including ice fishing. The reported fish include "northern pike, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, catfish, chain pickerel, yellow perch, and bluegill". The park's camp site received a positive mention in 2013 in Best Tent Camping: New England.	[ "## History", "## Activities" ]	856	19,788
30,229,977	Bold Orion	1,154,360,686	1950s American air-launched ballistic missile prototype	[ "Air-launched ballistic missiles", "Air-to-surface missiles of the United States", "Anti-satellite missiles", "Ballistic missiles of the United States", "Cold War air-to-surface missiles of the United States" ]	The Bold Orion missile, also known as Weapons System 199B (WS-199B), was a prototype air-launched ballistic missile (ALBM) developed by Martin Aircraft during the 1950s. Developed in both one- and two-stage designs, the missile was moderately successful in testing, and helped pave the way for development of the GAM-87 Skybolt ALBM. In addition, the Bold Orion was used in early anti-satellite weapons testing, performing the first interception of a satellite by a missile. ## Design and development The Bold Orion missile was developed as part of Weapons System 199, initiated by the United States Air Force (USAF) in response to the U.S. Navy's Polaris program, with funding authorised by the United States Congress in 1957. The purpose of WS-199 was the development of technology that would be used in new strategic weapons for the USAF's Strategic Air Command, not to deliver operational weapons; a primary emphasis was on proving the feasibility of an air-launched ballistic missile. The designation WS-199B was assigned to the project that, under a contract awarded in 1958 to Martin Aircraft, would become the Bold Orion missile. The design of Bold Orion was simple, using parts developed for other missile systems to reduce the cost and development time of the project. The initial Bold Orion configuration was a single-stage vehicle, using a Thiokol TX-20 Sergeant solid-fuel rocket. Following initial testing, the Bold Orion configuration was altered to become a two-stage vehicle, an Allegany Ballistics Laboratory Altair upper stage being added to the missile. ## Operational history Having been given top priority by the Air Force, the first flight test of the Bold Orion missile was conducted on May 26, 1958, from a Boeing B-47 Stratojet carrier aircraft, which launched the Bold Orion vehicle at the apex of a high-speed, high-angle climb. The zoom climb tactic, combined with the thrust from the rocket motor of the missile itself, allowed the missile to achieve its maximum range, or, alternatively, to reach space. A twelve-flight test series of the Bold Orion vehicle was conducted;. Despite suffering only one outright failure, the initial flight tests of the single-stage rocket proved less successful than hoped. Authorisation was received to modify the Bold Orion to become a two-stage vehicle. In addition to the modifications improving the missile's reliability, they increased the range of Bold Orion to over 1,000 miles (1,600 km). Four of the final six test firings were of the two-stage vehicle. These were considered successful, and established that the ALBM was a viable weapon. ### ASAT test The final test launch of Bold Orion, conducted on October 13, 1959, was a test of the vehicle's capabilities in the anti-satellite role. Piloted by Carl E Brust Jr, the missile was launched from an altitude of 35,000 feet (11,000 m) from its B-47 mothership, the missile successfully intercepted the Explorer 6 satellite, passing its target at a range of less than 4 miles (6.4 km) at an altitude of 156 miles (251 km). If the missile had a nuclear warhead, the satellite would have been destroyed. The Bold Orion ASAT test was the first interception of a satellite by any method, proving that anti-satellite missiles were feasible. This test, along with an earlier, unsuccessful test of the High Virgo missile in the anti-satellite role, had political repercussions. The Eisenhower administration sought to establish space as a neutral ground for everyone's use, and the "indication of hostile intent" given by the tests was frowned upon, with anti-satellite weapons development being soon curtailed. ### Legacy The results of the Bold Orion project, along with those from the testing of the High Virgo missile, also developed under WS-199, provided data and knowledge that assisted the Air Force in forming the requirements for the follow-on WS-138A, which would produce the GAM-87 Skybolt missile. ## Launch history AMR DZ means Atlantic Missile Range Drop Zone. ## See also	[ "## Design and development", "## Operational history", "### ASAT test", "### Legacy", "## Launch history", "## See also" ]	852	2,300
1,149,442	Orford Castle	1,164,089,868	Grade I listed historic house museum in Suffolk Coastal, United Kingdom	[ "Bigod family", "Buildings and structures completed in 1173", "Castles in Suffolk", "De Valognes family", "English Heritage sites in Suffolk", "Grade I listed buildings in Suffolk", "Historic house museums in Suffolk", "Orford, Suffolk", "Scheduled monuments in Suffolk", "Tourist attractions in Suffolk" ]	Orford Castle is a castle in Orford in the English county of Suffolk, 12 miles (19 km) northeast of Ipswich, with views over Orford Ness. It was built between 1165 and 1173 by Henry II of England to consolidate royal power in the region. The well-preserved keep, described by historian R. Allen Brown as "one of the most remarkable keeps in England", is of a unique design and probably based on Byzantine architecture. The keep stands within the earth-bank remains of the castle's outer fortifications. ## History ### 12th century Prior to the building of Orford Castle, Suffolk was dominated by the Bigod family, who held the title of the Earl of Norfolk and owned key castles at Framlingham, Bungay, Walton and Thetford. Hugh Bigod had been one of a group of dissenting barons during the Anarchy in the reign of King Stephen, and Henry II wished to re-establish royal influence across the region. Henry confiscated the four castles from Hugh, but returned Framlingham and Bungay to Hugh in 1165. Henry then decided to build his own royal castle at Orford, near Framlingham, and construction work began in 1165, concluding in 1173. The Orford site was around 2 miles (3.2 km) from the sea, lying on flat ground with swampy terrain slowly stretching away down to the river Ore, about 1⁄2 mile (0.80 km) away. The design of the keep was unique, and has been termed "one of the most remarkable keeps in England" by historian R. Allen Brown. The 90-foot-high (27-metre) central tower was circular in cross-section with three rectangular, clasping towers built out from the 49-foot-wide (15-metre) structure. The tower was based on a precise set of proportions, its various dimensions following the one-to-the-root-of-two ratio found in many English churches of the period. Much of the interior is built with high-quality ashlar stonework, with broad, 5-foot-6-inch-wide (1.7-metre) staircases. The best chambers were designed to catch the early morning sun, whilst the various parts of the keep were draught-proofed with doors and carefully designed windows. Originally the roof of the keep, above the upper hall, would have formed a domed effect, with a tall steeple above that. The chapel above the entrance to the keep was unusually shaped; historian Stephen Brindle suggests that such a design "would not normally have been thought seemly for a room dedicated to the service of God". The keep was surrounded by a curtain wall with probably four flanking towers and a fortified gatehouse protecting a relatively small bailey; these outer defences, rather than the keep, probably represented the main defences of the castle. The marshes nearby were drained, turning the village of Orford into a sheltered port. The castle, including the surrounding ditch, palisade and stone bridge, cost £1,413 to build, the work possibly being conducted by the master mason Alnoth. Some of the timbers were brought from as far away as Scarborough, and the detailed stonework being carved from limestone from Caen in Normandy, the remainder of the stone being variously local mudstone and coralline, as well as limestone from Northamptonshire. The design of the keep has attracted much historical interest. Traditional explanations for its unusual plan argued that the castle was a transitional military design, combining both the circular features of later castles with the square angled buttresses of earlier Norman fortifications. More recent scholarship has critiqued this explanation. The design of the Orford keep is hard to justify in military terms, as the buttresses created additional blind spots for the defenders, whilst the chambers and staircase in the corners weakened the walls against attack. Square Norman keeps continued to be built after Orford, whilst Henry II was aware of fully circular castle designs before building the keep. A round keep was constructed at New Buckenham, Norfolk, in 1146, for example. Historians have therefore questioned to what extent the design can be seen as legitimately transitional. Instead, historians now believe that the design of Orford Castle was instead probably driven by political symbolism. Architectural historian Sandy Heslop argues that the plain, simple elegance of the architecture would, for mid-12th-century nobility, have summoned up images of King Arthur, who was then widely believed to have had Roman or Greek links. The banded, angular features of the keep resembled the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople, then the idealised image of imperial power, and the keep as a whole, including the roof, may have been based on a hall that had been recently built in Constantinople by John II Komnenos. ### 13th to 19th centuries By the start of the 13th century, royal authority over Suffolk had been firmly established, after Henry II crushed the Bigods in the revolt of 1173–1174, Orford being heavily garrisoned during the conflict, with 20 knights being based there. Upon the collapse of the rebellion, Henry ordered the permanent confiscation of Framlingham Castle. The political importance of Orford Castle diminished after Henry's death in 1189, although the port of Orford grew in importance, however, handling more trade than the more famous port of Ipswich by the beginning of the century. The castle was captured by Prince Louis of France who invaded England in 1216 at the invitation of the English barons who were disillusioned with King John. John Fitz-Robert became the governor of the royal castle under the young Henry III, followed by Hubert de Burgh. Under Edward I governorship of the castle was given to the de Valoines family, and it passed by marriage to Robert de Ufford, the 1st Earl of Suffolk, who was granted it in perpetuity by Edward III in 1336. The Uffords modernised the castle, adding glass to the windows and installing wood panelling in various rooms. Despite these changes to make Orford more comfortable, Brindle suggests the earl and his family would only have used the castle occasionally as earl's large household would have needed more space. No longer a royal castle, Orford was passed on through the Willoughby, Stanhope and Devereux families, whilst the surrounding economy of Orford went into decline. The estuary of the River Ore silted up and the Orford Ness spit increased, making the harbour access more difficult, resulting in a decline in trade, reducing the importance of the castle as the centre of local government. The castle descended to Michael Stanhope, who commissioned John Norden to carry out a survey of his family's estates. The earliest surviving depiction of the castle dates from this survey. Stanhope built a new home at Sudbourne in 1604 and 1605, and in doing so probably reused stone from Orford Castle. The castle and surrounding lands were bought by the Seymour-Conway family in 1754. By the late 18th century only the north wall of the bailey survived and the roof and upper floors of the keep had badly decayed, and Francis Seymour-Conway, the 2nd Marquess of Hertford, proposed destroying the building in 1805. He was prevented from doing so by the government, on the grounds that the keep formed a valuable landmark for ships approaching from Holland, wishing to avoid the nearby sandbanks. Francis's son, also called Francis, undertook conservation efforts in 1831, installing a new, relatively flat, lead roof and a replacement upper floor. Francis furnished the top of the keep for use as an apartment by guests. By the 1840s, however, all of the surrounding bailey wall and mural towers had almost vanished, having been quarried for stone, and the foundations could only just be seen. ### Modern period Sir Arthur Churchman bought Orford Castle in 1928 and gave the property to the Orford Town Trust; an appeal for money to maintain and restore it began shortly afterwards. In 1930 the castle opened to the public. During the Second World War the castle was refortified with barbed wire to form what was originally intended to be an anti-aircraft emplacement, with Nissen huts erected around the keep. The castle was instead used as a radar emplacement, and a concrete floor was installed in the south-east tower to support the equipment. These buildings were removed at the end of the conflict. The Ministry of Information took a series of propaganda photographs around Orford dubbed "Invasion Village"; as well as showing life in the village, the images contrasted the old fortification with new defences to demonstrate that heritage was under threat. Orford Castle was given to the Ministry of Works in 1962, and is now maintained by English Heritage. The first guidebook to the site was published two years later, written by R. Allen Brown. Later guidebooks were written by Derek Renn (1988), John Rhodes (2003), and Stephen Brindle (2018). The keep of the castle is the only part of the structure remaining intact, although the earthwork remains of the bailey wall are still visible. Some of the ditches visible amongst the earthworks are not medieval but results of later quarrying of the bailey walls. Archaeological work to interpret the surrounding environment has continued, most recently during 2002 to 2003. The castle is a scheduled monument and a Grade I listed building. While maintained by English Heritage, the castle also houses Orford Museum. The museum moved into the castle in 2005, and is housed in the upper hall. It had been without a venue since 1998. The Orford Museum Trust has created exhibits in there featuring displays of archaeological artefacts found locally. In the 21st century, English Heritage began a programme of conservation to stem the decay of the mudstone, also known as septaria, used to build the castle. The stone had been weathering since at least the 16th century, and in 2008 English Heritage began trialling different means of preserving the stone. After various trials, in 2022 a £1 million project was undertaken to cover the castle in lime render. ## Wild Man of Orford Orford Castle is associated with the legend of the Wild Man of Orford. According to the chronicler Ralph of Coggeshall, a naked wild man, covered in hair, was caught in the nets of local fishermen around 1167. The man was brought back to the castle where he was held for six months, being questioned or tortured. He said nothing and behaved in a feral fashion throughout. The wild man finally escaped from the castle. Later accounts described him as a merman, and the incident appears to have encouraged the growth in "wild men" carvings on local baptismal fonts—around twenty such fonts from the later medieval period exist in coastal areas of Suffolk and Norfolk, near Orford. ## See also - Castles in Great Britain and Ireland - List of castles in England - Conisbrough Castle	[ "## History", "### 12th century", "### 13th to 19th centuries", "### Modern period", "## Wild Man of Orford", "## See also" ]	2,318	19,966
1,983,410	The Parent Rap	1,116,474,937	null	[ "2001 American television episodes", "The Simpsons (season 13) episodes" ]	"The Parent Rap" is the second episode and official premiere of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 11, 2001. In the episode, Bart and his father, Homer, are sentenced by the cruel judge Constance Harm to be tethered to each other as a result of Bart stealing Police Chief Wiggum's car. Eventually, Homer's wife, Marge, is fed up with the punishment and cuts the rope, which instead leads to Judge Harm sentencing them to have their heads and hands locked up in wooden stocks. The episode was written by George Meyer and Mike Scully, who also served as the show runner for the episode, and Mark Kirkland worked as the director. The writers based the story on “a couple of incidents” in real life in which troublesome children, through alternative sentencing, were tethered to their parents. The episode marks the first appearance of the infamous and notoriously cruel Judge Constance Harm, who is voiced by actress Jane Kaczmarek. When it was first broadcast, “The Parent Rap” was watched by 14.4 million viewers, making it the second most watched show of its timeslot that night. After its release on DVD and Blu-ray, however, the episode garnered mixed reviews from critics. ## Plot After missing the bus, Bart and Milhouse are given a ride to school by Homer, but are evicted from the car after Homer spots the opportunity to win a competition by local radio station KBBL (the prizes being \$40 and a Blue Öyster Cult medallion). Being forced to walk to school, they get into trouble and are arrested for stealing Chief Wiggum's squad car. Milhouse gets off but when Bart comes to the bench, Judge Constance Harm (voiced by Jane Kaczmarek) takes over and lays down the law while Judge Snyder is on his fishing trip. She holds Homer responsible for Bart's deeds and sentences him and Bart to be tethered together. Initially, this brings Bart and Homer closer together, despite Homer disrupting Bart's education and later getting cut up by glass during a baseball game. However, things soon go wrong, such as Bart being left outside in the cold while Homer drinks at Moe's, and again when Marge and Homer try to have sex when Bart does his homework, leading father and son to fight one another. Fed up with the punishment, Marge then finally cuts the tether, only for her and Homer to be brought back before Harm and have their heads and hands locked up in old-fashioned wooden pillories, as well as being slapped on the buttocks from passing cars. Unable to bear the punishment any longer, they break free using Ned Flanders's power tools and decide to get back at the judge by hanging an insulting banner from her houseboat. The plan goes awry when they are cornered by Harm's guard seal Poncho and accidentally sink the boat, being once again brought into court. When Bart pleads to take full responsibility for his parents' actions, Harm agrees and almost sentences Bart to five years in juvenile hall when Snyder returns from his fishing trip and declares a verdict of "Boys will be boys," dismissing the case. While driving home afterwards, Marge makes the entire family promise not to break the law again for a whole year, which Homer instantly breaks when he runs over Hans Moleman. ## Production and cultural references "The Parent Rap" was co-written by George Meyer and Mike Scully, and Mark Kirkland served as the director for the episode. It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on November 11, 2001. The title of the episode is a reference to The Parent Trap. Even though "Treehouse of Horror XII" - the first episode of the thirteenth season - had aired the previous week, "The Parent Rap" was considered the official premiere of the season. "The Parent Rap" was the last episode written in its production line. "As I recall, we got toward the end of the season and we had to write another episode in a hurry", said Meyer in a DVD audio commentary for the episode. Judge Constance Harm is a parody of Judge Judy. The writing staff contributed a rough outline for the episode, and Meyer and Scully went into one of the writer's room and "basically, kind of locked [themselves] in for five days" writing the episode. Meyer and Scully both thoroughly enjoyed the writing process of the episode; "It really came together easily", stated Meyer, "...because we had known each other so long and were comfortable with each other's style". Ian Maxtone-Graham, one of the writers for The Simpsons, commented that the draft Meyer and Scully had written was "awfully good". The episode was based on "a couple of incidents" that the writers had heard about in which troublesome children, through alternative sentencing, were tethered to their parents. The scene in which Homer and Marge get spanked by Springfield's citizens as part of their punishment was also based on an alternative sentencing, in which the sentenced had to wear certain shirts or signs that indicated whether they, for example, had not paid taxes. The scene in which Bart accidentally drives away with Chief Wiggum's police car was based on one of Scully's friends in high school, who stole a still running police car parked at a Dunkin' Donuts while the police were in the store. The episode featured the first appearance of Judge Constance Harm, portrayed by American actress Jane Kaczmarek. At the time of the episode's airing, Kaczmarek starred on Fox's Malcolm in the Middle. The character's name was conceived by Meyer, who had always thought that Constance was a scary name. The episode makes several references to Blue Öyster Cult's hit song "(Don't Fear) The Reaper", which also plays during the episode's end credits, and inspired the title of a later episode. Meyer later got to meet the band, who said that they were "stoked" to be referenced in a Simpsons episode. ## Release In its original American broadcast on November 11, 2001, "The Parent Rap" was seen by approximately 14.4 million viewers, according to Nielsen Media Research. The episode received a 6.9 rating/16 share among adults between ages 18 and 49, making it the second most-watched television show of the night in its demographic. The episode was listed among the 15 most watched shows in its demographic that week. Following the episode's broadcast, as well as the home video release of thirteenth season of The Simpsons, "The Parent Rap" received generally mixed reviews from critics. Writing for the Daily News, Eric Mink gave the episode a mixed review. "To be sure, the show has its moments", wrote Mink, "But there's not much zip here, and the show has, of all things, a warm-and-fuzzy ending... 'The Simpsons' and warm-and-fuzzy is not a healthy combination". Nate Boss of Project-Blu described the episode as "filler" and praised the episode's concept, but criticized how the episode was executed. Colin Jacobsson of DVD Movie Guide also gave the episode a mixed response, and wrote that "'Rap' starts with a clever – if absurd – concept", but "does little to churn good comedy out of its theme", and concluded by calling the episode "disappointing". Jennifer Malkowski, reviewing the season for DVD Verdict, was more positive towards the episode. Giving the episode a rating of B+, Malkowski listed "The Parent Rap" among episodes in the season where "We see wacky scenarios force Homer to bond with his family, to a rather heartwarming effect". Ron Martin of 411Mania was also favorable, calling the episode "decent".	[ "## Plot", "## Production and cultural references", "## Release" ]	1,619	19,506
25,577,632	It's All About You (Juliana Pasha song)	1,171,478,237	2010 song by Juliana Pasha	[ "2010 singles", "2010 songs", "EMI Records singles", "English-language Albanian songs", "Eurovision songs of 2010", "Eurovision songs of Albania" ]	"It's All About You" is a song by Albanian singer Juliana Pasha. It was released as a single on 17 May 2010 by EMI. The song was composed by Ardit Gjebrea and written by the latter together with Pirro Çako. Musically, it is an English-language uptempo-pop song, which lyrically makes reference to the singer's Christian faith honoring the bond between a woman and her god. The song represented Albania in the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 in Oslo, Norway, after Pasha won the pre-selection competition, Festivali i Këngës, with the Albanian-language version "Nuk mundem pa ty". It reached the 16th place during the grand final in a field of 25, gathering a total of 62 points. During her blue and violet-themed performance, Pasha was accompanied a violin player and three backing vocalists with the stage being decorated with silver-hanging balls. The accompanying music video premiered on the official YouTube channel of the Eurovision Song Contest on 23 March 2010. A religion-inspired video, it depicts the story of a woman and her relationship with her god. For promotional and supporting purposes, Pasha performed the song live on various occasions, including in Amsterdam and Skopje. Commercially, the song charted within the top twenty five on the Belgium's Ultratip after the contest. ## Background and composition In 2009, Juliana Pasha was one of the thirty six contestants selected to compete in the 48th edition of Festivali i Këngës, Albania's pre-selection competition to select their entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2010. As part of the competition's rules, the lyrics of the participating entries had to be in the Albanian language. She therefore participated with the Albanian-language version "Nuk mundem pa ty", which was later remastered for the purpose of the singer's Eurovision Song Contest participation. "It's All About You" was composed by Ardit Gjebrea and written by Gjebrea together with Pirro Çako. It is an English-language uptempo-pop song, which lyrically makes reference to Pasha's Christian faith, honoring the bond between a woman and her god. William Lee Adams of Wiwibloggs called the song a "dance anthem" with "playful and catchy" lyrics. It was first released in March 2010 and later on 17 May 2010 in the United Kingdom through EMI. ## Promotion An accompanying music video was uploaded to the official YouTube channel of the Eurovision Song Contest on 23 March 2010. During the video, Pasha wears a white dress to represent purity, and blows flowers and touches trees that magically illuminate to connote that she is ripe for a relationship with the Lord. Within a prominent shot, the singer appears as three separate females in one shot, described by William Lee Adams of Wiwibloggs, as an allusion to the Holy Trinity. For further promotional purposes, the singer made appearances throughout Europe with numerous live performances, including in Amsterdam. She also appeared to perform live at the Skopje Fest 2010, Macedonia's pre-selection competition to determine their participant for the Eurovision Song Contest 2010. ## At Eurovision ### Festivali i Këngës The national broadcaster, Radio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSH), organised the 48th edition of Festivali i Këngës to determine the Albania's participant for the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 in Oslo, Norway. Following a submission period, a jury panel internally selected 38 songs to participate in the competition's semi-finals and were announced in November 2009. Juliana Pasha qualified for the grand final during the first semi-final on 24 December and ultimately won the competition three days later on 27 December. ### Oslo The 55th edition of the Eurovision Song Contest took place in Oslo, Norway, and consisted of two semi-finals on 25 and 27 May, and the grand final on 29 May 2010. According to the Eurovision rules, each participating country, except the host country and the "Big Five", consisting of , , , and the , were required to qualify from one of the two semi-finals to compete for the grand final, although, the top ten countries from the respective semi-final progress to the grand final. On 7 February 2010, it was announced that Albania would be performing in the second half of the first semi-final of the contest. During the first semi-final, Albania performed twelfth, following and preceding , and qualified for the grand final in sixth place with 76 points, ranking fourth by the jury's 96 points and seventh by the televote of 68 points. At the grand final, the country performed fifteenth, following and preceding . Albania finished in the sixteenth place in a field of twenty five with 62 points, ranking twelfth by the jury's 97 points and seventeenth by the televote of 35 points. Described as modest, Juliana Pasha's show sees her accompanied a violin player, Olen Cesari, and three backing vocalists—Jazz singers Joy, Daisy and Glennis—originally from the United States. During her performance, the stage was decorated with silver-hanging balls moving to the song's rhythm, while different purple and white lights were displayed on the LED screens in the background. ## Track listing - Digital download 1. "It's All About You" – 3:04 ## Charts ## Release history	[ "## Background and composition", "## Promotion", "## At Eurovision", "### Festivali i Këngës", "### Oslo", "## Track listing", "## Charts", "## Release history" ]	1,160	34,912
2,211,037	Flowing Hair dollar	1,122,164,294	Coin minted by the United States from 1794 to 1795	[ "1794 introductions", "Eagles on coins", "Goddess of Liberty on coins", "Silver coins", "United States dollar coins" ]	The Flowing Hair dollar was the first dollar coin issued by the United States federal government. The coin was minted in 1794 and 1795; its size and weight were based on the Spanish dollar, which was popular in trade throughout the Americas. In 1791, following a study by Alexander Hamilton, Congress passed a joint resolution calling for the establishment of a national mint. Later that year, in his third State of the Union address, President George Washington urged Congress to provide for a mint, which was officially authorized by the Coinage Act of 1792. Despite the authorization, silver and gold coins were not struck until 1794. The Flowing Hair dollar, designed by Robert Scot, was initially produced in 1794, and again in 1795. In October 1795 the design was replaced by the Draped Bust dollar. ## Background Beginning in the 1780s, a large number of prominent Americans called for the establishment of a central mint to supply the United States with official coinage; all such proposals failed due in large part to lack of funds and opposition from individuals and groups who preferred that coins be struck by the individual states. Since there were no federal coins issued, the needs of the states were fulfilled by a variety of domestic and foreign coins and tokens, including Spanish peso, eight-real coins (popularly known as Spanish dollars or pieces of eight). In 1789, the United States Constitution, which granted Congress the power "to coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures", was ratified and came into force. The following year, Congress began deliberating on the state of the nation's monetary system and coinage. On January 28, 1791, Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton presented a report to Congress detailing the findings of a study he had conducted on the monetary system and the potential of a United States mint. As part of his study, Hamilton had a series of assay tests of Spanish dollars performed, as that was the coin upon which the United States monetary system would be based. After viewing the results, the secretary recommended that the silver content of the United States dollar be based on the average silver content of the pesos tested. Hamilton's recommendation was that the dollar should contain 371.25 grains of silver and have a gross weight of 416 grains, the balance being copper. On March 3, 1791, after reviewing Hamilton's report, Congress passed a joint resolution authorizing a federal mint; the resolution, however, gave no specifics or appropriations. ### Establishment of the Mint In his third annual address to Congress, later known as the State of the Union address, delivered on October 25, 1791, in Philadelphia, President George Washington urged members of Congress to put the joint resolution approved earlier that year into immediate effect: > The disorders in the existing currency, and especially the scarcity of small change, a scarcity so peculiarly distressing to the poorer classes, strongly recommend the carrying into immediate effect the resolution already entered into concerning the establishment of a mint. Measures have been taken pursuant to that resolution for procuring some of the most necessary artists, together with the requisite apparatus. In response, the Senate appointed a committee chaired by Robert Morris to draft the necessary specifications and legislation that would officially create a federal mint and coinage. The committee presented a bill before Congress on December 21, 1791, which stated in part that the new dollar coin (which was to form the basis of the United States monetary system) should contain 371 grains of silver and a total weight of 416 grains, as Hamilton had earlier recommended. The new silver coins were to be struck in an alloy containing 1,485 parts out of 1,664 (about 89.24 percent) fine silver, with the remainder copper, intended to equal the silver in Spanish dollars. However, an assay of the Spanish dollars was in error—they were in fact 65/72 silver (about 90.28 percent) with the remainder copper. One provision in Morris' legislation called for President Washington to be depicted on the obverse side of every coin struck by the new mint. The bill passed the Senate after debate, but it was altered in the House of Representatives to instead call for the head of an allegorical figure representing Liberty to appear. Upon returning to the Senate, the upper house insisted on its version of the design provision. The House rejected the provision for the second time and passed another version of the bill, after which the Senate concurred. The law, known as the Coinage Act of 1792, was signed into law on April 2, 1792, by President Washington. The Act provided for the creation of the United States Mint, and appropriated money to meet the cost of construction of an appropriate facility, and for salaries for employees and officials. The denominations sanctioned under the Act were half cents, cents, half dimes, dimes, quarter dollars, half dollars, dollars, quarter eagles, half eagles and eagles. On July 31, 1792, the foundation stone of the Philadelphia Mint was laid by newly appointed Mint Director David Rittenhouse. Machinery and personnel began occupying the new building by September 1792, and production began on cents in February 1793. In the first year of production at the Mint, only copper coins were minted, as the prospective assayer could not raise the required \$10,000 surety to officially assume the position; the 1792 Coinage Act stated that both the chief coiner and assayer were to "become bound to the United States of America, with one or more sureties to the satisfaction of the Secretary of the Treasury, in the sum of ten thousand dollars". Later that year, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson appealed to Congress that the amount of the bonds be lowered. On March 3, 1794, Congress lowered the bonds to \$5,000 and \$1,000 for chief coiner and assayer, respectively. ## Production ### Design creation Early in 1794, engraver Robert Scot began preparing designs for the silver dollar. Scot's initial design depicted a bust of Liberty, while his reverse featured an eagle, both required by the 1792 Coinage Act. Scot's design closely followed his design for the cent, but with the Phrygian cap removed. Government officials later instructed Scot to include a wreath around the eagle and to move the denomination from the reverse face to the edge of the coin. After receiving approval, Scot began engraving the hubs for the new silver dollar. Extra care was taken during the engraving of this denomination, because the dollar would be the largest American coin, and would thus receive the most scrutiny from foreign nations. The lettering was executed by Frederick Geiger, who had worked as a typographer for various books and newspapers. After the dies were created, several copper test pieces were struck. Officials decided to add fifteen stars around the periphery, representing the fifteen states that had ratified the Constitution to that point, to the right-facing Liberty on the obverse. ### Minting Now that mintage of the silver denominations could begin, the Mint began seeking depositors to bring in silver and gold bullion to be coined. After receiving several deposits, assayer Albion Cox notified Rittenhouse of his beliefs that the .892 standard approved for silver coinage was difficult to produce and that it would darken if put into circulation. Instead, Cox recommended that the purity be modified to .900 fine, but also that the weight be kept at 416 grains. This meant that the new alloy was contrary to statute and that all depositors would be overcharged for their silver bullion deposits, as there was a higher silver content in the coins than was allowed by the Coinage Act of 1792. The Mint's action cost suppliers of silver about one percent of their deposit; the largest depositor, John Vaughan, reckoned his loss at \$2,260. Congress approved his petition for reimbursement in 1800, after several delays. Before the coins could be struck, the edge lettering and devices had to be impressed on the edge of the planchets. This action was performed with a device known as the Castaing machine; the machine stamped the edge with the words "Hundred Cents One Dollar or Unit" along with ornamentation. As production was inexact, many planchets intended for silver dollars were overweight. This was remedied by filing the face of the planchets; for this reason, the coins vary in weight more dramatically than later issues, which were minted with more precise equipment. The first silver dollars were struck on October 15, 1794. The silver used for the 1794 dollars came solely from silver ingots deposited with the Mint by Mint Director David Rittenhouse on August 22, 1794. Per a handwritten coin transfer warrant issued by Director Rittenhouse on October 15, 1794, 1,758 silver dollars were transferred from the custody of Chief Coiner Henry Voigt to the custody of Mint Treasurer Dr. Nicholas Way. Also on October 15, per a handwritten coin return warrant issued by Director Rittenhouse, the 1,758 silver dollars were transferred from the custody of Mint Treasurer Dr. Nicholas Way to David Rittenhouse, as a partial coin return towards his August 22 silver deposits. The 1,758 coins that were struck by Chief Coiner Henry Voigt, though acceptable, were poorly struck due to issues with the coining press that was used during early production at the Mint. It was a man-powered screw press intended for use on coins no larger than a half dollar. On October 16, 1794, after receiving a silver dollar from David Rittenhouse, Secretary of State Edmund Randolph forwarded the dollar coin to President Washington for his inspection. In an attempt to help circulate the coins, Rittenhouse spent many of the new coins and traded them for foreign coins to market the new products of the Mint. Others were distributed to VIPs and distinguished visitors to the Mint. After the initial production, Rittenhouse ordered all dollar coin production to end until Mint personnel could build a more powerful press that would be capable of better striking the coins. The Columbian Centinel (Boston, MA) first wrote an article about the new dollar coins on November 26, 1794: > Some of the new dollars now coining at the Mint of the United States have found their way to this town. A correspondent put one in into the editor's hands yesterday. Its weight is equal to that of a Spanish dollar, but the metal appears finer ... The tout ensemble (entire design) has a pleasing effect to a connoisseur, but the touches of the [en]graver are too delicate, and there is a want of that boldness of execution which is necessary to durability and currency The new coinage press was completed in early 1795, and the first group of dollars, totalling 3,810 coins, was delivered on May 6. The coins struck on May 8 may have borne a 1794 date, however there is no document or evidence to support such a statement. A number of 1795 dollars (along with one 1794 issue) are known to have been struck with a silver plug set into the center, measuring approximately 8 millimetres (0.31 in). It is believed that this was done to correct the weight of underweight planchets. The total mintage for the second and final year of production is estimated at 160,295. In total, 203,033 silver dollars were struck in 1795, but it is unknown exactly how many of those were of the Flowing Hair type, as the Draped Bust dollar succeeded it in October 1795; the Draped Bust dollar was designed by portraitist Gilbert Stuart at the behest of Rittenhouse's successor as Mint Director, Henry DeSaussure. ## Collecting Throughout its history, the 1794 dollar has widely been considered one of the rarest and most valuable of all United States coins. In a September 1880 issue of The Coin Journal, the author noted that a good quality specimen of the 1794 dollar was valued at fifty dollars. In the early 1990s, numismatic historian Jack Collins estimated the surviving number of the coins to be between 120 and 130. In 2013, the finest known example, which was among the earliest coins struck and was prepared with special care, was sold at auction for \$10,016,875, the highest selling price of any coin in history. The dollar was graded Specimen-66 by the Professional Coin Grading Service, noting the special conditions under which it was struck. The coin, which had previously been owned by Colonel E.H.R. Green, was sold by Stack's Bowers Galleries in a public auction in January 2013. It was previously sold in 2010 for what was then a record sum of \$7.85 million, to the Cardinal Collection Educational Foundation. Steven Contursi, a former owner of the coin, said that it was a "national treasure" and that he was proud to have been its "custodian" from 2003 until its sale in 2010. Martin Logies, representative of the foundation that purchased the coin, said that of all the rarities he had seen, he believed that one was the "single most important of all".	[ "## Background", "### Establishment of the Mint", "## Production", "### Design creation", "### Minting", "## Collecting" ]	2,769	41,857
58,676,001	German torpedo boat T22	1,122,099,503	German World War II torpedo boat	[ "1941 ships", "Maritime incidents in April 1944", "Ships built by Schichau", "Ships built in Elbing", "Type 39 torpedo boats" ]	The German torpedo boat T22 was one of fifteen Type 39 torpedo boats built for the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) during World War II. Completed in early 1942, the ship was transferred to France later that year where she escorted blockade runners and Axis submarines through the Bay of Biscay. T22 also laid minefields in the English Channel in mid-1943. She participated in the Battle of Sept-Îles, where she crippled a British destroyer, and the Battle of the Bay of Biscay later that year. After returning to Germany in early 1944, T22 struck a pair of mines in Narva Bay in August and blew up, with the loss of 143 men. ## Design and description The Type 39 torpedo boat was conceived as a general-purpose design, much larger than preceding German torpedo boats. The ships had an overall length of 102.5 meters (336 ft 3 in) and were 97 meters (318 ft 3 in) long at the waterline. They had a beam of 10 meters (32 ft 10 in), a draft of 3.22 meters (10 ft 7 in) at deep load and displaced 1,294 metric tons (1,274 long tons) at standard load and 1,754 metric tons (1,726 long tons) at deep load. Their crew numbered 206 officers and sailors. The Type 39s were fitted with a pair of geared steam turbine sets, each driving one propeller, using steam from four high-pressure water-tube boilers. The turbines were designed to produce 32,000 shaft horsepower (24,000 kW) which was intended give the ships a maximum speed of 33.5 knots (62.0 km/h; 38.6 mph). They carried enough fuel oil to give them a range of 2,400 nautical miles (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). As built, the Type 39 ships mounted four 10.5 cm (4.1 in) SK C/32 guns in single mounts protected by gun shields; one forward of the superstructure, one between the funnels, and two aft, one superfiring over the other. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by four 3.7 cm (1.5 in) SK C/30 AA guns in two twin-gun mounts on platforms abaft the rear funnel, six 2 cm (0.8 in) C/38 guns in one quadruple mount on the aft superstructure and a pair of single mounts on the bridge wings. They carried six above-water 533 mm (21.0 in) torpedo tubes in two triple mounts amidships and could also carry 30 mines; the full complement of 60 mines made the ships top-heavy which could be dangerous in bad weather. For anti-submarine work the ships were fitted with a S-Gerät sonar and four depth charge launchers. The Type 39s were equipped with a FuMO 21 radar. In January–February 1944 the single 2 cm mounts in the bridge wings were replaced by quadruple mounts and FuMB7 "Naxos" and FuMB8 "Wanz G" radar detectors were installed. ## Construction and career Originally ordered as a Type 37 torpedo boat on 30 March 1939, T22 was reordered on 10 November 1939 from Schichau. She was built at their Elbing, East Prussia, shipyard as yard number 1481, launched in 1941 and commissioned on 28 February 1942. While working up, the ship conducted training exercises in the Baltic with the battleship Scharnhorst, the light cruisers Leipzig and Nürnberg, the destroyers Z25, Z31 and Z37, and the torpedo boats T17, T20, T21, Falke and Kondor on 1–3 October. Later that month T22 was transferred to France. T22, her sister T23, and Falke and Kondor escorted the Italian blockade runner SS Cortellazzo from Bordeaux through the Bay of Biscay on 29–30 November. Another Italian blockade runner, Himalaya, escorted by T22, T23, Kondor and the torpedo boats T2 and T5, failed in her attempt to break through the Bay of Biscay when she was spotted by British aircraft and forced to return by heavy aerial attacks on 9–11 April 1943. On 5–8 May, the 2nd Torpedo Boat Flotilla with T22, T2, T5,T18 and T23 laid three minefields in the Channel. Now assigned to the 5th Torpedo Boat Flotilla, T22, Kondor, Falke, Greif and Möwe laid two more minefields in the Channel on 4–6 June. The following month the ships returned to the Bay of Biscay to help escort U-boats through the Bay as part of the 4th Torpedo Boat Flotilla. On 2 August T22 and her sisters T24 and T25, responding to a distress call from another submarine, rescued survivors from the submarine . From 29 to 31 August, the same three ships escorted the Japanese submarine I-8 through the Bay to Lorient. While providing distant cover for a small convoy during the night of 3/4 October, the 4th Flotilla spotted a force of five British destroyers off the Sept-Îles near the coast of Brittany in the Channel and attacked with complete surprise. The first volley of five torpedoes all missed, but the British did not see them and continued on their course. Only when T23 turned on her radar to determine the range for a second volley did they react when one of the British destroyers detected the radar; they altered course just in time for all six of T22's torpedoes to miss. Two of the British ships were able to pursue the retreating Germans at high speed, but both were damaged by German gunfire and forced to disengage. ### Battle of Sept-Îles On 22 October, the 4th Flotilla, now consisting of T22, T23, T25, and their sisters T26 and T27, sortied from Brest to provide cover for the unladen blockade runner Münsterland and her close escort from the 2nd Minesweeping Flotilla as they sailed up the Channel. The British were aware of Münsterland and attempted to intercept her on the night of the 23rd with a scratch force that consisted of the light cruiser Charybdis and the destroyers Grenville, Rocket, Limbourne, Wensleydale, Talybont and Stevenstone. T22's hydrophones detected the British ships off the Sept-Îles at 00:25 and Korvettenkapitän Franz Kohlauf maneuvered his flotilla to intercept them before they could reach Münsterland. Limbourne overheard the radio transmissions about 01:20 as the German ships turned and alerted the other British ships. At 01:36 Charybdis's radar detected the German torpedo boats at a range of 8,100 yards (7,400 m) and she fired star shells in an unsuccessful attempt to spot them visually. About this time, the Germans spotted Charybdis silhouetted against the lighter horizon and Kohlauf ordered every ship to fire all of their torpedoes. Two of these struck the cruiser, which sank shortly afterwards, and one of T22's torpedoes blew the bow off Limbourne, which had to be scuttled later. The loss of the flagship threw the British into confusion as they had not worked together before the attack, and the torpedo boats successfully disengaged before the senior surviving British captain realized that he was in command. ### Battle of the Bay of Biscay On 24–26 December T22 was one of the escorts for the 6,951 GRT blockade runner through the Bay of Biscay. Another blockade runner, the 2,729 GRT refrigerated cargo ship , trailed Osorno by several days and four destroyers of the 8th Destroyer Flotilla and the six torpedo boats of the 4th Flotilla set sail on 27 December to escort her through the Bay. The Allies were aware of these blockade runners through their Ultra code-breaking efforts and positioned cruisers and aircraft in the Western Atlantic to intercept them in Operation Stonewall. A Consolidated B-24 Liberator heavy bomber from No. 311 Squadron RAF sank Alsterufer later that afternoon. The German ships were unaware of the sinking until the following afternoon and continued onward to the rendezvous point. They had been spotted by an American Liberator bomber on the morning of the 28th and the British light cruisers Glasgow and Enterprise, which were assigned to Stonewall, maneuvered to intercept them. By this time, the weather had gotten significantly worse and the German ships were steaming for home, hampered by the rough seas that threw sea spray over their forward guns which made their operation difficult. It also severely reduced visibility and hampered the rangefinders and sights for the guns and torpedoes. Using her radar, Glasgow was the first to open fire at 13:46 at a range of 19,600 meters (21,400 yd) with Enterprise following a few minutes later. At about that time, the torpedo boats began firing back with guns and torpedoes; the latter all missed but one hit was made on Glasgow's forward boiler room at 14:05, killing two sailors manning the port QF 2-pounder naval gun and wounding six others. Kapitän zur See (Captain) Hans Erdmenger, commander of the 8th Flotilla, decided to split his forces and ordered the destroyers Z23, Z27, and the torpedo boats T22, T25 and T26 to reverse course to the north at 14:18. The cruisers pursued them with Enterprise crippling Z27 and Glasgow doing the same to T25 and then T26. T22 attempted to close with T25 so she could take off the latter's crew and fired all of her torpedoes and guns at Glasgow at 14:58 in an attempt to drive the cruiser off, but all of the torpedoes missed and her gunfire was ineffective. Shell splashes from Glasgow surrounded T22 and she laid a smoke screen as she was forced to turn away. The ship later encountered Z23 and the two arrived at Saint-Jean-de-Luz, close to the Spanish border, later that day. ### Loss In early February 1944, T22 and T23 returned to Germany via the Channel and T22 began a refit at Elbing that lasted until June. The ship was then assigned to the 6th Torpedo Boat Flotilla operating in the Baltic. The flotilla, consisting of T22 and her sisters T30 and T32, was tasked to lay a minefield in Narva Bay, off the Estonian coast, on the night of 17/18 August. Reinforced by T23 from the 5th Torpedo Boat Flotilla, the ships loaded 54 mines each in Helsinki, Finland, and departed on the evening of the 17th. Shortly after midnight, they started to lay their mines, but had only just begun when T30 struck a pair of mines about 00:25 which knocked out all electrical power. About a minute after that, T32 also struck a pair of mines that blew her bow off and disabled her engines. At 00:30 T30 exploded and broke in half, probably after hitting another mine. T22 struck a pair of mines while maneuvering to go alongside T32 and blew up at around 01:14 with the loss of 143 men at .	[ "## Design and description", "## Construction and career", "### Battle of Sept-Îles", "### Battle of the Bay of Biscay", "### Loss" ]	2,473	12,834
459,303	Flag of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	1,172,738,987	National flag	[ "Canadian pale flags", "Flags introduced in 1985", "National flags", "National symbols of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines" ]	The flag of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is a Canadian pale triband consisting of blue, gold, and green bands charged with three green diamonds at the centre. Adopted in 1985 to replace a similar design used from the time of independence, it has been the flag of Saint Vincent since that year. The design of the present flag entailed substituting the country's coat of arms on a breadfruit leaf with the diamonds. They are a reference to both the letter "V", which is the first letter of the country's name, and its nickname as the "Gems of the Antilles" and "Jewels of the Caribbean". Accordingly, the flag itself has been given the moniker of "The Gems". ## History Sovereignty over Saint Vincent switched hands weene `the French and the British throughout the 18th century. This continued until 1783, when the Peace of Paris saw France permanently relinquish the island to the United Kingdom, and Saint Vincent eventually became a crown colony within the latter's colonial empire. During this period, it utilised a British Blue Ensign defaced with the territory's coat of arms as its flag. The shield initially consisted of two brunette raven-haired ladies, one clutching a palm branch on the left and one with clasped hands kneeling before an altar on the right. This design was revised in 1907, with the women's hair colour changed to blond and the clasped hands becoming an eye. The island subsequently joined the West Indies Federation in 1958 and remained part of this political union until 1962. On 27 October 1969, seven years after the federation was dissolved, Saint Vincent became an Associated State, and adopted the aforementioned blue ensign as its official flag.` When Saint Vincent became an independent country on 27 October 1979, a flag designed by native Saint Vincentian Elaine Liverpool was chosen to be the national flag. This consisted of a triband of blue, gold, and green separated by two thin white fimbriations, and the centre band charged with the country's coat of arms on a breadfruit leaf, which had been introduced to the island by William Bligh. However, this design soon proved to be convoluted and costly to manufacture, with the breadfruit leaf hard to recognise from afar. After the New Democratic Party emerged victorious in the 1984 elections, new prime minister James Fitz-Allen Mitchell sought to have the flag redesigned. A nationwide contest was held, but it resulted in an impasse after no entry was deemed suitable. Consequently, Julien van der Wal – a graphic artist from Switzerland who also designed the flag of the Canton of Geneva and pictograms for the Olympic Games – was tasked with modifying the flag. He was instructed to "modernise the original flag, keeping the same colours and respecting the symbolism". In the meantime, the white fimbriations were removed from the soon-to-be disused design in March 1985. Van der Wal's design saw the arms and breadfruit leaf substituted for three diamonds grouped together in a "V" shape. Notwithstanding these changes, the meaning behind the colours remained the same. The new flag was formally adopted by the government on 12 October 1985. There is some discrepancy over when it was first hoisted officially. The islands' national newspaper, The Vincentian, maintains this took place during a ceremony at the War Memorial in the capital Kingstown on 21 October. On the other hand, Whitney Smith in the Encyclopædia Britannica states that it was first raised one day later (22 October). The flag – which has been occasionally dubbed "The Gems" – is utilised "for all purposes", with no distinction made between civil, state, and naval ensigns. ## Design ### Symbolism The colours and symbols of the flag carry cultural, political, and regional meanings. The blue epitomises the sky and the sea, while the gold represents the colour of the islands' sand, the sunshine, and the "bright spirit" of the islanders. The green symbolises the country's plentiful vegetation, as well as the vitality of Vincentians. The three diamonds evoke the nicknames of Saint Vincent as the "Gems of the Antilles" and the "Jewels of the Caribbean". Their arrangement in the shape of the letter V is a subtle allusion to the first letter in "Vincent", while its placement on the marginally lower part of the centre band indicates the geographical positioning of the islands within the Antilles. ## Legal issues The Saint Vincentian flag is utilised as a flag of convenience by foreign merchant vessels. The government permits this in order to increase revenue for the country, and it offers many advantages for these ships, such as less expensive fees and lax rules regarding crew, safety, and the environment. However, the lack of regulation on such vessels has led to concerns over illegal and suspicious activity like money laundering. Two ships flying the flag of Saint Vincent were found by the European Commission (EC) to have been on the blacklist of the Regional Fisheries Management Organisations. As a result, this practice has attracted criticism from opposition parties as well as international organisations, most notably the EC. The EC identified Saint Vincent and the Grenadines as a non-cooperating country in fighting illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) on May 23, 2020, having warned them earlier through pre-identification in December 2014. By listing the country as non-cooperating, it meant that all fisheries products from Saint Vincent could no longer be legally imported into the European Union. This has negligible impact on the country, because Saint Vincent does not export fisheries products to EU member states. ## Historical flags ## See also - Coat of arms of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	[ "## History", "## Design", "### Symbolism", "## Legal issues", "## Historical flags", "## See also" ]	1,197	15,554
31,877,701	Paix	1,171,086,238	1972 studio album by Catherine Ribeiro + Alpes	[ "1972 albums", "Experimental music albums by French artists", "French-language albums", "Progressive folk albums", "Progressive rock albums by French artists", "Psychedelic folk albums", "Psychedelic rock albums by French artists", "Space rock albums" ]	Paix is the fourth studio album by French singer Catherine Ribeiro and her third with the band Alpes. It was originally released in 1972 by Philips Records. The album integrates the group's original folk-oriented sound within the progressive style of their preceding records, with complex instrumentation, longform compositions, and psychedelic soundscapes. It has been described as containing Ribeiro's most experimental work and is generally considered by critics to be the best album in Alpes' catalogue. Paix was met with relative critical and commercial success upon release. As with Ribeiro's other albums, it became recognized as a cult album due to Ribeiro's distinct voice and lyrics, as well as its relative scarcity. In 2018, the album was issued for the first time in the United States, where it was well-received by critics and lauded among followers of niche folk scenes. ## Background Catherine Ribeiro's second album with Alpes, Âme debout (1971), showed her music "grow[ing] more disciplined and more boundless", according to Pitchfork's Sam Sodomsky. The album still featured folk ballads (such as "Diborowska" and "Dingue") as their previous records had, but it also showcased the group's evolving style of progressive and experimental music, particularly with the series of tracks entitled "Alpes" at the center of the album. Âme debout was also the first Alpes album recorded after the inclusion of bassist Jean-Sebastian Lemoine's brother, organist Patrice Lemoine [fr] (later a member of Gong). Throughout 1972, Ribeiro, who had been listening to very little music in order to focus on her own writing, spent many hours rehearsing with Alpes in the French countryside preparing the material for what would become Paix. ## Music ### Style Eclectic in style, Paix has been described as folk, rock, psychedelia, progressive music, experimental music, and avant-garde music. Nonetheless, the album "remains hard to pin down" in genre terms, according to Impose magazine writer Trent Masterson, because "[i]t is extremely progressive in all aspects of the word"; for that reason, it "does not neatly fit into any specific genre nor is it easily comparable to any other album." In terms of the band's own trajectory, Masterson felt that the album was an amalgam of the band's early sound—a fusion of "rural psychedelia" and progressive rock—combined with "some hints of burgeoning genres, such as space rock, chamber pop and even punk (the 'punk' aspect being Ribeiro's unforgiving vocal deliveries in part)." Seth Wimpfheimer, writing for Head Heritage, observed that "[i]nstead of partitioning the folk ballads away from the progressive instrumentals to hang separately as leaden entities" as they did on Âme debout, the music on Paix was "far more integrated" than the previous album. French pop magazine Vapeur Mauve described the musical style of Paix as "ambiguous ... soft but aggressive, on airs from progressive folk to ethno-freak tendencies." As with Alpes' previous works, Paix makes prominent use of the cosmophone and the percuphone, instruments invented by bandleader Patrice Moullet [fr]. The cosmophone is a 24-string instrument, resembling a lyre, that can be played with either picking or bowing, while the percuphone is a percussion instrument that produces rhythms by repeatedly striking a bass string using a small motor. Jean-Sebastien Lemoine was made operator of the percuphone on Paix, forming the one-man rhythm section that would help define the band's unique dynamics on the album. ### Songs #### "Roc alpin" "Roc alpin" is an upbeat instrumental with non-lexical vocals from Ribeiro. Moullet's cosmophone backs Patrice Lemoine's organ, except during the bridge when it switches to playing a lead line. It is the only track to feature Michel Santangelli on drums, with the percuphone providing the rest of the album's percussion. The song was also released as a single. #### "Jusqu'à ce que la force de t'aimer me manque" "Jusqu'à ce que la force de t'aimer me manque" is a love song that anticipates elements of dream pop, specifically its acoustic guitar riffing and its harmonization of Ribeiro's vocal lines with Patrice Lemoine's organ. #### "Paix" "Paix" begins with a slow fade in of a droning Farfisa organ part accompanied by a driving percuphone rhythm. Writer Jean-Marc Grosdemouge likened the song to Maurice Ravel's Boléro as another composition "branded by its rhythm." Moullet's cosmophone enters, after which a descending, hymnal theme is introduced and repeated throughout much of the song. The song's introduction also includes an organ solo performed by Patrice Lemoine [fr] which Wimpfheimer noted bears a resemblance to Mike Ratledge's coda on "Song for Insane Times" by Kevin Ayers. The intro persists for approximately five and a half minutes when Ribeiro's spoken word vocals suddenly enter. After a second organ solo from Lemoine, the opening theme returns and Ribeiro accompanies it wordlessly. The closing portion of the song "resembles doom metal in its descending bassline and Ribeiro’s spectral vocals." As the track approaches 16 minutes, the song ends with a crescendo. #### "Un jour... la mort" "Un jour... la mort" is about meeting a female personification of death. Described by Mojo as a requiem, the song was inspired by Ribeiro's attempted suicide in May 1968, after which she had to relearn how to speak, walk, and write. It is 25 minutes long and occupies the entire second side of the album; however, unlike the title track, it contains multiple sections. The song begins with another slow fade in of an organ, this time accompanied with soft notes from Moullet's cosmophone. This leads into the next section by a sudden rise of acoustic guitar strumming followed by more wordless vocals from Ribeiro, interluded with Patrice Lemoine's organ. The middle section of "Un jour... la mort" begins with a rattling percuphone groove. Moullet joins in with his cosmophone, now playing it with a bow. This is followed by a lengthy instrumental passage featuring an organ solo and swirling layers of microtonal piano lines. The final section of the song is a coda, beginning with a solo acoustic guitar and ending with "jarring caws, thematic organ positions and patiently plonking bass" backing Ribeiro's vocals. ## Artwork and packaging Paix's front cover, like nearly all of Alpes' albums, features the group outdoors in the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence region of Southern France. Ribeiro and Moullet are shown sitting in the foreground while the Lemoine brothers stand in the background on either side of a tree bearing the group's name and album title. The text is written in the Camellia typeface by Letraset, with the long band name using the font's narrow glyphs and the short album title using its wide forms. The cover photo was taken by French music photographer Jean-Pierre Leloir [fr], while the album's gatefold artwork was anonymously credited to "X...". As with all of Ribeiro's albums, Philips Records issued Paix with a sticker on the cover stating "Les textes de ces chansons n'engagent que leur auteur" (lit. 'The texts of these songs engage only their author'). Ribeiro resented the content disclaimer, saying, "It's terrible to have done this to me." ## Release and reception Paix was released shortly after the band performed to 4,000 people at the Cathedral of St. Gudula in Brussels. The album achieved considerably more commercial success upon release than the group's previous albums; it sold 50,000 copies, five times as many as their debut No2 had sold. ### Contemporary reviews In an early 1973 issue of the French rock magazine Pop 2000 [fr], critic Alain Lemaire proclaimed Paix to be "a sensational album, further proof of the immense talent of Catherine + Alpes." In March, the magazine published its year-end readers' poll for 1972, which ranked Catherine Ribeiro as the tenth best female singer in the world for that year. In April, Belgian magazine Beurk named Paix their "LP of the month". ### Cult following and retrospective appraisal Among Ribeiro's other albums, Paix developed a cult following drawn to Ribeiro's distinctive vocal performance and her enigmatic lyrics. The album remained out of print for a long time; however, Sodomsky notes that the album's "legend" was "due in part to [its] scarcity." In a review for AllMusic, Rolf Semprebon simply described Paix as "one of Catherine Ribeiro's more intense recordings." He noted the band's less folk-inclined, more space rock-leaning sound and cited "Paix" and "Un jour... la mort" as containing "some of Ribeiro's more gutsy and emotional singing (especially on 'Paix,' where at some places she is practically screaming)." He concludes by saying that her second album No2 is "just as good but almost impossible to track down, so Paix is probably the best place to start." Conversely, Joseph Neff of The Vinyl District observed that "Instead of faltering into repetitive stylistic patterns, Paix adjusts and integrates new elements, and pulls off a rarity; a third LP that betters it predecessors." He further remarked that Ribeiro's creativity on the album's longer tracks "underscores her stature as one of the underground’s finest vocalists." In April 2022, Spin magazine ranked Paix at number 31 on their list of "The 50 Best Albums of 1972". Mojo included the album in their list of "1972 Nuggets"; contributor Andrew Male described it as "the sound of coming European upheaval, pleases for love expressed in violence and anger". Singer-songwriter Marissa Nadler has cited Paix as one of her biggest inspirations and described it as "an entrancing psychedelic journey and one hell of a vocal performance." ### Reissues Paix was first issued on CD in 1993 when it was licensed by Universal Music Group to the independent label Mantra. In 2015, Paix was included on a 9-CD box set of Ribeiro + Alpes' work issued by Mercury Records. Fact magazine writer Mikey IQ Jones reviewed Âme debout and Paix upon their 2016 reissue, evaluating them as "masterpieces" and "cornerstones of international psychedelia, ably shifting between genres and song forms into a music that’s truly quite unlike anything else". He said that on Paix, Ribeiro and Moullet had "seemingly perfected their chemistry and distilled it into four spectral hymns which slowly evolve from basic psych-rock invocations into a sun-bleached beckoning of the heavens". Along with the band's two previous albums, No2 and Âme debout, Paix was remastered and reissued by Anthology Recordings in the United States on 14 September 2018. The three LPs were released both individually and together as a deluxe silk-screened box set with a 56-page book featuring photographs from Ribeiro’s personal collection. The reissue marked the first time the albums were released in the US. In an interview with Vice, Ribeiro denounced the reissue, stating that, "I was happy [with the 2015 Alpes box set], that was enough for me. Now there is again a scam with Universal in the United States. This little box, Anthology Recordings, bought the rights to three of our records for \$5.89 each! Universal didn't tell me, it's absolutely disgusting." Despite this sentiment from Ribeiro, the reissue was lauded by followers of "free-folk" and other niche folk scenes, helping to reinforce an already cult status. Music critic Richie Unterberger ranked Paix number 3 on his list of the "Top 25 Rock Reissues of 2018", behind the Beatles' self-titled double album and Liz Phair's Exile in Guyville. The album also received "best reissue" acclaim from Pitchfork, The A.V. Club, and Treble. ## Track listing All lyrics are written by Catherine Ribeiro, except "Roc alpin" by Patrice Moullet; all music is composed by Patrice Moullet. Side one 1. "Roc alpin" – 3:02 2. "Jusqu'à ce que la force de t'aimer me manque" – 3:01 3. "Paix" – 15:50 Side two 1. "Un jour... la mort" – 24:43 ## Personnel Credits adapted from the original LP's liner notes. - Catherine Ribeiro (uncredited) – vocals Alpes - Patrice Moullet [fr] – cosmophone, acoustic guitar - Jean-Sebastien Lemoine – percuphone, bass guitar - Patrice Lemoine [fr] – organ - Michel Santangelli – drums on "Roc alpin" Production - Jean-Pierre Leloir [fr] – cover photography - Gilbert Preneron – engineering - Andy Scott – engineering - X... (anonymous) – interior photography	[ "## Background", "## Music", "### Style", "### Songs", "#### \"Roc alpin\"", "#### \"Jusqu'à ce que la force de t'aimer me manque\"", "#### \"Paix\"", "#### \"Un jour... la mort\"", "## Artwork and packaging", "## Release and reception", "### Contemporary reviews", "### Cult following and retrospective appraisal", "### Reissues", "## Track listing", "## Personnel" ]	2,901	17,509
5,217,680	Italian ironclad Duilio	1,172,815,600	Ironclad warship of the Italian Royal Navy	[ "1876 ships", "Caio Duilio-class battleships", "Ships built in Castellammare di Stabia" ]	Duilio was the lead ship of the Duilio class of ironclad turret ships built for the Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy). Named for the Roman admiral Gaius Duilius, the ship was laid down in January 1873, was launched in May 1876, and was completed in January 1880. She was armed with a main battery of four 450 mm (17.7 in) guns, then the largest gun afloat, and she was capable of a top speed of around 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). Duilio's career was uneventful. She spent her first two decades in service with the Active and Reserve Squadrons, primarily tasked with training maneuvers and exercises. She was withdrawn from front-line duty in 1902 and thereafter employed as a training ship, though this role only lasted until 1909 when she was converted into a floating oil tank and renamed GM40. The ship's ultimate fate is unknown. ## Design The Duilio-class ironclads were designed by the noted Italian naval architect Benedetto Brin; they were revolutionary warships at the time they were designed, being the first ironclad battleships to be built without a sailing rig, and they marked the beginning of a trend toward larger and larger guns. Brin originally intended a main battery of four 35-long-ton (36 t) guns in a pair of turrets placed centrally, but during the course of work on the ships, he increased the size to 65 long tons (66 t) and ultimately to 100 long tons (100 t). Duilio was 109.16 meters (358 ft 2 in) long overall and had a beam of 19.74 m (64 ft 9 in) and an average draft of 8.31 m (27 ft 3 in). She displaced 10,962 long tons (11,138 t) normally and up to 12,071 long tons (12,265 t) at full load. The ship's hull featured a straight stem and stern, along with a pronounced ram bow below the waterline. Duilio had a minimal superstructure, which included a small conning tower that was connected via a hurricane deck to a heavy military mast located amidships and another small platform further aft. She had a crew of 420 officers and men, which later increased to 515. Her propulsion system consisted of two vertical compound steam engines each driving a single screw propeller. Steam was supplied by eight coal-fired, rectangular boilers that were divided into two boiler rooms on either end of the ship's central battery, each vented through its own funnel, which were incorporated into the ends of the hurricane deck. Her engines produced a top speed of 15.04 knots (27.85 km/h; 17.31 mph) at 7,711 indicated horsepower (5,750 kW). She could steam for 3,760 nautical miles (6,960 km; 4,330 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). Duilio was armed with a main battery of four 450 mm (17.7 in) 20-caliber guns, mounted in two turrets placed en echelon amidships. This arrangement gave all four guns very wide fields of fire. These were the largest naval guns in use by any country at the time. As was customary for capital ships of the period, she carried three 356 mm (14 in) torpedo tubes. Duilio was protected by belt armor that was 21.5 in (550 mm) thick at its strongest section, which protected the ship's magazines and machinery spaces. Both ends of the belt were connected by transverse bulkheads that were 400 mm (15.75 in) thick. She had an armored deck that was 28 to 51 mm (1.1 to 2 in) thick. Her gun turrets were armored with 432 mm (17 in) of steel plate. The ship's bow and stern were not armored, but they were extensively subdivided into a cellular "raft" that was intended to reduce the risk of flooding. ## Service history Duilio, sometimes referred to as Caio Duilio, was laid down at the Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia shipyard in Castellammare di Stabia on 6 January 1873, the same day that the keel for her sister ship Enrico Dandolo was laid down at the Arsenale di La Spezia. Construction on Duilio proceeded much faster than on her sister; she was launched on 8 May 1876 and completed on 6 January 1880, more than two years before Enrico Dandolo would be finished. On 8 March, shortly after Duilio entered service, one of her 17.7 in guns exploded. The inexperienced gun crew had accidentally double-loaded the gun. During the annual fleet maneuvers held in 1885, Duilio served in the 1st Division of the "Western Squadron"; she was joined by her sister Enrico Dandolo, the protected cruiser Giovanni Bausan, and a sloop. The "Western Squadron" attacked the defending "Eastern Squadron", simulating a Franco-Italian conflict, with operations conducted off Sardinia. Duilio took part in the annual 1888 fleet maneuvers, along with the ironclads Lepanto, Italia, Enrico Dandolo, and San Martino, one protected cruiser, four torpedo cruisers, and numerous smaller vessels. The maneuvers consisted of close-order drills and a simulated attack on and defense of La Spezia. Later that year, the ship was present during a naval review held for the German Kaiser Wilhelm II during a visit to Italy. In 1890, Duilio received a secondary battery of three 120 mm (4.7 in) 40-caliber guns to defend the ship against torpedo boats. Duilio served with the 1st Division of the Reserve Squadron during the 1893 fleet maneuvers, along with the ironclad Re Umberto, which served as the divisional flagship, the torpedo cruiser Minerva, and four torpedo boats. During the maneuvers, which lasted from 6 August to 5 September, the ships of the Reserve Squadron defended against a simulated attack by the Active Squadron, which gamed a French attack on the Italian fleet. For the periodic fleet maneuvers of 1897, Duilio was assigned to the First Division of the Reserve Squadron, which also included the ironclads Ruggiero di Lauria and Lepanto and the protected cruiser Lombardia. In 1900, the ship's secondary battery was supplemented with two 75 mm (3 in) guns, eight 57 mm (2.2 in) 40-caliber quick-firing guns, and four 37 mm (1.5 in) 20-caliber revolver cannon. By 1902, the ship had been removed from front line service and was employed as a boys' training ship; she was at that time the flagship of the Training Division. The Italian Navy had considered rebuilding the ship along the same lines as her sister Enrico Dandolo, but the cost of the project proved to be prohibitive, and by 1902 they had abandoned the plan. In early 1909, Duilio was stricken from the naval register, and on 27 June she was disarmed. The ship was converted into a coal and oil storage hulk and was renamed GM40. Her ultimate fate is unknown.	[ "## Design", "## Service history" ]	1,551	32,090
194,097	Philip Treacy	1,168,898,721	Irish-born haute couture milliner	[ "1967 births", "20th-century Irish LGBT people", "21st-century Irish LGBT people", "Alumni of the National College of Art and Design", "Alumni of the Royal College of Art", "Artists from County Galway", "Businesspeople from County Galway", "Gay businessmen", "Honorary Officers of the Order of the British Empire", "Irish LGBT businesspeople", "Irish businesspeople in fashion", "Irish expatriates in England", "Irish fashion designers", "Irish gay artists", "Irish milliners", "LGBT fashion designers", "Living people", "People from Ballinasloe" ]	Philip Anthony Treacy OBE (born 26 May 1967) is an Irish haute couture milliner, or hat designer, who has been mostly based in London for his career, and who was described by Vogue magazine as "perhaps the greatest living milliner". In 2000, Treacy became the first milliner in eighty years to be invited to exhibit at the Paris haute couture fashion shows. He has won British Accessory Designer of the Year at the British Fashion Awards five times, and has received public honours in both Britain and Ireland. His designs have been displayed at the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In 1989, Treacy was discovered and then mentored by fashion editor Isabella Blow, whom Treacy described as the "biggest inspiration" on his life. Blow would wear and promote Treacy's designs at important fashion events and helped Treacy to break into some of the main fashion houses, particularly Chanel and Givenchy. Treacy is associated with celebrities such as Lady Gaga, Madonna, and Sarah Jessica Parker. He has been associated with British royalty and has designed hats for royal occasions, including the fascinator (or "pretzel hat") worn by Princess Beatrice in 2011. ## Early life Philip Anthony Treacy was born on 26 May 1967 in the small village of Ahascragh, near Ballinasloe, in County Galway in the Republic of Ireland, whose population was circa 500. Treacy says that his interest in sewing started at age five, and that his obsession with the weddings in the Catholic church across the road from his house inspired an early passion for fashion. In 1985, at age 17, Treacy moved to Dublin to study fashion at the National College of Art and Design, where he spent a six-week work experience with British milliner Stephen Jones, and graduated in 1987. In 1988, Treacy won an MA scholarship for the Fashion Design course at the Royal College of Art in London, and graduated in 1990 with first class honours. > When I was interviewed [for the Royal College of Art] I didn’t know whether to play down the hats or play up the hats, but they were thinking of setting up a hat course so I became their guinea pig. After one day there I said to my tutor Sheilagh Brown: “What should I do? Should I make hats or clothes?’ She said: ‘make hats.’ It was very practical, not a great revelation. In 1989, he took one of his hats to Michael Roberts, fashion editor of Tatler magazine, and his style editor Isabella Blow. Blow asked Treacy to make a hat for her wedding, and soon after in 1990, invited him to live with her and her new husband Detmar Blow, in their Belgravia home in London, where Treacy worked in their basement. Alexander McQueen, another Blow discovery, also shared her Belgravia home. In July 2002, the Design Museum in London, hosted an exhibition of the 30 most iconic hats Treacy had designed for Blow, titled: When Philip met Isabella. The exhibition was so well received that it went on a world tour for several years and drew an attendance of circa 43,000 when shown in Dublin in 2005. In a 2011 interview, The Daily Telegraph said: "She made him famous. He made her look like an icon. When you think of the late, great Blow, you think of her in one of his creations, be it a giant disc or a replica sailing ship." > My biggest inspiration has been Isabella Blow. ... In twenty years I have met all my heroes and for me nobody has surpassed her. She was incredible. I thought there must be others like her, but there wasn't. Everyone was boring in comparison to her. ## Career ### Haute couture In 1991, aged 23, Treacy got his "big break" when asked by Karl Lagerfeld to come to the Chanel showrooms in Paris for what was to be the start of a long-term working relationship; the meeting was held on the prompting of Blow. The first hat that Treacy designed for Chanel appeared on the cover of British Vogue worn by model Linda Evangelista; the hat was called Twisted Birdcage and was photographed by French fashion photographer, Patrick Demarchelier. > I was 23 and I'd just left [art] school, I didn't know whether to call him Mr. Lagerfeld or whatever. I was totally intimidated but Issie [Blow] was exactly herself. She just walked into the house of Chanel and said: "We'd like some tea please". I would design hats for Chanel for the next decade. In 1991, Treacy opened his first showroom in London (pictured), and won the first of five British Accessory Designer of the Year awards. Two years later, Treacy held his first fashion show during London Fashion Week in Harvey Nichols, with Naomi Campbell, Yasmin Le Bon, Kate Moss, Christy Turlington and Stella Tennant modelling in return for keeping Treacy's hats, all of which were black. In 1994, he opened up his boutique at 69 Elizabeth Street, in Belgravia, London, next door to Isabella Blow's residence at number 67. > Treacy's first solo show in 1993 saw him debut on the fashion and celebrity radar when no fewer than five of the most famous supermodels of the era – Naomi Campbell, Yasmin Le Bon, Kate Moss, Stella Tennant, and Christy Turlington – appeared on his catwalk. Playing down his star appeal, Treacy is humble about his overnight success story. "London was in a lull then," he said. "The media went crazy when all those girls did my show, but it completely changed perceptions of the hat. Treacy has designed hats for Alexander McQueen (another discovery of Isabella Blow), including his 1999 white collection for Givenchy in Paris, for Karl Lagerfeld at Chanel, and for Valentino, Ralph Lauren, Donna Karan, Versace and Rifat Ozbek. In January 2000, he became the first milliner for eighty years to be invited to exhibit at the Paris shows. In November 2015, Vogue magazine ran a feature of Treacy's 20 "most awe-inspiring chapeaux" from the runways. ### Wider fashion Treacy has designed hats for films, including the Harry Potter film series, and most notably the Beauxbatons hat for Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire in 2005. Sarah Jessica Parker has worn his hats at Sex and the City premieres (2008, 2011), and Met Galas (2013, 2015). Treacy designed Madonna's gold headpiece for her 2012 Super Bowl XLVI halftime show. Lady Gaga described Treacy as "the greatest milliner of all time", while hosting his 2012 London Week fashion show. Notable designs for Lady Gaga include a telephone-shaped headpiece with a removable handset hat, worn for her appearance on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross in 2010 (now in permanent display at Madame Tussauds), and a lightning-bolt hat she wore for the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards. As well as Isabella Blow, Sarah Jessica Parker, and Lady Gaga, notable muses for Treacy's hats are socialite Daphne Guinness, model Naomi Campbell, and singer, and model, Grace Jones, who used Treacy as art director and designer for her 2009 The Hurricane Tour. In a July 2011 interview with The Guardian, Treacy distilled what he felt a hat should do (a Treacy quote which is often reproduced): > The Guardian: Does a person carry off a hat or a hat carry off a person? > Philip Treacy: A person carries off the hat. Hats are about emotion. It is all about how it makes you feel. I like hats that make the heart beat faster. Treacy had previously written a piece for The Guardian in May 2001 on what defines the "perfect hat". ### Royal occasions Treacy's hats are also associated with English royalty, with thirty-six worn at the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton, including the controversial fascinator-style hat worn by Princess Beatrice of York (pictured). This so-called "pretzel hat" was auctioned for charity by Princess Beatrice on eBay for \$130,000 (£80,100) on 22 May 2011. Treacy felt the criticism regarding the "pretzel hat" was extreme (the hat had its own Facebook page with over 140,000 connections), and in July 2011 said: "In the future, we'll look back and think she looked wild". In a July 2018 Desert Island Discs interview on BBC Radio 4, Treacy said of the backlash to his design: "There was a moment where I thought I would find myself with my head on a spike outside the Tower of London". The hat is stored at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Treacy designed over twenty hats that were worn at the 19 May 2018 wedding of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle, including by Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, by Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge, and by Oprah Winfrey. Meghan, Duchess of Sussex, chose a Treacy hat for her first official royal event in December 2017. In July 2018, Treacy credited the patronage of Elizabeth II with "single-handedly saving the British hat industry". ## Awards Treacy won the title of British Accessory Designer of the Year at the British Fashion Awards five times during the 1990s (1991, 1992, 1993, 1996 and 1997). In January 2000, Treacy was invited by the Chambre Syndicale de la Haute Couture to participate in Paris fashion shows, the first milliner to be invited in 80 years. In November 2004, Treacy was named the International Designer of the Year, at the China Fashion Awards in Shanghai. Treacy's hats have been exhibited, and are housed in the collections of design museums including the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Galleria del Costume of the Palazzo Pitti in Florence. Vogue magazine has described Treacy, on several occasions, as being one of the greatest milliners in the world. Treacy has also been recognized outside of the world of fashion. In April 2006, he was awarded a Doctorate of Fine Arts, by the National University of Ireland at University College Dublin. He was awarded an honorary OBE (Order of the British Empire) for services to the British fashion industry by Prince Charles and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall at a special ceremony in Clarence House in November 2007. Treacy designed the headdress worn by the Duchess of Cornwall for the couple's wedding. In July 2010, Treacy was one of six contemporary and internationally renowned Irish fashion designers honoured by a set of Irish postage stamps issued by An Post. The other designers were Paul Costelloe, Louise Kennedy, John Rocha, Lainey Keogh and Orla Kiely. ## Personal life Treacy is gay and in May 2017 he married his long-term partner of over 21 years, Stefan Bartlett, in a ceremony in Las Vegas. Treacy is the second youngest of a large family and has one sister, and seven brothers. He is particularly close to his sister, Marion Tubbing, the eldest sibling, whom he credits with supplying him with editions of Harper's and Queen and Vogue while living in Galway (Tubbing was working in London at the time), and to whom, along with his partner Bartlett, Treacy dedicated his 2015 biography: Philip Treacy: Hat Designer. Treacy has also noted the support his parents gave him in pursuing his love of millinery, noting that his father would say: "whatever makes him happy". Treacy's father was a baker and his mother was a housewife, however, his father had a weak heart which prevented him from working as a full-time baker, and he eventually died when Treacy was age 11 from a heart attack; Treacy's mother died in 1993, when he was 25. Treacy called his friendship with his mentor, Isabella Blow, "an affair without sex". He has highlighted the importance of fashion model Grace Jones as a friend. ## See also - John Boyd, milliner - List of people on the postage stamps of Ireland	[ "## Early life", "## Career", "### Haute couture", "### Wider fashion", "### Royal occasions", "## Awards", "## Personal life", "## See also" ]	2,614	12,686
6,126,779	F. Emasculata	1,162,521,367	null	[ "1995 American television episodes", "Infectious diseases in fiction", "Television episodes about insects", "Television episodes set in Costa Rica", "Television episodes set in Virginia", "Television episodes written by Chris Carter (screenwriter)", "Television episodes written by Howard Gordon", "The X-Files (season 2) episodes" ]	"F. Emasculata" is the twenty-second episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files. It first premiered on the Fox network in the United States on April 28, 1995. It was written by series creator Chris Carter and staff writer Howard Gordon, and directed by Rob Bowman. "F. Emasculata" received a Nielsen rating of 8.9 and was watched by 8.5 million households. The episode received mixed reviews from television critics. The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files. Mulder is a believer in the paranormal, while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work. In this episode, Scully tries to discover the cause of a mysterious illness after several men in a prison die. Meanwhile, Mulder attempts to find two escapees who could potentially spread the disease. "F. Emasculata" was based on the actual practice of pharmaceutical companies sending scientists all over the world looking for plants and animals that could have medicinal use. The X-Files director Frank Spotnitz felt that the episode's exploding pustules were ridiculous because of their over-the-top nature. The Costa Rican forest at the opening was shot at the Seymour Demonstration Forest in North Vancouver. ## Plot In the rain forest of Costa Rica, entomologist Robert Torrance stumbles upon a decomposing boar carcass covered with purple pustules. As he examines one of the pustules, it erupts, spraying him with fluid. By nightfall, he himself has developed the boils and tries to radio for help. When a group of soldiers arrive the next morning, Torrance is dead. At a prison in Dinwiddie County, Virginia, an inmate also called Robert Torrance receives a package containing a leg of meat. Later, a pustule errupts from the meat and Torrance dies thirty-six hours later. Two other inmates, Paul and Steve are sent to clean Torrance's cell but escape in a laundry cart. Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) are sent to help the U.S. Marshals find them. The agents become suspicious as the prison is quarantined by the CDC and the National Guard. Mulder joins the Marshals to hunt the fugitives, while Scully stays behind to investigate the situation in the prison. Scully learns that the lockdown population is infected with an exceedingly deadly contagion, finding a pile of body bags stored for incineration in the prison's "incinerator room". Scully cuts open Torrance's body bag and examines his corpse, but Dr. Osbourne, a member of the CDC team, tries to stop her. A pustule on Torrance's body erupts in Osbourne's face, causing him to flee the room. Scully traces Torrance's package to Pinck Pharmaceuticals, a major drug developer. She also finds an insect in the body of another prisoner. Dr. Osbourne, now visibly infected, reveals that his team works for Pinck and is researching a dilating enzyme produced by the insect. However, the insect has a parasitic life cycle that kills its hosts. Osbourne claims that the insect and its contagion were deliberately introduced into the prison by Pinck as an experiment. Osbourne soon dies from the contagion and his body is burned in the prison incinerator. Meanwhile, the fugitives murder a man and steal his campervan, stopping at a gas station. Paul calls his girlfriend, Elizabeth, looking for shelter. The fugitives knock out the gas station clerk and flee in his car, evading the Marshals' raid on the gas station. Mulder sees a CDC biohazard team arrive at the scene, forcibly taking away the clerk in a helicopter. Scully calls Mulder, telling him that the contagion could spread into the population if the fugitives are not captured. The fugitives arrive at Elizabeth's house, where she tends to Steve in the late stages of his infection. As Steve is dying, one of his pustules erupts in Elizabeth's face, infecting her. At that moment, Mulder and the Marshals raid the house and arrest her. However, Paul is still missing. Mulder confronts Skinner and The Smoking Man, believing that he and Scully were deceived into taking the case without knowing about the contagion. Mulder is adamant that the public should know the truth, but the Smoking Man counters that that would create mass panic and cost more lives. Mulder consults with Scully, but she agrees that exposing Pinck may result in a deadly hysteria. Questioning the jailed Elizabeth, Mulder finds out that Paul is planning to flee to Toronto by bus. Mulder and the Marshals track down and surround Paul's bus and Mulder tries to talk to Paul, who is the last remaining piece of evidence of the infection. A panicking Paul takes a teenage boy hostage but Mulder persuades him to let the boy go. Before Paul can divulge any information about the infection, he is shot dead by the Marshals. Later, Mulder confronts Skinner in his office. Mulder is bent on making the affair public, while Skinner warns him that he has no evidence. Scully interjects that Pinck deliberately sent the package to a namesake of the dead entomologist, not only to experiment on prisoners, but so that their involvement could be chalked up to a simple postal error and that the agents' investigation could be discredited. Skinner warns Mulder to be more wary of the situations he will find himself in. ## Production While F. emasculata and Pinck Pharmaceuticals are fictitious, the show was inspired by the fact that pharmaceutical companies do send researchers the world over looking for unique plants or animals that might prove to have medicinal use. Initially, the show's producers were worried about releasing the episode around the same time as the film Outbreak—a movie in which a deadly, contagious disease spreads in a California town. In the end, however, they realized that the two entities were substantially different from one another. Notably, the Smoking Man appears in this episode; his appearance in stand-alone or monster-of-the-week episodes was unusual, as Chris Carter preferred not to mix the show's overarching mythology with its self-contained episodes. The exploding pustules were carefully rigged to burst on command. Makeup supervisor Toby Lindala created a device that was connected to the fake sores by discreet tubing. When the device was activated, the sores would explode. Filming the scenes with this device was particularly arduous, and Lindala later noted, "[In one scene] I was jammed underneath one of the bus seats with these extras basically stepping on my head." The X-Files director Frank Spotnitz remarked, "When we saw the pustule bursting on film, we just laughed because it was just so over-the-top grotesque." The Lower Seymour Conservation Reserve, North Vancouver stood in for the Costa Rican jungle; this location had previously been used for the season opener "Little Green Men". Both the gas station and the bus station used the same set, which was actually a redecorated car dealership located in Delta, British Columbia. ## Reception "F. Emasculata" was originally broadcast in the United States on the Fox network on April 28, 1995, and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on February 6, 1996. This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 8.9, with a 16 share, meaning that roughly 8.9 percent of all television-equipped households, and 16 percent of households watching television, were tuned in to the episode. It was viewed by 8.5 million households. The episode received generally mixed reviews from television critics. Entertainment Weekly graded the episode a C, writing, "A good idea is tainted by plot holes as gaping and disturbing as the pustular boils you'll be treated to in this hour". Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club was positive, grading it an A. He particularly praised the way the darkness was handled which made it a "tense, gripping mini-movie", and also praised the guest stars. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode three-and-a-half stars out of five. The two wrote positively of the first part of the entry, noting that it "jogs along quite merrily as a simple contagion story". They were, however, more critical of the second half, noting that the story "takes a left turn and becomes a thoughtful analysis on disinformation, on cover-up, and the public right to truth." Shearman and Pearson called both parts "two really interesting rough drafts", but concluded that the two halves were ill-suited for one another.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Reception" ]	1,859	30,869
13,196,325	Sing (Annie Lennox song)	1,169,581,008	null	[ "2007 singles", "2007 songs", "All-star recordings", "Anastacia songs", "Annie Lennox songs", "Beth Orton songs", "Beverley Knight songs", "Bonnie Raitt songs", "Celine Dion songs", "Charity singles", "Dido (singer) songs", "Faith Hill songs", "Fergie (singer) songs", "Joss Stone songs", "KT Tunstall songs", "Madonna songs", "Melissa Etheridge songs", "Pink (singer) songs", "Sarah McLachlan songs", "Shakira songs", "Song recordings produced by Glen Ballard", "Songs about HIV/AIDS", "Songs written by Annie Lennox", "Sony BMG singles", "Sugababes songs" ]	"Sing" is a song recorded by Scottish singer Annie Lennox for her fourth solo studio album, Songs of Mass Destruction (2007). It was released as the second single from the album on 1 December 2007 by RCA Records. Lennox was inspired to write the track after seeing South African activist Zackie Achmat at Nelson Mandela's 46664 HIV/AIDS concert. She wanted the track to be a source of empowerment for people without a voice of their own. It also gave rise to her SING Campaign which aimed to raise funds and awareness for issues surrounding HIV/AIDS. "Sing" was produced by Glen Ballard and interpolates the South African tune "Jikelele"; the music was given to Lennox by an activist group called The Generics. Lennox personally invited other musicians and singers to work on the track. Ultimately 23 singers were enlisted, who recorded guest vocals on the chorus of the song in different locations. Among them, American singer Madonna also sang the second verse. "Sing" was accompanied by a number of remixes released on the same date. A music video was also released to promote the track. Lennox also performed it throughout the United States as part of her SING campaign. Music critics noted the empowering and anthemic nature of the track, recalling Lennox's previous work. It had minor chart placements on the UK Singles Chart, and the US Adult Contemporary and Dance Club Songs charts. ## Background and release Lennox was attending a benefit held by former South African president Nelson Mandela's 46664 HIV/AIDS campaign in 2003. There she was surprised to see a man wearing a black t-shirt with the message "I am HIV positive" written in capital letters. She found it to be a bold statement and inquired about the man, who turned out to be Zackie Achmat, a South African activist, film director, and co-founder of the Treatment Action Campaign (TAC). Although the singer had been associated with the 46664 campaign, being introduced to Achmat gave her an opportunity to do more for the campaign and the project. > We need people like [Achmat], he fights the fight... He refused to take his anti-retroviral medication unless it was made affordable and available to everyone—a hugely courageous thing to do. Before then, I'd been frustrated because I wanted to be more hands-on. I just feel that TAC are doing it where it needs to happen. It really needed to be given support, and I thought that perhaps I might be well-placed to do it. Lennox was ultimately inspired to develop "Sing" based on Achmat's activism on behalf of HIV and AIDS afflicted people. A group of activists called The Generics had given her a CD of music, and Lennox combined her inspiration and one of the songs from the CD to compose "Sing". It ultimately became a collaboration between Lennox and 23 prominent female singers. Afterwards, it was included on Lennox's fourth solo studio album, Songs of Mass Destruction (2007). "Sing" was released as the second single from the album for digital download on 1 December 2007. Afterwards, Lennox developed The SING Campaign which aimed to raise funds and awareness for issues surrounding HIV/AIDS. She also wrote on her official website that the song is about raising money and awareness for what she considers to be an HIV/AIDS genocide. Citing Mandela's speech in which he said, "Let us use the universal language of music, to sing out our message around the world", Lennox wanted "Sing" to be an anthem and symbol of unity and empowerment, to help spread awareness in the world. "Because the incidence of HIV AIDS is on the rise for women, especially in the pandemic across the whole of the African continent, I thought perhaps I could be of benefit by writing a song and empowering those women who do not have an international voice," the singer clarified. ## Recording and composition "Sing" incorporates the South African activist song "Jikelele", which translates into "global treatment". Developed by The Generics, "Jikelele" was used as theme for Prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) programs across South Africa. After writing it, Lennox wanted to ask other renowned artists to contribute vocals to the song. She wrote a generic letter to many and waited for a response. Although some of the artists were not available, many answered in the affirmative, and ultimately 23 singers were enlisted. "Sing" features" primary vocals by Lennox and American singer Madonna; the latter sings solo on the second verse. Apart from them, the line-up consists of: Anastacia, Isobel Campbell, Dido, Céline Dion, Melissa Etheridge, Fergie, Beth Gibbons, Faith Hill, Angélique Kidjo, Beverley Knight, Gladys Knight, k.d. lang, Sarah McLachlan, Beth Orton, Pink, Bonnie Raitt, Shakira, Shingai Shoniwa, Joss Stone, Sugababes, KT Tunstall and, Martha Wainwright. Since accommodating all the singers would have posed a scheduling challenge, Lennox asked them to contribute vocals on the chorus of the song. When she received the recorded vocals from Madonna, Lennox found that Madonna had not only sung during the chorus, but also contributed by singing the second verse. She "was really touched – for Madonna is very rigorous in what she gets involved in and for her to do that for me, I was thrilled to bits". Lennox also admitted that featuring Madonna would bring a bigger audience for the song, thereby helping the cause. The refrain consists of an "empowering message" with the group of singers belting the line "Sing my sister Sing! / Let your voice be heard" while interpolating "Jikelele" in between. According to Jon Pareles of The New York Times, "Sing" consists of a piano played in the background reminiscent of Marvin Gaye's 1968 single, "I Heard It Through the Grapevine". In an interview with Performing Songwriter magazine, producer Glen Ballard recalled that he completed the recording of the featured artists in various locations, conducting the sessions through the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN): "Shakira in Puerto Rico, Pink in Zurich, Madonna in London etc". Lennox contacted British Indian musician Nitin Sawhney to work on an alternate version of the song. Her official website also announced the release of special remixes of the track on 1 December 2007, with contributions from Moto Blanco, Dean Coleman and Harry "Choo Choo" Romero among others. ## Reception and promotion Thom Jurek from AllMusic described "Sing" as a "huge feminist anthem" and described it as consisting of a "killer hook, a big bad soul/gospel refrain, and a beat that, once it gets into the spine, will not be easily dismissed". Boston Globe's Sarah Rodman compared it to the Eurythmics' 1985 single "Sisters Are Doin' It for Themselves" adding that it carried Lennox's characteristic messages of "optimism and empowerment". Liz Hoggard of The Guardian called the song a "showstopper" and the collaboration as "incandescent". Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine also noted the anthemic nature of the track and its "smartly plays more like a broad-spectrum sisters-are-doin’-it-for-themselves" nature, while believing that it would have been better suited as the album's title song than Songs of Mass Destruction. Similar thoughts were echoed by Chris Jones of BBC News who felt that "Sing" was able to "overcome its weighty agenda to take life as a great song in its own right". Stephen Errity from Hot Press called "Sing" the album's "magnum opus" and a return to Lennox singing torch songs. He described it as a female point of view version of Band Aid's "Feed the World" but felt that the message got lost in the actual "gospel-tinged" composition. A music video for the song was released on the MSN website on 29 November 2007. Lennox toured throughout the United States promoting the SING campaign, and also performed the song. ## Track listing \; CD single 1. "Sing" – 4:21 2. "Sing" (Nitin Sawhney remix) – 4:49 \; CD maxi single, 12" picture disc 1. "Sing" – 4:21 2. "Sing" (Nitin Sawhney remix) – 4:49 3. "Sing" (Dean Coleman Silent Sound vocal remix) – 6:55 4. "Sing" (Harry "Choo Choo" Romero club remix) – 8:29 \*; Digital download – Remixes 1. "Sing" (Dean Coleman Silent Sound radio edit) – 4:20 2. "Sing" (Moto Blanco radio remix) – 3:33 3. "Sing" (Harry "Choo Choo" Romero radio mix) – 3:59 4. "Sing" (Harry "Choo Choo" Romero HCCR mix show) – 5:30 5. "Sing" (Moto Blanco Club remix) – 8:35 6. "Sing" (Moto Blanco dub) – 8:26 7. "Sing" (Dean Coleman Silent Sound vocal remix) – 6:54 8. "Sing" (Harry "Choo Choo" Romero club mix) – 8:26 ## Credits and personnel - Annie Lennox – vocals, songwriter - Glen Ballard – record producer - Mike Stevens – arrangement, additional production - Ted Jensen – audio mastering - Tom Lord-Alge – mixing - The Generics – background vocals - Simon Fuller – management - Allan Martin – design - Nick Fletcher – photographer Credits adapted from CD single liner notes. ## Charts	[ "## Background and release", "## Recording and composition", "## Reception and promotion", "## Track listing", "## Credits and personnel", "## Charts" ]	2,079	20,263
2,209,289	River Trym	1,167,418,611	Short river in the United Kingdom	[ "Bristol Avon catchment", "Rivers of Bristol", "Rivers of Gloucestershire", "Westbury-on-Trym" ]	The River Trym is a short river, some 4.5 miles (7.2 km) in length, which rises in Filton, South Gloucestershire, England. The upper reaches are culverted, some underground, through mostly urban landscapes, but once it emerges into the open it flows through a nature reserve and city parks before joining the tidal River Avon at Sea Mills. 18th-century water mills near the mouth gave the area its name. Portus Abonae was a Roman port at the mouth which provided an embarkation point for journeys across the River Severn to south Wales. In the 18th century there were short lived attempts at creating a port and a whale fishery here. The name Trym appears to have Anglo-Saxon roots. In recent years silting problems, caused by urban development, have caused some difficulties, but alleviation works have helped reduce the problem. ## Course The Trym rises near Filton in South Gloucestershire, in the area of Filton Golf Club, and much of its upper course is culverted underneath 20th century housing. It surfaces in the Bristol suburb of Southmead, then flows open through Badock's Wood nature reserve. Just south of here is Henleaze Swimming Lake, a former quarry fed by springs, the overflow running into the Trym. The river is culverted through Westbury-on-Trym village. A sluice here is used to divert water into a storm drain in times of high rainfall to save the village centre from flooding. The Trym then disappears into culverts, re-emerging at Henbury Golf Club before entering the Blaise Castle estate, where it is joined on the right bank by the Hazel Brook above Coombe Dingle. The remains of Coombe Mill, which was fed by both the Hazel Brook and the Trym, can be seen here. Passing under Dingle Road bridge, the river then flows through Sea Mills river park, passing under the Portway and the Severn Beach railway line before joining the river Avon. A weir under the Portway prevents flooding upstream, except during the highest spring tides. ## Natural history Badock's Wood in Southmead is a nature reserve managed by Bristol City Council. Areas of beech, oak and ash woodland support a range of other bushes and shrubs, including hazel, maple, hawthorn and blackthorn. Badock's Meadow, a former prefab housing estate, has been reseeded with native meadow plants including oxeye daisies, yellow rattle, wild carrot and knapweed. Wildlife includes native woodland birds including woodpeckers and owls, also pipistrelle bats. The Blaise Castle estate contains a variety of trees and plant life, also providing cover for birds and small mammals. Further downstream, just above Sea Mills, Himalayan Balsam and Japanese Knotweed, both invasive riverside plants, have established themselves. Ducks and moorhen can be found along many stretches of the river, with gulls and estuary birds near the mouth. A pollution incident by Wessex Water which allowed sewage to flow into the Trym in 2001, killing eels, sticklebacks and invertebrates, resulted in a fine following prosecution by the Environment Agency. Other pollution incidents have followed. ## History At the confluence of the Trym with the Avon was the Roman port and small town of Portus Abonae, which took its name from the main river Avon, which simply means 'river' in British Celtic. Abona was a staging point for the Roman invasion of Wales and was at the western end of the Roman road from Silchester. In the 15th century there were tide mills at Millpill, near the mouth. An attempt was made in 1712 by the entrepreneur Joshua Franklyn to open a commercial dock at the mouth of the Trym, on the Roman site, but the venture foundered after a few decades. A whale fishery enterprise set up in 1752 was equally short lived. Parts of the dock walls can still be seen. ## Etymology Linguistics sources indicate that the name Trym may derive from the Anglo-Saxon, meaning 'firm' or 'strong' one'. ## Hydrology The flow of the river has decreased in power in recent years, partly because of surface run-off in the upper catchment of the Hazel Brook, especially from the large retail centre at Cribbs Causeway. The run-off sends a good deal of silt into the system, slowing the flow and creating a risk of flooding downstream. This problem has now been partially alleviated by the construction of the Catbrain attenuation reservoir near Cribbs Causeway. Measurements of pollution by the city council show the water to be relatively clean.	[ "## Course", "## Natural history", "## History", "## Etymology", "## Hydrology" ]	984	25,309
27,915,686	Pedro Afonso, Prince Imperial of Brazil	1,166,174,877	null	[ "1848 births", "1850 deaths", "Brazilian people of Austrian descent", "Brazilian people of Italian descent", "Brazilian people of Portuguese descent", "Heirs apparent who never acceded", "House of Braganza", "People from Rio de Janeiro (city)", "Princes Imperial of Brazil", "Royal reburials", "Royalty who died as children", "Sons of emperors" ]	Dom Pedro Afonso (19 July 1848 – 10 January 1850) was the Prince Imperial and heir apparent to the throne of the Empire of Brazil. Born at the Palace of São Cristóvão in Rio de Janeiro, he was the second son and youngest child of Emperor Dom Pedro II and Dona Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies, and thus a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza. Pedro Afonso was seen as vital to the future viability of the monarchy, which had been put in jeopardy by the death of his older brother Dom Afonso almost three years earlier. Pedro Afonso's death from fever at the age of one devastated the Emperor, and the imperial couple had no further children. Pedro Afonso's older sister Dona Isabel became heiress, but Pedro II was unconvinced that a woman could ever be accepted as monarch by the ruling elite. He excluded Isabel from matters of state and failed to provide training for her possible role as empress. With no surviving male children, the Emperor came to understand that the imperial line was destined to end with his own death. ## Infancy and early death ### Birth Pedro Afonso was born at 08:00 on 19 July 1848 in the Palace of São Cristóvão in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. His full name was Pedro Afonso Cristiano Leopoldo Eugênio Fernando Vicente Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga. Through his father, Emperor Pedro II, he was a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza and was referred to using the honorific Dom (Lord) from birth. He was the grandson of Emperor Dom Pedro I and the nephew of the reigning Queen of Portugal, Dona Maria II. Through his mother, Teresa Cristina, he was a grandson of Don Francesco I (Francis I) and nephew to Don Ferdinando II (Ferdinand II), who ruled as kings of the Two Sicilies in turn. Following the birth, Pedro II received official congratulations at a formal reception held later that day, which according to a contemporary was an event "more splendid and better attended" than any since the Emperor was declared of age in 1840. News of the birth of a male heir was received with rejoicing among the Brazilian people. Celebrations included skyrockets and artillery salutes. City streets were illuminated for days after the birth, and an elaborate gala was held at court. The birth of Pedro Afonso was widely welcomed, as a male heir was regarded as imperative for the Empire's continuation, even though the constitution allowed for female succession. Writer Manuel de Araújo Porto Alegre (later Baron of Santo Ângelo) considered the birth of Pedro Afonso a "triumph" that had secured the succession. Pedro Afonso's baptism took place on 4 October 1848. The ceremony was held privately in the Imperial Chapel, followed by public celebrations. The godparents were his granduncle Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria and his step-grandmother Amélie of Leuchtenberg. Prime Minister and former regent Pedro de Araújo Lima (then-Viscount and later Marquis of Olinda) and Mariana de Verna, Countess of Belmont represented the godparents, who were not present. Fireworks entertained the crowds, and a band shell that could hold more than a hundred musicians was raised for the festivities that followed. According to historian Hendrik Kraay, royal baptisms in imperial Brazil "stressed that the princes and princesses secured the dynasty's future". As the sole surviving male child, Pedro Afonso took precedence in the line of succession over his two older sisters, Dona Isabel and Dona Leopoldina. Pedro Afonso, as heir apparent to the Brazilian throne, was styled "Prince Imperial" from birth. ### Death In 1847 and the two following years, Pedro II and his family spent the summer at Petrópolis. The traditional summer residence of the imperial family was at Santa Cruz Estate, a rural property that had belonged to the Braganzas for generations. The shift to Petrópolis seemed an unwelcome novelty among members of the court, "who disliked any change that threatened the established ways and interests". Bowing to tradition, the Emperor decided to again summer at Santa Cruz in 1850. During the imperial family's stay at the rural estate, Pedro Afonso and his sister Isabel were struck by fever. The princess eventually recovered, but the Prince Imperial died of convulsions at 04:20 on 10 January. Contemporaries argued that either encephalitis or a congenital disorder may have caused his death. Pedro II regarded the death of his son as "the most fatal blow that I could ever receive, and certainly I would not have survived were it not that I still have a wife and two children". The Emperor wrote to his brother-in-law Dom Fernando II, King-consort of Portugal: "By the time you receive this, you will certainly have learnt of the grievous loss I have undergone ... God who has made me pass through so hard a testing, will in his mercy give me grounds to console my sorrows." Pedro II had already lost another son, Dom Afonso, almost three years earlier. He revealed his inner turmoil in a sonnet: "Twice already I have suffered death, for the father dies who sees his son is dead." Except for brief inspection visits, the Emperor avoided Santa Cruz thereafter. A grand funeral was held for the Prince Imperial two days after his death. The streets were crowded with ordinary people who greatly mourned the prince's death. So remarkable was the event that tourists paid for the privilege of watching the funeral procession from a hotel in downtown Rio de Janeiro. Pedro Afonso was buried in the mausoleum of the Convento de Santo Antônio (Convent of Saint Anthony) in Rio de Janeiro. ### Legacy Honório Hermeto Carneiro Leão (later Marquis of Paraná), one of Brazil's leading politicians and then serving as president (governor) of the province of Pernambuco, summarized the prevalent view among Brazil's ruling elite regarding the succession of the Empire when he addressed the Provincial Assembly: "It is my painful duty to inform you of the death of the Prince Imperial D. Pedro Afonso, which occurred on 10 January of the current year. It is the second time we lose the heir presumptive of the crown." Honório Hermeto continued: "It must serve as a consolation to us, the certainty of [good] health of H[is]. M[ajesty]. the Emperor and his august wife. Both in the prime of their years, and full of life, still promise both numerous fruits from their conjugal bed as well as a male succession to the crown, as required for both the consolidation of our still recent institutions and the restless spirit of the century." What no one could foresee was that Pedro II and Teresa Cristina would have no more children. The reason is unknown, although scholars think it is probably because they no longer had sexual intercourse. The Emperor was devastated by the death of Pedro Afonso and was never able to cope with it entirely. According to historian Roderick J. Barman, Pedro II was "deeply affected, emotionally and intellectually". The Emperor wrote a sonnet that expressed his feelings: > > But who can recount what feels the broken soul of the father from whom, of God, your sword cuts off the flower of his future, the beloved child. In the Emperor's eyes, the deaths of his sons seemed to presage the end of the imperial system. His younger son had represented his future and that of the monarchy. Although the Emperor still had a legal successor in his daughter Isabel, he had little confidence that a woman could rule Brazil in the male-dominated social climate of the time. He did nothing to prepare Isabel for the responsibilities of ascending the throne, nor did he attempt to encourage acceptance of a female ruler among the political class. The lack of a male heir caused him to lose motivation in promoting the imperial office as a position to be carried on by his descendants; he increasingly saw the imperial system as so inextricably linked to himself that it could not survive him. ## Titles, styles and honors ### Titles and styles - 19 July 1848 – 9 January 1850: His Imperial Highness The Prince Imperial The prince's full style and title was "His Imperial Highness Dom Pedro, Prince Imperial of Brazil". ### Honors The Prince Imperial was a recipient of the following Brazilian Orders: - Major Commander of the Order of Christ - Major Commander of the Order of Saint Benedict of Aviz - Major Commander of the Order of Saint James of the Sword - Grand Cross of the Order of Pedro I - Grand Cross and Grand Major Dignitary of the Order of the Rose ## Ancestry	[ "## Infancy and early death", "### Birth", "### Death", "### Legacy", "## Titles, styles and honors", "### Titles and styles", "### Honors", "## Ancestry" ]	1,833	40,166
196,769	USS Minnesota (BB-22)	1,137,238,463	Pre-dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy	[ "1905 ships", "Connecticut-class battleships", "Maritime incidents in 1918", "Ships built in Newport News, Virginia", "World War I battleships of the United States" ]	USS Minnesota (BB-22), the fifth of six Connecticut-class pre-dreadnought battleships, was the first ship of the United States Navy in honor of the 32nd state. She was laid down at the Newport News Shipbuilding Company of Newport News, Virginia in October 1903, launched in April 1905, and commissioned into the US fleet in March 1907, just four months after the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought entered service. Minnesota was armed with a main battery of four 12-inch (305 mm) guns and a secondary battery of twenty 7 and 8 in (178 and 203 mm) guns, unlike Dreadnought, which carried an all-big-gun armament that rendered ships like Minnesota obsolescent. Shortly after she entered service, Minnesota joined the Great White Fleet for its circumnavigation of the globe in 1908–1909. The years from 1909 to 1912 were uneventful, but thereafter the ship began to become involved in conflicts in the Caribbean. She supported efforts to put down an insurrection in Cuba in 1912 and patrolled the coast of Mexico in 1913–1914 during the Mexican Revolution. In 1916, the ship was placed in reserve, though she quickly returned to service when the United States entered World War I in April 1917. During the war, she trained naval personnel; while cruising off the eastern coast of the United States in September 1918, she struck a naval mine laid by a German U-boat. The extensive damage required lengthy repairs that kept her out of service for the rest of the war. She helped to return American soldiers from Europe in 1919 before resuming her training ship duties in 1920–1921, before being decommissioned in December 1921 and broken up for scrap at the Philadelphia Navy Yard in 1924. ## Design The Connecticut class followed the Virginia-class battleships, but corrected some of the most significant deficiencies in the earlier design, most notably the superposed arrangement of the main and some of the secondary guns. A heavier tertiary battery of 7 in (178 mm) guns replaced the 6 in (152 mm) guns that had been used on all previous US designs. Despite the improvements, the ships were rendered obsolescent by the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought, completed before most of the members of the Connecticut class. Minnesota was 456.3 ft (139.1 m) long overall and had a beam of 76.9 ft (23.4 m) and a draft of 24.5 ft (7.5 m). She displaced 16,000 long tons (16,000 t) as designed and up to 17,666 long tons (17,949 t) at full load. The ship was powered by two-shaft triple-expansion steam engines rated at 16,500 indicated horsepower (12,300 kW), with steam provided by twelve coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers ducted into three funnels. The propulsion system generated a top speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). As built, she was fitted with heavy military masts, but these were quickly replaced by lattice masts in 1909. She had a crew of 827 officers and men, though this increased to 881 and later to 896. The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 inch /45 Mark 5 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline, one forward and aft. The secondary battery consisted of eight 8-inch (203 mm) /45 guns and twelve 7-inch (178 mm) /45 guns. The 8-inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets amidships and the 7-inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull. For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried twenty 3-inch (76 mm) /50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and twelve 3-pounder guns. She also carried four 37 mm (1.5 in) 1-pounder guns. As was standard for capital ships of the period, Minnesota carried four 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside. Minnesota's main armored belt was 11 in (279 mm) thick over the magazines and the propulsion machinery spaces and 6 in (152 mm) elsewhere. The main battery gun turrets had 12-inch (305 mm) thick faces, and the supporting barbettes had the 10 in (254 mm) of armor plating. The secondary turrets had 7 in (178 mm) of frontal armor. The conning tower had 9 in (229 mm) thick sides. ## Service history The keel for Minnesota was laid down at the Newport News Shipbuilding Company of Newport News, Virginia on 27 October 1903. The completed hull was launched on 8 April 1905. The ship was commissioned into the US Navy on 9 March 1907, with Captain John Hubbard as her first commanding officer. The ship then conducted a shakedown cruise off the coast of New England before attending the Jamestown Exposition, the commemoration of the 300th anniversary of the Jamestown colony, the first permanent English settlement in the Americas. She was present at the ceremony from 22 April to 3 September. On 16 December, Minnesota steamed out of Hampton Roads with the Great White Fleet for a circumnavigation of the globe. The cruise of the Great White Fleet was conceived as a way to demonstrate American military power, particularly to Japan. Tensions had begun to rise between the United States and Japan after the latter's victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, particularly over racist opposition to Japanese immigration to the United States. The press in both countries began to call for war, and Roosevelt hoped to use the demonstration of naval might to deter Japanese aggression. The cruise was also intended to assert the United States' status as a global naval power and to convince Congress of the need to support increased naval expenditures. The fleet cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America, making stops in Port of Spain, Rio de Janeiro, Punta Arenas, and Valparaíso, among other cities. After arriving in Mexico in March 1908, the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice. The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas, stopping in San Francisco and Seattle before crossing the Pacific to Australia, stopping in Hawaii on the way. Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne, Sydney, and Auckland. The fleet then turned north for the Philippines, stopping in Manila, before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama. Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November. The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered the Indian Ocean; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said, Egypt. The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar, where an international fleet of British, Russian, French, and Dutch warships greeted the Americans. The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909, having traveled 46,729 nautical miles (86,542 km; 53,775 mi). There, they conducted a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt. Upon her return, Minnesota was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet. She spent the following three years on the eastern coast of the United States conducting a peacetime routine of training cruises, apart from one voyage to the English Channel in 1910. Starting in 1912, the ship began to operate in the Caribbean, particularly after unrest began to break out in several countries in the region. For the first six months of 1912, she patrolled Cuban waters; she went to the US base at Guantanmo Bay to support the suppression of an insurrection on the island from 7 to 22 June. In mid 1913, she patrolled the eastern coast of Mexico during the Mexican Revolution. She returned in 1914, with stints there from 26 January to 7 August and 11 October to 19 December. During the first period, the United States occupied Veracruz to protect US interests. In 1915, Minnesota returned to the United States and resumed her previous routine of training exercises with occasional cruises to the Caribbean. In November 1916, she was placed in reserve as the flagship of the Reserve Force, Atlantic Fleet. ### World War I Minnesota returned to active service after the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917, entering World War I. She was assigned to Division 4 of the Battleship Force, based at Tangier Sound in Chesapeake Bay. She spent the war as a training ship for gunners and engine room personnel. During this time, Vice Admiral Albert W. Grant, the commander of Battleship Force 1, instituted a program to reinforce the bulkheads of the ships under his command. This improved their ability to absorb underwater damage and remain afloat. On 29 September 1918, while cruising off Fenwick Island with the destroyer USS Israel, she struck a naval mine that had been laid by the U-boat U-117, which inflicted serious damage but caused no casualties. The explosion tore a gaping hole in the hull from frame 5 to frame 16, and from the keel to the bottom edge of the armor belt. The bow flooded, but the repaired bulkheads prevented the flooding from spreading. Reduced to a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph), Minnesota made it back to the Philadelphia Navy Yard where repairs were effected. The work lasted for five months, by which time Germany had signed the Armistice that ended the war. On 11 March 1919, Minnesota returned to service with the Cruiser and Transport Force, making three trips to Brest, France to bring American soldiers back from the battlefields of Europe. In the course of the voyages, she brought back over 3,000 men; this duty ended on 23 July. The ship spent the next two years as a training ship for midshipmen from the US Naval Academy. She conducted two summer cruises in 1920 and 1921 before being decommissioned on 1 December 1921. She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register the same day and was sold for scrap on 23 January 1924. Minnesota was thereafter broken up for scrap at the Philadelphia Navy Yard. ## See also - List of naval ships named for Minnesota	[ "## Design", "## Service history", "### World War I", "## See also" ]	2,193	31,029
28,360,275	Moustache (dog)	1,104,428,536	Dog which participated in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars	[ "1799 animal births", "1812 animal deaths", "Individual dogs", "Military animals" ]	Moustache, sometimes abbreviated to Mous, (September 1799 – 11 March 1812) was a barbet who is reputed to have played a part in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. His story is recounted in many publications but may be partly fictionalised. Moustache is said to have been born in Falaise, Normandy, France, in 1799 and to have joined a grenadier regiment at Caen. He followed the regiment through the Italian Campaign of the Revolutionary Wars and is said to have alerted the regiment to a surprise night attack by Austrian forces. He is reported to have been present at the Battle of Marengo, during which he lost an ear, and with a cuirassier regiment at the Battle of Austerlitz. At Austerlitz Moustache was apparently responsible for the discovery of an Austrian spy, and the recovery of the regiment's standard from the Austrians. As a result of wounds taken at Austerlitz Moustache had a leg amputated and was reportedly rewarded with a medal by Marshal Jean Lannes. He is later said to have followed a unit of dragoons to Spain where he fought in several actions of the Peninsular War. Seeing action in the Sierra Morena and later, with a gunboat unit, at the Battle of Badajoz, where he was killed by a cannonball. Moustache was interred beneath a gravestone on the battlefield but his memorial is said to have been smashed and his bones burned after the war. ## Historical sources One of the earliest written accounts of Moustache's life is that written by Arna Cano and published in The Kaleidoscope magazine of Liverpool in January 1826. This, published twenty years after the dog's death, may be partially fictionalised. A similar story is recounted in a detailed French-language account written by Alain de Fivas and published in 1864. Moustache is mentioned in at least eleven English, French and German publications. The story presented here is drawn largely from the Cano and de Fivas accounts and notes any disagreement with the other accounts. ## Early life Moustache, a black barbet, was born in Falaise in Normandy, France in approximately September 1799. At the age of six months Cano states that he was sent to Caen to live with a grocer and whilst there encountered a group of grenadiers on parade. He goes on to say that Moustache followed behind the regiment, which had no other dogs, as it left the town and, on the approval of the drum major, was allowed to accompany the unit on campaign. The regiment was headed to Italy as part of the Italian Campaign fought by France against Austria during the French Revolutionary Wars. Though Moustache was not a trained military dog, he apparently took to military life well, comfortably crossing the Great St Bernard Pass through the Alps with First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte's army in spring 1800. It is during this stage that one of Moustache's most famous actions is reputed to have taken place. Whilst the regiment was encamped near Belbo the Austrians are said to have mounted a surprise night attack on the camp in stormy weather conditions. It is claimed that Moustache noticed the approaching Austrian troops and barked to alert the grenadiers, who stood to, and repulsed the attack. Other sources place this event as occurring in Alexandria, Egypt during the Egyptian campaign against the Ottoman Empire. This variant may have been inspired by Napoleon's letter to General Auguste de Marmont just prior to the 1799 Battle of Abukir when Marmont was in Alexandria. It urged Marmont to provide an attack warning system by securing "a large quantity of dogs which can be made use of by posting them in front of your fortifications". After this event, the Colonel of the grenadier regiment is said to have formally placed Moustache on the roll as a grenadier and gave him a collar bearing the regiment's name. Additionally, he ordered that Moustache receive the field rations entitled to a grenadier and that he be combed by the unit's barber once per week. ## Austrian campaigns ### Battle of Marengo Both Cano and de Fivas say that whilst en route to Spinetta Marengo Moustache took part in a small engagement between a company of his regiment and some Austrians. He was standing at the front of the company when he received a bayonet wound to his left shoulder. Moustache spent several days recovering in the hospital of the regimental surgeon. Though he was not fully recovered from the wound, still having a limp, Moustache is said to have taken to the field with the regiment on 14 June 1800 at the Battle of Marengo. During the battle he persistently barked at the Austrian forces and was only dissuaded from attacking them by their fixed bayonets. Moustache did engage in close combat with one opponent - a pointer owned by an Austrian corporal that approached the French lines. De Fivas says that Moustache quickly pounced on the larger, stronger dog and fought with him for some time before a musket shot killed the pointer. Cano states that Moustache was also wounded by the shot, losing an ear. Moustache deserted the grenadiers shortly after the French victory at Marengo, apparently because one of them attempted to chain him to a sentry box, and instead joined a company of mounted cuirassiers. ### Battle of Austerlitz According to de Fivas, Moustache was responsible for the discovery of an Austrian spy in the French camp just prior to the Battle of Austerlitz. The dog is alleged to have leapt to his feet and barked at the Austrian to alert French soldiers. Some sources state that this event occurred around the time of the earlier battles of Marengo or Abukir. Moustache's greatest achievement is said to have taken place at Austerlitz. De Fivas states that Moustache went into battle with the cuirassiers and was present when the regimental standard bearer was surrounded by Austrian soldiers. The standard bearer apparently killed three Austrians before he was himself cut down, wrapping the flag around him as he fell to prevent its capture. It is at this point that de Fivas alleges that Moustache confronted the five or six remaining Austrians and was about to be bayoneted when the group was hit by a blast of artillery grapeshot. Moustache, wounded in the leg, is reputed to have torn the flag off the body of the standard bearer and returned it to the French camp. In recognition of this action Marshal Jean Lannes is reported to have ordered that Moustache's old collar be replaced with a copper medal on a piece of red ribbon. De Fivas states that this medal was engraved with the words "II perdit une jambe à la bataille d'Austerlitz, et sauva le drapeau de son régiment" on the front, and "Moustache, chien français : qu'il soit partout respecté et chéri comme un brave" on the reverse, which translates to "He lost a leg at the Battle of Austerlitz and saved the regimental flag" and "Moustache, A French dog: Everywhere respected and cherished as a hero" respectively. At least one other source says instead that the medal was silver and had a tricolore collar. Moustache later had to have his wounded leg amputated. Other rewards he is said to have received for this event include an order being issued that whichever regiment he presented himself at would have to feed him the rations of a serving soldier and that he was placed on the regimental books and was to receive the pay and rations of a soldier. A further legend says that Moustache was presented to Napoleon himself and demonstrated to have performed a trick whereby he would cock his leg whenever France's enemies were mentioned. ### Battle of Essling At the Battle of Essling, Moustache was supposed to have found a mate. Upon joining the front lines, a fellow Poodle was spotted amongst the enemy. During the course of the battle, the two met and the female Poodle accompanied Moustache back to the French camp. This relationship lasted about a year and together the pair produced puppies which were looked after by the women of the camp. ## Spanish campaign Moustache is said to have left the cuirassiers after he was struck by a cavalryman with the flat of his sword. De Fivas says that he attached himself to a unit of dragoons which he followed to Spain, taking part in two campaigns with them during which he would walk ahead of their column and bark warnings whenever he heard a noise. During a battle in the Sierra Morena mountain range in southern Spain Moustache is alleged to have led back to camp the horses of dragoons killed on the battlefield. Shortly after this he is said to have been secretly taken by a Colonel who wished to own him. After spending seventeen days in captivity the dog apparently escaped by an open window and joined with a gunboat crew. Afterwards he participated in the Battle of Badajoz where he was struck by a cannonball and killed on 11 March 1812, at the age of twelve years. Moustache was reputedly buried on the battlefield alongside his medal and ribbon with a gravestone engraved with the words "Ici repose le brave Moustache" ("Here lies the brave Moustache"). Though he was wounded many times in his life it is said that all of his wounds were to his front. After the allied victory over the French in the Peninsular War, it is alleged that the Spanish destroyed his gravestone and the Inquisition ordered his bones to be dug up and burned. ## See also - List of individual dogs	[ "## Historical sources", "## Early life", "## Austrian campaigns", "### Battle of Marengo", "### Battle of Austerlitz", "### Battle of Essling", "## Spanish campaign", "## See also" ]	2,045	29,215
2,888,056	Merle Hay Mall	1,170,335,097	null	[ "Buildings and structures in Des Moines, Iowa", "Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1998", "Economy of Des Moines, Iowa", "Shopping malls established in 1959", "Shopping malls in Iowa", "Tourist attractions in Des Moines, Iowa", "Urbandale, Iowa" ]	Merle Hay Mall is an enclosed super-regional shopping mall in Des Moines, Iowa, in the United States. Opened in 1959, it is the second oldest regional shopping center in Iowa, and was the largest mall in Iowa in terms of gross leasable area before the 2004 opening of Jordan Creek Town Center in neighboring West Des Moines. It was also the site of the deadliest fire in Des Moines' history, which killed eleven people in 1978. The mall's anchor stores are Kohl's, Target and Ross Dress for Less. There are 2 vacant anchor stores that were once Younkers - which is set for remodeling as an ice arena - and Sears - which was demolished in 2021. Applebee's, IHOP, and Starbucks operate on the outparcels of the mall. Other prominent stores in the mall include Old Navy. Most of the mall is in the northwest part of Des Moines, but the wing that contains the former Younkers, Kohl's, and the food court is inside the city limits of neighboring Urbandale. Merle Hay Mall is independently owned by the Merle Hay Mall Limited Partnership, and the family of one of its original developers continues to manage the mall. A Chicago-based company, Urban Retail Properties, handles the mall's leasing duties. ## History The site of Merle Hay Mall was originally home to St. Gabriel's Monastery from 1921 until its demolition in 1958. In 1956, the Passionist monks who resided there sold the monastery site to Chicago-based developers Joseph Abbell and Bernard Greenbaum. Abbell, in a 1994 interview, stated that the developers chose Des Moines for their mall because of the city's "reputation as a model urban area in middle America." The mall was known as Northland Shopping Center early in its planning stages until Younkers executives suggested that it be named for Merle Hay, the first Iowan killed in World War I and namesake of the road in front of the mall, instead. Merle Hay Plaza was originally planned as a strip mall before it was redesigned as an open-air plaza with two department stores and four buildings around a common area shortly before construction began in early 1958. Merle Hay Plaza opened on August 17, 1959. It had 31 stores at the time of its opening, including its first anchor (Younkers), as well as a bowling alley that is still in operation today. A second anchor store opened later in 1959, as Sears moved from downtown Des Moines to Merle Hay Plaza. Other early tenants included a Safeway supermarket (whose space later became part of Sears), Kresge, Bishop's Buffet (which closed in 1995), and Walgreens (which was replaced by an Old Navy in 1999). A movie theater and six-story office building were added in 1965. ### Enclosure Merle Hay Plaza was enclosed in 1972 and became Merle Hay Mall. Two years later, as Valley West Mall and Southridge Mall were under construction, Merle Hay Mall completed a major westward expansion that doubled the size of the mall. Two additional anchors, Montgomery Ward (which also moved from downtown) and Younkers Store for Homes, were added to the mall as part of that expansion. By 2000, Merle Hay Mall attracted an average of 35,000 shoppers per day. In a 1994 interview with The Des Moines Register, Iowa State University economist Kenneth Stone stated that Merle Hay Mall successfully adapted to the changing lifestyles of the 1960s and 1970s by offering longer shopping hours during a time when downtown Des Moines merchants began restricting their hours. Author and Des Moines native Bill Bryson commented on how Merle Hay Mall's opening changed Des Moines in his 2006 memoir The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid: "My father never shopped anywhere else after that. Neither did most people. By the early 1960s, people exchanged boasts about how long it had been since they had been downtown. They had found a new kind of happiness at the malls." In 1989's The Lost Continent, Bryson wrote that "Jack Kerouac, of all people, thought that Iowa women were the prettiest in the country, but I don't think he ever went to Merle Hay Mall on a Saturday" when he commented on the obesity of Iowa women. ### Younkers fire The original Younkers store at Merle Hay Mall was destroyed by a fire that broke out on the morning of November 5, 1978. The fire caused an estimated \$20 million in damage, and killed eleven store employees. The store was closed for nearly a year in order to rebuild. In early 1979, Des Moines fire officials announced that a hydrogen buildup caused by alkaline water leaking from the store's heating and cooling system caused the fire. Court documents filed by prosecuting attorneys in 1981 stated that an electrical malfunction caused wires that were covered in polyvinyl chloride to overheat, giving off hydrochloric acid. Lawyers representing Younkers and the families of the eleven victims sued more than 20 companies that manufactured or were associated with polyvinyl chloride, including Monsanto Company and Underwriters Laboratories. Most of those lawsuits were settled out of court in 1984, while the last suit against B.F. Goodrich was dismissed by a Polk County district judge in April 1986. ### Anchor changes Merle Hay Mall lost its first anchor in 1991 when the Younkers Store for Homes closed after Younkers decided to stop selling furniture and appliances in order to focus on its more profitable fashion business. Kohl's replaced it in 1993. In 1998, during the chain's first round of Chapter 11 bankruptcy, Montgomery Ward faced eviction from the mall after an analysis by Kenneth Stone showed that Ward was operating a discount store instead of the "first class, full line department store" that its lease required. Montgomery Ward responded by closing in early 1999, and Famous-Barr opened a new store in that space in August 2000, while the rest of the mall underwent a \$20 million renovation that year. Younkers moved into the former Famous-Barr space on July 18, 2004, one month after Famous-Barr left the Des Moines market, and the old Younkers was demolished shortly afterwards to make room for a new Target store that opened July 19, 2005. Target's opening ended a period of declining sales at the mall, as sales had decreased by 8 to 10 percent during the first year that Jordan Creek Town Center was open. ### Present-day redevelopment The mall is anchored by Kohl's (73,799 sq ft) and Target (126,483 sq ft) with two vacant anchors last occupied by Younkers (165,000 sq ft) and Sears (223,000 sq ft), with over 60 inline tenants including the food court along with a vacant portion of the building which had been a single-screen movie theater with the largest movie screen in Des Moines. During the Christmas holiday season there are several businesses which occupy space in the mall temporarily too. It is managed by Abbell Credit Corporation, the same company that has held a majority ownership interest in the mall since 1959. It has undergone several renovations over time to remain a viable shopping center. According to Elizabeth Holland, the CEO of Abbell Credit Corporation, the Des Moines area is large enough to support only two shopping malls, and the goal of the Merle Hay Mall redevelopment is to make it "become one of the two surviving shopping malls." On March 10, 2008, the Des Moines city council agreed to rezone the area around Merle Hay Mall into a tax increment financing district in order to help the mall's owners pay for future renovations. The move came as the mall's assessed property value had declined by over \$13 million since 2005. Merle Hay Mall's owners constructed a new main entrance to the mall and relocated some retailers to other areas of the mall in order to create space for new "junior" anchor stores with exterior entrances. The spaces occupied by the former Sam Goody Superstore (replaced by Staples), the former Waldenbooks and GameStop (which is now next to the Helzberg's Diamonds) were renovated to include Staples. Old Navy moved to the west into a space across from their former location which made way for Shoe Carnival and Ulta to occupy Old Navy's space. As a result of the redevelopment, Old Navy has relocated to a smaller space within the mall. In 2013, Dunham's Sports moved out of the mall, with MC Sports replacing it. However, in 2017, MC Sports filed for bankruptcy and moved out shortly after. It has since been replaced with a bouncy-house arena. The upper level became a Flix Brewhouse movie theater in mid-2014. Flix has proven to be an exceptionally popular destination not just in the mall, but in all of greater Des Moines. In 2015, Deb closed. Staples announced in late-2016 that it would be closing their store in Merle Hay Mall with the actual last day of business occurring on February 4, 2017. In October 2017, the Staples location became Ross Dress for Less. On April 18, 2018 it was announced that Younkers would be closing, as the parent, Bon-Ton Stores, was going out of business. The store closed on August 29, 2018. On July 13, 2018 Sears announced they will also be closing at Merle Hay Mall. The nearly 60 year-old anchor was one of the original stores but ended business at the mall in October 2018 which left Kohl's and Target as the only anchors. In December 2019, GameDay arcade and restaurant opened in the mall. It is accessible from both outside and inside the mall. 2020 brought challenges for retailers in the mall due, in part, to the response to the COVID-19 pandemic which resulted in many retailers being closed for a prolonged period of time. By August, some prominent retailers, Helzberg Diamonds, Victoria's Secret and Justice among them; closed their locations in the mall. In October 2020, it was announced that the vacant Sears building would be demolished to facilitate future development. In November 2020, the Des Moines Buccaneers hockey team announced they would build a new sports facility in the old Younkers and adjacent areas. The new project will see a 3,500-capacity arena for the Bucs, three additional sheets of ice for tournaments and community use, and a 150-room hotel, to be completed ahead of the 2022-23 hockey season.	[ "## History", "### Enclosure", "### Younkers fire", "### Anchor changes", "### Present-day redevelopment" ]	2,225	31,166
5,745,794	Sandown Castle, Kent	1,083,677,732	Former artillery fort in Sandown, Kent	[ "1540 establishments in England", "Buildings and structures demolished in the 19th century", "Castles in Kent", "Deal, Kent", "Device Forts", "Forts in Kent" ]	Sandown Castle was an artillery fort constructed by Henry VIII in Sandown, Kent, between 1539 and 1540. It formed part of the King's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire, and defended the strategically important Downs anchorage off the English coast. Comprising a keep and four circular bastions, the moated stone castle covered 0.59 acres (0.24 ha) and had 39 firing positions on the upper levels for artillery, with 31 gunloops in the basement for handguns. It cost the Crown a total of £27,092 to build the three castles of Sandown, Walmer and Deal, which lay adjacent to one another along the coast and were connected by earthwork defences. The original invasion threat passed, but during the Second English Civil War of 1648–49, Sandown was seized by pro-Royalist insurgents and was only retaken by Parliamentary forces after several months' fighting. By the 19th century, the castle was suffering badly from the effects of coastal erosion but remained in military use until 1863. The War Office then demolished the upper levels with explosives, carrying out a second wave of demolition work in 1882 and destroying most of the surviving stonework in 1893. The remains of Sandown were purchased by the town of Deal for £35 to form part of the local sea defences. The remaining masonry was encased in concrete in the late 1980s to form a sea wall but remains vulnerable to further erosion by the sea. ## History ### 16th century Sandown Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England, France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII. Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities, only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications, and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another, maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely. Modest defences, based around simple blockhouses and towers, existed in the south-west and along the Sussex coast, with a few more impressive works in the north of England, but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale. In 1533, Henry broke with Pope Paul III to annul the long-standing marriage to his wife, Catherine of Aragon, and remarry. Catherine was the aunt of Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, and Charles took the annulment as a personal insult. This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538, and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England. An invasion of England appeared certain. In response, Henry issued an order, called a "device", in 1539, giving instructions for the "defence of the realm in time of invasion" and the construction of forts along the English coastline. Sandown and the adjacent castles of Deal and Walmer were constructed to protect the Downs in east Kent, an important anchorage formed by the Goodwin Sands that gave access to Deal Beach, on which enemy soldiers could easily be landed. The stone castles were supported by a line of four earthwork forts, known as the Great Turf, the Little Turf Bulwark, the Great White Bulwark of Clay and the Walmer Bulwark, and a 2.5 miles (4.0 km) long defensive ditch and bank. Collectively the castles became known as the "castles of the Downs" and cost the Crown a total of £27,092. The castle was built between April 1539 and the autumn of 1540, by a team including Richard Benese as the surveyor, William Clement as the master carpenter, and Christopher Dickenson as the master mason. It was nearly identical to its sister castle at Walmer, with a tall keep, 83 feet (25 m) across, at the centre, and flanked by four rounded bastions, also called lunettes, and a moat, which was surrounded in turn by a curtain wall. Its curved walls were 15 feet (4.6 m) thick. In total it was approximately 165 by 165 feet (50 by 50 m) across, covering 0.59 acres (0.24 ha). The historian John Hale considered the castle to form a transitional design between older medieval English designs and newer Italian styles of defence. Sandown had three tiers of artillery – the heaviest and longest range weapons occupying the upper levels – with a total of 39 firing positions, and 31 gunloops in the basement for handguns should close defence be required. The embrasures in the walls were all widely splayed to provide the maximum possible space for the guns to operate and traverse, and the interior of the castle was designed with vents to allow the smoke from its guns to escape. It was initially garrisoned by a captain, two lieutenants, two porters, ten gunners and three soldiers, at an annual cost of £174 a year. ### 17th century Although the original invasion threat passed, Sandown continued in military use into the 17th century. A 1616 survey nonetheless reported that a range of repairs were needed, at an estimated total cost of £437, while a 1634 survey noted that work estimated at £1,243 was required. In contrast, an inspection in 1635 showed the castle to be in reasonable structural condition, but antiquated in design. A report produced in 1641 suggested that £8,000 of investment was required in the three castles of the Downs, including £3,000 for additional sea defences. Sandown Castle did not play a prominent role during the first English Civil War that broke out between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament; it was taken by Parliamentary forces at the start of the conflict in 1642. Following the few years of unsteady peace after 1645, the Second Civil War broke out in 1648, this time with Charles' Royalist supporters joined by Scottish allies. The Parliamentary navy was based in the Downs, protected by Sandown and the other Henrician castles, but by May a Royalist insurrection was underway across Kent. Vice-Admiral William Batten had been forced by Parliamentary officials to resign from his post as Commander of the Fleet the previous year, and he now encouraged the fleet to join the Royalist faction. Sir Henry Palmer, a former sailor, accompanied by other members of the Kentish gentry, also called on the fleet to revolt, taking advantage of the many fellow Kentish men in the crews. Sandown Castle declared for the King, followed shortly afterwards by the garrisons at Deal and Walmer as well. With both the coastal fortresses and the navy now under Royalist control, Parliament feared that foreign forces might be landed along the coast or aid sent to the Scots. Parliament defeated the wider insurgency at the Battle of Maidstone at the start of June, and then sent a force under the command of Colonel Nathaniel Rich to deal with Sandown and the other castles along the Downs. Walmer Castle was the first to be besieged and surrendered on 12 July. An earthwork fort was then built between Sandown and Deal, which may have been defended by around 150 men each. Deal was attacked in late July, and in August artillery assaults began on Sandown as well. The Royalists mounted an attack from the fleet on 10 August, with a second attack following on 15 August, involving a landing of 750 men supported by 50 soldiers from Sandown. Neither operation was successful and Sandown finally surrendered on 5 September, a few weeks after the surrender of Deal. In 1649, Parliament ordered that supplies of ammunition and powder be sent to Sandown and the other castles of the Downs. Fresh earthworks were erected during the Interregnum between Sandown and Deal to address with the threat of Dutch attack. The garrison at Sandown remained substantial during the period, with a governor and 21 soldiers, but when Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 he reduced the numbers again to a captain and 18 men. In the Glorious Revolution of 1688 against Charles' brother, King James II, the townsfolk of Deal seized Sandown Castle on behalf of William III, the Prince of Orange. The former Parliamentarian, Colonel John Hutchinson, was infamously detained by the Crown at Sandown in 1664; his wife, Lucy, who subsequently widely publicised his case, described the castle as ruinous and his imprisonment there as inhumane. After several months Hutchinson died in the castle, his doctor blaming his physical decline on the conditions in which he had been kept. ### 18th–21st centuries In 1785, the sea broke through the outer walls of the castle, and coastal erosion continued over the next few years. The castle was initially described as being "barely habitable", but by 1793 it was considered "unfit for habitation." It was repaired and garrisoned again during the French Revolutionary Wars, with two new artillery batteries being constructed to the north of the castle. Early in the 19th century the castle was used as by the early coastguard for the suppression of local smuggling. Coastal erosion continued during the 19th century. As a consequence, the War Office sold off the reusable materials of the fortification for £564 in 1863 and demolished the upper parts of the castle, leaving a level platform across the lower parts of the keep and the bastions. Part of the stone was purchased by the Earl of Granville and used in his building work at Walmer Castle, while other masonry was reused in the construction of Deal Pier. The sea continued to erode the remaining stonework and destroyed one of the adjacent artillery batteries – the other was converted for use by the coastguard. In 1882 the Royal Engineers used explosives to remove around 600 tonnes (590 long tons; 660 short tons) of masonry from the castle for use in the construction of an officer's house at Dover Castle, causing further damage. In 1883 architectural historian Hayter Lewis complained to the British Archaeological Association that more needed to be done to protect the ruins, contrasting their poor treatment with that of the other castles along the coast. Despite this, concerns continued to be raised about the safety of the ruins facing along the sea, and in 1894 the Royal Engineers blew up the bastions and the keep on the seaward side using guncotton. The town of Deal then bought the remains from the government for £35 for use as part of their local sea defences. Coastal erosion continued and between 1988 and 1989 the remains were encased in concrete to form a sea wall, although they remain vulnerable to further coastal erosion. The remains of the castle are protected under UK law as a scheduled monument.	[ "## History", "### 16th century", "### 17th century", "### 18th–21st centuries" ]	2,261	24,584
14,948,077	Cleveland Railway (England)	1,061,873,120	Early English railway company	[ "1861 establishments in England", "Closed railway lines in North East England", "Railway companies disestablished in 1865", "Railway lines opened in 1861" ]	The Cleveland Railway was a railway line in north-east England running from Normanby Jetty on the River Tees, near Middlesbrough, via Normanby and then via Guisborough through the Eston Hills, to Loftus in East Cleveland. It carried minerals from numerous iron ore mines along its route to the River Tees for shipment to Tyneside and elsewhere. The line was jointly proposed by the West Hartlepool Harbour and Railway (WHH&R), who provided half its capital, together with various landowners. The WHH&R lay on the north bank of the Tees, to which it had a cross-river connection via a jetty at Normanby. The Cleveland Railway was built as a freight railway and provided no passenger services during its brief existence as an independently owned railway. It was built in a number of stages, bypassing the centre of Guisborough, and opened in November 1861. Its construction was repeatedly held up by disputes with its main rival, the Stockton and Darlington Railway, which attempted unsuccessfully to use all means at its disposal to maintain its rail monopoly south of the Tees. However, the Cleveland Railway remained independent only until 1865, when the company and its rivals were bought out by the North Eastern Railway (NER). The new management linked the line with an existing coastal railway via Saltburn, running north of the Eston Hills, and closed the line west of Guisborough in 1873 after only twelve years of service, though part of the line continued in service until 1966 as a freight route for a brickworks and carried passengers to Eston between 1902 and 1929. The NER constructed four passenger stations at the eastern end of the line in the 1870s. These were closed between 1958 and 1964 along with the section of the line from Guisborough to Brotton, but the easternmost part of the line is still in use today as a mineral railway. ## History ### Origins of the line The construction of the line was prompted by the need of mine owners around Guisborough and East Cleveland to transport their iron ore to the River Tees. Guisborough was already served by the Middlesbrough and Guisborough Railway (M&GR), a subsidiary of the Stockton and Darlington (S&D), which had built a line (opened in 1854) running along the south of the valley in which Guisborough sits. However, the line was an inconveniently long distance from the lucrative iron ore mines in the north of the valley, along the south flank of the Eston Hills, and provided no connection at all for mines east of Guisborough. The M&GR had been built by a group of industrialists based in Stockton and Darlington who used it to service their own mines, deliberately avoiding the estates of their rivals. It only provided a minimal passenger service to Middlesbrough – one train a day each way – and the line had originally not even been planned to have a passenger station in Guisborough. The M&GR was unpopular with local people and mine owners who saw it as a would-be monopolist that served narrow commercial interests rather than the wider public good. During Parliamentary discussions into the Cleveland Railway's proposed route, a Select Committee of the House of Commons was told that the M&GR was "unwilling to give facility for people carrying traffic not connected with the furnaces with which they are connected." The M&GR's attitude aroused strong local resentment. When one of those testifying to the Select Committee was asked what the local landowners would think of a new railway independent of the S&D, he replied that "they would all jump at having such a proposal made to them." The West Hartlepool Harbour and Railway (WHH&R) and a number of landowners struck an agreement to construct a line from the Tees at Cargo Fleet via Normanby, Upsall and Guisborough to Skinningrove, with connecting links and branches to Staithes and Skelton-in-Cleveland. The line would connect to the WHH&R's own route north of the river via a crossing of the Tees. Several local landowners through which the proposed line ran were key to the scheme – Captain Thomas Chaloner of Guisborough, J.T. Wharton of Skelton Castle, Anthony Lax Maynard of Skinningrove and Ralph Ward Jackson of Greatham Hall, Normanby. Ward Jackson, who was the chairman of the WHH&R, was the driving force behind the project and envisaged making West Hartlepool into the industrial heart of Teesside. The construction of the line was strongly opposed by the S&D, which put forward a rival proposal that led to a Parliamentary enquiry. The two companies each had part of their schemes accepted and part rejected. The Ward Jackson group was allowed to build a railway east from Guisborough to Skinningrove with a branch at Slapewath to reach the mine at Skelton. They were not permitted to build their own separate line to Middlesbrough and had to rely instead on the M&GR for their connection to the Tees. The S&D was allowed to build an extension from Redcar to Saltburn but was not allowed to build a new bridge across the Tees. An Act permitting the construction of the railway was passed in July 1858. The company was capitalised with £120,000, half of which came from the WHH&R, with Ward Jackson as its first chairman. ### Extension of the line to Normanby Ward Jackson continued to seek independence from the M&GR and put forward a fresh proposal in 1859 to extend the line from Guisborough to the Tees at Cargo Fleet, so that the increasing demand for iron ore shipments to Tyneside could more easily be met. The S&D again opposed it. Although the House of Commons unanimously approved the Cleveland Extension Bill, it was rejected by the House of Lords. However, this left the door open for a private railway on the lands owned by Ward Jackson and his supporters. They began to construct it in 1860 under the auspices of the "Upsall, Normanby and Ormesby Railway". Once again, the S&D opposed it, this time on the grounds that the new line had to cross the S&D's Redcar branch line, but it eventually gave permission for the construction of a bridge to cross its line. A more serious problem was raised by the need to construct a new river crossing at the end of the line in Normanby. The WHH&R had sought to build a bridge across the Tees at that point but had been blocked by the Tees Conservancy Commission, at the prompting of the S&D. The WHH&R instead resolved to build a jetty that would enable loaded iron ore wagons to be transported across the river on barges. The S&D used its influence with the Commissioners to stop the jetty as well. They undertook legal action in the Court of Chancery to stop it but construction proceeded regardless. The dispute led to violent clashes between the two sides on 10 September 1860 in an event dubbed the "Battle of the Tees", when Tees Conservancy barges sent to blockade the jetty were forcibly removed by West Hartlepool steam tugs. The police had to intervene to restore order. The WHH&R was the clear winner of the confrontation and was able to complete its jetty. The line was substantially completed by the spring of 1861. It consisted of two linked private railways running through the estates of Ward Jackson and Captain Chaloner of Guisborough. A bridge was constructed in March 1861 to carry Chaloner's section of the line over the M&GR just outside Guisborough station, bypassing the town to connect with the Cleveland Railway's existing eastbound line to Skinningrove. A fresh Act of Parliament, the Cleveland Railway Act, was passed in July 1861 to authorise the Cleveland Railway Company to operate the new line. Although the S&D was still vehemently opposed, Parliament had by now tired of the disputes between the companies and passed the Act over the objections of the S&D. The line was opened on 23 November 1861, with a total length of 13 miles (21 km) running from Skelton Mine to Normanby Jetty. Crossing the gorge at Slapewath on the eight-arched Waterfall Viaduct, which still stands today, it skirted the south-west of Guisborough and crossed Chapel Beck on wooden viaducts. From there it ran on a nearly straight embankment across the fields west of Guisborough before curving northwards to Normanby through a gap in the Eston Hills. Branch lines and tramways connected the line to a number of mines along its route. It had no passenger stations and did not offer any passenger services, despite the poor connections from Guisborough that had caused so much discontent with the M&GR. ### Mergers, onward connections and closures Financial irregularities at the WHH&R led in 1862 to the company suffering severe financial difficulties, resulting in the resignation of Ward Jackson from the boards of the WHH&R and the Cleveland Railway. Parliament refused to authorise further contributions from the WHH&R to the Cleveland Railway. Nonetheless, funds were raised to construct new extensions via Boosbeck and Loftus. The Cleveland Railway, the M&GR and the S&D were all taken over in 1865 by the North Eastern Railway (NER). The new management authorised the construction of a link from Saltburn (which the S&D had reached in 1861) via Skelton to the Cleveland Railway's route at Brotton, forking south to reach Guisborough. This connection, completed in 1872, provided a new connection between Teesside and the East Cleveland mines, running north of the Eston Hills. Further capacity was provided by doubling the tracks on the line running east of Guisborough. This made the former Cleveland Railway's line west of Guisborough redundant and it was closed in 1873 after only twelve years of service, though the parallel MG&R line to Middlesbrough remained open for a further 90 years. Although the old Cleveland Railway had not provided any passenger services, during the 1870s the NER built a number of stations at the eastern end of the line. Passenger services began from Brotton, Skinningrove and Loftus in 1875, plus Boosbeck in 1878. The tortuous history of the Cleveland Railway had a lasting effect on the provision of rail services to Guisborough. It did not at any time offer a passenger service to the town, leaving that instead to the M&GR, which provided only a single-platform station at the end of its line into the town. This line was bypassed by the Cleveland Railway en route to Skinningrove. After the westbound Cleveland Railway was closed, the eastbound line was joined with the M&GR line, leaving Guisborough railway station at the end of a spur. Trains thus had to reverse out of the station before continuing along the line to Loftus. It remained this way until the line was closed in 1964. ## Cleveland Railway today The east end of the Cleveland Railway, from Loftus to Brotton plus the connection to the Tees Valley Line west of Saltburn, is still in use as a mineral railway serving Boulby Mine. There are no passenger services. The short connection from the Tees Valley Line to Normanby Jetty survived until 1966 as the Normanby Branch of the Tees Valley Line, serving the Normanby brickworks and Eston railway station. It is now a public footpath, the South Bank Walkway, which links Flatts Lane Country Park to South Bank. The middle section of the line from Normanby to Guisborough is in private ownership or has been built on, though the former railway's embankment can still be clearly seen running alongside the A171 Middlesbrough Road. The section from Guisborough to Slapewath has been converted into a public footpath, the Guisborough Branch Walkway. ## Gallery	[ "## History", "### Origins of the line", "### Extension of the line to Normanby", "### Mergers, onward connections and closures", "## Cleveland Railway today", "## Gallery" ]	2,515	22,349
30,075,404	SMS Hagen	1,171,530,173	Coastal defense ship of the German Imperial Navy	[ "1893 ships", "Ships built in Kiel", "Siegfried-class coastal defense ships", "World War I coastal defense ships of Germany" ]	SMS Hagen was the final vessel of the six-member Siegfried class of coastal defense ships (Küstenpanzerschiffe) built for the German Imperial Navy. Her sister ships were Siegfried, Beowulf, Frithjof, Heimdall, and Hildebrand. Hagen was built by the Kaiserliche Werft (Imperial Shipyard) in Kiel between 1891 and 1893, and was armed with a main battery of three 24-centimeter (9.4 in) guns. She served in the German fleet throughout the 1890s and was rebuilt in 1900 - 1902. She served in the VI Battle Squadron after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, but saw no action. Hagen was demobilized in 1915 and used as a barracks ship thereafter. She was ultimately sold for scrap in 1919 and subsequently dismantled. ## Design In the late 1880s, the German Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy) grappled with the problem of what type of capital ship to build in the face of limited naval budgets (owing to parliamentary objections to naval spending and the cost of dredging the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal). General Leo von Caprivi, the new Chef der Admiralität (Chief of the Admiralty), requested a series of design proposals, which ranged in size from small 2,500 t (2,461-long-ton) coastal defense ships to heavily armed 10,000 t (9,800-long-ton) ocean-going battleships. Caprivi ordered ten coastal defense ships to guard the entrances to the canal, since even opponents of the navy in the Reichstag (Imperial Diet) agreed that such vessels were necessary. The first six of these, the Siegfried class, were based on the smallest proposal. Hagen was 79 meters (259 ft) long overall and had a beam of 14.90 m (48.9 ft) and a maximum draft of 5.74 m (18.8 ft). She displaced 3,500 t (3,400 long tons) normally and up to 3,741 t (3,682 long tons) at full load. Her hull had a long forecastle deck that extended most of the vessel's length. She was also fitted with a pronounced ram bow. Hagen had a crew of 20 officers and 256 enlisted men. Her propulsion system consisted of two vertical 3-cylinder triple-expansion engines, each driving a screw propeller. Steam for the engines was provided by four coal-fired fire-tube boilers that were vented through a single funnel. The ship's propulsion system provided a top speed of 14.8 knots (27.4 km/h; 17.0 mph) from 4,800 metric horsepower (3,500 kW) and a range of approximately 1,490 nautical miles (2,760 km; 1,710 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). The ship was armed with a main battery of three 24 cm (9.4 in) K L/35 guns mounted in three single gun turrets. Two were placed side by side forward, and the third was located aft of the main superstructure. They were supplied with a total of 204 rounds of ammunition. For defense against torpedo boats, the ship was also equipped with a secondary battery of eight 8.8 cm (3.5 in) SK L/30 guns in single mounts. Hagen also carried four 35 cm (13.8 in) torpedo tubes, all in swivel mounts on the deck. One was at the bow, another at the stern, and two amidships. The ship was protected by an armored belt that was 240 mm (9.4 in) in the central citadel, and an armored deck that was 30 mm (1.2 in) thick. The conning tower had 80 mm (3.1 in) thick sides. Hagen's armor consisted of new Krupp steel, a more effective type of armor than the compound steel the other members of the class received. The sides of the ship were fitted with anti-torpedo nets. ### Modifications In 1897, the ship had her anti-torpedo nets removed. Hagen was extensively rebuilt between 1899 and 1900 in an attempt to improve her usefulness. The ship was lengthened to 86.13 m (282.6 ft), which increased displacement to 4,000 t (3,900 long tons; 4,400 short tons) normally and 4,247 t (4,180 long tons; 4,682 short tons) at full load. The lengthened hull space was used to install additional boilers; her old fire-tube boilers were replaced with more efficient water-tube Thornycroft boilers, and a second funnel was added. The performance of her propulsion machinery increased to 15.3 knots (28.3 km/h; 17.6 mph) from 5,332 metric horsepower (3,922 kW), with a maximum range of 3,400 nmi (6,300 km; 3,900 mi) at 10 knots. Her secondary battery was increased to ten 8.8 cm guns, and the 35 cm torpedo tubes were replaced with three 45 cm (17.7 in) tubes. Her crew increased to 20 officers and 287 enlisted men. Work was completed by 1900. ## Service history ### Construction – 1899 Hagen, named for the legendary hero Hagen, was laid down in September 1891 at the Kaiserliche Werft (Imperial Shipyard) in Kiel. She was launched on 23 October 1893, having been christened by Otto Diederichsen, the director of the shipyard. She was commissioned for sea trials on 2 October 1894, under the command of Korvettenkapitän (Corvette Captain) Karl Rosendahl. She was then assigned to the newly created Reserve Division of the Baltic Sea. The ship embarked on an individual training cruise from 13 May to 2 June 1895 before joining the Reserve Division on 11 June. She was present for the naval review held at the opening of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal on 25 June. Hagen was immediately ordered to sail for Morocco in response to an international incident that followed the murder of two German merchants in the country. There, she joined the protected cruiser Kaiserin Augusta, and the old corvettes Marie and Stosch; the German government had demanded 250,000 marks as an indemnity, and the naval squadron was sent to secure it. After completing their mission, Hagen got underway on 10 August to return home, arriving in Wilhelmshaven nine days later. Upon returning, she immediately joined the rest of the fleet for the annual large-scale fleet maneuvers held every August and September. She operated with the Scouting Unit of the fleet for the exercises. On 19 September, she returned to the Reserve Division. At that time, KK von Arend relieved Rosendahl as the ship's commander. In early 1896, Hagen was assigned as the guard ship for Kiel. KK Adolf Goetz took command of the ship in May. She trained with I Battle Squadron from 28 June to 9 July and then with the Scouting Unit for the annual fleet maneuvers. Following the end of the exercises, KK Guido von Usedom replaced Goetz. She returned to the Reserve Division in 1897, and from 3 August to 25 September, operated with the newly formed II Battle Squadron during the fleet maneuvers, along with her five sister ships. During this period, Hagen served as the flagship of Konteradmiral (KAdm—Rear Admiral) Volkmar von Arnim, one of the squadron's two divisional commanders. The rest of the year passed uneventfully for Hagen. She continued to operate with the squadron in 1898; during training exercises in May, Hagen suffered a boiler explosion on the 31st, forcing her to withdraw from the maneuvers. Unable to steam under her own power, Hagen was taken under tow by the aviso Pfeil, which took her to Kiel for repairs. In July, Usedom was transferred to another vessel and the ship's executive officer, Kapitänleutnant (Captain Lieutenant) August Goette briefly took command before being replaced by KK Paul Walther in August, though his tenure was also brief, as Hagen was decommissioned on 29 September. ### 1900–1914 In May 1899, she was taken into drydock at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Danzig for an extensive reconstruction. Work was completed in late 1900, and she began sea trials on 2 October under the command of KK Carl Paschen. Following the completion of testing, Hagen steamed to Neufahrwassar on 12 December, where she rejoined the Reserve Division. Following the death of Queen Victoria of Great Britain in January 1901, Hagen joined the ironclad Baden and the protected cruiser Victoria Louise to represent Germany at the funeral ceremony at the Isle of Wight on 31 January. Hagen arrived back in Danzig on 11 February. In May, KK Gerhard Gerdes briefly relieved Paschen as the ship's captain, but Paschen returned in June. She operated with the Reserve Division through to the fleet maneuvers in August, when she was assigned to II Squadron for the duration of the exercise. The ship then went to Kiel for an overhaul. At that time, KK Karl Dick took command of the ship. The next two years passed in the same pattern of training exercises with the Reserve Division followed by fleet maneuvers in August and September. In September 1902, KK Hartwig von Dassel relieved Dick. The only event of note was a serious engine break down in early July 1903, forcing her to go to the Kaiserliche Werft in Danzig for repairs that lasted from 8 to 30 July. After Hagen reached the shipyard, Fregattenkapitän (FK—Frigate Captain) Eugen Weber took command of the vessel. She took part in the fleet maneuvers that year, thereafter being decommissioned on 17 September and placed in the reserve fleet. Hagen was reactivated only once in the next ten years, to take part in fleet maneuvers in 1909, which began on 22 July and concluded on 15 September; she thereafter returned to the reserve. ### World War I Following the start of World War I in July 1914, Hagen was mobilized for wartime service, being recommissioned on 12 August under the command of FK Lebrecht von Klitzing. She was assigned to VI Battle Squadron for coastal defense, along with her sister ships and the two Odin-class coastal defense ships. The unit was initially stationed on Germany's North Sea coast beginning on 15 September. She accidentally ran aground off Voslapp and had to be pulled free by her sister Hildebrand on 28 September. Hagen took part in coastal patrol duty from 29 September to 13 December, alternating between the Jade Bight and the mouth of the Weser. When the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group conducted the Raid on Yarmouth on 2–3 November, Hagen and the other ships were sent to the outer Jade roadstead to cover their return. In the early hours of 4 November, as I Scouting Group returned to the Jade, Hagen came to the aid of the sinking armored cruiser Yorck, helping to evacuate more than half of her crew. That month, FK Kurtz replaced Klitzing as the ship's captain. Hagen was transferred to the mouth of the Ems on 14 December, remaining there on guard duty through 14 June 1915. She thereafter returned to patrol the Jade and Weser for the next two months. On 30 August 1915, Hagen was withdrawn from guard duty, and the next day, VI Battle Squadron was disbanded. Hagen left Wilhelmshaven on 1 September, bound for Danzig, where she was decommissioned, which allowed Hagen's crew to be transferred to other warships. Beginning in June 1916, she was employed as a barracks ship initially in Libau, to support U-boat crews stationed in the Baltic. She was towed to Danzig on 19 August to serve as a barracks for the crew of the old pre-dreadnought battleship Lothringen, which was at that time on patrol duty in the Danish straits. She was moved once again, further west to Warnemünde, on 22 September, where she remained through the end of the war. Following Germany's defeat in November 1918, she was struck from the naval register on 17 June 1919. She was sold for scrapping to Norddeutsche Tiefbaugesellschaft of Berlin and broken for scrap.	[ "## Design", "### Modifications", "## Service history", "### Construction – 1899", "### 1900–1914", "### World War I" ]	2,708	26,041
11,598,911	Jack Reed (Mississippi politician)	1,146,117,283	American businessman and politician	[ "1924 births", "2016 deaths", "Businesspeople from Mississippi", "Methodists from Mississippi", "Mississippi Republicans", "New York University alumni", "Politicians from Tupelo, Mississippi", "School board members in Mississippi", "United States Army non-commissioned officers", "United States Army personnel of World War II", "Vanderbilt University alumni" ]	Jack Raymond Reed Sr. (May 19, 1924 – January 27, 2016) was an American businessman and politician. Born in Tupelo, Mississippi, he served in the United States Army during World War II and earned degrees from Vanderbilt University and New York University before returning home to help run his family's retail business. He later assumed control over their department store after his father's death in 1956. Active in local civic affairs, he chaired the Mississippi Economic Council from 1963 to 1964 and became a vocal proponent for public education. Appointed to the Mississippi Board of Education in 1984, he chaired the body until he decided to run for the office of governor of Mississippi in 1987 as a moderate Republican. Reed lost the general election but performed better than any Republican gubernatorial candidate had in Mississippi in the 20th century to that point. In his later life he continued to advocate for public education. He died in 2016. ## Early life Jack Raymond Reed was born on May 19, 1924, in Tupelo, Mississippi, to Bob and Hoyt Reed. His father was a businessman who had established a grocery store and dry goods store in the town. Reed attended public schools in Tupelo before enrolling at Vanderbilt University. Upon the outbreak of World War II, Reed enlisted in the United States Army and was assigned to the U.S. Army Intelligence Corps. He was taught Japanese and then served as a code-breaker, operating from Australia. He later joined the occupation of Japan before leaving the army with the rank of sergeant. He finished his studies at Vanderbilt and received a master's degree in retailing from New York University. While at the latter school, he completed internships at Brooks Brothers and Bloomingdale's. He rejected a permanent job offer at Brooks Brothers and returned home in 1948 to help with his family's venture, Reed's Department Store. He married Frances Camille Purvis in 1950 and had four children with her. ## Business and civic career Reed's father died in 1956, leaving Reed and his two brothers equal partners in the store and other family business ventures. They shortly thereafter reorganized their holdings, leaving Reed in charge of the store. By the 2010s, Reed's Department Store was one of only two major independent department store's in operation in the state. Smaller branches of the retailer were later opened in Columbus and Starkville. He chaired the board of directors of a local bank and the Mississippi Economic Council from 1963 to 1964. He was elected president of the Mississippi Retail Merchants Association in 1966. In 1984 he and his brothers opened a bookstore in Tupelo. Reed became active in civic affairs in Tupelo. He believed that Jim Crow racial segregation and racial bigotry harmed Mississippi's economic prospects and during the 1960s encouraged white residents to remain supportive of the local public schools despite federal integration orders. Following the Ole Miss riot, in which a white mob attempted to halt the integration of the University of Mississippi, and numerous calls by politicians to close the state's public schools, Reed delivered a speech at the Heidelberg Hotel on January 22, 1963. He said, "We must support public education and keep our schools open! [...] A responsible citizen who wishes to see Mississippi prosper and realize her full economic potential can hardly do less!" This made him one of only a few prominent white Mississippians to question the state's approach towards segregation. Though several state legislators in attendance walked out during his speech and one man bought a half-page newspaper advertisement to denounce him, Reed later viewed it as his "defining moment" in civic affairs. He worked with Tupelo Journal publisher George McLean to cofound LIFT, a charitable organization which administered the Head Start program. He later served on the board of directors of the Journal. ## Political career In 1980 the Mississippi State Legislature, at the request of Governor William F. Winter, created a commission to study public education, the Blue Ribbon Committee on Education. Winter appointed Reed to the body, which subsequently elected him as its chairman. The committee worked through the year to document perceived flaws in the state's education system and proposed reforms. For his work, the Mississippi Association of Educators accorded Reed its 1981 Friend of Education Award. Some of the reforms were implemented in the Education Reform Act of 1982. By the 1980s Reed had a reputation for supporting the Republican Party at a national level but supporting the Democratic Party in statewide contests. He supported businessman Mike Sturdivant's candidacy in the 1983 Democratic gubernatorial primary. The primary and general election were won by William Allain. Despite the fact that Reed had backed one of his opponents, the governor appreciated his work on education reform and appointed him to the first lay Mississippi Board of Education in 1984. Reed was sworn-in on July 2 and the board members subsequently chose him to chair the body. He left the board in 1987 to run for governor. Reed began mulling over the possibility of contesting the 1987 Mississippi gubernatorial election in 1986, though he was initially unsure of which party's nomination he would seek. Reed eventually declared his candidacy as a Republican, later explaining that "it was only chance I had to get elected". He said of his personal views on the parties that "In my heart I'm a Democrat but in my head I'm a Republican." He ultimately won the Republican primary, defeating financial consultant Doug Lemon with 78 percent of the vote. Reed ran as a moderate in the general election against Democratic State Auditor Ray Mabus. Both candidates supported education improvement, government reform, and industrial recruitment, though by different means. Mabus sought to increase teacher salaries to the Southeastern average rate within one year, while Reed proposed a five-year plan. He also sought to stress that he was "not a professional politician" and not beholden to partisan loyalties. He conducted outreach with black voters and gained the support of some black businessmen—one of the few Mississippi Republicans to do so—but struggled to gain larger black traction. He also supported abortion restrictions and school prayer. Mabus outspent Reed's campaign and won with 53 percent of the vote. Reed performed well among white rural Democrats due to his socially conservative views on abortion and prayer in school, but attracted little black support due to the nationally conservative shift of the Republican Party. He also lost some urban counties to Mabus. Nevertheless, his 46.6 percent of the vote was the largest any Republican gubernatorial candidate had received in Mississippi in the 20th century to that point. He supported Pete Johnson in the 1991 Republican gubernatorial primary. During the 1987 campaign Reed became acquainted with U.S. Vice President George H. W. Bush. After Bush became president, he appointed Reed to a seat on the National Advisory Committee on Education Research and Improvement in 1990. Reed was made the council's chairman, but felt the body accomplished little, and he left in 1993 upon Bill Clinton's assumption of the presidency. In 2000 he served on a state commission to consider alterations to the flag of Mississippi, including the removal of its canton of the Confederate battle flag. Accepting the position only after urging from the commission chairman, William Winter, Reed later dubbed it "the low point" of his public career, expressing dismay at the public opposition to altering the flag. The commission held a public meeting chaired by him in Tupelo where many in the audience denounced the notion of taking the flag, and as a result Reed received angry letters and some protestors picketed his department store. In 2004 he and Winter lobbied for the legislature to fund the Mississippi Adequate Education Program and hosted eight public forums to build public support for the program. He jokingly referred to their partnership as "Octogenarians Against Ignorance". ## Later life In 2007, the Mississippi Association of Partners in Education created the Winter-Reed Partnership Award in homage to Reed and Winter to be bestowed annually to a Mississippian for public service in education. A collection of Reed's speeches from his career, A Time To Speak, was published in 2009. In 2015, Reed was awarded an honorary Doctor of Public Service degree from Millsaps College. He died on January 27, 2016, at the age of 91. The following day U.S. Senator Thad Cochran read a tribute of him into the Congressional Record. A funeral was held at First United Methodist Church in Tupelo on January 30. His son, Jack Reed Jr., served as mayor of Tupelo from 2009 to 2013.	[ "## Early life", "## Business and civic career", "## Political career", "## Later life" ]	1,787	36,746
66,063,538	Bonacynodon	1,163,881,310	Extinct genus of cynodonts	[ "Carnian genera", "Fossil taxa described in 2016", "Fossils of Brazil", "Ladinian genera", "Late Triassic synapsids of South America", "Middle Triassic synapsids of South America", "Prehistoric cynodont genera", "Prehistoric probainognathians", "Santa Maria Formation", "Triassic Brazil" ]	Bonacynodon is an extinct genus of cynodonts that lived in what is now southern Brazil during the Triassic period (Ladinian–Carnian ages). The genus is monotypic, containing only the type species Bonacynodon schultzi. B. schultzi is known from two specimens, consisting of two partial skulls and some badly preserved parts of the postcranium. Both specimens were recovered from the Pinheiros-Chiniquá Sequence, part of the Santa Maria Supersequence of the Paraná Basin. This sequence preserves a faunal association known as the Dinodontosaurus Assemblage Zone, which contains numerous other species of cynodonts, dicynodonts and reptiles. Bonacynodon was a small, likely insectivorous cynodont, whose length has been estimated at around 30 centimetres (12 in). It can be distinguished from other cynodonts by its large, serrated (saw-like) canine teeth. Together with the genus Probainognathus of Argentina, it made up the family Probainognathidae, one of the earliest-diverging lineages of the clade Probainognathia. It was a fairly close relative of mammals, the only group of cynodonts alive today. ## Discovery and naming Bonacynodon schultzi is known from two specimens, the holotype MCT-1716-R and the referred specimen (paratype) MCT-1717-R. They were both discovered in the 1940s by the Brazilian palaeontologist Llewellyn Ivor Price in two separate rocky outcrops (sangas) in the Pinheiros region, around 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) south of the town of Candelária, Rio Grande do Sul. The rocks belong to the Pinheiros-Chiniquá Sequence of the Santa Maria Supersequence, which has been dated to the Ladinian to early Carnian ages. The holotype was found in an outcrop known as the Sanga do Janguta, and was preserved together with a specimen of the dicynodont Dinodontosaurus. It consists primarily of a partial skull, including parts of the skull roof, lower jaw, upper and lower dentition, basicranium and palate. The skull roof was heavily damaged during preparation. The holotype also includes some very fragmentary postcranial elements, which have not been described in detail. The referred specimen was found in a different outcrop, the Sanga do Forno. Like the holotype, it preserves parts of the cranium, lower jaw and upper and lower dentition. Its shape has been heavily distorted during fossilisation, but it preserves some parts of the skull that are missing in the holotype. Based on the lack of wear facets on the teeth, it has been suggested that both specimens represent subadult individuals. The specimens were first given a proper description in 2016, when they were given a new generic and specific name by Agustín G. Martinelli and colleagues. The first part of the generic name Bonacynodon is derived from the surname of José Bonaparte, an Argentine palaeontologist who specialised in the Mesozoic vertebrates of South America. The second part, cynodon, is partly derived from the Ancient Greek word κύων (kuōn), meaning "dog", and is a reference to it being a cynodont. The specific epithet schultzi honours Cesar L. Schultz, a Brazilian palaeontologist and professor at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul. ## Description Bonacynodon was a small cynodont, with an estimated total length of around 30 centimetres (12 in). ### Skull The skull of Bonacynodon was about 6–7 centimetres (2.4–2.8 in) long. The temporal region (area behind the eye sockets) was wide, and somewhat longer than the snout. The sagittal crest (a narrow ridge running across the top of the skull) was relatively low. The secondary palate (roof of the mouth) consisted of two parts, a larger section formed by the maxillae (upper jaw bones), and a smaller one formed by the palatine bones. As in the closely related Probainognathus, the palate ended in front of the last postcanine; this is somewhat shorter than what is seen in the more basal (early-diverging) chiniquodontids and the more derived (late-diverging) prozostrodonts. The upper jaw consisted of two bones, the premaxilla in the front, and the maxilla in the back. Above the canines and front postcanines were multiple small holes called infraorbital foramina; at least three foramina are seen in the holotype, while the referred specimen preserves two or three. Based on other basal probainognathians, Bonacynodon likely had additional foramina which have not been preserved in the fossils. The tooth-bearing part of the upper jaw had a sigmoid (S-shaped) curve, sloping downwards near the postcanines before curving upwards again near the orbit. The lower jaw consisted primarily of a single bone, the dentary. The dentary body was somewhat tall, and the symphysis (the connection between the two halves of the dentary) was apparently unfused. The front part of the dentary bore at least three mental foramina on each side. The back part possessed a long and backwards-pointing projection known as the coronoid process. A large basin called the masseteric fossa stretched from near the last postcanine to the tip of the coronoid process. Like in other probainognathians, the postdentary bones (a set of bones at the back of the lower jaw) were highly reduced compared to the condition in more basal cynodonts, forming a small, rod-like structure. ### Dentition Bonacynodon possessed three types of teeth: incisors, canines and postcanines. It appears to have had four pairs of incisors in its upper jaw; these were slender, with a round cross section. The first three incisors were roughly equal in size, while the fourth one was slightly smaller. The incisors were widely spaced, with a particularly large gap (diastema) between the third and fourth ones. There was a similarly large gap between the last incisor and the canine. The upper canines were large, and flattened from side to side. The canines had strongly serrated (saw-like) back edges, which is an autapomorphy (unique derived feature) of the taxon. The lower incisors are not known from either specimen. Of the lower canines, only a partial left root from the holotype is known. The shape and size of this root was however similar to that of the upper canines. Behind each upper canine were six postcanine teeth, which were widely spaced and did not contact each other. The crowns were compressed from side to side, and possessed multiple straight, unserrated cusps (pointed projections of the teeth) which were arranged in a line. The first three upper postcanines bore three cusps, with the one in the middle (cusp A) being the largest, and the ones in front and back (cusps B and C respectively) being smaller. The fourth and fifth upper postcanines additionally possessed a small fourth cusp (cusp D) behind cusp C, and there may also have been a fifth (accessory) cusp. The sixth upper postcanine was apparently less developed than the fourth and fifth ones, and it bore at least three cusps. The lower postcanines are incompletely known, but they appear to have been similar to the upper ones. The cingula were poorly developed and bore no cusps. Unlike in the prozostrodonts, there was no abrupt change in morphology between the front and back postcanines, and the roots were not constricted. ## Classification When describing Bonacynodon, Martinelli and colleagues performed a phylogenetic analysis to find out its relationships to other cynodonts. It was recovered as the sister taxon of Probainognathus, a similar probainognathian from the Chañares Formation of Argentina. Together with Probainognathus, Bonacynodon was placed in the family Probainognathidae. The probainognathids were found to be closely related to Prozostrodontia, a clade (group formed by all descendants of a common ancestor) which includes mammals, the only extant (living) cynodonts, as well as several other groups. Subsequent analyses have upheld the sister relationship of Bonacynodon and Probainognathus. Below is a cladogram following the analysis of Martinelli et al. (2016): ## Palaeobiology Early-diverging probainognathians like the ecteniniids and Chiniquodon had postcanine teeth with strongly recurved (and in the case of the ecteniniids, even serrated) cusps, which would have been well-suited for a carnivorous diet. The straight, unserrated postcanine cusps of probainognathids like Bonacynodon were more similar to those of basal prozostrodonts; this is thought to be an adaptation towards insectivory. As the holotype was preserved together with the remains of a dicynodont, Schwanke & Kellner (2009) hypothesised that the animal might have been an opportunistic scavenger. However, in 2016 Martinelli and colleagues suggested that it could instead have eaten insect larvae and other invertebrates that fed on the decomposing dicynodont. ## Palaeoenvironment Bonacynodon belongs to the Dinodontosaurus Assemblage Zone, the lowermost of the four biostratigraphic units of the Santa Maria Supersequence of the Paraná Basin. The Dinodontosaurus AZ corresponds to the Pinheiros-Chiniquá Sequence, one of the three stratigraphic sequences of the Supersequence. Together with the overlying Santa Cruz Sequence (containing the Santacruzodon AZ) and the lower part of the Candelária Sequence (containing the Hyperodapedon AZ), it comprises the traditional Santa Maria Formation. The Pinheiros-Chiniquá and Santa Cruz Sequences appear to have been deposited during a dry period, in which the landscape was dominated by loessic plains. Cynodonts make up a large portion of the fauna of the Dinodontosaurus Assemblage Zone. In addition to Bonacynodon, these include the probainognathians Aleodon, Candelariodon, Chiniquodon and Protheriodon, and the traversodontids Luangwa, Massetognathus, Protuberum, Scalenodon and Traversodon. Other vertebrates from this Assemblage Zone include the dicynodonts Dinodontosaurus and Stahleckeria, the parareptile Candelaria, the rhynchosaur Brasinorhynchus, the enigmatic archosauriform Barberenasuchus, several species of pseudosuchians (the group that contains modern-day crocodilians and their extinct relatives), and the aphanosaur (primitive stem-bird) Spondylosoma.	[ "## Discovery and naming", "## Description", "### Skull", "### Dentition", "## Classification", "## Palaeobiology", "## Palaeoenvironment" ]	2,367	35,301
24,281,059	Hurricane Fred (2009)	1,168,001,431	Category 3 Atlantic hurricane in 2009	[ "2009 Atlantic hurricane season", "Cape Verde hurricanes", "Category 3 Atlantic hurricanes", "Hurricanes in Cape Verde", "Tropical cyclones in 2009" ]	Hurricane Fred was one of the easternmost forming major hurricanes in the North Atlantic basin since satellite observations became available. Forming out of a strong tropical wave on September 7, 2009 near the Cape Verde Islands, Fred gradually organized within an area of moderate wind shear. The following day, decreasing shear allowed the storm to intensify and develop well-organized convective banding features. Later on September 8, Fred attained hurricane intensity and underwent rapid intensification overnight, attaining its peak intensity as a strong Category 3 hurricane with winds of 120 mph (195 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 958 mbar (hPa; 28.29 inHg). Shortly after reaching this intensity, the hurricane began to weaken as wind shear increased and dry air hampered convective development. Throughout September 10, Fred maintained Category 2 status before weakening to a Category 1 hurricane. Continued weakening took place on September 11 as convection became fully disorganized. Later that day, Fred weakened to a tropical storm and by September 12, no convection remained around the center of the former hurricane, leaving an exposed low-level circulation. The storm degenerated into a remnant-low later that day, corresponding with the final advisory from the National Hurricane Center (NHC). The remnants of Fred persisted for nearly a full week, traveling west-northwest across the Atlantic basin. The remnants finally dissipated on September 19. Prior to becoming a tropical depression, the precursor to Fred produced moderate to heavy rainfall in the southern Cape Verde Islands, leading to two flight cancellations and several delays. ## Meteorological history Hurricane Fred originated from a strong tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on September 6. Environmental conditions ahead of the system favored development and the system was forecast to slowly develop into a tropical cyclone. The following day, the wave tracked south of the Cape Verde Islands; however, it was close enough to bring showers and gusty winds to the southern islands. By this time, the National Hurricane Center anticipated the system to organize into a tropical depression within 24 hours. While passing near Cape Verde, a broad area of low pressure developed within the tropical wave. Following further development, the NHC declared that the low strengthened into a tropical depression, the seventh of the 2009 season, and issued their first advisory on it. Upon being classified a tropical depression, the system was located roughly 160 mi (255 km) south of the southernmost Cape Verde Islands. Upon being classified a tropical depression, the NHC noted that the center of circulation was difficult to locate and the mid-level circulation was displaced from the low-level circulation. The cyclone tracked slightly north of due west in response to a small ridge to the north. Moderate wind shear initially displaced convective activity to the west. Several hours after being classified, the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Fred; this was the first use of the name Fred in the Atlantic basin after it replaced Fabian which was retired in 2003. This followed the development of convective banding features along the periphery of the storm and strong shower and thunderstorm activity forming over the center of Fred. The system continued to organize, with the banding features becoming well-defined within hours and strong outflow developing around the storm. By the afternoon of September 8, an eye began to develop within a central dense overcast. Later that day, Fred intensified into a Category 1 hurricane with winds estimated at 75 mph (120 km/h). By the morning of September 9, satellite imagery depicted that Fred had undergone rapid intensification and attained Category 2 status. This resulted from the formation of a 12 mi (19 km)-wide eye due to low wind shear and high sea surface temperatures. This intensification continued for several more hours, ending with Fred attaining satellite-estimated its peak intensity as a solid Category 3 hurricane with winds of 120 mph (195 km/h) and an estimated barometric pressure of 958 mbar (hPa; 28.29 inHg), making it the second strongest storm of the season. Hours after attaining its peak intensity, Fred began to weaken as clouds began to fill the eye. By this time, the hurricane was beginning to turn toward the northwest as a subtropical ridge to the north weakened. Continued weakening took place as dry air started to erode convection along the southern edge of the system and the eye was no longer present on satellite imagery and wind shear also increased. Convection gradually became elongated in response to the shear and outflow was mostly restricted to the northeast region of the hurricane. By September 10, the mid-level circulation center was displaced from the low-level circulation center. On September 11, the convective pattern of Fred had no organized shape to it and the NHC downgraded the hurricane to a tropical storm. Unrelenting shear and dry air finally took their toll on September 12. By that time, no deep convection was associated with the main circulation of Fred, leaving the center fully exposed. The storm degenerated into a remnant-low later that day, corresponding with the final advisory from the National Hurricane Center. On September 13, despite being in an extremely hostile environment with very high wind shear, convection redeveloped near the center of Fred, and regeneration into a tropical cyclone was seen as a possibility. Two days later, the NHC noted that environmental conditions could become marginally favorable for redevelopment of the system. On September 16, the circulation of Fred became less defined and only intermittent convection persisted around the system. By September 17, the remnant circulation became increasingly disorganized and the system dissipated later that day without regenerating into a tropical cyclone. However, several hours later, a new area of low pressure formed in association with the remnants of Fred roughly 525 mi (845 km) south of Bermuda. The remnant low finally dissipated on September 19, roughly 520 mi (835 km) southwest of Bermuda. Remnant moisture from Hurricane Fred contributed to the 2009 Southeastern United States floods, which caused 10 fatalities and produced damages estimated at \$250 million. ## Historical perspective and impact Over the years that the Atlantic hurricane basin has been thoroughly studied since 1851, there was only one other storm prior to Hurricane Fred to attain Category 3 intensity south of 30°N and east of 35°W. This storm was Hurricane Frances in 1980. Frances attained major hurricane status farther south and east than Fred; however, Fred was the strongest of the two, peaking with estimated winds of 120 mph (195 km/h) and a minimum pressure of 958 mbar (hPa; 28.29 inHg). Just over a year later, this intensity record was broken by Hurricane Julia, which attained winds of 140 mph (225 km/h) and a pressure of 948 mbar (hPa; 27.99 inHg) at 17.7°N and 32.2°W, becoming the easternmost-forming Category 4 hurricane on record. In one of the NHC's discussions on Hurricane Fred, it was mentioned that due to the unusual location of a storm of its intensity, the hurricane would likely have gone unnoticed before the advent of satellite imagery in the 1960s. Several hours before being declared a tropical depression, the precursor to Fred produced moderate rainfall and gusty winds across the southern Cape Verde Islands. In the city of Praia, Cape Verde, only a trace of rain, less than 0.1 in (2.5 mm) fell on September 7 and sustained winds reached 25 mph (40 km/h). The increased winds and heavy rains led to the cancellation of two flights and the delay of several others. ## See also - Timeline of the 2009 Atlantic hurricane season - Hurricane Frances (1980) - Hurricane Julia (2010) - Hurricane Fred (2015) – became the easternmost Atlantic hurricane before moving through Cape Verde	[ "## Meteorological history", "## Historical perspective and impact", "## See also" ]	1,644	6,617
1,623,170	USS Porter (DD-59)	1,134,932,380	Tucker-class destroyer	[ "1915 ships", "Ships built by William Cramp & Sons", "Ships of the United States Coast Guard", "Ships transferred from the United States Navy to the United States Coast Guard", "Tucker-class destroyers", "World War I destroyers of the United States" ]	USS Porter (Destroyer No. 59/DD-59) was a Tucker-class destroyer built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of both David Porter and his son David Dixon Porter. Porter was laid down by the William Cramp & Sons of Philadelphia, in August 1914 and launched in August of the following year. The ship was a little more than 315 feet (96 m) in length, just over 30 feet (9.1 m) abeam, and had a standard displacement of 1,090 long tons (1,110 t). She was armed with four 4-inch (10 cm) guns and had eight 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes. Porter was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 29.5 knots (54.6 km/h). After her April 1916 commissioning, Porter conducted her shakedown cruise in the Caribbean. After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, Porter was part of the first U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas. Patrolling the Irish and Celtic Sea out of Queenstown, Ireland, Porter severely damaged the German submarine U-108 in April 1918. Upon returning to the United States after the war, Porter operated off the east coast until she was decommissioned in June 1922. In June 1924, Porter was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the "Rum Patrol". She operated under the name USCGC Porter (CG-7) until 1933, when she was returned to the Navy. Later that year, the ship was renamed DD-59 to free the name Porter for another destroyer. She was sold for scrap in August 1934. ## Design and construction Porter was authorized in 1913 as the third ship of the Tucker class which, like the related O'Brien class, was an improved version of the Cassin-class destroyers authorized in 1911. Construction of the vessel was awarded to William Cramp & Sons of Philadelphia, which laid down her keel on 24 August 1914. Twelve months later, on 26 August 1915, Porter was launched by sponsor Miss Georgiana Porter Cusachs, a descendant of the ship's namesakes, Commodore David Porter (1780–1843) and son Admiral David Dixon Porter (1813–1891), both notable U.S. Navy officers. As built, Porter was 315 feet 3 inches (96.09 m) in length and 30 feet 6 inches (9.30 m) abeam and drew 9 feet 4 inches (2.84 m). The ship had a standard displacement of 1,090 long tons (1,110 t) and displaced 1,205 long tons (1,224 t) when fully loaded. Porter had two Curtis steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers, and an additional steam turbine geared to one of the propeller shafts for cruising purposes. The power plant could generate 18,000 shaft horsepower (13,000 kW) and move the ship at speeds up to 29.5 knots (54.6 km/h). Porter's main battery consisted of four 4-inch (102 mm)/50 Mark 9 guns, with each gun weighing in excess of 6,100 pounds (2,800 kg). The guns fired 33-pound (15 kg) armor-piercing projectiles at 2,900 feet per second (880 m/s). At an elevation of 20°, the guns had a range of 15,920 yards (14,560 m). Porter was also equipped with eight 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes. The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti-aircraft guns for the Tucker-class ships, as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines. From sources, it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for Porter or any of the other ships of the class. ## United States Navy career USS Porter was commissioned into the United States Navy on 17 April 1916 under the command of Lieutenant Commander Ward K. Wortman. Following her commissioning, Porter's shakedown was conducted in the Caribbean. After the United States entry into World War I on 6 April 1917, Porter was readied for overseas duty and departed from New York on 24 April with the other five ships of her division—Wadsworth (the flagship), Davis, Conyngham, McDougal, and Wainwright. The sextet arrived at Queenstown, Ireland, on 4 May and began patrolling the southern approaches to the Irish Sea the next day. Based at Queenstown, Porter met and escorted convoys from the United States as they entered the war zone. On 16 October 1917, Porter came to the aid of American destroyer Cassin, which had been torpedoed by German submarine U-61 about 20 nautical miles (37 km) south of Mine Head, Ireland. Cassin's stern had nearly been blown off and her rudder was gone, leaving the ship unable to steer. Porter arrived at about 16:00 and stayed with Cassin until dusk when two British sloops, Jessamine and Tamarisk, took over for Porter; Cassin was towed to safety and later returned to patrol duty. On 28 April 1918, Porter severely damaged U-108 while that German submarine was steaming to intercept a convoy. The destroyer was transferred to Brest, France, on 14 June. She returned to the United States at the end of the war, and operated off the East Coast until she was decommissioned on 23 June 1922. ## United States Coast Guard career On 17 January 1920, Prohibition was instituted by law in the United States. Soon, the smuggling of alcoholic beverages along the coastlines of the United States became widespread and blatant. The Treasury Department eventually determined that the United States Coast Guard simply did not have the ships to constitute a successful patrol. To cope with the problem, President Calvin Coolidge in 1924 authorized the transfer from the Navy to the Coast Guard of twenty old destroyers that were in reserve and out of commission. Porter was reactivated and transferred to the Treasury Department on 7 June 1924 for use by the Coast Guard. Designated CG-7, Porter was commissioned on 20 February 1925, and was stationed in New York for duties on the "Rum Patrol" to aid in the attempt to enforce prohibition laws. During her Coast Guard service, Porter captured the rum-running vessel Conseulo II (the former Louise) off the coast of Long Island. After the United States Congress proposed the Twenty-first Amendment to end prohibition in February 1933, plans were made for Porter to be returned to the Navy. On 27 May 1933, Porter arrived at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, and was decommissioned nine days later, on 5 June. Porter was transferred back to the Navy on 30 June. Later in 1933 the ship was renamed DD-59 in order to free the name Porter for a new destroyer of the same name. DD-59 remained in noncommissioned status until struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 5 July 1934. She was sold for scrap on 22 August in accordance with the London Naval Treaty.	[ "## Design and construction", "## United States Navy career", "## United States Coast Guard career" ]	1,546	5,888
10,933,825	1928 World Snooker Championship	1,110,440,806	Professional snooker tournament	[ "1927 in snooker", "1928 in English sport", "1928 in snooker", "World Snooker Championships" ]	The 1928 World Snooker Championship was a professional snooker tournament held at various venues from 28 December 1927 to 17 May 1928. It was the second staging of the World Snooker Championship. It was played on a challenge basis with the other six entrants playing off for the right to challenge defending champion Joe Davis in the final. The final was held at the Camkin's Hall in Birmingham, England, with three of the other matches contested there, and one each played in Leamington Spa and Nottingham. Davis won 16–13 in the final against Fred Lawrence, and retained the title. Davis had won the professional billiards championship earlier in May, and became the first person to hold the professional titles in billiards and snooker titles concurrently, and then the first person to win them both in the same season. The highest of the snooker tournament was 46, compiled by Alec Mann in the third of his first round match against Albert Cope. ## Background Professional English billiards player and billiard hall manager Joe Davis had noticed the increasing popularity of snooker compared to billiards in the 1920s, and with Birmingham-based billiard hall manager Bill Camkin, who had also seen snooker's increasing appeal, persuaded the Billiards Association and Control Council (BACC) to recognise an official professional snooker championship in the 1926–27 season. The inaugural event was won by Davis, who defeated Tom Dennis 20–11 in the final. Originally called the Professional Championship of Snooker, the annual competition was not titled the World Championship until 1935, but the 1927 tournament is now referred to as the first World Snooker Championship. For the 1928 championship, a qualifying competition was held to produce a challenger to Davis, the defending champion. Most of the rules of the competition were as per the previous year, except that the preliminary rounds were to be played over 23 (rather than the 15 in 1927). Entry fees would be used to provide prize money for the finalists, with 60 per cent going to the champion. As a trophy had been purchased the previous year, there was no need to deduct money from entry fees to buy one, unlike at the first staging. The venue for the semi-finals and final was to be Camkin's Hall, Birmingham, with those matches supervised by the Midland Counties Billiard Association, and the players concerned would be left to arrange the locations for earlier rounds. The entry fee was set at five guineas per player (), with a five-guineas sidestake required. The Billiards Championship had been contested on a similar basis, with qualifying matches to produce a challenger to the champion, previously, and the system continued for that competition as well, but with an entry fee of £50 for the preliminary rounds, . The closing date for entries for the snooker championship was 1 November 1927. There were seven entrants: Davis, Dennis, Tom Newman, Fred Smith, Albert Cope, Alec Mann, and Fred Lawrence. ## Summary The first match played was between Tom Newman and Fred Smith at the Albert Hall, Kenilworth Street, Leamington Spa from 28 to 30 December. Newman led 7–1 after the first day and 10–6 at the end of the second day. Newman won the first two frames on the final day to secure victory at 12–6. Alec Mann compiled a of 46 in the third frame against Albert Cope and made a 23 break at his following visit. During that frame he conceded points from five successive shots, and more from two later fouls, finally winning the frame by 107 points to 42. The match was 2–2 at the first interval, before Mann took three of the next four to lead 5–3 after the first day. On the second day, Mann added the first four frames, with Cope subsequently recovering from 3–9 to 6–10, and on the third day secured the win at 12–8. The three "dead" frames were played, resulting in a final score of 14–9 to Mann. Mann's break of 46 was the highest made in the 1928 tournament. On 16 January, the day after he had eliminated Cope, Mann's match against Fred Lawrence commenced. Mann obtained a 3–1 lead, before the first day finished at 4–4. Lawrence took a 7–5 lead, and after the players each added a further two frames, was 9–7 ahead going into the last day. After the first on the third day, Lawrence led 11–9, but Mann won the following frame, and added the almost 50-minute long 22nd frame. In the , Lawrence led by 17 points to 4, before a 21 break from Mann. Lawrence, through play and , gained penalty points conceded by Mann and won the frame with a 20 break from the to the . The match between Tom Dennis and Newman was played from 29 to 31 March at The Lounge, Shakespeare Street, Nottingham. Newman took a 5–3 lead on the first day and increased this to 11–5 after two days, just one frame from victory. Newman won the first frame on the final day to take a winning 12–5 lead. The evening session was rearranged to include a billiards match as well as a frame of snooker. Newman and Lawrence met in Birmingham from 7 to 9 May. Lawrence led 6–2 after the first day. From 5–9, Newman won the last two frames on the second day to reduce Lawrence's lead to 9–7 but Lawrence progressed to the final against Davis by securing the first three frames on the final day to win the match 12–7. On 5 May, Davis became the professional English billiards champion for the first time, defeating Newman 16,000 – 14,874, making sixty in the last professional final to be played with ivory balls. Davis thereby became the first player to hold the professional titles in both billiards and snooker, an achievement not matched until his brother Fred Davis won the billiards championship in 1980. ### Final The final between Davis and Lawrence was played from 14 to 17 May in Camkin's Hall in Birmingham. Lawrence and Davis shared the opening four frames in the afternoon session for 2–2, but Davis won all four frames in the evening to lead 6–2 after the first day. Lawrence won three frames on the second evening but Davis still led 9–7 after two days play. Three consecutive frame victories on the third afternoon helped Davis obtain a 14–10 after the third day, needing just two frames on the final day. Lawrence won three of the four afternoon frames on the final day to reduce Davis's lead to 15–13, well in the first two frames before what the Birmingham Daily Gazette termed a "woefully weak shot" when he was attempting to pot the failed. Directly after this, Davis made a break of 18. Lawrence was 26 points behind after all the had been potted, and although he potted the first five of the six , left an easy opportunity on the , with Davis potting it to take the frame. Lawrence, who made a 42 break, claimed the following frame for 13–15. Lawrence led 52–14 in the first evening frame but Davis eventually won it 64–56 to retain his title by 16 frames to 13. Davis became the first player to claim both the professional billiards and snooker titles in the same season. The highest break of the final was a 44 by Davis in the 24th frame, the last of the third evening. Two "dead" frames were then played, both won by Davis. The presentation of the trophy and a gold medal to Davis, and of cheques to both players, was made by Mr. T. Heyman, chairman of the Midland Amateur Billiards Association. Davis recorded in his 1976 autobiography that "my old rival Fred Lawrence ... played extremely well and made me sweat it out," adding that "the finances worked out rather more favourably than in 1927," with Davis receiving £32 prize money () and a £25 12s 6d share of the gate receipts (). ## Main draw ### Schedule The schedule for the tournament is shown below. ### Results Match results are shown below. Winning players and scores are denoted in bold text. The score in the match between Mann and Cope includes "dead" frames. ## Final	[ "## Background", "## Summary", "### Final", "## Main draw", "### Schedule", "### Results", "## Final" ]	1,795	4,304
2,079,170	Namco × Capcom	1,168,783,386	2005 tactical role-playing video game	[ "2005 video games", "Action role-playing video games", "Capcom games", "Crossover role-playing video games", "Japan-exclusive video games", "Monolith Soft games", "Namco games", "PlayStation 2 games", "PlayStation 2-only games", "Production I.G", "Role-playing video games", "Roppongi", "Shibuya", "Single-player video games", "Tactical role-playing video games", "Urban fantasy video games", "Video games about parallel universes", "Video games about time travel", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games scored by Yuzo Koshiro" ]	(pronounced as "Namco Cross Capcom") is a tactical role-playing (RPG) crossover video game developed by Monolith Soft for the PlayStation 2 and published by Namco in 2005. The gameplay combines tactical RPG and action sequences during battles, featuring characters from video game series owned by Namco and Capcom. The narrative sees original characters Reiji Arisu and Xiaomu, operatives for paranormal investigative group Shinra, confront distortions bringing characters from other realities into their own. The project was proposed by Monolith Soft to celebrate Namco's 50th anniversary, and Capcom was contacted as a partner due to their large character roster. Development began in 2003, directed and written by former Banpresto staff member Soichiro Morizumi. The artwork was cooperatively designed by Soulcalibur artist Takuji Kawano, Kazue Saito of Super Robot Wars, and veteran artist Kazunori Haruyama. The soundtrack uses arrangements of themes from the represented series, with original themes composed by Yuzo Koshiro. First announced in January 2005, the game was never released outside Japan, a fact attributed to the obscurity of some characters and the scale of its script. Releasing to strong sales, the game was given mixed reviews by Japanese and English journalists. Following Namco × Capcom, Monolith Soft would work on some other crossover titles, including the successor Project X Zone in 2012 for the Nintendo 3DS. ## Gameplay Namco × Capcom is a tactical role-playing game which puts players in control of teams of characters drawn from the video game properties of Namco and Capcom. Gameplay is divided into levels, which are unlocked as the player progresses through the narrative. These levels are split between story segments told through character interactions and gameplay where party members face off against enemy parties, with victory conditions which include clearing the field of enemies. In addition to normal story missions, the player can engage in training levels using training dummies to practice moves. They can also purchase items for healing or character boosts at shops using currency won during battles and through a gambling minigame activated between certain story chapters. Character moves and actions are dictated by Ability Points (AP), of which a set amount is assigned to each character at the beginning of a battle. The game's turn-based battles play out in a grid-based arena from an overhead perspective; each unit on both sides has their turn placed according to their current AP. Any character with ten AP can move and perform actions, with AP being recovered by doing little or nothing for each turn. Movement distance varies between characters, with some walking or flying and others being able to pass over obstacles. Playable characters appear in both pairs and as solo units, with different characters specializing in short or long-range attacks based on their abilities in their native series. When units engage in battle, the game transitions into a horizontal view. Timed button presses trigger different attacks. Each unit's attack number is dictated by a counter labelled "Branch". When the Branch counter is depleted, the battle ends, and if the enemy unit is defeated, they disappear from the map. Successful attacks begin a combination, which increase a character's experience point (EXP) reward. Continual attacks also raise a character's fatigue level, which when maxed out will prevent them from moving for several turns. Successful attacks build up special meters which allow for both a unit-specific special attack and a Multi-Assault attack where another character is called in to deal extra damage. The player party can also engage in a defensive battle when attacked, with successful defending decreasing or nullifying damage and regaining AP. The player can also directly counterattack, which drains AP. With each battle, player characters gain experience levels based on earned EXP. ## Synopsis The story opens with Reiji Arisu and his kitsune mentor Xiaomu, operatives for the supernatural investigative task force Shinra, being called to deal with interdimensional rifts opening in their world. These rifts pull in beings from alternate realities, many of which ally with Reiji and Xiaomu to fight both the forces behind the rifts and opponents drawn from their native universes. The group is opposed by Ouma, a group dedicated to causing chaos, with their main rival being Ouma operative Saya, a being similar to Xiaomu. It is eventually revealed that Ouma wishes to resurrect a dark deity dubbed "99" through the merging of multiple realities. Reiji's father Shougo fought Saya to prevent this ten years before and was forced to sacrifice himself with Xiaomu's aid to succeed. While initially defeated, Ouma succeeds in merging the worlds, and 99 is resurrected using Saya as a host. While Reiji is prepared to sacrifice himself as Shougo did, his and Xiaomu's allies return from their realities and combine their powers to cripple 99. Saya allows herself to be killed by Reiji to destroy 99 permanently. At a celebratory party which all their allies attend, Reiji and Xiaomu mutually declare their love for each other. ### Characters #### Pair units - Reiji Arisu and Xiaomu - Klonoa and Guntz (Klonoa) - Krino Sandra and Sabine (The Legend of Valkyrie) - Stahn Aileron and Rutee Katrea (Tales of Destiny) - Gilgamesh and Ki (The Tower of Druaga) - Shion Uzuki and M.O.M.O. (Xenosaga) - Toby Masuyo (Baraduke) and Hiromi Tengenji (Burning Force) - Bravoman (Bravoman) and Wonder Momo (Wonder Momo) - Tarosuke (Yokai Dochuki) and Taira no Kagekiyo (Genpei Tōma Den) - King (Tekken) and Felicia (Darkstalkers) - Baby Head and Mack the Knife (Captain Commando) - Morrigan Aensland and Lilith (Darkstalkers) - Unknown Soldier 1P and Unknown Soldier 2P (Forgotten Worlds) - MegaMan Volnutt and Roll Caskett (Mega Man Legends) - Tron Bonne and Servbot (Mega Man Legends) - Hideo Shimazu and Kyoko Minazuki (Rival Schools: United By Fate) - Chun-Li and Cammy (Street Fighter) - Sakura Kasugano and Karin Kanzuki (Street Fighter Alpha) - Hsien-Ko (Darkstalkers) and Fong Ling (Resident Evil: Dead Aim) - Guy (Final Fight) and Ginzu the Ninja (Captain Commando) - Bruce McGivern (Resident Evil: Dead Aim) and Regina (Dino Crisis) #### Solo units - Waya-Hime (Bravoman) - Taizo Hori (Dig Dug) - Valkyrie (The Legend of Valkyrie) - Heishirō Mitsurugi (Soulcalibur) - Taki (Soulcalibur) - Judas (Tales of Destiny 2) - Heihachi Mishima (Tekken) - Jin Kazama (Tekken) - Armor King (Tekken) - KOS-MOS (Xenosaga) - Captain Commando (Captain Commando) - Demitri Maximoff (Darkstalkers) - Mike Haggar (Final Fight) - Sylphie (Forgotten Worlds) - Arthur (Ghosts 'n Goblins) - Ryu (Street Fighter) - Ken Masters (Street Fighter) - Rose (Street Fighter Alpha) - Strider Hiryu (Strider) ## Development Namco × Capcom was developed by Monolith Soft, then a subsidiary of Namco consisting of former Square employees who had gained fame through their work on the Xenosaga series and Baten Kaitos: Eternal Wings and the Lost Ocean. The game was directed and written by Soichiro Morizumi, a former employee of Banpresto and veteran of their Super Robot Wars franchise. The producer was Kouji Ishitani, who had served as an assistant director for Xenosaga Episode I and Baten Kaitos. Development began in 2003, and was initially proposed by Monolith Soft as an internal crossover of Namco characters for the company's 50th anniversary. This led to a roster of around 100 characters, but the team wanted a larger roster. To achieve this and create a "more exciting" experience, Namco reached out to Capcom to collaborate on the project. Capcom agreed, breaking the accepted reality of the time for large rival companies not to cooperate on a project. The game was Capcom's second major collaboration with another publisher following the SNK vs. Capcom series. Namco × Capcom was Morizumi's first project for Monolith Soft, and he was in charge of writing the game's scenario. The main theme of the story was "Love", a theme common to Morizumi's later writing. The antagonistic Saya was originally written as "brutal and irritating", but the character's interactions with Xiaomu and the input of her voice actress Ai Orikasa changed Saya into a woman with a big sister persona. This forced multiple rewrites to the script. While he remembered it fondly in later years, Morizumi found the project exhausting. Shinichiro Okamoto, one of the game's executive producers, described the project as difficult for him and credited the rest of the staff with helping the game reach completion. The character redesigns for Namco and Capcom characters were done by Takuji Kawano, an artist from the Soulcalibur series. The original characters were designed by Kazue Saito, who like Morizumi had worked on the Super Robot Wars franchise. Saito also designed the sprite graphics, and cut-in graphics for battles. The conversation portraits for characters were designed by veteran artist Kazunori Haruyama. The design of main protagonist Reiji was based on the builds of professional wrestlers. The game's opening animation was produced by Production I.G, famous for their work on anime and video game series. Namco × Capcom was announced in January 2005; at this point, the game was 70% complete. When first announced, Mega Man creator Keiji Inafune praised the initiative behind the project. Namco × Capcom was released in Japan on May 26, 2005. The game was never released internationally, with several outlets citing both its large amount of text and a lack of worldwide recognition for many of the represented characters as potential reasons for this. A fan translation was created by a group called TransGen, made up of ten development team members and thirty beta testers. The translation was completed over two years, releasing in 2008. ### Music The soundtrack consists mainly of arrangements of themes from represented series. The only credited arranger is Yasunori Mitsuda, who worked on his own tracks for Xenosaga Episode I. The opening and ending themes were composed by Yuzo Koshiro. The game was Koshiro's first time writing vocal themes. Koshiro was brought in to work on Namco × Capcom due to Ishitani being a fan of his work, with the vocal themes being the composer's only contribution to the soundtrack. The lyrics were written by Morizumi and both songs were performed by Flair. A special soundtrack album containing selected tracks was released as a first-print bonus with early buyers of the game. A full soundtrack album, which included an extended version of "Brave New World" and karaoke versions of both songs, was released by Capcom's music label Suleputer on August 31, 2005. ## Reception During the weeks following its release, the game came among the top ten best-selling games, reaching sales of nearly 117,000 units by late June. By the end of the year, the game was among the top 100 best-selling games in Japan, with total sales of 131,600. Japanese magazine Famitsu positively noted the use of kyōgen comedy routines in dialogue, but found other characters lacking development. One reviewer enjoyed the combination-based battles, but another faulted the game's balance. Gaming website Hardcore Gaming 101 said the game was "all about fan service", enjoying the character interactions but finding the gameplay itself very shallow. Siliconera similarly noted shallow and repetitive gameplay, but said that fans of both Namco and Capcom would enjoy the crossover elements. Hirohiko Niizumi of GameSpot felt that players needed extensive background knowledge of the represented series to enjoy the game, but enjoyed the interactions between characters. He also noted the simplicity of the gameplay, attributed to the need for broad appeal. Anoop Gantayat, writing for IGN, found the visuals lacking despite the game's hardware, and called the story structure "pretty plain". He was also disappointed by the shallow RPG elements. ## Legacy Following the release of Namco × Capcom, the two companies would collaborate on future projects, particularly Street Fighter X Tekken and the Mobile Suit Gundam VS series. The Namco × Capcom development team would later collaborate with Banpresto on the 2008 Nintendo DS game Super Robot Taisen OG Saga: Endless Frontier. They released its DS sequel Endless Frontier Exceed, in 2010. Monolith Soft and Banpresto later co-developed the 2012 Nintendo 3DS title Project X Zone. Designed as a successor to Namco × Capcom with similar gameplay and narrative, Project X Zone combined characters from Sega franchises with returning ones from Namco and Capcom. Its 2015 sequel, Project X Zone 2, would be developed solely by Monolith Soft and feature additional collaborations with Nintendo franchises.	[ "## Gameplay", "## Synopsis", "### Characters", "#### Pair units", "#### Solo units", "## Development", "### Music", "## Reception", "## Legacy" ]	2,826	26,703
20,868,091	Howard Adelman	1,167,307,382	Canadian philosopher (1938–2023)	[ "1938 births", "2023 deaths", "Academic staff of York University", "Canadian educators", "Canadian philosophers", "Members of the Order of Canada", "People from Toronto", "Philosophers of education", "University of Toronto alumni" ]	Howard Adelman CM (January 7, 1938 – July 23, 2023) was a Canadian philosopher and university professor. He retired as Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at York University in 2003. Adelman was one of the founders of Rochdale College, as well as the founder and director of York's Centre for Refugee Studies. He was editor of Refuge for ten years, and since his retirement he has received several honorary university and governmental appointments in Canada and abroad. Adelman was the recipient of numerous awards and grants, and presented the inaugural lecture in a series named in his honor at York University in 2008. ## Biography ### Early life and career Howard Adelman was born January 7, 1938, in Toronto, Ontario. He earned a B.A. (1960), M.A. (1963), and Ph.D. (1971) in philosophy from the University of Toronto, and was a member of the faculty at York University in Toronto from 1966 until his retirement in 2003. As a nineteen-year-old philosophy student, Adelman was hired in 1958 by the Campus Co-operative to meet a growing need for student housing at the University of Toronto. With Adelman's advice, Campus Co-op acquired additional properties and formed Co-operative College Residences Inc., a non-profit offshoot. Later, while a lecturer in philosophy at the University of Toronto (1963–1964) and assistant professor at York University (1966–1970), Adelman was one of the principal founders of Rochdale College, an experimental "free university" organized on the cooperative principle of its British namesake. After obtaining federal mortgages at well below market rates, Campus Co-op incorporated Rochdale College in 1964. An energetic and entrepreneurial spirit with boundless imagination and a playful sense of humor, at that time Adelman was prone to saying he "teaches at the University of Toronto and studies at Rochdale." Adelman was the founder and director of York's Centre for Refugee Studies (1988–1993) and for ten years he was editor of Canada's periodical on refugees, Refuge until 1993. ### Service and recognition Adelman served in many university positions at York University, including acting dean of Atkinson College, two terms as director of the graduate program in philosophy, and chair of the Department of Philosophy at York University. He served as Vice-Chair, York University Senate (1980–81), and as its Chair (1981–82). Adelman served as National Chair of Canadian Professors for Peace in the Middle East (1983–84), and Director of the Refugee Documentation Project (1982–86). In 2008 Adelman was honored as the keynote speaker at the First Annual Howard Adelman Lecture in celebration of the Centre for Refugee Studies’ 20th anniversary. Held during Refugee Rights Week in Toronto, Adelman reviewed recent research on refugees, suggesting it is probably more beneficial than detrimental to assist refugees. ### Post-retirement After retiring in 2003, Adelman was appointed visiting professor at the Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton University in 2004. In 2008, Adelman became a senior research fellow at the Key Centre for Ethics, Law, Justice and Governance at Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia. He served as the deputy convener of GovNet, a consortium of researchers on governance issues in Australia, and as research director of the International Consortium of Research on Governance of the Health Workforce. He was producer and host of a weekly television program, Israel Today, broadcast in Canada and parts of the United States. In December 2016, Adelman was named a Member of the Order of Canada. Howard Adelman died on July 23, 2023, at the age of 85. ## Scholarship The author, coauthor or editor of 23 scholarly books and over 100 articles and book chapters, in addition to numerous other papers, addresses, and professional reports, Adelman has written extensively on the Middle East, humanitarian intervention, membership rights, ethics, early warning and conflict management, refugee repatriation, policy and resettlement, including his contribution in 2000 to the Institutional Component of the Early Warning and Conflict Management System set up by IGAD (Intergovernmental Authority on Development) for the Horn of Africa. Perhaps best known for his work in applied philosophy concerning refugees, immigration policy and genocide, Adelman published a major study entitled Early Warning and Conflict Management: Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda (1996) as part of the 5 volume study International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience. In 1999, he co-edited The Path of a Genocide: The Rwanda Crisis from Uganda to Zaire, already regarded a classic on the subject. Adelman served as an associate editor for the Macmillan three-volume Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity (2005). These efforts earned international acclaim. His earlier works included publications on social criticism and reform of universities, including The University Game, co-edited with Dennis Lee (1968), The Beds of Academe (1970), and The Holiversity (1973). ### Selected publications - Military Intervention and Non-Intervention in the Twenty-First Century: An Australian Perspective, with Charles Sampford. 2009. New York: Routledge. - Rites of Return, with Elazar Barkan. 2009. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. - Protracted Displacement in Asia: No Place to Call Home. Aldershot, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2008. - "Blaming the United Nations." 2008. Journal of International Political Theory. 4 (April): 9–33 - Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity. 3 vols. Edited with Dinah Shelton. Detroit: Thomson/Gale, 2005. - War and Peace in Zaire-Congo: Analyzing and Evaluating Intervention, 1996–1997. With Govind C. Rao. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2004. - "From Refugees to Forced Migration: The UNHCR and Human Security. 2001. International Migration Review 35 (Spring 2001): 7–32. - "Rwanda Revisited: In Search for Lessons." 2000. Journal of Genocide Research 2: 431–444. - "Preventing Genocide: The Case of Rwanda," In Genocide: Essays Toward Understanding Early-Warning and Prevention, Roger W. Smith, ed. Williamsburg: Virginia: Association of Genocide Scholars, 1999. - The Path of a Genocide: The Rwanda Crisis from Uganda to Zaire. Edited with Astri Suhrke. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1999. - "The Ethics of Intervention – Rwanda." In Dilemmas of Intervention: Sovereignty vs. Responsibility. Richard H. Ulman and Michael Keren, eds. London: Frank Cass Publications, 1999. - "Control and Prevention: Canadian Refugee Policy: The Case of Rwanda." In Immigration and Refugee Policy: Canada and Europe. Howard Adelman, ed. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998. - "Difficulties in Early Warning: Networking and Conflict Management." In Early Warning and Conflict Prevention: Limitations and Opportunities. Alfred van Staden and Klaas van Walraven, eds. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1998. - Early Warning: Theory and Practice. Edited with Susan Schmeidl. New York: Columbia University Press On Line, 1998. - "Early Warning and Prevention: The Case of Rwanda," In Refugee Rights and Realities: Evolving International Concepts and Regimes. Frances Nicholson, ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. - "Lamentations: The Death and Rebirth of the Civil Society or The Wisdom of the Alien Other in a Global Civilization." In Devolution and Post-Multiculturalism, Michael Lanphier, ed. Toronto: Artemis, 1998. - Membership and Dismemberment: The Body Politic and Genocide in Rwanda. New York: Columbia University Press, Columbia International Affairs Online, 1998. - "Modernity, Globalization, Refugees and Displacement." In Refugees, Contemporary Perspectives on the Experience of Forced Migration, Alastair Ager, ed. New York: Cassell Publishers, 1998. - "State Crime and Migration" In Migration and Crime, Alex P. Schmid, ed. Milan: ISPAC, 1998. - "Why Refugee Warriors Are Threats." 1998. Journal of Conflict Studies 18 (Spring): 49–69. - "The Failure to Prevent Genocide: The Case of Rwanda." 1997. Mediterranean Social Sciences Review 2 (Winter): 41–65. - "Of Human Bondage: Labour, Bondage and Freedom in the Phenomenology." In Essays on Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, Jon Stewart, ed. Albany: SUNY Press, 1997. - "Preventing Massacre: The Case of Kibeho." In The Rwanda Crisis: Healing and Protection Strategies, Sally Gacharuzi, ed. Kensington, MD: Overview Press, 1997. - Early Warning and Conflict Management, Volume 2 of The International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience, edited with Astri Suhrke. Copenhagen: DANIDA, 1996. - "Early Warning and Response: Why the International Community Failed to Prevent the Genocide," with Astri Suhrke. 1996. Disasters: The Journal of Disaster Studies and Management 20 (December). - "Indifference versus Sentiment." 1996. New Routes: A Journal of Peace Research and Action 1: 11–30. - Multiculturalism, Jews, and Identities in Canada. With John H. Simpson. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1996. - "The Right of Repatriation - Canadian Refugee Policy: The Case of Rwanda." 1996. International Migration Review 30(Spring), 289–309. - "Canada, Quebec and Refugee Claimants." In Is Quebec Nationalism Just: Perspectives from Anglophone Canada. Joseph Carens, ed. McGill-Queens University Press, 1995. - Legitimate and Illegitimate Discrimination: New Issues in Migration. Geneva: UNESCO; York Lanes Press, 1995. - African Refugees: Development Aid and Repatriation. Edited with John Sorenson. Boulder: Westview Press, 1994. - Canadian Immigration and Refugee Policy and Practice. Berlin: Edition Parabolis, 1994. - The Genesis of a Domestic Regime: The Case of Hungary. With Endre Sik and Geza Tessenyi. Toronto: York Lanes Press, 1994. - "Immigrants and Refugees: Between the Pre-Modern and the Post-Modern World." 1994. Jahrbuch für Vergeichende Sozialforschung. Berlin: Edition Parabolis, 133–156. - Immigration and Refugee Policy: Australia and Canada Compared. 2 vols. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994. (v. 1) 0802076092 (v. 2) - "Refugees: A Conceptual View of Current Research and Towards a Research Framework for the 1990s." In Crossing Borders: Transmigration in Asia Pacific. Ong Jin Hui, Chan Kwok Bun and Chew Soon Beng, eds. Singapore: Prentice Hall; Simon & Schuster, 1994. - "What Can Europe Learn from Canada?" 1994. Migration: A European Journal of International Migration and Ethnic Relations 1–2: 5–14. - "The Ethics of Humanitarian Intervention: The Case of the Kurdish Refugees." 1992. Public Affairs Quarterly 6: 61–88. - "Humanitarian Intervention: The Case of the Kurds," 1992. International Journal of Refugee Law 4: 4–38. - Refugee Policy: Canada and the United States. Toronto: York University, Centre for Refugee Studies; Staten Island, NY: Center for Migration Studies of New York, 1991. - Refuge or Asylum? A Choice for Canada. With C. Michael Lanphier. Toronto: York Lanes Press, 1990. - The Indochinese Refugee Movement: The Canadian Experience. Toronto: Operation Lifeline, 1980. - "The physiology of the university." Higher Education 7(February): 87–93, 1978. - The Holiversity. Toronto: New Press, 1973. - Rational Explanation in History. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Toronto. Ottawa: National Library of Canada. Canadian Theses on Microfilm, \#11528. Public Archives of Canada, Central Microfilm Unit, 1972. - The Beds of Academe. Toronto: Praxis Press, 1969. - The University Game, co-edited with Dennis Lee. Toronto: House of Anansi Press, 1968.	[ "## Biography", "### Early life and career", "### Service and recognition", "### Post-retirement", "## Scholarship", "### Selected publications" ]	2,737	25,964
16,880,703	Freedom of Speech (painting)	1,171,333,801	1943 painting by Norman Rockwell	[ "1943 paintings", "Booth Tarkington", "Four Freedoms", "Freedom of speech", "Paintings by Norman Rockwell", "Works originally published in The Saturday Evening Post", "World War II and the media" ]	Freedom of Speech is the first of the Four Freedoms paintings by Norman Rockwell, inspired by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1941 State of the Union address, known as Four Freedoms. The painting was published in the February 20, 1943, issue of The Saturday Evening Post with a matching essay by Booth Tarkington. Rockwell felt that this and Freedom of Worship were the most successful of the set. ## Background Freedom of Speech was the first of a series of four oil paintings, entitled Four Freedoms, by Norman Rockwell. The works were inspired by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt in a State of the Union Address, known as Four Freedoms, delivered to the 77th United States Congress on January 6, 1941. Of the Four Freedoms, the only two described in the United States Constitution were freedom of speech and freedom of worship. The Four Freedoms' theme was eventually incorporated into the Atlantic Charter, as well as the charter of the United Nations. The series of paintings ran in The Saturday Evening Post, accompanied by essays from noted writers, on four consecutive weeks: Freedom of Speech (February 20), Freedom of Worship (February 27), Freedom from Want (March 6) and Freedom from Fear (March 13). Eventually, the series became widely distributed in poster form and became instrumental in the U. S. Government War Bond Drive. ## Description Freedom of Speech depicts a scene of a local town meeting in which Jim Edgerton, the lone dissenter to the town selectmen's announced plans to build a new school, as the old one had burned down, was accorded the floor as a matter of protocol. Once he envisioned the scene to depict freedom of speech, Rockwell decided to use his Vermont neighbors as models for a Four Freedoms series. The blue-collar speaker wears a plaid shirt and suede jacket, with dirty hands and a darker complexion than others in attendance. The other attendees are wearing white shirts, ties and jackets. Edgerton's youth and workmanlike hands are fashioned with a worn and stained jacket, while the other attendees appear to be older and more neatly and formally dressed. He is shown "standing tall, his mouth open, his shining eyes transfixed, he speaks his mind, untrammeled and unafraid." Edgerton is depicted in a way that resembles Abraham Lincoln. According to Bruce Cole of The Wall Street Journal, the closest figure in the painting is revealing a subject of the meeting as "a discussion of the town's annual report". According to John Updike, the work is painted without any painterly brushwork. According to Robert Scholes, the work shows audience members in rapt attention with admiration of the speaker. ## Production Rockwell's final product was the result of four restarts and consumed two months. According to Scholes, the subject resembles a Gary Cooper or Jimmy Stewart character in a Frank Capra film. Each version depicted the blue-collar man in casual attire standing up at a town meeting, but each was from a different angle. Earlier versions were troubled by the distraction of multiple subjects and the improper placement and perspective of the subject for the message to be clear. An Arlington, Vermont Rockwell neighbor, Carl Hess, stood as the model for the shy, brave young workman, and another neighbor, Jim Martin, who appeared in each painting in the series, is in the scene. Rockwell's assistant, Gene Pelham, suggested Hess, who had a gas station in town and whose children went to school with the Rockwell children. Hess was married at the time and his father Henry was a German immigrant. According to Pelham, Hess "had a noble head". Others in the work were Henry (left ear only), Jim Martin (lower right corner), Harry Brown (right—top of head and eye only), Robert Benedict, Sr. and Rose Hoyt to the left. Rockwell's own eye is also visible along the left edge. Pelham was the owner of the suede jacket. Hess posed for Rockwell eight different times for this work and all other models posed for Rockwell individually. An early draft had Hess surrounded by others sitting squarely around him. Hess felt the depiction had a more natural look, Rockwell objected, "It was too diverse, it went every which way and didn't settle anywhere or say anything." He felt the upward view from the bench level was more dramatic. Rockwell explained to Yates at the Post that he had to start Freedom of Speech from scratch after an early attempt because he had overworked it. Twice he almost completed the work only to feel it was lacking. Eventually, he was able to produce the final version with the speaker as the subject rather than the assembly. For the accompanying essay, Post editor Ben Hibbs chose novelist and dramatist Booth Tarkington, who was a Pulitzer Prize winner. People who purchased war bonds during the Second War Bond Drive received a full-color set of reproductions of the Four Freedoms that had a commemorative cover with Freedom of Speech on it. ## Essay Tarkington's accompanying essay published in the February 20, 1943 issue of The Saturday Evening Post was really a fable or parable in which a youthful Adolf Hitler and a youthful Benito Mussolini meet in the Alps in 1912. During the fictional meeting both men describe plans to secure dictatorships in their respective countries via the suppression of freedom of speech. ## Critical review This image was praised for its focus, and the empty bench seat in front of the speaker is perceived as inviting to the viewer. The solid dark background of the blackboard helps the subject to stand out but almost obscures Rockwell's signature. According to Deborah Solomon, the work "imbues the speaker with looming tallness and requires his neighbors to literally look up to him." The model for this painting is local mechanic, Carl Hess, a father of three and neighbor of the Rockwells in West Arlington, Vermont. The speaker represents a blue-collar, unattached, and sexually available, likely ethnic, threat to social customs who nonetheless is accorded the full respect from the audience. Some question the authenticity of white-collar residents being so attentive to the comments of their blue-collar brethren. Soloman posits that the lack of female figures in the picture gives this an Elks club meeting feel rather than an open town meeting, though alternate versions of the painting suggest that the red-haired individual on the left is a female. Laura Claridge said, "The American ideal that the painting is meant to encapsulate shines forth brilliantly for those who have canonized this work as among Rockwell's great pictures. For those who find the piece less successful, however, Rockwell's desire to give concrete form to an ideal produces a strained result. To such critics the people looking up at the speaker have stars in their eyes, their posture conveying celebrity worship, not a room full of respectful dissent." Cole describes this freedom as an "active and public" subject that Rockwell formulated "his greatest painting forging traditional American illustration into a powerful and enduring work of art." He notes that Rockwell uses "a classic pyramidal composition" to emphasize the central figure, a standing speaker whose appearance is juxtaposed with the rest of the audience that by participating in democracy defends it. Cole describes Rockwell's figure as "the very embodiment of free speech, a living manifestation of that abstract right—an image that transforms principle, paint and, yes, creed, into an indelible image and a brilliant and beloved American icon still capable of inspiring millions world-wide". He notes that the use of a New England town-hall meetings incorporates the "long tradition of democratic public debate" into the work while the blackboard and pew represent church and school, which, Cole says, are "two pillars of American life." Hibbs said of Speech and Worship, "To me they are great human documents in the form of paint and canvas. A great picture, I think is one which moves and inspires millions of people. The Four Freedoms did—do so." Westbrook notes that Rockwell presents "individual dissent" that acts to "protect private conscience from the state." Another writer describes the theme of the work as "civility". ## Meme Beginning in late 2020, and particularly in 2022, Freedom of Speech gained popularity as a meme used to signify expressing one's true feelings about something, often a piece of news, especially if the opinion is considered controversial or unpopular. ## See also ## General and cited references - Westbrook, Robert B. (1993). Fox, Richard Wightman and T. J. Jackson Lears (ed.). The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History. University of Chicago Press. pp. 218–20. . [1943 paintings](Category:1943_paintings "wikilink") [Booth Tarkington](Category:Booth_Tarkington "wikilink") [Four Freedoms](Category:Four_Freedoms "wikilink") [Freedom of speech](Category:Freedom_of_speech "wikilink") [Paintings by Norman Rockwell](Category:Paintings_by_Norman_Rockwell "wikilink") [Works originally published in The Saturday Evening Post](Category:Works_originally_published_in_The_Saturday_Evening_Post "wikilink") [World War II and the media](Category:World_War_II_and_the_media "wikilink")	[ "## Background", "## Description", "## Production", "## Essay", "## Critical review", "## Meme", "## See also", "## General and cited references" ]	1,937	15,092
3,275,502	Sarah Yorke Jackson	1,171,961,858	First Lady of the United States from 1834 to 1837	[ "1803 births", "1887 deaths", "19th-century American women", "Andrew Jackson family", "First ladies of the United States", "People from Nashville, Tennessee", "People from Philadelphia" ]	Sarah Jackson (née Yorke; July 1805 – August 23, 1887) was the White House hostess and acting first lady of the United States from November 26, 1834, to March 4, 1837. She served in this role as the daughter-in-law of U.S. President Andrew Jackson after marrying his adopted son, Andrew Jackson, Jr. She had initially been named as mistress of the Jackson residence in Tennessee, the Hermitage, but she moved to the White House and became co-hostess with Emily Donelson after the Hermitage was damaged in a fire. When Donelson fell ill, Jackson took on the position of White House hostess in its entirety for the remainder of the term. After leaving the White House, she returned to the repaired Hermitage, living there for the remainder of her life. ## Early life Sarah Yorke was born in July 1805, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, into a wealthy Quaker family. Her father Peter Yorke, a sea captain and successful merchant, died in 1815. Her mother Mary Haines Yorke died during a trip to New Orleans in 1820, leaving Sarah and her two sisters orphaned. She was raised by two aunts, Mrs. George Farquhar and Mrs. Mordecai Wetherill. Sarah Yorke married Andrew Jackson, Jr., the adopted son of President Andrew Jackson, in Philadelphia on November 24, 1831. The president's schedule prevented him from attending the wedding, but the couple was invited to stay at the White House over the following months. Their stay in the White House served as an extended honeymoon, and several parties were held in their honor. She bonded with the president, who considered her to be like a daughter. There was speculation as to whether she would become the new White House hostess, but the role remained with the president's niece, Emily Donelson. Upon leaving the White House, the new couple went to The Hermitage, Jacksons' plantation in Tennessee. Wishing to clearly distinguish Sarah Jackson's role from that of White House hostess Donelson, the president had appointed Jackson as the "mistress of the Hermitage". This was in part to avoid any potential animosity between them, but the decision was primarily to ensure that Donelson's husband remained in the White House as the president's secretary. Jackson gave birth to all five of her children at the Hermitage, beginning with her daughter Rachel in 1832. Their stay at the Hermitage was interrupted on October 13, 1834, when a fire destroyed much of the main house. They found a home to stay in at Hunter's Hill, but the incident had a severe emotional effect on Jackson. As winter approached, they decided it would be preferable to stay at the White House. ## White House hostess The family arrived at the White House on November 26, 1834, and Jackson made extensive purchases to replace their lost belongings at the president's expense. Jackson immediately began to take on the role as co-hostess of the White House along with Donelson. It was the only time in history when there were two women simultaneously acting as White House hostess. As Donelson became seriously ill, Jackson become the White House hostess in its entire capacity in October 1836. She remained the sole hostess for the remainder of her father-in-law's presidency. Jackson was not terribly active as a hostess. The death of Rachel Jackson had limited any significant social activity in the White House, and this was compounded by the death of Emily Donelson. She remained at the White House for the final ten months of President Jackson's term, though she made several lengthy trips, including one to the Hermitage to oversee its reconstruction. The family left the White House when President Jackson's term ended in March 1837. ## Later life and legacy Jackson continued to oversee the Hermitage after leaving the White House. She remained close to the former president and cared for him for the remainder of his life. In 1838, she assisted him in his crisis of faith that led him to join her in the Presbyterian Church—something that he had considered doing even before his presidency. Upon his death, the former president left her four of his female slaves. The family sold the Hermitage to the state of Tennessee in 1856, but Sarah Jackson was allowed to continue living there for the remainder of her life. Her sons fought with the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War, and her son Samuel died during the Battle of Chickamauga. Her husband died in 1867. Sarah Yorke Jackson died on August 23, 1887, in Nashville, Tennessee, at the age of 82. Jackson had little influence on the position of first lady, as her short tenure and the social circumstances of the Andrew Jackson presidency offered her little opportunity to stand out. By the time she reached old age, she had largely been forgotten by the American public, and she has since been the subject of very little scholarly analysis.	[ "## Early life", "## White House hostess", "## Later life and legacy" ]	1,046	32,971
4,029,368	Mongolia at the 2006 Winter Olympics	1,137,286,670	null	[ "2006 in Mongolian sport", "Mongolia at the Winter Olympics by year", "Nations at the 2006 Winter Olympics" ]	Mongolia sent a delegation to compete at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy from 10–26 February 2006. The delegation consisted of two cross-country skiers, Erdene-Ochiryn Ochirsüren and Khürelbaataryn Khash-Erdene. Their best finish in any event was 68th in the women's 10 kilometer classical by Ochirsüren. The same two competitors would return to the Olympics four years later representing Mongolia at the 2010 Winter Olympics. ## Background The Mongolian National Olympic Committee was recognized by the International Olympic Committee on 1 January 1962, and the nation entered Olympic competition soon after, talking part in both the 1964 Winter and Summer Olympics. Mongolia has only missed two Olympic Games since, the 1976 Winter Olympics; and the 1984 Summer Olympics as the Mongolians joined in the Soviet-led boycott of the Games in Los Angeles. The delegation Mongolia sent to Turin consisted of two cross-country skiers, Erdene-Ochiryn Ochirsüren and Khürelbaataryn Khash-Erdene. Khash-Erdene was the flag bearer for the opening ceremony while Ochirsüren was chosen to carry the flag for the closing ceremony. ## Cross-country skiing Khürelbaataryn Khash-Erdene was 22 years old at the time of the Turin Olympics. In the men's 15 kilometre classical race, held on 17 February, he finished with a time of 48 minutes and 47 seconds, which put him in 84th place out of 96 competitors who finished the race; the gold medal was won by Andrus Veerpalu of Estonia in 38 minutes and 1 second. He would later go on to represent Mongolia at the 2010 Winter Olympics. Erdene-Ochiryn Ochirsüren was 20 years of age at the time of these Games. She competed in the women's 10 kilometer classical, held on 16 February. She finished the race with a time of 36 minutes and 40.1 seconds, which saw her in 68th position out of 70 competitors who finished the race, the gold medal having been won by Kristina Šmigun-Vähi of Estonia. in 27 minutes and 51 seconds. Like her compatriot, she would also go on to participate in the 2010 Winter Olympics. ## See also - Mongolia at the 2006 Winter Paralympics	[ "## Background", "## Cross-country skiing", "## See also" ]	534	21,942
29,848,520	Leo Katalinas	1,172,227,779	American football player (1914–1977)	[ "1915 births", "1977 deaths", "Catholic University Cardinals football players", "Green Bay Packers players", "People from Shenandoah, Pennsylvania", "Players of American football from Pennsylvania", "Sportspeople from Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania" ]	Leo John Katalinas (February 4, 1915 – July 8, 1977) was an American football tackle and boxer. He played college football and boxed for the Catholic University Cardinals, being the runner-up in the NCAA Boxing Championship as a senior. He was not selected in the National Football League Draft but nonetheless signed with the Green Bay Packers in 1938, playing one season with them. He later played from 1939 to 1942, then in 1946 with the Paterson Panthers of the American Association (AA). ## Early life and education Katalinas was born on February 4, 1915, in Shenandoah, Pennsylvania, and was of Finnish descent. He was the second-youngest of four brothers who played football; two of his brothers—Ed and Joe—each played at Georgetown, with Joe continuing on to play professionally. The youngest, John, played football at least through high school. He was nicknamed "Kats" or "Katz"; both Ed and Joe also were given the same nickname. Leo Katalinas attended J. W. Cooper High School in Shenandoah and is their only alumni to play in the NFL. ### College football After graduating from J. W. Cooper, Katalinas began attending the Catholic University of America in 1934. He was a standout player on the freshman squad in his first year at the school. As a sophomore, he made the varsity team and became the backup to Ed Karpowich at tackle. He filled in at several points for Karpowich and received "high praise" for his play, with the Republican and Herald noting that the line functioned just as well with Katalinas as they had with Karpowich. He became a starter at tackle as a junior in 1936, earning his second varsity letter. Katalinas remained a starter as a senior in 1937, being called a "star lineman." He placed second in voting and was thus selected to the Eastern College All-Star team, which played the Philadelphia Eagles in August 1938. He was the largest player on the All-Star team and received the nickname "Thor" (the German god of thunder) for his size (6 ft 2 in, 230 lb). Katalinas ended up sitting out the game after tearing a ligament in his knee 10 days prior. ### College boxing Katalinas also took up boxing as a sophomore at Catholic University, earning a knockout in his first match against Johnny Birkland while in the heavyweight category. A reporter for The Washington Herald noted afterwards that Katalinas so outclassed his opponent that "Birkland was forced to go through with a fight that might have maimed him for life. Smashed to the floor seven times, his face beaten lopsided in a bloody smear ... Katalinas, this towering giant, came rushing forward, taunted into a frenzy by Birkland's harmless blows, throwing terrific punches hard enough to kill a man less rugged and courageous ... Finally, with Birkland beaten to a pulp, his legs instinctively trying to regain the floor, a towel came from Maryland's corner." Katalinas finished his first season with a record of 6–1, losing only one bout by decision. He was very successful in his collegiate boxing career and was described as a "sensation" in the ring; by midway through his senior season, he had not been knocked out a single time. His first defeat of 1938 came in his final collegiate match, losing by decision in the national championship to Ashby Dickerson of Virginia. The Washington Herald sportswriter Dick O'Brien called the fight "one of the greatest collegiate heavyweight battles ever witnessed in Virginia's memorial gymnasium." ## Professional career Prior to finishing his college football career, Katalinas had been contacted by the NFL's New York Giants about a future tryout. He was not selected in the 1938 NFL Draft but immediately after was signed by the Green Bay Packers as an undrafted free agent. He made the final roster as their third-string tackle and made his NFL debut in their season-opening win over the Cleveland Rams. Katalinas appeared in eight or nine games, all as a backup, and helped the Packers reach the 1938 NFL Championship Game, where they lost to the Giants by one score. Katalinas was released by the Packers in August 1939. Shortly afterwards, he joined the Paterson Panthers of the minor league American Association. He appeared in 11 games, 10 as a starter, for the 1939 Panthers, helping them win the divisional championship. He continued playing for them through 1942, additionally serving as line coach in 1940, and appeared in 33 games for the team across his first four seasons, 27 of which he started. Following a stint in the United States Marine Corps during World War II, Katalinas returned to Paterson for a final season in 1946, playing nine games, eight of which he started. He finished his football career having played eight or nine games in the NFL and 42 games with Paterson. ## Later life and death Katalinas later lived in Teaneck, New Jersey. He died on July 8, 1977, at the age of 62, due to injuries he sustained in a car crash on June 30.	[ "## Early life and education", "### College football", "### College boxing", "## Professional career", "## Later life and death" ]	1,110	9,679
27,486,285	Lofty Large	1,168,267,832	British writer and soldier	[ "1930 births", "2006 deaths", "20th-century British memoirists", "British Army personnel of the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation", "British Army personnel of the Korean War", "British Army personnel of the Malayan Emergency", "British male writers", "British non-fiction writers", "British prisoners of war in the Korean War", "Burials in Herefordshire", "Gloucestershire Regiment soldiers", "Male non-fiction writers", "Military personnel from Oxfordshire", "Special Air Service soldiers", "Wiltshire Regiment soldiers" ]	Donald "Lofty" Large (27 September 1930 – 22 October 2006) was a British soldier and author. Having joined the Army as a boy, Large fought in the Korean War and was wounded and taken prisoner at the Battle of Imjin. He spent two years in a prisoner-of-war camp, where his injuries went untreated and he lost more than a third of his body weight. After his release and rehabilitation, he joined the Special Air Service (SAS) and went on to serve in various conflicts around the world, hunting communist pro-independence guerrillas in Malaya, suppressing rebellions in Oman and Aden, and conducting deniable cross-border reconnaissance and raids during the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation. An imposing figure – he was almost 6 feet 6 inches (1.98 m) tall – he was given the nickname "Lofty" after joining the Army. After his retirement, Large wrote two books about his Army career, preceding such authors as Andy McNab and Chris Ryan. Andy McNab has said that Large and his books were "instrumental in setting the template for future members of the [SAS] Regiment". ## Early life Large was born in Oxfordshire, the first child of Joseph Large and his wife Emily (née Pratley). His sister, Janet, was nine years his junior. In 1939, the family moved to a cottage 2 miles (3 km) outside the village of Guiting Power in the Gloucestershire Cotswolds. As a child his father taught him how to shoot game; he later said of this experience, "little did I realise I would spend a lot of time, many years later [in the SAS], being trained in exactly that type of instinctive shooting". Large would later dedicate his first book to "the best parents a man could ask for". Growing up during the Second World War, and having watched British and American soldiers on field exercises in the Cotswold Hills, Large said that he had always wanted to be a soldier. He also joined the Army Cadet Force. ## Army career Large joined the British Army as a "band boy" at the age of 15. Unable to join his county regiment (the Gloucestershire Regiment) because of a lack of vacancies, he instead joined the Wiltshire Regiment, with whom he served for five years in England, Germany and Hong Kong. During this time he was given the nickname "Lofty", having reached his adult height of 6 feet 5+3⁄4 inches (1.975m). In 1951, by requesting a transfer to the Gloucestershire Regiment, Large volunteered to fight in the Korean War. After a combat training course in Japan, he was deployed to the front line. ### Korean War In March 1951, along with half a dozen other newly badged Glosters, Large was sent to B Company's position in the low hills above the Imjin River. The Glosters, as part of the 29th Brigade, were defending routes through the valley that could potentially be used by the Chinese in a southbound offensive towards Seoul. On 22 April 1951, they engaged with Chinese troops in the Battle of Imjin. By the morning of 24 April, B Company had fought off seven assaults before they were able to rejoin the remainder of their battalion on what became known as Gloster Hill. By this time the battalion was vastly outnumbered, low on ammunition and cut off from United Nations lines. Large himself was shot in the left shoulder and, along with most of the remaining Glosters, was forced to surrender. After a 10-day forced march north, and having received only basic medical attention, Large arrived at a prison camp outside Chongsung, about 50 miles north east of Sinuiju. He spent two years in the camp and celebrated his 21st birthday there. Throughout his incarceration he had two bullets and at least 18 pieces of shrapnel embedded in his body. To help Large cope with the chronic pain of his untreated injuries, an American POW introduced him to marijuana, which grew wild in the area. Although he found it to be a highly effective – and enjoyable – painkiller, he was somewhat alarmed by its psychoactive effects and subsequently tried to limit his use of the drug. Like many of his fellow prisoners, Large also suffered from beri-beri and dysentery. In March 1953, a Chinese doctor operated on Large and removed a tracer round from his ribs as a preliminary to his being released as part of an exchange of wounded prisoners. Having weighed 217 pounds (98 kg) in March 1951, he had dropped to 136 pounds (62 kg) by the time of his release. He also still had very limited movement in his atrophied and wasted left arm and was later told that if he had been treated by a British doctor at the time of his injury his arm would probably have been amputated. Large was one of a batch of 22 exchanged British POWs whose release and subsequent return to Britain became front-page The Guardian newspaper reported that the group had been unaware of the death of King George VI (which had occurred over a year earlier), but were now looking forward to the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. Interviewed after his release, Large described the war as "useless" and said that he believed the communist's claims that the US had engaged in germ warfare. For its defence of Gloster Hill in the Battle of Imjin, the 1st Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation. The citation is conferred on units of the armed forces of the United States and of allied nations, and was awarded to the Glosters for "exceptionally outstanding performance of duty and extraordinary heroism in action against the armed enemy ... Every yard of ground they surrendered was covered with enemy dead, until the last gallant soldier of the fighting battalion was over-powered by the final surge of the enemy masses." After returning to the UK, Large was offered a discharge on medical grounds, which he declined. He went on to serve briefly in the quartermaster's stores, as an instructor, and in the regimental police. Throughout this time he worked on regaining his fitness and rehabilitating his arm. ### Special Air Service In 1957, wanting to escape the "stupidities of drill" and the "bullshit" of the regular Army, Large volunteered for the SAS; however, while riding home from the Brecon Beacons within hours of successfully completing the notoriously tough selection course, he crashed his motorbike, and, having injured his ankle, he had to repeat selection – this time with one boot two sizes larger than the other to accommodate the bandages and swelling. He went on to serve with 22 SAS in Malaya, Oman, Borneo and Aden. Large's first operation with the SAS was in Malaya, hunting the pro-independence guerrillas of the Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA) during the Malayan Emergency. By the time of Large's involvement there was little communist activity and, despite months of jungle patrols and encounters with leeches, scorpions, civet cats and tigers, he never had any contact with MNLA guerrillas. While suppressing a rebellion in Oman in 1958, Large infamously lost his temper with a recalcitrant donkey. Recalling the incident in a 2003 interview, he said: > All the donkey handler did was laugh. Just as I turned round, the donkey's face was right by me and it shook its head and I stuck a punch in among it somewhere, and the donkey went down like it was shot ... much to my amazement. But not to as much amazement as the donkey handler's – I've never seen a bloke sober up so quick. It was a hole in one: the donkey struggled to its feet and looked really willing to go up the hill and the donkey handler lost his laugh. Several weeks later, in January 1959, Large was part of the "A" and "D" Squadron assault on the Jebel Akhdar. This entailed a 2,500-metre (8,200 ft) overnight ascent of the south side of the jebel, with each soldier carrying up to 120 pounds (54 kg) of kit. Having completed the ascent the SAS were able to surprise and defeat the rebels, who had previously held the plateau as a virtually impregnable stronghold. During the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation in Borneo, Large took part in Operation Claret. As the leader of a four-man SAS patrol, he spent up to two weeks at a time hidden in the jungle on deniable incursions into Indonesia, performing reconnaissance or ambushing Indonesian forces. While hidden on the banks of the Sungei Koemba River during one of these incursions, Large and his patrol had the opportunity to assassinate Colonel Leonardus Moerdani, the commander of the Indonesian special forces in the area (and later Commander-in-Chief of the Indonesian Armed Forces and subsequently Indonesia's Minister of Defence and Security), who was passing by on a river boat. However, at the last moment Large spotted a woman on the boat. He later described the incident: > There could have been other women and there could have been children on the boat. And we don't do that sort of target, so ... it went. And it was in fact the very man we'd been looking for for three months: Colonel Moerdani of the Indonesian paracommando unit, and he was on the end of my rifle and I let him go – but ... you can't blat women and kids. For his service in Borneo, he was mentioned in despatches. Parachuting was an important part of SAS training and operations, but it was not an experience that Large enjoyed: He suffered from a fear of heights and his considerable bulk meant that he descended far too quickly to have any chance of a comfortable landing. Despite this, he eventually qualified as a parachute instructor, although the footnote on his course report read, "not suited to parachuting – either in size or inclination." In his memoirs Large recalls that the last shots he fired on active duty were warning shots. Fired at long range at the ground a few feet in front of a local woman (it is unclear where the incident took place), they were intended to dissuade her from heading into "certain danger". Despite firing increasingly close to the woman's feet, she continued forward, moving out of sight, only to reappear moments later leading the previously unseen bull which she had been intent on retrieving – "What a player! God help any poor son-in-law she might have." Large spent the final years of his 27-year Army career as an instructor with 23 SAS Regiment (one of the SAS's two reserve regiments), eventually leaving the Army in 1973 as a Squadron Sergeant Major and Warrant Officer Class 2. ## Legacy In his book SAS Heroes: Remarkable Soldiers, Extraordinary Men, former SAS soldier Pete Scholey describes Large as "simply the finest soldier [I] had ever met ... an inspiration to those around him ... with an admirable sense of fair play". Andy McNab, who joined the SAS 11 years after Large's departure, has written about Large's enduring impact on the Regiment: > Being like Lofty was something I aspired to without realising it. When I joined the Regiment I was told that the best way to survive those first years in the Sabre squadron was to pick out someone who you thought you would like to be. Shut up, watch and listen. For me there were a number of the 'old and bold' who fitted that requirement. It wasn't until later in my service that I learned that most of them, as newly 'badged' members to a squadron, had picked Lofty. A memorial bench was donated to the Allied Special Forces Memorial Grove at the National Memorial Arboretum by a group of Large's former SAS colleagues. The inscription reads: ## Personal life Before leaving for Hong Kong with the Wiltshire Regiment in 1951, Large had met Ann, a nanny at the Regiment's depot in Devizes. She wrote to him five times a week during his captivity in Chongsung, although only about 90 of these letters were actually delivered to Large. They eventually married in 1955 and afterwards lived in an Army rental property on the top floor of a farmhouse in Longford, on the outskirts of Gloucester. When Large volunteered for the SAS in 1957 it was not a unit that was well known outside of military circles – a fact that Large took advantage of by initially telling his wife that the Regiment's job was to air drop supplies to troops in the jungle. In 1960 the couple moved with the Regiment to Hereford, where they later had two children, Andy and Donna. ## Later years After leaving the Army Large worked in the UK and the Middle East. Having earned a heavy goods vehicle driving licence and a qualified testing officer's certificate during his time in the Army, he spent the last 14 years of his working life as a driving instructor. He wrote two books about his time in the Army: One Man's SAS and One Man's War in Korea, and was one of the first non-commissioned officers (NCOs) to write about the SAS, preceding such soldiers-turned-authors as Andy McNab and Chris Ryan. A third book, Soldier Against the Odds: From Korean War to SAS, consisted of revised versions of his first two books together with some additional material. Andy McNab has said that "[Large's first two books] were recommended reading for Regiment candidates. He was instrumental in setting the template for future members of the Regiment." In his seventies, Large, along with Pete Scholey, returned to the Borneo jungle as part of a 2003 Channel 4 documentary about the history of the SAS, taking the camera crew to the exact spot on the bank of the Sungei Koemba River where his patrol had successfully ambushed an Indonesian Army river boat in 1965. Having been ill with leukaemia for three years, Large died aged 76 at St Michael's Hospice, Hereford. His funeral was held on 1 November 2006 at St Martin's Church (which has a long association with the SAS).	[ "## Early life", "## Army career", "### Korean War", "### Special Air Service", "## Legacy", "## Personal life", "## Later years" ]	2,966	37,109
6,144,237	Infinity Science Fiction	1,065,948,111	1950s US science fiction magazine	[ "1955 establishments in the United States", "Defunct science fiction magazines published in the United States", "Magazines disestablished in 1958", "Magazines established in 1955", "Science fiction magazines", "Science fiction magazines established in the 1950s" ]	Infinity Science Fiction was an American science fiction magazine, edited by Larry T. Shaw, and published by Royal Publications. The first issue, which appeared in November 1955, included Arthur C. Clarke's "The Star", a story about a planet destroyed by a nova (an exploding star) that turns out to have been the Star of Bethlehem; it won the Hugo Award for that year. Shaw obtained stories from some of the leading writers of the day, including Brian Aldiss, Isaac Asimov, and Robert Sheckley, but the material was of variable quality. In 1958 Irwin Stein, the owner of Royal Publications, decided to shut down Infinity; the last issue was dated November 1958. The title was revived a decade later by Stein's publishing house, Lancer Books, as a paperback anthology series. Five volumes were published between 1970 and 1973, edited by Robert Hoskins; a sixth was prepared but withdrawn after Lancer ran into financial problems at the end of 1973. ## Publication history American science fiction (sf) magazines first appeared in the 1920s with the launch of Amazing Stories, a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback. The beginnings of science fiction as a separately marketed genre can be traced to this time, and by the end of the 1930s the field was undergoing its first boom. World War II and its attendant paper shortages led to the demise of several titles, but by the late 1940s the market began to recover. From a low of eight active magazines in 1946, the field expanded to twenty in 1950, and dozens more commenced publication over the next decade. Infinity Science Fiction was launched in the middle of this publishing boom. In 1954, Irwin and Helen Stein started a publishing company, Royal Publications, and launched two magazines, Celebrity and Our Life, edited by Larry Shaw. Shaw left to edit a hot-rod magazine; when they started Infinity the following year he returned to Royal to become the editor. The first issue of Infinity was on newsstands in September 1955, with a November cover date. The Steins also launched Suspect Detective Stories, a crime magazine, the same month, and gave it to Shaw to edit, but converted it to science fiction after five issues, retitling it Science Fiction Adventures. At the end of the 1950s, Irwin Stein decided to start two media-related magazines, Monster Parade and Monsters and Things, to take advantage of the new interest in horror and science fiction movies. Science Fiction Adventures, which had been suffering from poor sales, was cancelled; the last issue was dated June 1958, and Infinity's last issue followed in November. To save money over the last two issues Stein made a deal to acquire some lower-priced material and took over story selection from Shaw. In 1961, Irwin Stein and Walter Zacharius founded Lancer Books, and in 1963 Shaw was hired to be Lancer's editor; he was replaced by Robert Hoskins in 1968. Hoskins tried to persuade Stein to restart Infinity, but their financial projections implied it would require a circulation of 50,000 to be profitable; Stein thought this unlikely for a magazine but possible for a paperback anthology series. The first in the series, Infinity One, appeared in January 1970, and four more appeared over the next three years, ending with Infinity Five in 1973. A sixth volume was prepared for publication but Lancer went bankrupt in November of that year. The book was cancelled, and Hoskins returned the manuscripts to the authors. ## Contents and reception Shaw knew the science fiction field well, and was friends with many established writers, so he was occasionally able to acquire good stories. The first issue included "The Star", by Arthur C. Clarke, about a planet destroyed by a nova (an exploding star): the light from the nova was seen from Earth as the Star of Bethlehem. A sequel, by Betsy Curtis, appeared in the June 1956 issue. "The Star", which won the Hugo award for that year's best short story, had originally been submitted to The Observer in the UK for a short-story contest, but did not win any of the prizes. It was rejected by several publishers in the US before Shaw bought it; Clarke recorded that The Saturday Evening Post turned it down on the grounds that it was "blasphemous". Harlan Ellison's first science fiction sale, "Glowworm", appeared in the second issue, and Shaw was able to publish much early work by Robert Silverberg. Notable stories included "Dio" by Damon Knight and "Who Can Replace a Man?" by Brian Aldiss. Shaw was able to obtain material by established writers such as Isaac Asimov, Robert Sheckley, Lester del Rey, Algis Budrys, and Jack Vance, though in the opinion of science fiction historian Joseph Marchesani these stories were in many cases not among the authors' best work. Shaw was unhappy with the last two issues, for which Stein had taken over editorial duties, and Marchesani comments that the quality of those issues was "depressing to say the least". Knight provided a book review column, and a good deal of the material in his critical collection In Search of Wonder initially appeared in Infinity; Knight left to edit If in 1958, and Silverberg took over the book reviews for the last three issues. Shaw also included a column titled "Fanfare" as a regular feature, which reprinted material from science-fiction fanzines. The artwork for the first issue's cover was provided by Robert Engle, but all the remaining covers were painted by Ed Emshwiller. The title page of the first anthology, Infinity One, said it was "a magazine of speculative fiction in book form", but it did not include the nonfiction sections or review columns that appeared in most magazines, printing nothing but fiction and some brief introductory material. Infinity One reprinted Clarke's "The Star", but that was the only reprint Hoskins used in the series. The same volume included George Zebrowski's first story, "The Water Sculptor of Station 233". Silverberg and Barry Malzberg had stories in each of the five volumes, and other contributors included established names such as Poul Anderson, Gordon R. Dickson, and Clifford D. Simak, along with newer writers such as Ed Bryant and Dean R. Koontz. Assessments of Infinity by science fiction historians vary. Mike Ashley describes Infinity as "essentially an adventure magazine aiming at a juvenile readership", and Marchesani calls Shaw "an editor of the middle echelon". Malcolm Edwards considers it "one of the most interesting of the flood of new sf magazines in the early and mid-1950s". In Edwards' opinion it became "one of the leading sf magazines of its period". David Kyle describes it as "exceptional", and writer and critic Algis Budrys calls Infinity "Larry Shaw's short-lived but immortal magazine". Edwards assesses the anthology series as "competent but not outstanding". ## Bibliographical details The magazine was published by Royal Publications, and was edited by Larry Shaw for all twenty issues. The first issue was dated November 1955; the schedule varied, with a bimonthly period from June 1956 to Jun 1957, followed by an attempt to keep to a six-weekly schedule for over a year. At the time it was cancelled in October 1958, Shaw was hoping to switch to a monthly schedule. The volume numbering was regular, three volumes of six numbers each and a final volume of two numbers. All issues were digest-sized, 128 pages, and priced at 35 cents. The anthology series were all edited by Robert Hoskins and appeared once each year from 1970 to 1973, except for 1972, during which Infinity Three and Infinity Four both appeared. The first anthology was priced at 75 cents; the remaining four were 95 cents. ## See also - List of science fiction magazines	[ "## Publication history", "## Contents and reception", "## Bibliographical details", "## See also" ]	1,654	42,232
43,202,102	Phenomenal Cat	1,122,388,551	1968 song by the Kinks	[ "1968 songs", "Song recordings produced by Ray Davies", "Songs about cats", "Songs written by Ray Davies", "The Kinks songs" ]	"Phenomenal Cat" is a song by the English rock band the Kinks from their sixth studio album, The Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society (1968). Written and produced by Ray Davies, the song was recorded sometime between late 1967 and May 1968. The song features a Mellotron which duplicates the sound of a flute. It is one of several character studies on Village Green, recounting the story of a flying cat who travels the world, discovers "the secret of life" and spends the rest of his life eating. Commentators have sometimes likened the song to Victorian fairy tales and have often described it as an example of psychedelia. ## Composition ### Lyrics and music "Phenomenal Cat" tells the story of a flying cat who has visited faraway places like Katmandu and Hong Kong. He discovers "the secret of life", though the details of the revelation are not revealed to the listener. In the aftermath of his discovery, he retreats from the world and spends the rest of his life eating in a tree. Songwriter Ray Davies described "Phenomenal Cat" contemporaneously as like a nursery rhyme. Band biographer Johnny Rogan thinks the song resembles a children's story or Victorian fairy tale, comparable to the work of 19th-century English authors like Edward Lear and Lewis Carroll. Academic Patricia Gordon Sullivan considers the song a music hall composition, indicating Ray's continued interest in the genre. While Ray generally eschewed contemporary music trends in his songwriting, retrospective commentators often describe "Phenomenal Cat" as an example of British psychedelia. Academic Barry J. Faulk thinks the song's psychedelia is driven by its Mellotron contribution – a tape-loop-based keyboard instrument that had been associated with the genre since its use on the Beatles' 1967 single "Strawberry Fields Forever". Musician Steve Alleman instead considers the song's Mellotron one of the few times the Kinks approached psychedelia without actually achieving it. Music researcher Christian Matijas-Mecca adds that the song shares qualities with Syd Barrett's song "Lucifer Sam" from Pink Floyd's album The Piper at the Gates of Dawn (1967), and band biographer Andy Miller compares it to Barrett's song "The Gnome" from the same album. Miller writes that while the song includes elements of psychedelia – such as its embrace of Lear and Carroll – he considers those elements to be surface level. He writes that while Ray "shared the British psychedelic's scenes pastoral idealization of lost youth", Ray differed in thinking that one could never return to one's youth. ### Interpretation In a 1976 interview, Ray denied that the song had a moral, though commentators have offered their own interpretations. Miller considers the song as one of several character studies to appear on The Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society (1968) and one of several songs which contemplates the dangerous appeal of the past. He writes the character of the cat is "the same ambiguous figure" as the one who sits lazily by the river in "Sitting by the Riverside", flips through the photo album in "Picture Book", or who lives in a museum in "Last of the Steam-Powered Trains". He writes that in the same way "Last of the Steam-Powered Trains" was a satire on the contemporary R&B movement in Britain, "Phenomenal Cat" may have been a satire on the psychedelic scene. Rogan similarly thinks the song is a satire on the late-1960s trend of searching for spiritual enlightenment. In particular, Rogan thinks Ray may have been satirising his contemporaries, like Pete Townshend in his following of Indian spiritual master Meher Baba or the Beatles learning Transcendental Meditation from Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Academic Ken Rayes thinks the song is about conspicuous consumption. He considers it a "gentle, nuanced portrait of the temptations of capitalist materialism", contrasted against the more "spiritually and emotionally fulfilling possibilities" offered by the village green. He thinks Ray may have sought to caricature rock businessman Allen Klein with the song, writing that the cat parallels Ray's description of Klein in his 1994 autobiography. ## Recording The Kinks recorded "Phenomenal Cat" sometime between late 1967 and May 1968, during a period when the band recorded numerous songs without initially knowing when or in what format they would be released. Recording took place in Pye Studio 2, one of two basement studios at Pye Records' London offices. Ray produced the song, while Pye's in-house engineer Alan "Mac" MacKenzie operated the four-track mixing console. The song's backing track combines a flute, woodwinds and tambourine, played against electric guitar and Mick Avory's drums. Avory deadened the sound on his drums by placing newspaper over a floor tom. The woodwind instruments were produced via Mellotron. The recording's distinctive flute introduction was accomplished by holding down the Mellotron's keys and allowing each tape loop to spool through. Ray's lead vocal is double tracked, while Dave Davies sings as the cat. Dave's voice was altered by recording the master tape slowly and then playing it sped-up. Ray and Dave do not fully harmonise until the song's ending, before Dave's vocal fades away. ## Release and reception "Phenomenal Cat" was among the songs Ray selected for the aborted US album Four More Respected Gentlemen, originally planned for a late 1968 release. He also included the song on his original twelve-track edition of The Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society. In the United Kingdom, Pye initially planned for a 27 September 1968 release of the album, though Ray opted to halt its release in mid-September to expand its track listing. Pye released the fifteen-track edition of the album in the UK on 22 November 1968. "Phenomenal Cat" is on side two, between "Starstruck" and "All of My Friends Were There". The original release included several discrepancies between the titles listed on the album sleeve and those on the LP's central label; on the sleeve, "Phenomenal Cat" was misspelled "Phenominal Cat". In his September 1968 preview of Village Green for New Musical Express, critic Keith Altham wrote that "Phenomenal Cat" is an example of "one of those intriguing figments of Ray's meandering mind"; he concludes that the song includes a moral for those who read close enough, while other listeners can enjoy its "pleasant nursery rhyme". In an otherwise positive review of the album for The Village Voice, critic Robert Christgau criticised the song for its "impersonal artiness", writing that it "might have been turned out by some Drury Lane whimsy specialist". In a retrospective assessment, Morgan Enos of Billboard stated that rather than follow the plot, the listener can appreciate Dave's "crooning" vocal and the "mellow, stony" Mellotron.	[ "## Composition", "### Lyrics and music", "### Interpretation", "## Recording", "## Release and reception" ]	1,457	10,824
12,915,908	Since I Left You (song)	1,172,090,571	null	[ "2000 songs", "2001 singles", "Songs written by Jimmy Webb", "The Avalanches songs", "XL Recordings singles" ]	"Since I Left You" is a song by Australian electronic dance music group the Avalanches. It was released as the third single from the group's debut studio album of the same name on 5 February 2001. Produced by group members Robbie Chater and Darren Seltmann, "Since I Left You" utilizes numerous samples of other artists' material. The song's chorus is a prominent vocal sample of the Main Attraction's "Everyday" (1968). The song was critically acclaimed by listeners and music critics alike, who praised its sample-based production and upbeat atmosphere; several publications named it one of the best singles of 2001. "Since I Left You" also placed in the singles charts of Australia and several European countries. A surrealistic music video for the song was directed by Rob Leggatt and Leigh Marling, and depicts two miners who find a mysterious passage into a dance studio. It won the group an MTV Europe Music Award for Best Video. ## Background and composition The Avalanches started working on their debut album in 2000. Production was handled by group members Robbie Chater and Darren Seltmann, who composed the album's songs by sampling music from vinyl records and manipulating them using Yamaha Promix 01 and Akai S2000 samplers. The song "Since I Left You" was recorded by the group at Soft Light Bistro. Its final mixing process was carried out at the Sing Sing recording studio by Chater, Seltmann and Tony Espie. A dance song of four minutes and twenty-two seconds in length, "Since I Left You" is primarily sample-based. The track features doo-wop vocal harmonies and employs various pieces of instrumentation, including organs, flutes and acoustic guitars. Its chorus, sampled from "Everyday" by the Main Attraction, features a woman singing about leaving her lover. The "Everyday" sample was the final element of "Since I Left You" to be added by Chater and Seltmann, and the former stated that its addition was a moment when they "really succeeded in writing a pop song." The original song described a woman's happiness after meeting a man, but Chater and Seltmann re-arranged various vocals to make the final sample appear to describe a break-up. Other sample sources include Rose Royce's "Daddy Rich", Tony Mottola's "Anema e core" and "By the Time I Get to Phoenix", the Duprees' "The Sky's the Limit", Lamont Dozier's "Take Off Your Make-Up" and Klaus Wunderlich's "Let's Do the Latin Hustle". ## Release A demo version of "Since I Left You" was included on a mixtape sold by the Avalanches at their gigs in mid-2000 in an attempt to prevent the spreading of bootlegged copies of an unfinished version of the group's debut album – the tape was re-released with the title Gimix later that year. The finished version of the track was included on their debut album Since I Left You and subsequently released as its third single on 5 February 2001. The CD single contained the non-album track "Everyday" and a remix by English electronic musician Andy Votel of a previously released B-side, "Thank You Caroline". Remixes of "Since I Left You" by alternative music band Stereolab and producers Prince Paul and Cornelius were created for the single's American release. ### Commercial performance "Since I Left You" entered the Australian national singles chart at number 67 on the week ending 19 February 2001, spending an additional week on the chart before dropping out. The track entered and peaked at number 16 on the UK Singles Chart on the issue dated 7 April 2001, spending a total of seven weeks on the chart. In the Netherlands, it charted for one week at number 97. "Since I Left You" debuted at its peak position of 29 in Ireland and remained on the singles chart for five weeks. ## Critical reception "Since I Left You" received widespread critical acclaim. Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine gave the song a positive review, praising it for "allow[ing] the sampled performances to truly glisten." Allmusic's MacKenzie Wilson also spoke favourably of "Since I Left You", remarking that it "leaves listeners spellbound and in a summer dreamscape of lushness and simplicity." Matt LeMay of Pitchfork wrote that the "beauty" of the song "lies in the way that the Avalanches turn obvious sonic mismatches into something all their own". Playlouder named "Since I Left You" the twenty-ninth best single of 2001, calling it "shimmeringly gorgeous" and "much greater than the sum of its parts, and the parts were pretty good to start with." NME and Rockdelux both included the track in their respective year-end best single lists. Pitchfork placed "Since I Left You" at number 40 on their list of the best singles of the 2000s. The song also ranked number 69 on Stylus Magazine's decade-end list, with writer Ally Brown commenting: "A decade in, nothing's come close to matching 'Since I Left You''s distillation of pure joy from a hundred different songs." Q included "Since I Left You" in their lists of the Ultimate Music Collection and the 1,001 Best Songs Ever. ## Music video The music video for "Since I Left You" was directed by Rob Leggatt and Leigh Marling, both members of the Blue Source video direction team. It follows the story of two miners in a black-and-white world who find a passage into a dance studio situated in a colour world. The majority of the video consists of one of the miners dancing with two ballerinas, the other not having the courage or skill to join in. The video ends with the dancing miner finding love with one of the ballerinas, thus leaving his friend, who fades back into black-and-white. The Avalanches had originally envisioned a video concept involving synchronized swimmers on an ocean cruise liner, but their record company rejected it. The clip later won Best Video at the 2001 MTV Europe Music Awards. Pitchfork placed it at number four on their list of the Top 50 Music Videos of the 2000s, with writer Scott Plagenhoef noting that the video "transform[s] the disparate and the out-of-place into something new and joyful, and it does that with the right blend of heart and surrealism." ## Formats and track listings - CD single (Australia and United Kingdom) 1. "Since I Left You" – 4:22 2. "Everyday" – 7:02 3. "Thank You Caroline" (Andy Votel remix) – 4:08 - 12-inch single (United States) Side one 1. "Since I Left You" (Prince Paul remix featuring Breeze and Kelli Sae) – 3:47 2. "Since I Left You" (Stereolab remix) – 4:35 Side two 1. "Since I Left You" (Cornelius remix) – 5:35 2. "Since I Left You" – 4:22 ## Credits and personnel Credits for "Since I Left You" adapted from CD single and Since I Left You album liner notes. Recording - Recorded at Soft Light Bistro. - Final mix at Sing Sing. Personnel - Robbie Chater – arrangement, mixing, production, sampling, songwriting - Tony Diblasi – songwriting - Edward Drennen – songwriting ("Let's Do the Latin Hustle" sample) - Tony Espie – mixing - Gordon McQuilten – piano, percussion, songwriting - Darren Seltmann – arrangement, mixing, production, sampling, songwriting - Jeanne Salo – songwriting ("Everyday" sample) - Jimmy Webb – songwriting ("By the Time I Get to Phoenix" sample) ## Charts	[ "## Background and composition", "## Release", "### Commercial performance", "## Critical reception", "## Music video", "## Formats and track listings", "## Credits and personnel", "## Charts" ]	1,674	22,155
47,341,201	Abel Starkey	1,079,185,567	American criminal	[ "1827 deaths", "Accidental deaths from falls", "American counterfeiters", "American people who died in prison custody", "People from Roxbury, Boston", "Prisoners who died in Massachusetts detention", "Year of birth unknown" ]	Abel Starkey (died September 28, 1827) was a convicted counterfeiter whose death is closely tied to Old Newgate Prison after fatally falling during an escape attempt the night before the close of the prison. Starkey was from Roxbury, Massachusetts and became a counterfeiter. Members of a counterfeiting ring had eluded authorities for years, but they finally discovered the secret third attic of a lightning splitter home. Starkey was arrested, tried and convicted of counterfeiting. He was sentenced to a term of twenty years in the prison, where he would amass a sum of money. His attempt to escape ended in his death, accounts of Starkey's attempt continued to be popular in reference to the prison's history. ## Life Abel Starkey was a native of Roxbury, Massachusetts. The story of Starkey's capture was published by George Hubbard in The New England Magazine. Starkey was part of a gang of counterfeiters, including Stephen Burroughs, Samuel Corson and James Smith. Pursued by the authorities, Abel Starkey disappeared in the vicinity of a lightning splitter home that was owned by the Shephardson family. A thorough search of the house was conducted and the authorities found nothing. According to Hubbard, the house was the refuge of the counterfeiters for a number of years. After a time the public and authorities continued to track members of the gang to the location and investigations were performed only to turn up empty. Sheriff Johnson of Worcester tracked the counterfeiters to the house one day and set up a team of men outside and inside the house to uncover and arrest the counterfeiters. A careful search turned up nothing, so measurements of the house were taken to make sure no secret rooms or areas existed. With the inaccessible third attic all but ruled out, the discovery of its access through the chimney was by chance when an officer emptied out his trash into the fireplace. Contained in the trash was some snuff and a sneeze came from above, alerting the officers of hidden occupants in the chimney. After the fire had been extinguished and raked out, Sheriff Johnson attempted to climb up into the chimney. A brick was dropped from above and wounded him. The authorities capped the chimney and smoked the counterfeiters until they fell unconscious. Starkey was amongst the three arrested counterfeiters. Starkey was tried and convicted of counterfeiting and sentenced to a term of twenty years at Newgate Prison. In prison, Starkey was able to save up and set aside a good amount of money, but his good behavior helped him earn the favor and even friendship of prison officials. The construction of Wethersfield State Prison would lead to the closure and transportation of the inmates and Starkey reportedly made declarations that he'd never go to the new prison. On September 28, 1827, the day prior to the transfer, Starkey requested that he have his final stay in the underground shaft and his request was granted. For reasons unknown, the well hatch was left open and Starkey was able to make an escape attempt by climbing up the well rope. The rope broke and Starkey fell down the shaft and fell to his death. According to Newgate of Connecticut, Starkey would amass a total of \$100 in prison, . When his body was discovered, it was found that he had \$50 in possession and it was believed that a bribe had been paid to leave the hatch open. More modern accounts state that he drowned, whereas earlier sources state that his skull had been crushed. According to Richard Harvey Phelps's Newgate of Connecticut, Starkey's feet were found tied together, likely to aid in ascending the rope. ## In popular culture The connection of Starkey's fatal fall is deeply tied to the closure of Newgate and his death has sparked numerous variations and accounts. In 1967, W. Storrs Lee's published article in American Hertige that has been often cited by later accounts of the prison's history. Contained within is the assertion that Starkey bribed a guard and that the guard left the rope and the bucket for Starkey to climb which is also at odds with reporting from Phelps' 1844 publication and Hubbard's 1907 description of Starkey's capture and fatal escape. In 2007, The Boston Globe even when so far as to state that Starkey was found "still clutching the bag of coins he intended to use to pay off the guard." Many accounts assert that Starkey bribed a guard \$50 to leave the bucket and rope hanging to facilitate the escape, whereas others follower earlier accounts that the well hatch was left unlocked. Suzy Kline's book, Horrible Harry Moves up to the Third Grade features a story on Starkey's deadly escape. The account is given to the characters by a guide, stating Starkey's amassing of the \$100 and bribery of a guard. The fictional guide also states that the guard provided the information on the way to escape, and deliberately chose not to warn Starkey of the frayed rope that would cause his fatal fall.	[ "## Life", "## In popular culture" ]	1,035	30,335
45,449,435	Kodandarama Temple, Vontimitta	1,145,938,536	Hindu temple in Vontimitta, India	[ "16th-century Hindu temples", "Hindu temples in Kadapa district", "Monuments of National Importance in Andhra Pradesh", "Rama temples", "Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams", "Tourist attractions in Kadapa district" ]	Kodandarama Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Rama, located in Vontimitta town in Vontimitta Mandalam of Kadapa District in the Indian state of Andhra. The temple, an example of Vijayanagara architectural style, is dated to the 16th century. It is stated to be the largest temple in the region. It is located at a distance of 25 kilometres (16 mi) from Kadapa and is close to Rajampet. The temple and its adjoining buildings are one of the centrally protected monuments of national importance. ## Legend According to the local legend, the temple was built by Vontudu and Mittudu they was nishada(boya) vamsha, who were robbers-turned-devotees of Rama. After building the temple, they are said to have turned into stone. ## History The temple was built during the reign of Chola and Vijayanagara kings around the 16th century. Bammera Potana who lived in Vontimitta wrote his magnum opus Maha Bhagavatham in Telugu language and dedicated it to Rama. Vavilakolanu Subba Rao, known as ‘Andhra Valmiki’ for translating Valmiki’s Ramayana (the Hindu epic that narrates Rama's tale) into Telugu also spent his time here worshipping Rama. The saint-poet Annamacharya is said to have visited the temple and composed and sang songs or kirtans in praise of Rama. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a French traveler who had visited this temple in 1652, appreciated the elegance of the temple's architecture. ## Features The temple, the largest in the region is built in Vijayanagara style of architecture, in the "Sandhara" order within a rectangular yard enclosed by walls. The temple, located 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) from Siddhout via Bakarapeta, is architecturally elegant and impressive. It has three ornate Gopurams (towers) of which the central tower, which faces east, is the entrance gateway to the temple; the other two towers face north and south. This central tower is built in five tiers, and a number of steps are provided to access the approach gate of the tower. The mandapa or the Rangamantapam, the open-air theatre, has exquisite sculptures. As the mandapa is supported over 32 pillars it is known as Madhyarangaradapam. The colonnades in the mandapa have carved figurines of attendant apsaras (nymphs). The columns of the central support system on the southern side display carvings of the gods Krishna and Vishnu. Each of the corner columns have three layers carved with images of apsaras and deities. In the central part of the mandapa, there are piers which are adorned with images of the mythical creatures yali. The roof of the central part is built up with many decorative brackets or corbels. In one of the columns of the mandapa, images of Rama and his brother Lakshmana are sculpted. Rama is shown here in a standing position with bow in the right hand and arrow in the left hand. Other decorative art depiction in Rama's image consists of Kundalas (ear-rings), haras (garlands), valayas, yagnopavita (sacred thread) and so forth. Lakshmana's figure is sculpted in tribhanga posture with his right hand held down free while the left hand holds a bow. Adornments carved on this image are kirtimukuta (conical crown), graivevakas, channavira, udarbandha (waist band), yagnopavita and purnaruka. Krishna is in dvibhanga posture with the left leg firmly on the ground and the right leg bent at the knee and crossed over the left leg, a style termed as Vyatyastapada. Of his two arms, the right hand is shown holding the Govardhan Hill while the other is rested on kati. The image is ornamented with kirtimukuta and many more other ornaments. Two cows are also depicted by his side. The sanctum sanctorum or garbhagriha is approached from the mandapa through an antaraalayam or inner chamber, which is adorned with sculptures. In the garbhagriha, the central icon of Rama along with his consort Sita and Lakshmana are carved as a composite image, out of a single rock. It is also inferred that the garbhagriha is itself carved out of a single block. The Hanuman, Rama's devotee, who is generally shown with the trio is missing here. However, there is a separate temple for Hanuman here. There is also an image of Ganesha in a dancing posture in the mandapam. The state government has decided to take over the upkeep of this temple, which is presently with the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). This temple is notified as an Ancient Monument (N-AP-50) by ASI. The two sacred water tanks – Rama theertham and Lakshmana theertham – are located in the precincts of the temple. ## Administration The Administration of the Temple is entrusted to the Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams (TTD) by the Government of Andhra Pradesh. The TTD board had passed a resolution on 29 July 2015 to get the temple under its administrative control. ## Festival Rama Navami, the birthday of Rama, was officially celebrated by the Government of Andhra Pradesh in Bhadrachalam Temple, which went to Telangana. The Vontimitta Kodandarama Swamy Temple was chosen as the alternative venue of the official celebrations in 2015. ## See also - Bhadrachalam Temple - List of temples under Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams - List of Monuments of National Importance in Andhra Pradesh	[ "## Legend", "## History", "## Features", "## Administration", "## Festival", "## See also" ]	1,270	17,185
10,742,209	Delaware Route 42	1,156,837,867	Highway in Delaware, United States	[ "State highways in Delaware", "Transportation in Kent County, Delaware" ]	Delaware Route 42 (DE 42) is a state highway in Kent County, Delaware. It runs 12.74 miles (20.50 km) from DE 6 in Blackiston east to DE 9 in Leipsic. DE 42 passes through rural areas along with the towns of Kenton and Cheswold. The route intersects DE 300 in Kenton, runs concurrent with DE 15 between Seven Hickories and Moores Corner, and crosses U.S. Route 13 (US 13) in Cheswold. The road was built as a state highway during the 1920s and 1930s. DE 42 was designated by 1936 between Kenton and Leipsic and extended to Blackiston by 1966. ## Route description DE 42 begins at an intersection with DE 6 in the community of Blackiston. Northwest of DE 6, the road becomes Longridge Road, which changes names to Delaney Maryland Line Road and Clayton Delaney Road before it reaches the Maryland border and becomes Maryland Route 330 (MD 330). MD 330 heads west and, by way of MD 313, provides access to US 301. From the western terminus, DE 42 heads southeast on two-lane undivided Blackiston Road. The route runs through agricultural areas with some woods and homes. The road reaches the town of Kenton, where it becomes Commerce Street. In Kenton, the route crosses an abandoned railroad line and passes residences and a few businesses, intersecting with DE 300 in the center of town. Past Kenton, DE 42 heads to the east-southeast on Seven Hickories Road into farmland with woods and residences, crossing Pinks Branch. In Seven Hickories, the route intersects DE 15 and the two routes head east for a concurrency. In Moores Corner, DE 15 splits from DE 42 by turning southeast on Kenton Road before DE 42 continues east and intersects Pearsons Corner Road. The road heads east-northeast and passes to the south of Delaware Airpark. The route enters the town of Cheswold, where it becomes Main Street. The road passes homes and some businesses in the town, crossing the Delmarva Central Railroad's Delmarva Subdivision line at-grade. DE 42 reaches an intersection with US 13 on the eastern edge of Cheswold at Bishops Corner. After the US 13 intersection, the route heads northeast on Fast Landing Road. DE 42 passes over the DE 1 toll road, where it has ramps for emergency vehicles but no public access. The road runs through farmland with some woodland and homes, curving to the east. Farther east, the route turns southeast into marshland adjacent to the Leipsic River, crossing Dyke Branch. DE 42 enters the town of Leipsic, where it heads east into residential areas and ends at DE 9. Past the eastern terminus, the road continues east as Second Street. DE 42 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 7,654 vehicles at the eastern border of Cheswold to a low of 536 vehicles at the eastern terminus at DE 9. ## History By 1920, what is now DE 42 existed as an unimproved county road. The road was completed as a state highway between Kenton and Lepisic four years later. The route was under construction as a state highway between Blackiston and Kenton by 1932. By 1936, DE 42 was assigned to its current alignment between DE 300 in Kenton and DE 9 in Leipsic and the state highway between Blackiston and Kenton was completed. By 1966, the route was extended to Blackiston. ## Major intersections ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections", "## See also" ]	786	10,223
12,911,894	Chororapithecus	1,136,148,155	Extinct hominine genus from the Miocene	[ "Fossil taxa described in 2007", "Gorillas", "Miocene primates of Africa", "Monotypic prehistoric primate genera", "Prehistoric apes", "Prehistoric primate genera" ]	Chororapithecus is an extinct great ape from the Afar region of Ethiopia roughly 8 million years ago during the Late Miocene, comprising one species, C. abyssinicus. It is known from 9 isolated teeth discovered in a 2005–2007 survey of the Chorora Formation. The teeth are indistinguishable from those of gorillas in terms of absolute size and relative proportions, and it has been proposed to be an early member of Gorillini. However, this is controversial given the paucity of remains, and notable anatomical differences between Chororapithecus and gorilla teeth. The Kenyan ape Nakalipithecus has been proposed to be an ancestor of Chororapithecus or at least closely related. If correct, they would be the only identified fossil members of any modern non-human great ape lineage, and would push the gorilla–human last common ancestor from 8 million years ago (identified by molecular analysis) to 10 million years ago. The teeth are adapted for processing tough plant fibres as well as hard, brittle food, and the formation is thought to represent a forested lakeside habitat. ## Taxonomy Chororapithecus teeth were discovered in the Afar region, Ethiopia, in a 2005–2007 survey in the Beticha locality of the Chorora Formation, hence the name, and the formation itself is named after the Chorora village about 8 km (5.0 mi) south of the locality. The specific name, abyssinicus, is in reference to Abyssinia, the former name of Ethiopia. The ape was described in 2007 by anthropologists Gen Suwa, Reiko Kono, Shigehiro Katoh, Berhane Asfaw, and Yonas Beyene. The remains represent at least 3, perhaps over 6, different individuals. The holotype specimen, CHO-BT 4, is a right upper second molar, and the paratypes are a left lower canine, 3 right upper third molars, a left lower third molar, a left lower first molar, and a left and a right lower molar fragment, making for a total of 9 isolated teeth. The discoverers noted the teeth have some of the same adaptations for shearing food as those of gorillas, and classified it as the first fossil member and the only other genus of the tribe Gorillini. Because the Chororapithecus teeth have several specializations not shared with those of gorillas (they exhibit a derived condition compared to the presumed last common ancestor, LCA), they did not consider it as ancestral to the gorilla. However, the discovers also conceded it is possible that Chororapithecus and gorillas instead convergently evolved the same teeth due to a similar diet. If Chororapithecus is not a gorillin, it may be a stem hominine or not a hominine at all. The teeth were originally dated to 10.5–10 million years ago (mya), and the discoverers then concluded that the gorilla–human LCA existed about 12 mya, but they were re-dated to about 8 mya. If Chororapithecus was indeed a stem gorilla, the latter date is more consistent with the timing of 8 mya for the LCA according to molecular data. Based on the revised date and similarly large premolar size, the 10 million year old Kenyan Nakalipithecus has been proposed to have been the ancestor to Chororapithecus, which would move the LCA to 10 mya if correct. Nonetheless, because there are so few remains known, its relations to modern great apes is unclear. It was the first extinct ape to have been proposed to be a member of the gorilla lineage. It is debated if great apes evolved in Africa or Eurasia given the abundance of early fossil apes species in the latter and the paucity in the former, despite all modern great apes except the orangutan being known from Africa. The first Miocene African great ape was discovered in 1997, Samburupithecus, and the only others known are Nakalipithecus and Chororapithecus. If Chororapithecus is indeed an early gorilla, then it would point to an African origin for great apes. However, earlier Eurasian dryopithecines may be early hominines. ## Anatomy The teeth, both in absolute size and relative proportions, are the same as in gorillas, and the molars range in size between the largest and smallest of what is normally seen in adult gorillas. Like in gorillas, the upper molars have a long protocone crest, and the lower molars have a correspondingly long trigonid crest, which increase shearing efficacy. Compared to gorillas, the cusp tips are relatively peripheral, are not well pronounced, and the enamel is thicker especially at the side cusps where the tooth borders other teeth. This causes a wide basin on the middle of the molar. This is reminiscent of the condition seen in Hominini (humans and chimps). The upper molars are elongated and narrow, and also have a gorilla-like enamel-dentine juncture. ## Palaeobiology The teeth exhibit adaptations for shearing, but the low cusp height indicates the teeth likely folded and pulverised tough plant fibres rather than cut through them as gorillas and other folivores with higher cusps do. The thick enamel is more similar to that of orangutans, and may indicate the consumption of hard, brittle foods. Orangutan molars are probably adapted for eating hard fruits and nuts. Chororapithecus and Oreopithecus are the only known folivorous Miocene apes. The Chorora Formation represents a braided river system, possibly a forested area alongside a lake in a forest-savanna mosaic environment. It is the only sub-Saharan vertebrate-bearing formation spanning from 9–7.4 mya, and records the earliest known occurrences of cercopithecine monkeys, hippos, and rabbits in Africa. At the Beticha locality, the large vertebrate assemblage is: colobine and cercopithecine monkeys, a hippo, the pig Nyanzachoerus, the antelope-like siveratheriine and Palaeotragus, a bosalephine antelope, wild cattle, the horse Cormohipparion and an unidentified equine, a rhino, what may be the elephant Stegotetrabelodon, a percrocutid hyena, and a large cat. Because horses and rodents are much less common in the Beticha locality than the type locality of the formation, Beticha may have been a comparatively more forested and closed environment. ## See also	[ "## Taxonomy", "## Anatomy", "## Palaeobiology", "## See also" ]	1,451	7,784
11,030,295	Black Tears	1,091,997,154	null	[ "2007 songs", "Powderfinger songs", "Songs written by Bernard Fanning", "Songs written by Darren Middleton", "Songs written by Ian Haug", "Songs written by John Collins (Australian musician)", "Songs written by Jon Coghill" ]	"Black Tears" is a song by Australian alternative rock band Powderfinger, from their sixth studio album Dream Days at the Hotel Existence. The song is an acoustic ballad in a folk music style, beginning with one guitar and a lead vocal, later introducing a guitar with a synthesised effect from the first chorus. Following the Dream Days at the Hotel Existence release, live versions of the song have been released on other recordings. The song did not cause the release of the album to be delayed, despite claims that the song's lyrics could interfere with the 2004 Palm Island death in custody case. ## Controversy On 2 May 2007, mX, an afternoon newspaper in Brisbane, revealed that the defence team for Senior Sergeant Chris Hurley would be referring the song to Queensland Attorney-General Kerry Shine, due to concerns that the song's lyrics could prejudice the 2004 Palm Island death in custody, where Hurley had been charged for manslaughter. On 2 May Hurley's lawyer Glen Cranny said "The content and proposed timing of the song’s release raises some serious concerns regarding Mr Hurley’s trial." It was claimed by the defence team that the song's lyrics were similar to the events that took place surrounding the death of Mulrunji. The band's manager, Paul Piticco, conceded the song was about the case but insisted they were not specific enough to cause a problem. The album was set to be released 10 days before Hurley would face Townsville Supreme Court, on 12 June. There were concerns that the case's jury could potentially be biased by the lyrical content. Due to the concerns raised, Powderfinger sought legal advice. Then Queensland premier, Peter Beattie, who had legal experience, said the song was likely to be protected by free speech laws, noting "The matter would have to go pertain specifically to the issues of the trial" for a "prejudice" argument to be raised. Several days after the initial threats of legal action, Powderfinger backed down and announced they would change the song. The band's lawyers sent Shine a copy of the new, altered lyrics. It was then reported that an analysis of the new lyrics found they were safe to release. This was the version that would later be used on the album. A statement from Shine's office stated that "Crown Law has examined the lyrics. Crown Law have advised Mr Shine's office the lyrics raise no legal concern." In a June 2007 interview, Fanning noted that Powderfinger hoped to re-release the original version of the song in the future, after the case had been settled. He also said that he was not angry about having to change his lyrics, but lamented the lack of Australian musicians willing to challenge the status quo. The legal threats against the song were attacked heavily by some writers, including Andrew Stafford of The Bulletin. He noted that it was highly unlikely "Black Tears" would be released as a single, so potential jurors would need to "buy a copy of Dream Days in the ten days between its release and Hurley's trial just to hear the song". He also noted that Piticco had stated the lyrics could just as easily refer to a death in Brisbane, not on Palm Island. ## Musical content In a media statement published on the band's MySpace web page, lead singer Bernard Fanning, who originally wrote the song, said the inspiration came to him after "a trip that I took last year to Uluru". He said it discussed the issue of people climbing the rock, which is sacred in Aboriginal folklore, despite "the prevalence of literature and signage" asking people not to. Fanning compared climbing Uluru to climbing the Vatican, which he noted would be highly offensive to Catholics. Fanning said the second part of the song, which contained the controversial lyrics, was written following the Queensland Director of Public Prosecutions passing down its finding in the death in custody case. He said that the band believed the song would have no bearing on the legal procedure, they would nonetheless include an alternative version of the song on Dream Days at the Hotel Existence. The alternate version of the song still contains the lyrics An island watchhouse bed / A black man's lying dead. but not the lyrics that followed. Upon announcing that the album would contain an altered version, Fanning noted his initial reasons for the song, stating "to bring attention to the obvious disadvantage that is still being suffered by Aboriginal people in this country", which he said included the issue of "Indigenous deaths in custody". Despite the claimed lyrical change, some early versions of Dream Days at the Hotel Existence were shipped with a version of "Black Tears" that included the controversial lyrics, which were also published on the band's website. ## Release history ### Original version - Dream Days at the Hotel Existence – Track 9 ### Live performances - Across the Great Divide tour DVD – Disc 1, Track 11 - I Don't Remember – iTunes only – Track 2	[ "## Controversy", "## Musical content", "## Release history", "### Original version", "### Live performances" ]	1,019	7,625
8,343,755	Swifton Center	1,165,368,833	Former shopping mall in Cincinnati, Ohio	[ "1956 establishments in Ohio", "2013 disestablishments in Ohio", "Buildings and structures in Cincinnati", "Demolished shopping malls in the United States", "Shopping malls established in 1956", "Shopping malls in Hamilton County, Ohio" ]	Swifton Center was a shopping mall in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. Opened in 1956 as the first mall in the Cincinnati area, it was initially an open-air complex featuring Rollman & Sons department store as the sole anchor store. This store was converted to Mabley & Carew in 1960, and again to Elder-Beerman in 1978. Other major tenants included Kroger, Liberal Market, G. C. Murphy, and S. S. Kresge. The mall had undergone a severe decline in tenancy by the early 1980s, resulting from the relocation of Kroger and deferred maintenance of the property. In 1985, Edward J. DeBartolo Corporation purchased the mall and renovated it as Swifton Commons. As part of this renovation, the mall gained a number of outlet stores. Despite initial success, the renovated mall underwent another severe decline in tenancy by the mid-1990s due to the bankruptcy of key tenants such as Elder-Beerman. Allen Temple AME Church bought the mall and renamed it to Jordan Crossing, with the intent of replacing many of the inline tenants with offices. This was unsuccessful, and by 2013, the mall was demolished except for offices in the former location of Elder-Beerman. ## History Retail developer Jonathan Woodner first announced plans for Swifton Center in 1951, and sold his stake in the mall to Stahl Development in 1954. The site chosen for the center was the southeast corner of Reading Road (U.S. Route 42) and Seymour Avenue (SR 561) within the city limits of Cincinnati, Ohio, a site determined by market analysts to be the center of population for the Cincinnati market at the time. It would also be the first shopping mall in the Cincinnati area. Plans for the center called for approximately 54 tenants lining both sides of an open-air concourse, along with parking for over 3,000 cars and a service tunnel for delivery trucks underneath the center. A branch of the local department store Rollman & Sons (then owned by Allied Stores), which also operated a store in downtown Cincinnati at the time, would serve as the anchor store at the south end. The mall would overall consist of just under 600,000 square feet (56,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of shop space on 41 acres (17 ha) of land. Overall building costs for the center were estimated at \$12 million. Stahl Development and Sun Construction Company were announced as the mall's developers, with Frederick A. Schmidt., Inc. as leasing agent; however, Stahl Development sold its share to General Development in early 1955. At the time of groundbreaking, tenants confirmed for the center included two variety stores (G. C. Murphy and S. S. Kresge), two supermarkets (Kroger and Dayton-based Liberal Market), along with a Walgreens drugstore. Standard Oil of Ohio (Sohio) built two gas stations on the mall's periphery. Swifton Center opened for business on October 24, 1956. The central mall corridor was lined with protective canopies and featured several redwood benches. Rollman & Sons department store consisted of over 140,000 square feet (13,000 m<sup>2</sup>) on three floors. Amenities of the store included a 140-seat restaurant, an auditorium, a malt shop, a beauty shop, and a children's hair salon. The 47,789-square-foot (4,439.7 m<sup>2</sup>), two-story G. C. Murphy store was both their first in Cincinnati, and the first in the entire chain to sell furniture. Kroger's 19,300-square-foot (1,790 m<sup>2</sup>) store was their largest in southern Ohio at the time, and its opening resulted in the closure of five other nearby stores which the chain deemed "too small". One year after opening, Swifton Center hosted a first-anniversary celebration which included a performance by 66-year-old female stunt diver Ella "Grandma" Carver, live television broadcasts on WCPO-TV, and a prize drawing with a grand prize package valued at \$1,000. General Development president Guilford Glazer noted that the center had exceeded all sales expectations within the first year, as well as the national average for new centers built across the United States at the time, while studies conducted by Allied Stores concluded that the Rollman & Sons department store had exceeded sales expectations as well. In 1960, Allied Stores also acquired the local department store Mabley & Carew, and announced that both the Swifton Center and downtown locations of Rollman & Sons would be converted to that name. This move would also give Mabley & Carew a larger storefront downtown by moving into the former Rollman & Sons building. Swifton Center would be Mabley & Carew's third location, after the downtown store and another at Western Hills Plaza on the city's west side. Mabley & Carew thoroughly renovated the building to meet its merchandising needs, which included dedicating the entire second floor to women's apparel and the third level to housewares, along with the addition of suits and furs. After renovation was complete, the department store was fully reopened in November 1960. Fifth-anniversary festivities for the mall in 1961 included a performance by singers from the local country music-themed television talent show Midwestern Hayride, and a fashion council sponsored by Mabley & Carew to assist teenaged girls in making their own clothes. Midwestern Hayride performances were also included as part of the mall's tenth-anniversary celebration in 1966, along with a puppet show, sock hop, and another prize giveaway. In addition, Swifton Center became the first mall in the United States to issue its own credit card, known as the All-N-1 Chargit Card; customers could sign up for the card at any merchant in the mall and have purchases from all stores except Mabley & Carew charged to one account. ### Decline and conversion to Swifton Commons At the time of the mall's twentieth anniversary in 1976, its owners announced plans to enclose the then-open air concourses following the opening of several other, larger malls in the area such as Tri-County Mall and Northgate Mall. Swifton Center consisted of 56 stores at the time, among which were Lerner New York, Baker Shoes, and Hancock Fabrics. No renovations had begun by 1978, at which point the mall had begun to suffer from deferred maintenance of the parking lot and outer structures. Kroger had also confirmed that it would be relocating to Hillcrest Square, a strip mall under development across the street, due to a need for a larger store. The mall's main anchor store changed names again in 1978 when the Dayton-based department store Elder-Beerman acquired Mabley & Carew. One year later, Liberal Market closed its Swifton Center location along with two other Cincinnati stores and one in Dayton. Glazer Enterprises, of which mall owner General Development was a subsidiary, submitted a request to the state of Ohio for \$10 million in industrial revenue bonds to begin renovations in 1980. The company also hired a consulting firm to study possible improvements of the center, and stated that renovation plans would consist of an exterior cleanup followed by an interior renovation. By 1981, Swifton Center had an occupancy of about 52 percent, a figure including mostly local stores which at the time were on monthly leases; among the vacancies were the former locations of Kroger, Walgreens, and Lerner New York. Edward J. DeBartolo Corporation purchased the mall in 1985, renaming it to Swifton Commons. DeBartolo renovated the mall's exterior and brought in new tenants such as Lane Bryant, Waldenbooks, and Gold Star Chili, along with a food court. At the time, representatives of both Glazer and DeBartolo noted that the mall's decline was due to a perception of white flight in the surrounding neighborhoods, a claim which they felt was unsubstantiated since many of the former mall tenants such as Kroger and Walgreens had relocated across the street and not left the neighborhood entirely. Another factor in the mall's decline prior to the mid-1980s was a lack of escalation clause in the leases of original tenants, which in turn resulted in deferred maintenance of the property and an inability to attract new tenants in order to stay competitive with other area malls. DeBartolo had been selected by Glazer Enterprises owner Jerome Glazer to assist in mall renovations, and had gotten nearly \$7 million in city grants to undergo renovations. This was also the second time that DeBartolo had renovated an existing shopping mall which had begun to falter, having previously done similar work on Cheltenham Square (now Greenleaf at Cheltenham) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Grand re-opening of the mall occurred in September 1985, by which point SupeRx drugstore, J. J. Newberry, Kinney Shoes, and Casual Corner had also been confirmed as tenants. Among the renovations given to the property were new maple trees along the exterior, new pavement and lighting in the parking lots, along with reconstruction of interior shop space. DeBartolo also proposed to add a second anchor store along the mall's north side. By 1993, the mall's occupancy had risen to 78 percent, with a greater emphasis on off-price and outlet stores. Included in these were a trio of stores operated by Milwaukee, Wisconsin-based Value Merchants. These were a dollar store called Everything's \$1.00, a closeout store called \$5 and \$10 Store, and a discount sporting goods store called Play Outlet. In addition, Elder-Beerman converted its store to an outlet format which sold closeout merchandise from other Elder-Beerman locations, a move which required closing off the store's third floor. However, the trio of Value Merchants stores closed after Christmas 1993, and the Elder-Beerman outlet closed in late 1995, both due to the respective companies filing for bankruptcy. ### Second decline and change to Jordan Crossing Swifton Commons was foreclosed on in 1996 when the DeBartolo corporation defaulted on loans. It was put up for auction at a sheriff's sale in August 1996, but attracted no buyers; a second auction in October of the same year resulted in the mall getting sold to Star Bank for \$2.2 million. The bank then formed an advisory panel to determine possible renovations. J. J. Newberry closed at the mall in 1997 after its parent company McCrory Stores filed for bankruptcy. At the time of the closing announcement, the advisory panel was two months past its intended deadline and yet to come up with a solution. Sandor Development, a real estate company from Indianapolis, Indiana, announced plans to buy the mall from Star Bank in 1997 but withdrew their offer in March 1998. By this point, the mall's uncertain financial state and the closure of Elder-Beerman and J. J. Newberry had caused a sharp decline in tenancy. Having already dropped to 50 percent occupancy shortly before J. J. Newberry's closure, the mall further declined by early 1998 to ten stores, of which only two (Foot Locker and National Record Mart) were national chain stores. Allen Temple AME Church expressed interest in buying the mall property in late 1998. The church announced renovation plans in late 1999, which would demolish over half of the property in favor of returning Kroger to the mall, in addition to attracting other big box retail and non-retail uses. In 2002, the mall was officially renamed to Jordan Crossing. Construction began on the mall's northwest side for a new AME Church sanctuary, while Wilberforce University opened a branch inside the mall building, and Community Action Agencies offices opened in the former Elder-Beerman. The city of Cincinnati applied for a grant in 2010 to demolish the mall after AME Church was unable to do so. Under the church's ownership, the mall had continued to dwindle in tenancy and had not been renovated, to the point that it still had signage referring to it as Swifton Crossing. After buying the property, the city began demolition work in March 2013. Renovation plans called for the addition of retail and office space, along with a hotel. By 2014, only the Community Action Agencies building remained of the old mall. As of 2019, no further redevelopment has occurred at the former mall site, which the city of Cincinnati has renamed again to MidPointe Crossing.	[ "## History", "### Decline and conversion to Swifton Commons", "### Second decline and change to Jordan Crossing" ]	2,629	14,762
68,597,787	Pompey stone	1,148,008,518	Stone carved as a hoax near Pompey, US	[ "1820 archaeological discoveries", "1820 establishments in New York (state)", "19th-century hoaxes", "19th-century inscriptions", "Archaeological forgeries", "History of Onondaga County, New York", "Hoaxes in the United States", "Scandals in New York (state)" ]	The Pompey stone was a stone that was carved as a hoax near Pompey, New York, circa 1820. Upon its discovery that year, the stone was quickly accepted as authentic, dated to circa 1520, and extensively analyzed by historians of the day for its significance as an early record of European presence in the region. It was commonly thought to have marked the grave of a Spaniard, who was proposed to have been an explorer, missionary, or captive of a Native American tribe. The hoax was generally accepted as authentic for the next seventy years, and after being displayed for a year in Manlius it was moved to Albany, first in the State Museum of the Albany Institute and after 1872 in the New York State Museum of Natural History. In 1894 the antiquarian William M. Beauchamp conducted research casting doubt upon the stone's age and suggesting it was a hoax. Later that year the engineer John Edson Sweet publicly admitted that his relatives had carved the stone in the 19th century. The stone has since remained on display as an example of a hoax and as of 2018 was held by the Museum of the Pompey Historical Society. ## Design The stone is roughly an oval, approximately 14 inches (360 mm) long, 12 inches (300 mm) wide, and 10 inches (250 mm) thick, and composed of gneiss. It weighs around 127 pounds (58 kg). The center of the stone is inscribed with a tree that is being climbed by a serpent. The stone was initially engraved with "Leo De L on VI 1520", which was translated in 1841 by the historians John Warner Barber and Henry Howe as meaning "Leo X by the Grace of God; eighth year of his pontificate, 1520". In 1937 Noah T. Clarke, the New York state archaeologist, noted that the stone's inscription had been changed, with the 1520 altered to read 1584, and the 'L on' disappeared. He attempted to restore other parts of the stone, but was limited in research as many records had been destroyed in the 1911 New York State Capitol fire. ## Early history and display According to an 1894 letter published in the Syracuse Journal by John Edson Sweet, Sweet's uncle Cyrus Avery and Avery's nephew, William Willard, carved the stone and buried it in a field in Pompey "just to see what would come of it". The two decided not to come forward after it started to attract scholarly attention. The stone was discovered by Philo Cleveland, a farmer living near Watervale, New York. In the summer of 1820 he began efforts to expand a patch of meadow on his farm. He was well into clearing the land, cutting down trees and removing stones, when he dug up the Pompey stone. Cleveland reportedly did not notice it and had stopped to take a break when he saw the inscription. He did not pay it much attention until several days later, at which point rain had cleaned the stone. Intrigued by the stone, Cleveland brought it to the local blacksmiths. The stone became a local attraction and visitors to the shop used nails and files to dig out the inscription; Huguenin attributes this to giving the stone "somewhat the appearance of a new work." After about six months in Watervale, it was moved to the nearby village of Manlius, and while there was visited by several scientists. The stone was then put on display in the State Museum of the Albany Institute, after about a year in Manlius. In 1872, the Albany Institute deposited the stone with the New York State Museum of Natural History, which the State Museum described in their Annual Report as being intended to provide "better facilities for the inspection" of the stone. By 1880 the stone was on display in the New York State Museum of Natural History. ## Analysis The stone began receiving published analysis as early as 1823, when an article republished in The Literary Chronicle analyzed the stone's inscription; concluding that it could be a reference to Pope Leo X's reign, the drawing in the middle a tree and serpent representing the fall of man, the letters L. s. as standing for loco sigilli (the place of a seal), a cross emphasizing the stone's Christian connections, and inverted U as marking the location of a seal. From the 1840s to 1870s the stone was analyzed by several American archaeologists, historians and researchers. In 1842, Barber and Howe theorized in their book Historical Collections of the State of New York, that the stone could mark the resting place of a Spaniard who died after traveling from Florida in search of riches. The anthropologist Henry Schoolcraft's 1847 book Notes on the Iroqouis attributed it to a party that had been separated from one of the explorer Juan Ponce de León's expeditions searching for the Fountain of Youth, considering the text 'De L on' to reference 'de Leon' and the 'VI' a reference to six years after de Leon's discovery of Florida in 1512. Joshua V. H. Clark in his 1849 Onondaga, or Reminiscences also concluded that the stone might mark the burial ground of a dead Spanish explorer. Two years later E. G. Squier, an American archaeologist, published the book Antiquities of the State of New York, which endorsed the stone's authenticity. The author and researcher Buckingham Smith, in 1863, submitted a paper to the American Antiquarian Society that suggested that the stone was a memorial to a dead Spanish missionary and the inscription a reference to Pope Leo X. In the 1860s, John F. Boynton, an early leader in the Latter Day Saint movement and scientist, proposed that there were connections between the stone and the Cardiff Giant, another artifact that was later proven to be a hoax. In "the most elaborate defense" of the stone's authenticity, Henry A. Homes, librarian of the New York State Library, gave a lecture to the Oneida Historical Society on November 11, 1879, arguing that if it was not a hoax and was understood correctly, the stone held "the earliest evidence of the presence of the European in North America." He noted that the inscription's authenticity had never been questioned and that a Mr. Haven affiliated with the American Antiquarian Society deemed it well authenticated". Homes proceeded to analyze the commentary of his predecessors on the stone and concluded that none had reached a reasonable explanation. He concluded that the stone was a memorial to a European, likely Spanish and named Leo, who had been captured by a Native American tribe with several companions and adopted into the tribe. The stone was, he wrote, probably made by a companion upon his death in 1520. The historian Berthold Fernow cited Homes in Justin Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of America (1884). ### Exposure as a hoax The Reverend William Martin Beauchamp, the "shrewdest of all Onondaga antiquarians" and first to seriously question the stone's authenticity, described the Spanish burial theory in 1911 as a "baseless tradition" and noted that the ground was unsuited to a burial. Beauchamp became skeptical of the stone's origins in 1894 upon hearing from a member of the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York that its authenticity had almost never been questioned. He traced the inscription, analyzed it, and concluded that the inscription was made by tools including at least two different cold chisels, a hammer or mallet, and a punch. He also considered the 'L' and the numbers to have been written in a modern style, rather than how they would have been written in the 16th century. Finally, Beauchamp argued that no natives had lived near the site in the 16th century. Based on this, he deemed the stone likely to date from the 19th century and published an article in the Syracuse Journal outlining his thoughts. In response to the article, John Edson Sweet wrote, also in the Journal, that his uncle Cyrus Avery had confessed to Sweet in 1867 that he had created the hoax. Sweet concluded his letter by calling the stone "nothing more or less than a joke".Even after this, at least two Catholic priests cited the stone as authentic evidence that Catholics had been in the United States as early as the 1520s. Also after Beauchamp's article, Woodbury Lowery briefly profiled the stone in his book The Spanish Settlements Within the Present Limits of the United States without questioning its authenticity, proposing that the stone could have been made by Spanish explorers on an unauthorized expedition seeking slaves. ## Later history In 1939 the historian Arthur C. Parker wrote an article in American Antiquity titled "The Perversion of Archaeological Data" and noted the "discredited" Pompey stone as an example of "shoddy work [. . .] done by persons seeking fame or profit." The stone was again exhibited in the New York State Museum in 1934, this time identified as a hoax. In 1953, Richard N. Wright, the president of the Onondaga Historical Association, wrote the museum's director Carl Guthe requesting that the stone be returned to Onondaga county, preferably permanently but at least temporarily. The state of New York continued to own the stone and loaned it to the town of Pompey in 1976 for their bicentennial celebrations. While it was there, Johanne D. Alexander, a member of the town's bicentennial committee, made a rubbing of the stone's inscription and was able to see the original work. In 2017, the William G. Pomeroy foundation and the New York State Folklore Society gave the Pompey Historical Society a grant to place a marker describing the hoax. As of 2018 the stone was held in the Museum of the Pompey Historical Society. Despite the hoax having been admitted, the museum's website still says "[t]here continue to be rigorous arguments on both sides" as to the stone's authenticity.	[ "## Design", "## Early history and display", "## Analysis", "### Exposure as a hoax", "## Later history" ]	2,094	33,530
306,557	RAF Machrihanish	1,146,880,436	Former RAF station in Argyll and Bute, Scotland	[ "Airports established in 1918", "Closed installations of the United States Navy", "Community buyouts in Scotland", "Kintyre", "Royal Air Force stations in Scotland" ]	Royal Air Force Machrihanish or RAF Machrihanish (formerly ) is a former Royal Air Force station located near the town of Machrihanish and 3.5 miles (5.6 km) west of Campbeltown, at the tip of the Kintyre peninsula, Argyll and Bute, in Scotland. Two airfields known as Machrihanish have existed, the first was operational during the First World War and was used by the Royal Naval Air Service and RAF, before closing at the end of the Second World War. A second airfield, which was constructed during the Second World War, was used extensively by the Fleet Air Arm during the war. During the 1960s, it was redeveloped and became an RAF station and was made available to the US Navy as a nuclear weapons store and base for components of the US Navy SEALs Naval Special Warfare Group 2. The draw-down of US military forces in Europe after the end of the Cold War resulted in the US Navy leaving Machrihanish and returning their facilities to the Ministry of Defence (MOD) on 30 June 1995, after which the station became MOD Machrihanish and was retained on a care and maintenance basis. In May 2012, the station was sold to the Machrihanish Airbase Community Company (MACC) under community right-to-buy legislation. MACC now operates the site as a business park, with part of the airfield incorporating Campbeltown Airport. ## History ### First World War An airfield was first established at Machrihanish towards the end of the First World War, 2 miles (3.2 km) west of Campbeltown. The site, known as Machrihanish Aerodrome and Mooring Out Station, extended to 65 acres (26 hectares) and comprised timber and canvas Bessonneau hangars and Armstrong huts. It was operated by the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) as a secondary station of the Luce Bay Airship Station, located near Stranraer, approximately 50 miles (80 km) to the south-east. Due to Machrihanish being relatively open and without the benefit of shelter from woodland, it is thought that the airfield saw little use by airships. On 1 April 1918, Machrihanish came under the control of the newly formed Royal Air Force (RAF), when the RNAS was merged with the army's Royal Flying Corps. The airfield became part of No. 25 (Operations) Group, with No. 272 Squadron forming on 25 July 1918, operating eighteen Airco DH.6s on anti-submarine patrols in the Firth of Clyde. Along with its parent station at Luce Bay, Machrihanish closed towards the end of 1918, with the airfield transferring to civil aviation use. In the 1930s, it was used for scheduled flights to Islay, Renfrew and Belfast by Midland & Scottish Air Ferries. ### Second World War The airfield was requisitioned by the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) in 1940 and in April 1941 it became known as Royal Naval Air Station (RNAS) Machrihanish or HMS Landrail. During the same period, a new airfield was constructed by Bernard Sunley & Sons for the FAA to the north west of the existing airfield. The new airfield was opened on 15 June 1941 and was known as RNAS Strabane until the summer of 1941, when it took on the names RNAS Machrihanish and HMS Landrail. The original airfield became a satellite station of the new airfield and became known as HMS Landrail II. Throughout the Second World War, Machrihanish was heavily used for training by a wide range of FAA and RAF aircraft and as a base for squadrons disembarked from aircraft carriers. The airfield was also used for operational anti-submarine patrols and convoy escort duties, becoming one of the top three busiest stations in the UK. At the end of the war activity decreased, with the station closing on 16 April 1946. At the same time, HMS Landrail II closed, with the land returned to agricultural use. ### Cold War After closure, Machrihanish was retained by the FAA on a care and maintenance basis, until 1 December 1951 when it was reopened as a satellite of HMS Sanderling (now Glasgow Airport). It was used for a short period for training FAA pilots in preparation for their involvement in the Korean War aboard the aircraft carrier HMS Indomitable, before again being reduced to care and maintenance status on 30 September 1952. The airfield was used by the Fleet Requirements Unit in 1958. #### Redevelopment for US and NATO use In April 1959, it was announced that the airfield would be upgraded in order to support United States and NATO operations in the Clyde area and wider Atlantic. Paid for by NATO, the station underwent extensive redevelopment in the early 1960s, with land belonging to seven farms and six small holdings being acquired for the purpose. Its four existing runways were replaced by a new 3,049 m (10,003 ft) runway to allow Avro Vulcan bombers and other large aircraft to use the airfield. Control of Machrihanish was transferred from the Admiralty to the Air Ministry on 27 May 1963. In June 1964, Machrihanish was opened as an RAF station under No. 18 Group, part of RAF Coastal Command. Although not an operational station and with no flying squadrons based there, it was assigned to NATO's Supreme Allied Commander Europe, for use as a forward operating base in the event of war with the Soviet Union. #### US Navy use The mid-1960s saw the airfield being made available for use to the US Navy. Although nominally still an RAF station, it came under the command of the US Navy's Commander in Chief, Atlantic Command. The first navy personnel arrived in mid-1967 and were from the Mobile Mine Assembly Unit, previously based at RAF Mildenhall in Suffolk. They were later joined by an Explosives Ordnance Disposal (EOD) Group detachment, part of the US Atlantic Fleet. On 7 March 1968, the Naval Aviation Weapons Facility Machrihanish (NAWF) was opened, its role being to 'receive, store, maintain, issue and tranship classified weapons in support of the US Navy and NATO operations'. The NAWF comprised a fenced compound located on the north-west side of the airfield, within which were three rows of flat roofed concrete sheds (known as igloos) about 161m long. The rows were sub-divided into compartments featuring air-tight doors and were designed for the storage of nuclear depth charges and atomic demolition munitions, for use in anti-submarine warfare. A detachment of the US Marine Corps arrived in 1974, with the role of providing nuclear weapons security, which until then had been provided by USN personnel. The early 1980s saw the arrival of Naval Special Warfare Unit 2 and Naval Special Warfare Task Group Europe, both components of the US Navy SEALs Naval Special Warfare Group 2. New buildings for the SEAL's use were constructed in the south-west part of the airfield. The main building featured offices, debriefing areas, armoury, sound proof room, internal 25m firing range and garage. A separate building contained a parachute drying tower and a large hall which allowed large vehicles to access the building directly from transport aircraft. A Gaydon type hangar was also constructed. From 1981, RAF Machrihanish was certified as a potential emergency landing site for the Space Shuttle, to be used in the case of a trans-oceanic abort. Between 1990 and 1995, £16 million and £39.9 million was spent on building works at the station by the Ministry of Defence and NATO respectively. ### Military draw-down The draw-down of US military forces in Europe after the end of the Cold War resulted in the US Navy leaving Machrihanish and returning their facilities to the Ministry of Defence on 30 June 1995. After the departure of the US Navy, the station became known as Ministry of Defence (MOD) Machrihanish and was placed under a care and maintenance regime, meaning that although no longer in active use, it would be kept in a condition whereby it could be reactivated within a reasonable time-scale. The airfield continued to be used for occasional military ground and air exercises. In March 1996, the Civil Aviation Authority granted Highlands and Islands Airports Ltd. (HIAL) an aerodrome licence which allowed commercial flights to operate from the airfield. In this capacity it became known as Campbeltown Airport. In 2005, the MOD were still reported to be considering reactivating the airfield. ## Closure and post-military use With no apparent military future for the station, the Machrihanish Airbase Community Company (MACC) was established in March 2008 by members of the local community who wished to see the site used for the benefit of those living and working in the area. On 6 October 2008, it was finally announced that Machrihanish was surplus to defence requirements and would be disposed of. On 14 May 2009, the site was advertised for sale with the MOD looking for expressions of interest to identify potential private sector investors. The move was criticised, with members of the local community expressing concern that they had not been consulted and that the potential for a community buy-out of the site was being ignored. Plans for the buy-out, to be undertaken through community right-to-buy legislation, were hindered in August 2010 when the results of a local community ballot on the plans was rejected by the Scottish Government, due to concerns over the viability of the proposals. However, following a further ballot, MACC successfully purchased the site from the MOD for £1 on 11 May 2012. Supported by Highlands & Island Enterprise, the Scottish Government and Argyll & Bute Council, MACC have made available parts of the site for commercial use with the aim of creating a sustainable future for the Campbeltown area. Campbeltown Airport, which has a long lease of their part of the site, continues to be operated by HIAL. Scheduled flights are operated to Glasgow Airport by Loganair. ## Heritage Machrihanish's station badge, awarded in 1975, features a silver Scottish sword known as a claymore, with the blade displayed against the backdrop of four waves representing the sea. The badge portrays the station's use as forward operating base for maritime-related operations. The station's motto (Airm a dhìonadh na fairgeachan) is in Scottish Gaelic and translates as 'Arms to defend the sea', again acknowledging the station's maritime role. ## Conspiracy theories During the 1990s, rumours that Machrihanish was being used by the US military to operate the alleged experimental Aurora reconnaissance aircraft appeared in the media. The rumours led to a parliamentary question by Llew Smith MP, where in response the Minister of State for the Armed Forces, Nicholas Soames MP, denied that any prototype aircraft belonging to the US was operating from Machrihanish: > Mr Llew Smith: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence how many Aurora prototype aircraft of the United States Air Force are based at the Machrihanish air force base in Argyll; and for what period permission has been given for basing these aircraft in the United Kingdom. > Mr Soames: There are no United States Air Force prototype aircraft based at RAF Machrihanish and no authorisation has been given by Her Majesty's Government to the United States Air Force, or any other US body, to operate such aircraft within or from the United Kingdom. ## See also - List of former Royal Air Force stations	[ "## History", "### First World War", "### Second World War", "### Cold War", "#### Redevelopment for US and NATO use", "#### US Navy use", "### Military draw-down", "## Closure and post-military use", "## Heritage", "## Conspiracy theories", "## See also" ]	2,484	24,566
1,791,999	Homer Simpson in: "Kidney Trouble"	1,165,806,016	null	[ "1998 American television episodes", "Television episodes about organ transplantation", "Television episodes set in hospitals", "Television shows written by John Swartzwelder", "The Simpsons (season 10) episodes" ]	"Homer Simpson in: 'Kidney Trouble'" is the eighth episode of the tenth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 6, 1998. In the episode Grampa's kidneys explode, leaving him in urgent need of a donor. His son Homer initially agrees to donate one of his kidneys, but after hearing of side effects of only having one kidney, he begins to have second thoughts about the operation. "Homer Simpson in: 'Kidney Trouble'" was directed by Mike B. Anderson and written by John Swartzwelder, although the episode's premise was pitched by former staff writer George Meyer. Meyer also pitched the sequence involving the "ship of lost souls", which received mixed reactions from The Simpsons staff members. The episode contains references to Night of the Living Dead and North by Northwest. In its original broadcast, the episode was seen by approximately 7.2 million viewers and finished in 54th place in the ratings the week it aired. Following the release of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season, "Homer Simpson in: 'Kidney Trouble'" received mixed reviews from critics. ## Plot Homer takes the family to a ghost town tourist destination, complaining all the while about how far out of the way it is. Their car breaks down in front of the Springfield Retirement Castle, leading Grampa to wrongly assume they have come to visit him on his birthday. Homer is forced to take Grampa with them. Grampa drinks too much sarsaparilla, but Homer refuses to stop to let him use the bathroom, wanting to get home to watch an episode of Inside the Actors Studio. After several hours in the car without stopping, Grampa's kidneys explode. Dr. Hibbert informs the family that the only way Grampa can be saved is if Homer donates one of his kidneys because Homer is a match for his dad. Homer agrees, to the admiration of his family, but becomes frightened after learning the risks from Moe, and runs away from the surgery room via the window. Guilt-ridden, Homer deems himself unworthy of living amongst civilized people and decides to start a new life aboard Captain McAllister's ship. He meets several strange people who have their own tales of misery. Homer tells them about abandoning Grandpa, but the others are so disgusted that they throw him off the ship. Homer drifts back to shore, where he witnesses a father and son build a sandcastle and laments his relationship with his own father and children. Homer decides to rectify his mistake and takes off for the hospital. Homer arrives in time, reconciling with Grampa and apologizing, but panics and flees again at the last minute. His mad dash from the hospital is stopped by an oncoming car carrier. While the driver, Hans Moleman, hits the brakes in time, one of its cars slides off and lands on Homer. Homer wakes up in a hospital bed and is greeted by Dr. Hibbert, Marge and the children. When Grampa appears in the doorway alive and well, Homer discovers that while he was unconscious, the doctors took out one of his kidneys. Homer is angry at first, but settles down after his family tells him he did the right thing for Grampa. They engage in a group hug, and Homer proceeds to give Bart's lower back (where a future donor kidney is located) a long pat. Bart silently realizes what this means as the episode ends. ## Production "Homer Simpson in: 'Kidney Trouble'" was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Mike B. Anderson. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 6, 1998. Although it was written by Swartzwelder, the idea for the episode was pitched by former staff writer George Meyer. Nevertheless, the episode still contains several "classic Swartzwelder moments" according to executive producer Ian Maxtone-Graham, including Homer escaping on a handcart and the line "this is everybody's fault but mine". Because the episode contained several scenes of the Simpsons driving, the animators "orchestrated" the scenes by using several different backgrounds. At one point in the episode's setpiece, an arranged gunfight is seen. In the gunfight, there would originally be a man saying "Look, up on the roof, it's a prostitute" and shoot her. Although he thought the gag was funny, Mike Scully, an executive producer and the showrunner for the episode, cut it because the word "prostitute" had already been uttered "at least a dozen times in the episode". According to Scully, the Fox censors objected to showing Grampa giving Homer NyQuil in order to sleep. Scully compromised it by not showing the NyQuil label in the episode. The music that plays during the establishing shot of Springfield Hospital is based on the theme music from Ben Casey, an American medical drama series from the 1960s. The sequence involving the "Ship of lost souls" was also pitched by Meyer. It was the last part of the episode to be animated, and was completed in one week. The Simpsons staff were split on whether to include the sequence in the episode at all, with series creator Matt Groening being notably hesitant. "I was very worried about that when I saw the script," he said in the DVD commentary for the episode. Meyer was also unsure of the sequence: "You don't see it coming at least," he said, "I don't know if it was totally successful." Scully thought fondly of it, however, calling it "very inspired". The English soldier, the French man, and the Peter Lorre caricature were all portrayed by main cast member Dan Castellaneta, who also plays Homer among other characters in the series. The woman on the ship was voiced by American voice actress Tress MacNeille. Honeybunch, the name of the sea captain's boat, was pitched by Scully's brother Brian Scully. The name came from Scully's father, who used to call his wife Honeybunch as a term of endearment. The title of the episode is a reference to the 1989 Roger Rabbit cartoon Tummy Trouble. In a scene in the episode, the Simpsons, outside the Springfield Retirement Castle, try to turn on their car, while Grampa is slowly walking towards them. The scene parodies the 1968 film Night of the Living Dead, with Grampa acting as a zombie from the film. The robot cowboy chasing the robot dancer around in a circle on the bar's balcony is a reference to a scene in the original Pirates of the Caribbean ride at Disneyland, where the pirates chased women similarly. The design and voice of the tuxedo-wearing man in the "Ship of lost souls" were based on Hungarian actor Peter Lorre. Also, the bride is loosely based on Miss Havisham from Charles Dickens’ novel Great Expectations. The scene of Homer nearly getting hit by a car during his second escape from the hospital is a reference to a scene in the 1959 Alfred Hitchcock film North by Northwest, in which Cary Grant's character is almost hit by an oncoming truck. American actor Larry Hagman is also mentioned in the episode, when Dr. Hibbert says that Hagman took all the kidneys and livers needed for donors, while Homer states his desire to watch the episode of Inside the Actors Studio featuring F. Murray Abraham. The hospital intercom calls for a "Doc Martens" and a "Dr. Bombay", referring to the British footwear brand and character from the sitcom Bewitched respectively. ## Reception In its original American broadcast on December 6, 1998, "Homer Simpson in: 'Kidney Trouble'" received a 7.2 rating, according to Nielsen Media Research, translating to approximately 7.2 million viewers. The episode finished in 54th place in the ratings for the week of November 22 – December 6, 1998. It tied with a new episode of the ABC program Brother's Keeper. On August 7, 2007, the episode was released as part of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set. Matt Groening, Mike Scully, George Meyer, Ian Maxtone-Graham, Ron Hauge and Mike B. Anderson participated in the DVD's audio commentary of the episode. Following its home video release, "Homer Simpson in: 'Kidney Trouble'" received mixed reviews from critics. Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide called it "An odd episode [...] that goes on a bit too long and could probably have done with an entertaining B story." They added that "Homer's running away is funny the first time, but by the second, it's lost its impact." They concluded by writing that "The biggest joke comes from Grampa's need to go to the lavatory on the way back from the ghost town. Which isn't that funny at all, really." Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson described the episode as a "snag". He wrote: Kidney' offers all the components that should make it good, but it never quite achieves a level higher than average." He added that "Despite a few funny moments, this one largely leaves me cold." Digital Entertainment News' Jake MacNeill wrote that the episode "runs out of steam" after its first act, and considered it to be one of the season's worst episodes. However, giving the episode a positive review, Peter Brown of If described "Homer Simpson in: 'Kidney Trouble'" as one of the season's best episodes. The episode's reference to North By Northwest was named the 24th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film's Nathan Ditum.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Reception" ]	2,021	14,914
5,188,190	Thousand Islands Parkway	1,128,011,679	Scenic parkway in Ontario	[ "1938 establishments in Ontario", "Geography of Leeds and Grenville United Counties", "Parkways in Ontario", "St. Lawrence Parks Commission", "Thousand Islands" ]	The Thousand Islands Parkway (often written as 1000 Islands Parkway) is a scenic parkway in the Canadian province of Ontario. It extends easterly from an interchange with Highway 401 in Gananoque for approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) to rejoin Highway 401 near the community of Butternut Bay, west of Brockville. The parkway follows the north shore of the St. Lawrence River, and was formerly designated Highway 2S (S for Scenic) until 1970. It passes through the communities of Gray's Beach, Halsteads Bay, Ivy Lea, Darlingside, Rockport, Narrows, La Rue Mills and Mallorytown Landing, as well as providing access to the three inland properties of the Thousand Islands National Park. Highway 137, which meets the parkway near its midpoint, provides access to the Interstate 81 in New York via the Thousand Islands Bridge. The Thousand Islands Parkway was constructed as a divided highway during the late 1930s, alongside the Thousand Islands Bridge, which opened in 1938. Originally known as the St. Lawrence River Road, the parkway was signed as part of Highway 401 when the 400-series highway system was established in 1952, but was bypassed by the current Highway 401 alignment to the north in 1968. The Highway 2S designation returned between 1967 and 1970, after which jurisdiction over the parkway was transferred to the St. Lawrence Parks Commission. The northern carriageway of the parkway was never paved, and was only in use by vehicles between 1938 and 1951. Evidence of its former use can be seen today in the wide right-of-way; the unused westbound lanes now serve as a recreational trail and twin bridges span two locations along the parkway. ## Route description The Thousand Islands Parkway is a scenic route along the St. Lawrence River between Gananoque and Brockville through the rugged terrain of the Frontenac Arch, a protrusion of the Canadian Shield southward into New York state. In this area, the soil is underlain by layers of Paleozoic limestone and a granite bedrock. The granite often extends above the ground surface as large rock outcroppings. The Thousand Islands Parkway was part of the original alignment of Highway 401. However, because of the residential properties and the scenic nature of the route, a new inland route was constructed through the mid-1960s. A recreational trail follows the right-of-way of the westbound carriageway, which was never completed. The Thousand Islands Parkway begins at a split with Highway 401 on the outskirts of Gananoque. There is no access from westbound Highway 401 to the parkway nor from westbound on the parkway to eastbound Highway 401. However, immediately east of the split, both highways interchange with the sole remaining portion of Highway 2 under provincial jurisdiction. East of this point the three diverge into the Frontenac Arch. It meets Highway 137 at an interchange at the parkways midpoint; the Ontario approach to the Thousand Islands Bridge which continues as Interstate 81 south of the Canada–United States border. The parkway continues northeast, serving the riverside communities of Darlingside, Rockport, Narrows, La Rue Mills and Mallorytown Landing. At Butternut Bay, the Thousand Islands Parkway merges into the eastbound lanes of Highway 401 and a left-hand exit provides access to the parkway from westbound Highway 401. The three inland properties of Thousand Islands National Park are located on the Thousand Islands Parkway: Landon Bay, Mallorytown Landing and Jones Creek. ## History The idea for a scenic parkway along the shoreline of the St. Lawrence between Gananoque and Brockville was first proposed by George Fulford, a local Member of Provincial Parliament (MPP) elected in the 1934 Ontario general election to represent Leeds. By 1935, with early construction underway on the Thousand Islands Bridge, Fulford had convinced the incoming Minister of Public Works and Highways, Thomas McQuesten, of the merits of a scenic route for tourism and as a depression relief project. McQuesten, who was seeking to build a trans-provincial divided highway, decided the river road would be the ideal route through the rough terrain between Gananoque and Brockville. On April 29, 1937, The Ontario Department of Highways (DHO), predecessor to the modern Ministry of Transportation, formally announced the building of the St. Lawrence River Road. It was built under two separate contracts. Work on the first, awarded to Campbell Construction to build the section between Gananoque and Ivy Lea, began the week of June 7, 1937, while work on the second, awarded to Standard Paving Company to build the section between Ivy Lea and Butternut Bay, began the week of September 12. Standard Paving was already widening 6 km (3.7 mi) of Highway 2 between Butternut Bay and Brockville at the time. On August 18, 1938, the Thousand Islands Bridge was opened, with an attendance of over 50,000 people. Prime Minister Mackenzie King and President Franklin D. Roosevelt both presided over the ceremonies. In preparation, the 13.8 km (8.6 mi) portion of the parkway west of Ivy Lea was quickly gravelled to provide access to the new bridge. Only the 2.7 km (1.7 mi) between the Ivy Lea and the bridge approach remained open following the ceremonies, however; traffic to and from the bridge accessed Highway 2 via what is now Fitzsimmons Road. A section between Mallorytown Landing and Butternut Bay was opened in October 1938 as a two-lane gravel road with a temporary bridge crossing Jones Creek. Elsewhere, construction resumed on blasting rock and grading the route for several more years. A contract to build the bridges at Jones Creek was awarded on May 25, 1940, and completed by the end of the year. The bridges at Landon Bay meanwhile, were completed in late October 1940. In 1941, the St. Lawrence River Road was completed and opened to traffic from Gananoque to Brockville, though it remained unpaved. Labour and material shortages during World War II resulted in road construction being deferred for several years. Following the war, the south lanes of the road were paved between Gananoque and Rockport in 1946. The unpaved north lanes were opened to travel beginning in 1946. They remained in service until 1951, when they were closed to traffic; they would not reopen. By 1948, the St. Lawrence River Road, or "Scenic Highway", had been assigned the route number 2S, with the "S" for "scenic", and the remainder of the south lanes between Rockport and Butternut Bay had been paved. In July 1952 (possibly July 1, the same day Highway 400 was numbered), Highway 2S was designated as part of the new Highway 401. For the next 18 years, Highway 401 travelled along the scenic river road. Initially it merely bypassed Highway 2; it would not see extensions west of Gananoque and east of Butternut Bay until 1959. That year saw the south lanes of the parkway rebuilt and marked as a proper two-lane undivided highway. As originally envisioned by McQuesten, the trans-provincial freeway would follow the scenic highway. However, in the decades since, numerous properties and a tourist industry were established. James Auld, MPP for Leeds and the Minister of Tourism and Information, joined local residents to persuade the DHO to construct an inland bypass. The DHO agreed, stating that it would cost less to build a new freeway than to upgrade the parkway. Construction of the Thousand Islands Bypass began in 1965, with work proceeding east from Gananoque. The Thousand Islands Parkway was the final two-lane segment of Highway 401. A portion was opened on September 1, 1967, from Gananoque to Highway 137, which was itself built south to the parkway at the same time. The Highway 401 designation was applied along this new route, while the bypassed portion of the parkway was redesignated as Highway 2S. Despite the expected influx of traffic from the United States for Expo 67 in Montreal, the DHO opted to build the portion east of Ivy Lea after the centennial celebrations. The remainder of the bypass was opened to traffic on October 11, 1968, at which point the entire parkway once again became Highway 2S. This designation would also only last for just under two years. On September 8, 1970, the DHO transferred jurisdiction over the parkway to the St. Lawrence Parks Commission; it has since been known only as the Thousand Islands Parkway. This name was first brought forward to the DHO in 1954 by the Thousand Island–Rideau Lakes Association. ## Major intersections \\|- ! scope="row" style="text-align: right;" \\| 1.0 ! scope="row" style="text-align: right;" \\| 0.6 \\| Highway 2 to Highway 401 east – Gananoque \\| Provides access to eastbound and from westbound Highway 401 ### Explanatory notes	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections", "### Explanatory notes" ]	1,949	37,254
16,870,091	Presto (film)	1,166,374,158	null	[ "2000s American animated films", "2000s animated short films", "2008 animated films", "2008 comedy films", "2008 films", "2008 short films", "American animated short films", "Animated films about rabbits and hares", "Animated films without speech", "Films about magic and magicians", "Films directed by Doug Sweetland", "Pixar short films" ]	Presto is a 2008 American computer-animated short film by Pixar, shown in theaters before their feature-length film WALL-E. The short is about Presto, a magician who is trying to perform a show, but his rabbit, Alec, would not cooperate with him until he gets his carrot. The short is a gag-filled homage to classic cartoons such as Tom and Jerry and Looney Tunes, as well as the work of Tex Avery. Presto was written and directed by veteran Pixar animator Doug Sweetland, in his directorial debut with the story written by Ted Mathot, Valerie Lapointe and Justin Wright. The original idea for the short was a magician who incorporated a rabbit into his act who suffered from stage fright. This was considered to be too long and complicated, and the idea was reworked. To design the theater featured in Presto, the filmmakers visited several opera houses and theaters for set design ideas. Problems arose when trying to animate the theater's audience of 2,500 patrons; this was deemed too expensive, and was solved by showing the back of the audience. Reaction to the short was positive, and reviewers of WALL-E film's home media release considered it to be an enjoyable special feature (though it was not included with the subsequent Criterion 4K Blu-ray). Presto was nominated for an Annie Award and Academy Award. It was included in the Animation Show of Shows in 2008. ## Plot Vaudeville era magician Presto DiGiotagione is famous for a hat trick wherein he pulls his rabbit Alec Azam out of his top hat. A hungry and irritated Alec is locked in a cage, unable to reach his carrot. After Presto returns from eating a meal, he begins practicing his act with Alec, revealing that his top hat is magically connected to a wizard's hat kept backstage with Alec. Anything that passes into either hat will emerge from the other. Intending to feed Alec, Presto realizes that his show is starting and rushes onstage instead. Alec refuses to cooperate with the act until he is given the carrot, and turns the hats against Presto in a variety of ways that lead to escalating degrees of humiliation, such as letting him catch his finger in a mousetrap, hit himself in the eye with an egg, and get his head sucked into a ventilation shaft; each of these mishaps is interpreted by the audience as being part of the act. Presto continues to antagonize Alec at the same time, first turning the carrot into a flower and later smashing it to pulp with a piece of a ladder, resulting in Alec sticking Presto's hand in an electrical socket via the wizard's hat. Fed up with Alec's behavior, Presto storms backstage after him, but releases a set of hanging stage props and gets his foot caught in a rigging rope. He is yanked up into the fly space above the stage; when his foot comes loose, he falls and finds himself in danger of being crushed by both the props and a falling piano. Realizing this, Alec uses the hats' magic to save Presto, earning the audience's wild approval for the both of them. Presto gratefully gives Alec the carrot (having used his magician skills to return it to its original form) and starts to give him second billing on the posters advertising the act. ## Production Doug Sweetland made his directorial debut with Presto. Sweetland provides the dialogue-free voice acting for both of the movie's characters. He pitched the film at the start of 2007 and began production late in the year, completing it in May 2008. Presto's gag based format was heavily influenced by classic cartoons. Looney Tunes cartoons directed by Tex Avery were a major influence, with Alec being easily compared to Bugs Bunny. Other influences include Tom and Jerry, the Marx Brothers, and Charlie Chaplin. The character design for Presto was based on William Powell. The original scenario for the short involved a magician who incorporates an autograph seeking rabbit into his act after his previous rabbit leaves him. Complications arise as the new rabbit suffers from stage fright. Sweetland compared it to the plot of A Star Is Born. The idea was reworked due to being too long and complicated, taking an estimated three minutes longer to tell. To achieve the highly formal environment, the filmmakers looked at the Royal Opera House in London, the Paris Opera House and classic vaudeville theaters like the Geary in San Francisco—which the crew took a tour through—for set design ideas. Animating the theater's audience of 2,500 patrons proved an expensive proposition, even with the help of the crowd-generating MASSIVE software. Early suggestions were to show cutaways of just a small portion of the audience, but the full effect was achieved by only showing the back of the audience. To save time, most of the audience models were borrowed from the previous Pixar film, Ratatouille. Additionally, Presto's body (from the neck down) is Skinner's lawyer, and the carrot was one of the many food props from that film. ## Reception Reaction to the short film was positive. Carl Cortez of If called Presto a "winner through and through". Jake Coyle of the Associated Press found Presto to be "a delightful and cartoonish appetizer" which kept the tradition of short pre feature films alive. Darren Bevan of Television New Zealand thought that although WALL-E was a "delightful tale" and "truly gorgeous", Presto "very nearly stole WALL-E's thunder". James Sanford of the Kalamazoo Gazette called the short a superb and hilarious curtain raiser, describing it as a Bugs Bunny Looney Tunes version of The Prestige. Presto was nominated for the 36th Annie Award for Best Animated Short Subject. The short was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film, but lost to La Maison en Petits Cubes.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Reception" ]	1,205	24,744
32,556,585	George E. Crothers	1,152,979,019	American judge	[ "1870 births", "1957 deaths", "California lawyers", "California state court judges", "People from Wapello, Iowa", "Stanford University alumni", "Stanford University trustees" ]	George Edward Crothers (May 27, 1870 – May 16, 1957) was one of the first students at Stanford University and was instrumental in putting the university on a solid legal and financial footing following the deaths of its founders, Leland and Jane Stanford. He served as a member of Stanford's board of trustees and as a California superior court judge. His monetary gifts to his alma mater made possible the construction of two student residences on the Stanford campus—one named for himself, the other dedicated to the memory of his mother. ## Early life George Crothers was born on May 27, 1870, in Wapello, Iowa, to John Crothers and Margaret Jane Crothers (née Fair), who had emigrated to the United States from Ireland the previous year. The family moved to San Jose, California, in 1883, and George enrolled at Stanford in 1891 as part of the new university's "pioneer class". He received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Stanford in 1895, followed by a law degree in 1896. ## Career Crothers set up a law practice with his brother, Thomas—also a Stanford graduate and a lawyer—and became a close adviser to Jane Stanford. Together with his brother, Crothers identified and corrected numerous major legal defects in the terms of the university's founding grant and successfully lobbied for an amendment to the California state constitution granting Stanford an exemption from taxation on its educational property—a change which allowed Jane Stanford to donate her stock holdings to the university. In 1902, Crothers became the first alumnus of Stanford to serve as a member of the university's board of trustees. Crothers became involved in legal action over the estate of his maternal uncle, James Graham Fair. Nettie Craven claimed to have been married to Fair at the time of his death, but at a 1900 trial, Crothers' detailed analysis of the handwriting on the documents Craven had offered in support of her claim convinced the court that they were forgeries. From 1913 to 1921, Crothers served as a judge of the Superior Court in San Francisco, California. One case which came before him involved a physician whose license had been revoked by the State Board of Medical Examiners for performing an abortion. Judge Crothers refused to overturn the board's revocation on technical grounds, and his decision was upheld on appeal. Even after Crothers' retirement from the bench and his return to private law practice, he was commonly referred to as "Judge" throughout the rest of his life. In a 1956 letter, former U.S. president (and Stanford classmate) Herbert Hoover wrote, "Judge George E. Crothers was my good friend in bad times and in good times for over sixty years". ## Philanthropy Crothers established a scholarship fund for Stanford law students in 1912. In 1929, he established an annual prize fund for literary composition at the University of California. A set of carillon bells for Grace Cathedral in San Francisco was cast with the help of donations from Crothers and other benefactors. In his later years, Crothers made a donation to Stanford for the construction of Crothers Hall, an on-campus dormitory for law students which opened in 1948. With the help of additional gifts by Crothers, a second residence (for graduate students in engineering) was built next to the first; opened in 1955, it was named Crothers Memorial Hall in memory of the judge's mother. These two residences were extensively renovated and converted into undergraduate housing in 2009. The name "Crothers Memorial" is commonly abbreviated to "Cro Mem" — a short form which was the inspiration for the early personal computer company Cromemco. ## Personal life Crothers married Elizabeth Mills in 1911. They were unable to have children, and Elizabeth was 38 years old when she died in 1920. ## Death Crothers died at Stanford Hospital in Palo Alto, California, on May 16, 1957. He is buried in San Jose, California, along with his parents.	[ "## Early life", "## Career", "## Philanthropy", "## Personal life", "## Death" ]	845	24,771
157,987	Thurstan	1,137,975,507	12th-century Anglo-Norman Archbishop of York	[ "1070s births", "1140 deaths", "12th-century English Roman Catholic archbishops", "Anglo-Normans", "Archbishops of York", "Cluniacs", "Henry I of England", "People of The Anarchy", "William II of England", "Year of birth uncertain" ]	This page is about Thurstan of Bayeux (1070 – 1140) who became Archbishop of York. Thurstan of Caen became the first Norman Abbot of Glastonbury in circa 1077. Thurstan or Turstin of Bayeux (c. 1070 – 6 February 1140) was a medieval Archbishop of York, the son of a priest. He served kings William II and Henry I of England before his election to the see of York in 1114. Once elected, his consecration was delayed for five years while he fought attempts by the Archbishop of Canterbury to assert primacy over York. Eventually, he was consecrated by the pope instead and allowed to return to England. While archbishop, he secured two new suffragan bishops for his province. When Henry I died, Thurstan supported Henry's nephew Stephen of Blois as king. Thurstan also defended the northern part of England from invasion by the Scots, taking a leading part in organising the English forces at the Battle of the Standard (1138). Shortly before his death, Thurstan resigned from his see and took the habit of a Cluniac monk. ## Early life Thurstan was the son of a canon of St Paul's in London named Anger, Auger or Ansgar, who held the prebend of Cantlers. Another son of Anger, Audoen, was later Bishop of Évreux. Thurstan's mother was named Popelina. Thurstan was born sometime about 1070 in Bayeux, in the Bessin region of Normandy. Before 1104 the father was given the prebend of Cantlers by Maurice, Bishop of London, and the family moved to England. Early in his career, Thurstan held the prebendary of Consumpta per mare in the diocese of London, and served both William Rufus and Henry I as a royal clerk. At some point in Thurstan's early career, he visited Cluny, where he vowed to become a Cluniac monk later in his life. Thurstan also served Henry as almoner, and it was Henry who obtained Thurstan's election as Archbishop of York in August 1114. He was ordained a deacon in December 1114 and ordained a priest on 6 June 1115 by Ranulf Flambard, who was Bishop of Durham. ## Controversy and exile The Archbishop of Canterbury, Ralph d'Escures, refused to consecrate Thurstan unless the archbishop-elect made a profession of obedience to the southern see. This was part of the long-running Canterbury-York dispute, which started in 1070. Thurstan refused to make such a profession, and asked the king for permission to go to Rome to consult Pope Paschal II. Henry I refused to allow him to make the journey, but even without a personal appeal from Thurstan, Paschal decided against Canterbury. At the Council of Salisbury in 1116 the English king ordered Thurstan to submit to Canterbury, but instead Thurstan publicly resigned the archbishopric. On his way to the council, Thurstan had received letters from Paschal II that supported York and commanded that he should be consecrated without a profession. Similar letters had gone to Ralph d'Escures from the pope, ordering Ralph, as Archbishop of Canterbury, to consecrate Thurstan. After the news of the letters became public, Thurstan's resignation was ignored, and he continued to be considered the archbishop-elect. Over the next three years, the new popes, Gelasius II and Calixtus II, championed Thurstan's case, and on 19 October 1119 he was consecrated by Calixtus at Reims. Calixtus had earlier promised Henry that he would not consecrate Thurstan without the king's permission, which had still not been granted. Enraged at this, the king refused to allow the newly consecrated archbishop to enter England, and Thurstan remained for some time on the continent in the company of the pope. While he was travelling with the pope, he also visited Adela of Blois, King Henry's sister, who was also Thurstan's spiritual daughter. At about this same time, Calixtus issued two bulls in Thurstan's favor: one released York from Canterbury's supremacy forever, and the other demanded the king allow Thurstan to return to York. The pope threatened an interdict on England as a punishment if the papal bull was not obeyed. At length, Thurstan's friends, including Adela, succeeded in reconciling him with Henry, and he rejoined the king in Normandy. At Easter 1120, he escorted Adela to the monastery of Marcigny, where she retired from active secular affairs. He was recalled to England in early 1121. ## Archbishop One of the main weaknesses of the see of York was its lack of suffragan bishops. Thurstan managed to secure the resurrection of the Diocese of Galloway, or Whithorn, in 1125. It is possible that he compromised with Fergus of Galloway, who was the lord or sub-king of Galloway, in what is now Scotland. In this Thurstan secured another suffragan, and Fergus gained a bishop in his lordship, where previously ecclesiastical matters in his subkingdom had been handled by Scottish bishops. The first bishop was the native Galwegian – Gilla Aldan. This provoked the wrath of Wimund, Bishop of the Isles, who had previously had jurisdiction over Galloway; but the new bishopric survived, and York had a new suffragan, an important step in the battle between York and Canterbury over the primacy, which was mainly a battle over the prestige of their respective sees. The number of bishops subject to either archbishop was an important factor in the reputation of each. In 1133, Thurstan, who had received papal permission to found an entirely new diocese, consecrated Æthelwold as the first bishop of the new see of Carlisle. Thurstan refused to accept that the new Archbishop of Canterbury, William de Corbeil, was his superior, and did not help with William's consecration. The dispute between the two continued, and both archbishops carried their complaints in person to Rome twice. In 1126, Pope Honorius II ruled in favour of York. The pope based his decision on the fact that Canterbury's supporting documents had been forged. Thurstan supported King Stephen after Henry I's death in 1135, and appeared at Stephen's first court at Easter held at Westminster. Thurstan negotiated a truce at Roxburgh in 1138 between England and Scotland. It was Thurstan who mustered the army which defeated the Scots at the Battle of the Standard on 22 August 1138 near Northallerton, Yorkshire. Thurstan did not take direct part in the battle., but he created the standard that gave the battle its name, by putting a ship's mast in a cart and hanging the banners of Saint Peter of York, Saint John of Beverley, and Saint Wilfrid of Ripon on the mast. The Scots had invaded attempting to aid the Empress Matilda, the daughter of Henry I and Stephen's rival for the throne. On 21 January 1140 Thurstan resigned his see and entered the order of the Cluniacs at Pontefract and he died there on 6 February 1140. He was buried in the church at Pontefract. ## Legacy Thurstan gave land to many of the churches of his diocese and founded several religious houses. He founded the first nunnery in Yorkshire when he founded St Clement's between 1125 and 1133. He obtained for Whitby Abbey a papal privilege of protection as well as giving his own privilege to the abbey. He also helped found the Cistercian Abbey of Fountains, by giving the site to monks who had been expelled from the Abbey of St. Mary's, York. Thurstan helped the hermitess Christina of Markyate at several points in her career, and tried to persuade her to become the first prioress of his foundation of St. Clement's. He was a patron to the Augustinian Hexham Priory, founded by his predecessor at York, as well as helping the foundation of Bridlington Priory, another Augustinian house. He was a sincere reformer, and opposed to the election of unfit men to the episcopacy. When Pope Innocent II asked Thurstan's opinion on the elevation of Anselm of St Saba, who was Abbot of Bury St. Edmunds, to become Bishop of London, Thurstan replied "If we consider his life and reputation, it would be much more fitting to remove him from his abbacy than to promote him to be bishop of London." Anselm was not confirmed as bishop. Thurstan is described by the historian Edmund King as "a bishop like no other. Thurstan and the baronage of Yorkshire had been partners in a common enterprise, their security in this world and their salvation in the next, and to all aspects of his role he had shown a complete commitment." His death occurred during The Anarchy of the civil war between Stephen and Matilda and led to a breakdown in order. Thurstan's nephew was Osbert de Bayeux, who became an archdeacon at York, and in 1154 was accused of the murder of William of York, one of Thurstan's successors at York.	[ "## Early life", "## Controversy and exile", "## Archbishop", "## Legacy" ]	1,989	13,678
30,930,869	A Meeting by the River	1,161,246,813	1993 studio album by Ry Cooder and Vishwa Mohan Bhatt	[ "1993 albums", "Blues albums by American artists", "Blues albums by Indian artists", "Collaborative albums", "Grammy Award for Best World Music Album", "Hindustani classical music albums", "Instrumental albums", "New-age albums by American artists", "New-age albums by Indian artists", "Pop rock albums by American artists", "Pop rock albums by Indian artists", "Ry Cooder albums", "Water Lily Acoustics albums", "World music albums by American artists", "World music albums by Indian artists" ]	A Meeting by the River is an album recorded by Ry Cooder and Vishwa Mohan Bhatt; it was recorded in September 1992 and released in April 1993 through the record label Water Lily Acoustics. This improvised, collaborative album features Cooder on slide guitar and Bhatt on the Mohan veena, a stringed instrument created by Bhatt. A Meeting by the River was produced by Kavichandran Alexander and Jayant Shah, engineered by Alexander, and mastered by Kevin Michael Gray and Paul Stubblebine. It peaked at number four on Billboard's Top World Music Albums chart, and earned Cooder and Bhatt Grammy Awards for Best World Music Album at the 36th Grammy Awards in 1994. The album is included in Tom Moon's 2008 book 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die. ## Composition A Meeting by the River was recorded in September 1992; it features Cooder solely on slide guitar and Bhatt on the Mohan veena, a stringed instrument he created. Allmusic's Daniel Gioffre described the instrument as a hybrid between a guitar and a vichitra veena; it is played with a metal slide moving across steel rods along the neck. Cooder had heard a recording of Hindustani classical music performed by Bhatt and was impressed by his playing and the "haunting clarity" of the Mohan veena. Cooder and Bhatt met for the first time less than one hour before recording began; they improvised much of the set; the album's liner notes state, "this recording was unplanned and unrehearsed". The album was produced by Kavichandran Alexander, founder of Water Lily Acoustics, and Jayant Shah. It was engineered by Alexander, and was mastered by Kevin Michael Gray and Paul Stubblebine. Cooder and Bhatt are accompanied by Cooder's then fourteen-year-old son Joachim on dumbek, a Middle Eastern drum, and by Sukhvinder Singh Namdhari on tabla. The collaboration between Cooder and Bhatt is Alexander's first attempt to record musicians of different cultures together, one of his goals when he founded the record label. Author George Plasketes described Bhatt's playing as "highly nuanced" and said, Cooder performs in a more "loose-jointed, slip 'n' slide style". According to Gioffre, Cooder and Bhatt use improvisation and "voice-like" phrasing, showing melodic performances in an alternating fashion and in unison. The album contains four tracks, three of which are credited to Cooder and Bhatt; tracks range in duration from approximately seven-and-a-half minutes to twelve minutes. "Longing" has a structure similar to a raga. Author Tom Moon said Cooder takes the lead on the hymn "Isa Lei" as Bhatt contributes "elaborate squiggling asides" and "swooping nosedives". In 2011, Bhatt performed "A Meeting by the River" at a music festival in honor of guru Kelucharan Mohapatra. Bhatt said of the song, "Music has no religion and no geographical or linguistic barrier. It speaks a universal language. My composition – 'A Meeting by the River' – aims at explaining this." Bhatt has said he considers working with Cooder his "most special" collaboration. ## Reception Gioffre wrote a positive review of the album and called Cooder and Bhatt "genuine masters" of their respective instruments. He described the musical interplay between the musicians as "nothing short of astounding" and the album as a rare instance in which a combination of genres works. Gioffre also wrote, "this album is masterfully recorded; each instrument is clear, distinct, and three-dimensional sounding. A Meeting by the River is a must-own, a thing of pure, unadulterated beauty, and the strongest record in Cooder's extensive catalog." Peter Margasak of the Chicago Tribune awarded the album four stars out of four, describing Cooder's performance as "arresting" and Bhatt's as "haunting". Margasak wrote that the fusion revealed a "rare, often transcendental beauty" as the two artists "gently and intuitively" found common ground. Rolling Stone called the album "fruitful" and awarded it three stars out of five. ## Chart performance and recognition A Meeting by the River reached a peak position of number four on Billboard's Top World Music Albums chart. In 1994, the album earned Cooder and Bhatt Grammy Awards for Best World Music Album. Bhatt became one of a few Indian musicians to have received a Grammy Award until A. R. Rahman won at the 52nd Grammy Awards in 2010. Previous Indian award winners had been recognized jointly with Western artists. The February 25, 1995, issue of Billboard, which featured the annual "Indies Spotlight" and covered independent music between the January 29, 1994, and January 21, 1995, issues of the magazine included A Meeting by the River at number ten on its list of the "Top Indie World Music Albums". The album is included in Tom Moon's 2008 book 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die: A Listener's Life List. ## Track listing All tracks by Ry Cooder and Vishwa Mohan Bhatt unless noted otherwise. 1. "A Meeting by the River" – 10:03 2. "Longing" – 11:56 3. "Ganges Delta Blues" – 9:57 4. "Isa Lei" (Caten) – 7:39 Track listing adapted from Allmusic. ## Personnel - Kavichandran Alexander – engineer, liner notes, producer - Vishwa Mohan Bhatt – Mohan veena, performer, slide guitar - Joachim Cooder – dumbek - Ry Cooder – bottleneck guitar, guitar, performer - Tim de Paravicini – technical consultant - Kevin Michael Gray – mastering - Sukhvinder Singh Namdhari – tabla - Rumi – liner notes, quotes - Mike Sexton – cover photo, photography - Jayant Shah – producer - Leslie Shirack – art direction - Gus Skinas – authoring - Paul Stubblebine – digital mastering - Susan Titelman – photography Credits adapted from Allmusic.	[ "## Composition", "## Reception", "## Chart performance and recognition", "## Track listing", "## Personnel" ]	1,359	8,002
46,365,671	Redcliffe railway station	1,172,922,450	Railway station in Perth, Western Australia	[ "Airport line, Perth", "Airport railway stations in Australia", "Perth Airport", "Railway stations in Australia opened in 2022", "Railway stations located underground in Perth, Western Australia", "Redcliffe, Western Australia", "Transperth bus stations", "Transperth railway stations" ]	Redcliffe railway station is a station for underground commuter rail services in Redcliffe, east of Perth, Western Australia. The station is one of three stations that were built as part of the Forrestfield–Airport Link project and is served by Transperth's Airport line services. The contract for the Forrestfield–Airport Link, which consists of 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) of twin bored tunnels and three new stations, was awarded to Salini Impregilo and NRW Pty Ltd in April 2016. Forward works, which included the permanent closure of Brearley Avenue between Great Eastern Highway and Dunreath Drive, began in 2016. Construction began in mid-2017, and by June 2018, excavation was complete. The two tunnel boring machines (TBMs) reached the station in mid-2019, having tunnelled from High Wycombe, and left tunnelling towards Bayswater after several weeks of maintenance. Construction of the station infrastructure followed. Originally planned to open in 2020, the line officially opened on 9 October 2022. It is served by trains every twelve minutes during peak hour and every fifteen minutes outside peak hour and on weekends and public holidays. At night, trains are half-hourly or hourly. The journey to Perth station takes fifteen minutes. ## Description The station is within the residential area of Redcliffe, about 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) west of terminals three and four of Perth Airport. It is located just to the west of Dunreath Drive on the former Brearley Avenue right of way. It is owned by the Public Transport Authority (PTA), a state government agency, and is part of the Transperth system. The adjacent station to the north-west is Bayswater station, where the Airport line links with the Midland line. The adjacent station to the south-east is Airport Central station, which services terminals one and two of Perth Airport. The station's distance to terminals three and four has been criticised, with it being justified by there being plans for the closure of terminals three and four by 2025. The station consists of a single underground island platform with two platform edges. The platform is 150 metres (490 ft) long, or long enough for a Transperth six-car train, the longest trains used on the network. Access to the platform is provided by stairs, lifts, and escalators, making the station fully accessible. On the surface are toilets, a kiosk, a customer service office and staff facilities. Surrounding the station building is a bus interchange with six bus bays. There are also drop-off bays nearby and a 500-bay car park approximately 400 metres (1,300 ft) south. The station design has been described as similar to Elizabeth Quay station. ## History During initial planning, the station was called Airport West station as it was located nearer to Perth Airport terminals three and four. The Forrestfield-Airport Link Project Definition Plan, released in August 2014, had the station located in the residential area of Redcliffe instead of in the airport. As such, the station was renamed Belmont station in April 2016 upon the awarding of the main contract. The name came from the adjacent suburb of the same name. For the most part, the Forrestfield-Airport Link project came under one contract, worth \$1.176 billion and awarded to Salini Impregilo and NRW Pty Ltd. This included the construction of the tunnels and three stations, including Belmont station. At the time, the station was expected to be in operation by 2020. The station was planned to be constructed over the Brearley Avenue right of way, requiring the permanent closure of that road between Great Eastern Highway and Dunreath Drive. At the time, the road was one of the main entrances to Perth Airport, and so nearby roads had to be upgraded to cope with the road's closure. A \$4.8 million contract for that was awarded to MACA Civil Pty Ltd in March 2016. Other forward works occurred throughout 2016, including a drain realignment. Brearley Avenue closed on 17 January 2017, and the contractors took site possession in February 2017. Early works began in April 2017. The government faced calls for the station to be renamed Redcliffe to reflect its actual location. In July 2017, the City of Belmont voted unanimously in support for the name change. The state government launched a survey in October 2017 to decide whether to call it Belmont or Redcliffe station. 81 percent of the 852 respondents voted for Redcliffe, and so the station was renamed in December 2017. In June 2017, the station's design was revealed. Weston Williamson and GHD Woodhead had been appointed by the contractors as the designers for the three stations. Construction of the station began in mid-2017. By the end of the year, the station's diaphragm walls were complete. Excavation started on 8 February 2018 and was completed by June, whereupon waterproofing of the station commenced. That was completed by August 2018, and so construction of the base slab followed. Nine concrete pours were required for that, which took place over the remainder of 2018. The first few months of 2019 were used to prepare for the arrival of the two tunnel boring machines (TBMs). A crane was installed for the delivery of tunnel segments for the final portion of tunnelling between Redcliffe and Bayswater. The first TBM, Grace, arrived at Redcliffe station on 9 May 2019, having tunnelled there from High Wycombe. After several weeks for maintenance, the TBM left the station bound for Bayswater on 14 June. Sandy, the second tunnel boring machine, arrived at the station on 6 July 2019. Sandy left the station in early August, allowing the commencement of construction for station infrastructure, including the platform and a mezzanine level. On 18 December 2018, Transport Minister Rita Saffioti announced the opening date of the project had been delayed from 2020 to 2021. In May 2021, she announced that the project had been delayed again, this time with the opening date being in the first half of 2022. Following the state budget on 12 May 2022, the government changed its position on the line's opening date, saying the line will open some time later in the year. On 16 August, the opening date was revealed to be 9 October 2022, which is when the station did open. The new bus services to Redcliffe station commenced the following day. ## Services Redcliffe station is served by the Airport line on the Transperth network. These services are operated by Transperth Train Operations, a division of the PTA. To the east, the line goes two stations to High Wycombe station. To the west, the line joins the Midland line one station along at Bayswater, running alongside that line to Perth station, before running alongside the Fremantle line, terminating at Claremont station. Airport line trains stop at the station every twelve minutes during peak hour on weekdays and every fifteen minutes outside peak hour and on weekends and public holidays. At night, trains are half-hourly or hourly. The station is predicted to have average daily boardings of 4,100, rising to 6,000 in 2031. The journey to Perth station takes fifteen minutes. The station is in fare zone two, and there is no surcharge. Redcliffe station has a bus interchange with seven stands and seven regular bus routes. Route 39 runs to Elizabeth Quay bus station via Belmont Forum Shopping Centre. Routes 290 and 291 go to Midland station via Guildford and South Guildford. Route 292 is a short loop which goes to terminals three and four. Route 935 is a high frequency route which runs to Kings Park via Belmont Forum Shopping Centre and the Perth central business district. Route 940 is a high frequency route which runs to Elizabeth Quay bus station via Great Eastern Highway. Rail replacement bus services operate as route 902.	[ "## Description", "## History", "## Services" ]	1,687	23,567
3,632,031	Faith Leech	1,156,928,823	Australian swimmer	[ "1941 births", "2013 deaths", "Australian female freestyle swimmers", "Medalists at the 1956 Summer Olympics", "Olympic bronze medalists for Australia", "Olympic bronze medalists in swimming", "Olympic gold medalists for Australia", "Olympic gold medalists in swimming", "Olympic swimmers for Australia", "Sportspeople from Bendigo", "Sportswomen from Victoria (state)", "Swimmers at the 1956 Summer Olympics", "World record setters in swimming" ]	Faith Yvonne Leech (31 March 1941 – 14 September 2013) was an Australian freestyle swimmer who won a gold medal in the 4×100–metre freestyle relay and bronze in the 100-metre freestyle at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne. A tall and lean swimmer known for her elegant technique, Leech started swimming as a child to build strength after a series of stomach disorders in her infancy. She quickly rose to prominence after breaking a string of age group records. In 1955, she became the youngest swimmer to win an Australian title, claiming victory in the 110-yard freestyle at the age of 13. She twice broke the Australian record in the 100-yard freestyle in late 1955, thereby positioning herself as a leading contender for Olympic selection in 1956. Leech's preparation was hindered by illness, which forced her out of the 1956 Australian Championships, but she recovered to gain Olympic selection in both the 100-metre freestyle and the corresponding relay. Leech produced a late surge to take bronze in the individual event and seal an Australian trifecta, before swimming the second leg in the relay to help secure an Australian victory in world record time. Leech retired after the Olympics at the age of 15; she cited anxiety caused by racing as one of the main factors in her decision. ## Early years The second child of Johnstone Melmore and Jessie Francis Leech, Leech was born in Bendigo, Victoria. She was given the name Faith after her elder sister, who died from leukaemia at the age of two. A delicate child, Leech had an aversion to eating in the first two years of her life, so her mother fed her in small hourly doses. Leech was twice rushed from the family home to a Melbourne hospital. Conventional medicine failed to rectify Leech's dietary issues, so her mother put her on a fast for ten days at the recommendation of a naturopath. Leech was later placed on a diet of fruit, salad and vegetables, with an emphasis on beetroot juice and carrot juice. Leech's health improved, but she remained slight and frail, with a double curvature of the back. In an effort to help her gain muscle control and confidence, her parents sent her to start ballet dancing, before trying swimming, a sport her mother had competed in. Aged six, she was taken to swimming classes while the family holidayed in the Mornington Peninsula. Leech was coached by Gustav Fröhlich, (also known as Gus Froelich) a former European swimming champion and coach of Australian Olympic medallist Judy-Joy Davies. After a difficult start, Leech improved in her second year. At the Victorian Championships, she showed her potential by setting a state record of 17.4 seconds (s) for the 25-yard freestyle in the under-8 division. The following year, she covered 25 yards in 15.7 seconds, three seconds faster than Davies had done at the same age. She progressed steadily, sweeping the state age titles from nine to 13, setting records that were often faster than those by boys of the same age. Living in Bendigo and studying at Camp Hill Primary School, Leech could only travel three times a year to train with Froelich, so she relied heavily on dry land simulations, such as a pulley attached to the kitchen door. When she was 12, she covered 110 yards in 1 minute (min) 7.1 seconds, setting an unofficial world record for her age group. This achievement prompted her parents to rent an apartment in Melbourne, so she could train with Froelich on a regular basis. Leech moved there with her mother, while her father stayed in Bendigo to look after the family's jewellery business. From 1954, Leech attended St. Michael's Girls' Grammar School and trained with Froelich on a daily basis at the City Baths. The regular sessions paid off at the 1955 Victorian Championships; Leech won the open 110- and 220-yard freestyle in times of 1 minute 7.2 seconds and 2 minutes 39.3 seconds, respectively, setting state records in both events. She proceeded to the Australian Championships, winning the 110-yard freestyle in 1 minute 7.6 seconds to become the youngest ever winner of an open title at the age of 13. Leech also won the national junior 110- and 220-yard events. Leech's regimen differed from most swimmers because Froelich was not an advocate of distance training, and designed shorter workouts for his students. She trained once a day, swimming no more than 3 km (1.9 mi). Froelich did not push her to continue swimming laps when she felt tired, but emphasised an efficient stroke mechanism, which Leech implemented with a long and graceful arm action. Leech stood 180 centimetres (5'11"), but weighed only 57 kg (126 lb), with broad shoulders, slim hips and large hands and feet. Her long streamlined action prompted observers to call her a "flying fish". Spinal problems caused by a back misalignment prevented her from using the optimal flip turn preferred by freestyle swimmers. Instead, she was forced to utilise the touch turn, which was slower. ## National selection In August 1955, Leech set an Australian record of 1 minute 5.0 seconds for the 110-yard freestyle, before lowering it to 1 minute 4.8 seconds in October; this prompted newspapers to trumpet her as a prospect for the Melbourne Olympics. She did not get an opportunity to defend her Australian title in 1956 because she was hospitalised with illness. Leech recovered in time to win the national age title in the 100-metre freestyle in a time of 1 minute 4.6 seconds, just 0.1 of a second outside Dawn Fraser's world record. She then posted a time of 1 minute 4.6 seconds to defeat Fraser and Lorraine Crapp at another meeting in the following month. Leech was named in the Olympic squad and the Australian Swimming Union exempted her from travelling to the national training camp in Townsville so she could train with Froelich, who understood her special dietary requirements. She joined the squad for the final race trials in Melbourne in October before the Olympics. Fraser and Crapp were too strong in the 100-metre freestyle, with Leech finishing second and third in the two races. After combining with Fraser, Crapp and Margaret Gibson to break the world record for the 4×100-metre freestyle relay, Leech was selected as one of Australia's three entrants in the 100-metre freestyle events and one of six swimmers for the 4×100-metre freestyle relay squad for the Olympics. ## International career Having arrived at the Olympics, Leech made her debut in the 100-metre freestyle, an event in which she, Fraser and Crapp were regarded as the three strongest competitors, although the latter two were considered to be substantially stronger. All three won their heats. Leech won her heat by 1.6 seconds in a time of 1 minute 4.9 seconds. She was third fastest qualifier behind Fraser and Crapp, who were over 1.5 seconds faster. Drawn in Fraser's semifinal, Leech finished second in a time of 1 minute 5.2 seconds, and was the third fastest qualifier for the final behind her compatriots. The semifinals followed a similar pattern to the heats, with Fraser and Crapp more than two seconds ahead of the six remaining qualifiers, who were separated by just 0.8 of a second. This pattern was repeated in the final. Fraser and Crapp were far ahead of the field, finishing in 1 minute 2.0 seconds and 1 minute 2.3 seconds, respectively. Leech overtook the United States' Joan Rosazza in the final 25 metres to take bronze in 1 minute 5.1 seconds. The race for third place had been tight, with just 0.7 of a second separating Leech and the final finisher. The youngest swimmer in the field, Leech had come through to claim the last podium position. Leech said that it was an emotional occasion, having seen the Australian men take a trifecta in the corresponding event on the previous night of racing. As the Australians boasted the three fastest swimmers in the individual 100-metre freestyle event, they were clear favourites for the corresponding relay, especially as Fraser and Crapp were three seconds faster than all of the other swimmers. Leech was not assured of a place in the final quartet. In the heats, Fraser and Crapp were rested and the remaining four swimmers, Sandra Morgan, Elizabeth Fraser, Gibson and Leech qualified the team. Leech swam the second leg in 1 minute 5.9 seconds, the second fastest of the Australians, thereby securing her position in the final along with Sandra Morgan, who recorded a time of 1 minute 5.4 seconds. Australia won the second heat by 3.1 seconds to qualify quickest for the final. They were 1.8 and 2.3 seconds faster than South Africa and the United States, respectively, both of whom swam in the first heat. The selection of Leech and Morgan generated controversy. They were Australia's youngest swimmers and lacked experience at open level competition: Morgan had false started twice at the Australian Championships, and both had competed at national level only once. In the final, Australia made a poor start; Dawn Fraser almost stopped when she heard a second gunshot, believing that a false start had occurred. She finished her leg in 1 minute 4.0 seconds, two seconds slower than the world record she set in the individual 100-metre final, but with a 2.3-second lead over the United States' Sylvia Ruuska. Nevertheless, this meant that Australia had a smaller than expected advantage. Swimming the second leg, Leech maintained the lead in the first 50 metres but faded in the second half and finished with a split of 1 minute 5.1 seconds, with the Australian lead cut to 0.9 of a second. Even with the advantage of a flying start, Leech's leg was 0.4 of a second slower than her fastest time during the individual competition. Morgan was then overhauled and passed by Nancy Simons. With 25 metres left, Morgan took her head out of the water, and seeing the American a body length in front, dug deep to re-establish a lead of 0.7 of a second going into the final changeover. Crapp then extended the lead over the United States to 2.2 seconds to secure gold in a world record time of 4 minutes 17.1 seconds. The Melbourne Olympics was the only time that Australia has made a clean sweep of the 100-metre freestyle and the relay events for both men and women. This feat has only been equalled by the Americans at the 1920 Summer Olympics. The victory was Australia's only victory in a female swimming relay at the Olympics until the 2004 Summer Olympics. ## Retirement After the 1956 Olympics, Leech retired from competitive swimming at the age of 15. She was the first person from Bendigo to win an Olympic medal and was feted upon returning to her hometown. She regarded the experience of living in the Olympic Village as an unusual one; in addition to the large crowds and the pressure of an Olympics, it was the first time that she had been away from the family home. Physicians endorsed her decision to retire, feeling that she became too nervous prior to races. Leech briefly worked in Melbourne as a model, before returning to Bendigo to help run the family jewellery business. She took a leading role in the business after the death of her father in the 1970s, before handing control of the firm to her son. Leech married Mitch Tuohy and had two sons, Adam and Troy, whom she discouraged from entering competitive swimming, fearing the pressure and strain of racing. In retirement, she shunned competitive sport, but maintained her fitness and athleticism. She taught swimming to disabled children, some of whom represented Australia at the Special Olympics. Leech continued her involvement with the Olympic movement through volunteer work. In July 1999, Leech and Australia's then-oldest man and World War I veteran Jack Lockett were the guests of honour at a countdown celebration to the arrival of the Olympic Torch in Bendigo in July 2000. In 2001, she was diagnosed with a tumour in her neck, which was the size of a 50c coin. The tumour was removed in a seven-hour operation followed by six weeks of radiotherapy treatment. This experience prompted her to become a volunteer for the Cancer Council and help those who were diagnosed with the disease. In February 2003, Leech phoned quadruple Olympic champion Betty Cuthbert to comfort her during her recovery from a brain hemorrhage. In October 2006, Leech combined with 1956 teammate John Devitt to launch "50 Years On—The Melbourne Olympics", a series of stamps from the Australia Post. Leech is an inductee of the Path of Champions at Sydney Olympic Park Aquatic Centre. She died at her home on 14 September 2013, aged 72. ## See also - List of Olympic medalists in swimming (women) - World record progression 4 × 100 metres freestyle relay	[ "## Early years", "## National selection", "## International career", "## Retirement", "## See also" ]	2,837	39,886
7,712,262	Lyon-class battleship	1,136,535,705	Proposed fleet of battleships for the French Navy	[ "Battleship classes", "Battleships of the French Navy", "Proposed ships", "Ship classes of the French Navy" ]	The Lyon class was a set of battleships planned for the French Navy (Marine Nationale) in 1913, with construction scheduled to begin in 1915. The class was to have comprised four ships, named Lyon, Lille, Duquesne, and Tourville. The first two were named for cities in France, and the latter pair honored the French admirals Abraham Duquesne and Anne Hilarion de Tourville. The Lyon class' design was an improvement on the previous Normandie class, utilizing a fourth quadruple-gun turret to mount a total of sixteen 34 cm (13.4 in) guns. Construction on the Lyons was cancelled due to the August 1914 outbreak of World War I, before any of the ships were laid down. ## Design The French Navy began a dreadnought battleship construction program in 1910 with the four ships of the Courbet class. Two years later, the French legislature passed a naval law which called for a fleet of twenty-eight battleships by 1920. Under this plan, three ships would be ordered in 1912; these became the Bretagne class. Two more were projected for 1913 and another two for 1914, which were to be the first four Normandie-class battleships, though an amendment to the law increased the pace of construction to four Normandies in 1913 and a fifth of the same design in 1914. Four ships were projected for 1915. Design work on the vessels to follow the Normandies began in 1912; the design staff submitted several proposals for the new battleships, with displacements ranging from 27,000 metric tons (26,574 long tons) to 29,000 t (28,542 long tons). In 1913, the Navy authorized a fourth class of battleships, what was to have been the Lyon class, and scheduled their construction for 1915. One of the main considerations for the new design was the armament to be carried. The French were aware that the latest British battleships—the Queen Elizabeth class—were to be armed with 38 cm (15 in) guns, prompting significant consideration of matching this caliber for the Lyon design. The design staff prepared four variants, two armed with the standard French 34 cm gun in twin or quadruple gun turrets, and two armed with 38 cm guns in twin turrets. The designers also briefly considered a ship armed with twenty 30.5 cm (12 in) guns in quadruple turrets, but the decrease in gun caliber was deemed to be a step in the wrong direction and it was quickly rejected. At the time, the French Navy believed that at the expected battle ranges in the Mediterranean, the 34 cm gun was effective and so the larger 38 cm gun was not necessary. The design staff determined the 38 cm gun would take too long to design, so the proposals that incorporated these weapons were rejected and officials chose between the two 34 cm proposals. The first proposal, which mounted fourteen guns, was a 27,500-metric-ton (27,066-long-ton) ship 185 meters (607 ft) long. On 24 November 1913, the design staff instead chose the slightly larger second design, armed with sixteen guns in four quadruple turrets, but the specific 34 cm gun to be used to arm the ships was still an open question. The first proposal by the Directorate of Artillery (Direction de l'artillerie) was for the existing 45-caliber gun used by the Bretagne and Normandie-class ships to be modified to use a slightly longer shell that weighed 590 kg (1,300 lb), 50 kg (110 lb) more than the existing shell, and was optimized for underwater performance. The second proposal was for a 50-caliber gun that fired a larger 630 kg (1,390 lb) shell. Accommodating the extra volume and weight of the longer gun was estimated to increase the displacement of the design to 31,000–32,000 t (31,000–31,000 long tons) and to increase the cost from 87 million francs to 93–96 million. The first option was ultimately selected in February 1914. The first two ships, Lyon and Lille, were scheduled to be ordered on 1 January 1915, and Duquesne and Tourville would have followed on 1 April. The run-up to and beginning of World War I led to the end of the Lyon class. The French government mobilized its reserve forces in July, a month before the conflict, and thereby stripped its shipyards of many of the specialized tradesmen required for constructing the ships. The French also redirected their industrial capacity to weapons and munition orders from the army. In light of such constraints, the navy decided that only those ships that could be completed quickly would be worked upon, such as the Bretagnes. ### Ships ### Characteristics The ships would have been 190 m (623 ft 4 in) long between perpendiculars and 194.5 m (638 ft 1 in) long overall. They would have had a beam of 29 m (95 ft 2 in) and a draft of 8.65 to 9.2 m (28 ft 5 in to 30 ft 2 in). Their displacement was estimated at 29,600 metric tons (29,100 long tons). The propulsion system had not been settled by the time the class was cancelled; the design staff proposed either the mixed steam turbine and triple-expansion engine system used in the first four ships of the preceding Normandie class or the all-turbine system used in the last Normandie-class ship, Béarn, in a memo dated 13 September 1913. They also considered new geared turbines that had proved satisfactory in the new destroyer Enseigne Gabolde. The final design called for a propulsion system rated at 40,000 metric horsepower (39,000 shp) with a top speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). An unknown number of boilers were to be trunked into two funnels amidships. The main battery of the Lyons would have been sixteen 34 cm Modèle 1912M guns mounted in four quadruple-gun turrets. They would have all been mounted on the centerline, although the arrangement is not clear. A preliminary sketch, attached to the design staff's memo of 19 September 1913, showed one turret was placed forward, one amidships, and two in a superfiring pair aft, although the contemporary Journal of United States Artillery suggests the turrets would have been mounted in two superfiring pairs, forward and aft. The turrets weighed 1,500 t (1,500 long tons), and were electrically trained and hydraulically elevated. The guns were divided into pairs and mounted in twin cradles; a 40 mm (1.6 in) thick bulkhead divided the turrets. Each pair of guns had its own ammunition hoist and magazine. They could be fired simultaneously or independently. Before work on the Lyon class had started, the French Navy had begun experimenting with new types of shells. After learning that shells had penetrated the hulls of battleships underwater to burst below their armored belts during the Battle of the Yellow Sea in 1904 and during British gunnery trials in 1907, the French Navy began investigating how they might optimize shell design to improve their performance through the water. By 1913 the navy believed that it had a design that could be accurate through the water for a distance of 100 meters (328 ft). The secondary armament was to consist of twenty-four guns, either the 55-caliber 138.6 mm Modèle 1910 or a new automatic model, each singly-mounted in casemates in the hull sides. The M1910 guns fired a 36.5 kg (80 lb) shell at a muzzle velocity of 830 m/s (2,700 ft/s). The ships would also have been equipped with a pair of 47 mm (1.9 in) anti-aircraft guns and six submerged torpedo tubes of unknown size. The ships would have been protected with a modified version of the armor layout of the earlier Normandie class. The primary alteration was that the upper strake of armor intended to protect the secondary armament was reduced from 160 millimeters (6.3 in) on the Normandies to 100 millimeters (3.9 in). The reduction compensated for the additional armor below the waterline to better protect the hull against "diving" shells. The waterline armor belt would have been 300 millimeters (11.8 in) thick between the barbettes of the end turrets. The turrets were also intended to be protected with an armor thickness of 300 millimeters on their faces. The lower armored deck would have consisted of a total of 42 millimeters (1.7 in) of mild steel; the deck sloped downwards to meet the bottom of the waterline belt and the sloped portion of the deck would have had a total thickness of 70 millimeters (2.8 in). The upper armored deck was intended to be 40 millimeters (1.6 in). Between the end barbettes, below the waterline belt, the thickness of the hull would have graduated from 80 to 35 millimeters (3.1 to 1.4 in) in thickness down to a depth of 6 meters (19 ft 8 in) below the waterline forward and 4.5 meters (14 ft 9 in) aft.	[ "## Design", "### Ships", "### Characteristics" ]	1,994	41,950
10,369,894	Hurricane Gerda	1,168,002,393	Category 3 Atlantic hurricane in 1969	[ "1969 Atlantic hurricane season", "1969 in Canada", "1969 natural disasters in the United States", "Category 3 Atlantic hurricanes" ]	Hurricane Gerda was a North Atlantic tropical cyclone that formed during the 1969 Atlantic hurricane season. It was the seventh named storm, fifth hurricane and third major hurricane of the 1969 season. Gerda formed on September 6 and crossed Florida as a tropical depression. Gerda later became a tropical storm after making a hard right turn and moving northeast and reaching hurricane status on September 8. Gerda brushed past the Outer Banks of North Carolina before reaching maximum intensity of 120 mph (190 km/h) and a low barometric pressure of 980 millibars (29 inHg). On September 10, Gerda made landfall near Eastport, Maine, and became extratropical the following day. Hurricane Gerda brought light rain across southern Florida and moderate to heavy rain across eastern North Carolina and New England, causing minor damage to trees and powerlines. The highest amount of rain was 5.67 inches (144 mm) which was recorded in South Wellfleet, Massachusetts on Cape Cod. There were no fatalities or injuries from Gerda although planes at Otis Air Force Base were moved to their hangars and two ships from Naval Station Newport left their berth to ride out the storm. ## Meteorological history A tropical wave moved off the western coast of Africa on August 21 and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean without development. On September 3, the disturbance merged with a dissipating upper-level low pressure system over Hispaniola and Puerto Rico and developed an increasing cloud mass as it continued westward. As the disturbance crossed the Bahamas, satellite imagery showed the disturbance gaining a distinct circulation on September 5. On September 6, the disturbance became a Tropical Depression before it made landfall in southeastern Florida on the same day. After crossing Florida, the depression drifted northeastward back over the western Atlantic Ocean on September 7. As the system headed northeastward, hurricane hunter aircraft recorded winds of 45 mph (72 km/h), and barometric pressure fell to 1,000 millibars (30 inHg). Forecasters at the National Hurricane Center upgraded the system to tropical storm status and named it Gerda. Gerda continued to move rapidly northeast in response to an approaching trough and the storm reached hurricane status on September 8. Gerda's forward speed approached 40 mph (64 km/h) as the eye of the hurricane passed 50 miles (80 km) east of Cape Cod on September 9, with maximum sustained winds of 125 mph (201 km/h). Because the storm was interacting with the trough to the west and was moving rapidly northeastward, the result was the minimum central barometric pressure was an unusually high 980 millibars (29 inHg). Gerda later made landfall near Eastport, Maine later that day as a Category 1 hurricane, one of the strongest to ever make landfall in the state. However, while the storm made landfall as a hurricane, the strongest winds remained offshore. Thus, Gerda likely caused only tropical storm force winds in the state. Gerda then became extratropical as it crossed into Canada as an 80 mph (130 km/h) extratropical storm on September 10. The storm later dissipated the following day. ## Preparations Gale warnings and small craft advisories were issued along the coast of North Carolina stretching from Wilmington to Cape Hatteras. Storm shelters in Kitty Hawk and Manteo, North Carolina were opened and the American Red Cross sent relief workers and equipment to North Carolina. In Frederick County, Maryland, local forecasters and the National Weather Service issued a flood watch while the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch for the county, as well as the rest of eastern Maryland. Officials at the National Weather Service and National Hurricane Center predicted that the western half of the storm would lash New York City and much of New England (which were under a hurricane watch) with high winds and torrential rainfall. Ships and other water craft were advised to avoid the Cape Cod area as the storm was forecast to brush that area, which was put under a hurricane warning by the National Hurricane Center. In Massachusetts, schools were closed and emergency shelters were opened to accommodate evacuees. Evacuations were ordered for residents living in low-lying areas in Cape Cod. In Boston, the threat of the storm caused both elementary and middle schools to close at noon while high schools were closed at 1 p.m. (est). The approach of the storm also postponed a fair at a local hospital and planes at Otis Air Force Base were quickly moved to their hangars. Much of southeastern Massachusetts civil defense and fire departments were alerted in preparation of the storm's impact. In Rhode Island, schools and other buildings were used as shelter to house evacuees. As Hurricane Gerda sped up the East Coast of the United States, the National Hurricane Center extended the hurricane warnings from Block Island, Rhode Island to Eastport, Maine. At Naval Station Newport in Newport, Rhode Island, two ships of the United States Navy left their berths to ride out the storm. One of which was the Comcrudeslant flagship USS Puget Sound (AD-38). ## Impact Hurricane Gerda affected much of eastern North Carolina and New England with gusty rain and heavy rainfall causing minor to moderate damage. In Florida, Gerda dropped light rainfall across southern and central portions of the state. Damage there, if any, was unknown. In South Carolina, Gerda brought sustained winds of 20 mph (32 km/h). In Canada, Gerda passed over Labrador as a strong extratropical storm with hurricane-force winds. Damage there is unknown. In North Carolina, Gerda produced moderate rainfall across the Outer Banks. The highest rainfall total on the Outer Banks was 1.32 inches (34 mm) in Cape Hatteras. Elsewhere on the Outer Banks, the storm produced 27 mph (43 km/h) winds with gusts up to 36 mph (58 km/h). A tide gauge in Ocracoke Island reported a tide of 1.5 feet (0.46 meters) above normal. Gerda then dropped heavy rainfall across eastern Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey and New York. There was no reported damage from Gerda's impact on North Carolina and the Mid-Atlantic States. Gerda produced heavy rainfall throughout much of southeastern New England. In Massachusetts, a rain gauge in South Wellfleet reported rainfall of 5.67 inches (144 mm). The city of Lowell also reported heavy rainfall from the storm as 2 inches (51 mm) of rain fell in a 24‐hour period. The heavy rainfall caused isolated street flooding due to clogged storm drains. In Fitchburg, the storm dropped 1.87 inches (47 mm) of rain while Cape Cod received tides 3–6 feet (0.91–1.83 meters) above normal. Elsewhere in New England, the storm caused minor damage to trees, powerlines and highways. There were no reported fatalities or injuries from Gerda's impact on New England. ## See also - List of New England hurricanes	[ "## Meteorological history", "## Preparations", "## Impact", "## See also" ]	1,451	33,954
33,652,632	Goronwy ap Tudur Hen	1,166,060,257	Welsh aristocrat and soldier	[ "1331 deaths", "14th-century Welsh people", "14th-century births", "House of Tudor", "People from Anglesey", "Welsh soldiers", "Year of birth unknown" ]	Goronwy ap Tudur Hen (died 1331), also known as Goronwy ap Tudur or Goronwy Fychan, was a Welsh aristocrat and Lord of Penmynydd. He was a member of the Tudor family of Penmynydd, Anglesey, North Wales, and a direct ancestor of Owen Tudor and thereby the Royal House of Tudor. He was a soldier for the English crown, who fought in the First War of Scottish Independence, including in the English invasion which led to the Battle of Bannockburn. He remained loyal to King Edward II of England until the king's death, and was both a yeoman and forester of Snowdon. After his death in 1331, his body was interred in Llanfaes Friary, near Bangor, Gwynedd. ## Ancestry and family Goronwy ap Tudur Hen was one of three sons of Welsh noble Tudur Hen (English: Tudur the Elder) and Anghared fil Ithel Fychan, alongside Madog ap Tudur Hen and Hywel ap Tudur Hen. Tudor Hen had first been in service to Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (also known as Llywelyn the Last), the King of Gwynedd, but retained his titles under the conquest of Wales by King Edward I of England. But during the rebellion of Madog ap Llywelyn, Tudur acted as his steward. After the rebellion failed, Tudur pledged his loyalty to Edward. Utilising the more advantageous property laws of England, Tudur saw to it that his lands were passed seamlessly upon his death in 1311 into the hands of Goronwy. ## Service to the English crown Goronwy ap Tudur Hen was Lord of Penmynydd and a soldier in the service of the English crown. He joined King Edward II of England for his invasion of Scotland in 1314 as part of the First War of Scottish Independence, which included service at the Battle of Bannockburn in June of that year. In 1316, a rebellion took place in Glamorgan under the leadership of Llywelyn Bren, at the same time Edward was campaigning in Scotland. Despite this, there was little concern that it would spread to North Wales, with the royal officials instead concerned with the threat of invasion from Ireland. Some 1,500 troops were summoned from the area to support the King, and among those leading those troops were Iorweth ap Gruffudd, Gruffudd Llwyd and his cousin Goronwy ap Tudur Hen. After these troops, under the command of Gruffudd Llwyd, moved to Chester, they were dismissed on 4 August 1316 to return to North Wales in order to protect the area from the Irish threat. Goronwy and his troops were again summoned into the King's service to retake Berwick in 1319, after Scottish forces had taken it a year earlier. The majority of the forces from Wales came from the southern Marcher Lords, but Goronwy, Gruffudd Llwyd and Hywel ap Gruffudd ap Geruath led those from the northern part of the country. Around the same time, as a yeoman of the king, Goronwy was made forester of Snowdon. He remained loyal to Edward II, but following the king's death, he resumed service to Edward III. Goronwy married Gwerfyl ferch Madog, daughter of Madog ap Iorwerth, 3rd Baron of Hendwr. Goronwy and Gwerfyl had three sons, Tudur, Hywel, and Gruffydd. Goronwy was interred after his death in the west wall of the Franciscan Llanfaes Friary near Bangor, Gwynedd on 11 December 1331. His father had overseen the reconstruction efforts of the friary, and in 1311 was the first of the family to be placed there following his death. Other members of the family were placed there following death, until some were moved following the Dissolution of the Monasteries under the Church of England imposed by King Henry VIII of England, with Goronwy's being moved to St Gredifael's Church, Penmynydd, where his tomb lies. ## Legacy Goronwy's eldest son Hywel ap Goronwy joined the priesthood, and became a canon of Bangor Cathedral. In 1357, Hywel became the Archdeacon of Anglesey. Gruffydd drowned in 1344. Goronwy ap Tudur Hen was one of the direct ancestors of the Royal House of Tudor. His son, Tudur ap Goronwy, became a knight in the service of Edward III, and was the grandfather of Owain ap Maredudd ap Tudur (through his son, Maredudd ap Tudur, grandson to Goronwy ap Tudur Hen). Owain Anglicised his name, becoming Owen Tudor, and was himself the grandfather of King Henry VII of England, the founder of the House of Tudor. ### Lineage	[ "## Ancestry and family", "## Service to the English crown", "## Legacy", "### Lineage" ]	1,068	504
72,976,949	Villa Road	1,169,051,911	Street in Lambeth, London	[ "Anarchism in the United Kingdom", "Brixton", "Squats in the United Kingdom", "Streets in the London Borough of Lambeth", "Victorian architecture in England" ]	Villa Road is a street in Angell Town in the Borough of Lambeth, south London. Rows of terraced houses, built on both sides of the street in the Victorian era, were scheduled to be demolished in the late 1960s as part of a development plan. From 1973 onwards, houses were squatted and an alternative community was established, containing anarchists, British Black Panthers, feminists, Marxists, primal screamers and single mothers. Lambeth Council applied for possession orders for most of the buildings on the street in June 1976 and the squatters built barricades to resist eviction. After prolonged negotiations the council decided to legalize the occupation in 1978, but only after demolishing the southern side of the street. In 2006, the former squatters were profiled in the documentary film "Property is Theft" as part of the BBC series Lefties. ## History In the Victorian era, terraced houses were built on both sides of Villa Road in Angell Town, in the Borough of Lambeth in south London. In 1967, Lambeth Council obtained a compulsory purchase order enabling them to acquire 400 houses in Angell Town, including 21 in Villa Road. New tower blocks were to be built to for the residents and, under the 1969 Brixton Plan, Brixton Road, which runs perpendicular to the west end of Villa Road, would have been converted to a six-lane highway for traffic entering and leaving London. Local people opposed the plans and community groups, such as the Villa Road Street Group, were formed. ## Squatted At the beginning of 1973, the Villa Road Street Group squatted number 20. Over the next year, more houses were occupied, leading to condemnation from the council, which decided to demolish the street. At the close of 1974, 15 houses on Villa Road were squatted as well as 315 Brixton Road, where Villa and Brixton roads met. The latter was evicted in April 1975 and it was immediately demolished, alongside two other houses which had not been squatted since they were in such bad condition. The council said it had cleared the space to build a footbridge over Brixton Road to connect the park planned beside Villa Road to the new Stockwell Park Estate, but then dropped the plans, causing anger locally that the building had been destroyed for no reason. In the summer of 1975, the 100 squatters organised a street carnival; at Villa Road, there was a cafe and a food co-operative, and a regular news-sheet called The Villain was published. Almost the entire street was squatted in opposition to the council's plans to redevelop the area, according to which 21 of the 32 houses on Villa Road would be demolished. The buildings were situated on both sides of the street and housed 200 people including anarchists, British Black Panthers, feminists, Marxists (at number 31), primal screamers (at 12) and single mothers. Musician Pete Cooper lived at number 31 and author Christian Wolmar at 27. An alternative community formed as it had at other squatted locations in London such as Huntley Street, St Agnes Place and Tolmers Square. The council applied for possession orders for most of the buildings on Villa Road in June 1976 and eight out of 15 were granted. The street prepared to contest the evictions, building barricades and publicising its struggle. In October, the council suggested giving 17 of the houses to the street group; it refused, despite the difficulties created by maintaining barricades for months, since the houses were so run-down. In January 1977, the council went to the High Court, hoping to gain possession orders for the entire street. The judge suggested the two sides negotiate an agreement and set the eviction date for June 1977 in three months' time. The council decided to legalize the occupation in 1978, but only after demolishing the southern side of the street. The barricades were taken down in March 1978 and many occupants of the remaining buildings formed a housing association called Solon, which renovated 20 houses with the council remaining as the owner. A park was constructed where the southern side of Villa Road had been; at first called Angell Park, it was renamed Max Roach Park in 1986 after a visit by the American jazz drummer. In the 2010s, Lambeth Council decided to sell off all of its housing stock and by 2017 there were no homes rented to Solon on Villa Road. ## In popular culture Documentary film-maker Vanessa Engle made "Property is Theft" as part of the BBC series Lefties in 2006. She interviewed former inhabitants of the squats such as Cooper and activist Piers Corbyn. In the 1980 gangster film The Long Good Friday, three criminals go to 33 Villa Road to accost a grass.	[ "## History", "## Squatted", "## In popular culture" ]	1,015	7,498
3,610,148	Hurricane Karl (2004)	1,171,665,158	Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 2004	[ "2004 Atlantic hurricane season", "Cape Verde hurricanes", "Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes", "Hurricanes in Europe", "Tropical cyclones in 2004" ]	Hurricane Karl was a large and powerful Cape Verde hurricane during the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season. It was the eleventh named storm, eighth hurricane, and the sixth and final major hurricane of the 2004 season. Karl formed on September 16, originating from a strong tropical wave that emerged off the coast of Africa. It rapidly intensified, becoming a major hurricane on two occasions. Karl peaked as a strong Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale on September 21 with 145 mph (233 km/h) winds. It weakened as it moved northward, becoming extratropical on September 24 in the north Atlantic before it was absorbed by another system on September 28. The extratropical storm affected the Faroe Islands, but no damage was reported there, nor were there any fatalities. ## Meteorological history Karl originated in a strong tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on September 13. The wave gradually became better organized, and it was declared Tropical Depression Twelve about 670 miles (1,080 km) west-southwest of the Cape Verde islands on the morning of September 16, as it headed westward in the open tropical Atlantic following the periphery of the subtropical ridge. That afternoon, the depression continued to rapidly organize and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Karl. Due to healthy outflow around an upper-level anticyclone over Karl and a favorable environment with the warmest sea surface temperatures of the year, rapid deepening began on the evening of September 17, with the storm developing a small eye and being upgraded to Hurricane Karl. With water around 28 °C (82 °F) and low wind shear, the cyclone continued to rapidly intensify on the morning of September 18. The intensity leveled off somewhat that afternoon as a strong Category 2 hurricane with winds of 110 mph (180 km/h). Late in the evening of September 18, Karl attained Category 3 status, becoming the sixth major hurricane of 2004. On September 19, Karl continued to strengthen, maintaining a well-defined eye, and strengthening late that day into a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 135 mph (217 km/h) and a minimum pressure of 948 mbar. Early on September 20, the storm weakened slightly as a result of an eyewall replacement cycle, weakening back to a strong Category 3 hurricane. At this time Karl began to turn sharply northward into a weakness in the subtropical ridge. After intensification stopped on September 20 due to the eyewall cycle and slightly increased wind shear, Karl quickly restrengthened that evening over very warm water, and early on September 21 reached its peak intensity as a powerful Category 4 hurricane with 145 mph (233 km/h) winds and a minimum central pressure of 938 mbar. That morning, as Karl was moving northward, another eyewall replacement cycle began to take place and vertical shear increased, again weakening the storm temporarily. The trend continued into the evening, and the storm weakened to a Category 2 hurricane by early on September 22. The weakening trend slowed and eventually leveled off that afternoon with Karl remaining a Category 2 hurricane as the storm turned towards the north-northeast. Late that evening, Karl began to restrengthen once again as wind shear diminished. The intensification continued into the morning of September 23, as Karl became a major hurricane a second time, reaching a final peak of 125 mph (201 km/h) winds. Cooler waters and increased shear soon prevailed, however, and the storm quickly weakened, dropping to a Category 1 hurricane by late that evening as the low-level circulation became detached from the mid-level circulation due to the strong southwesterly vertical wind shear. Early on September 24, Karl continued its north-northeast track over the open north-central Atlantic and continued to gradually weaken. It started to come in contact with the baroclinic zone and began to lose tropical characteristics, while still a Category 1 hurricane. Karl became extratropical shortly afterward over the northern Atlantic at about 47°N, with its winds dropping below hurricane strength shortly thereafter. The extratropical storm made landfall on the Faroe Islands with hurricane-force wind gusts. As an extratropical low, the cyclone moved northeastward and eastward across the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea, eventually reaching Norway before it was absorbed into another extratropical low late on September 28. ## Impact Karl made landfall on Norway as an extratropical storm with sustained winds near 70 mph (110 km/h) and with wind gusts up to 89 mph (143 km/h). No damages or deaths were reported, and no ships came directly into contact with Karl; the strongest winds reported were from the ship Rotterdam, which reported 52 mph (84 km/h) sustained winds in the north Atlantic while Karl was a Category 1 storm in extratropical transition. ## See also - List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes - Hurricane Kate (2003) - Hurricane Maria (2005) - Hurricane Katia (2011) - Hurricane Lorenzo (2019)	[ "## Meteorological history", "## Impact", "## See also" ]	1,059	320
22,515,320	Boys' Ranch	1,144,650,188	Comic book series	[ "1950 comics debuts", "1951 comics endings", "American comics", "Characters created by Joe Simon", "Child characters in comics", "Comics by Jack Kirby", "Harvey Comics series and characters", "Western (genre) comics" ]	Boys' Ranch was a six-issue American comic book series created by the veteran writer-artist team of Joe Simon and Jack Kirby for Harvey Comics in 1950. A Western in the then-prevalent "kid gang" vein popularized by such film series as "Our Gang" and "The Dead End Kids", the series starred three adolescents—Dandy, Wabash, and Angel—who operate a ranch that was bequeathed to them, under the adult supervision of frontiersman Clay Duncan. Supporting characters included Palomino Sue, Wee Willie Weehawken, citizens of the town Four Massacres, and various Native Americans, including a fictional version of the real-life Geronimo. Noted for its use of single and double-page illustrations, the series has been lauded as one of Simon and Kirby's most significant creations. It was briefly revived through reprints in 1955, and all six issues were reprinted in a hardcover edition by Marvel Comics in 1991 with introductions by Jim Simon and Kirby. ## Publication history Western-style adventures involving boys in ranch settings were already present in American popular culture with the juvenile fiction of authors such as Frank V. Webster and Dale Wilkins as well as the 1946 MGM film, Boys' Ranch. By the late 1940s, the writer-artist team of Joe Simon and Jack Kirby was enjoying the commercial success of the duo's Young Romance and Young Love romance comics titles, and had formed a studio that employed artists such as Mort Meskin, Steve Ditko, John Prentice, Marvin Stein, Bruno Premiani, George Roussos, Bill Draut, and others. In 1950, Simon & Kirby launched two new titles: Black Magic, for the Crestwood Publications imprint Prize Comics, and Boys' Ranch for Harvey Comics (which had previously published two short-lived Simon–Kirby titles, Stuntman and the Boy Explorers, in 1946). According to a biographical page in one of the issues, Simon and Kirby claimed they had spent ten years researching what became Boys Ranch, traveling to Texas, Wyoming, and Arkansas. They were influenced by the films of early western actor and director William S. Hart. They had previously created the successful kid-gang features the Newsboy Legion and Boy Commandos for DC Comics. Simon in his autobiography recounted a casual meeting in September 1950 with Superman co-creator Jerry Siegel, who had dropped by Harvey Comics' offices, and showing Siegel art from various upcoming series: > I reasoned it would do no harm to show him our products, since they were already in production. ... He lingered on the Boys' Ranch art. 'This is really a coincidence,' he said ... 'I'm working on the same title.' > 'Really?' I said. 'I'd like to see what you've done on it.' > 'We'll be in touch,' Jerry said. We shook hands and he departed. > Almost immediately after our Boys' Ranch went on sale, Harvey received a letter from Ziff-Davis Publications [for whom Siegel was working] accusing us of lifting the idea of Boys' Ranch from Jerry Siegel. [Harvey Comics head] Alfred Harvey requested to see their version. They had nothing to show. The matter ended there. Launched in the wave of a western trend in American comic books, the series debuted with an October 1950 cover date as a 52-page, bimonthly series. It lasted six issues (Oct. 1950 – Aug. 1951). The original cover title was The Kid Cowboys of Boys' Ranch, shortened to Boys' Ranch after two issues; the subhead "Featuring Clay Duncan" remained throughout. Each issue featured a single page pinup at the beginning of the book along with a two-page centerspread. Each issue rounded off with various text and Western and Native American information pages such as "Boys' Ranch Club News", "How Cowboys Say It", "How To Ride a Horse", and "Now You Can Make Your Pair of Western Moccasins". According to Harry Mendryk, Boys' Ranch comprises two distinct groups. "The first three issues featured work by Kirby (with one exception), had three stories per issue, and the stories were longer. For the final issues there is much less use of Kirby, only two stories per issue, and shorter stories. Actually each final issue had a single story, but broken into two chapters." The first three issues average around thirty story pages; the last three issues average about twenty. The last three feature special "theme" stories, the US Cavalry Army, the Pony Express, the Great Train Robbery. At least one of the themes was inspired by John Ford films; issue \#4 was thought to show an influence from Ford's 'Cavalry Trilogy'. Besides Simon and Kirby, Mort Meskin, Marvin Stein, and Charles Nicholas are credited as contributors in the latter issues, with Meskin given pencil and inks credits on "I'll fight you for Lucy!" and inks over Kirby pencils on "The Bugle Blows at Bloody Knife." ### Reprints The title was briefly revived through reprints in 1955. Penrod Shoes issued a giveaway coeval edition of Boys' Ranch \#5 and \#6, while issues \#4 and \#5 were reprinted by Harvey Thriller in Witches Western Tales (1955) \#29–30, with further reprints in Western Tales \#31–33. Marvel Comics published Kid Cowboys of Boys Ranch, a hardcover reprint edition of all six issues in 1991 (). A Boys' Ranch portfolio of illustrations from the original series' artwork appeared in Joe Simon's The Comic Book Makers in 2003. Some Boys' Ranch selections appeared in 2009 Titan Books anthology, The Best of Simon & Kirby (). ## Characters and story Clay Duncan is an Indian scout who serves as foreman at the Boys' Ranch. Modelled on frontiersman such as Kit Carson, Buffalo Bill Cody, and Davy Crockett, he serves as role model to the boy characters. While a young child, Duncan's parents were killed by bandits. He was rescued by a passing band of Apache Indians, and adopted by the Apache Running Bear, alongside his son, Geronimo. On reaching manhood, he left the Apache under the tutelage of Miles Freeman, a frontier scout. Running Bear's parting words were 'The war clouds darken once more over the white man and the Indian nations ... there is much need for warriors who talk peace to both sides! Freeman's words are that the great spirit has given you to us for such a mission'. He occasionally takes on other jobs such as army scout, mail delivery driver, and US Marshal. His horse's name is Ghost. Dandy is a 'well-liked kid with a ready smile and a confident air' who served in the American Civil War. Usually depicted wearing a Union Army uniform, he left his adoptive parents from a small Ohio farm to explore the west. He has a noticeably greater active interest in the opposite sex, as exemplified in "I'll fight you for Lucy". Wabash is an easy-going lad who "springs from the hill-folk" His dubious banjo-accompanied singing skills are a source of comedy relief. His family history is explicated in the Johnny Appleseed / Paul Bunyan-style tale "The Legend of Alby Fleezer." Angel is a long-haired blond youth inspired by Billy the Kid. He is a skilled gunfighter, and possesses a fiery temper. Nicknamed 'the fire-eatin', lead-throwin' angel', when first meeting Clay Duncan, he presents himself thus: "Got not peeve! I live alone ... and I want to be left alone! I ain't like other kids! They got mothers and fathers to fuss over 'em! Well, I don't need nobody! Nobody! I kin handle myself against any man!" His horse's name is Paint. Wee Willie Weehawken is the first arrival at Boys' Ranch. Styled the "oldest boy at Boys' Ranch" due to his advanced years, he cooks the meals at the ranch. "A very dangerous dude!", Boys' Ranch \#1 reveals he had been a lawyer in his youth. Happy Boy is a young Native American boy who appeared at the ranch one day. Never appearing on the cover, he does appear in one of the pin-up illustrations. He begins to communicate using sign language in Boys' Ranch \#6 and plays a more prominent role in the story "Happy Boy carries the ball". Palomino Sue hails from Abilene, Texas. Her father was a wagon master. She arrived at Boys' Ranch after a trip on the wagon her father was driving was intercepted by Indians. She was the only survivor. When expressing a desire to get involved in fighting, Clay Duncan insists that, because it's too dangerous for a woman, she must remain at the ranch. She agrees, but her acquiescence was a pretence, as she later joins the fray, offering opportune assistance. Similar scenes recur in her two subsequent appearances in issues \#5 and 6. Geronimo is portrayed as a fierce Apache military leader. As the son of Running Bear, he was a boyhood companion to Clay Duncan. Resentful of Duncan's position in the tribe, they become bitter rivals "The Clay Duncan Story". Various Native American tribes appear as protagonists throughout. The conflict between Caucasians and American Indians is often the result of manipulation and exploitation by dishonest Caucasians. For example, in issue \#2, Comanche and Blackfoot tribes are falsely told by white traffickers that their land will be seized so they can sell them rifles. In issue \#5, the Apache Indians are blamed for robbing mail wagons, but in reality the perpetrators were white robbers using subterfuge to place blame on the Apaches. The début issue opens with the chance meeting of Dandy and Wabash, who had been on opposite sides of the then recent Civil War, but became friends and decided to head out West together. Meanwhile, Clay Duncan meets up with Angel and the four come together in the defence of a ranch belonging to Jason Harper against an attack by Apache warriors. The story reveals Geronimo is the leader of that band when he joins the fray to order the band's retreat. As his dying act, he bequeathed the ranch to the youngsters for use as a shelter for homeless boys. They are later joined by Wee Willie Weehawken, because he was a middle-aged man, cited the technicality that the will didn't specify the maximum age to qualify as a "boy". Happy Boy joins the ranch shortly after. The ranch is near a town called Four Massacres. ## Critical analysis ### Series commentary Boys' Ranch has become one of Simon and Kirby's most critically acclaimed creations and was held in high esteem by both creators. R. J. Vitone qualifies the series as having "much more depth than previous S & K kid-gang strips – the basic elements that had made the romance and crime books so thematically strong were applied here as well." Mendryk points out a certain drop of quality in later issues: "It was part of the Simon and Kirby modus operandi to make heavy use of Kirby's talents in the early issues of a new title and afterwards make more frequent use of other artists. For Boys' Ranch the change seems much more dramatic then in other titles. The last three issues are good, but they are not the masterpieces that the earlier issues were."[^1] According to Richard Morrissey, Simon and Kirby's final effort in the "kid gang" genre showed signs of evolving in new directions: "In Boys' Ranch, Kirby seemed to be attempting to be going beyond his previous limitations ... More and more, the team was abandoning adolescent adventure for more adult concerns ... more than one observer has noted the similarities between the kid gangs of the '40s and early '50s with the adult teams of the late '50s and early '60s." ### Mother Delilah The first story from issue \#3, "Mother Delilah", has been singled out as one of Simon and Kirby's finest. Kirby has cited it as a personal favorite, and it has received accolades by critics, comic book professionals and fans alike. A 20-page tale of betrayal, revenge, and redemption referencing the similarly themed biblical story of Samson and Delilah, the story features Clay Duncan, Angel, and Delilah Barker, a character influenced by Marlene Dietrich's character from Destry Rides Again''. A character named Virgil Underwood provides a Greek chorus-like background commentary: "Those who find love are indeed fortunate, but woe betide them who demand it"; the story's final panel reads: > And thus it ends. But ever to repeat > Again and again in reality and rhyme – > Love's ever new as morning's dew, > And hate is as old as time." Analyzing the story, R. C. Harvey concludes with: "From hate springs the desire for vengeance, and that desire, as Angel discovers, is debilitating. And even love can turn to hate unless love's motive is a giving spirit. But a giving love is the ultimate redemption." [^1]: Harvey, 264 "..."Boys' Ranch ran to only six issues, but a least the first three of them were classics."	[ "## Publication history", "### Reprints", "## Characters and story", "## Critical analysis", "### Series commentary", "### Mother Delilah" ]	2,789	13,021
15,056,534	The Immortal Alamo	1,105,523,266	1911 film	[ "1910s American films", "1911 films", "1911 lost films", "American black-and-white films", "American silent short films", "Films directed by William F. Haddock", "Films produced by Gaston Méliès", "Films set in San Antonio", "Films shot in San Antonio", "Lost American films" ]	The Immortal Alamo is an American silent film released on May 25, 1911. The Immortal Alamo is the earliest film version of the events surrounding the 1836 Battle of the Alamo. The film was directed by William F. Haddock, and produced by Gaston Méliès. The film's cast included Francis Ford, Edith Storey, William A. Carroll and one hundred cadets from the Peacock Military Academy. The film was said to be 10 minutes in length, and focused on "pretty girl, shy hero, and a villain" formula during the battle. After the Mexican army lays siege to the mission, Lieutenant Dickenson departs with a dispatch to General Sam Houston. Senor Navarre makes sexual advances on Dickenson's wife, Lucy, who is saved by Colonel William B. Travis. Navarre is ousted from the mission and provides information on the Alamo to General Antonio López de Santa Anna so that he can marry Lucy Dickenson. Lieutenant Dickenson returns with reinforcements before the wedding and kills Senor Navarre. The final scene of the film shows Santa Anna surrendering as a "common soldier". The film has been noted as historically inaccurate in its plot, but that it tries for accuracy in its setting. Reviews of the film were mixed and C. H. Claudy's criticism of the film is a striking contemporary account of the film's depiction. No known copies of the film exist today, and it is considered to be a lost film. ## Plot The film is a historical drama that depicts General Antonio López de Santa Anna's attack on the Alamo Mission in San Antonio in the Battle of the Alamo. The film was made on location in the Alamo and introduced historical figures such as Davy Crockett and William B. Travis. The film has a romance element where Mexican spy Senor Navarre has affections for Lieutenant Dickenson's wife, Lucy. When the Mexican Army lays siege, Colonel Travis calls upon his men to send word to General Sam Houston and Lieutenant Dickenson volunteers. As soon as he departs, Senor Navarre attempts to charm Lucy Dickenson, but she is repulsed by his advances and is saved from being overpowered by Colonel Travis. Senor Navarre is forced out and proceeds to provide General Santa Anna information on the mission in return for the right to take a survivor to be his bride. After the Alamo falls, only a few women survive, among them is Lucy Dickenson. Senor Navarre holds General Santa Anna to the promise and prepares to marry her the next day. Before the marriage can be performed Lieutenant Dickenson and the reinforcements arrive and capture Senor Navarre. Lieutenant Dickenson avenges his wife's honor by slaying Senor Navarre with his sword. The final scene of the film shows Santa Anna surrendering as a "common soldier". ## Cast - Francis Ford as Senor Navarre, - Edith Storey as Lucy Dickenson - William A. Carroll as William B. Travis - Gaston Méliès Padre - William Clifford Lieutenant Dickenson - Mr. Young In response to an inquiry, The Motion Picture Story Magazine section of "Answers to Inquiries" noted that of the two men leaning against a tree, the one with his hand on it was William Clifford and the private leaning against the tree was Mr. Young. ## Production and release In order to shoot the film, Gaston Méliès moved his production and distribution unit, the Star Film Company from its location in New York to San Antonio in January 1910. Méliès promised to produce a historically "correct" depiction of the Battle of the Alamo. The film was directed by William F. Haddock. The film was shot in San Antonio, Texas and on location at the Alamo. One hundred cadets from the Peacock Military Academy portrayed the Mexican Army. Wilbert Melville "conceived the idea, designed the plot and formulated the scenario..." for the film. The film was produced with the permission of the mayor. The film was released on May 25, 1911. One estimate of the cast claimed some five hundred people were present in the picture, but this is not supported by other details of the production. An advertisement for the film highlighted the Alamo being bombarded with real cannon, the ride of Lieutenant Dickenson with the dispatch to General Sam Houston, the arrival of Dave Crockett, the death of Bowie, the escape of Rose and the surrender of Santa Anna. One of the first theaters to show the film was the Wonderland Theater which would premier the film on May 27, 1911. One advertisement for the film gave the film's length as 3,000 feet. ## Historical accuracy Richard R. Flores analyzed the lost film and notes that Méliès' production was claimed to have been 10 minutes in length and that it could not make a significant depiction of the battle. The historical accuracy of the film was compromised to carry out the plot of the "pretty girl, shy hero, and a villain". While Lieutenant Almeron Dickenson was a real person and his wife was present at the mission, her name was Suzanna. Suzanna Dickenson and her infant daughter survived the battle, but there is no evidence of a Mexican spy or a marriage attempt. Instead, Santa Anna sent Suzanna north to inform the victory of the Mexican forces to General Sam Houston. Flores cites Rony's labeling of Méliès' productions as a "hybrid documentary and fantasy" and notes that it was an early attempt at a historical documentary based on its attempt at a faithful setting. The uses the Mexicans' as a form of savages in Méliès cinematic motifs. Frank Thompson's analysis of the production notes states that William F. Haddock was delving into the archives to produce an accurate depiction of the Alamo at the studio because the Alamo itself was altered from the time of the battle. Thompson noted that despite the battle being within living memory the "exact reproduction" used a painted canvas backdrop and focused on an entirely fictional plot. ## Reception Motography included a brief review of the film which states, "This is indeed a well presented historical subject. The action has breadth and historical perspective, with stirring scenes and large groupings, and at the same time there is a human plot threading its way through the historical background and giving the action a specific interest. The last scene, showing Santa Anna's surrender "as a common soldier," is rather obscure. One wonders why he did it. In all other scenes the action is clear and effective. It would be a stolid audience indeed that failed to respond to the thrilling scene inside the Alamo." The Moving Picture World's review stated that "[it] is a very thrilling and altogether satisfactory reproduction of an important historical episode. The company deserves the highest commendation for the picture and the way it is produced." A negative review in the column "Avoidable Crudites" by C. H. Claudy in The Moving Picture World found great faults with the production. Claudy wrote. "One hardly conceives of a commander, informed of the approach of a column of the enemy, so far away they are only visible through field glasses, getting sufficiently panic stricken to send immediately for help saying he is besieged by a thousand Mexicans. One imagines he would at least go look and see for himself! And one resents a scene labelled "The Attack," which is so short one can't even look at all of it, said attack being motionless men in a thin line pointing guns at the Alamo! The interior of the Alamo was well done — yet do people stop a desperate defense to go through heroics about a line and fighting to the death? Or do they fight to the death without talking about it? Perhaps the original fighters did go through that line, drawn on the floor, stunt, and agree among themselves to fight till they died, but such desperate fighters didn't all stop fighting at once to discuss the matter. Miss Storey, with a small part, made the most of it, as usual, and gave a convincing presentation of a woman in utter despair, but she deserved a better and less crude setting than she received — and so did her subject." The June 1911 issue of The Motion Picture Story Magazine included an adapted story written by John Eldridge Chandos from the scenario written by Wilbert Melville. No known copies of the film exist today, and it is considered to be a lost film. Several movie stills of the film survived ## See also - List of lost films	[ "## Plot", "## Cast", "## Production and release", "## Historical accuracy", "## Reception", "## See also" ]	1,767	24,568
55,588,967	Sonne der Gerechtigkeit	1,169,519,059	1932 German Christian hymn	[ "16th century in music", "20th-century hymns in German", "Hymn tunes" ]	"Sonne der Gerechtigkeit" (Sun of Justice) is a German Christian hymn with a complex history. The image of a sun of justice or righteousness was created by the prophet Malachi. The text was compiled around 1930 by Otto Riethmüller from older stanzas by different hymnwriters, intended as a wake-up call to the church in a Germany facing the rise of the Nazis. Four of its originally seven stanzas were written in the 18th century, two by Johann Christian Nehring, and two by Christian David. The remaining stanzas were taken from Christian Gottlob Barth, written in the 19th century. An alternative seventh stanza was suggested in 1970, with a strong ecumenical focus. The hymn expresses a call for justice, renewal and unity, within the congregation and church, and among peoples. The melody was originally a secular song from the 15th century, which was used for a hymn by the Bohemian Brethren in the 16th century. "Sonne der Gerechtigkeit" became part of many hymnals, sung in several Christian denominations and for ecumenical events. It inspired vocal and organ music. With its stress on justice "in unserer Zeit" (in our time), the song has been used with a political meaning. It was often sung at the peace prayers in East Germany which led to Germany's reunification. ## History The image "Sonne der Gerechtigkeit" was coined by Malachi, a biblical prophet (). The theme of the hymn is a yearning for justice and unity, within the congregation and church, and among peoples. Otto Riethmüller, who later became a member of the Confessing Church, compiled the text from older stanzas. He published it in the ecumenical song book for young people Ein neues Lied (A new song) in 1932, intended as a wake-up call to the church in a Germany facing Nazi doctrines. ### Johann Christian Nehring Riethmüller took stanzas 3 and 7 from Johann Christian Nehring, a Protestant minister in Halle who was close to August Hermann Francke and pietism. Nehring had expanded another hymn, "Sieh, wie lieblich und wie fein" by Michael Müller, which was published in Halle in 1704 in the collection Geistreiches Gesang-Buch by Johann Anastasius Freylinghausen. His focus is to promote unity among separated Christians, as God is three in one in the Trinity. ### Christian David Riethmüller took stanzas 2 and 6 from Christian David (1692–1751), who was raised Catholic and worked as a carpenter and a soldier. He was impressed by the pietist movement and converted in 1714. He worked closely with Nikolaus Ludwig Graf von Zinzendorf. David went as a missionary of the Herrnhuter Brüdergemeinde to Greenland, among other places. His focus is the origin of all preaching in Jesus who is identified with the sun of justice. His stanzas were part of a hymn "Seyd gegrüßt, zu tausendmahl", published in 1728. ### Christian Gottlob Barth Riethmüller found the other stanzas in writings by Christian Gottlob Barth who worked as a minister in Stuttgart. He founded the publishing house Calwer Verlag in 1833. When he retired from church service in 1838, he became a freelance writer for young people. His focus is a missionary approach, based on his work both worldwide in the Basel Mission and locally in the regional mission (Bezirksmission) and an institution for the rescue of children (Kinderrettungsanstalt) in Calw. His stanzas were found in "Jesu, bittend kommen wir", published in 1827/1837. ### Otto Riethmüller Riethmüller unified the stanzas by ending each one with a fifth line, "Erbarm dich, Herr" (Have mercy, Lord), making it a late Leise. The song was first published in 1932 in Ein neues Lied (A new song), a song book for young people. It was listed under the header Kirche (Church). ### Ecumenical version, hymnals A 1970 ecumenical gathering at the centre of church music education in Schlüchtern suggested a different last stanza, also found in David's hymn. The hymn became part of many hymnals, beginning with the Protestant Evangelisches Kirchengesangbuch (EKG) in 1950. It appeared in 1971 in the Hymn Book of the Anglican Church of Canada, in the Dutch Liedboek voor de kerken of 1973. The ecumenical version was included in the Swiss Gemeinsame Kirchenlieder in 1973, in the Catholic Gotteslob of 1975, and in the Czech Evangelicky Zpevnik in 1979. It appears in the current Protestant hymnal Evangelisches Gesangbuch as both EG 262 (ecumenical version) and EG 263 (Riethmüller's version), and in the Catholic Gotteslob as GL 481 in the ecumenical version. It is featured in many songbooks. ### Usage With a stress on justice "in unserer Zeit" (in our time), it has been used with a political meaning in many situations. It has been sung at church conventions such as Kirchentag, making headlines. The song was part of the demonstrations in the GDR in the 1980s, remembered as probably the most often used song in the peace prayers (Friedensgebete), a protest against injustice, suspicion and spying in a world separated into East and West. Sonne der Gerechtigkeit was sung by 130,000 visitors of the 2013 Kirchentag. It has been regarded as an expression of political protest, ecumenical unity and inner revival of the church. ## Structure The table shows for every stanza the incipit with a translation, the author and the year of first publication. The first stanza requests the sun of justice to rise in our time. It is interpreted as a symbol for Jesus who is asked to appear in his church, visible to the world. In the second stanza, dead Christianity ("die tote Christenheit") is called to wake up from the sleep of security, an idea typical for the Erweckungsbewegung (Christian revival) that Barth represented. The third stanza looks at separations and deviations. The fourth stanza widens the view to all peoples. The fifth stanza requests strength and courage for missionaries, and also the theological virtues: faith, hope and ardent love. The sixth stanza looks even further at eternal glory already in our time, and requests that we may be able to work towards peace however small our power is ("mit unsrer kleinen Kraft"). The seventh stanza is a doxology, giving honour and glory to the Trinity. The alternative "ecumenical" final stanza (7a) is focused on unity, compared to the unity of Jesus and God. ## Melody and musical settings The tune was first a secular song, "Der reich Mann war geritten aus" (The rich man went on a ride), known in Bohemia from the 15th century but possibly even older. It was printed as a five-part setting by Jobst vom Brandt in the fifth part of Georg Forster's song collection Schöner fröhlicher neuer und alter deutscher Liedlein in Nuremberg in 1556. The melody was used for a sacred song first in 1561, in a Czech hymnal of Bohemian Brethren. In 1566 it appeared with a German text of the Brethren, "Mensch, erheb dein Herz zu Gott" (Raise your heart to God). The melody rises an octave in just two steps, in an uplifting way. Its "recitation tempo" is faster in the second half. Other songs in English sung to the same tune are "At the Lamb's High Feast We Sing", "Hail this joyful day's return" and "Come, O come with sacred lays". Ernst Pepping composed two chorale settings of the hymn for three voices for his Spandauer Chorbuch. / Zwei- bis sechsstimmige Choralsätze für das Kirchenjahr (Spanday choral book. 2–6-part chorale settings for the church year), published by Schott in 1936 and 1941, and a chorale prelude in his Kleines Orgelbuch. Paul Horn wrote a chorale cantata for mixed choir, brass and organ, published by Carus in 1962. Gaël Liardon composed six chorale preludes.	[ "## History", "### Johann Christian Nehring", "### Christian David", "### Christian Gottlob Barth", "### Otto Riethmüller", "### Ecumenical version, hymnals", "### Usage", "## Structure", "## Melody and musical settings" ]	1,878	31,856
69,328,537	Louis H. Bean	1,165,700,719	American economic and political analyst (1896–1994)	[ "1896 births", "1948 United States presidential election", "1994 deaths", "20th-century American Jews", "20th-century American economists", "20th-century Lithuanian writers", "20th-century political scientists", "American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent", "American political scientists", "Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States", "Harvard Business School alumni", "Jewish American non-fiction writers", "Jewish American social scientists", "Military personnel from Rochester, New York", "People from Laconia, New Hampshire", "Pollsters", "Psephologists", "United States Army officers", "United States Army personnel of World War I", "United States Department of Agriculture officials", "University of Rochester alumni" ]	Louis Hyman Bean (April 15, 1896 – August 5, 1994) was an American economic and political analyst who predicted Harry S. Truman's victory in the 1948 presidential election. Bean was born in Lithuania, which was then part of the Russian Empire. He immigrated to the United States as a child with his family and settled in Laconia, New Hampshire. After receiving his preliminary education and graduating from college with a Bachelor of Arts degree, he entered Harvard Business School in Massachusetts, and, in 1922, he received his Master of Business Administration degree. In 1923, Bean became a member of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics at the United States Department of Agriculture; he worked on estimates of farm income and price indices. Bean's charts were used in Congress in discussions about the McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill. Bean was closely associated with Henry A. Wallace; he served as his economic advisor and also worked on several of Wallace's books. He wrote articles for the journal, The Review of Economics and Statistics. During the late 1930s, Bean began developing an interest in political analysis and predicted the results of many elections. After his successful projection in the 1948 presidential election, Life magazine referred to him as the "Lone Prophet" of Truman's victory. Bean wrote many books, including Ballot Behavior and How to Predict Elections. He continued making electoral analyses and projections in the 1950s and 1960s, most of which were accurate. He died in 1994 at his home in Arlington, Virginia. ## Early life Louis Hyman Bean was on April 15, 1896, in the Russian Empire. His family were Lithuanian Jews. In 1906, Bean and his family migrated to the United States and settled in Laconia, New Hampshire, where his parents established a dry-fruit business. After receiving preliminary education at several schools in Laconia, he enrolled at the University of Rochester in New York state. During World War I, Bean joined the United States Army in 1918 and served as a lieutenant until 1919. That same year, he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree a year ahead of his class. After graduating, Bean worked as an assistant labor manager in the clothing industry. He then enrolled at the Harvard Business School in Massachusetts and received his Master of Business Administration degree in 1922. Bean married Dorothy May Wile in 1923, and they had a daughter Elizabeth and a son David. ## Economic analyst In 1923, Bean joined the newly formed Bureau of Agricultural Economics at the United States Department of Agriculture. His work in the Department of Agriculture was based on the use of statistical analysis as a basis for formulating policy. As an economic analyst, he worked on estimates of farm income and price indices, and served as the secretary of the committee responsible for preparing the department's monthly price reports. During his tenure, he made many successful forecasts about crops, business, and commodity prices. He was closely associated with Henry A. Wallace, the son of Secretary of Agriculture Henry Cantwell Wallace, to whom Bean was also an advisor. Charts prepared by Bean were used when the McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill was being discussed in Congress. In 1933, Henry A. Wallace, the Secretary of Agriculture, appointed Bean as the economic advisor of the Agricultural Adjustment Act; Bean advised Wallace on economic issues and also worked on several of Wallace's books. During World War II, Bean served on the Board of Economic Warfare as the Budget Bureau's chief fiscal analyst. From 1941 to 1945, Wallace served as the vice president under President Franklin D. Roosevelt; he later served as the secretary of commerce until 1946. Bean continued to work for Wallace during his vice-presidency and later during his tenure as the secretary of commerce. In 1947, Bean returned to the office of the secretary of agriculture as the economic advisor to the farm secretary, and retired when his position was abolished in 1953. He also wrote many books, pamphlets, and magazine articles. In addition, Bean's work appeared in The Review of Economics and Statistics, a journal, on such topics as disposable income and industrial stock prices. ## Political analyst According to author Theodore Rosenof, Bean began developing an interest in political analysis during the late 1930s; Rosenof wrote: > Bean explained that he was captivated by a World Almanac compilation of state-by-state presidential election statistics since 1896 and discerned in them patterns that provoked further study. Secretary [Henry A.] Wallace encouraged this initial spark. Bean practiced what he termed the 'art' of political analysis and forecasting, insisting that it was indeed an art and not a science. In the 1936 presidential election, Bean projected Roosevelt to win in a landslide, carrying all of the states except Maine, Vermont, and Pennsylvania. This prediction ran contrary to most of the polls, which believed it to be a close race, but results broadly confirmed Bean's projection; Roosevelt won the 1936 presidential election with 523 electoral votes to Alf Landon's 8 electoral votes, carrying all the states except Maine and Vermont. Bean did not believe that the Republican Party's strong showing in the 1938 or 1942 congressional elections would help them win the 1940 or 1944 presidential elections. In 1940, Bean wrote a book titled Ballot Behavior. Claude E. Robinson of the Opinion Research Corporation wrote that the book provided a rough check for the political analyst and should be a part of the working kit of students. During the 1948 presidential election, most of the polls—including the Gallup poll—projected that Republican Thomas E. Dewey would defeat incumbent President Harry S. Truman by a decisive margin. According to Bean, third-party candidate Henry A. Wallace likely drew northern votes from Democrats, which reduced their electorate. He noticed, however, a rise in Truman's poll rating among farmers and workers during late 1947, and called it "quite striking". The same year, he wrote How To Predict Elections, which Spencer Albright of the University of Richmond called "even more valuable than the excellent Ballot Behavior". Howard Penniman of Yale University called Bean an imaginative and thoughtful election forecaster. In his book, Bean, unlike almost all other observers, cited the likelihood of a high voter turnout combined with the unpopularity of the Republican Congress's policies and asserted that Truman's victory was possible. On election day, Truman defeated Dewey, a victory Newsweek called startling, astonishing, and "a major miracle". Life magazine referred to Bean as the "Lone Prophet" of Truman's victory. The Alfred A. Knopf publishing company, which publicized Bean's book, began advertising: "Oh Mr. Gallup! Oh Mr. Roper! Obviously you don't know Bean's How to Predict Elections." Bean earned a reputation for successfully predicting Truman's victory. Rosenof, however, argues that "the truth ... was somewhat more complicated", as Bean's personal correspondence suggested that "in the end, however hesitantly", he "accepted the polls that consistently showed Dewey solidly ahead nationally". According to Rosenof, Bean's main analytical method emphasized the idea of "political tides"; it was similar to Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr.'s cyclical theory. Bean's method for predicting political trends was based on analyzing the economic condition of the nation. He also focused on the various third party movements affecting the two-party vote share. Rosenof wrote: "After 1948, the nation's political climate changed in such a way as to render Bean's analytic methodology less useful". In the 1952 presidential election, Bean refused to make a public projection, saying his method could not account for new factors. He favored Democrat Adlai Stevenson against Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower but Eisenhower defeated Stevenson in a landslide. Bean was one of the few pollsters to accurately predict the victory of the incumbent governor Pat Brown over former vice president Richard Nixon in the 1962 California gubernatorial election. In the 1950s and 1960s, Bean continued making electoral analyses and projections, most of which were accurate. ## Later life and legacy In 1970 he wrote another book, The Art of Forecasting. Rosenof wrote; "while the 1948 election signaled Bean's rise to prominence, it also marked the height of his influence". Bean's wife Dorothy died in 1991 and Bean died on August 5, 1994, due to congestive heart failure at his home in Arlington, Virginia. Economist Karl A. Fox mentioned Bean as one of the eight main agricultural economists in the first half of the twentieth century. Bean is best known for his successful prediction in the 1948 presidential election. Pollster Elmo Roper later argued that, in the book How to Predict Elections, Bean made no clear prediction. ## See also - Harry S. Truman 1948 presidential campaign	[ "## Early life", "## Economic analyst", "## Political analyst", "## Later life and legacy", "## See also" ]	1,845	44,228
37,995,215	Blacklock (horse)	1,066,435,077	British-bred Thoroughbred racehorse	[ "1814 racehorse births", "1831 racehorse deaths", "British Champion Thoroughbred Sires", "Racehorses bred in the United Kingdom", "Racehorses trained in the United Kingdom", "Thoroughbred family 2-t" ]	Blacklock (1814 – 24 February 1831) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse who won seventeen of his twenty-three races. As a two-year-old in 1816 he was undefeated in three starts. In his first race as a three-year-old he finished second in the St. Leger, a neck behind Ebor. He then won four races in two weeks, including the Gascoigne Stakes and Dundas Stakes. In 1818 he recorded several wins including two of the Great Subscription Purses at York. He won a third Great Subscription Purse in 1819, along with the York Gold Cup. After retiring from racing, Blacklock became a successful stallion and was champion sire of Great Britain in 1829, the year his son Voltaire won the Doncaster Cup. He was owned by Thomas Kirby as a two-year-old, before being purchased by Richard Watt, who owned him for the remainder of his racing career. Blacklock was trained by Tommy Sykes. ## Background Blacklock was a bay colt bred by Francis Moss and foaled in 1814. He was sired by Whitelock, who won a number of races in the north of England. Whitelock was a son of St. Leger and dual Doncaster Cup winner Hambletonian, who was only defeated once in his career. Blacklock's dam was a daughter of Coriander. He was the seventh of her nine foals, the youngest of which being 1822 St. Leger winner Theodore. Francis Moss had bought Blacklock's dam for £3 in 1803. Blacklock was not thought to be a good-looking horse. He was described as having "a head like a half-moon" and being calf-kneed. Thomas Kirby purchased him from Moss for £40. ## Racing career ### 1816: Two-year-old season Blacklock, who was then unnamed and raced under the name "Mr. Kirby's b. c. by Whitelock, dam by Coriander", made his racecourse debut on 23 August 1816 at York in a sweepstakes of 20 guineas each for two-year-olds. After starting at the price of about 3/1 he won the race, with the judge being unable to place any of his five rivals. On 11 September at Pontefract, he faced three opponents for a sweepstakes of 20 guineas each over one mile (1609 metres). He started as the 13/8 favourite and won the race. Shylock finished in second place, with Angelica in third. Blacklock was then purchased by Richard Watt. Racing in Watt's colours (Harlequin) and ridden by jockey J. Jackson, Blacklock made his final start as a two-year-old at Doncaster on the 24 September when he competed in another sweepstakes of 20 guineas each. He started as the 4/7 favourite and won the race from the Young Woodpecker colt, who was followed by Eglinton. Blacklock apparently won the race easily. ### 1817: Three-year-old season Blacklock, still unnamed, had his first race as a three-year-old in the St. Leger Stakes at Doncaster on Monday 22 September. He did not arrive at Doncaster until the Saturday before, and after reports that he was amiss his odds had lengthened to as much as 10/1 in the betting. After arriving, he had a gallop in the afternoon and soon shortened in the betting. After another of the pre-race favourites, Stainborough, was withdrawn due to illness Blacklock was sent off as the short-priced favourite at about evens. Blacklock appeared like he was going to win easily and Jackson eased him up in the final furlong (200 metres) of the race. However, Ebor and Restless began to quickly close down his lead. By the time Jackson realised, Blacklock could not accelerate quick enough and Ebor came out on top, beating Blacklock by a neck. Restless finished in third place and was the only other runner that could be placed by the judge. Blacklock had a crack in one of his hind heels, which was thought to have affected him in the race. Two days after the St. Leger, Blacklock faced St. Helena over the same course and distance in the Gascoigne Stakes, which he won easily. Twenty-four hours later, Blacklock lost to The Duchess in the Doncaster Club Stakes over two miles. On 8 October at Richmond he won a sweepstakes of 20 guineas each, beating four rivals, with Boroughman finishing second. Later in the day Blacklock won the Dundas Stakes, beating Rasping, D.I.O and Shepard into second, third and fourth respectively. ### 1818: Four-year-old season Blacklock, racing under his name for the first time, started the 1818 season much earlier than he had done the previous two seasons, with his first race coming on 18 May at the York Spring Meeting in a sweepstakes of 20 guineas each over two miles. He started as the 1/2 favourite, but could only finish third behind St. Helena. Two days later he started as the 4/6 favourite for the Constitution Stakes over a mile-and-a-quarter. He biggest rival was expected to be the Duke of Leeds's Rasping, who was priced at 2/1. Blacklock won the race from Rasping, with Hornby in third and Whiff last of the four runners. Blacklock did not race again until August at York, where he ran in the four-mile Great Subscription Purse for four-year-olds. He started as the evens favourite and faced three rivals; Agatha, St. Helena and a filly by Orville. Blacklock won the race by over 100 yards (91 metres) without being asked for an effort, causing some people to proclaim "nothing has been seen at all equal to Mr. Watt's Blacklock since the days of Eclipse." This referring to the ease with which Eclipse won his races. Agatha finished the race in second place and St. Helena in third. The race was won in a time of 7 minutes 23 seconds. The next day he beat Silenus to win the four-mile Great Subscription Purse for four and five-year-olds. Later in the same day he started as the 1/2 favourite in a two-mile sweepstakes of 25 guineas each, where he faced four opponents. Despite it being his third race in two days he won, beating Rasping into second place. Blacklock then went to Doncaster, where on 23 September, he started 1/2 favourite and beat The Duchess to win the Doncaster Stakes over four miles. The same day he also walked over for a sweepstakes of 50 guineas each over the St. Leger course. Twenty-four hours later he beat Rasping to win a sweepstakes of 25 guineas each over four miles, and then went on to beat The Duchess to win the Doncaster Club Stakes. This was his fourth race in the space of two days. At Richmond in October he won his second Dundas Stakes, this time beating King Corney. Later in the day Blacklock finished last of four runners behind winner Doctor Syntax in the Richmond Cup over four miles. Doctor Syntax had started in the lead, but was overtaken by Blacklock after only 200 yards. Blacklock held the lead until about half a mile from the finish, when Doctor Syntax joined him again. Blacklock then swerved out of line, allowing Doctor Syntax to win easily. By the time The Richmond Cup was run Blacklock was apparently unwell and was coughing repeatedly during the race. ### 1819: Five-year-old season On 17 May 1819 at York, Blacklock finished second of seven in a two-mile sweepstakes of 20 guineas each. The race was won by The Marshall. On 18 May he started as the evens favourite for the two-mile Gold Cup. He won the race, with Paulowitz finishing second, Torch-bearer third and Otho fourth. At the York August Meeting, Blacklock faced three rivals in the four-mile Great Subscription Purse for five-year-olds and older. The Duchess started as the 5/2 favourite, with Blacklock and St. Helena both at 3/1 and Magistrate at 4/1. Blacklock won the race from Magistrate, with The Duchess finishing in third place. Blacklock's final race came two days later, when he finished second to St. Helena in a sweepstakes of 25 guineas each over two miles. During his racing career Blacklock had twenty-three races, winning seventeen of those, placing second four times and third once. ## Race record `Only the winner could be placed by the judge. ` ## Stud career Blacklock was retired to stud, where he became a successful stallion. He first stood at Bishop Burton in Yorkshire, with his fee initially set at 15 guineas and half a guinea for the groom (Thomas Barrow). He was then leased to Thomas Kirkby in York for four seasons where he stood for a much lower fee. In 1827 he was at Bildeston in Suffolk and was commanding a stud fee of twelve guineas. His fee reached up to 25 guineas. Blacklock was champion sire of Great Britain in 1829. His progeny included: - Brutandorf (1821) – won the Tradesmen's Cup and Stand Cup at Chester in 1826. As a sire he produced the Grand National winner Gaylad and Hetman Platoff, who won several cups. He was also grandsire of Derby winner Cossack. - Brownlock (1822) – won 25 races. - Belzoni (1823) – won the York St. Leger and later became a successful sire of hunters. He produced Vanguard, who won the Grand National in 1843. - Laurel (1824) – won the Doncaster Cup in 1828. Through one of his unnamed daughters he was the damsire of Oaks winners Rhedycina and Governess. - Robin Hood (1825) – won ten races including two Newcastle Gold Cups. - Belinda (1825) – finished second in the St. Leger at Doncaster. As a broodmare she foaled Gimcrack Stakes winner Tuscan, as well as Lollypop, who became the dam of Doncaster Cup winner Sweetmeat. - Miss Pratt (1825) – foaled Echidna, who was the dam of The Baron. The Baron won the St. Leger and sired the influential stallion Stockwell. - Velocipede (1825) – won the York St. Leger, York Gold Cup and Liverpool Cup. He sired Derby winner Amato, Oaks and St. Leger winner Queen of Trumps and 2000 Guineas winner Meteor. - Tranby (1826) – won the Oatlands Stakes in 1832 and ran four four-mile legs in George Osbaldeston's successful attempt to ride 200 miles in 10 hours. - Voltaire (1826) – won the Doncaster Gold Cup and finished second in the St. Leger in 1829. He sired Derby and St. Leger winner Voltigeur. Voltigeur's son Vedette was the grandsire of the undefeated St. Simon, who became Champion sire nine times. It is mainly through St. Simon that Blacklock's sire line survives today. - Moss Rose (1827) – won the Dee Stakes at Chester. - Belshazzar (1830) – finished third in an Ascot Gold Cup. He sired 1000 Guineas winner Cara and was later sent to America. - Blacklock mare – foaled Progress, who was the dam of Derby winner Attila. Blacklock died on 24 February 1831 at Bishop Burton after rupturing a blood vessel when covering a mare. His death was described as "instantaneous". In total Blacklock sired the winners of 442 races and over £50,000. ## Pedigree Note: b. = Bay, br. = Brown, ch. = Chestnut, gr. = Grey \* Blacklock was inbred 3 × 4 to Pot-8-Os. This means that the stallion appears once in the third generation and once in the fourth generation of his pedigree. He was also inbred 3 × 4 to Highflyer, 4 × 4 × 4 to Herod and 4 × 4 to Eclipse.	[ "## Background", "## Racing career", "### 1816: Two-year-old season", "### 1817: Three-year-old season", "### 1818: Four-year-old season", "### 1819: Five-year-old season", "## Race record", "## Stud career", "## Pedigree" ]	2,657	23,261
765,531	M-27 (Michigan highway)	1,166,655,977	State highway in Michigan, United States	[ "State highways in Michigan", "Transportation in Cheboygan County, Michigan", "U.S. Route 27" ]	M-27 is a north–south state trunkline highway in the extreme north of the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan. The trunkline runs between Interstate 75 (I-75) just north of Indian River and Cheboygan, where it meets US Highway 23 (US 23) near Lake Huron. It remains as a relic of the old US 27 which disappeared north of Grayling after being supplanted by I-75, which lies close to old US 27 between Grayling and Indian River. ## Route description I-75 takes a more direct route between Indian River and Mackinaw City. M-27 follows old US 27 through Topinabee and Cheboygan. With US 23 it is a scenic, if indirect, alternative to I-75 on its approach to the Mackinac Bridge. M-27 runs along the western shore of Mullett Lake and forms the main street of Topinabee. The highway intersects M-33 near the confluence of the Cheboygan and Black rivers. North of the M-33 junction, M-27 runs parallel to the Cheboygan River on the west river bank into downtown Cheboygan. M-27 has the local road name of Main Street in Cheboygan and Straits Highway outside of the city. State Street (US 23) and Main Street (M-27) form the two major streets in the Cheboygan street grid. The main downtown businesses are located along Main Street south to the city limits. The highway has not been listed on the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country's defense, economy and mobility. ## History ### Previous alignment This is the second time a highway was designated M-27 in Michigan. The original M-27 was located in The Thumb, running from the Mount Clemens area east and north through New Baltimore to Port Huron. There it ran through Carsonville and Minden City to Harbor Beach and along Lake Huron to Port Austin. This version of M-27 was designated by July 1, 1919, and would last until 1926. All of the original M-27 was given to other contemporary highways including M-29 (Mount Clemens to Port Huron), M-51 (Port Huron to M-83), and M-29 (Harbor Beach to Port Austin). ### Current alignment In the late 1950s, US 27 was the main highway connection between Grayling, Gaylord, and Cheboygan. After the construction of the Mackinac Bridge, US 27 was extended north to St. Ignace. The construction of I-75 in the early 1960s rendered the northern portion of US 27 obsolete. Between Grayling and Indian River, I-75 replaced US 27 as the main highway in the area. North of Indian River, I-75 was built along a different routing. Where US 27 ran northwest through Topinabee to Cheboygan and then concurrently along US 23 to Mackinaw City, I-75 was built due north of Indian River before turning northwest parallel and several miles inland from Lake Huron, bypassing Cheboygan completely. M-27 was designated in the latter half of 1961 on the current alignment replacing US 27 which was truncated back to Grayling. Today, the stretch from Grayling to about Wolverine is known as Old 27, and from there to Indian River, it is called Straits Highway. ## Major intersections ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "### Previous alignment", "### Current alignment", "## Major intersections", "## See also" ]	725	22,127
967,992	Orange (word)	1,165,775,456	Word in the English language	[ "English words", "Etymologies" ]	The word orange is a noun and an adjective in the English language. In both cases, it refers primarily to the orange fruit and the color orange, but has many other derivative meanings. The word is derived from a Dravidian language, and it passed through numerous other languages including Sanskrit and Old French before reaching the English language. The earliest uses of the word in English refer to the fruit, and the color was later named after the fruit. Before the English-speaking world was exposed to the fruit, the color was referred to as "yellow-red" (geoluread in Old English) or "red-yellow". "Orange" has no true rhyme. There are several half rhymes or near-rhymes, as well as some proper nouns and compound words or phrases that rhyme with it. This lack of rhymes has inspired many humorous poems and songs. ## Etymology The word "orange" entered Middle English from Old French and Anglo-Norman orenge. The earliest recorded use of the word in English is from the 13th century and referred to the fruit. The first recorded use of "orange" as a colour name in English was in 1502, in a description of clothing purchased for Margaret Tudor. Other sources cite the first recorded use as 1512, in a will now filed with the Public Record Office. It is generally thought that Old French calqued the Italian melarancio ("fruit of the orange tree", with mela "fruit") as pume orenge (with pume "fruit"). Although pume orenge is attested earlier than melarancio in available written sources, lexicographers believe that the Italian word is actually older. The word ultimately derives from a Dravidian language – possibly Tamil நாரம் nāram or Telugu నారింజ nāriṃja or Malayalam നാരങ്ങ‌ nāraŋŋa — via Sanskrit नारङ्ग nāraṅgaḥ "orange tree". From there the word entered Persian نارنگ nārang and then Arabic نارنج nāranj. The initial n was lost through rebracketing in Italian and French, though some varieties of Arabic lost the n earlier. The place named Orange has a separate etymology. The Roman-Celtic settlement was founded in 36 or 35 BC and originally named Arausio, after a Celtic water god. The Principality of Orange was named for this place and not for the color. Some time after the sixteenth century, though, the color orange was adopted as a canting symbol of the House of Orange-Nassau. The color eventually came to be associated with Protestantism, as a result of the participation by the House of Orange on the Protestant side in the French Wars of Religion, the Irish campaigns, and the Dutch Eighty Years' War. ## Pronunciation With forest, warrant, horrible, etc., orange forms a class of English words where the North American pronunciation of what is pronounced as , the vowel in lot, in British Received Pronunciation varies between the vowel in north ( or depending on the cot–caught and horse–hoarse mergers) and that in lot ( or depending on the father–bother merger). The former is more common while the latter is mainly found on the East Coast of the United States. While many dictionaries of North American English include the north pronunciation as the primary or only variant, Merriam-Webster lists the lot variant first and glosses the north variant as "chiefly Northern & Midland" for orange but not for other words in the class (forest etc.). Its Collegiate Dictionary listed north first until the 1973 eighth edition, but has flipped the order since the 1983 ninth edition. Merriam-Webster is also unique in including monosyllabic variants (/ɑːrndʒ, ɔːrndʒ/). ## Rhyme No common English word is a full rhyme for "orange", though there are half rhymes, such as "hinge", "lozenge", "syringe", and "porridge". Slang and otherwise uncommon examples exist. Although this property is not unique to the word—one study of 5,411 one-syllable English words found 80 words with no rhymes—the lack of rhyme for "orange" has garnered significant attention, and inspired many humorous verses. Although "sporange", a variant of "sporangium", is an eye rhyme for "orange", it is not a true rhyme as its second syllable is pronounced with an unreduced vowel , and often stressed. There are a number of proper nouns which rhyme or nearly rhyme with "orange", including The Blorenge, a mountain in Wales, and Gorringe, a surname. US Naval Commander Henry Honychurch Gorringe, the captain of the USS Gettysburg, who discovered Gorringe Ridge in 1875, led Arthur Guiterman to quip in "Local Note": In Sparkill buried lies that man of mark Who brought the Obelisk to Central Park, Redoubtable Commander H.H. Gorringe, Whose name supplies the long-sought rhyme for "orange." The slang word "blorange", a hair color between blond and orange, is a rhyme. It is attested from the early 2000s and appears in fashion-related media from about 2017. Various linguistic or poetic devices provide for rhymes in some accents. Compound words or phrases may give true or near rhymes. Examples include "door-hinge", "torn hinge", "or inch", and "a wrench". William Shepard Walsh attributes this verse featuring two multiple-word rhymes to Walter William Skeat: I gave my darling child a lemon, That lately grew its fragrant stem on; And next, to give her pleasure more range, I offered her a juicy orange. And nuts, she cracked them in the door-hinge. Enjambment can also provide for rhymes. One example is Willard Espy's poem, "The Unrhymable Word: Orange". The four eng- ineers Wore orange brassieres. Another example by Tom Lehrer relies on the /ˈɑrəndʒ/ pronunciation commonly used on the East Coast of the United States: Eating an orange While making love Makes for bizarre enj- oyment thereof. Rapper Eminem is noted for his ability to bend words so that they rhyme. In his song "Business" from the album The Eminem Show, he makes use of such word-bending to rhyme "orange": Set to blow college dorm rooms doors off the hinges, Oranges, peach, pears, plums, syringes, VROOM VROOM! Yeah, here I come, I'm inches, Nonce words are sometimes contrived to rhyme with "orange". Composers Charles Fox and Norman Gimbel wrote the song "Oranges Poranges" to be sung by the Witchiepoo character on the television programme H.R. Pufnstuf. Oranges poranges, who says, oranges poranges, who says, oranges poranges, who says there ain't no rhyme for oranges? ## See also - Rhymes with Orange, a syndicated comic strip	[ "## Etymology", "## Pronunciation", "## Rhyme", "## See also" ]	1,539	3,846
71,788,482	Luis Gallego	1,161,714,665	Bolivian politician (born 1968)	[ "1968 births", "21st-century Bolivian lawyers", "21st-century Bolivian politicians", "Bolivian people of Quechua descent", "Bolivian politicians of indigenous peoples descent", "Living people", "Members of the Bolivian Chamber of Deputies from Potosí", "Movimiento al Socialismo politicians", "People from Rafael Bustillo Province", "Quechua politicians" ]	Luis Gallego Condori (born 21 June 1968) is a Bolivian lawyer and politician who served as a member of the Chamber of Deputies from Potosí, representing circumscription 39 from 2010 to 2015. Born in a peasant community in one of the least developed regions of rural Potosí, Gallego completed only portions of his primary education before dropping out to focus on agricultural work. As a young adult, he began scaling the ranks of traditional leadership, holding posts of both cultural and political significance within his Quechua community. In 2009, he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies on behalf of the Movement for Socialism, a party he militantly supported, only to later grow disenfranchised with. ## Early life and career Luis Gallego was born on 21 June 1968 to Severino Gallego and Dorotea Condori, a peasant family native to Huayllani in the rural foothills of northern Potosí. Gallego spent his childhood in poverty, studying up to middle school before dropping out to dedicate himself to agricultural work. As a young adult, Gallego was selected to serve as a jilanqu, an indigenous authority charged with serving several jisk'a ayllus, or small communities. In the ensuing years, he reached the position of segunda mayor, the highest authority in his ayllu. Gallego's political trajectory led him to hold office on his ayllus school board and serve as its communal mayor before finally rising to become corregidor, the most important political position within the ayllus. ## Chamber of Deputies ### Election In 2009, Gallego was selected by the ayllus to run for a seat in the Chamber of Deputies. He registered his candidacy with the Movement for Socialism (MAS-IPSP)—a party he had been an active member of since 2005—and was presented to run in Potosí's circumscription 39, encompassing his home Bustillo Province. He won the race handily, defeating his next closest competitor by a wide margin, although his percentage is diluted down to a 42.1 percent plurality when the high tally of blank and null votes are taken into account. ### Tenure In parliament, Gallego drafted more than twenty bills relating to agriculture, irrigation, and mining in northern Potosí and worked to secure the delivery of agricultural machinery to the department's municipalities. He successfully procured a collective ownership title in favor of the Chullpa ayllu and was a leading proponent of the bill that declared the waters of the disputed Silala River a strategic natural resource of the state. Upon the conclusion of his term, Gallego was not nominated for reelection. ### Commission assignments - Constitution, Legislation, and Electoral System Commission - Constitutional Review and Legislative Harmonization Committee (2014–2015) - Plural Justice, Prosecutor's Office, and Legal Defense of the State Commission - Rural Native Indigenous Jurisdiction Committee (Secretary: 2010–2012, 2013–2014) - Plural Economy, Production, and Industry Commission - Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Committee (2012–2013) ## Later career Despite his militant support for the MAS—even once controversially threatening to whip those who did not vote in favor of the ruling party—Gallego later grew disenfranchised with the party and ultimately resigned from its ranks in 2017, claiming that it had grown "elite" and no longer attended to the needs of the indigenous peoples of Potosí. Gallego spent the ensuing years in political retirement, during which time he graduated as a lawyer from the Bolivian Technological University. In 2022, he returned to the spotlight when he registered his application as a candidate for ombudsman. Despite an official prohibition on applicants who had held elective office in the previous eight years, Gallego was initially given the green light to move to the second phase. However, he was later disqualified upon opposition appeal, dashing his hopes of holding the position. ## Electoral history	[ "## Early life and career", "## Chamber of Deputies", "### Election", "### Tenure", "### Commission assignments", "## Later career", "## Electoral history" ]	858	35,365
34,727,633	Meermin	1,166,735,747	Dutch cargo ship	[ "1761 ships", "Individual sailing vessels", "Maritime incidents in 1766", "Maritime incidents in South Africa", "Maritime incidents involving slave ships", "Merchant ships of the Netherlands", "Ships of the Dutch East India Company", "Slave ships" ]	Meermin () was an 18th-century Dutch cargo ship of the hoeker type, one of many built and owned by the Dutch East India Company. She was laid down in 1759 and fitted out as a slave ship before her maiden voyage in 1761, and her career was cut short by a mutiny of her cargo of Malagasy people. They had been sold to Dutch East India Company officials on Madagascar, to be used as company slaves in its Cape Colony in southern Africa. Half her crew and almost 30 Malagasy lost their lives in the mutiny; the mutineers deliberately allowed the ship to drift aground off Struisbaai, now in South Africa, in March 1766, and she broke up in situ. As of 2013, archaeologists are searching for the Meermin's remains. ## Construction and use Meermin was laid down in 1759 in a shipyard belonging to the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, abbreviated to "VOC") in the port of Amsterdam in the Netherlands. Meermin was a 480-ton Dutch hoeker, square rigged with three masts. The hoeker originated in the 15th century as a type of fishing vessel with one or two masts in response to the growing Dutch trade in herring, and was known in English as a hoy. Equipped with guns, hoekers were employed as defensive escorts for fishing fleets, or Buisconvoyers, in the Second Anglo-Dutch War of the 1660s. They came to be used more widely in trade with the Dutch East Indies via the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa, as their rounded sterns proved to be more resistant to warping and springing than square sterns, which were prone to "catastrophic leaking when exposed to strong sun." Larger than most hoekers, the Meermin was unusual for her type in that she was built of oak and had a beakhead, a feature not normally present in smaller merchant vessels. Meermin was built for use as a slave ship in the VOC's African trade; between 1658 and 1799 the VOC acquired and transported 63,000 slaves to its Cape Colony, now part of South Africa. The ship began her maiden voyage at Texel, an island off the coast of what is now the Netherlands, on 21 January 1761, with a crew of 62 under the command of Captain Hendrik Worms; she arrived at the Cape of Good Hope on 15 June. Although fitted out as a slave ship, vessels such as the Meermin routinely carried other goods when not transporting slaves. ## Mutiny and destruction From December 1765, Meermin was working the coastline of Madagascar, collecting Malagasy men, women and children for use as slaves in the Cape Colony, under Captain Gerrit Muller and a crew of 56. Carrying about 140 Malagasy, she set sail from the north-western coast of Madagascar on 20 January 1766. Two days into the voyage a "large party of [Malagasy]" was allowed on deck, the men to assist the crew, and the women to provide entertainment by dancing and singing. This was to prevent death and disease among the Malagasy, so avoiding loss of profit. On 18 February 1766, the ship's supercargo ordered some assegais, or African spears, and some swords, to be brought on deck for the Malagasy to clean. When the weapons were clean and the Malagasy were ordered to return them, they attacked the ship's crew, and took control of the ship. A truce ensued, the terms of which were that if the Malagasy would spare the lives of the remaining crew the ship would be sailed back to Madagascar, but taking advantage of the Malagasy's lack of navigational skills, the crew instead set sail for the coast of southern Africa. On sighting land, the crew persuaded the Malagasy that what they saw was a part of Madagascar the mutineers were unfamiliar with: after further subterfuge by the crew, the Malagasy set Meermin to drift towards the shore at Struisbaai. But the sea was rough, and one of the ship's masts was cut down to improve her balance. Meermin eventually grounded on a sandbank, by which time a militia consisting of local farmers and burghers had been formed onshore, who had observed that the ship was flying no flags, which they recognised as a distress signal. The militia killed or captured those of the Malagasy who ventured ashore, and then organised the removal into custody of all Malagasy remaining on the ship, under the command of a magistrate from Stellenbosch. Meermin was assessed as beyond recovery, and left to break up where she grounded. ## Salvage and archaeology The VOC authorities salvaged as much as possible from Meermin, recovering 286 muskets, 12 pistols, 5 bayonets, gunpowder, musket balls and compasses; cables, ropes and other items from the ship were auctioned on the shore. The ship's logbook has not survived. In 2004, Iziko Museums started a maritime archaeology project to find and recover the wreck of Meermin, with supporting historical and archaeological research funded by the South African National Lottery. Jaco Boshoff of Iziko Museums, who is in charge of the research, retrieved Meermin's plans from the Netherlands, to help identify this wreck among the numerous ships reputed to have run aground in the Struisbaai area. The search for Meermin has employed an airborne magnetometer survey, as a marine magnetometer survey proved to be impractical owing to the shallowness of the waters. Magnetometer surveys can readily pick out wreck sites, as iron items from the ships can be detected by their recognisable signatures. Of 22 new, possible wrecks identified, 11 were identified as candidates for the wreck of Meermin. Six are on what is now land, but have been ruled out as they are wrecks of pine-built ships, whereas Meermin was built of oak. In 2011, the Iziko Museums' travelling exhibition "Finding Meermin" included updates on the progress of Jaco Boshoff's work with the archaeological research team. In November 2013 it was reported that, while the ship had not yet been found, lack of funding was holding up completion of the search, with four target areas remaining to be examined.	[ "## Construction and use", "## Mutiny and destruction", "## Salvage and archaeology" ]	1,363	5,759
68,318,828	Battle of Oroscopa	1,167,778,389	151 BC battle between Carthage and Numidia	[ "150s BC conflicts", "Battles involving Numidia", "Military history of Tunisia", "Numidia", "Wars involving Carthage" ]	The Battle of Oroscopa was fought between a Carthaginian army of more than 30,000 men commanded by the general Hasdrubal and a Numidian force of unknown size under its king, Masinissa. It took place in late 151 BC near the ancient town of Oroscopa in what is now north western Tunisia. The battle resulted in a heavy Carthaginian defeat. When the Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage ended in 201 BC, one of the terms of the peace treaty prohibited Carthage from waging war without the permission of the Roman Senate. Masinissa, an ally of Rome, exploited this to repeatedly raid and seize Carthaginian territory with impunity. In 151 BC, Carthage assembled an army of 25,400 men under Hasdrubal, disregarding the treaty. This force was joined by 6,000 Numidian cavalry led by two disgruntled Numidian leaders and attempted to deter Masinissa's aggression against the Carthaginian-held town of Oroscopa. Amid considerable fighting Masinissa lured the Carthaginians into an area of rough terrain with limited water sources, where foraging for food was difficult, and surrounded them. The Carthaginians considered their opponents to be unregimented tribesmen and expected them to disperse, but Masinissa had forged a well-disciplined army with an efficient logistics system and it was able to starve the Carthaginians into surrender. In contravention of the terms of the surrender, the Carthaginians were then attacked and many, perhaps most, were killed. Hasdrubal and most of his officers survived and returned to Carthage. There, Hasdrubal was condemned to death in an attempt to placate Rome, but anti-Carthaginian factions in Rome used the illicit military action as a pretext to prepare a punitive expedition. This sparked the Third Punic War, which ended in the complete destruction of Carthage in 146 BC and the death or enslavement of its population. ## Background In the mid-2nd century BC Rome was the dominant power in the Mediterranean region, and Carthage was a large city-state in the north east of what is now modern Tunisia. The Romans referred to the Carthaginians by the Latin word Punicus (or Poenicus), which is a reference to Carthage's Phoenician origin. "Punic" derives from this usage. Carthage and Rome had fought the 23-year-long First Punic War from 264 to 241 BC and the 17-year-long Second Punic War between 218 and 201 BC. Both wars ended with Roman victories, the Second when the Roman general Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal, the premier Carthaginian general of the war, at the Battle of Zama, 160 kilometres (100 mi) south west of Carthage. Africanus imposed a peace treaty on the Carthaginians which stripped them of their overseas territories, and some of their African ones. An indemnity of 10,000 silver talents was to be paid over 50 years. Hostages were taken and Carthage was prohibited from waging war outside Africa, and in Africa only with the Roman Senate's express permission. Many senior Carthaginians wanted to reject the treaty, but Hannibal spoke strongly in its favour and it was accepted in spring 201 BC. Henceforth it was clear that Carthage was politically subordinate to Rome. ## Prelude At the end of the Second Punic War Masinissa, an ally of Rome, emerged as by far the most powerful ruler among the Numidians, the indigenous population which controlled much of what is now Algeria and Tunisia. Over the following 50 years he repeatedly took advantage of Carthage's inability to militarily protect its possessions by raiding or seizing territory which Carthage had long held. The Carthaginians repeatedly petitioned Rome for redress, claiming that Masinissa was in breach of the treaty. Rome always backed Masinissa and refused to act or to give permission for Carthage to take military action to defend its territory. Masinissa's seizures of Carthaginian land and settlements became increasingly flagrant, extending to major towns and important ports. ## Battle In 151 BC the Numidians once again raided into territory which had been Carthaginian for centuries. They blockaded the town of Oroscopa and devastated the farmland around it. This was a provocation too far for the Carthaginians; they raised an army of 25,000 infantry and 400 cavalry commanded by the previously unrecorded Carthaginian general Hasdrubal and, regardless of the treaty, counter-attacked the Numidians. They were reinforced by two disgruntled Numidian leaders, Suba and Asasis, with 6,000 additional cavalry. The Carthaginians advanced on Oroscopa, won several small-scale skirmishes and, as Hasdrubal saw it, drove the Numidians away. Dissatisfied with this, Hasdrubal had the Carthaginian army follow the Numidians, hoping to provoke them into a decisive battle. The Numidians deliberately lured the Carthaginians on, into an area of rough going where water sources were limited and foraging for food was difficult. Eventually there was a set-piece battle; it is unclear whether Masinissa chose to give battle or was compelled to by Hasdrubal's manoeuvres. The fight went on for a whole day, but with no result. It is possible that the fighting largely consisted of cavalry charging and counter-charging while hurling javelins at each other, and that little hand-to-hand combat took place. The battle was supposedly watched by the adopted grandson of Africanus, Scipio Aemilianus, who was in Numidia to obtain war elephants for the Roman army from his adoptive grandfather's ally. Hasdrubal withdrew his army to a hilltop, fortified his camp and entered into negotiations with Masinissa, using Aemilianus as an intermediary. As the Carthaginians were unwilling to hand over Suba and Asasis to Masinissa for punishment, the negotiations failed. Meanwhile, the Numidians had constructed their own fortifications in a wide circle around the base of the hill on which the Carthaginians were encamped. This prevented the Carthaginians from foraging for food, or even from moving off as an army without a hard fight. Hasdrubal was unwilling to commit his army to the latter, especially as he believed that the Numidian army was a loose barbarian confederation whose supply lines would be more stretched than his own. He was convinced that with neither combat nor loot they would soon start to return home. So the Carthaginians consumed the supplies of food they had with them, then slaughtered and ate their pack animals. With these gone they killed and ate their cavalry mounts. With no firewood to burn to make this diet more palatable, the Carthaginians burnt the wooden components of their shields and other equipment. During his long reign Masinissa had created a well-disciplined army with more efficient logistics than when the Carthaginians had last fought him, 50 years before. This force surprised the Carthaginians with its ability to maintain itself in the field for a sustained period. Eventually disease struck the Carthaginian camp and Hasdrubal was forced to surrender. Humiliating terms were imposed, including the payment of a huge indemnity. While the Carthaginian soldiers were surrendering they were attacked by Numidian cavalry led by Masinissa's son, Gulussa. Whether this was with the connivance of Masinissa is unclear. The modern historian William Harris suggests that Gulussa was encouraged by the Romans in this attack. The casualties suffered by the Carthaginians are also unclear: Harris states that "very few returned home", Nigel Bagnall writes of "few survivors" and Adrian Goldsworthy that "many [were] cut down". All sources agree that Hasdrubal and most of his officers survived, and returned to Carthage. There Hasdrubal was condemned to death, in an attempt to placate Rome. The Numidians took over the Campi Magni (Great Plains) region and the town of Thusca (modern Sers) in what is now north western Tunisia. The fighting, surrender and massacre were probably over by late 151 BC. ## Aftermath Carthage had paid off its indemnity to Rome, imposed fifty years before at the end of the First Punic War, in 151 BC and was prospering economically, but was no military threat to Rome. Nevertheless, there had long been a faction within the Roman Senate that had wished to take military action against Carthage. Using the illicit Carthaginian military action as a pretext, Rome began preparing a punitive expedition. Carthaginian embassies attempted to negotiate with Rome, which responded evasively. The large North African port city of Utica, some 55 km (34 mi) north of Carthage, defected to Rome in 149 BC. Aware that Utica's harbour would greatly facilitate any assault on Carthage, the Senate and the People's Assembly of Rome declared war on Carthage. A large Roman army landed at Utica. The Carthaginians hoped to appease the Romans, but despite the Carthaginians surrendering all of their weapons, the Romans pressed on to besiege the city of Carthage, starting the Third Punic War. The Roman campaign suffered repeated setbacks through 149 BC. A new Roman commander took over in 148 BC, and fared equally badly. At the annual election of Roman magistrates in early 147 BC Scipio Aemilianus was appointed consul and commander in Africa. Scipio tightened the siege and defeated a Carthaginian naval sortie. He then led a strong force that stormed the camp of Carthage's field army and forced most of the towns and cities still supporting Carthage to surrender. In the spring of 146 BC Scipio launched the Romans' final assault and over six days systematically destroyed the city and killed its inhabitants. Only on the last day were prisoners taken, 50,000 of them, who were sold into slavery. The former Carthaginian territories became the Roman province of Africa with Utica as its capital. ## Notes, citations and sources	[ "## Background", "## Prelude", "## Battle", "## Aftermath", "## Notes, citations and sources" ]	2,194	38,619
6,935,568	John J. Tigert	1,150,355,207	American educationalist	[ "1882 births", "1965 deaths", "All-Southern college football players", "Alumni of Pembroke College, Oxford", "American Rhodes Scholars", "American football halfbacks", "American football punters", "American men's basketball players", "American women's basketball coaches", "Baseball players from Nashville, Tennessee", "Basketball coaches from Tennessee", "Basketball players from Nashville, Tennessee", "Central Methodist Eagles football coaches", "Coaches of American football from Tennessee", "College Football Hall of Fame inductees", "College men's track and field athletes in the United States", "Kentucky Wesleyan Panthers football coaches", "Kentucky Wildcats athletic directors", "Kentucky Wildcats football coaches", "Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball coaches", "Kentucky Wildcats women's basketball coaches", "Players of American football from Tennessee", "Presidents of the University of Florida", "United States Bureau of Education people", "University of Kentucky faculty", "University of Miami faculty", "Vanderbilt Commodores baseball players", "Vanderbilt Commodores football players", "Vanderbilt Commodores men's basketball players", "Webb School (Bell Buckle, Tennessee) alumni" ]	John James Tigert IV (February 11, 1882 – January 21, 1965) was an American university president, university professor and administrator, college sports coach and the U.S. Commissioner of Education. Tigert was a native of Tennessee and the son and grandson of Methodist bishops. After receiving his bachelor's degree, he earned his master's degree as a Rhodes Scholar. After completing his education, Tigert taught at Central College; served as the president of Kentucky Wesleyan College; and worked as a professor, sports coach and administrator at the University of Kentucky. Tigert gained his greatest national prominence as the U.S. Commissioner of Education from 1921 to 1928, and the third president of the University of Florida, from 1928 to 1947. He is remembered as a forceful advocate for American public education, intercollegiate sports and university curriculum reform. ## Early life and education Tigert was born in Nashville, Tennessee, in 1882, the third son of a Methodist Episcopal minister, John James Tigert III, and his wife, Amelia McTyeire Tigert, the daughter of Methodist Bishop and Vanderbilt University co-founder Holland N. McTyeire. Tigert received his primary education in the public schools of Kansas City, Missouri, and Nashville, and earned his high school diploma, with honors, from the Webb School in Bell Buckle, Tennessee. ### Vanderbilt He was admitted to Vanderbilt University in Nashville, where he was a member of the Phi Delta Theta Fraternity (Tennessee Alpha Chapter) and a standout athlete in baseball, basketball, football and track. His time at Vanderbilt overlaps with Grantland Rice. As a senior, Tigert was honored as an All-Southern halfback for the Vanderbilt Commodores football team. In his final game, he scored the first points netted all season against rival Sewanee. Tigert graduated from Vanderbilt with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1904; he was selected for Phi Beta Kappa, and was chosen as a Rhodes Scholar, the first from the state of Tennessee, along with teammate Bob Blake. While at Oxford University in Oxford, England, he completed his Master of Arts degree at Pembroke College in 1907, and he continued to participate in competitive university sports, including cricket, rowing and tennis. ## Educator, administrator, reformer After returning to the United States, Tigert taught at the Methodist-affiliated Central College—now known as Central Methodist University—in Fayette, Missouri, and, at the age of 27, was appointed president of Kentucky Wesleyan College in Owensboro, Kentucky in 1909. That same year, he married the former Edith Jackson Bristol. ### University of Kentucky Tigert later received an appointment as a professor of psychology and philosophy at the University of Kentucky in Lexington, Kentucky, where he did work on psychology in advertising. While there, Tigert also served as the athletic director from 1913 to 1917, the Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball coach in 1913, 1916 and 1917, the Wildcats women's basketball coach from 1911 to 1915 and again from 1916 to 1917, and the Wildcats football coach in 1915 and 1916. ### Commissioner of Education President Warren G. Harding appointed Tigert as the U.S. Commissioner of Education in 1921, and he served for seven years during the administrations of Harding and Calvin Coolidge. As commissioner, he was an energetic advocate of education reform and greater educational opportunities for all classes of Americans, and he traveled widely and spoke often to virtually any group interested in education. In particular, he took an interest in rural education, and advocated innovative ways to impart public education to a wider audience, including the use of radio. During his time in Washington, D.C., he also served a term as the national president of Phi Delta Theta Fraternity. ### University of Florida The Florida Board of Control selected Tigert as the third president of the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida in 1928. He assumed leadership of the university during an extended period of economic crisis in the state of Florida. When the Great Depression began with the Wall Street Crash of 1929, Florida was already suffering from the after-effects of the 1920s land boom and bust, as well the devastating aftermath of two major hurricanes in 1926 and 1928. The common thread of the nineteen years of Tigert's administration was doing more with less. Faculty salary cuts were common; Tigert himself never drew his full authorized annual salary of \$10,000. Among Tigert's many significant reforms, he decentralized the university budget to the level of the individual academic colleges, allowing them to set their own spending priorities. The University Council, composed of the president, the registrar and the college deans, retained final approval authority. Tigert also established the faculty senate, the Institute of Inter-American Affairs and the Bureau of Economic and Business Research. One of his most influential reforms as president was the founding of the new University College as an academic division within the University of Florida in 1935. The college was modeled on the general education college at the University of Chicago, and administered the freshman and sophomore-year liberal arts education of undergraduates before they were accepted to the university schools or colleges that administered their academic majors. The college's stated purpose was to "stimulate intellectual curiosity" and "encourage independent work", with new liberal arts requirements in biology, English language and literature, the humanities, logic, mathematics, physical sciences and social sciences, and thereby counter the growing trend toward "trade school" education at the university level. As a former university athlete and coach, Tigert took a particular interest in athletics-related policy issues while he was president and was an enthusiastic supporter of the Florida Gators sports program generally, and football in particular. He was responsible for the construction of the university's first and only permanent football stadium, Florida Field, in 1930. He borrowed \$10,000 to begin construction of the stadium, and then raised \$118,000 to pay the construction costs of the 22,800-seat facility. Tigert also hired Blake R. Van Leer as Dean to expand the engineering program and manage all applications for federal funding. Van Leer also chaired the advanced planning committee setup by Tigert. Tigert was also instrumental in the organization of the Southeastern Conference (SEC), which the University of Florida joined as one of the thirteen founding institutions in December 1932. Tigert subsequently served two terms as SEC president (1934–1936 and 1945–1947). As a key leader within the SEC, he worked to impose a uniform set of rules and standards for academic eligibility for SEC athletes. Appalled by the under-the-table payments to amateur college athletes that were prevalent at the time, he advocated the grant of scholarships to athletes which would become the grant-in-aid of other university athletic programs and as mandated by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in the years to follow. Like his predecessor, Albert A. Murphree, Tigert was elected president of the National Association of State Universities, serving from 1939 to 1940. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, students began to withdraw from the university in large numbers to enlist in the U.S. Armed Forces. The financial impact on the university had the potential to be devastating, but Tigert navigated the war years by making the university campus, dormitories and class rooms available for the training of U.S. Army Air Force flight crews. Tigert kept the lights on, and the bills paid. Veterans began to return to school with support from the GI Bill, and by the fall term of 1946, over seventy percent of the University of Florida's 7,000 students were returning World War II veterans. Contributing to the shortage of facility space was the influx of new female students when the Florida Legislature reinstituted co-education in 1947. The university suddenly had more students than its available housing and classroom space could serve. Tigert resigned as university president in 1947, worked as an educational consultant to the government of India as a member of its University Education Commission, and taught philosophy at the University of Miami until 1959. #### Legacy Tigert served as president of the University of Florida for nineteen years, longer than any of the other presidents of the university. During his term, the university awarded its first doctoral degrees in 1934, a chapter of Phi Beta Kappa was installed in 1938, and total student enrollment grew from 2,162 in 1928 to over 7,500 in 1947. As university president, he was responsible for significant and lasting academic, athletic and administrative reforms. In recognition of Tigert's long service as its president through depression and war, the University of Florida awarded him an honorary degree, a doctor of letters, during its 1953 centennial celebration, and renamed its main administrative building, Tigert Hall, for him in 1960. Tigert died in Gainesville, Florida on January 21, 1965; he was 82 years old. He was survived by his wife Edith, their son and daughter, and five grandchildren. As a fitting final tribute to a professor, education reformer and administrator, who also fervently supported college sports, Tigert was inducted into the University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame as an "Honorary Letter Winner," and was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame as a player in 1970. ## Head coaching record ### Football ### Men's basketball ### Women's basketball ## See also - History of Florida - History of the University of Florida - List of College Football Hall of Fame inductees (players, A–K) - List of College Football Hall of Fame inductees (players, L–Z) - List of Oxford University people - List of Phi Beta Kappa members - List of Phi Delta Theta members - List of Rhodes Scholars - List of University of Florida honorary degree recipients - List of University of Florida presidents - List of University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame members - List of Vanderbilt University people - State University System of Florida	[ "## Early life and education", "### Vanderbilt", "## Educator, administrator, reformer", "### University of Kentucky", "### Commissioner of Education", "### University of Florida", "#### Legacy", "## Head coaching record", "### Football", "### Men's basketball", "### Women's basketball", "## See also" ]	2,115	32,648
42,078,413	Pearl Harbor Aviation Museum	1,155,754,798	null	[ "2006 establishments in Hawaii", "Aerospace museums in Hawaii", "Attack on Pearl Harbor", "Museums established in 2006", "Museums in Honolulu", "Smithsonian Institution affiliates", "World War II Valor in the Pacific National Monument", "World War II museums in Hawaii" ]	Pearl Harbor Aviation Museum (formerly the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor) is a non-profit founded in 1999 to develop an aviation museum in Hawaii. Part of Senator Daniel Inouye's vision for a rebirth of Ford Island, the museum hosts a variety of aviation exhibits with a majority relating directly to the attack on Pearl Harbor and World War II. The first section of the museum, hangar 37, opened with the museum on December 7, 2006, and features much of the museum's static exhibits. The museum's hangars show damage from the attacks on Pearl Harbor from December 7, 1941. The museum has been involved in community events ranging from preservation of historical landmarks to educational tours throughout Hawai'i. The focus devoted efforts to restoring the Ford Island control tower and signed a lease with the Navy to begin repairs. Visitors to the museum gain access via tour bus from the Pearl Harbor Historic Sites on Halawa landing. The museum has received awards for their efforts to restore historical buildings. ## History In 1983, the Pacific Aerospace Museum was formed inside Honolulu International Airport after pressure from the Hawaiian Chamber of Commerce to create an aviation museum in Hawaii succeeded. The first phase of the museum opened in 1991 and was founded by Frank Der Yuen. The idea for the Pacific Aviation Museum began on the anniversary of the victory over Japan in 1995. Due to airport expansion plans, the Pacific Aerospace Museum operation was suspended in the fall of 2001 and finally removed two years later. A few of the exhibits were salvaged by the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor foundation as well as responsibility for the education and scholarship programs. Prior to the completion of the Admiral Clarey Bridge in 1998, access to Ford Island was provided via ferry boat only to those residing on Ford Island and their guests. Senator Inouye proposed a \$500,000,000 "rebirth" of Ford Island through special legislation () to authorize the Navy to sell land to fund the rebirth. The plan included 500 new homes for Navy personnel, a new child development center, a new Navy lodge, and the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor. The original museum was called the Military Aviation Museum of the Pacific. The foundation sought funds to raise the original \$46 million goal from various sources including the US State of Hawaii, the United States Congress, the United States Navy, and fundraising dinners. It received support from former US astronaut Captain Walter Schirra. While executive director of the San Diego Air & Space Museum, Allan Palmer was hired by the United States Air Force to conduct a feasibility study on an aviation museum in Hawaii and then hired as its executive direction and chief executive operating officer. A groundbreaking ceremony was held March 21, 2006 for the \$75,000,000 construction of the museum. It opened on December 7, 2006 on the 65th anniversary of the attack on Pearl Harbor. In 2006, its board consisted of former United States president George H. W. Bush, Brigadier General Chuck Yeager, and retired Brigadier General Paul Tibbets. The museum occupies hangars 37 and 79 on Ford Island and covers 16 acres. In 2012, the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor was named an affiliate of the Smithsonian Institution as part of the Smithsonian Affiliations program. On April 4, 2013, the museum received its millionth visitor. The museum opened a 4,000 square foot Aviation Learning Center in 2021. ### Facilities Due to its historical significance, as the location of the first radio alert of the attack on Pearl Harbor, the museum plans to spend over \$7,500,000 repairing the Ford Island control tower. It was registered as a category 1 structure in the 1978 Pearl Harbor Naval Base Historic Preservation Plan and is being restored by Kiewit Building Group; the same contractor who built the museum. The 70-year-old 158 feet (48 m) tower suffers from deteriorating steel stairs, landing, and beams that require repair or replacement. A grant through the United States Department of Defense appropriations for the stabilization and restoration of a historical landmark was given to the museum for \$3,800,000 which provided the initial funds to start the project. The control tower, as well as the runway, has been designated a national historic landmark since 1964. In 2010, records filed with Congress shows that defense firms had donated nearly \$449,000 to the museum during efforts to raise money to restore the tower. The tower was considered a personal issue for Senator Inouye and many of these donations were made in his memory. The tower was featured in the films Tora! Tora! Tora! and Pearl Harbor. Hangar 37, a former seaplane hangar and a survivor of the attack on Pearl Harbor, was the first hangar developed for the museum. The 7.25 acres (2.93 ha) facility consists of nine exhibits, a movie theater, flight simulators, a store and a restaurant. The renovation cost was \$11,000,000 and was raised by federal and state grants and through donations by local corporations. Built in 1939 and at over 87,000 square feet (8,100 m<sup>2</sup>), Hangar 79 is the restoration hangar but also contains many of the museums exhibits including the flying tigers exhibit, MiG Alley exhibit, and various helicopters, jets, and civil aircraft. The hangar's glass windows are still riddled with bullet holes from Japanese aircraft from the day of the attack. Tawani Foundation donated \$82,500 for the renovation of Hangar 79. ## Exhibits In 2009, former McDonald's CEO Fred L. Turner sponsored the restoration of a Douglas SBD Dauntless. The Boeing N2S-3 Stearman used by former President George H. W. Bush for flight training and used for his first solo flight is an exhibit at the museum. The remains of the Japanese A6M2 Zero "B11-120" from the carrier Hiryu piloted by Airman First Class Shigenori Nishikaichi, who crash landed on Ni'ihau after the second wave of the attack on Pearl Harbor, are stored at the museum. It is displayed exactly as it was after the crash. The remains of the tractor used to create trenches to prevent such a landing are stored at the museum. The trenches were created after the island was warned that the Japanese had planned to use the island as a forward operating base. A Japanese A6M2-21 Zero similar to the aircraft used in the attack on Pearl Harbor was salvaged in 1968 and restored to flying condition in 1985. Originally, it flew with the Japanese air group 201 in the Solomon Islands. It was sold to the Commemorative Air Force for use in air shows and later sold to the museum in 2006. On April 11, 2013, the remains of a B-17 bomber arrived at the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor almost 70 years after avoiding destruction during the attack on Pearl Harbor. The restoration project is expected to cost \$5,000,000. The plane, called "Swamp Ghost", was supposed to fly to Hickam Field on December 7, 1941 but was delayed due to engine trouble and avoided the attack. Later, it was used in the February 22, 1942 bombing of Rabaul. After the bombing, the plane was attacked by nine Japanese fighters on its return to base, was struck on the wing, and crashed in marsh water. The plane remained there for 64 years, earning its nickname, and the wreckage was used as a navigational aid. It appeared in National Geographic in 1992 and several attempts were made to recover the aircraft, but it was not successfully recovered until 2006 and arrived back in the United States in 2010. It was purchased by the museum in 2011. It was delivered in seven separate shipment containers and is being restored outside of hangar 79. In June 2012, the museum debuted a 10-foot (3.0 m) tall, 40-foot (12 m) wide diorama of the Battle of Midway. The diorama was commissioned in 2008 for \$400,000 on the advice of Turner and took three years to complete by former US Navy pilot Karl Lau. ### Collection ### East, Wind, Rain In 2008, the Hawaii Pacific University documentary and corporate video class completed development of a 12-minute film titled East, Wind, Rain to replace the older film shown to visitors at the museum. The film explains the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor to museum guests and won the 2010 Pixie Gold Award from American Pixel Academy. ## Public reception ### Controversies In 2013 the museum planned to host 1,500 Chinese nationals from Amway China on Ford Island who were particularly interested in the Flying Tigers exhibit. The Navy expressed concerns about this plan as Ford Island remains an active military installation. Despite these concerns, the Navy approved the event and erected a 6-foot (1.8 m) tall fence. In March 2013 the museum's online ticketing service was hacked. The museum's service provider, Vendini, believed that none of the data of its customers was accessed. In June 2013 the museum fought the US Navy's plan to install 60,000 photovoltaic panels over 28 acres on the Ford Island runway. The Navy had intended to comply with Congressional and Defense Department mandates to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and offset the cost of Hawaiian energy costs, which are the highest in the United States. The plan deviated from a 2009 proposal which would use the panels to define the historic runway in favor of panels which would produce twice the power. The Navy offered the museum \$250,000 toward renovation of the control tower's elevator in exchange for their support of the plan which the museum declined. It organized an internet campaign to oppose the plan based on historical significance. Instead, the Navy decided to install the panels on existing structures around Pearl Harbor. ### Community involvement In 2008, the museum received a grant from BAE Systems to fund its Barnstorming program to build wind tunnels and plane props that will tour local schools to teach aerospace education to sixth graders. In 2012, the program was credited with teaching 3,500 students from 40 schools. In 2013, the U.S. State Department awarded the museum the "Museums Connect" grant for the "Past to Present: U.S. -Sino Bridge of Connections" program. The program allowed students from Kaiser High School to participate in a cultural heritage exchange with students in Chengdu, China and conduct research into 1940s American-Chinese relations. ### Tourism During the 2013 federal budget sequestration in the United States, the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor received an increase in tourists, due to limited ferry trips to the USS Arizona Memorial which are operated by active duty United States Navy personnel. While former and active military tourists gain access through the Admiral Clarey bridge and because Ford Island is still part of the active military base Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam, non-military tourists gain access via the National Park Service's Halawa Landing, now known as the Pearl Harbor Historic Sites, for tickets to the museum and then are transported via tour bus onto the installation for the museum and the USS Missouri. ## Recognition and awards Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor was listed as the eighth top aviation attraction in the United States by TripAdvisor. In 2007, the museum was awarded a preservation award from the Historic Hawaii foundation for "a specific project that preserved, rehabilitated or restored a historic building, object, site or district" in the redevelopment of hangar 37. ## See also - Onizuka Space Center - List of aerospace museums - List of museums in Hawaii	[ "## History", "### Facilities", "## Exhibits", "### Collection", "### East, Wind, Rain", "## Public reception", "### Controversies", "### Community involvement", "### Tourism", "## Recognition and awards", "## See also" ]	2,454	26,671
28,012,617	The Sleeping Girl of Turville	1,147,038,880	British sleeper	[ "1859 births", "Factitious disorders", "History of Buckinghamshire", "History of medicine in the United Kingdom", "People from Buckinghamshire", "Religion in Buckinghamshire", "Sleep disorders", "Year of death missing" ]	Ellen Sadler (15 May 1859 – after 1901), sometimes called The Sleeping Girl of Turville, was a resident of Turville, a small village in Buckinghamshire in the United Kingdom. In 1871, aged eleven, she purportedly fell asleep and did not wake for nine years. The case attracted international attention from newspapers, medical professionals and the public. Born to a large, impoverished family of farm workers, Ellen was sent to work as a nursemaid at the age of eleven. Soon afterwards, she began suffering periods of drowsiness and was referred to a local hospital. After four months, her condition was declared incurable, and she was sent home. Two days later, Ellen had a series of seizures and—her mother claimed—fell into a deep sleep from which she could not be roused. Ellen became a tourist attraction for the village, and her family made considerable money from visitors' donations. As the years progressed with no sign of Ellen's waking, speculation grew that her illness was either a hoax or caused by her mother, an issue that was never resolved. In late 1880, soon after her mother's death, Ellen awoke. She later married and had at least five children. ## Background Ellen Sadler was born on 15 May 1859 to Ann and William Sadler, who lived in the small village of Turville, Buckinghamshire. The Sadlers were a large, impoverished family consisting mainly of farmhands; Ellen, the youngest child, shared her home with her eleven siblings. Ellen's father died while she was an infant; Ann Sadler subsequently married Thomas Frewen. ## Illness ### Initial symptoms In 1870, aged eleven, Ellen began work as a nursemaid in nearby Marlow, but she began suffering periods of somnolence and her employment was terminated. She was subsequently attended by a local doctor, Henry Hayman F.R.C.S., from nearby Stokenchurch. Ellen had been suffering for 13 weeks from "glandular swellings" or an abscess on the back of her head, and symptoms consistent with a spinal disease. The family did not have much money, so the parish vicar, The Reverend Studholme, asked Hayman to secure Ellen's admission to a local hospital, where her condition worsened. Ellen stayed at the hospital for 18 weeks before being "discharged as incurable" in March 1871. ### Fall into unconsciousness According to Ellen's mother, upon the girl's return home on a rickety cart, she began to feel drowsy and had several seizures. Hayman states that it was two days after her discharge that the seizures occurred. He visited Ellen at her home, where he was told that the previous night, 17 March, Ellen had endured a series of such attacks, after which she turned to lie "on her left side, with her hand under her head, and the lower extremities drawn upwards". It was in this position that—her mother maintained—Ellen remained for the duration of her sleep. Hayman visited Ellen many times over the next few years and he later said that he "never found her otherwise". Ellen became something of a tourist attraction for Turville. She was visited by journalists, medical professionals, religious personnel and the "plain curious" from across the country, many of whom donated money to Ellen's family to be allowed to see her. Some paid to take cuts of Ellen's hair, until the "supply" began to run out. A Bucks Free Press journalist recounted his visit: > Her breathing was regular and natural, the skin soft and the body warm, as in a healthy subject; the pulse rather fast. The hands were small and thin, but the fingers quite flexible; the body somewhat emaciated; the feet and legs like those of a dead child, almost ice cold ... the aspect of her features was pleasant, more so than might be expected under the circumstances ... her eyes and cheeks were sunken, and the appearance was that of death ... but although there was no colour on her cheeks, the paleness was not that heavy hue which betokens death. A correspondent from The Daily Telegraph visited Ellen about 22 months after she fell ill. He wrote: > The girl's face is by no means cadaverous. There is flesh on the cheeks, which have a pinkish tint, and there is some colour in the thin lips. The eyes are calmly closed, as though in healthy sleep. I ventured to raise one of the lids and touch the eye beneath ... but there was not even a quivering of the eyelash. ... The girl's [hand] was quite warm and moist, and the finger nails were neatly trimmed. The fingers are not the least bit stiffened ... It is not a skeleton hand, neither are any of the girl's limbs so emaciated as, under the extraordinary circumstances alleged, might be expected. ... The child's body is very thin as compared with her limbs. ... There is not much substance in her flesh, however; it is soft and flabby ... [Her feet were] almost ice-cold. ... As regards the child's breathing, it is so feeble that it is almost impossible to detect it; you cannot feel it by holding the cheek to her mouth, and the only faintest flutter is felt when the hand is laid over the region of the heart. By March 1873, Ellen was believed to be suffering from starvation. At first, she had largely subsisted on port, tea and milk, given three times per day. After about 15 months—while her mother was attempting to administer arrowroot—Ellen's jaw locked closed. Subsequently, according to Hayman, she was fed "wine, gruel and other things" using the "spout of a toy teapot inserted between two broken teeth". The Daily Telegraph journalist expanded on Ellen's feeding: "The feeding implements stand on a little table by the side of the stump bedstead, and, at first sight, give you the idea that they are toys placed there to attract her attention should she, by a merciful termination of her trance, presently awake to life. The toys in question are two tiny 'teapots', each not much larger than a full-sized walnut and holding four small teaspoonfuls. One of these is filled with port wine, and the other with milk ... this quantity of liquid nourishment ... cannot weigh more than half an ounce ..." At this time, it was considered "manifestly out of the question to think of moving her". How the family dealt with Ellen's passing of urine and faeces is unclear, but in 1880, Hayman said that Ann Frewen told him that no bowel movements had occurred for five years, and that approximately every four days "a somewhat large amount would pass from the bladder". ### Scepticism Some visitors were sceptical of Ellen's illness and attempted to uncover the alleged ruse through methods such as stabbing her with pins, to no effect. The Bucks Free Press journalist was suspicious of Ann's practice of making visitors wait before seeing Ellen. Some neighbours were also "deeply sceptical", as Ellen's family was making a "healthy profit" from her illness. During summers, the family was taking as much as £2 per week (£ as of ). Others said they sometimes saw Ellen sitting by her window at night. Ann consented to "fair tests", but further suspicions were raised because medical personnel were not allowed to remain for too long, and Ann did not want Ellen to be moved to a hospital. Nor was Ellen listed as an invalid during the 1871 census. Hayman said that Ann was reluctant to allow handling of her daughter by medical personnel because they often concealed sharp objects with which to "test [Ellen's] powers of feeling". Her parents had also "strenuously opposed" Hayman's recommendation to run an electric current through Ellen's sleeping body. Much speculation appeared in the press as to the cause of Ellen's illness; some linked the case to that of Sarah Jacob, a girl from Wales who, her parents claimed, was able to survive without nourishment, through divine intervention. Sarah died of starvation in 1869, and her parents were subsequently convicted of manslaughter. A journalist for The Observer commented, "It is to be hoped that [Sarah's case] is known in the obscure village of Turville, where—we are asked to believe—a fresh case of miraculous trance has taken place. ... [Ellen's case] very much ... incites suspicion of deliberate imposture." One correspondent to The Times wrote, "It is by widespread publicity that such cases are multiplied, and it is difficult to overstate the harm thus done. These impostures exist through a morbid love of sympathy on the part of the children, or from the gains that accrue to the parents. Once begun, they soon pass into real disease." Another said the "ridiculous mystery" could be resolved if only Ellen were transferred, over her mother's continued objections, to a London hospital, a sentiment echoed by many. Claims that Ellen was suffering from a form of catalepsy—a condition at the time considered "so rare that not one physician in a thousand has so much as seen a single case of it"—were also disregarded as unlikely, as was any thought of religious ecstasy. Nevertheless, Hayman affirmed, "every effort [had] been made to discover the deception, if any, but without effect." The Home Secretary and local Magistrate corresponded about the case but the law was powerless to interfere, because despite accepting donations, Ellen's family never asked for money outright, and she "was not represented as a 'fasting girl'", as Sarah Jacob had been. The Daily Telegraph journalist said, "[Ann Frewen]'s manner is that of a perfectly honest woman who would be too glad if her child could be restored to consciousness." He spoke to neighbours, none of whom indicated anything other than trust in Ellen's parents and Hayman, and claimed that the family was receiving no money from Ellen's illness, although the latter point is contradicted by Hayman and others. The journalist concluded, "I have no medical knowledge, and [am] unqualified to give an opinion beyond what is justified by close observation of the ordinary kind. I went to Turville prepared to find an imposture. I have returned—puzzled." ### Recovery Ann Frewen died in May 1880. The inquest into her death was held at the nearby Bull and Butcher public house, presided over by the county coroner, Frederick Charsley. Part of the inquest's remit was to consider the matter of Ellen's subsequent care. Thomas Frewen was reported as being "quite evasive" when the coroner asked him how Ellen was fed, and although Hayman testified to reaffirm his stance that Ellen's illness was genuine, Reverend Studholme was less certain. However, he could not offer any evidence to this effect, even though he had made several unannounced visits to Ellen's home. Charsley concluded that Thomas could not look after Ellen, as his job left him absent from their home all day, and that the other members of the household would be too busy with its upkeep. Therefore, he turned Ellen's care over to her married sisters, Elizabeth Stacey and Grace Blackall, both of whom lived in Turville. The cause of Ann's death was found to be oedema of the heart, from which she had been suffering for many years. Five months later, Ellen awoke; by November, she had "fully recovered". By this time, Ellen was twenty-one and claimed to remember nothing of the previous nine years. She otherwise suffered few long-term effects, save for slightly stunted growth and a "weak eye". ## Later life and legacy In 1886, Ellen married Mark Blackall in nearby Fawley. In the censuses of 1891 and 1901, the pair are listed as living in Barkham and Caversham, respectively. They had five children: Ann (b. 1888), Elizabeth or Mable (b. 1889), Gladys (b. 1890), Sydney (b. 1896) and Gertrude (b. 1898). Ellen and Mark appear in the 1911 census together with Sydney and Gertrude, all living in Lower Caversham. The census also records that they had six children, one of which had died. The case of Ellen Sadler has remained a part of local folklore, spawning tales of witchcraft and rumours of royal attention in Turville. The Sadler family home became known as "Sleepy Cottage", and was used for filming of the BBC situation comedy The Vicar of Dibley. No clear cause has ever been ascribed for Ellen's condition; modern diagnoses might include narcolepsy, or deliberate drugging, and the possibility that it was a hoax cannot be discounted. An embellished account of the story can be found in the 1973 collection Witchcraft in the Thames Valley by Tony Barham. ## See also - Kleine–Levin syndrome - Münchausen syndrome by proxy	[ "## Background", "## Illness", "### Initial symptoms", "### Fall into unconsciousness", "### Scepticism", "### Recovery", "## Later life and legacy", "## See also" ]	2,719	28,998
2,562,815	A.M. (Wilco album)	1,148,308,153	null	[ "1995 debut albums", "Albums produced by Brian Paulson", "Albums produced by Jeff Tweedy", "Reprise Records albums", "Sire Records albums", "Wilco albums" ]	A.M. is the debut studio album by the American alternative rock band Wilco, released on March 28, 1995, by Sire Records and Reprise Records. The album was released only months after the breakup of Uncle Tupelo, an alternative country band that was the predecessor of Wilco. Prior to its release, there was debate about whether the album would be better than the debut album of Son Volt, the new band of former Uncle Tupelo lead singer Jay Farrar. Although A.M. was released before Son Volt's Trace, critical reviews were modest and initial sales were low. The album was later regarded as a "failure" by band members, as Trace was a greater success. It was the band's last album to be recorded in a purely alternative country style, as following the record the band began to expand their sound across multiple genres. It is also the only Wilco album to feature Brian Henneman of The Bottle Rockets as a lead guitarist. ## Background and recording Uncle Tupelo's final album, Anodyne, featured a new lineup for the band—a five-piece outfit with drummer Ken Coomer, bassist John Stirratt, and multi-instrumentalist Max Johnston. Tensions mounted between singers Jay Farrar and Jeff Tweedy, and Uncle Tupelo played its last concert on May 1, 1994, at Mississippi Nights in St. Louis, Missouri. Only days after the breakup, Tweedy decided to form a new group. He was able to retain the lineup of Uncle Tupelo sans Farrar, and rechristened the band Wilco. In mid-May, the band began to rehearse songs in the office of band manager Tony Margherita, and hired producer Brian Paulson, who produced Anodyne. Wilco first recorded demo tracks for the album at Easley studio in Memphis, Tennessee, in June. Stirratt recommended the studio based on previous experience as a member of The Hilltops, and Tweedy had heard of the studio through a Jon Spencer Blues Explosion recording. Reprise Records, a subsidiary of Warner Bros,, signed Jeff Tweedy after hearing the tapes, and recording for the album continued through August. Tweedy was preoccupied with trying to establish Wilco as a viable band on the Reprise label, and decided to add another guitarist to the band. Brian Henneman, the lead singer for The Bottle Rockets, was brought into the recording sessions as a lead guitarist. Steel guitarist Lloyd Maines and bassist Daniel Corrigan also contributed to the album. Corrigan also photographed the band for the liner booklet. Howie Weinberg mastered the album, while Barbara Longo provided graphic design. Henneman had to leave the band shortly after recording the album, and was replaced by former Titanic Love Affair guitarist Jay Bennett. Tweedy also attempted to create a more collaborative environment than Uncle Tupelo, requesting songwriting contributions from other members. Stirratt submitted three songs, hoping to become a secondary songwriter for Wilco. However, although the songs were recorded as demos, only one ("It's Just That Simple") was selected to appear on the album, and was the only Stirratt song, and the only song by Wilco not to have lyrics written by Tweedy, to appear on any Wilco album. The album's title is intended to reference Top 40 radio stations, and the tracks reflect a straightforward country-rock sound. The band members felt that they needed to establish themselves outside of the Uncle Tupelo fanbase. However, Tweedy later stated that in actuality, they were "trying to tread some water with a perceived audience." Tweedy wrote a song about the Uncle Tupelo breakup, but decided that he didn't want any material on that subject to appear on the album. (It can be argued, however, that first single "Box Full of Letters", as well as "Too Far Apart" allude to the dissolution of Farrar and Tweedy's friendship and working relationship.) Critic and author Greg Kot wrote in Wilco: Learning How to Die that "Tweedy's voice and personality are as modest as the arrangements; there's little sense of drama, and virtually no hint of risk." Tweedy attributes some of the straightforwardness of the album to his abuse of marijuana at the time. Shortly after the album, Tweedy stopped smoking pot, to which he credits the introspectiveness of further albums. While Wilco was recording tracks, Farrar formed a band of his own, Son Volt. Son Volt signed to Warner Bros. Records and began recording their first album (also produced by Paulson), Trace, in November 1994. The fact that both Wilco and Son Volt began working on an album almost immediately after the Uncle Tupelo breakup caused debate among critics, fans, and Warner Bros. about which would be the better band. Joe McEwen, who originally signed Uncle Tupelo to a Warner subsidiary, felt that Wilco was taking a step backwards from the material on Anodyne. McEwen urged Richard Dodd, who had recently mixed Tom Petty's Wildflowers, to remix the album. Dodd emphasized Tweedy's vocals to increase the chances of success on radio. Wilco began touring before the album was released. Their live debut was on November 27, 1994, at Cicero's Basement Bar in St. Louis, a venue where Uncle Tupelo had first received significant media attention. The band was billed for that concert as Black Shampoo, a reference to a 1970s B movie, and the show sold out. Wilco continued to tour for two hundred shows, culminating in a show at the South by Southwest Music Conference in Austin, Texas, in March 1995. A.M. was released on Reprise Records on March 28, 1995. ## Commercial and critical reception A.M. received modest reviews from critics. Holly George-Warren of Rolling Stone called the album "one hell of a country-guts debut", praising the influence of Gram Parsons and Neil Young on the music. However, the album still received a moderate three-and-a-half star rating. Robert Christgau of The Village Voice gave the album a three-star honorable mention, but called it "realist defiance grinding sadly down into realist bathos." The Village Voice placed the album at position 34 on the 1995 Pazz & Jop critics poll. The band was disappointed by the critical reception, since Trace was met with better reviews. According to Henneman: > The first Son Volt record was pretty fucking good. It was like watching a prize fight at that point. Wow! He slammed him there! Ouch! What a counterpunch! It was exciting being on the sidelines watching these guys. It's like Jay had something to prove with that first album, an urgency to it that none of his albums since have had. I felt he had a chip on his shoulder, and it shows up in the music. It was stunning. It was humbling. I think that kicked Jeff in the ass. A.M. hit number 27 on Billboard's Top Heatseekers chart, whereas Trace peaked at number 166 on the Billboard 200; by 1997, Trace had outsold A.M. two-to-one. Wilco released "Box Full of Letters" as a single, but it received little airplay. For the only time in Wilco's career, ticket sales failed to meet expectations. As of 2003, the album had sold about 150,000 copies. ## Track listing All songs written by Jeff Tweedy unless otherwise noted. 1. "I Must Be High" – 2:59 2. "Casino Queen" – 2:45 3. "Box Full of Letters" – 3:05 4. "Shouldn't Be Ashamed" – 3:28 5. "Pick Up the Change" – 2:56 6. "I Thought I Held You" – 3:49 7. "That's Not the Issue" – 3:19 8. "It's Just That Simple" (John Stirratt) – 3:45 9. "Should've Been in Love" – 3:36 10. "Passenger Side" – 3:33 11. "Dash 7" – 3:29 12. "Blue Eyed Soul" – 4:05 13. "Too Far Apart" – 3:44 ## Personnel - Jeff Tweedy - vocals (1-7,9-13), guitar (1,3,13), acoustic guitar (2,4-7,9-12), bass (8) - John Stirratt – bass (1-7,9,10,12,13), vocals (2,3,6,8), piano (6), acoustic guitar (8), organ (13) - Ken Coomer – drums (1-10,12,13), vocals (2) - Max Johnston – dobro (1,3,9,13), fiddle (2,10), vocals (2), mandolin (4,8,10,12), banjo (5-7) - Brian Henneman – guitar (1-9,12,13), vocals (2), small stoned guitar (10) - Daniel Corrigan – vocals (2) - Lloyd Maines – pedal steel guitar (1,6,8,11,12) - Wilco, Brian Henneman and Daniel Corrigan – handclaps, crowd noise, glass cheers (2) ### Production - Daniel Corrigan – photography - James SK Wān - wardrobe - Richard Dodd – mixing - Barbara Longo – design - Brian Paulson – producer, engineer, mixing - Howie Weinberg – mastering - Wilco – producer, engineer - Bob Andrews – Production Coordinator	[ "## Background and recording", "## Commercial and critical reception", "## Track listing", "## Personnel", "### Production" ]	2,042	12,803
22,678,868	2001 Football League Second Division play-off final	1,170,272,906	English association football match in 2001	[ "2000–01 Football League Second Division", "2001 Football League play-offs", "EFL League One play-off finals", "Football League Second Division play-off finals", "May 2001 sports events in the United Kingdom", "Reading F.C. matches", "Walsall F.C. matches" ]	The 2001 Football League Second Division play-off Final was an association football match which was played on 27 May 2001 at the Millennium Stadium, Cardiff, between Walsall and Reading. It was to determine the third and final team to gain promotion from the Football League Second Division to the First Division. The top two teams of the 2000–01 Football League Second Division league, Millwall and Rotherham United, gained automatic promotion to the First Division, while the teams placed from third to sixth place in the table took part in play-offs. The winners of the play-off semi-finals competed for the final place for the 2001–02 season in the First Division. The losing semi-finalists were Wigan Athletic and Stoke City who had been defeated by Reading and Walsall respectively. It was the first season that the play-off finals were contested at the Millennium Stadium during the redevelopment of Wembley Stadium. The match was refereed by Eddie Wolstenholme in front of a crowd of 50,496. Reading took the lead through Jamie Cureton half an hour into the game with a volley that crept over the line having struck Jimmy Walker in the Walsall goal. The half ended with the score 1–0 to Reading. Three minutes into the second half, Walsall levelled the game after Don Goodman scored from an Andy Tillson header. With the score 1–1 after 90 minutes, the match went into extra time. Less than a minute into the first half of extra time, Martin Butler's header from a James Harper throw-in put Reading 2–1 ahead. In the 107th minute, substitute Tony Rougier was credited with an own goal after a clearance from Barry Hunter deflected off him into the Reading goal. Two minutes later, Ian Brightwell passed to Darren Byfield who turned and scored with a low shot which beat Phil Whitehead in the Reading goal. The match ended 3–2 and Walsall were promoted to the First Division. Walsall ended the following season in 18th place in the First Division table, four places and two points above the relegation zone, securing safety with three wins in their last four games. Reading's next season saw them gain automatic promotion to the First Division after finishing in second place. ## Route to the final Reading finished the regular 2000–01 season in third place in the Second Division, the third tier of the English football league system, one place ahead of Walsall. Both therefore missed out on the two automatic places for promotion to the First Division and instead took part in the play-offs to determine the third promoted team. Reading finished five points behind Rotherham United (who were promoted in second place) and seven behind league winners Millwall. Walsall ended the season five points behind Reading. Walsall faced Stoke City in their play-off semi-final with the first match of the two-legged tie taking place at the Britannia Stadium on 13 May 2001. Both sides had numerous chances to score, with Walsall's Don Goodman missing at least three opportunities. Stoke substitute Ben Petty who had come on as a substitute for Stoke was sent off in the 84th minute for a foul on Pedro Matías, and the game ended goalless. The second leg of the semi-final was played three days later at the Bescot Stadium in Walsall. In the 31st minute, Stoke's Graham Kavanagh scored with a volley from a Ríkharður Daðason header. Tom Bennett's inswinging corner was fumbled by Gavin Ward, the Stoke goalkeeper, and ended in the goal to level the scores. Two minutes after half time, Matías put Walsall ahead and three minutes later, a free kick from Dean Keates eluded Ward to make it 3–1. Matías scored his second of the match before a consolation goal from Peter Thorne ended the match 4–2 and Walsall progressed to the final. Reading's opposition for their play-off semi-final was Wigan Athletic and the first leg was played at the JJB Stadium in Wigan on 13 May 2001. Andy Liddell missed a number of chances for the home side before Roy Carroll saved headers from Reading's Barry Hunter and Phil Parkinson within the space of a minute; the match ended 0–0. The second leg of the semi-final took place at the Madejski Stadium in Reading three days later. Kevin Nicholls put Wigan ahead midway through the first half with a shot from 20 yards (18 m) after being set up by Scott Green. Their side held the lead until the 86th minute when Martin Butler scored from close range after Carroll had deflected Nicky Forster's cross. In the last minute of the game, Forster was awarded a penalty after being fouled by Kevin Sharp. Jamie Cureton took the spot kick but his shot was saved by Carroll, and Forster scored, to make it 2–1 and ensured Reading qualified for the final. ## Match ### Background Reading had played in the third tier of English football since they were relegated from the First Division in the 1997–98 season. They had featured in a play-off final on one previous occasion when they lost 4–3 to Bolton Wanderers in the 1995 Football League First Division play-off final. Walsall had been relegated to the Second Division the previous season. They had also played in one play-off final, winning the 1988 Football League Third Division play-off final against Bristol City after a replay. Reading's top scorers during the regular season were Cureton with 28 goals (26 in the league, 1 in the FA Cup and 1 in the League Cup) and Butler with 26 (24 in the league and 2 in the FA Cup). For Walsall, Leitão had scored 21 (18 in the league, 1 in the FA Cup and 2 in the League Cup) while Angell had 13 (12 in the league and 1 in the FA Cup). During the regular season meetings between the sides, Walsall won the game at the Bescot Stadium 2–1 in November 2000 while the clubs played out a 2–2 draw at the Madejski Stadium the following April. According to Martin Thorpe writing in The Guardian, Walsall had spent £185,000 on players compared to £3.1 million by Reading. The referee for the match was Eddie Wolstenholme. Both teams adopted a 4–4–2 formation. As a result of the redevelopment of Wembley Stadium, it was the first time the English Football League play-offs had taken place at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff, Wales. ### Summary The match kicked off around 3 p.m. on 27 May 2001 in front of a crowd of 50,496. The game was goalless for the first half-hour and then Reading took the lead through Cureton. James Harper crossed the ball into Walsall's six-yard area, and it was headed on by Jim McIntyre. It fell to Cureton 8 yards (7.3 m) out and he volleyed it straight at Jimmy Walker in the Walsall goal. Walker parried the ball but it rolled into the goal to make it 1–0. Soon after, McIntyre's header from Sammy Igoe's cross hit the Walsall crossbar with Walker beaten. The half ended with the score 1–0 to Reading. No personnel changes were made by either side during the interval. In the 45th minute, Walsall's Tony Barras was shown the first yellow card of the match. Three minutes into the second half, Walsall levelled the game. Matías' cross was headed back across goal by Andy Tillson and Goodman sidefooted it into the Reading goal. In the 65th minute, Reading made their first substitution of the game with Igoe being replaced by Forster. Sixteen minutes later Tony Rougier came on in place of Reading's McIntyre. With five minutes of regular time remaining, Parkinson became the first Reading player to be booked. With the score 1–1 after 90 minutes, the match went into extra time. Less than a minute into the first half of extra time, Butler's header from a Harper throw-in found the back of the Walsall net to put Reading 2–1 ahead. Midway through the half, Walsall made a triple substitution, Paul Hall, Leitão and Bennett being replaced by Matt Gadsby, Darren Byfield and Gábor Bukrán respectively. In the 107th minute, Rougier was credited with an own goal after a clearance from Hunter deflected off him into the Reading goal. Two minutes later, Ian Brightwell passed to Byfield who was 25 yards (23 m) away from goal. He turned and advanced on goal, and struck a low shot which beat Phil Whitehead in the Reading goal. The match ended 3–2 and Walsall were promoted to the First Division. ### Details ## Post-match The Walsall manager Ray Graydon said: "it was not a classic game but it was a fantastic day." His opposite number Alan Pardew suggested his team should "come through it stronger". Graydon left Walsall in January 2002 with the club in 22nd place in the First Division table. The club's owner Jeff Bonser described the victory at the Millennium Stadium as the greatest day in the history of Walsall F.C. Walsall ended the following season in 18th place in the First Division table, four places and two points above the relegation zone, securing safety with three wins in their last four games of the season. Reading's next season saw them gain automatic promotion to the First Division after finishing in second place.	[ "## Route to the final", "## Match", "### Background", "### Summary", "### Details", "## Post-match" ]	2,051	36,350
25,808,876	Justin (consul 540)	1,154,564,538	Byzantine aristocrat and general	[ "520s births", "566 deaths", "6th-century Byzantine people", "6th-century Roman consuls", "6th-century soldiers", "Assassinated Byzantine people", "Assassinated military personnel", "Avar–Byzantine wars", "Generals of Justinian I", "Imperial Roman consuls", "Justinian dynasty", "Lazic War", "Magistri militum", "People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars" ]	Flavius Mar. Petrus Theodorus Valentinus Rusticius Boraides Germanus Iustinus, simply and commonly known as Justin (Latin: Iustinus, Greek: Ἰουστίνος; c. 525–566), was an Eastern Roman aristocrat and general. A member of the Justinian Dynasty and nephew of Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565), he was appointed as one of the last Roman consuls in 540, before going on to assume senior military commands in the Balkans and in Lazica. He fought against the Slavs, the Sassanid Persians and supervised the Byzantine Empire's first contacts with the Avars. At the time of Justinian's death, he was seen as a probable successor, but was beaten to the throne by his cousin, Justin II (r. 565–578), who exiled him to Egypt, where he was murdered. ## Biography ### Early life and campaigns Justin was born around 525, the eldest son of Germanus and his wife Passara. Germanus was a cousin of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565) and thus a member of the wider Justinian dynasty and cousin to Justinian's successor, Emperor Justin II (r. 565–578). In 540, he was named ordinary consul at a very young age; he is illustrated as beardless in his consular diptych, and is still mentioned as a "young man" by Procopius nine years later. At this point, he already held the title of vir illustris and the honorary office of comes domesticorum. In the same year, he accompanied his father to the East against the Sassanid Persians, but saw no action. In 549, he was instrumental in the revelation of the plot to overthrow Emperor Justinian by the Armenian general Artabanes and his associates. The conspirators intended to assassinate Emperor Justinian and his favourite general Belisarius, and raise Germanus to the Byzantine throne. Notified of their intentions, Justin informed his father, who then told Marcellus, the Count of the Excubitors, leading to the plotters' arrest. In 550, together with his younger brother Justinian, he joined their father in his expedition against Ostrogoth Italy, but Germanus died suddenly in the autumn of 550, before the army had left the Balkans, where it was assembling. After this, Justinian and Germanus's son-in-law, John, led the army towards Salona (modern Split, Croatia), where the eunuch Narses assumed command in late 551. In early 551, Justin was attached to a force under the eunuch Scholasticus that campaigned against a Slavic raid in the eastern Balkans. The Byzantines were initially defeated near Adrianople but went on to score a victory, after which the Slavs left Byzantine lands. In early 552, Justin and Justinian were placed at the head of another expedition against a Slavic raid against Illyricum, but their forces were too small to confront the raiders directly. Instead, the brothers had to content themselves with harassing them. Shortly after, they were ordered north to assist the Lombards against the Gepids along with Aratius, Suartuas, and Amalafridas, but the Byzantines were detained from advancing too far north by the need to suppress religious strife in the city of Ulpiana. ### High command in Lazica and the Danube In 554, now experienced in military affairs, Justin was sent east to Lazica to join the Byzantine forces under Bessas, Buzes, and Martin. His first encounter with the Persians was unsuccessful. Along with Bessas, Justin and his troops were encamped at the plain of Chytropolia, near the strategically important fortress of Telephis, which was held by Martin. The Persian general Mihr-Mihroe, however, succeeded in dislodging Martin from Telephis. Martin withdrew to join the other two generals at Chytropolia, but there again the Byzantine army, too slow to take up position, was forced to flee in disarray before the advancing Persians, retreating along the Phasis river to the fortified island of Nesos (Νήσος, Greek for "island"). Bessas was dismissed from high command as magister militum per Armeniam after this debacle, and succeeded by Martin with Justin as his second in command. Justin was ignorant of Martin's intention to assassinate their ally, the Lazic king Gubazes II; when he learned of the deed, he was shocked, but did not reprimand Martin because he believed – wrongly – that the murder had been carried out at the orders of Emperor Justinian. The Byzantines then launched an attack on the Persian fort of Onoguris, but they were forced to abandon it at the unexpectedly quick arrival of Persian relief forces under Nachoragan. In spring 556, Justin was with the rest of the Byzantine forces at Nesos, when Nakhoragan invaded western Lazica, making for the town of Phasis. The Byzantines hastily departed for the town, managing to reach it before the Persian army and then proceeded to successfully defend it during a prolonged siege. Following this success, in early 556 Justin returned to Nesos to guard it together with Buzes, while the rest of the army marched against the Misimians, a tribe that had recently allied itself with the Persians and killed the Byzantine general Soterichus. Justin's only activity during this time was to dispatch one of his officers, Elminzur, to capture Rhodopolis (modern Vartsikhe) with 2,000 cavalry. In the next year, a general truce was agreed, which was finalized into a peace treaty in 562. Soon after, an imperial investigation into Gubazes's murder brought to light Martin's culpability. His military successes spared his life, but cost him his command; he was replaced as magister militum per Armeniam by Justin in spring 557. It was in this capacity that in late 557 Justin received the first Avar embassy to the Byzantine Empire. The Avars, who had fled their ancestral lands in Central Asia before the rise of the Göktürks, asked for imperial protection and for land to settle on. Justin forwarded them to Constantinople, where they arrived in December. Turned away from the Empire and towards the plains of the Ukraine by Justinian, the Avars defeated enemy after enemy and eventually reached the northeastern bank of the Danube in 561/562. There they again encountered Justin, who had just been transferred to the command of the quaestura exercitus covering the lower Danubian limes (the Limes Moesiae). At this time, the Avars demanded to settle in Byzantine imperial territory in Scythia Minor, whose defences had been devastated by a recent Kotrigur invasion led by Zabergan. Here, Justin played a crucial role and gained great fame, by learning of the Avars' intentions and warning Justinian. Consequently, the Avar embassy to Constantinople was detained while the Byzantine defences were put in order. With Justin continuing to maintain a careful watch over the Danube river, the Avars contented themselves with the annual subsidy paid by Byzantium, and left the Empire in peace for some years to come. ### Exile and death At the time of Emperor Justinian's death in 565, due to his titles and reputation as a commander, as well his army's proximity to the imperial capital, he was the leading contender for the vacant throne, along with his cousin Justin, the curopalates. The latter, however, was already present at Constantinople, and could count on the support of the Byzantine Senate, and especially of Patriarch John Scholasticus and the Count of the Excubitors Tiberius, whom he had helped secure his post. Thus Justin was hastily elevated to the throne on the same day that Justinian died. According to the contemporary historian Evagrius Scholasticus, the two Justins had reached an agreement whereby whoever would be crowned emperor would make the other the "second man" in the empire. When Justin II recalled his cousin to Constantinople, it seemed that this was the reason. The general was warmly received at first, but soon the new emperor began to make accusations against him, dismissed his bodyguard and placed him under house arrest, before sending him to exile in Alexandria, ostensibly as the new augustal prefect of Egypt. There, he was murdered in his sleep, ostensibly because he was plotting to seize the throne, and his head was cut off and brought to Constantinople. In reality, he was too great a threat to the new emperor to be left alive; the Visigoth chronicler John of Biclaro explicitly attributes the murder to Justin II's wife, the Empress Sophia.	[ "## Biography", "### Early life and campaigns", "### High command in Lazica and the Danube", "### Exile and death" ]	1,876	32,291
12,485,303	Emerald tanager	1,133,683,973	Species of bird from South America	[ "Birds described in 1869", "Birds of Costa Rica", "Birds of Panama", "Birds of the Colombian Andes", "Birds of the Ecuadorian Andes", "Tangara (genus)", "Taxa named by Osbert Salvin", "Taxa named by Philip Sclater", "Taxonomy articles created by Polbot" ]	The emerald tanager (Tangara florida) is a species of bird in the tanager family Thraupidae. It is found in Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Panama. Described by the English ornithologists PL Sclater and Osbert Salvin in 1869, it is a medium-sized species that has a length of 10.6–13 cm (4.2–5.1 in) and a mass of 18–20.5 g (0.63–0.72 oz). It can be identified by its bright green plumage, with black streaking on the back and wings, and a black auricular patch and beak. It also has yellow on the crown and rump. The species shows slight sexual dimorphism, with the females being duller and having yellow-green in place of yellow on the head. The emerald tanager mainly inhabits humid lowland forest, montane evergreen forest, and secondary forest at elevations of 500–900 m (1,600–3,000 ft) but can be found from 100–1,200 m (330–3,940 ft). It is omnivorous and feeds mainly on fruit, flowers, and flower buds, supplementing its diet with arthropods. It breeds from March to May in Costa Rica and from January to April in Colombia. The emerald tanager makes cup nests out of moss, where eggs are laid in clutches of two. It is listed as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) on the IUCN Red List due to its sufficiently large range and a lack of significant population decline, but is threatened by habitat destruction. ## Taxonomy and systematics The emerald tanager was first described as Calliste florida by the English ornithologists Philip Sclater and Osbert Salvin in 1869, based on a female specimen from Costa Rica that was collected by Julian Carmiol. The name of the genus, Tangara, comes from the Tupí word tangara, meaning "dancer". The specific name florida comes from the region of Florida. Emerald tanager is the official common name designated by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOU). The emerald tanager is one of 27 species in the genus Tangara, a Neotropical genus of tanagers. According to a 2004 study of mitochondrial DNA by Kevin Burns and Kazuya Naoki, it belongs to a species group that includes the blue-whiskered tanager, green-and-gold tanager, golden tanager, silver-throated tanager, saffron-crowned tanager, golden-eared tanager, and flame-faced tanager. Out of these, it is most closely related to the silver-throated tanager. The following cladogram shows phylogenetic relationships within the species group based on the above study: The emerald tanager is recognized as monotypic by the IOU. However, some authorities recognize populations from eastern Panama to Colombia and northwestern Ecuador as being a distinct subspecies, T. f. auriceps. ## Description The emerald tanager is a medium-sized tanager with a length of 10.6–13 cm (4.2–5.1 in) and a mass of 18–20.5 g (0.63–0.72 oz). Both sexes are similar in appearance, but the species shows slight sexual dimorphism, with females being duller and having yellow-green instead of yellow on the head. It may be confused with the glistening-green tanager but can be told apart by its less intense plumage. It is also similar to the blue-whiskered tanager but can be distinguished by the latter's black face and throat and turquoise cheeks. Adults males are mostly bright light green, with black streaking on the upperparts. The loral area, the base of the bill, and chin, along with the auricular patch, are also black. The center and rear of the crown are dark yellow, while the rest of the crown, the region around the eye, and the band across the back of the neck are yellowish-green. The upper back is black, while the lower back, rump, and uppertail coverts are dark yellow. The wings are black and green. The underparts are mostly light green, while the center of the belly and the undertail coverts are light yellow. The iris is brown, the bill is black and the feet are bluish-gray. Immatures resemble adult females, while juveniles are much duller. Juvenile males gain plumage similar to that of adult females after their first molt, while they gain adult male plumage after a second molt that occurs after their first breeding season. ### Vocalizations The emerald tanager makes a sharp chip or tsip which may be repeated and which occasionally accelerates into a rapid twitter. Its song is a series of loud cheet or chiip notes. ## Distribution and habitat The emerald tanager is found from southern Costa Rica to northern Ecuador; through Panama and Colombia. It may also be found in extreme southern Nicaragua. There are two disjunct populations, separated by an area between Panama and the San Juan River. Throughout its range, the emerald tanager is commonest at elevations of 500–900 m (1,600–3,000 ft) but is found at elevations of up to 1,200 m (3,900 ft) in Ecuador and as low as 100 m (330 ft) in Colombia. The average elevation inhabited is highest in the north of the range and is the lowest in the south. The emerald tanager inhabits humid lowland forest, montane evergreen forest, and secondary forest. It is usually found in the canopy and rarely strays to the forest floor. It has also been observed in lone fruiting trees or shrubs next to forests. It prefers forested habitats to semi-open ones. ## Behavior and ecology The species has a generation length of 3.26 years. ### Feeding The emerald tanager is omnivorous. It mainly feeds on fruit, supplementing its diet with arthropods, flowers, and flower buds. In Costa Rica, arthropods make up a greater proportion of the diet during the breeding season. The most commonly eaten fruits include those in the genera Miconia, Coussapoa, Cecropia, Ficus, Ilex, Tetrochidium, and Topobea. The emerald tanager forages singly, in pairs, or small flocks of 3–7 individuals within larger mixed-species flocks consisting of other tanager species, honeycreepers, and warblers. It is active, occasionally moving about excitedly when foraging. Fruits are typically gleaned, while insects are mainly foraged from moss in the crown of trees, with moss occasionally being torn apart during feeding to capture prey. The species has also been observed feeding on a swarm of army ants. ### Breeding The emerald tanager has varying breeding seasons in different areas, breeding from March to May in Costa Rica and from January to April in Colombia. Nests are made above the ground on moss-covered branches, at heights of 1.5–12 m (4.9–39.4 ft). Nests are cup-shaped and made of moss. Eggs are laid in clutches of two. Breeding pairs have been observed carrying insects and fruit to nests. ## Status The emerald tanager is listed as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) on the IUCN Red List due to its sufficiently large range and a lack of significant population decline. However, its population, which is thought to be between 40,000 and 499,999 mature birds, is currently decreasing. The species is threatened by habitat destruction and is already suffering locally due to deforestation. Habitat destruction is an especially acute problem in areas that have steep changes in elevation, as it could lead populations becoming isolated and a reduction in genetic diversity (the variety in a population's genetic characteristics).	[ "## Taxonomy and systematics", "## Description", "### Vocalizations", "## Distribution and habitat", "## Behavior and ecology", "### Feeding", "### Breeding", "## Status" ]	1,686	27,446
37,881,714	Street Fighter X Mega Man	1,169,222,609	2012 crossover action-platform video game published by Capcom	[ "2012 video games", "Crossover video games", "Fan games", "Freeware games", "Mega Man spin-off games", "Retro-style video games", "Side-scrolling video games", "Street Fighter games", "Video games developed in Singapore", "Windows games", "Windows-only games" ]	Street Fighter X Mega Man is a crossover platform game created by Singaporean fan developer Seow Zong Hui. Initially developed as a fan game, Street Fighter X Mega Man later received support from Capcom, who assisted in the production of the game. Street Fighter X Mega Man was released as a free download from Capcom Unity on December 17, 2012. It celebrates the 25th anniversary of both Capcom's Mega Man and Street Fighter franchises. Gameplay mimicks the design of classic Mega Man games with Street Fighter characters substituting as important enemies encountered in the game. The game received mixed to positive reviews by critics, with some common complaints relating to technical issues and a lack of a save feature. In response to the complaints, an update was released on January 28, 2013 titled Street Fighter X Mega Man V2, which added a password save feature and other fixes. ## Premise and gameplay Street Fighter X Mega Man mimics the appearance and gameplay style of Mega Man games released on the Nintendo Entertainment System. The game's premise and plot center around its status as a crossover video game and the respective anniversaries of both franchises. Having fought countless Robot Masters over the years, Mega Man is ready to lie back, relax and enjoy his 25th anniversary. Getting wind of this, Ryu and his fellow Street Fighters want one last battle before they let their own anniversary finish. In terms of gameplay, Mega Man uses the same set of moves (the slide and the charge shot) featured in Mega Man 4. Instead of using stages based on Mega Man and using Robot Masters as level bosses, the stages share influences from the Street Fighter franchise stages and characters such as Blanka, Chun-Li, and Ryu take the place of the Robot Masters as the end of level bosses. The Street Fighter characters use their signature moves as attacks; in addition, they have their own Super Meters that build up when they take damage during the boss fights and allow them to launch a powerful attack at Mega Man once filled. Like other Mega Man games, defeating each boss earns Mega Man a new weapon based on the characters' attacks, such as Ryu's Hadouken and Chun-Li's Hyakuretsu Kyaku. After clearing the eight main levels, the player then moves on to face the final set of bosses. Clearing certain conditions allows players to fight hidden bosses Sagat and Akuma at the end of the game. ## Development The game began as the private development of Seow Zong Hui who presented an early build to Christian Svensson, Capcom's Senior VP of consumer software, at EVO 2012. Svensson showed the build to several staff members in the Capcom office (including senior community manager Brett Elston), and Capcom later decided to assist in the development of the game. While Zong Hui continued to develop the game based on his original design, Capcom took over tasks such as funding, marketing, and quality assurance. Capcom decided to distribute the game on PC instead of gaming consoles because Zong Hui did not have a license for console development. Svensson has noted that Capcom will consider console releases in the future, but chose to initially distribute the game on PC to keep the game free for fans and meet its December 17 target release date. Zong Hui noted several concepts that were scrapped during development. Yang was originally planned as a boss character but was ultimately replaced by Chun-Li. His special weapon is still included in the game via cheat codes. Zong Hui also wanted to include alternate costumes for boss characters and a second playable character from the Street Fighter franchise. Following release, there were several complaints about the game crashing, having a vague user interface, and lacking any save system. In response to these complaints, Svensson noted that a patch was being discussed with the development team to address these issues in a future update. An updated version was released on January 28, 2013 under the name, Street Fighter X Mega Man V2. The update boasts an improved user interface, better controller compatibility, bug fixes, a password save system reminiscent of the original Mega Man games on the Nintendo Entertainment System, and an additional boss character. ### Music Chiptune artist Luke Esquivel ("A_Rival") composed the music for the game. Esquivel became involved when he approached Zong Hui via YouTube and requested to being full-time musician for the game in 2009/2010 after comparing his music with Zong Hui's previous musician. When composing the music for Street Fighter X Mega Man, Esquivel combined Mega Man themes with Street Fighter themes on certain songs. In other songs, he would use elements from various Mega Man songs in order not to break the cohesion of the original soundtrack. Esquivel based most of the sounds on the first two Mega Man games, but had also used sounds from Mega Man 3, 4, and 5. Esquivel also added original compositions within several songs including two completely original compositions: "Willy Map Theme" and the beginning of the "Ending" theme. The soundtrack blends popular themes from both franchises together (such as mixing Snake Man's theme from Mega Man 3 with Dhalsim's theme from Street Fighter II). The official soundtrack titled Street Fighter X Mega Man OST was released for free on Esquivel's website on December 18, 2012. An EP with a total of four tracks titled Street Fighter X Mega Man X-tended Vol. 1 was released on February 8, 2013. ## Reception Two days after release, Capcom Senior VP Christian Svensson commented on the official Capcom website, Capcom-Unity, that the game has exceeded his personal expectations in terms of downloads, but no exact numbers have been released. Capcom's Senior Community Manager, Brett Elston, noted that the number of downloads during release was enough to cause significant strain on their servers. By March 3, 2013, the game had been downloaded one million times. Street Fighter X Mega Man has been met with mostly mixed to positive reviews. Game Informer gave the game an 8 out of 10, summarizing that "Street Fighter X Mega Man pales in comparison to the rest of the classic entries, but it’s still a wonderful test of the waters for newcomers and a charming experiment for lifelong fans." Inside Gaming Daily gave the game an 8 out of 10, stating, "Though it’s short and strays away a bit from traditional Mega Man games, Street Fighter X Mega Man is a great play that you honestly have little reason not to experience." IGN gave the game a 7 out of 10, noting that "The end result is a fine game that Mega Man fans will enjoy once or twice, but one without that special something that would allow it to rise to the greatness Mega Man so regularly reached in its heyday." Destructoid echoed similar opinions stating, "Street Fighter X Mega Man is not the best or most polished Mega Man game around, but it's a solid effort by a very dedicated fan." Game Industry News gave it a 3.5 out of 5 with mixed review stating, "It combines two of Capcom's greatest games in history into one nostalgic mash up that is sure to take fans on a trip down memory lane while still feeling fresh. Unfortunately though, the lack of challenge or the ability to continue progress after shutting down the game only hinders Street Fighter X Mega Man from being the perfect jewel it could have been." Edge however gave the game a 5 out of 10, noting "inconsistent level design and limited functionality" as the game's biggest flaws.	[ "## Premise and gameplay", "## Development", "### Music", "## Reception" ]	1,552	7,535
41,049,778	Ralph Merrifield	1,153,911,193	British archaeologist and museum custodian	[ "1913 births", "1995 deaths", "20th-century British archaeologists", "British curators", "People associated with the Museum of London", "People from Brighton", "Royal Air Force personnel of World War II" ]	Ralph Merrifield (22 August 1913 – 9 January 1995) was an English museum curator and archaeologist. Described as "the father of London's modern archaeology", Merrifield was a specialist in the archaeology of both Roman London and magical practices, publishing six books on these subjects over the course of his life. Merrifield began his career in 1930 as an assistant at Brighton Museum. In 1935 he gained an external degree in anthropology from the University of London. During the Second World War he served in the Royal Air Force. In 1950 he became assistant keeper of the Guildhall Museum in London. In 1956 he relocated to Accra to oversee the opening of the new National Museum of Ghana, before returning to work at the Guildhall Museum. He produced a synthesis of known material on the archaeology of Roman London, published as The Roman City of London in 1965. He was appointed senior keeper of the new Museum of London on its establishment in 1976, and soon after was promoted to deputy director. He retired in 1978 but remained active, lecturing, and publishing The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic (1987) and further studies of Roman London. He was a keen supporter of the Standing Conference on London Archaeology, a body designed to monitor the impact that English Heritage was having on the city's archaeology, which he believed to be negative. ## Biography ### Early life: 1913–1949 Merrifield was born on 22 August 1913 in Temple Fortune, a suburb of north-west London that at the time was yet to be fully developed. His parents had married in 1912, and his father, Albert Merrifield, was a railway clerk, whereas his mother, Margaret, had "excellent qualifications and was experienced as a primary school teacher". About a year after his birth the family moved to Southend-on-Sea, Essex, where his father died aged 36 on 6 May 1916: Merrifield was then three months short of his third birthday. His mother then moved with him to Brighton, Sussex, on the south coast of England, where they lived with her parents above a shoe shop run by her father. Merrifield's education began at Pelham Street Council School in Brighton, where "a report issued on 29 September 1922, when he was nine years old, [used] the phrase 'top boy' twice in connection with his scholarly progress." He undertook his secondary education at the Municipal Secondary School for Boys on York Place in Brighton, and it was while studying there, in 1930, that he became an assistant to H. S. Toms, curator of Brighton Museum and former assistant to the archaeologist Augustus Pitt Rivers. Inspired by the museum's ethnographic collection, which he helped catalogue, Merrifield embarked on a University of London external degree, which he completed in 1935; although its main focus was on anthropology, taking the degree also allowed him to take an intermediate course in botany. It was at this time that he developed a keen interest in the archaeological evidence for religion and magical practices. In 1940, during the Second World War, Merrifield was conscripted into the Royal Air Force, and in 1943 was transferred to its intelligence division, specialising in the interpretation of aerial photographs. He was posted to India and then Java. In 1945, after the conflict ended, he returned to work at Brighton Museum. ### The Guildhall Museum and the National Museum of Ghana: 1950–1974 In 1950 Merrifield took a post as assistant keeper of the Guildhall Museum in London, a job that he would retain until 1975. At the time the museum lacked premises, and Merrifield assisted its keeper, Norman Cook, in establishing an exhibit at the Royal Exchange in 1954. During these post-war years the city's archaeological community was largely preoccupied with salvaging Roman and medieval structures damaged in the Blitz, and by subsequent urban redevelopment. In November 1956 Merrifield was sent to Accra in Ghana to establish the National Museum of Ghana. The museum was due to be completed in time for the day of Ghana's independence from Britain in April 1957, displaying exhibits that had previously been at the University Museum of Ghana. Upon arrival Merrifield found that construction was delayed, but, "by an ingenious co-ordination of processes", he had the museum ready for its official opening by the Duchess of Kent. Returning to the Guildhall Museum he campaigned for the archaeological excavation of sites prior to their redevelopment, resulting in the establishment of the museum's Department of Urban Archaeology in 1973. In 1962 he published his first important academic paper, a study of Roman coins found at the bottom of the River Walbrook. Although not a specialist in any one particular aspect of Romano-British archaeology, he was able to synthesise a wide range of evidence to develop a picture of life in Londinium, the Roman settlement located in the City of London, publishing The Roman City of London in 1965. The project had been suggested to him two years previously by the publisher Ernest Benn, and represented the first detailed study of Roman London to be published for 35 years. To produce it, Merrifield catalogued all known Romano-British remains in the city; at the same time he developed ideas for where further remains might be located. The archaeologist W. F. Grimes described it as "a landmark in the study of Roman London", and the archaeologist Harvey Sheldon called it "a masterful historical synthesis". The book established Merrifield's reputation to a wider audience. He followed this with two works aimed at a general audience, Roman London (1969), in which he looked at evidence for Romano-British occupation across the wider Greater London area, and The Archaeology of London (1975), in which he surveyed the archaeological evidence of the region from the Palaeolithic through to the Early Middle Ages. ### Museum of London and retirement: 1975–1995 In 1975 the Guildhall Museum was amalgamated with the London Museum to become the Museum of London, and Merrifield became its senior keeper: he was promoted to the position of deputy director in 1977, and was responsible for designing the Museum's first Roman gallery. From 1976 to 1978 he also served as president of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society. Merrifield retired in 1978, and a festschrift, entitled Collectanea Londiniensia: Studies in London Archaeology and History Presented to Ralph Merrifield, was published in his honour. Recognising his many years of service to the archaeological field, the University of London awarded him an honorary doctorate. During his retirement he continued to take an active role in researching London's past. In 1983 he published London: City of the Romans, in which he updated his account of Londinium with information obtained over the previous decade and a half. His book The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic appeared in 1987, and was written to combat what Merrifield identified as a widespread neglect of ritual aspects in the archaeological record. Concurring with Merrifield's assessment about this neglect, the later archaeologist Roberta Gilchrist described the book as a "rare contribution" to the discipline. The historian of religion Hilda Ellis Davidson praised the "cautious and balanced arguments" of Merrifield's work, opining that it should be read by every archaeologist as a corrective to what she thought was their widespread ignorance of folklore. Merrifield was uneasy with the changes made to London's archaeological establishment by English Heritage during the early 1990s, strongly supporting the creation of the Standing Conference on London Archaeology to monitor English Heritage's actions. He also continued to talk on archaeological subjects, and his final lecture, "Magic Protection of the Home", was given to extramural students in Northampton in December 1994. ## Personal life and death Merrifield married Lysbeth Webb, a colleague at the Guildhall Museum, in 1951. The couple went on to have one son and one daughter. Following a short illness, Merrifield died of cardiac arrest in King's College Hospital, London, on 9 January 1995, leaving behind his wife, children, and grandchildren. ## Legacy Merrifield came to be known as the "father of London's modern archaeology", the archaeologist Harvey Sheldon describing him as the "father figure" of London archaeology. According to archaeologist W. F. Grimes, it was Merrifield's "work in and about London [that earned him] an honoured place in British Archaeology". In Ronald Hutton's introduction for Physical Evidence for Ritual Acts, Sorcery and Witchcraft in Christian Britain, edited by him and published in 2016, he referenced a work from 2012 by Roberta Gilchrist, who noted then "a stubborn reluctance to address [the] phenomenon [of ritual and magic] in relation to later medieval archaeology". Hutton noted further that, "when a top-ranking scholar like Gilchrist expresses concern about an issue, that is a sign in itself that it is emerging into greater prominence." In 2014, the Society for Historical Archaeology's journal Historical Archaeology published an issue mainly comprising papers presented to a symposium held in 2012 in Baltimore, Maryland, USA, on the topic "Manifestations of magic: The archaeology and material culture of folk religion". In an introductory paper a guest editor, M. Chris Manning, described The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic as "seminal", and wrote that "[m]any of the participants' ... research [had] been informed by Merrifield's work". However, the "volume edited by ... Hutton [in 2016] was the first [book] to cover similar ground in twenty-eight years." In Merrifield's obituary in British Archaeology magazine, Max Hebditch, director of the Museum of London, described him as being both "generous with his knowledge and friendship" and "energetic and active to the end". Sheldon stated that he was "universally loved and admired, [having done] more than anyone else, both by example and influence," to place London's archaeology on a firm footing. Writing in The Independent, Peter Marsden commented on Merrifield's "quiet manner [that] obscured a steely determination" to advance scholarship. ## Works A list of Merrifield's published work, including books, articles, and book reviews, was compiled by John Hopkins and Jenny Hall and included as part of his 1978 festschrift.	[ "## Biography", "### Early life: 1913–1949", "### The Guildhall Museum and the National Museum of Ghana: 1950–1974", "### Museum of London and retirement: 1975–1995", "## Personal life and death", "## Legacy", "## Works" ]	2,233	22,924
26,056,175	Uzbekistan at the 2010 Winter Olympics	1,022,949,012	null	[ "2010 in Uzbekistani sport", "Nations at the 2010 Winter Olympics", "Uzbekistan at the Winter Olympics by year" ]	Uzbekistan sent a delegation to compete at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, from 12–28 February 2010. This was the country's fifth appearance in a Winter Olympic Games. The delegation consisted of three athletes: Kseniya Grigoreva and Oleg Shamaev in alpine skiing, and Anastasia Gimazetdinova in figure skating. None of the Uzbekistani competitors won a medal at these Olympics. ## Background Uzbekistan became an independent country in 1991 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and competed with the Unified Team made up of several former Soviet Republics during the 1992 Winter and Summer Olympics. The National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan was recognized by the International Olympic Committee in 1993, and beginning with the 1994 Winter Olympics Uzbekistan began competing as an independent country. The country has participated in every Olympics, Summer and Winter, since 1994. The only Uzbekistani Winter Olympics medal was won by Lina Cheryazova, a freestyle skier, in 1994 in Lillehammer, Norway. The delegation sent to Vancouver in 2010 consisted of three competitors; two alpine skiers, Kseniya Grigoreva and Oleg Shamaev, and one figure skater, Anastasia Gimazetdinova. Shamaev was chosen as the flag bearer for both the opening ceremony and the closing ceremony. ## Alpine skiing Kseniya Grigoreva was 22 years old at the time she competed in the Vancouver Olympics. She was entered into two events, the women's slalom and giant slalom. In the giant slalom, held from 24–25 February due to bad weather, she posted run times of 1 minute and 31 seconds and, the next day, 1 minute and 25 seconds. Her combined time was 2 minutes and 57 seconds, which ranked her 58th out of 60 competitors who finished both runs of the race. On 26 February, she failed to finish the first leg of the race in the slalom. Oleg Shamaev, who was 27 years old at the time, took part in the men's giant slalom and the slalom. The giant slalom was held on 23 February, and Shamaev posted run times of 1 minute and 32 seconds and 1 minute and 36 seconds. His combined time ranked him 77th out of 81 competitors who finished both legs of the race. On 27 February, he participated in the slalom, posting run times of 57 seconds and 1 minute. His combined time placed him 42nd out of 48 competitors who finished both runs of the race. ## Figure skating Anastasia Gimazetdinova was 29 years old at the time of the Vancouver Olympics, and was the oldest competitor in the ladies' singles. She had previously competed for Uzbekistan at the 2006 Winter Olympics, finishing in 29th place in the short program, and not advancing to the second stage of Olympic competition, the free skate. In Vancouver, she scored a 49.02 for her short program, which put her in 24th place, the last position to qualify for the free skate. Gimazetdinova scored an 82.63 on her free skate, placing her 23rd in that round. Her total score, the sum of the short and free programs, was 131.65, placing her 23rd for the competition. ## See also - Uzbekistan at the Olympics - Uzbekistan at the 2014 Winter Paralympics	[ "## Background", "## Alpine skiing", "## Figure skating", "## See also" ]	757	6,638
8,966,608	Berg metro station	1,134,942,578	Oslo metro station	[ "1934 establishments in Norway", "Oslo Metro stations in Oslo", "Railway stations opened in 1934" ]	Berg is a station on the Sognsvann Line (line 6) of the Oslo Metro in Norway. Located between Ullevål stadion and Tåsen stations, it is the first station after the Ring Line leaves the Sognsvann Line. The station is located 6.1 kilometres (3.8 mi) from Stortinget station. Berg is amongst the original stations on the line, and was opened on 10 October 1934. It was upgraded and rebuilt in the 1990s, when the Sognsvann Line was upgraded from light rail to rapid transit standard. Three accidents have taken place at Berg station, the latest in 2008. The area around the station is mainly residential. Berg Upper Secondary School is located approximately 100 metres (330 ft) from the station. ## History Berg station was opened on 10 October 1934, when the municipally owned company Akersbanerne had completed the Sognsvann Line from Majorstuen to Sognsvann. Residential areas at Sogn, Tåsen and Berg were starting to grow, in pace with a larger suburban development plan. Akersbanerne bought new property along the line, upon which new houses were to be designed by the Norwegian architect Kristofer Lange (1886–1977). The line was originally double-tracked from Majorstuen to Korsvoll (now Østhorn) station and single-tracked from Korsvoll to Sognsvann. On 21 February 1939, the section from Korsvoll to Sognsvann was upgraded to double tracks, and Korsvoll station had its name changed to Østhorn. In the 1980s, the stations on the Sognsvann Line were rebuilt. The platforms were lengthened from fitting two-car to fitting four-car trains and the platform height was increased. The third rail made it impossible to cross the line at-grade; a new path to an existing road underpass was therefore created. The station was also redesigned in concrete with steel columns and wooden sheds designed by architect Arne Henriksen. In 1991, Oslo Sporveier presented plans involving a rapid transit circle line in Oslo, connecting the newly built hospital Rikshospitalet with the rest of the city. A detailed suggestion was presented by Oslo Sporveier in August 1996. In the local newspaper Aftenposten Aften there was a debate on whether there should be a ring line from Berg along the National Road 150 towards Gaustad over Rikshospitalet, or whether the Ullevål Hageby Line should be extended from John Colletts plass to Rikshospitalet, thereby creating a correspondence with the Sognsvann Line at the new station Forskningsparken. In the first plans, Berg was meant to be a station on the new ring line. This plan was discarded since local residents feared noise pollution and destroyed lawns. Even though Berg was not made a station on the Ring Line, noise shields were put up along the Sognsvann Line. Berg station has seen many accidents and almost-accidents. In 1965, a deadly accident occurred between Ullevål and Berg stations, when a train ran over a 33-year-old man walking in the tracks. In 2002, a 24-year-old man was run over by a metro train approaching the station. The man survived the accident with minor wounds. In 2008, a 21-year-old drunk man was found crawling around on the tracks between the platforms. The police removed him from the station and sent him home in a taxi. ## Service Berg is served by line 5 on the Sognsvann Line, operated by Oslo T-banedrift on contract with Ruter. The rapid transit serves the station every 15 minutes, except in the late evening and on weekend mornings, when there is a 30-minute headway. Travel time along the 6.1-kilometre (3.8 mi) portion to Stortinget in the city center is 11 minutes. The station provides correspondence to the bus lines 23 and 24 at a nearby bus stop in Kaj Munks vei. ## Facilities Berg has two platforms, each with a wooden shed and ticket machines. The sheds are designed by Arne Henriksen in a minimalistic and standardised style with constructions of wood and steel. ### Location Berg is located in the borough of Nordre Aker, northeast of the residential area Ullevål Hageby, northwest of Voldsløkka, west of Tåsen, south of Nordberg and east of Sogn. The area Berg is named after an old farm from 1264 with the same name. The street John Colletts allé, starting from John Colletts plass in Ullevål Hageby, ends at Berg station. Kaj Munks vei, as part of the Norwegian National Road 150, runs parallel with the line from Ullevål stadion via Berg to Tåsen, and continues thereafter towards Nydalen. There are many Swiss chalet and functionalist style houses in the residential area around the station. Berg Upper Secondary School is located 100 metres (330 ft) from the station.	[ "## History", "## Service", "## Facilities", "### Location" ]	1,101	11,661
18,884,607	SS Washingtonian (1913)	1,090,811,980	American freighter that sank off Delaware after a collision	[ "1913 ships", "Cargo ships of the United States Navy", "Maritime incidents in 1915", "Merchant ships of the United States", "Ships built in Sparrows Point, Maryland", "Ships sunk in collisions", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks of the Delaware coast", "Underwater diving sites in the United States", "Wreck diving sites" ]	SS Washingtonian was a cargo ship launched in 1913 by the Maryland Steel Company of Sparrows Point, Maryland, near Baltimore, as one of eight sister ships for the American-Hawaiian Steamship Company. At the time of her launch, she was the largest cargo ship under American registry. During the United States occupation of Veracruz in April 1914, Washingtonian was chartered by the United States Department of the Navy for service as a non-commissioned refrigerated supply ship for the U.S. fleet stationed off the Mexican coast. In January 1915, after a little more than one year of service, Washingtonian collided with the schooner Elizabeth Palmer off the Delaware coast and sank in ten minutes with the loss of her \$1,000,000 cargo of 10,000 long tons (10,200 t) of raw Hawaiian sugar. In the days after Washingtonian's sinking, the price of sugar in the United States increased almost nine percent, partly attributed to the loss of Washingtonian's cargo. Lying under approximately 100 feet (30 m) of water, Washingtonian's wreck is one of the most popular recreational dive sites on the eastern seaboard. ## Design and construction In November 1911, the American-Hawaiian Steamship Company placed an order with the Maryland Steel Company of Sparrows Point, Maryland, for two new cargo ships—Panaman and Washingtonian. The contract cost of the ships was set at the construction cost plus an eight percent profit for Maryland Steel, but capped at a maximum cost of \$640,000 each. The construction was financed by Maryland Steel with a credit plan that called for a five percent down payment in cash and nine monthly installments for the balance. The deal had provisions that allowed some of the nine installments to be converted into longer-term notes or mortgages. The final cost of Washingtonian, including financing costs, was \$71.49 per deadweight ton, which totaled just under \$733,000. Washingtonian (Maryland Steel yard no. 131) was the second ship built under the contract. The ship was 6,649 gross register tons (GRT), and was 360 feet 11 inches (110.01 m) in length (between perpendiculars) and 50 feet 2 inches (15.29 m) abeam. She had a deadweight tonnage of , and, at the time of her launch, was the largest American-flagged cargo ship. Washingtonian had a speed of 12.5 knots (23.2 km/h), and was powered by a single steam engine with oil-fired boilers which drove a single screw propeller. Washingtonian's cargo holds, providing a storage capacity of 490,858 cubic feet (13,899.6 m<sup>3</sup>), were outfitted with a complete refrigeration plant so she could carry perishable products from the West Coast to the East Coast, such as Pacific Northwest salmon or fresh produce from Southern California farms. ## Service When Washingtonian began sailing for American-Hawaiian, the company shipped cargo from East Coast ports via the Tehuantepec Route to West Coast ports and Hawaii, and vice versa. Shipments on the Tehuantepec Route arrived at Mexican ports—Salina Cruz, Oaxaca, for eastbound cargo, and Coatzacoalcos, Veracruz, for westbound cargo—and traversed the Isthmus of Tehuantepec on the Tehuantepec National Railway. Eastbound shipments were primarily sugar and pineapple from Hawaii, while westbound cargoes were more general in nature. Washingtonian sailed in this service, but it is not known whether she sailed on the east or west side of North America. After the United States occupation of Veracruz on 21 April 1914 (which took place while six American-Hawaiian line ships were being held in various Mexican ports), the Huerta-led Mexican government closed the Tehuantepec National Railway to American shipping. This loss of access (the Panama Canal was not yet open until later that year) caused American-Hawaiian to return to its historic route of sailing around South America via the Strait of Magellan in late April. During the U.S. occupation, the Washingtonian was chartered by the U.S. Navy Department to serve as a non-commissioned refrigerator and supply ship for the U.S. naval fleet off Mexico. She was outfitted for her first voyage at the New York Navy Yard and sailed with 500,000 pounds (230,000 kg) of fresh meat for the United States Navy and the U.S. Army. Washingtonian sailed in a rotation with the commissioned Navy stores ships USS Culgoa and USS Celtic. With the official opening of the Panama Canal on 15 August 1914, American-Hawaiian line ships switched to taking the isthmus canal route. In late August, American-Hawaiian announced that the Washingtonian—her Navy charter ended by this time—would sail on a San Francisco – Panama Canal – Boston route, sailing opposite vessels Mexican, Honolulan, and sister ship Pennsylvanian. Washingtonian sailed from Los Angeles in early October with a load of California products—including canned and dried fruits, beans, and wine—for New York City and Boston. After delivering that load, Washingtonian then headed for Honolulu, Hawaii, to take on a 10,000-long-ton (10,000 t) load of raw sugar valued at about \$1,000,000. Departing Honolulu on 20 December, Washingtonian arrived at Balboa on 17 January 1915 and transited the Panama Canal. Sailing from Cristóbal on the eastern end two days later, she headed for the Delaware Breakwater en route to Philadelphia. ## Collision At 3:30 a.m. on 26 January, some 20 nautical miles (37 km) from Fenwick Island, Delaware, the American schooner Elizabeth Palmer was under full sail at 8 knots (15 km/h) on a southwest by south course. Elizabeth Palmer's captain saw a large steam vessel, Washingtonian, on an apparent collision course ahead, but did not change course since navigational rules require steam-powered vessels to yield to vessels under sail power. The captain of Washingtonian, two quartermasters, and a seaman were all on watch and saw Elizabeth Palmer, but misjudged the schooner's rapid pace. When Washingtonian, underway at 12 knots (22 km/h), did not change course or speed, Elizabeth Palmer collided with the starboard side of the steamer, leaving a large hole that sank Washingtonian ten minutes later. Less than a mile (2 km) away, Elizabeth Palmer, with her jib boom and the top of her foremast stripped away by the impact, began taking on water through her split seams. When it became apparent that the big schooner would sink, her captain ordered her abandonment, and she slowly settled and went down about an hour after the collision. After Washingtonian's crew abandoned ship, one crewman, a water tender, was found to be missing and was presumed drowned. Washingtonian's 39 survivors and all 13 crew members from Elizabeth Palmer were picked up about an hour after the collision by the passenger liner Hamilton of the Old Dominion Line, which arrived at New York the next day. The collision had repercussions for American-Hawaiian and the world sugar market. The financial impact of the collision on American-Hawaiian, estimated at \$2,000,000, was devastating. Contemporary news reports in The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal both told of the collision's impact on the sugar market. Claus A. Spreckels, president of Federal Sugar Refining, noted that the loss of even such a large cargo would not normally have much effect on the sugar market. However, weather in Cuba, then the largest supplier of sugar for the United States, had reduced that island nation's crop by more than 200,000 tons. Further affecting the situation was World War I, then ongoing in Europe, which had reduced the tonnage of shipping available to transport commodities like sugar. With all of these factors, the asking price for sugar futures contracts for February 1915 delivery was 2.90 cents per pound (6.39 cents per kg) a week before Washingtonian's sinking, but had risen to 3.16 cents per pound (6.96 cents per kg) the day after the sinking. Washingtonian's wreck, a skeletal framework of hull plates and bulkheads, lies upside down in about 100 feet (30 m) of water, and is one of the most-visited wreck sites along the eastern seaboard. A popular night dive, Washingtonian's wreck is also a favorite with sport divers catching lobster.	[ "## Design and construction", "## Service", "## Collision" ]	1,795	43,692
23,399,471	Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery	1,157,270,176	WWII War cemetery in Netherlands	[ "1945 establishments in the Netherlands", "20th-century architecture in the Netherlands", "British military memorials and cemeteries", "Buildings and structures in Renkum", "Canadian military memorials and cemeteries", "Cemeteries in Gelderland", "Cemeteries in the Netherlands", "Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries in the Netherlands", "History of Renkum", "Operation Market Garden" ]	The Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery, more commonly known as the Airborne Cemetery, is a Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery in Oosterbeek, near Arnhem, the Netherlands. It was established in 1945 and is home to 1764 graves from the Second World War besides 4 later non-war graves and there are special memorials of two personnel buried elsewhere. Most of the men buried in the cemetery were Allied servicemen killed in the Battle of Arnhem, an Allied attempt to cross the Rhine in 1944, or in the liberation of the city the following year. Men killed in these battles are still discovered in the surrounding area even in the 21st century, and so the number of people interred in the cemetery continues to grow. ## Background In September 1944 the Allies launched Operation Market Garden, an attempt by the British 2nd Army to bypass the Siegfried Line and advance into the Ruhr, Germany's industrial heartland. The operation required the 1st Airborne Corps to seize several bridges over rivers and canals in the Netherlands, allowing ground forces to advance rapidly through the Netherlands and cross the River Rhine. The British 1st Airborne Division was tasked with securing the most distant objectives; bridges over the Lower Rhine at Arnhem. The division dropped onto the area on 17 September and a small force was able to secure the Arnhem road bridge. However the unexpected presence of SS Panzer troops of the II SS Panzerkorps meant the Allies were never able to fully secure their objectives and so after nine days without sufficient reinforcement by the advancing ground forces, the division was withdrawn on 25 September. In the 9 days of battle almost 2000 Allied soldiers were killed (some of whom died of their wounds or in captivity after the battle). These included over 1174 men of the British 1st Airborne Division, 219 men of the Glider Pilot Regiment, 92 men of the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade, 368 men of the RAF, 79 re-supply dispatchers of the RASC, 25 men of XXX Corps and 27 men of US IX Troop Carrier Command. The exact number of German dead is unknown, but is believed to be at least 1300. Additionally it is believed 453 Dutch civilians were killed during the battle. ## Cemetery Owing to the Allied withdrawal, the vast majority of their dead had to be left on the battlefield. Here they were buried in simple field graves (some little more than their own slit trenches) or in small mass graves dug by the Germans. Kate Ter Horst, whose house was used as a first aid post during the battle, found the graves of 57 men in her garden when she returned after the war. After Arnhem was liberated in April 1945, Grave Registration Units of the British 2nd Army moved into the area and began to locate the Allied dead. A small field north of Oosterbeek was offered on perpetual loan by the Netherlands government to the Imperial War Graves Commission (now Commonwealth War Graves Commission) in June 1945 and the dead were reburied there. Many of those killed during Arnhem's liberation were also buried at the same site. The cemetery was completed in February 1946, originally with the graves marked by metal crosses, although these were replaced by headstones in 1952. Most of the German dead were buried in the SS Heroes Cemetery near Arnhem after the battle, but reburied in Ysselsteyn German war cemetery after the war. The Commonwealth War Graves Commission records 1759 graves in the cemetery as of 2004. 1450 of these are Commonwealth, including British, Canadian, Australian and New Zealanders. The cemetery is also the last resting place of 73 Polish soldiers, (many of them exhumed and moved from Driel, to the disappointment of Driel's residents) and 8 Dutch civilians – some killed in the fighting and some former Commission employees. 244 of the graves are unidentified. As of 2003 there were still 138 Allied men with no known grave in the area, and they are commemorated at the Groesbeek Memorial. However, evidence of the battle is often discovered even today, and the bodies of Allied servicemen are reinterred at the Airborne Cemetery. When found, bodies are exhumed and Dutch Graves Registration staff attempt to identify them before they are reburied. One soldier of the Border Regiment was discovered and reburied in the cemetery in 2005 and another who had previously been unidentified was reburied in 2006. Five men were awarded the Victoria Cross after the battle, four of them posthumously. Three of the men now rest in the cemetery; Lieutenant John Hollington Grayburn of the 2nd Battalion, Parachute Regiment; Flight Lieutenant David Samuel Anthony Lord of 271 Squadron, Royal Air Force and Captain Lionel Ernest Queripel of the 10th Battalion, Parachute Regiment. Lance-Sergeant John Daniel Baskeyfield of the 2nd Battalion South Staffordshire Regiment has no known grave and is commemorated instead at Groesbeek Memorial. Major Robert Henry Cain, also of 2nd Battalion, South Staffordshire Regiment, survived the battle and was buried on the Isle of Man when he died in 1974. Opposite the Airborne Cemetery is a civilian graveyard with a small Commonwealth War Graves Commission plot containing the graves of nine airmen shot down shortly before the battle. It is also home to Lipmann Kessel, a surgeon with the 16th (Parachute) Field Ambulance during the battle, who wished to be buried near his men after his death in 1986. Similarly, the Moscowa Cemetery three miles east contains the graves of thirty six aircrew killed before the battle, and one unidentified soldier. Not all of the Allied dead from the Battle of Arnhem are interred at the cemetery. Some 300 men who were killed when flying into battle, while trying to escape or who succumbed to wounds later, are buried in civilian cemeteries in the Netherlands, Belgium, the UK and the USA. Sixty men who died in prisoner of war camps after the battle are buried in Germany. ## Airborne commemoration service In the summer of 1945 several hundred veterans of the battle were detached from operations in Norway and returned to Arnhem to take part in filming for the war movie Theirs Is the Glory. While there they attended the first commemorative event at the cemetery. This event continued every year, and was attended by veterans, local residents and over 1000 school children who laid flowers on the graves of the dead. After the 25th anniversary in 1969, the Parachute Regiment approached Dutch organisers to suggest ending the ceremony, believing the battle to have passed sufficiently into history. The Dutch were vehemently and emotionally opposed to the idea and thus the ceremony continues to be held annually during the first weekend of each September. ## See also - Airborne Museum The nearby museum about the battle. - Airborne March The annual commemorative march around Arnhem. - World War II memorials and cemeteries in the Netherlands ## Nearby Commonwealth War Graves - Groesbeek Canadian War Cemetery - Mook War Cemetery - Jonkerbos War Cemetery - Rhenen Begraafplaats General Cemetery	[ "## Background", "## Cemetery", "## Airborne commemoration service", "## See also", "## Nearby Commonwealth War Graves" ]	1,537	9,041
21,601,298	Harvard Girl	1,109,804,435	Book by Liu Weihua	[ "2000 non-fiction books", "Academic pressure in East Asian culture", "Books about education", "Chinese-language books", "Education in China", "Harvard University", "Parenting advice books", "Writers Publishing House books" ]	Harvard Girl (full title Harvard Girl Liu Yiting: A Character Training Record; Chinese: 哈佛女孩刘亦婷:素质培养纪实; pinyin: Hāfó Nǚhái Liú Yìtíng: sùzhì péixùn jìshí) is a book written by Liu Weihua (刘卫华) and Zhang Xinwu (张欣武), which describes how they raised their daughter, Liu Yiting (刘亦婷), to be accepted to Harvard University. Published in 2000 in Chinese by the Writers Publishing House, the book details the rigorous lifestyle that Liu led and includes advice from Liu's parents on how to raise children to gain acceptance to top-tier universities; it has been described as a "manual" for child-rearing and early education. The book was a bestseller in mainland China and made both Harvard and Liu Yiting household names among Chinese parents and students. It has since had numerous imitators, spawning an entire genre of how-to books on child-rearing for Chinese parents. ## Biography of Liu Yiting Liu was raised in Chengdu, the capital of Sichuan province. Liu's parents, believers in the value of early childhood education, subjected her to a rigorous education since she was just 15 days old. For example, to ensure that someone was always talking to Liu, they invited relatives over to the house. They also had her participate in "character-building" physical exercises such as swimming, jumping rope, and holding ice in her hands for extended periods of time. Liu also acted in a soap opera when she was five years old. While in high school, Liu met then Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher partner Larry L. Simms, a Dartmouth and BU Law alumnus and former U.S. Navy Lieutenant who clerked for Supreme Court justice Byron White and worked as Deputy Assistant Attorney General for the Office of Legal Counsel from 1975 to 1985. With Simms' assistance, Liu participated in a student exchange program sponsored by Washington-Beijing Scholastic Exchange, Inc., of which Simms was the founder and President, and visited America in 1998. This experience changed her views about life in America, because like many Chinese citizens, most of her impressions about America came from Hollywood, and when she came to the country she was "surprised that [she] didn't see any street fights or police-car chases". The program also piqued her interest in American universities, where she realized she would be able to study a variety of subjects. Although they had been training her to attend a preeminent university, Liu's parents had not expected that she would attend an American one; her mother has said that until Liu came back from America, she had not been aware that Chinese students could apply to American universities. At the time, it was unusual for Chinese students to attend American schools as undergraduates, as most only applied to schools abroad for postgraduate education. However, rather than taking the gaokao, China's national college entrance examination, and attending one of the National Key Universities, Liu applied to American colleges with recommendation from Simms. She was accepted to several schools, including Harvard, Columbia, Wellesley, and Mount Holyoke, from which she ultimately chose to attend Harvard. Not long afterwards, a local newspaper announced her acceptance and the family was "besieged with thousands of phone calls". At Harvard, Liu majored in applied mathematics and economics and earned high grades; she also chaired the Harvard Project for Asian and International Relations, a student organization. She was described as "unassuming" and a "typical student", to the point that it took her roommate four years to realize Liu was a celebrity in China. In 2003, Liu graduated and took a job at the Boston Consulting Group in New York City. ## Synopsis Liu Weihua (Liu's mother) and Zhang Xinwu (Liu's stepfather) published Harvard Girl in 2000, after Liu had matriculated at Harvard. According to Liu, her parents had plans early on to write about their parenting methods, but they waited until 2000 to publish the book, relying on Liu's perceived success to establish themselves as "experts". The book primarily consists of research-like notes and diary entries, which Liu and her parents began recording and saving before Liu was in first grade. Liu herself helped edit the book, and wrote several of the later chapters. One major element of the child-rearing strategy described in the book was treating Liu as an adult and "encourag[ing] her to develop a mature style of thinking". Liu's parents never used baby talk when Liu was a child, and they allowed her to argue with them but required her to present reasoned arguments like an adult. According to education scholar Ben Mardell, the book's focus on independent thinking and intellectual development was a "break with the past" in China, where both early and higher education often emphasize rote learning. In addition, the book details the rigorous "character-building exercises" Liu's parents had her perform. In addition to having her do physical exercises, Liu's parents controlled her diet. They also frequently took her traveling, both on short trips to nearby rural areas and on longer trips to historical sites such as Xi'an. Throughout the book, high value is placed on "full development", and the writers encourage parents to cultivate more than just academic ability in their children. The book also includes supplementary chapters on topics such as how to select which schools to apply to, and advice for students on filling out applications and taking TOEFL and SAT exams. ## Impact The book was at the top of China's bestseller list for 16 months, during which time it sold at least 1.5 million copies and the writers were estimated to have earned at least the equivalent of \$100,000 in royalties. It became a must-have book for middle-class parents in China. The popularity of Harvard Girl made Liu a "national superstar" and she frequently received fan mail and drew large crowds at book signings in mainland China. The success of this and similar books (another bestseller in 2001 and 2002 was Robert Kiyosaki's Rich Dad Poor Dad) in mainland China has been said to reflect a "national obsession" among Chinese parents to get their children into top-ranking American schools. Harvard Girl was followed by numerous imitations by parents of other successful students, and is said to have spawned an entire genre of education "manuals" for Chinese parents, including similar books on how to get one's children into schools such as Oxford University, Cambridge University, or Cornell University. This genre includes titles such as Ivy League is Not a Dream, From Andover to Harvard, How We Got Our Child Into Yale, Harvard Family Instruction, The Door of the Elite, Harvard Boy Zhang Zhaomu, Harvard Talents: Children Cultivated by the Karl Weter Educational Law, Tokyo University Boy, Cornell Girl, and Our Dumb Little Boy Goes to Cambridge. Comparable books have also been published in South Korea, although American undergraduate universities are not "revered" in the same way there as they are in mainland China. In addition to imitators, Liu's parents have written their own follow-up: Harvard Girl 2: Liu Yiting's Studying Methods and Upbringing Details (<哈佛女孩刘亦婷>之二: 刘亦婷的学习方法和培养细节), which describes Liu's four years in college, was published in 2004 by Writers Publishing House. The book also affected applications to Harvard. It made Harvard a household name in China, and books of this genre caused a significant increase in the number of Chinese applicants to top-tier American universities. In 1999, Liu and 43 other Chinese students applied to Harvard, and by 2008, 484 Chinese students had. ### Criticism The book has been criticized for increasing the pressure many Chinese students already had to succeed in school, and for taking advantage of the widespread belief that admission into leading universities is necessary for success in life. Some critics have called the book "boastful." A 2004 book by Xiao Hui (萧愚), entitled Raising Children Requires Great Wisdom: The Truth About "Harvard Girl Liu Yiting" (教育孩子需要大智慧:“哈佛女孩刘亦婷”真相), harshly criticizes Harvard Girl, calling the methods described in the book "false character building" ("伪素质教育") and claiming that Liu gained entrance into Harvard not because of her comprehensive or well-rounded education, but by exploiting loopholes and defects in Harvard's admissions policy for Chinese students or by taking advantage of guanxi, personal relationships and networks. Many successful Chinese students after Liu have tried to distance themselves from the so-called "Harvard Girl Phenomenon;" Harvard students Yin Zhongrui and Tang Meijie have both stated they do not want to be compared to "Harvard Girl." Yin's mother published a book, From Andover to Harvard, about how her son was accepted by Harvard, but Yin only allowed his full name to appear in the book's preface. Tang received at least six offers from publishers to have a book written about her, but declined them all. Nevertheless, many of China's top students are still compared to "Harvard Girl," and admissions to top overseas universities often make big news in mainland China; for example, Cheng Wanxin (程琬芯) attracted media attention in Sichuan province when she was accepted to Harvard in April 2009. ## See also - Hothousing - Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother	[ "## Biography of Liu Yiting", "## Synopsis", "## Impact", "### Criticism", "## See also" ]	2,051	32,393
266,755	New Jersey Route 161	1,120,830,616	State highway in Clifton, New Jersey, United States	[ "State highways in New Jersey", "Transportation in Passaic County, New Jersey" ]	Route 161 is a 1.10 miles (1.77 km) state highway in Clifton, New Jersey, United States, running along Clifton Avenue between Allwood Road (County Route 602 or CR 602) and Van Houten Avenue (CR 614). Although it is a signed state highway, it does not connect to any other state-maintained roadways. However, the south terminus is aligned just northeast of the interchange of Route 3 and the Garden State Parkway (interchange 153). The highway originated as Route S3 Spur, a suffixed spur of State Highway Route 3 to State Highway Route 6 (currently U.S. Route 46 or US 46). The route was redesignated in 1953 as Route 161, though in one late 1950s Essex County Hagstrom map and in the NJ highway code for mid-block crosswalks the highway is shown as Route 61. It is unknown whether Route 61 existed. ## Route description Route 161 begins at the intersection of Clifton Avenue and Allwood Road (CR 602) in Clifton. The route passes a park and large commercial building at the southern terminus. A short distance after, Route 161 provides a connector to Richfield Terrace on the northbound side of the highway, the park's divider known as Cross Street. The highway continues northward, intersecting with Richland Court, which provides access to local residential homes. The next intersection is with Joan Place, which serves a similar function to Richland Court. Soon after, Route 161 intersects with Saint Andrew's Boulevard, which also serves as the northern terminus of Richfield Terrace and connects the highway with CR 609 (Mount Prospect Avenue). Just past Saint Andrew's Boulevard Route 161 passes through a largely commercial section of Clifton with a heavy concentration of medical offices before terminating at an intersection with CR 614 (Van Houten Avenue). The right-of-way of Route 161 continues as CR 611 (Clifton Avenue) towards downtown Clifton. ## History Route S3 was defined in 1929 to run from Route 3 in East Rutherford west to Route 6 (US 46) in Clifton, (this is now part of Route 3). In 1942, the state took over the alignment and made it an unnumbered state highway was defined to run from the intersection of Clifton Avenue and Van Houten Avenue southwest to Route S3, which then ran along Allwood Road. World War II delayed completion of Route S3 long enough for an alternate freeway route to be selected, and the part of Allwood Road that was taken over is no longer a state highway. In 1948, the route was assigned the number Route S3 Spur. The number was changed to Route 161 in the 1953 state highway renumbering, and ever since then it has remained an isolated state highway. ## Major intersections ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections", "## See also" ]	611	1,123
31,368,675	Theos Casimir Bernard	1,172,837,564	Celebrity author, practitioner and explorer of Hatha Yoga and Tibetan Buddhism	[ "1908 births", "1947 deaths", "20th-century Buddhists", "20th-century explorers", "American Buddhists", "American explorers", "Columbia University alumni", "Explorers of Tibet", "Tantra", "Tibetan Buddhism writers", "Tibetan Buddhist yogis", "University of Arizona alumni", "Vajrayana", "Yoga scholars" ]	Theos Casimir Hamati Bernard (1908–1947) was an American explorer and author known for his work on yoga and religious studies (particularly in Tibetan Buddhism). He was the nephew of Pierre Arnold Bernard, "Oom the Omnipotent", and like him became a yoga celebrity. His account of old-style hatha yoga as a spiritual path, Hatha Yoga: The Report of A Personal Experience, is a rare insight into the way these practices, known from medieval documents like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, actually worked. His biographer, Paul Hackett, states that many of the travel experiences Bernard relates in his books are exaggerated or fabricated. There is no doubt, however, that Bernard became fluent in the Tibetan language, travelled in Tibet, met senior figures, and gathered an extensive collection of photographs, field notes, manuscripts, and ritual objects. ## Biography ### Early life Theos Casimir Bernard was born on 10 December 1908 in Pasadena, the son of Glen Agassiz Bernard and Aura Georgina Crable. The name Theos is Greek for God. His father's interest in the spiritual philosophy of the East and subsequent travel to India soon caused the marriage to fail. Aura and Theos, still a baby, went to live in her home town of Tombstone, Arizona. As a student of liberal arts at the new University of Arizona from 1926, Bernard became seriously ill with rheumatic pneumonia after being thrown into a fountain during a hazing ritual on a cold day early in 1927, and was taken home to recuperate. There, he read his mother's extensive library of books on yoga, and was intrigued by the claim in L. Adams Beck's The Story of Oriental Philosophy that it could provide "infinite energy", but none of the books gave any details on how to achieve any such results. From 1929 he trained in law at the University of Arizona, obtaining a bachelor's degree in 1931 and beginning an internship in 1932. During the summer holiday he worked as a court clerk in Los Angeles and by luck met his father, who introduced him to Indian philosophy and a variety of yogic practices. His father had been trained in yoga by Sylvais Hamati, a Syrian-Bengali Hindu yogin, accounting for one of Bernard's middle names. His father's trip to India after Theos's birth was probably to visit Hamati. His father had the knowledge Theos had been seeking, and as his guru instructed him systematically in hatha yoga, Theos kept it entirely secret. His father also persuaded him to go back to Arizona to study philosophy, and from February 1932 he spent another two years there reading philosophy and psychology. Theos never felt able to admit who his yoga guru was, and in his books such as his 1939 Heaven Lies Within Us, he invented a guru "In Arizona ... who had just arrived from India". His biographer Douglas Veenhof notes that while as was customary in Tantra, he claimed to have been sworn to secrecy, he wrote "at great length" about his tantric practices, refusing only to speak about "the first thing that teachers of Buddhism or Yoga philosophy tell their students: the lineage of their teachers." Running into debt, he discovered through a chance reading of Fortune magazine that he had a rich uncle in New York, Pierre Arnold Bernard, who had also trained under Hamati. Pierre was known as "the father of Tantra in America", but he was also, in Alan Watts's words, "a phenomenal rascal-master ... as well-versed in the ways of the world as of the spirit", Theos went to meet his uncle, who had made his money by a variety of activities, including working as a matchmaker for the rich and using his yogic skills as entertainment, something which caused a serious rift between his father and his uncle. He fell in love with one of his uncle's acquaintances, Viola Wertheim, a doctor from a wealthy family; she was the half-sister of the investment banker Maurice Wertheim. They married on 3 August 1934. With the financial support of his uncle, Theos was able to study at Columbia University (in Upper Manhattan, New York). He gained his Master of Arts degree at Columbia in 1936. ### India and Tibet In 1936, he toured India with his wife and father; both went home after a few months. He travelled all over India, from Ceylon to Kashmir, meeting religious and yoga gurus. In Calcutta he arranged a meeting with Lama Tharchin of Kalimpong, and studied the Tibetan language. After nearly a year, he obtained permission in Sikkim from the British political officer to visit Tibet. He met several high officials of the government of Tibet, studied Tantric Yoga and collected many books on Tibetan Buddhism. Bernard was an accomplished and energetic photographer, shooting "an astounding 326 rolls of film (11,736 exposures) as well as 20,000 feet of motion picture film" during his three months in Tibet in a "near obsessive documentation" of what he saw. In the view of Namiko Kunimoto, Bernard's photographs taken in the East served to authenticate the travel narrative and to construct Tibet "as a site of personal transformation." Back in America, Bernard's photographs of himself, whether in Tibetan dress or performing yoga poses such as Baddhapadmasana in the studio (a photo that also appears as plate XX in his Hatha Yoga), appeared frequently in The Family Circle magazine from 1938, "reveal[ing] his willingness to commodify spirituality and assumptions of exoticism". On his return to the United States in 1937, he claimed to be a lama, "the first white man ever to live in the lamaseries and cities of Tibet", and "initiated into the age-old religious rites of Tibetan Buddhism". His descriptions of his supposed experiences were published across the country over several weeks by the North American Newspaper Alliance and Bell Syndicate. Viola divorced him soon afterwards. This was followed by a series of lectures and radio appearances in 1939 and by the publication the same year of his memoir Penthouse of the Gods. The book was released in Britain as Land of a Thousand Buddhas, attracting "sensationalistic reports" from the tabloid press about the "white lama", and the status of "a fraud and imposter" from British intelligence, who had been tracking him in Tibet. Bernard was featured in popular magazines, including five cover stories in Family Circle in 1938 and 1939, followed shortly by his second book, Heaven Lies Within Us, which explored Hatha Yoga under the guise of an autobiography. According to Paul Hackett's 2008 Barbarian Lands, many of the experiences Bernard describes in these books were exaggerated or fabricated, based on the experiences of his father. However, he had indeed learnt fluent Tibetan, travelled in Tibet, met senior lamas and government officials, and returned with an unmatched collection of photographs, film, field notes, and manuscripts, from essentially the only moment when Tibet had allowed foreigners in, and from its final years as an independent country with a vibrant spiritual culture. His Tibetan collection included 22 bronze statues of Buddhist gods, 40 thangka paintings, 23 rugs, 25 mandalas, over 100 cloth wood-block prints, 79 books, and many textiles, robes, hats, ritual implements, and household objects. The collection is stored at the University of California, Berkeley. From a different point of view, Bernard certainly pioneered the spiritual approach of a generation of Westerners interested in Buddhism, Yoga, and other religious traditions of India. His seeking adventure and a lost or hidden spiritual tradition, too, could be seen as perpetuating the Western myth of the East exemplified by James Hilton's popular 1933 novel Lost Horizon and the 1937 film based on it; these portray a hidden kingdom of happy immortals at Shangri-la, high in Tibet's mountains. In 1939, Bernard opened the American Institute of Yoga and Pierre Health Studios. ### Hatha yoga During the 1940s Bernard completed his Ph.D. at Columbia University under the supervision of Herbert Schneider. It describes his experiences as a scholar-practitioner with asanas and the reason he was "prescribed" them, purifications (shatkarmas), pranayama, and mudras, and gives a more theoretical account of samadhi. He had learnt these around 1932-1933, while studying at the University of Arizona. He published his dissertation in 1943 as the book Hatha Yoga: The Report of A Personal Experience. It was illustrated with high-quality studio photographs of Bernard in the yoga practices he had mastered. It was one of the earliest references in the West, possibly the first in English, on the asanas and other practices of hatha yoga, as described in texts such as Hatha Yoga Pradipika. It represents, in the yoga scholar-practitioner Norman Sjoman's words "virtually the only documentation of a [hatha yoga] practice tradition", the actual use of hatha yoga to achieve successive stages on a spiritual path towards moksha, liberation, whatever may be thought of the genuineness of his accounts and experiences. ### Tibetland, Lotusland While working on Hatha Yoga, he met and in 1942 married the Polish opera star Ganna Walska, becoming her sixth and last husband. They purchased the historic 37-acre (15 ha) "Cuesta Linda" estate in Montecito, California, naming it Tibetland as they hoped to invite Tibetan monks to come and stay. This proved impossible during the war. In 1946 they divorced and Walska renamed it to Lotusland. ### Final journey In 1947, Bernard, with his third wife, Helen, again visited northern India, on an expedition to the Ki monastery in Himachal Pradesh in an attempt to discover special manuscripts. In October, while in the hills of Punjab in what is now Pakistan, inter-communal violence associated with the Partition of India broke out. He and his Tibetan companion were shot, and their bodies thrown in a river. He was declared dead several months later, though his body was never found. ## Works - Penthouse of the Gods : a pilgrimage into the heart of Tibet and the sacred city of Lhasa (1939a) - Heaven Lies Within Us: Yoga Gave Me Superior Health (1939b) - Hatha Yoga: The Report of A Personal Experience (1943) illustrated with 37 black-and-white photographs of Bernard in different asanas - The Philosophical Foundations of India (1945)	[ "## Biography", "### Early life", "### India and Tibet", "### Hatha yoga", "### Tibetland, Lotusland", "### Final journey", "## Works" ]	2,213	16,269
67,828,043	HMS Nicator (1916)	1,130,263,678	British M-Class destroyer, WW1	[ "1916 ships", "Admiralty M-class destroyers", "Ships built on the River Clyde", "World War I destroyers of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS Nicator was an Admiralty M-class destroyer which served with the Royal Navy during the First World War. The M class was an improvement on the preceding L class, capable of higher speed. Launched in February 1916, the destroyer fought in the Battle of Jutland between May and June 1916, operating in support of the British battlecruisers in their action against the German High Seas Fleet. Nicator claimed, along with sister ship Nestor, the destruction of a German torpedo boat, likely to be V27. The destroyer also attacked the German battlecruisers and battleships and, although no hits were recorded, kept the German ships from closing with the British. This was crucial to limiting losses to the British battlecruiser fleet. The vessel was subsequently fitted with paravanes for anti-submarine warfare. After the war, the destroyer was placed in reserve and subsequently sold to be broken up in May 1921. ## Design and development Nicator was one of sixteen Admiralty M-class destroyers ordered by the British Admiralty in February 1915 as part of the Fourth War Construction Programme during the First World War. The M class was an improved version of the earlier L-class destroyers, required to reach a higher speed in order to counter rumoured German fast destroyers. The remit was to have a maximum speed of 36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph), and although the eventual design did not achieve this, the greater performance of the M class was appreciated by the Royal Navy. It transpired that the German ships did not exist. The destroyer was 265 feet (80.77 m) long between perpendiculars, with a beam of 26 feet 9 inches (8.15 m) and a draught of 9 feet 3 inches (2.82 m). Displacement was 994 long tons (1,010 t) normal and 1,025 long tons (1,041 t) full load. Power was provided by three Yarrow boilers feeding Parsons steam turbines rated at 25,000 shaft horsepower (19,000 kW) and driving three shafts, to give a design speed of 34 knots (63 km/h; 39 mph). Three funnels were fitted. A fuel load of 268 long tons (272 t) of oil was carried, including 40 long tons (41 t) in peace tanks that were not used in wartime, giving a design range of 2,280 nautical miles (4,220 km; 2,620 mi) at 17 knots (31 km/h; 20 mph). Armament consisted of three single QF 4-inch (100 mm) Mk IV guns on the ship's centreline, with one on the forecastle, one aft on a raised platform and one between the middle and aft funnels. Two single QF 2-pounder 40 mm (2 in) "pom-pom" anti-aircraft guns were carried, while torpedo armament consisted of two twin rotating mounts for 21 in (533 mm) torpedoes torpedoes. Nicator was equipped with two depth charge chutes aft, the number of depth charges carried increasing during the duration of the war. The ship had a complement of 80 officers and ratings. ## Construction and career Nicator was laid down by William Denny and Brothers of Dumbarton on 21 April 1915 with the yard number 1047. Construction cost £149,730. Launched on 3 February 1916 and completed on 15 April, the ship was the first in the Royal Navy to be named after Seleucus I Nicator, one of the Diadochi of Alexander the Great and the founder of the Seleucid dynasty. The vessel was deployed as part of the Grand Fleet, joining the Thirteenth Destroyer Flotilla. Soon after entering service, the destroyer formed part of the escort to troops sent to Dublin on 25 April to put down the Easter Rising. Between 31 May and 1 June 1916, Nicator sailed as part of the flotilla, led by the flotilla cruiser Champion, to confront the German High Seas Fleet in the Battle of Jutland. The flotilla was part of the destroyer screen for the British battlecruisers as they confronted their German equivalents. As the two fleets converged, Nicator and sister ship Nestor attacked the German torpedo boats and claimed to sink one. V27, which was stricken by gunfire, is likely to be their victim. Following the destruction of Queen Mary, the flotilla, reinforced by members of the Ninth Destroyer Flotilla and Moorsom and Morris of the Tenth, sped to attack the German fleet. The destroyers engaged with the German destroyer screen and a fierce battle ensued. Nicator was one of only two from the flotilla, along with Nestor, that managed to break through to reach the German line. They first encountered the battlecruiser Lützow, which turned away to avoid their attack. The destroyer then launched a torpedo at the German battlecruiser Derfflinger, which missed. Another torpedo got stuck in its tube and failed to fire. Although the attack did not record any hits, it did force the German warships to manoeuvre away and so enabled the British battlecruiser fleet, which had already lost two of their number, to escape without further harm. As Nestor and Nicator turned away from the German battlecruisers, the battleships of the High Seas Fleet appeared on the horizon. Nicator fired one more shell at the retreating German ships and retired. The destroyers then joined with a larger flotilla of twelve destroyers which was stationed to the east of the Grand Fleet. As the battlefleets manoeuvred around each other, Nicator attempted to attack the German battleships with gunfire but without success. As the battle drew to a close, the destroyer avoided a torpedo launched by the submarine U-52, which also escaped, before retiring to Rosyth low on fuel. During early 1917, Nicator was equipped with anti-submarine paravanes and on 16 and 17 April, the ship was one of six used for patrols of Dogger Bank known as high speed sweeps, although no submarines were found during the operation. The Admiralty identified that the patrols were not as successful at detecting and destroying submarines as they needed and focused instead on the more effective convoy model. The vessel was transferred to Buncrana with the Second Destroyer Flotilla and served there for the last year of the war. The Buncrana-based destroyers were employed on convoy escort, rendezvousing with trans-Atlantic convoys inbound from the Hampton Roads, and Sydney, Nova Scotia and escorting them to ports on the Clyde and Mersey and escorting outbound Atlantic convoys until they dispersed.. After the armistice, Nicator was transferred to Portsmouth. This was a temporary post and during the following year, the destroyer was moved to the local defence flotilla at Portland. As the Royal Navy returned to a peacetime level of strength, both the number of ships and the amount of personnel needed to be reduced to save money. In addition, the harsh conditions of wartime service, particularly the combination of high speed and the poor weather that is typical of the North Sea, exacerbated by the fact that the hull was not galvanised, meant that the destroyer was in need of repair to remain in service. On 9 May 1921, the destroyer was decommissioned and sold to Thos. W. Ward of Milford Haven to be broken up. ## Pennant numbers	[ "## Design and development", "## Construction and career", "## Pennant numbers" ]	1,577	26,321
56,934,599	Dharma Bum Temple	1,146,012,372	Buddhist temple in the United States	[ "Buddhism in California", "Buddhism in North America", "Buddhism in the United States", "Buddhist monasteries in the United States", "Organizations based in San Diego" ]	Dharma Bum Temple is an American Buddhist temple in San Diego, California. The temple focuses on being an introductory center for beginners to learn Buddhism and aims to provide a space for Americans to practice Buddhism in the comfort of their own culture. It has its roots in Taiwanese Buddhism and the Fo Guang Shan order, but identifies with ecumenical Buddhism, or interdenominational Buddhism. Dharma Bum Temple was founded on New Year's Eve in 2006 by a group of three people. It was originally located in Downtown San Diego, where it became popular among locals and college students from the nearby San Diego State University (SDSU). The temple was involved in the founding of the first Buddhist college fraternity in the United States, Delta Beta Tau. Dharma Bum Temple made headlines in local newspapers in 2017 with its campaign to buy the 1927-built Swedenborgian Church in University Heights, San Diego, which the temple relocated to later that year. Dharma Bum Temple holds free meditation and Buddhism classes for the general public and organizes community service events in the area. The temple is known for directing its members to other Buddhist temples in the area based on the forms of Buddhism that interest the person. The temple routinely hosts guest speakers from various traditions of Buddhism and organizes field trips to other Buddhist temples in the area. ## History ### Founding Dharma Bum Temple was founded by a group who met at a local Buddhist temple in San Diego in 2003. One of the members of the group, Jeffrey Zlotnik, eventually became president of the English-language chapter of the local temple. In 2005, the group went to the Fo Guang Shan monastery in Taiwan to study Buddhism and was invited to open a temple in San Diego under the International Bodhisattva Sangha in 2006. However, due to logistical problems and a lack of funding, the group abandoned the project shortly after opening the temple. Later that year, the group opened its own temple in Downtown San Diego under the name "Dharma Bum Center", after the 1958 Jack Kerouac book The Dharma Bums. In September 2008, the temple officially changed its name to Dharma Bum Temple. ### In Downtown San Diego Dharma Bum Temple was located in and operated from Downtown San Diego from the end of 2006 to April 2017. When the temple reached maximum capacity in 2008, it attempted to move to a larger location in Downtown San Diego, but returned to the original building when the new location was found to not be suitable. In 2009, the temple acquired a Buddhist gift shop near San Diego State University (SDSU) called Buddha for You at the request of the previous owner, who was elderly and wanted somebody to entrust the store to. Although the gift shop rarely generated profit for Dharma Bum Temple, it played a significant role in the expansion of the temple's community. Due to its proximity to SDSU, Dharma Bum Temple and its services at Buddha for You became popular among college students and the temple eventually started holding regular events on the campus. This included the organization of an SDSU meditation club called the "Aztec Dharma Bums" and the founding of the first Buddhist college fraternity in the United States, Delta Beta Tau (ΔΒΤ). Before the temple relocated, its services were divided between its main building in Downtown and the gift shop Buddha for You. The latter hosted two meditation classes a week, attended by about forty participants each. The temple spent five years looking for a place to expand to but was unable to find a suitable location until 2016. ### Campaign to buy the Swedenborgian Church In October 2016, Dharma Bum Temple started a campaign to purchase the Swedenborgian Church in University Heights, San Diego. According to Dharma Bum Temple co-founder Jeffrey Zlotnik, the church was the ideal place to expand to because it was centrally located near several major neighborhoods and districts in San Diego, was free from Downtown San Diego's parking and traffic problems, and was large enough to accommodate the growing congregation. A developer offered \$1.4 million for the church, which Dharma Bum Temple offered to match. However, preference was given to Dharma Bum Temple because the prior owner wanted the church to continue to be used for a spiritual purpose. Although Dharma Bum Temple only had \$7,000 at the time, the temple agreed and entered escrow, having to raise \$490,000 for the down payment within 108 days. To raise the money, Zlotnik launched a fundraising campaign on Facebook to ask for donations. The campaign did very well, raising \$103,800 from 321 donors in its first two weeks. It caught the attention of several local news outlets in San Diego because the temple and its congregation were able to raise the funds so rapidly. Due to the news coverage, several consultants and organizations contacted Zlotnik to ask for fundraising advice. Dharma Bum Temple received the last string of donations needed to make the down payment on February 14, 2017, the final day of the fundraiser. By the end of the campaign, the temple had raised \$497,000 from 1,123 donors in 108 days (about \$4,600 per day). ### Relocation to University Heights After closing escrow, Dharma Bum Temple officially moved to its new location in University Heights on April 15, 2017. Since relocating, the temple consolidated Dharma Bum Temple and its separate gift shop, Buddha for You, as well as all of the services that were held there into the new larger location. The new temple is expected to have three meditation areas and be able hold up to 300 people at one time. ## Services Dharma Bum Temple focuses on being an introductory center for westerners to learn Buddhism in a culturally approachable way. The temple avoids pressuring its members into cultural Buddhist practices that may make westerners feel uncomfortable, such as chanting and bowing. Members of the temple refer to themselves as "Dharma Bums". The temple has a policy of welcoming all groups, including other religions. Although it does not identify with any specific school of Buddhism, the temple emphasizes principles of Mahayana Buddhism such as the teachings of the Heart Sutra. Its teachings include overcoming problems and eliminating suffering through meditation and the development of Buddhist principles. Like many temples influenced by Mahayana Buddhism, Dharma Bum Temple stresses the benefit of pursuing the Bodhisattva Path through the cultivation of the Six Mahayana Paramitas. The temple is known for directing members to other Buddhist temples in the San Diego area after they start showing deeper interest in a particular form of the religion after attending Dharma Bum Temple. It regularly hosts guest speakers from various traditions of Buddhism and holds field trips in the summer to other Buddhist temples in San Diego to introduce attendees to their traditions. The temple also offers introductory classes on Buddhism in Spanish. Dharma Bum Temple has a strict "no charge" policy and its teachers are instructed to never ask for donations or give a sermon on Dāna, or giving. According to temple co-founder Jeffrey Zlotnik, this policy is in place to avoid pressuring attendees into giving unwillingly, which he says reduces the value of the practice of generosity. As a result, Dharma Bum Temple services are always free of charge and the temple is run solely off of voluntary donations. The temple's services are attended by a diverse demographic, with its largest demographic being young adult Caucasians. The temple does not actively advertise itself and relies mostly on word of mouth to attract members. Its events are mainly coordinated online through platforms such as Facebook. Dharma Bum Temple focuses on the development of its community around the structure of families, offering individual programs for each age group; including for young children, teenagers, and adults, and has a family program called the "Family Sangha". Along with traditional Buddhist services, Dharma Bum Temple also hosts a Buddhism based support group called the "Recovery Sangha". The program combines elements of the traditional Twelve-Step Program with Buddhism and meditation to help drug and alcohol addicts overcome their addictions. The temple hosts multiple Buddhism and meditation classes throughout the week. As of December 2018, its most popular weekly services were attracting around 70 people per class. ## Community outreach ### Food redistribution Dharma Bum Temple operates a weekly feed the homeless program called "Food Redistribution". The temple and volunteers for the program do not purchase food for the program but instead collect food from stores and farms in the area who would have otherwise thrown it away for not being fresh or being too close to the expiration date. The focus of the program is not just to feed the homeless but also to combat excessive food waste. All food prepared for the Dharma Bum Temple food redistribution program is vegetarian. ### Prison outreach Since 2006, Dharma Bum Temple regularly visits prisons to teach meditation or Buddhism to inmates in San Diego. The program emphasizes Buddhism as a way to develop traits such as wisdom and compassion, rather than being a Buddhist. The goal of the program is to improve the minds of inmates so they can reintegrate into society more smoothly once they are released from prison. ## Delta Beta Tau In 2015, Dharma Bum Temple started to organize a Buddhist college fraternity at the suggestion of its co-founder Jeffrey Zlotnik, who was in Beta Theta Pi in college. Although the temple originally planned on creating a fraternity and a sorority, it ended up organizing a single co-ed fraternity. The first chapter of the fraternity was founded at San Diego State University (SDSU), which the temple already had a strong presence on. The temple had already been running a meditation club on the campus called "The Aztec Dharma Bums". Delta Beta Tau (ΔΒΤ) was founded in September 2015 at SDSU as the first Buddhist college fraternity in the United States, its name was based on the initials of Dharma Bum Temple. The co-ed fraternity was founded on the principles of the Six Paramitas of Mahayana Buddhism. Rules and activities for the fraternity are based on Buddhist principles and to join pledges do community service and attend meditation retreats. In 2017, the fraternity announced plans to start a chapter at University of California, San Diego (UCSD). As of August 20, 2019 the fraternity has initiated 223 active members at its founding chapter at SDSU. ## See also - Buddhism in the United States - Fo Guang Shan	[ "## History", "### Founding", "### In Downtown San Diego", "### Campaign to buy the Swedenborgian Church", "### Relocation to University Heights", "## Services", "## Community outreach", "### Food redistribution", "### Prison outreach", "## Delta Beta Tau", "## See also" ]	2,169	5,071

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