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751260 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20deities%20in%20Marvel%20Comics | List of deities in Marvel Comics | Marvel Comics includes many characters based on deities from several mythological pantheons. The most significant one is Thor, a character based on the deity of the same name from Norse mythology. Other deities from Norse myths were adapted for Thor's supporting cast, along with Heracles and other deities from Classical mythology. Deities from other pantheons are also adapted from time to time and there are also other original deities created by Marvel.
Deities
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 99%;"
|-
! scope="col"| Pantheon
! scope="col"| Character
! scope="col"| Based on
! scope="col"| First appearance
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
!| Multiversal God
| One Above All
| Jack Kirby and God
| Fantastic Four #511 May, 2004
| Primary creator of all Marvel Comics characters, locations, and events, along with an unseen Collaborator, about whose identity the Creator says "'Nuff Said."
|-
! rowspan="5"| Proemial Gods
| Diableri
| Original creation of Keith Giffen and Andrea Di Vito
| Annihilation: Heralds of Galactus #2 (May 2007)
| Diableri of Chaos
|-
| Aegis
| Original creation of Keith Giffen and Renato Arlem
| Annihilation: Silver Surfer #3 (August 2006)
| Lady of All Sorrows
|-
| Tenebrous
| Original creation of Keith Giffen and Renato Arlem
| Annihilation: Silver Surfer #3 (August 2006)
| Tenebrous of the Darkness Between
|-
| Antiphon
| Original creation of Keith Giffen and Andrea Di Vito
| Annihilation: Heralds of Galactus #2 (May 2007)
| Antiphon the Overseer
|-
| Brio
| Original creation of Keith Giffen and Andrea Di Vito
| Annihilation: Heralds of Galactus #2 (May 2007)
| Brio of Life
|-
! rowspan="7"| Elder Gods
| Demiurge
| Demiurge
| Thor Annual #10 (October 1982)
| A Cosmic Entity who created the first generation of Gods
|-
| Gaea
| Gaia, Terra, Jörð, and many other Earth Mothers
|Doctor Strange Vol 2 #6 (February 1975)
| Goddess of the Earth, Life, and Renewal
|-
| Chthon
| Lucifer and Cthulhu Mythos
|Marvel Chillers #1 (October 1975)
| God of Darkness and Chaos
|-
| Set
| Set, Apep and Lernaean Hydra
|Marvel Feature Vol 2 #6 (September 1976)
| God of Death and Destruction
|-
| Oshtur
| Original creation of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, Maat, Ostara, Virgin Mary
| Marvel Premiere #5 (November 1972)
| Goddess of the Dawn, Order and Intellect
|-
| Demogorge
| Demogorgon
| Thor Annual #10 (October 1982) as Atum
| The God Eater
|-
| Jhoatun Lau
| Cthulhu Mythos
| Savage Avengers #1 (July 2019)
| Marrow God
|-
! rowspan="7"| Dark Gods
| Majeston Zelia
| Original creation of Dan Jurgens and John Romita Jr.
| Thor Vol. 2 #4 (October 1998)
| Mother of Perrikus
|-
| Perrikus
| Original creation of Dan Jurgens and John Romita Jr.
| Thor Vol. 2 #1 (July 1998)
| God of Power Unlimited and Energy Infinite
|-
| Adva
| Original creation of Dan Jurgens and John Romita Jr.
| Thor Vol. 2 #4 (October 1998)
|Goddess of Portals and Knowledge
|-
| D'Chel
| Original creation of Dan Jurgens and John Romita Jr.
| Thor Vol. 2 #7 (January 1999)
| God of Illusion
|-
| Tokkots
| Original creation of Dan Jurgens and John Romita Jr.
| Thor Vol. 2 #8 (February 1999)
| God of Decay
|-
| Slototh
| Original creation of Dan Jurgens and John Romita Jr.
| Thor Vol. 2 #11 (May 1999)
| God of Filth
|-
| Tserron
| Original creation of Dan Jurgens and John Romita Jr.
| Thor Vol. 2 #9 (March 1999)
| Wife of Perrikus
|-
! rowspan="12"| Young Gods
| Varua
| Original creation of Mark Gruenwald, Ralph Macchio and Keith Pollard
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| Human turned goddess
|-
| Brightsword
| Original creation of Gerry Conway and John Buscema
| Thor #203 (September 1972)
| Human turned god
|-
| Caduceus
| Original creation of Mark Gruenwald, Ralph Macchio, Keith Pollard and Gene Day
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| Human turned god
|-
| Calculus
| Original creation of Mark Gruenwald, Ralph Macchio, Keith Pollard and Gene Day
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| Human turned god
|-
| Daydreamer
| Original creation of Mark Gruenwald, Ralph Macchio, Keith Pollard and Gene Day
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| Human turned goddess
|-
| Genii
| Original creation of Gerry Conway and John Buscema
| Thor #202 (August 1972)
| Human turned god
|-
| Harvest
| Original creation of Gerry Conway and John Buscema
| Thor #203 (September 1972)
| Human turned goddess
|-
| Highnote
| Original creation of Mark Gruenwald, Ralph Macchio, Keith Pollard and Gene Day
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| Human turned god
|-
| Mindsinger
| Original creation of Mark Gruenwald, Ralph Macchio, Keith Pollard and Gene Day
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| Human turned god
|-
| Moonstalker
| Original creation of Mark Gruenwald, Ralph Macchio, Keith Pollard and Gene Day
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| Human turned goddess
|-
| Sea Witch
| Original creation of Mark Gruenwald, Ralph Macchio, Keith Pollard and Gene Day
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| Human turned goddess
|-
| Splice
| Original creation of Mark Gruenwald, Ralph Macchio, Keith Pollard and Gene Day
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| Human turned goddess
|-
! rowspan="9"| Ahau (Mayan Gods)
| Ah Puch
| Ah Puch
| Thor Annual #10 (October 1982)
| God of the Dead
|-
| Buluc Chatbán
| Buluc Chabtan
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of War
|-
| Camazotz
| Camazotz
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Darkness
|-
| Chaac
| Chaac
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Rain and Lightning
|-
| Gucumatz / Kukulkán
| Q'uq'umatz / Kukulkan
| X-Men #25 (October 1966)
| God of the Wind
|-
| Hunab Ku
| Hunab Ku
| Marvel: The End #2 (May 2003)
| God of the Sky
|-
| Itzamna
| Itzamna
| Infinity Gauntlet #2 (August 1991)
| God of the Sun
|-
| Ixchel
| Ixchel
| Fantastic Four #118 (January 1972)
| Goddess of the Moon
|-
| Wayep
| Wayeb'
| Amazing Spider-Man #556 (June 2008)
| God of Mischief
|-
! rowspan="10"| Akua (Polynesian Gods)
| B'ngudja
| Original creation of Dan Abnett, John Tomlinson and Gary Erskine with no association in actual Hawaiian religion
| Knights of Pendragon #15 (September 1991)
| Shark God
|-
| Papa / Hauema
| Papa / Hauema
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #4 (December 2007) as Gaea
| Goddess of Earth (one of the many forms and names used by Gaea)
|-
| Kanaloa
| Kanaloa
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Sea God
|-
| Kāne
| Kāne
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| God of Light, Sky and Weather
|-
| Kū
| Kū
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe #3 (March 2006)
| God of War
|-
| Lono
| Lono
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Peace and Agriculture
|-
| Namaka
| Nāmaka
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe #3 (March 2006)
| Goddess of the Sea
|-
| Pele
| Pele
| X-Force #81 (September 1998)
| Goddess of Volcanoes
|-
| Poliahu
| Poliʻahu
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of Snow
|-
| Whiro
| Whiro
| Citizen V and the V-Battalion Everlasting #2 (May 2002)
| God of Death and Evil
|-
! rowspan="11"| Amatsu-Kami (Japanese Gods)
| Amaterasu
| Amaterasu
| Wolverine #32 (October 1990)
| Goddess of the Sun
|-
| Ame-No-Mi-Kumari
| Ame-No-Mi Kumari
| Ares #5 (July 2006)
| Goddess of Water
|-
| Bishamon
| Bishamonten
| Ares #5 (July 2006)
| God of War and Fortune
|-
| Ho Ti
| Hotei
| Bizarre Adventures #32 (August 1982)
| God of Happiness
|-
| Inari
| Inari Ōkami
| Wolverine Soultaker #4 (July 2005)
| God of Rice
|-
| Izanagi
| Izanagi
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| God of the Sky
|-
| Kaminari
| Kaminari-sama
| Ares #5 (July 2006)
| Goddess of Thunder and Lightning
|-
| Kagutsuchi
| Kagu-tsuchi
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Fire
|-
| Amatsu-Mikaboshi
| Amatsumikaboshi
| Thor: Blood Oath #6 (February 2006)
| God of Evil
|-
| Susanoo
| Susanoo-no-Mikoto
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of the Sea and Storm
|-
| Tsukuyomi
| Tsukuyomi-no-Mikoto
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of the Moon
|-
! rowspan="12"| Annunaki (Mesopotamian Gods)
| Anu
| Anu
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| God of Heaven
|-
| Aqhat
| Aqhat
| Citizen V and the V-Battalion Everlasting #1 (March 2002)
|
|-
| Ba'al
| Baal / Hadad
| Wolverine #11 (September 1989)
| God of Storms
|-
| Dagon
| Dagon
| Conan the Barbarian #59 (February 1976)
| God of Wind and Air
|-
| Ereshkigal
| Ereshkigal
| Thor Annual #10 (October 1982)
| Goddess of the Dead
|-
| Inanna
| Inanna
| Hellstorm #15 (June 1994)
| Goddess of Love and War
|-
| Lilith
| Lilith
| Ghost Rider #28 (August 1992)
| Mother of All Demons
|-
| Marduk
| Marduk
| Citizen V and the V-Battalion Everlasting #2 (May 2002)
| God of Judgment and Magic
|-
| Nergal
| Nergal
| Conan the Barbarian #30 (September 1973)
| God of Death and Pestilence
|-
| Ningal
| Ningal
| Chamber of Chills #4 (May 1973)
| God of Metal
|-
| Saja
| Original creation of Scott Lobdell and Don Perlin with no actual connection to Mesopotamian mythology.
| Marvel Comics Presents #47 (April 1990)
| God of Messengers
|-
| Tammuz
| Dumuzid
| Conan the Barbarian #30 (September 1973)
| God of Shepherds and Fertility
|-
! rowspan="11"| Apu (Inca Gods)
| Aiomum Kondi
| Aiomun-Kondi
| Avengers Vol. 3 #28 (May 2000)
| Deity
|-
| Coniraya
| Coniraya
| Avengers Vol. 3 #28 (May 2000)
| Deity
|-
| Guecufu
| Guecubu
| Avengers Vol. 3 #28 (May 2000)
| Deity
|-
| Konassa
| Konassa
| Avengers Vol. 3 #28 (May 2000)
| Deity
|-
| Kulamina
| Kulamina
| Avengers Vol. 3 #28 (May 2000)
| Deity
|-
| Manco
| Manco
| Avengers Vol. 3 #28 (May 2000)
| Deity
|-
| Okonorote
| Okonorote
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| God of Earth, Rain and Fertility
|-
| Peliali
| Peliali
| Avengers Vol. 3 #28 (May 2000)
| Volcano Goddess
|-
| Con Ticci Viracocha
| Viracocha
| Thor Annual #7 (September 1978)
| God of the Sun, Sky, Heaven and Weather
|-
| Inti
| Inti
| Incredible Hercules #116 (June 2008)
| God of the Sun
|-
| Viracocha
| Viracocha
| Thor Annual #7 (September 1978)
| God of the Sky and Heavens
|-
! rowspan="87"| Asgardians (Norse Gods)
| Agnar
| Agnarr Geirröðsson
| Journey into Mystery #104 (May 1964) (Agnar the Fierce)Journey into Mystery #100 (January 1964) (King of Eagles)
| Agnar the FierceKing of Eagles
|-
| Arko
| Original creation of Tom DeFalco and Gary Hartle with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Thor #423 (September 1990)
| Palace Guard
|-
| Amora / Enchantress
| Original creation of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Journey into Mystery #103 (April 1964)
| Goddess of Magic and Sorcery
|-
| Aldrif / Angela
| Original creation of Neil Gaiman and Todd McFarlane with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Age of Ultron #10 (June 2013)
|
|-
| Baard
| Original creation of Robert Rodi and Simone Bianchi with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Thor: For Asgard #6 (April 2011)
|
|-
| Balder
| Baldr
| Journey into Mystery #85 (October 1962)
| God of Light and Purity
|-
| Bestla
| Bestla
| Journey into Mystery #97 (October 1963)
| Mother of Odin
|-
| Bor
| Borr
| Journey into Mystery #97 (October 1963)
| Patriarch of the Asgardians
|-
| Bragi
| Bragi
| Conan the Barbarian #17 (August 1972)Marvel Fanfare #13 (March 1984) (full appearance)
| God of Poetry
|-
| Brodag
| Original creation of Len Wein and John Buscema with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Thor #248 (June 1976)
| Brodag the Black
|-
| Brün
| Original creation of Kieron Gillen and Rich Elson with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Thor #611 (August 2010)
|
|-
| Buri / Tiwaz
| Búri
| Journey into Mystery #97 (October 1963)
| Patriarch of the Asgardians
|-
| Bygvir
| Byggvir
| Thor #336 (October 1983)
|
|-
| Casiolena
| Original creation of Roy Thomas and John Buscema with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Avengers #83 (December 1970)
| Sorceress
|-
| Cul / Serpent
| Original creation of Stuart Immonen and Matt Fraction with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Fear Itself #1 (April 2011)
| God of Fear
|-
| Cyra
| Original creation of Dan Jurgens and Jim Starlin with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Thor Vol. 2 #37 (July 2001)
| Physician
|-
| Einherjar
| Einherjar
| Thor #154 (July 1968)
| Deceased warriors assembled by Odin to fight and serve for the All-Father
|-
| Executioner / Skurge
| Original creation of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Journey into Mystery #103 (April 1964)
| Skornheim God
|-
| Fenris Wolf
| Fenrir
| Journey into Mystery #114 (Mar 1965)
| Giant Wolf
|-
| Flowas
| Original creation of Gerry Duggan and Mike Deodato Jr. with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Infinity Wars Prime #1 (September 2018)
| Tombkeeper of Asgardian texts
|-
| Frigga
| Frigg
| Journey into Mystery #92 (May 1963)
| Goddess of Marriage and Childbirth
|-
| Frey
| Freyr
| Thor #294 (April 1980)
| God of the Sun, Rain and The Harvest
|-
| Freya
| Freyja
| Thor #321 (October 1993)
| Goddess of Love, Beauty and Fertility
|-
| Garm
| Garmr
| Thor Annual #5 (September 1976)
| Guardian of the entrance to Hel
|-
| Glimda
| Original creation of Tom DeFalco and Tom Morgan with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Thor #402 (April 1989)
| Warrior Goddess
|-
| Gotron
| Original creation of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Journey into Mystery #104 (May 1964)
| Gotron the Agile
|-
| Ggorgstog
| Original creation of Dan Jurgens and Tom Raney with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Thor Vol. 2 #45 (March 2002)
|
|-
| Grand Thane
| Original creation of Walter Simonson with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Thor #364 (February 1986)
| The Lawgiver of the Althing
|-
| Grand Vizier
| Original creation of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Journey into Mystery #120 (September 1965)
| Odin's Chief Advisor and Spokesman
|-
| Greyval Grimson
| Original creation of Alan Zelenetz and Charles Vess with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Marvel Graphic Novel #15 (1985)
|
|-
| Gullin
| Original creation of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Journey into Mystery #103 (April 1964)
| Boar God
|-
| Gullveig
| Gullveig
| Journey into Mystery #642 (October 2012)
| Steward of Vanaheim; Sister of Freyja
|-
| Haakun
| Haakon
| Journey into Mystery #114 (March 1965)
| Haakun the Hunter
|-
| Harokin
| Original creation of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Thor #129 (June 1966)
| Member of the Einherjar
|-
| Heimdall
| Heimdallr
| Journey into Mystery #85 (October 1962)
| God of Protection and Sentinel of the Gates of Asgard
|-
| Hela
| Hel
| Journey into Mystery #102 (March 1964)
| Goddess of Death; Ruler of Hel
|-
| Hermod
| Hermóðr
| Thor #274 (August 1978)
| God of Messengers and Speed
|-
| Hescamar
| Original creation of Dan Jurgens and John Romita Jr. with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Thor Vol. 2 #2 (August 1998)
| One of Odin's ravens
|-
| Hoder
| Höðr
| Thor #274 (August 1978)
| God of Night, Winter and Snow
|-
| Hoenir
| Hœnir
| Thor Annual #5 (September 1976)
| Companion of Odin
|-
| Hildegund
| Original creation of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Journey into Mystery #120 (September 1965)
| Wife of Volstagg
|-
| Hrimhari
| Original creation of Chris Claremont with no association in actual Norse myth.
| New Mutants Special Edition #1 (December 1985)
| Wolf Prince of Asgard
|-
| Idunn
| Iðunn
| Journey into Mystery #114 (March 1965).
| Goddess of Immortality
|-
| Jord
| Jörð
| Doctor Strange #6 (February 1975) as Gaea
| Goddess of Earth (one of the many forms and names used by Gaea)
|-
| Karnilla
| Original creation of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Journey into Mystery #107 (August 1964)
| Queen of Nornheim; Goddess of Magic
|-
| Kelda
| Original creation of J. Michael Straczynski and Oliver Coipel with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Thor Vol. 3 #6 (February 2008)
| Goddess of Winter Storms
|-
| Laufey
| Laufey
| Journey into Mystery #112 (January 1965)
| King of the Frost Giants
|-
| Laussa
| Original creation of Kieron Gillen, Marguerite Bennett and Phil Jimenez with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Angela: Asgard's Assassin #1 (February 2015)
| Asgardian and Fire Demon hybrid
|-
| Legion of the Lost
| Original creation of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Thor #154 (July 1968)
| A band of warriors frozen by Karnilla
|-
| Lodur
| Lóðurr
| Thor Annual #5 (September 1976)
| Companion of Odin
|-
| Lofn
| Lofn
| Thor #357 (July 1985)
| Goddess of Forbidden Love
|-
| Loki
| Loki
| Journey into Mystery #85 (October 1962)
| God of Mischief and Evil
|-
| Lorelei
| Original creation of Walter Simonson with no association in actual Norse myth.
| The Mighty Thor #337 (January 1984)
| Sorceress
|-
| Magni and Modi
| Móði and Magni
| Thor #293 (March 1980)
| Son of Thor
|-
| Mimir
| Mímir
| Thor #240 (October 1975),
| God of Knowledge and Wisdom
|-
| Midgard Serpent / Jormungand
| Jörmungandr
| Thor #127 (April 1966)
| The World Serpent
|-
| Nanna
| Nanna
| Thor #305 (March 1981)
| Goddess of fertility; attendant to Frigga
|-
| Narvi
| Narfi
| Avengers Free Comic Book Day #1 (May 2018)
|
|-
| Nidhogg
| Níðhöggr
| Thor #339 (January 1984)
| Eater of the Dead
|-
| Njöda
| Original creation of Robert Rodi with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Astonishing Thor #1 (January 2011)
| Goddess of Chance
|-
| Njord
| Njörðr
| Thor #274 (August 1978)
| God of the Sea, Winds and Storms
|-
| Norns: Urd, Skuld, and Verandi
| Norns
| Journey into Mystery #102 (March 1964)
| Goddesses of Destiny
|-
| Odin
| Odin
| Journey into Mystery #85 (October 1962)
| God of the Sky, Knowledge and Death
|-
| Ollerus
| Ullr
| Defenders #66 (December 1978)
| Ollerus the Unmerciful
|-
| Ratatoskr
| Ratatoskr
| Thor Vol. 2 #83 (October 2004)
| God Squirrel; Messenger
|-
| Rimthursar
| Original creation of Doug Moench and Keith Pollard with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Thor #320 (June 1982)
| Asgardian deity and magician
|-
| Seidring
| Original creation of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Thor #126 (March 1966)
| Seidring the Merciless
|-
| Sigyn
| Sigyn
| Thor #275 (September 1978)
| Goddess of Fidelity
|-
| Sif
| Sif
| Journey into Mystery #102 (March 1964)
| Goddess of War and The Hunt; Shieldmaiden of Asgard
|-
| Siriana
| Original creation of Kieron Gillen and Richard Elson with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Journey into Mystery #630 (December 2011)
| Lover of Heimdall
|-
| Sigurd
| Sigurd
| New Mutants Vol. 3 #34 (January 2012)
| Warrior of Asgard
|-
| Starkad
| Starkad
| Thor #367 (May 1986)
|
|-
| Surtur
| Surtr
| Journey into Mystery #97 (October 1963)
| Ruler of Muspelheim
|-
| Sturm and Drang
| Sturm und Drang
| Captain Marvel Vol. 5 #7 (May 2003)
| Sons of Fenris Wolf and Surtur
|-
| Thialfi
| Þjálfi
| Thor Vol. 2 #43 (January 2002)
| Thor's Advisor
|-
| Thor
| Thor
| Journey into Mystery #83 (August 1962)
| God of Thunder and Lightning
|-
| Tiki
| Tiki
| Thor: Heaven & Earth #1 (September 2011)
| God of Stone
|-
| Tyr
| Týr
| Journey into Mystery #85 (October 1962)
| God of War
|-
| Tess Black
| Original creation of J. Michael Straczynski and John Romita Jr. with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Amazing Spider-Man #503 (March 2004)
| Demigoddess; Daughter of Loki
|-
| Ula
| Original creations of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Journey into Mystery #124 (January 1966)
| Queen of the Flying Trolls
|-
| Valkyrie
| Brynhildr
| Avengers #83 (December 1970)
| Shieldmaiden of Asgard; Leader of the Valkyrior
|-
| Vidar
| Víðarr
| Thor Annual #12 (1984)
| God of the Hunt
|-
| Vili and Ve
| Vili and Vé
| Journey into Mystery #97 (October 1963)
| Brothers of Odin
|-
| Volla
| Fulla
| Thor #127 (April 1966)
| Goddess of Prophecy
|-
| Warriors Three: Fandral, Hogun and Volstagg
| Original creations of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Journey into Mystery #119 (August 1965)
|
|-
| Warriors of the Thousand Galaxies
| Original creations of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby with no association in actual Norse myth.
| Thor King-Size Special #2 (September 1966)
|
|-
| Ymir
| Ymir
| Journey into Mystery #97 (October 1963)
| God of the Ice Giants
|-
! rowspan="8"| Aboriginal Gods (Aboriginal Australian Gods)
| Altjira
| Altjira
| Marvel Comics Presents #16 (April 1989)
| God of the Dreamtime
|-
| Baiame
| Baiame
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| God of Earth and Creation
|-
| Daramulum
| Daramulum
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe #3 (March 2006)
| God of the Sky and Weather
|-
| Julunggul / Rainbow Serpent
| Julunggul
| Incredible Hercules #117 (July 2008)
| Goddess of Fertility
|-
| Gnowee
| Gnowee
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of the Sun
|-
| Mamaragan
| Mamaragan
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Lightning
|-
| Marmoo
| Marmoo
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe #3 (March 2006)
| God of Evil
|-
| Narahdam
| Narahdam
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe #3 (March 2006)
| God of Death
|-
! rowspan="15"| Daevas (Hindu Gods)
| Brahma
| Brahma
| Thor #301 (November 1980)
| God of Creation
|-
| Ganesha
| Ganesha
| She-Hulk #25 (March 2008)
| God of Wisdom
|-
| Hanuman
| Hanuman
| Savage Sword of Conan #8 (October 1975)
| Servant of Rama
|-
| Kali
| Kali
| Amazing High Adventure #5 (December 1986)
| Goddess of Destruction
|-
| Krishna
| Krishna
| Civil War II: Gods of War #1 (August 2016)
|
|-
| Lakshmi
| Lakshmi
| Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe A-Z Update #1 (April 2010)
| Goddess of Wealth and Prosperity
|-
| Indra
| Indra
| Thor #301 (November 1980) (As "Shiva")Thor Annual #10 (October 1982)
| God of War and Weather
|-
| Maya
| Maya
| Amazing High Adventure #5 (December 1986)
| Goddess of Illusions and Dreams
|-
| Parvati
| Parvati
| Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe A-Z Update #1 (April 2010)
| Goddess of Fertility, Love and Devotion
|-
| Rama
| Rama
| Conan the Barbarian #38 (May 1974)
| Deity
|-
| Ratri
| Ratri
| Amazing High Adventure #5 (December 1986)
| Goddess of the Night
|-
| Shiva
| Shiva
| Thor #361 (May 2003)
| God of Destruction and Transformation
|-
| Shri
| Sri
| Infinity: The Hunt #1 (November 2013)
| Modern incarnation of Durga
|-
| Vishnu
| Vishnu
| Marvel Classics Comics #23 (November 1977)
| God of Heaven and Preservation
|-
| Yama
| Yama
| Thor Annual #10 (October 1982)
| God of Death
|-
! rowspan="39"| Dievas (Slavic Gods)
| Ajysyt
| Aisyt
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Goddess of Childbirth
|-
| Austrine
| Austrine
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Daughter of Perun
|-
| Baba Yaga
| Baba Yaga
| Captain Britain Vol. 2 #11 (November 1985)
| Goddess of Earth, Witchcraft and Misfortune
|-
| Bangputys
| Bangpūtys
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Cousin of Perun
|-
| Breksta
| Breksta
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Daughter of Perun
|-
| Chernobog
| Chernobog
| Incredible Hulks #621 (March 2011)
| God of Chaos, Darkness and Night
|-
| Dazhbog
| Dažbog
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| God of Light
|-
| Diva
| Diva
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Half-sister of Perun
|-
| Indraja
| Indraja
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Daughter of Perun
|-
| Junda
| Junda
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Daughter of Perun
|-
| Jurate
| Jūratė
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Ocean Goddess
|-
| Kalvis
| Kalvis
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| God of the Dead
|-
| Krumine
| Krūminė
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Cousin of Perun
|-
| Kupala
| Kupala
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Aunt of Perun
|-
| Lada
| Lada
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
|Goddess of Beauty and Youth
|-
| Laima
| Laima
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Goddess of Fate and Luck
|-
| Marzana
| Marzanna
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Goddess of Witchcraft
|-
| Mati
| Mati
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Earth Goddess
|-
| Meness
| Meness
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Brother of Saule
|-
| Milda
| Milda
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Goddess of Love
|-
| Perun
| Perun
| Captain America #352 (April 1989)
| God of Thunder
|-
| Pikuolis
| Pikuolis
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Death God
|-
| Potrimpo
| Potrimpo
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Fertility God
|-
| Praamzius
| Praamžius
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| God of Time
|-
| Rasyte
| Rasyte
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Cousin of Perun
|-
| Rod
| Rod
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Primordial God of the Dievas
|-
| Ros
| Ros
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| River Goddess
|-
| Saule
| Saulė
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Goddess of the Sun
|-
| Selijna
| Selijna
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Daughter of Perun
|-
| Stribog
| Stribog
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| God of the Wind and Sky
|-
| Svantoit
| Svantoit
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| War God
|-
| Svarog
| Svarog
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| God of the Sun, Fire, Rain and Sky
|-
| Svaroizvich
| Svarožic
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| God of Fire
|-
| Sweigsdunka
| Sweigsdunka
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Mother of Perun
|-
| Ursula
| Ursula
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Goddess of Love
|-
| Vaiva
| Vaiva
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Daughter of Perun
|-
| Veles
| Veles
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| God of Death and the Underworld
|-
| Zhiva
| Zhiva
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Half-sister of Perun
|-
| Zleja
| Zleja
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #2 (June 2007)
| Daughter of Perun
|-
! rowspan="8"| Diwatas (Philippine Gods)
| Aman Sinaya
| Aman Sinaya
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of the Sea
|-
| Amihan
| Amihan
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of the Wind
|-
| Anitun
| Anitong Tawo
| Invincible Iron Man #2 (August 2008)
| Goddess of Wind, Lightning and Rain
|-
| Aswang
| Aswang
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Evil
|-
| Apo Laki
| Apo Laki
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of the Sun and War
|-
| Battala
| Bathala
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of the Sky
|-
| Tala
| Tala
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of the Stars
|-
| Mayari
| Mayari
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of the Moon
|-
! rowspan="27"| Heliopolitans (Egyptian Gods)
| Amaunet
| Amunet
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Air Goddess; member of the Ogdoad
|-
| Anubis
| Anubis
| Son of Satan #5 (August 1976)
| God of Funerals and Mummification
|-
| Atum
| Atum / Ra
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| God of the Sun
|-
| Bast
| Bastet
| Fantastic Four #52 (July 1966)
| God of Pleasure, Poetry, Music and Dancing, Panther God of Wakanda
|-
| Bes
| Bes
| Thor #396 (October 1988)
| God of Luck and Probability; Protector of Households
|-
| Geb
| Geb
| Thor #241 (November 1975)
| God of Earth, Fertility and the Harvest
|-
| Gog
| Original creation of Bill Mantlo and Sal Buscema with no association in actual Egyptian mythology.
| Incredible Hulk #257 (March 1981)
| Deity
|-
| Grog
| Original creation of Tom DeFalco and Ron Frenz with no association in actual Egyptian mythology.
| Thor #390 (Apr 1988)
| General of Seth's armies
|-
| Harsaphis
| Harsaphes
| Avenging Spider-Man #7 (July 2012)
| Deity
|-
| Horus
| Horus
| Thor #240 (Oct 1975)
| God of the Sky and Sun
|-
| Isis
| Isis
| Thor #240 (October 1975)
| Goddess of Fertility
|-
| Khonshu
| Khonsu
| Moon Knight #1 (November 1980)
| God of the Moon and Vengeance
|-
| Montu
| Montu
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #1 (March 2007)
| Deity
|-
| Mut
| Mut
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Deity; Stepmother of Khonshu
|-
| Neith
| Neith
| Doctor Strange #6 (February 1975) as Gaea
| Goddess of Earth (one of the many forms and names used by Gaea)
|-
| Nepthys
| Nephthys
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of the Night and the Dead
|-
| Nun
| Nu
| Thor Annual #10 (October 1982) as the Demiurge
| God of the Watery Abyss
|-
| Nut
| Nut
| Thor #241 (November 1975)
| Goddess of the Sky
|-
| Osiris
| Osiris
| Thor #240 (Oct 1975)
| God of the Dead
|-
| Ptah
| Ptah
| Black Panther Vol. 6 #13 (June 2017)
| God of Craftsmen and the Arts, member of the Pantheon of Wakanda
|-
| Razan
| Original creation of Victor Gischler and David Baldeon with no association in actual Egyptian mythology
| Spirits of Vengeance #1 (December 2017)
| Demigoddess; Daughter of Osiris
|-
| Sekhmet
| Hathor / Sekhmet
| Avengers #112 (July 1973)
| God of War; Lion God; Goddess of Love and Happiness
|-
| Seth
| Set
| Thor #240 (Oct 1975)
| God of Evil
|-
| Shesemte
| Shesmetet
| Avenging Spider-Man #7 (July 2012)
| Deity
|-
| Sobek
| Sobek
| Black Panther Vol. 5, #3 (June 2009)
| God of Crocodiles and Rivers
|-
| Thoth
| Thoth
| Marvel Feature Vol. 2, #6 (September 1976)
| God of Wisdom, member of the Pantheon of Wakanda
|-
| Wadjet
| Wadjet
| Avenging Spider-Man #7 (July 2012)
| Deity
|-
! rowspan="2"| Hyborian Gods
| Bardisattva
| Original creation of Chuck Dixon and Mike Docherty
| Savage Sword of Conan #178 (October 1990)
| God of the Skies and Ages
|-
| Bori
| Borr
| Conan the Barbarian #3 (February 1971)
| God of Battle
|-
! rowspan="11"| Inua (Inuit Gods)
| Baby Thompson
| Original creation of Bill Mantlo and David Ross with no association in actual Inuit mythology
| Alpha Flight #37 (August 1986)
| Son of Narya
|-
| Hodiak
| Original creation of John Byrne with no association in actual Inuit mythology
| Alpha Flight #7 (February 1984)
| God of the Sky; father of Nelvanna
|-
| Kadlu
| Kadlu
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of Lightning
|-
| Narya / Snowbird
| Original creation of John Byrne with no actual connection to Inuit mythology.
| Uncanny X-Men #120 (April 1979)
| Goddess of Nature and Animals; daughter of Nelvanna
|-
| Nanuq
| Nanook
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Polar Bears
|-
| Nelvanna
| Original creation of John Byrne with no actual connection to Inuit mythology.
| Alpha Flight #7 (February 1984)
| Goddess of the Northern Lights; mother of Narya
|-
| Negafok
| Negafook
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Cold Weather
|-
| Sedna
| Sedna
| Thor #3 (September 1998)
| Goddess of the Sea and Death
|-
| Sila
| Silap Inua
| Champions Vol. 2 #19 (June 2018)
| The spiritual embodiment of the soul of Northern Canada
|-
| Tekkeitsertok
| Tekkeitsertok
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Caribou & the Hunt
|-
| Turoq the Shaper
| Original creation of John Byrne with no actual connection to Inuit mythology.
| Alpha Flight #7 (February 1984)
| God of Change
|-
! rowspan="9"| Jumala (Finnish Gods)
| Akka
| Akka
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September, 2009) as Gaea
| Goddess of Earth (one of the many forms and names used by Gaea)
|-
| Ahti
| Ahti
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of the Sea
|-
| Äkräs
| Äkräs
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Champion of the Mortals; God of Fertility
|-
| Ukko
| Ukko
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| God of the Sky
|-
| Ilmarinen
| Ilmarinen
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Sky Father of the Jumala
|-
| Nyyrikki
| Nyyrikki
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of the Hunt
|-
| Tapio
| Tapio
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of the Forest
|-
| Tuoni
| Tuoni
| Conan the Barbarian #260 (September 1992)| God of the Underworld
|-
| Vammatar
| Vammatar
| Savage Sword of Conan #39 (April 1979)
| Goddess of Pain and Suffering
|-
! rowspan="11"| Manidoog (Native American Gods)
| Adversary
| Original creation of Chris Claremont and John Romita Jr. with no association with actual Native American myth.
| Uncanny X-Men #188 (December 1984)
| God of Trickery
|-
| Ai Apaec
| Ai Apaec
| Osborn #1 (January 2011)
| God of the Sky
|-
| Carrion Crow
| Carrion crow
| Chaos War: X-Men #1 (February 2011)
| Deity
|-
| Haokah
| Heyoka
| Captain America #11 (May 2003)
| God of Thunder
|-
| Hotamintanio
| Hotamétaneo'o
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme #25 (January 1991)
| God of Warriors
|-
| Iktomi
| Iktomi
| Dances with Demons #1 (September 1993)
| God of Trickery
|-
| Manitou
| Gitche Manitou
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| God of the Sky and Creation
|-
| Owayodata
| Original creation of Roy Thomas and John Buscema with no association in actual Native American myth.
| Avengers #80 (September 1970)
| God of the Hunt
|-
| Nanabozho
| Nanabozho
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme #25 (January 1991)
| God of Mischief
|-
| Tawa
| Tawa
| Thor Annual #10 (October 1982)
| God of the Sun
|-
| Tomazooma
| Original creation of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby with no association in actual Native American myth.
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| God of Kinship and Storytelling
|-
! rowspan="20"| Old Ones (Cthulhu Mythos deities)
| Azathoth
| Azathoth
| Savage Sword of Conan #200 (August 1992)
|
|-
| Cthulhu
| Cthulhu
| Moon Knight #191 (March 2018)
| He along with the other Old Ones were reborn into a single entity known as God (Yahweh).
|-
| Dagon
| Dagon
| Haunt of Horror: Lovecraft #1 (August 2008)
| Fish-God
|-
| Hastur
| Hastur
| Savage Sword of Conan #200 (August 1992)
|
|-
| Asteroth
| Original creation of Mike Oeming and Andrea Di Vito with no association with the actual Cthulhu Mythos
| Stormbreaker: The Saga of Beta Ray Bill #3 (May 2005)
| A being born from the Chaos of creation and imprisoned in a "Cosmic Hell"
|-
| Zvilpogghua
| Zvilpogghua
| Ultimate Fantastic Four #30 (July 2006)
| A being cast into "The Abyss", the N-Zone, by the Old Gods of Atlantis
|-
| Shuma-Gorath
| Original creation of Steve Englehart and Frank Brunner with no association with the actual Cthulhu Mythos
| Marvel Premiere #9 (July 1973)
| An archetypal Old One
|-
| Chthon
| Original creation of Marv Wolfman, Bill Mantlo and Yong Montano with no association with the actual Cthulhu Mythos
| Marvel Chillers #1 (October 1975)
| The greatest of the Old Ones
|-
| Azotharoth
| Original creation of Gerry Conway and Roy Thomas with no association with the actual Cthulhu Mythos
| Marvel Graphic Novel #59 (April 1990)
| The Dreaming God
|-
| Oberoth'm'gozz
| Oberon
| Thunderbolts Annual Vol 2 #1 (February 2014)
| The King of the True Faeries
|-
| Yog-Sothoth
| Yog-Sothoth
| Savage Sword of Conan #152 (September 1988)
| He ruled Earth eons before the coming of Man
|-
| Erlik Khan
| Erlik
| Strange Tales Vol 2 #6 (September 1987)
| Lord of Chaos
|-
| Gol-Goroth
| Gol-Goroth
| Conan the Barbarian #17 (August 1972)
| God of Darkness
|-
| Kathulos
| L'mur-Kathulos
| Marvel Premiere #7 (March 1973)
| Kathulos of the Eternal Lives
|-
| Kthl
| Original creation of Dan Abnett and Andy Lanning with no association with the actual Cthulhu Mythos
| Thanos Imperative #1 (August 2010)
| One of the Many-Angled Ones
|-
| N'Gabthoth
| Original creation of Gardner Fox and Frank Brunner with no association with the actual Cthulhu Mythos
| Marvel Premiere #6 (January 1973)
| Shambler from the Sea
|-
| Nyarlathotep
| Nyarlathotep
| Journey into Mystery Vol 2 #4 (April 1973)
| The Hunter of the Dark
|-
| Nodens
| Nodens
| Savage Sword of Conan #200 (August 1992)
|
|-
| Shub-Niggurath
| Shub-Niggurath
| Savage Sword of Conan #125 (June 1986)
| The Goat God
|-
| Slorioth
| Original creation of Tom Brevoort and Mike Kanterovich with no association with the actual Cthulhu Mythos
| Secret Defenders #24 (February 1995)
| Slorioth the Omnivorous
|-
! rowspan="89"| Olympian Gods (Greco-Roman gods)
| Achelous
| Achelous
| Hercules Vol. 3 #1 (June 2005)
| River God
|-
| Atlas
| Atlas
| Thor #356 (June 1985)
| Titan; Mountain God
|-
| Asclepius
| Asclepius / Vejovis
| Ares #4 (June 2006)
| God of Medicine and Healing
|-
| Adonis
| Adonis
| Venus #14 (June 1951)
| God of Beauty and Desire
|-
| Aeneas
| Aeneas
| Thor Annual #8 (November 1979)
| Demigod; Son of Aphrodite
|-
| Agdistis
| Agdistis
| Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Vol. 2 #3 (February 1986)
| Goddess of Earth
|-
| Arachne
| Arachne
| Incredible Hercules #138 (January 2010)
| A mortal cursed by Athena
|-
| Apollo
| Apollo
| Thor Annual #5 (November 1976)
| God of Light, Poetry, Prophecy and Medicine
|-
| Ares
| Ares / Mars
| Thor #129 (June 1966)
| God of War
|-
| Artemis
| Artemis / Diana
| Thor #129 (June 1966)
| Goddess of the Hunt, Animals and the Moon
|-
| Asklepios
| Asclepius
| Ares #4 (June 2006)
| God of Medicine
|-
| Atropos
| Atropos / Aisa
| Spider-Man 2099 Vol. 3 #3 (January 2016)
| Goddess of Fate
|-
| Athena
| Athena / Minerva
| Thor #164 (May 1969)
| Goddess of Military Strategy, Wisdom, Arts and Crafts
|-
| Autolycus
| Autolycus
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Thevies
|-
| Bia
| Bia
| Avengers #50 (March 1968)
| God of Might
|-
| Boreas
| Boreas
| Incredible Hulks #621 (March 2011)
| God of the North Wind
|-
| Cacus
| Cacus
| Fantastic Four Vol. 4 #5 (May 2013)
| Demigod; son of Vulcan
|-
| Cadmus
| Cadmus
| Venus #3 (December 1948)
| King of Thebes
|-
| Charon
| Charon
| Captain America's Weird Tales #74 (October 1949)
| Ferryman of the dead
|-
| Charybdis
| Charybdis
| Sub-Mariner #29 (September 1970)
| A leviathan
|-
| Coeus
| Coeus
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Titan
|-
| Crius
| Crius
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Titan
|-
| Cronus
| Cronus
| Hulk vs Hercules #1 (June 2008)
| Ruler of the Titans
|-
| Cupid
| Eros / Cupid
| Avengers #283 (September 1987)
| God of Love and Affection
|-
| Cycnus
| Cycnus
| Trojan War #2 (August 2009)
| Demigod; son of Poseidon
|-
| Daphne
| Daphne
| Venus #5 (June 1949)
| Goddess
|-
| Deimos
| Deimos
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme #32 (August 1991)
| God of Terror
|-
| Demeter
| Demeter / Ceres
| Fantastic Four Vol. 3 #21 (September 1999)
| Goddess of Fertility, Agriculture and the Harvest; possibly another name of Gaea
|-
| Dione
| Dione
| Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe A-Z #8 (June 2009)
| Oracular Titan-goddess
|-
| Dionysus
| Dionysus / Bacchus
| Thor #129 (June 1966)
| God of Wine and Revelry
|-
| Enyo
| Enyo
| Trojan War #5 (November 2009)
| Battle Goddess
|-
| Eos
| Eos
| Incredible Hercules #139 (February 2010)
| Goddess of Dawn
|-
| Erida
| Erida
| Uncanny Avengers Annual Vol. 2 #1 (January 2016)
| Goddess of Hate
|-
| Eris
| Eris
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme #54 (June 1993)
| Goddess of Strife and Discord
|-
| Eurypylus
| Eurypylus
| Trojan War #4 (October 2009)
| Demigod; son of Telephus
|-
| Fates
| Moirai: Atropos, Clotho and Lachesis
| Journey into Mystery #102 (March 1964) as the Norns
| Goddesses of Destiny (one of the many forms and names used by the Norns)
|-
| Furies
| Erinyes / Dirae: Alecto, Megaera and Tisiphone
| Avengers #50 (March 1968)
| Goddesses of Vengeance and Retribution
|-
| Harmonia
| Harmonia
| Incredible Hercules #130 (August 2009)
| Goddess of Harmony
|-
| Hebe
| Hebe / Juventas
| Ka-Zar #1 (August 1970)
| Goddess of Youth
|-
| Helen
| Helen
| Venus #1 (August 1948)
| Demigoddess; daughter of Zeus
|-
| Hecate
| Hecate / Trivia
| Ms. Marvel #11 (Nov 1977)
| Goddess of Magic and Witchcraft
|-
| Hercules
| Heracles / Hercules
| Journey into Mystery Annual #1 (1965)
| God of Strength
|-
| Helios
| Helios
| Hercules Vol. 3 #4 (September 2005)
| Titan-god of Sun
|-
| Hephaestus
| Hephaestus / Vulcan
| Thor #129 (June 1966)
| God of Fire, Smiths, Metalworking and the Forge
|-
| Hera
| Hera / Juno
| Thor #129 (June 1966)
| Goddess of Marriage and Fidelity
|-
| Hermes
| Hermes / Mercury
| Thor #129 (June 1966)
| God of Speed, Merchants, Travelers and Thieves; Messenger of Olympus
|-
| Hippolyta
| Hippolyta
| Thor #127 (April 1966)
| Queen of the Amazons; daughter of Ares
|-
| Hyllus
| Hyllus
| Hercules Vol. 3 #2 (July 2005)
| Demigod; son of Hercules
|-
| Hypnos
| Hypnos
| Avengers: No Road Home #2 (April 2019)
| God of Sleep
|-
| Iris
| Iris
| Trojan War #1 (July 2009)
| Messenger of Zeus
|-
| Jason
| Jason
| Marvel Preview #10 (December 1977)
| Demigod; great grandson of Hermes
|-
| Joya
| Joya
| Venus #7 (September 1949)
| Goddess
|-
| Kratos
| Kratos
| Avengers #50 (March 1968)
| Demigod of Force
|-
| Kyknos
| Cycnus
| Incredible Hercules #116 (June 2008)
| God of War
|-
| Leda
| Leda
| Marvel Mystery Comics #91 (April 1949)
| Human turned goddess
|-
| Livilla
| Livilla
| Doctor Strange Vol. 2 #46 (April 1981)
| Goddess of Deceit
|-
| Leto
| Leto
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Minor Goddess
|-
| Medea
| Medea
| Spider-Man 2099 Vol. 3 #18 (February 2017)
| Demigoddess
|-
| Medusa
| Medusa
| U.S.A. Comics #6 (December 1942)
| A mortal cursed by Athena
|-
| Menoetius
| Menoetius
| Champions #2 (January 1976)
| Titan
|-
| Metis
| Metis
| Incredible Hercules #127 (May 2009)
| Titan-goddess of Wisdom and Thought; Mother of Athena
|-
| Minos
| Minos
| Uncanny X-Men Annual #1980 (November 1980)
| Demigod; son of Zeus
|-
| Morpheus
| Morpheus
| Captain America Comics #15 (June 1942)
| God of Sleep
|-
| Nereus
| Nereus
| Trojan War #3 (September 2009)
| Sea God
|-
| Neptune
| Poseidon / Neptune
| Tales to Astonish #70 (August 1965)
| God of the Sea, Storms, Earthquakes and Horses
|-
| Nyx
| Nyx / Nox
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme #31 (July 1991) (usurper)Avengers: No Road Home #1 (April 2019)
| Goddess of the Night
|-
| Oceanus
| Oceanus
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Primordial Sea Titan
|-
| Pan
| Pan
| Tales to Astonish #6 (November 1959)
| God of Nature, the Wilderness, Shepherds and Flocks
|-
| Penthesilea
| Penthesilea
| Trojan War #3 (September 2009)
| Demigoddess; Amazon
|-
| Pericymenus
| Periclymenus
| ncredible Hercules #118 (August 2008)
| Son of Poseidon
|-
| Perseus
| Perseus
| U.S.A. Comics #6 (December 1942)
| Demigod; son of Zeus
|-
| Proteus
| Proteus
| Trojan War #5 (November 2009)
| Sea God
|-
| Prometheus
| Prometheus
| Marvel Classics Comics #18 (June 1977)
| Titan-god of Forethought
|-
| Psyche
| Psyche
| Marvel Super-Heroes Vol. 2 #9 (April 1992)
| Goddess of Fidelity and Adoration
|-
| Persephone
| Persephone / Proserpina
| Avengers Annual #23 (1994)
| Goddess of Spring; Queen of the Underworld
|-
| Phobos
| Phobos
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme #32 (August 1991)Ares #1 (March 2006) (as Alexander Aaron)
| God of Fear
|-
| Pluto
| Hades / Pluto
| Thor #127 (April 1966)
| God of the Dead and the Underworld
|-
| Semele
| Semele
| Incredible Hercules #130 (August 2009)
| Human turned goddess
|-
| Rhode
| Rhodos
| Venus #18 (February 1952)
| Goddess of the Sea
|-
| Rhea
| Rhea
| Incredible Hercules #130 (August 2009)
| Titan-goddess of Female Fertility, Motherhood, and Generation
|-
| Thanatos
| Thanatos
| Incredible Hercules #138 (January 2010)
| God of Death
|-
| Tharamus
| Original creation of Tom DeFalco and Ron Frenz with no association in actual Greek mythology
| Hercules: Heart of Chaos #1 (August 1997)
| God of Learning
|-
| Theseus
| Theseus
| Ares #3 (May 2006)
| Demigod; son of Poseidon
|-
| Themis
| Themis
| Uncanny X-Men #350 (December 1997)
| Titan-goddess of Justice
|-
| Typhon
| Typhon
| Avengers #49 (February 1968)
| Titan-god of Wind
|-
| Urania
| Urania
| Incredible Hercules #117 (July 2008)
| Muse of Prophecy
|-
| Venus
| Aphrodite / Venus
| Venus #1 (August 1948)
| Goddess of Love and Beauty
|-
| Vesta
| Hestia / Vesta
| Thor #301 (November 1980)
| Goddess of the Home and Hearth
|-
| Zeus
| Zeus / Jupiter
| Venus #5 (June 1949)
| God of the Sky, Thunder, Law, Order and Justice
|-
! rowspan="7"| Tenger (Tengrist Gods)
| Tengri
| Tengri
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of the Sky
|-
| Erlik
| Erlik
| Conan the Barbarian #19 (October 1972)
| God of Death and Evil
|-
| Ulgen
| Ülgen
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| God of Light
|-
| Koyash
| Koyash
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of the Sun
|-
| Ay
| Ay Ata
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of the Moon
|-
| Kuara
| Kuara
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Thunder
|-
| Gesar
| Gesar
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
|
|-
! rowspan="9"| Tēteoh (Aztec Gods)
| Huitzilopochtli
| Huitzilopochtli
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of the Sun
|-
| Mictlantecuhtli
| Mictlāntēcutli
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Death God
|-
| Quetzalcoatl
| Quetzalcoatl
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| God of the Sky
|-
| Tezcatlipoca
| Tezcatlipoca
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| God of War
|-
| Tláloc
| Tláloc
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of the Storm
|-
| Chalchiuhtlique
| Chalchiuhtlicue
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of Water
|-
| Xolotl
| Xolotl
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Lightning and Death
|-
| Xochiquetzal
| Xōchiquetzal
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of Fertility and Beauty
|-
| Xipe Totec
| Xipe Totec
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Agrilculture
|-
! rowspan="31"| Tuatha Da Dannan (Celtic Gods)
| Angus
| Aengus
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe #3 (March 2006)
| Youth God
|-
| Arawn
| Arawn
| Conan the Barbarian #135 (June 1982)
| Lord of the Dark Forest
|-
| Badb
| Badb
| Conan the Barbarian #31 (October 1973)
| Goddess of War and Death
|-
| Bodb Derg / The Red Lord
| Bodb Derg
| Knights of Pendragon #17 (November 1991)
| God of War and Destruction
|-
| Bran the Blessed
| Brân the Blessed
| She-Hulk Vol. 2 #24 (February 2008)
| Demigod
|-
| Branwen
| Branwen
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
|
|-
| Caber
| Cairbre
| Thor #398 (December 1988)
| God of Speed and Bards
|-
| Camulus
| Camulus
| Doctor Strange Vol. 5 #8 (January 2019)
| Deity
|-
| Cernunnos
| Cernunnos
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme Annual #3 (June 1993)
| God of Animals and the Hunt
|-
| Cerridwen
| Ceridwen
| All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe #3 (March 2006)
| Goddess of Wisdom and Witchcraft
|-
| Creiddylad
| Creiddylad
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Deity
|-
| Cúchulain
| Cú Chulainn
| Thor: Blood Oath #4 (January 2006)
| Demigod Warrior
|-
| Crom
| Crom
| Conan the Barbarian #1 (October 1970) (Mentioned)King Conan #8 (December 1981)
| Dark God of Storms, Death and Eternity
|-
| The Dagda
| The Dagda
| Thor #398 (December 1988)
| God of Magic
|-
| Dian Cecht
| Dian Cecht
| Savage Tales #4 (May 1974)
| God of Medicine
|-
| Gwynn
| Gwyn ap Nudd / Fionn mac Cumhaill
| Mystic Arcana Black Knight #1 (September 2007)
| God of Springtime
|-
| Gwythr
| Gwythr
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Winter
|-
| Herne
| Herne the Hunter
| Hulk Comic #60 (April 1980)
| God of the Hunt and Fertility
|-
| Iarbonel
| Iarbonel
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| High Chieftain of the Tuatha de Danaan
|-
| Leir
| Ler / Manannán mac Lir
| Thor #386 (December 1987)
| God of Lightning and the Spear
|-
| Macha
| Macha
| Conan the Barbarian #5 (May 1971)
| Triple War Goddess
|-
| Mannanan
| Manannán mac Lir
| Conan the Barbarian #13 (January 1972)
| Sea God
|-
| Morrigan
| The Morrígan
| Black Knight #3 (August 1990)
| Goddess of Battle
|-
| Nemain
| Nemain
| Conan the Barbarian #5 (May 1971)
| War Goddess
|-
| Niamh / Lady of the Lake
| Niamh / Lady of the Lake
| Hulk Comic #18 (July 1979)
| Goddess of Lakes
|-
| Nuada
| Nuada Airgetlám
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| God of Warriors
|-
| Ogma
| Ogma
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Orator
|-
| Rhiannon
| Rhiannon
| Epic Illustrated #10 (February 1982)
| Goddess of Enchantments, Fertility, Birds and Horses
|-
| Scathach
| Scáthach
| Savage Sword of Conan #78 (July 1982)
| Warrior Goddess
|-
| Taranis
| Taranis
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme Annual #3 (June 1993)
| God of Thunder and the Elements
|-
| Ériu
| Ériu
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
|
|-
! rowspan="8"| Formore (Irish Gods)
| Balor
| Balor
| Avengers #225 (November 1982)
| God of the Sun
|-
| Cethlann
| Cethlenn
| Avengers #225 (November 1982)
| Goddess of Prophecy
|-
| Dulb
| Original creation of Steven Grant and Greg LaRocque with no association in actual Irish Mythology
| Avengers #225 (November 1982)
| God of Weaponry
|-
| Elathan
| Elatha
| Avengers #225 (November 1982)
| God of the Sky
|-
| Indech
| Indech
| Avengers #225 (November 1982)
| God of the Earth
|-
| Tethra
| Tethra
| Avengers #225 (November 1982)
| God of the Sea
|-
| Bres
| Bres
| Avengers #225 (November 1982)
| God of Mischief
|-
| Lugh
| Lugh
| Black Knight Vol. 2 #4 (September 1990)
| Sun God
|-
! rowspan="17"| Vodū (West African Gods)
| Kwaku Anansi
| Anansi
| Thor #398 (December 1988) (unnamed appearance)Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 2 #48 (February 2003)
| God of Wisdom, Trickery and Culture; The First Spider-Man
|-
| Avlekete
| Avlekete
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme #17 (May 1990)
| Goddess of the Sea
|-
| Babalú
| Babalú-Ayé
| Amazing Spider-Man Vol 4 #1.2 (March 2016)
| God of Healing
|-
| Buluku
| Nana Buluku
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme #17 (May 1990)
| God of the Sky
|-
| Dam-Ayido Wede / Damballah
| Ayida-Weddo / Damballa
| Dracula Lives! #2 (September 1973)
| God of Serpents
|-
| Eschu / Eleggua
| Eshu / Elegua
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme #17 (May 1990)
| God of Crossroads and Communication
|-
| Ghekre / Gorilla God
| Gbekre
| Avengers #62 (March 1969)
| God of Judgment
|-
| Legba
| Papa Legba
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme #17 (May 1990)
| God of Gateways
|-
| Kokou
| Kokou
| Black Panther Vol. 6 #13 (June 2017)
| God of War, member of the Pantheon of Wakanda
|-
| Lusa
| Lisa
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme #17 (May 1990)
| God of the Sun
|-
| Mamalu
| Original creation of Don Rico and Werner Roth with no association in actual African Mythology
| Lorna, the Jungle Queen #5 (February 1954)
| Goddess
|-
| Mahu
| Mawu
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme #17 (May 1990)
| Goddess of the Moon
|-
| Ogun
| Ogun
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme #17 (May 1990)
| God of War
|-
| Oya
| Oya
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of the Wind
|-
| Ezili / Oshun
| Erzulie / Oshun
| Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme #17 (May 1990)
| Goddess of Love and Fertility
|-
| Sagbata / Baron Samedi
| Sopona / Baron Samedi
| Strange Tales #171 (December 1973)
| God of Death and Disease
|-
| Shango
| Shango / Xevioso
| Thor Annual #10 (October 1982)
| God of Thunder and Lightning
|-
! rowspan="16" |Xian (Chinese Gods)
| Chiyou
| Chiyou
| Sword Master #1 (July 2019)
| God of War
|-
| Tian-Mu
| Tian-Mu
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of Lightning
|-
| Feng Po-Po
| Feng Po Po
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of the Wind
|-
| Guan Yin
| Guanyin
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of Mercy
|-
| Guan Yu
| Guan Yu
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of War
|-
| Shou-Hsing
| Shouxing
| Marvel: The End #2 (May 2003)
| God of Health and Longevity
|-
| Kui Xing
| Kui Xing
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Paperwork and Examination
|-
| Lei Gong
| Leigong
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Thunder
|-
| Nezha
| Nezha
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Mischief
|-
| Qi-Yu
| Qi
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
|
|-
| Shang-Ti
| Jade Emperor
| Battle Action #12 (May 1953)
| God of Goodness
|-
| Yen-Lo Wang
| Yanluo Wang
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Death
|-
| Yuanshi Tianzun
| Yuanshi Tianzun
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
|
|-
| Yu Huang
| Jade Emperor
| Thor #300 (October 1980)
| God of Heaven
|-
| Xi Wangmu
| Queen Mother of the West
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of Immortality
|-
| Zhu Rong
| Zhurong
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Fire
|-
! rowspan="10"| Yazatas (Persian Gods)
| Armaiti
| Armaiti
| Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe A-Z #13 (April 2010) as Gaea
| Goddess of Earth (one of the many forms and names used by Gaea)
|-
| Ameretat
| Ameretat
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of Vegetation
|-
| Ahura Mazda
| Ahura Mazda
| Savage Sword of Conan #230 (February 1995)
| God of Creation, Truth, Order and Justice
|-
| Ahriman
| Ahriman
| Journey into Mystery Vol. 2 #1 (October 1972) (Usurped by or confused with Malik Tous)Giant-Size Conan #1 (September 1974)
| God of Evil, Deceit and Chaos
|-
| Atar
| Atar
| Amazing High Adventure #5 (December 1986)
| God of Fire and Purification
|-
| Asha
| Asha
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Fire
|-
| Mithra
| Mithra
| Savage Sword of Conan #2 (October 1974)
| God of Light and Justice
|-
| Kshathra Vairya
| Kshathra Vairya
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Metal
|-
| Haurvatat
| Haurvatat
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| Goddess of Water
|-
| Vohu Manah
| Vohu Manah
| Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009)
| God of Animals
|-
!| Centaurian God
| Anthos
| Original creation of Michael Gallagher
| Guardians of the Galaxy #50 (July 1994)
| God of the Centaurians
|-
! rowspan="2"| Shi'ar Gods
| Sharra
| Original creation of Warren Ellis and Carlos Pacheco
| Starjammers #1 (October 1995)
| Goddess of the Shi'ar
|-
| K'ythri
| Original creation of Warren Ellis and Carlos Pacheco
| Starjammers #1 (October 1995)
| God of the Shi'ar
|-
! rowspan="3"| Skrull Gods
| Kly'bn
| Original creation of Greg Pak and Fred Van Lente
| Runaways Vol. 2 #14 (May 2006) (mentioned)Incredible Hercules #117 (July 2008)
| God of the Skrulls, Peace and Stability
|-
| Sl'gur't
| Original creation of Greg Pak and Fred Van Lente
| Fantastic Four Annual #24(July 1991)
| Goddess of the Skrulls, War and the Change in all forms
|-
| Zorr'Kiri
| Original creation of Jason Aaron
| Thor: God of Thunder #3 (February 2013)
| Goddess of Love
|-
!| Dire Wraith God
| Avoe
| Original creation of Jonathan Hickman and Dale Eaglesham
| Fantastic Four #577 (May 2010)
| Goddess of the Direst Wraith Inhumans
|-
!| Badoon God
| Voord Bloodeye
| Original creation of Jason Aaron
| Thor: God of Thunder #3 (February 2013)
| God of Beheading
|-
!| Symbiote God
| Knull
| Original creation of Donny Cates and Ryan Stegman
| Thor: God of Thunder #6 (May 2013) (cameo)Venom Vol. 4 #3 (August 2018)
| God of the Symbiotes
|-
!| Druff God
| Blessed-of-Litters
| Original creation of Greg Pak, Fred van Lente and Rafa Sandoval
| Incredible Hercules #118 (August 2008)
| God of the Druff
|-
!| Carmondian God
| Veeda Leebre
| Original creation of Fabian Nicieza and Daerick Gross
| Captain Marvel Vol 3 #5 (April 1996)
| God of the Carmondians
|-
!| Plasmagenian God
| Primo
| Original creation of Steve Englehart and Jorge Santamaria
| Avengers: Celestial Quest #4 (February 2002)
| Pseudo-God of the Plasmagenian
|-
!| Queega God
| Hadith
| Original creation of Greg Pak, Fred van Lente and Rafa Sandoval
| Incredible Hercules #118 (August 2008)
| God of the Queega
|-
! rowspan="3"| Old Gods of Zenn-La
| Iroxx
| Original creation of Brandon Montclare
| Chaos War: Chaos King #1 (January 2011)
| God of War
|-
| Siri Ullall
| Original creation of Brandon Montclare
| Chaos War: Chaos King #1 (January 2011)
| Mother Goddess
|-
| Thrann
| Original creation of Brandon Montclare
| Chaos War: Chaos King #1 (January 2011)
| God of Zenn-La
|}
Other deities
Aala – the Sea-Goddess of Bal-Sagoth.
Beelzebub – a powerful demonic god, also known as Lord of Flies or as the God of the Depths.
Bel – a hideous looking creature, he was the Masked God of Thieves and Pirates.Handbook of the Conan Universe #1. Marvel Comics
Belathauzer – a Dark God or demon, he was exiled from Earth, but was summoned back by the Agents of Fortune through some sacrificial flames. He was later defeated by the Defenders.
Black Shadow – a god formed out of magical construction.
Black Gods of R'Lyeh – these gods were Old Ones and sometimes invoked. It is unknown if the Thing from R'Lyeh is a member of this group.
Cleito – a goddess based on the figure of Cleito, she is the Goddess of Illusion and member of the Fallen Stars.
Damballah — an Elderspawn of Set, he's the Serpent God.
Primal Gods – these gods forged the Sword of Strength, the Crown of Wisdom, the Mirror of Beauty and the Rose of Peace, embodiment of the four elements of the cosmos' creation. N'Gabthoth was a Primal God, while the ancient Egyptians, considered the Four Primal Gods to be Nu of the Primordial Waters, Amun, Hautet and Keku.
Cyttorak — a deity, who was banished from the Earth and took up residence in the Crimson Cosmos dimension.
Omm — the Spider-God and one of the spawns of Gaea. He created the Spider-People.
Mogul of the Mystic Mountain – a warlord who had conquered the homeland of Hogun the Grim. He commanded several magical creatures, including a Jinni Spirit and Satan's forty horsemen.
Abu Dakir – an adviser of Mogul.
Nightmare — the God of Nightmares.
Necromon — a Nethergod, he resurrected Mordred and attempted to overthrow Otherworld, before being defeated by Black Knight, Captain Britain, Merlyn and a resurrected King Arthur. –
Pantheon — a group mostly consisted of descendants of Agamemnon, a Human and Asgardian hybrid.
Phorcys — the Primeval sea god/demon.
Enchanters — a group of sorcerers from Asgard who tried to conquer the place, but were defeated by Odin.
Stargod — the ruler of the Other-Realm. As he was dying he put his powers into the gemstone which turned John Jameson into Man-Wolf.
Walker — the Death God. He hailed from a distant Galaxy and was killed when Death restored to life every soul which was drained by Walker.
Witchcraft — an Abstract Entity, revered as a deity, who serves as the wellspring of power for all witches and warlocks who utilize Spells and Phrases related to the branch of Magic known as witchcraft.
Shadrak — the God of Bombs and Fireballs. He was spared by Gorr and unwillingly build the Godbomb for Gorr. He later became attended the Challenge of Gods between Jane Foster and the Shi'ar Gods.
Hawk God — the being responsible for killing the Watchers of his reality and giving the powers to Starhawk and Aleta Ogord.
Korvac — a human, he transcended into a God.
Keep — after Thor was separated from Donald Blake, the Enchantress cut off Donald's head from his body and then the body mutated into a new entity named Keep and became Enchantress' lover.
Reptyl — the last member of his race, he transcended into a God by Thanos.
Zalkor — a powerful but immobile God who grants unlimited wishes to people in exchange for their soul and service.
Uprising Storm – this group claimed to be the new age of gods and tried to replace the old gods. They were all killed during Civil War II.
Lord Librarian — the caretaker of the divine archive known as Halls of All-Knowing in Omnipotence City.
Time Gods — a race of pacifist Gods who used their blood in combination with a special device created by them called the Pool of Forevers to travel through time. They were killed by Gorr, who later used their blood in order to build the Godbomb.
Tae and Pennsu — Gods who treated their worshipers with cruelty and were eventually killed by Desak.
Tier – The son of Wolfsbane and Hrimhari, he was being raised by Werewolf by Night, but was killed by Strong Guy.
War Faeries of Wendigorge — a race of immortals who lived in a palace with caramelized walls, in a valley where the skies rained milk and the trees oozed honey. They were killed by Gorr.
Janaro — God of Friendship and friend of Shadrak. Killed by Gorr.
Ja-Quari – the Tiger-God bestowed upon Irania and her army of women the power to transform into powerful tigers.
Scythian Algurus — a remorseless and destructive deity of the planet Dartayus in the Negative Zone. He eventually fought against the X-Men Gold.
Yug-Sluggoth — the Baron of the Elder Hell. Killed by Gorr.
Kronnitt — one of the gods worshipped by Desak Sterixian and his fellows. Killed by Desak.
Gibborim — the last known survivors of an ancient race of six-fingered giants who ruled Earth before humanity's dawn.
Gods of the Void — these beings were mentioned in War of Kings: Warriors #1.
Godpack – former criminals transcended into gods by the High Evolutionary as part of a phase which was after the creation of the New Men and the New Immortals.
Wolf Gods — the spawn of Chthon, Vârcolac, was a Wolf God/Demon who mated with Set's spawn, Echidna and conceived a shapeshifting giantess, Angerboda. Then Loki mated with Angerboda, conceiving Fenris Wolf and Fenris would become the father of the Wolf Gods.Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Vol. 2 #18. Marvel Comics
Hoarfen — a child of Fenris and a Frost Giantess.
Zephyr — a member of the Elementals, she was the wind goddess.
Storm — she had a gift of godhood passed from her ancestors and the faith of Wakanda helped her transcend into a goddess.Black Panther Vol. 6 #17. Marvel Comics
Uovu — a Dark God who replaced Storm as deity to worship in Kenya with his worshippers becoming violent as they killed everyone who opposed him. He was destroyed by Storm using a replica of Mjolnir called Stormcaster.
Uluath — an Undergod slumbering in his City Below the Seas in the Pacific Ocean.
Great Scorpion – the Scorpion God.
Glenglavenglade Gods – Gods of the Eternal Garden of Glenglavenglade. Murdered by Gorr.
White Wolf – one of the deities worshiped in the Pre-Cataclysmic Age.
Zukala – a minor evil God-Sorcerer.
Those Who Sit Above in Shadows – being who fed off the energy of the Ragnarok, which caused the rebirth and destruction of Asgard. They are the alleged creators of the Asgardians and were considered to be the Beyonders or Primal Gods.All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe #11. Marvel Comics
Falligar – the Patron god of the Galactic Frontier and champion god of the Tournament of Immortals.
Idoidea Swarm Collective – the deity, Ceffyad the Righteous, was the main member of this group, until he became one of the slaves of the Skrull Gods.
Ishiti – the Snake goddess/demoness.
God of the Watch – during the of Gore on Omnipotence City, this deity gave his report to Lord Librarian.
Manchester Gods – These beings represented the industrial revolution and appeared one day in Otherworld. They waged war on Otherworld and Asgardia, but then sacrificed themselves in order to save the universe from Surtur.
Nameless Ones – these gods were mentioned in the second volume of Journey into Mystery and were based on H.P. Lovecraft's Nameless Ones.
Sky Lords of Indigarr – these gods were among the victims of Gorr the God Butcher.
Mujaji<ref>Black Panther Vol. 6 #13. Marvel Comics</ref> goddness of sustenance from Pantheon of Wakanda.
Ngi another Gorilla God from Jabari tribe.
False deities
Several beings have either claimed to be gods, or were mistaken for gods. These include:
Apocalypse (worshipped as Huitzilopochtli, Kali-Ma, Set, possibly others)
Axi-Tun
Beta Ray Bill (an alien warrior who was an avatar of Thor for a short time and has since been given his own similar powers)
Captain Universe (the Builders used to worship their creator, Captain Universe)
Celestials
Demons (many were originally Elder Gods, and were worshipped as gods even in their demonic forms)
Eternals (Many members were mistaken for various gods)
Horusians
The Phoenix Force (Guardian of the M'Kraan Crystal, and worshipped by the Shi'ar Empire and is considered by the Shi'ar Gods as their sister)
Galactus
Gorr the God Butcher
Selene the Black Queen (worshipped as a goddess in Nova Roma)
Supreme Intelligence (a cybernetic super computer who gradually gained more political and eventually being worshipped by the Kree)
Storm (worshipped as a goddess in Kenya)
Mayapan (a Maya tribe transformed by the Terrigenis Water and posed as Gods)
Nate Grey (he called himself the Shaman and the Second Coming of the Mutant race)
Llan the Sorcerer (he was worshipped as a god by the Dark Elves)
Great Weaver — an entity worshipped as deity, which spins the Web of Life and Destiny which gives the Spider-Totems their powers and turned Peter Parker from Earth-616 into its avatar.
Spider totems (The term Spider-Totem refers to a class of multiversal supernatural entities linked to a mystical force called the Web of Life and Destiny. The Spider Society and numerous cultures of Earth-616 worship the Spider-Totems)
See also
Gods (DC Comics)
List of cosmic entities in Marvel Comics
List of fictional deities
Cosmic entities (Marvel Comics)
Sources
Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Deluxe Edition (Gods entry); 2006 edition (Council of Godheads entry); individual character entries
Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica #1 (September 2009); Marvel Comics; by Anthony Flamini, Greg Pak, Fred Van Lente & Paul Cornell
Marvel Zombies Handbook #1 (September 2007)
References
External links
Gods in the Marvel Universe, at MarvelDirectory.com
Deities at Marvel Database
Marvel Comics Gods at Comic Vine
Gods at MarvelDirectory.com
Council Of Godheads at MarvelDirectory.com
Deities |
2420207 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salesforce | Salesforce | Salesforce is an American cloud-based software company headquartered in San Francisco, California. It provides customer relationship management (CRM) service and also provides enterprise applications focused on customer service, marketing automation, analytics, and application development.
History
The company was founded on February 3, 1999 by former Oracle executive Marc Benioff, together with Parker Harris, Dave Moellenhoff, and Frank Dominguez as a software as a service (SaaS) company, and was launched publicly between September and November 1999.
In June 2004, the company had its initial public offering on the New York Stock Exchange under the stock symbol CRM and raised US$110 million. Early investors include Larry Ellison, Magdalena Yesil, Halsey Minor, Stewart Henderson, Mark Iscaro, and Igor Sill, a founding member of Geneva Venture Partners.
In October 2014, Salesforce announced the development of its Customer Success Platform to tie together Salesforce's services, including sales, service, marketing, analytics, community, and mobile apps. In October 2017, Salesforce launched a Facebook Analytics tool for business-to-business marketers. In September 2018, Salesforce partnered with Apple intended on improving apps for businesses.
In February 2020, co-chief executive officer Keith Block stepped down from his position in the company. Marc Benioff remained as chairman and chief executive officer.
On December 1, 2020, it was announced that Salesforce would acquire Slack for $27.7 billion. The acquisition closed on July 21.
In February 2021, Salesforce announced that CFO Mark Hawkins would be retiring from his position after six years of working for the company; however, retaining a position as CFO emeritus until October. Amy Weaver was selected as his replacement.
Services
Salesforce.com's customer relationship management (CRM) service comprises several broad categories: Commerce Cloud, Sales Cloud, Service Cloud, Data Cloud (including Jigsaw), Marketing Cloud, Community Cloud (including Chatter), Manufacturing Cloud, Analytics Cloud, App Cloud, Vaccine Cloud, IoT and Work.com with over 100,000 customers.
Main services
Salesforce's main services are tools for case, task and issue management. It also gives customers tracking abilities for their raised cases and conversation features for social networking Web sites, provides analytical tools and other services including email alert, Google search, and access to customers' entitlement and contracts. They also partner with companies like IBM, Accenture, and Saggezza to help integrate Salesforce's cloud-based services into their businesses.
Salesforce Platform
Salesforce Platform (also known as Force.com) is a platform as a service (PaaS) that allows developers to create add-on applications that integrate into the main Salesforce.com application. These third-party applications are hosted on Salesforce.com's infrastructure.
Force.com applications are built using declarative tools, backed by Lightning and Apex, a proprietary Java-like programming language for Force.com, as well as Visualforce, a framework including an XML syntax typically used to generate HTML. The Force.com platform typically receives three complete releases a year. As the platform is provided as a service to its developers, every single development instance also receives all these updates.
In 2015, a new framework for building user interfaces – Lightning Components – was introduced in beta. Lightning components are built using the open-source Aura Framework but with support for Apex as the server-side language instead of Aura's JavaScript dependency. This has been described as an alternative to, not necessarily a replacement for, Visualforce pages.
As of 2013, the Force.com platform has 1.4 million registered developers.
Lightning Base Components is the component library built on top of Lightning Web Components.
Experience Cloud
Experience Cloud (formerly Community Cloud) provides Salesforce customers the ability to create online web properties for external collaboration, customer service, channel sales, and other custom portals in their instance of Salesforce. Tightly integrated to Sales Cloud, Service Cloud, and App Cloud, Experience Cloud can be quickly customized to provide a wide variety of web properties. Experience Cloud combines the functionality of the former Salesforce Customer and Partner Portals with some additional features.
Work.com
Work.com, previously Rypple, is a social performance management platform for managers and employees. It allows continuous coaching, real-time feedback, and recognition. It is aimed at sales management, customer service, marketing, and can be utilised by human resource departments.
Work.com, then known as "Rypple", was founded by Daniel Debow and David Stein, to create a simple way of asking for feedback anonymously at work. The company was formed in May 2008 and their client list included Mozilla, Facebook, LinkedIn and the Gilt Groupe. Rypple aims to get employees to build and manage their own coaching networks.
In September 2011, Rypple announced that they had hired Bohdan Zabawskyj as its Chief Technology Officer. In 2011, Rypple developed a more formalized management methodology called OKR ("Objectives and Key Results") for Spotify. Rypple also partnered with Facebook to create "Loops", short for "feedback loops", which gathers feedback from co-workers, including praise, progress against goals, and coaching from supervisors into one channel.
In December 2011, Salesforce.com announced that they would acquire Rypple. The transaction was completed in 2012 and Rypple was rebranded as Work.com in September 2012.
AppExchange
Launched in 2005, the Salesforce AppExchange is an online application marketplace for third-party applications that run on the Force.com platform. Applications are available for free, as well as via yearly or monthly subscription models. Applications available range from integrations with SharePoint to mobile approval management. As of June 2016, it features 2,948 applications which have driven 3+ million installs. The "AppExchange" is also a place customers can search for cloud consulting partners to help them implement the technology in their own organization. Cloud consulting partners for Salesforce include large companies like IBM's "Bluewolf" and Accenture as well as smaller ones like Cloudreach.
myTrailhead
Launched in 2019, Salesforce's myTrailhead is an online training platform that can be customized for the specific needs of its customers. The platform extends functionality to provide users with training content specific to their usage of Salesforce and enables them to create and publish their own training content and programs.
Retired or end-of-life
Data.com
Data.com, previously known as Jigsaw, was a cloud-based system for acquiring and managing CRM records within a user's Salesforce.com account. It was also an online business directory of companies and business professionals that is built, maintained and accessed by a worldwide community of over a million subscribers., The information consisted of what is commonly found on a business card.
Competitors included services such as Dun & Bradstreet/Avention and ZoomInfo.
Data.com was made up of three products: Data.com Connect, Data.com Clean and Data.com Prospector. In April 2018, Salesforce announced it would retire Data.com Connect on May 4, 2019. Salesforce also announced it will wind down Data.com Clean and Data.com Prospector, and these services will close on July 31, 2020.
Desk.com
Desk.com is a SaaS help desk and customer support product accessible through the cloud. Desk.com is owned by Salesforce.com and was previously known as Assistly. Desk.com is headquartered in San Francisco, California.
After being acquired by Salesforce.com for $50 million in 2011 Assistly was re-branded as Desk.com in 2012 as a customer support software. Desk.com is a SaaS customer service application. The product differentiates itself from Salesforce's other service platform by specifically targets small businesses. It integrates with a variety of products and third-party applications including Salesforce CRM, Salesforce IQ, Atlassian JIRA, Mailchimp and other apps. Desk.com also supports up to 50 languages.
Salesforce announced the retirement of Desk.com, replacing it with Service Cloud Lightning. After March 13, 2018 no new desk.com licenses were sold, and the retirement date was announced as March 13, 2020.
Blockchain platform
In May 2019 Salesforce launched a blockchain platform based on Hyperledger Sawtooth, to facilitate building blockchain network and apps integrated with CRM. The product is no longer available from Salesforce's website.
Do.com
Do.com was a cloud-based task management system for small groups and businesses, introduced in 2011 and discontinued in 2014. Salesforce did not offer any reason for shutting down the service, however, it provided an Export tool to save data entered within the Do.com interface. The Do.com domain was sold to a startup in 2014.
Configuration
Salesforce users can configure their CRM application. In the system, there are tabs such as "Contacts," "Reports," and "Accounts." Each tab contains associated information. Configuration can be done on each tab by adding user-defined custom fields.
Configuration can also be done at the "platform" level by adding configured applications to a Salesforce instance, that is adding sets of customized / novel tabs for specific vertical- or function-level (Finance, Human Resources, etc.) features.
Web services
In addition to the web interface, Salesforce offers a SOAP/REST Web service application programming interface (API) that enables integration with other systems.
Technologies
Salesforce is powered by the Model–view–controller architecture.
Apex
Apex is a proprietary programming language provided by the Force.com platform to developers similar to Java and C#. It is a strongly typed, object-oriented, case-insensitive programming language, following a dot-notation and curly-brackets syntax. Apex can be used to execute programmed functions during most processes on the Force.com platform including custom buttons and links, event handlers on record insertion, update, or deletion, via scheduling, or via the custom controllers of Visualforce or Lightning Experience pages.
Due to the multitenant nature of the platform, the language has strictly imposed governor limitations to guard against any code monopolizing shared resources. Salesforce provides a series of asynchronous processing methods for Apex to allow developers to produce longer-running and more complex Apex code.
Lightning
In 2014, Salesforce made public the front end of its platform, called Lightning. This component-based framework is what the Salesforce mobile app is built on. Salesforce built on this framework in 2015 by releasing the Lightning Design System, an HTML style framework with default CSS styling built in. This framework allows customers to build their own components to either use in their internal instances or sell on the AppExchange.
The Salesforce Lightning App Builder is a tool for rapid application development of responsive web interfaces. This interface allows for different screens to be put together based on Lightning components. This can be used as layouts for records or specific applications.
Lightning Experience, released in 2016, is the new redesigned interface in Salesforce for processes enhancement. Since then all the apps available on AppExchange need to be Lightning and those built on Classic have to migrate to Lightning as Classic is not to be updated any more by Salesforce. The platform offers an option for developers to employ migration techniques to enable the new user friendly interface and switch to Lightning.
Operations
Salesforce is headquartered in San Francisco, with regional headquarters in Morges, Switzerland (covering Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, Singapore), India (covering Asia Pacific minus Japan), and Tokyo (covering Japan). Other major offices are in Toronto, Chicago, New York City, London, Sydney, Dublin, Hyderabad, Vancouver, San Mateo, California, Indianapolis, and Hillsboro, Oregon. Salesforce.com has its services translated into 16 different languages and as of July 31, 2011, had 104,000 customers and over 2.1 million subscribers. Salesforce moved its Midwest Regional headquarters to Indianapolis in 2017.
Standard & Poor's included Salesforce, at the same time as Fastenal, into the S&P 500 Index in September 2008, following the federal takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac and their removal from the index.
Leadership
Marc Benioff, Chairman & CEO, co-founder of the company (1999– )
Parker Harris, Co-Founder, oversees product strategy (1999– )
Bret Taylor, President, Co-CEO (2021– )
Suzanne DiBianca, Executive Vice President, Corporate Relations and Chief Philanthropy Officer (2000– ) Chief Communications Officer (2017– )
Amy Weaver, President and Chief Financial Officer (2021– )
Elizabeth Pinkham, Executive Vice President, Global Real Estate (2000–)
Tony Prophet, Chief Equality Officer (2016– )
Stephanie Buscemi, Chief Marketing Officer (2018– )
Cindy Robbins, President and Chief People Officer (2006–2019)
Todd Machtmes, General Counsel (2021– )
Culture
Salesforce corporate culture is based on the concept of Ohana, a deep-rooted support system nurtured inside the company.
In the aftermath of a 2021 world-wide outage of all their services, Salesforce chief availability officer Darryn Dieken placed the blame on an individual engineer stating, "We have taken action with that particular employee." The same year, another executive, Cynthia Perry, resigned over discrimination in the workplace.
On September 10, 2021, Benioff tweeted that the company is prepared to help any employee who wishes to move out of the state of Texas, following the abortion in Texas legislation announced on September 1, 2021.
Finances
For the fiscal year 2019, Salesforce reported revenue of US$13.28 billion, an increase of 26% year-over-year and 26% in constant currency. The CRM giant reported subscription and support revenues of US$12.41 billion, an increase of 27% year-over-year. Salesforce ranked 240 on the 2019 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States companies by revenue.
IT infrastructure
Salesforce migrated to Dell servers with Advanced Micro Devices processors running Linux from Sun Fire E25K servers with SPARC processors running Solaris in 2008. The company uses the Momentum platform from Message Systems to allow its customers to send large amounts of email.
In 2012, Salesforce announced plans to build a data center in the UK to handle European citizens' personal data. In 2013, Salesforce and Oracle announced a nine-year partnership in which Salesforce will use Oracle Linux, Oracle Exadata, Oracle Database, and the Java platform to power its applications and SaaS platform.
In 2016, Salesforce announced that it will use Amazon Web Services hosting for countries with restrictive data residency requirements and where no Salesforce data centers are operating. In July 2017, the first such instance went live in Canada, with Salesforce announcing that this enabled signing a number of Canadian customers.
Acquisitions
The following is a list of acquisitions by Salesforce:
Sendia (April 2006) – now Salesforce Classic
Kieden (August 2006) – now Salesforce for Google AdWords
Kenlet (January 2007) – original product CrispyNews used at Salesforce IdeaExchange and Dell IdeaStorm – now relaunched as Salesforce Ideas
Koral (March 2007) – now Salesforce Content
Instranet (August 2008) for $31.5 million – now re-branded to Salesforce Knowledge
GroupSwim (December 2009) – now part of Salesforce Chatter
Informavores (December 2009) – now re-branded to Visual Workflow
Jigsaw Data Corp. (April 2010), – now known as Data.com
Sitemasher (June 2010) – now known as Site.com
Navajo Security (August 2011)
Activa Live Chat (September 2010) – now known as Salesforce Live Agent
Heroku (December 2010) – for $212 million
Etacts (December 2010)
Dimdim (January 2011)
Manymoon (February 2011) – now known as Do.com
Radian6 (March 2011) for $340M
Model Metrics (November 2011)
Rypple (December 2011) – now known as Work.com
Stypi (May 2012)
Buddy Media (May 2012) for US$689 million
ChoicePass (June 2012)
Thinkfuse (June 2012)
BlueTail (July 2012) – now part of Data.com
GoInstant (July 2012) for US$70 million
Prior Knowledge (December 2012)
EntropySoft (February 2013) for an undisclosed sum – now known as Salesforce Files Connect
clipboard.com (May 2013) for US$12 million
ExactTarget (announced June 4, 2013) – now Salesforce Marketing Cloud for US$2.5 billion
EdgeSpring (June 7, 2013) – now part of the Analytics Cloud
RelateIQ (July 10, 2014) for US$390 million – now known as SalesforceIQ
Toopher (April 1, 2015)
Tempo (May 29, 2015) – now part of SalesforceIQ
ÄKTA (September 2015) – for an undisclosed sum.
MinHash (December 2015)
SteelBrick (December 2015) for US$360 million – now re-branded to Salesforce CPQ
PredictionIO (February 2016)
MetaMind (April 2016)
Implisit (May 2016)
Demandware (announced June 1, 2016) – now Salesforce B2C Commerce Cloud for US$2.5 billion
Coolan (July 2016)
Quip (August 2016) for US$750 million
BeyondCore (August 2016)
HeyWire (September 8, 2016)
Gravitytank (September 2016)
Krux (October 2016)
Twin Prime (December 2016)
Sequence (February 2017)
Attic Labs (January 2018)
CloudCraze (March 2018) – now Salesforce B2B Commerce Cloud
MuleSoft (announced March 2018) – For $6.5 billion
Datorama (July 2018)
Rebel Mail (October 2018)
Griddable.io (January 2019)
MapAnything (April 2019)
Bonobo AI (May 2019)
Tableau (August 2019) – $15.3 billion
ClickSoftware (August 2019) – $1.35 billion
Diffeo (November 2019)
Evergage (February 2020)
Vlocity (February 2020)
The CMO Club (March 2020)
Slack Technologies (December 2020) – $27.7 billion
Acumen Solutions (December 2020) – $570 million
Servicetrace (September 2021)
Criticisms
Subject to a phishing attack
In November 2007 a successful phishing attack on a Salesforce employee compromised contact information on a number of Salesforce customers, which was then used to send highly targeted phishing emails. Salesforce has stated that "a phisher tricked someone into disclosing a password, but this intrusion did not stem from a security flaw in [the salesforce.com] application or database." The phishing breach was cited as an example of why the CRM industry needs greater security for users against such threats as spam.
While the crowd-sourced method of building business contacts has proven popular with recruiters, marketers, and sales professionals, it has also raised questions of privacy as most of the site's database is entered without permission from the person being listed. Data.com does, however, make it easy to remove business information on request as noted in December 2009 by TechCrunch. However, recipients of these messages regard it as spam and at least one complaint about receiving more spam after attempting to remove one's address has been noted.
Attempt to trademark Social enterprise
In July 2012, Salesforce applied to trademark the term "social enterprise" in the United States, the European Union and Jamaica where the term was in widespread use to describe businesses with a primarily social purpose. This was successfully challenged by a campaign called #notinourname which was launched by Social Enterprise UK, resulting in Salesforce.com withdrawing their trademark application and agreeing not to use the term in their future marketing.
‘Meatpistol’ presenters let go at Def Con
In 2017 at DEF CON, Salesforce's Director of Offensive Security and a security engineer were fired on the conference room floor in front of several other attendees by an executive at the company after giving a talk. Word rapidly spread that two speakers had been released at the event. The presentation was initially signed off on by the company; however, Salesforce's management team had an unexplained and sudden change of heart an hour before the event. Salesforce's Director of Offensive Security had turned off his phone prior to the presentation and was unable to receive any communication from Salesforce prior to the presentation. Reaction after the firings were swift, with the Electronic Frontier Foundation providing representation to the fired employees and members of the security community opining "Salesforce undermined their credibility in the security community to a significant degree" and that "how they are perceived by the security community isn't top of their list of things they care about." The presented MEATPISTOL tool was anticipated to be released as open-source at the time of the presentation, but Salesforce continues to hold back on releasing any of the code to developers or the public. The terminated employees have continued to call on the company to open-source the software.
RAICES donation refusal
The not-for-profit organization Refugee and Immigrant Center for Education and Legal Services (RAICES) rejected a US$250,000 philanthropic donation from Salesforce because the company has contracts with U.S. Customs and Border Protection. The executive director of Raices, Jonathan Ryan, tweeted that "When it comes to supporting oppressive, inhumane, and illegal policies, we want to be clear: the only right action is to stop" in reference to the rejected donation. Salesforce CEO Marc Benioff responded in an official statement that the company's employees "don't work with CBP regarding separation of families. CBP is a customer & follows our TOS. We don't have an agreement with ICE. I'm Proud of the Men & Women who protect & serve our country every day & I'm Proud of our Ohana."
It was reported that, in a change to its acceptable-use policy, Salesforce is barring customers from using its system to sell semiautomatic guns and other firearms.
Tax avoidance
In December 2019, the Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy found that Salesforce was one of 91 companies who "paid an effective federal tax rate of 0% or less" in 2018, as a result of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. Their findings were published in a report based on the 379 Fortune 500 companies that declared a profit in 2018.
Lawsuit
In March 2019 Salesforce faced a lawsuit by 50 anonymous women claiming to be victims and survivors of sex trafficking, abuse, and rape, which alleges the company profited from and knowingly facilitated sex trafficking on the Web site Backpage.com (defunct since April 2018). The lawsuit also pointed out that Salesforce was publicly promoting an anti-human trafficking campaign at the time of its work with Backpage.
Salesforce Ventures
In 2009, in response to the financial crisis of 2007–2008 and the resulting decline in venture funding, Salesforce began investing in digital companies that used or integrated Salesforce platform. This eventually became Salesforce Ventures, headed by John Somorjai Since then various funds have been created to focus on specific areas — in September 2014 SFV set up Salesforce1 Fund, aimed at start-ups creating applications primarily for mobile phones. In December 2018, Salesforce Ventures announced the launch of the Japan Trailblazer Fund, focused on Japanese startups.
As of August 2018, Salesforce Ventures reported investments totaling $1.2 billion in 275 companies covering a wide range of business models, including e-commerce (CloudCraze), artificial intelligence (Figure Eight), online fraud prevention (Forter), Accounting and Professional Services Automation software (FinancialForce) and many other areas. Its five largest investments Domo (data-visualization software), SurveyMonkey (online survey software), Twilio (cloud-communication), Dropbox (cloud storage), and DocuSign (secure e-signature company) account for nearly half of its portfolio.
See also
Salesforce Tower
Salesforce Tower Indianapolis
Salesforce Marketing Cloud
SalesforceIQ
References
External links
2004 initial public offerings
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Companies in the Dow Jones Industrial Average
CRM software companies
Customer relationship management software
Software companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Companies based in San Francisco
Software companies established in 1999
Cloud applications
Cloud computing providers
1999 establishments in California
American companies established in 1999
Software companies of the United States |
3275996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backup%20Exec | Backup Exec | Veritas Backup Exec is a data protection software product that is designed for customers who have mixed physical and virtual environments, and who are moving to public cloud services. Supported platforms include VMware and Hyper-V virtualization, Windows and Linux operating systems, Amazon S3, Microsoft Azure and Google cloud storage, among others. All management and configuration operations are performed with a single user interface. Backup Exec also provides integrated deduplication, replication, and disaster recovery capabilities and helps to manage multiple backup servers or multi-drive tape loaders.
Backup Exec has an installation process that is well automated. Installing Backup Exec 15 on a Windows Server 2012 R2 system takes around 30 minutes. The installation wizard can be started from the Backup Exec Installation Media or the management console to push agents out to the physical servers, Hyper-V/VMware virtual machines, application/database systems hosting Active Directory, Exchange, Oracle database, SQL, and other supported platforms.
With its client/server design, Backup Exec provides backup and restore capabilities for servers, applications and workstations across the network. Backup Exec recovers data, applications, databases, or systems, from an individual file, mailbox item, table object, to an entire server. Current versions of the software support Microsoft, VMware, and Linux, among a longer list of supported hardware and software.
When used with tape drives, Backup Exec uses the Microsoft Tape Format (MTF), which is also used by Windows NTBackup, backup utilities included in Microsoft SQL Server, and many other backup vendors and is compatible with BKF. Microsoft Tape Format (MTF) was originally Maynard's (Backup Exec's first authors) proprietary backup Tape Format (MTF) and was later licensed by Microsoft as Windows standard tape format. In addition, Microsoft also licensed and incorporated Backup Exec's backup engine into Windows NT, the server version of Windows.
In addition, Backup Exec's family of agents and options offer features for scaling the Backup Exec environment and extending platform and feature support. Backup Exec 21.3 is the latest version of Veritas’ backup and recovery software, released on September 6, 2021.
History
Within the “backup” portion of the data protection spectrum, one Veritas product, Backup Exec, has been in the market for more than two decades. Since the early days of Microsoft’s journey to turn its Windows Server into the world’s dominant client-server operating system, Backup Exec has been one of a handful of technologies to protect it. As the WinSvr OS grew to become a platform of choice for application enablement and user productivity, Backup Exec’s media/platform support, application support, and internal operation evolved at a similar pace.
Backup Exec has a long history of successive owner-companies. Its earliest roots stretch back to the early 1980s when Maynard Electronics wrote a bundle of software drivers to help sell their tape-drive products.
1982 - Maynard Electronics started. Maynard's software is known as "MaynStream."
1989 - Maynard is acquired by Archive Corp. MaynStream is available for DOS, Windows, Macintosh, OS/2, and NetWare.
1991 - Quest Development Corporation is independently formed to develop backup software under contract for Symantec.
1993 - Conner Peripherals acquires Archive Corp. and renames the software "Backup Exec".
1993 - Quest acquired rights to FastBack for Macintosh, and hired its principal author, Tom Chappell, from Fifth Generation Systems.
1994 - Conner creates a subsidiary, Arcada Software, by acquiring Quest and merging it with their existing software division.
1995 - Arcada acquires the SyTron division from Rexon, including their OS/2 backup software.
1996 - Conner is acquired by Seagate Technology and Arcada is merged into its subsidiary Seagate Software.
1999 - VERITAS Software acquires Seagate Software's Network and Storage Management Group, which included Backup Exec.
2005 - Symantec acquires VERITAS, including Backup Exec.
2015 - Symantec announced they would be splitting off the Information Management Business which contains Backup Exec, into a new company named Veritas Technologies Corporation acquired by the Carlyle Group.
2016 - Veritas Technologies re-launches as a newly independent company which contains Backup Exec.
Architecture
Core components
The core components that are contained in a basic Backup Exec architecture include the following:
A Backup Exec server is the heart of a Backup Exec installation. The Backup Exec server is a Windows server that:
Runs the Backup Exec software and services that control backup and restore operations
Is attached to and controls storage hardware
Maintains the Backup Exec database, media catalogs, and device catalogs
The Backup Exec Administration Console is the interface to control a Backup Exec server.
The Administration Console can be run directly on a Backup Exec server or from a remote system (using a Backup Exec Remote Administration Console).
Storage devices attached to the Backup Exec server contain the media on which backup data is written.
Backup Exec supports many different types of devices and media, including cloud, disk-based and tape-based. Backup Exec supports unlimited number of clients, NDMP-NAS systems, tape drives, and tape libraries.
Clients are the systems that contain the data which the Backup Exec server backs up.
Clients can include database servers, application servers, file servers, and individual workstations.
Add-on components
Backup Exec Agents and Options expand the features and functionality of core Backup Exec server to support the most common server applications, including Microsoft Exchange, SharePoint and SQL Server, Oracle, Windows and Linux clients, server OSs, and the Hyper-V and VMware hypervisors. Not all agents are agents in the traditional sense. For example, the Agent for VMware and Hyper-V is not carrying out the backup process. The agent is simply collecting meta data (takes a few seconds) so that Backup Exec can perform granular recoveries directly from storage at a point in the future - no mounting required.
Here is a list of Backup Exec Agents and Options:
Installation
Backup Exec and its options can be installed on a local computer, a remote computer, within a virtual environment, or on a public cloud "Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)" virtualization platform. Today Backup Exec supports the Backup Exec server installation on 64-bit operating systems only. However, the Agent for Windows can be installed on 32-bit operating systems. Several methods are available for installing Backup Exec. An Environment Check runs automatically during installation to make sure that the installation process can complete. If Backup Exec finds any configuration issues that can be fixed during the installation, or that may prevent Installation, warnings appear.
Backup Exec can be installed using the following:
Installation wizard from the Backup Exec installation media, which guides through the installation process.
Push-install Backup Exec to remote computers through Terminal Services and the installation media is on a shared drive (network share).
Command line, which is called silent mode installation. The silent mode installation uses the Setup.exe program on the Backup Exec installation media.
Additionally, Backup Exec installation media also has a Remote Administrator feature which can be installed on a remote computer or workstation to administer the Backup Exec server remotely.
Backup Exec may install the additional products:
Microsoft Report Viewer 2010 SP1
Microsoft.NET Framework 4.6
Microsoft Visual C++ 2008 ServicePack 1 Redistributable Package MFCSecurity Update
Microsoft Visual C++ 2010 ServicePack 1 Redistributable Package MFC Security Update
Microsoft Visual C++ 2012 Redistributable Package
Microsoft Visual C++ 2015 Redistributable Package
Microsoft SQL Server 2014 Express with SP2
Configuration
Backup Exec installations can have one or more Backup Exec servers, which are responsible for moving data from one or more locations to a storage medium, including cloud, disk, tape, and OST device. The data may be from the local system or from a remote system. There are two primary Backup Exec architectures:
1. Standalone Backup Exec configuration (Two-Tier)
A single Backup Exec server is assigned the standalone Backup Exec server role. Each server runs the Backup Exec software and the services that control backup and restore operations of multiple clients. Each Backup Exec server maintains its own Backup Exec database, media catalogs, and device catalogs.
2. Central Admin Server Option (CASO) configuration (Three-Tier)
Large environments may contain multiple Backup Exec servers responsible for backing up many different client systems. Backup Exec servers in large environments can run independently of each other if each server is managed separately. Separate server management may not be an issue if there are only two or three Backup Exec servers, but it can become unwieldy as the environment grows. Backup Exec can centralize the management of multiple Backup Exec servers using an add-on option called the Backup Exec Central Admin Server Option (CASO). CASO ensures that everything throughout the network is protected by a single system that can be managed from one console and also balances the workload across all Backup Exec servers in the environment.
In a CASO environment, one Backup Exec server can be configured to be the Central Admin Server (CAS), while other Backup Execs become managed Backup Exec servers (MBESs) that are managed by the CAS. The CASO configuration simplifies the management and monitoring of enterprise-level environments.
Features and Capabilities
Backup Exec includes the following features and capabilities:
Backup Options:
Image-based backups for VMware and Hyper-V
Full backup method
Differential backup method
Incremental backup method
Synthetic Backups
Advanced Open File Option (AOFO)
Backup to disk, tape, or cloud regardless of location.
Recovery Options:
Catalog-assisted granular recovery of objects, files, folders, applications, or VMs (including Exchange, SharePoint, SQL Server, and Active Directory) directly from storage, with no mounting or staging.
Restore to different targets or hardware (Dissimilar Hardware Recovery)
Restore to physical or virtual servers
Simplified Disaster Recovery (SDR)
Guided Search and Restore: Built-in indexing and the ability to restore files through search.
True image restore
Cloud Support
Free S3 Cloud Connector for Backup Exec to back up data to an S3-compatible cloud storage
Free Azure Cloud Connector for Backup Exec to write data to Microsoft Azure cloud storage
Cloud Connector can be deployed on-premises and in-the-cloud
Backup Exec UI has predefined templates for disk-to-disk-to-cloud and direct-to-cloud backups.
support for:
Amazon Simple Storage Service (S3)
Microsoft Azure Storage
Google Cloud Standard
Amazon Storage Gateway-VTL (iSCSI)
Quantum Q-Cloud (OST Cloud Storage plug-in)
Amazon S3 and Microsoft Azure via the NetApp AltaVault/SteelStore/Whitewater Appliance
Support for Backup Exec within a virtual environment on a public cloud "Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)" virtualization platform
Hybrid/Private Cloud Services
Virtual Server protection support
Multi-hypervisor support (Microsoft Hyper-V, VMware vSphere, & Citrix XenServer)
Supports Agentless backup of both Hyper-V and VMware virtual machines
Supports image-level, off-host backups of virtual machines
Support for VMware Changed Block Tracking (CBT)
Block Optimization Support: Intelligent skipping of unused blocks within a virtual disk file
Integration with Microsoft Volume Shadow Copy Service and VMware’s vStorage APIs for Data Protection (VADP)
From a single-pass backup of a virtual machine, recover:
An entire virtual machine
Individual virtual machine disk (VMDK) and virtual hard disk (VHD/X) files
Individual files and folders
Entire applications (Microsoft Exchange Server, Microsoft SharePoint, Microsoft Active Directory, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle Database)
Granular application objects from Microsoft Exchange Server, Microsoft SharePoint, Microsoft Active Directory, Microsoft SQL Server
Fully integrated Physical-to-Virtual (P2V), which can be used for migrations or instant recovery
Also supports - Backup to Virtual (B2V) and Point-in-time Conversion (PIT)
Integrated Data Deduplication:
Integrated block-level data deduplication
Client, server-side, or OST appliance deduplication
Client deduplication supported for both Windows as well as Linux computers
Optimized duplication (Opt Dup) supports backup "replication" from MMS/MBE to CAS/ CAS to MMS/MBE
Security and Data Encryption:
Software encryption
Hardware encryption (T10 encryption standard)
Database Encryption Key (DEK)
FIPS Version: OpenSSL FIPS 2.0.5
Secure TLS protocol for its SSL control connection (over NDMP) between the Backup Exec Server and the Agent on a remote computer
Management and Reporting:
Centralized administration: Provides a single console for managing the entire Backup Exec environment, creates and delegates jobs to multiple Backup Exec servers, defines device and media sets.
Centralized reporting: Monitors all job activity dispatched by the CAS in real time, provides holistic reporting for the entire storage environment, centrally defines notification and alert settings
Operational resiliency: Automatically load-balances jobs across multiple Backup Exec servers, provides job failover from one Backup Exec server to another, centralizes or replicates catalogs for restores.
Management Plug-in for VMware vSphere
Management pack for Microsoft System Center Operations Manager 2007 R2 & 2012 R2 (SCOM)
Management Plug-In for Kaseya
Localization/Language packs
Command Line Interface (BEMCLI)
Media Management:
Automatic robotic/tape drive configuration
Broad tape device support
Heterogeneous Support:
Broad platform support
Bare-metal restore, supports P2V as an option.
Support for leading networking topologies
Advanced VSS support
OpenStorage (OST) support
IPv4 & IPv6 support
Multiplexing limitation
Backup Exec does not have support for sending data streams from multiple parallel backup jobs to a single tape drive, which Veritas refers to as multiplexing. Their NetBackup product does have this capability.
Multiplexing can reduce backup times when backing up data from non-solid state sources containing millions of small or highly fragmented files, which require very large amounts of head-seeking using traditional mechanical hard drives, and which significantly slow down the backup process.
When only a single job is running, and the source server is constantly seeking at a high rate, the tape drive slows down or may stop, waiting for its write cache to be filled. These delays accessing data can cause the backup availability window to be exceeded, when multiple servers with slow transfer rates are being backed up one after the other to the tape device.
A workaround to this is to install temporary disk storage in the backup server to use as a cache for the backup process. This storage is split into hundreds of small 1-5 gigabyte data blocks. Backups to the data blocks can be done in parallel, and each of the separate disk-based backup jobs are configured to duplicate and append to tape when completed.
Licensing
Backup Exec has the following licensing options:
Capacity Edition - Deploy an unlimited number of Backup Exec servers, Agents and Options (Licensed per TB)
Capacity Edition Lite - Includes protection for Windows and Linux operating systems, VMware and Hyper-V virtual environments, Microsoft applications, Oracle, and Enterprise Vault (Licensed per TB)
V-Ray Edition - Protects an unlimited number of guest machines per host including all of the applications and databases (Licensed per occupied processor socket on the virtual host)
Traditional - Licensing per Backup Exec server with Agents and Options available based on need
Releases
MaynStream for Windows 3.0, May, 1992
Conner Backup Exec 2.1 DOS Version
Conner Backup Exec for Windows NT 3.1, May, 1993
Arcada Software Backup Exec for Windows NT 6.0, April, 1995
Seagate Software Backup Exec for Windows NT 7.0, August, 1997
Seagate Backup Exec 7.2, October, 1998
VERITAS Backup Exec 7.3, March, 1999
VERITAS Backup Exec 8.0, January, 2000
VERITAS Backup Exec 8.6, November, 2001
VERITAS Backup Exec 9.0, January 22, 2003
VERITAS Backup Exec 9.1, November 4, 2003
VERITAS Backup Exec 10.0, January, 2005
Symantec Backup Exec 10d, September, 2005
Symantec Backup Exec 11d, November, 2006
Symantec Backup Exec 12, February, 2008
Symantec Backup Exec 12.5, October, 2008
Symantec Backup Exec 2010 (13.0), February, 2010
Symantec Backup Exec 2010 SP1, August 16, 2010
Symantec Backup Exec 2010 R2, August 2, 2010
Symantec Backup Exec 2010 R2 SP1
Symantec Backup Exec 2010 R3, May 3, 2011
Symantec Backup Exec 2010 R3 SP1, June 12, 2012
Symantec Backup Exec 2010 R3 SP2, February 1, 2012
Symantec Backup Exec 2010 R3 SP3, July 26, 2013
Symantec Backup Exec 2010 R3 SP4, January 27, 2014
Symantec Backup Exec 2012 (14.0), March 5, 2012
Symantec Backup Exec 2012 SP1, June 1, 2012
Symantec Backup Exec 2012 SP2, July 26, 2013
Symantec Backup Exec 2012 SP3, November 21, 2013
Symantec Backup Exec 2012 SP4, March 13, 2014
Symantec Backup Exec 2014, (14.1), June 2, 2014
Symantec Backup Exec 2014 SP1, September 22, 2014
Symantec Backup Exec 2014 SP2, December 15, 2014
Symantec Backup Exec 15, (14.2 Rev 1180), April 6, 2015
Symantec Backup Exec 15 FP1, July 8, 2015
Symantec Backup Exec 15 FP2, October 19, 2015
Symantec Backup Exec 15 FP3, December 9, 2015
Veritas Backup Exec 15 FP4, April 18, 2016
Veritas Backup Exec 15 FP5, August 1, 2016
Veritas Backup Exec 16, November 7, 2016
Veritas Backup Exec 16 FP1, April 4, 2017
Veritas Backup Exec 16 FP2, July 31, 2017
Veritas Backup Exec, November 7, 2017
Veritas Backup Exec (20.1), April 2, 2018
Veritas Backup Exec (20.2), August 13, 2018
Veritas Backup Exec (20.3), October 23, 2018
Veritas Backup Exec (20.4), May 6, 2019
Veritas Backup Exec (20.5), Sep 02, 2019
Veritas Backup Exec (20.6), Dec 02, 2019
Veritas Backup Exec (21), Apr 06, 2020
Veritas Backup Exec (21.1), Sep 06, 2020
Veritas Backup Exec (21.2), Mar 01, 2021
Veritas Backup Exec (21.3), Sep 06, 2021
See also
Backup
List of backup software
NetBackup
Veritas Software
References
External links
Backup Exec Product Page on Veritas.com
Backup Exec Support Page on Veritas.com
Backup Exec User Discussion Forum on Veritas Communities
A Detailed History Of Backup Exec From StorageNewsletter With A Chart
Backup software for Windows |
10385908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography%20of%20the%20American%20Civil%20War | Bibliography of the American Civil War | The American Civil War bibliography comprises books that deal in large part with the American Civil War. There are over 60,000 books on the war, with more appearing each month. Authors James Lincoln Collier and Christopher Collier stated in 2012, "No event in American history has been so thoroughly studied, not merely by historians, but by tens of thousands of other Americans who have made the war their hobby. Perhaps a hundred thousand books have been published about the Civil War."
There is no complete bibliography to the war; the largest guide to books is over 40 years old and lists over 6,000 of the most valuable titles as evaluated by three leading scholars. Many specialized topics such as Abraham Lincoln, women, and medicine have their own lengthy bibliographies. The books on major campaigns typically contain their own specialized guides to the sources and literature. The most comprehensive guide to the historiography annotates over a thousand major titles, with an emphasis on military topics. The most recent guide to literary and non-military topics is A History of American Civil War Literature (2016) edited by Coleman Hutchison. It emphasizes cultural studies, memory, diaries, southern literary writings, and famous novelists.
Causes of the war
Ashworth, John. Slavery, Capitalism, and Politics in the Antebellum Republic. (1995)
Ayers, Edward L. What Caused the Civil War? Reflections on the South and Southern History. New York: W.W. Norton, 2005.
Boritt, Gabor S., ed. Why the Civil War Came. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Broadwater, Robert P. Did Lincoln and the Republican Party Create the Civil War?: An Argument. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2008. .
Calore, Paul. The Causes of the Civil War: The Political, Cultural, Economic, and Territorial Disputes between North and South. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., 2008.
Donald, David. "An Excess of Democracy: The Civil War and the Social Process" in David Donald, Lincoln Reconsidered: Essays on the Civil War Era, 2d ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966), 209–35.
Egnal, Marc. Clash of Extremes: The Economic Origins of the Civil War. New York: Hill and Wang, 2009.
Grant, Susan-Mary. North Over South: Northern Nationalism and American Identity in the Antebellum Era. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 2000.
Helper, Hinton Rowan. The Impending Crisis of the South: How to Meet It. New York: Burdock Brothers, 1857.
Holt, Michael F. The Political Crisis of the 1850s. 1978.
Link, William A. Roots of Secession: Slavery and Politics in Antebellum Virginia. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003.
Olsen, Christopher J. Political Culture and Secession in Mississippi: Masculinity, Honor, and the Antiparty Tradition, 1830–1860. 2000.
Potter, David Morris, edited and completed by Don E. Fehrenbacher, The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861. 1976.
Schoen, Brian. The Fragile Fabric of Union: Cotton, Federal Politics, and the Global Origins of the Civil War. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.
Stampp, Kenneth M. America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink. 1990.
Secession
Adams, Charles. When in the Course of Human Events: Arguing the Case for Southern Secession. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000.
Bledose, Alfred T. Is Davis a Traitor; or Was Secession a Constitutional Right Previous to the War in 1861?. Baltimore, Maryland: Innes and the author, 1866.
Dew, Charles B. Apostles of Disunion: Southern Secession Commissioners and the Causes of the Civil War. Charlottesville, Virginia: University Press of Virginia, 2001.
Mississippi Secession Convention. Journal of the State Convention and Ordinances and Resolution Adopted in January 1861, with an Appendix. Jackson, Mississippi: E. Barksdale, 1861.
Sitterson, Joseph Carlyle. The Secession Movement in North Carolina. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1939.
Stampp, Kenneth M. And the War Came: The North and the Secession Crisis, 1860–1861. 1950.
Wakelyn, Jon L., editor. Southern Pamphlets on Secession, November 1860-April 1861. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1996.
American Civil War battles and campaigns
Naval history
Anderson, Bern. By Sea and By River: The Naval History of the Civil War. New York: Da Capo Press, 1989.
Bennett, Michael J. Union Jacks: Yankee Sailors in the Civil War. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
Block, W.T. Schooner Sail to Starboard: The U.S. Navy vs. Blockade Runners in the Western Gulf of Mexico. College Station, Texas: Institute of Nautical Archaeology, 2007.
Bradlee, Francis. Blockade Running During the Civil War. Salem, Massachusetts: Essex Institute Press, 1959.
Browning, Jr., Robert M. From Cape Charles to Cape Fear: The North Atlantic Blockading Squadron During the Civil War. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1993. .
Browning, Jr., Robert M. Success Is All That Was Expected: The South Atlantic Blockading Squadron in the Civil War. Washington, D.C.: Brassey's Inc., 2002.
Campbell, R. Thomas. Academy on the James: The Confederate Naval School. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: Burd Street Press, 1998.
Campbell, R. Thomas. Confederate Naval Forces on Western Waters: The Defense of the Mississippi River and Its Tributaries. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., 2005. .
—— Fire and Thunder: Exploits of the Confederate States Navy. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: Burd Street Press, 1997. .
—— Gray Thunder: Exploits of the Confederate States Navy. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: Burd Street Press, 1996. .
—— Southern Fire: Exploits of the Confederate States Navy. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: Burd Street Press, 1997. .
Carr, Dawson. Gray Phantoms of the Cape Fear: Running the Civil War Blockade. Winston-Salem, North Carolina: John F. Blair, 1998. .
Carse, Robert. Blockade: The Civil War at Sea. New York: Rinehart & Co., 1950.
Chaffin, Tom. The H. L. Hunley: The Secret Hope of the Confederacy. New York: Hill and Wang, 2008. .
Chatelain, Neil P. Defending the Arteries of Rebellion: Confederate Naval Operations in the Mississippi River Valley, 1861-1865. Savas Beatie, 2020. .
Coombe, Jack D. Gunfire Around the Gulf: The Last Major Naval Campaign of the Civil War. New York: Bantam Books, 1999.
Cochran, Hamilton. Blockade Runners of the Confederacy. Indianapolis, Indiana: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1957.
Conrad, James Lee. Rebel Reefers: The Organization and Midshipmen of the Confederate States Naval Academy. New York: Da Capo Press, 2003.
Coski, John M. Capital Navy: The Men, Ships, and Operations of the James River Squadron. Campbell, California: Savas Woodbury Publishers, 1996.
Coski, John M. The Confederate Navy. Richmond, Virginia: The Museum of the Confederacy, 2005.
Cracknell, William H. United States Navy Monitors of the Civil War Windsor, England: 1973.
deKay, James T. Monitor. 1997.
Donnelly, Ralph W. The Confederate States Marine Corps: The Rebel Leathernecks. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane Publishing Company, Inc., 1989. .
Dougherty, Kevin J. Ships of the Civil War, 1861–1865: An Illustrated Guide to the Fighting Vessels of the Union and the Confederacy. London: Amber Books, Ltd., 2013. .
Dougherty, Kevin J. Strangling the Confederacy: Coastal Operations in the American Civil War. Savas Beatie, LLC, 2012. .
Ericson, Peter. Running the Batteries. LULU Press, 2009.
Fowler, William M. Under Two Flags: The American Navy in the Civil War. Naval Institute Press, 1990.
Gosnell, H. Allen. Guns on the Western Waters: The Story of River Gunboats in the Civil War Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1949.
Graham, Eric J. Clyde Built: Blockade Runners, Cruisers and Armoured Rams of the American Civil War. Edinburgh, Scotland: Birlinn Press, 2006.
Hall, Andrew W. Civil War Blockade Running on the Texas Coast. Charleston, South Carolina: The History Press, 2014. .
Hearn, Chester G. Gray Raiders of the Sea: How Eight Confederate Warships Destroyed the Union's High Seas Commerce. Camden, Maine: International Marine Publishing, 1992.
Hoyt, Edwin P. The Voyage of the Hunley: The Chronicle of the Pathbreaking Confederate Submarine. Short Hills, New Jersey: Burford Books. .
Joiner, Gary D. Mr. Lincoln's Brown Water Navy: The Mississippi Squadron. Rowman & Littlefield, 2007.
Jones, Virgil Carington. The Civil War At Sea. New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1962.
Joyner, Elizabeth Hoxie and Margie Riddle Bearss. The USS Cairo: History and Artifacts of a Civil War Gunboat. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., 2006.
Lardas, Mark. CSS Alabama vs. USS Kearsage: Cherbourg 1864. New York: Osprey, 2011. .
Luraghi, Raimondo. A History of the Confederate Navy. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1996. .
Merrill, James M. The Rebel Shore. 1957.
Musicant, Ivan. Divided Waters: The Naval History of the Civil War. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1995. .
Page, Dave. Ships Versus Shore: Civil War Engagements Along Southern Shores and Rivers. Rutledge Hill Press, 1994.
Porter, David Dixon. The Naval History of the Civil War. Secaucus, New Jersey: Castle, 1984.
Ragan, Mark K. Union and Confederate Submarine Warfare in the Civil War. Campbell, California: Savas Publishing, 1999.
Roberts, William H. Now for the Contest: Coastal and Oceanic Naval Operations in the Civil War. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 2004.
Scarf, J. Thomas. History of the Confederate States Navy from Its Organization to the Surrender of Its Last Vessel. New York: Joseph McDonough Co., 1894.
Silverstone, Pal H. Warships of the Civil War Navies. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1989.
Smith, Jr., Myron J. The Timberclads in the Civil War: The Lexington, Conestoga and Tyler on the Western Waters. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland Publishing, 2008. .
Smith, Jr., Myron J. Tinclads in the Civil War: Union Light–Draught Gunboat Operations on Western Waters, 1862–1865. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 2009. .
Sprunt, James. Tales of the Cape Fear Blockade. Wilmington, North Carolina: Cornelius Thomas, 1960.
Still, Jr., William. Confederate Shipbuilding. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 2003.
Still Jr., William, John M. Taylor, and Norman C. Delaney. Raiders & Blockaders: The American Civil War Afloat. Washington, D.C.: Brassey's Inc., 1998. .
Sullivan, David M. The United States Marine Corps in the Civil War – The First Year. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane Publishing Company, 1997. .
Sullivan, David M. The United States Marine Corps in the Civil War – The Second Year. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane Publishing Company, 1997. .
Sullivan, David M. The United States Marine Corps in the Civil War – The Third Year. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane Publishing Company, 1998. .
Sullivan, David M. The United States Marine Corps in the Civil War – The Fourth Year. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane Publishing Company, 2000. .
Surdam, David G. Northern Naval Superiority and the Economics of the American Civil War. University of South Carolina Press, 2001.
Taafe, Stephen R. Commanding Lincoln's Navy: Union Naval Leadership During the Civil War. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2009.
Tucker, Spencer C., editor The Civil War Naval Encyclopedia, two volumes. Santa Barbara, California: ABC–CLIO, 2011. .
Tucker, Spencer C. A Short History of the Civil War at Sea. Wilmington, Delaware: SR Books, 2001.
Underwood, Rodman L. Waters of Discord: The Union Blockade of Texas During the Civil War. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., 2003.
U.S. Department of the Navy, Naval History Division, compiler. Civil War Naval Chronology 1861–1865. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971.
Van Tillburg, Hans. A Civil War Gunboat in Pacific Waters: Life on Board the USS Saginaw. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 2010. .
Walker, Sally M. Secrets of A Civil War Submarine: Solving the Mysteries of the H.L. Hunley. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Carolrhoda Books, Inc., 2005.
Wise, Stephen R. Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running During the Civil War. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1988.
Wynne, Nick and Joe Crankshaw. Florida Civil War Blockades: Battling for the Coast. Charleston, South Carolina: The History Press, 2011. .
Ironclads
Bearss, Edwin C. Hardluck Ironclad: The Sinking and Salvage of the Cairo. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1966.
Besse, Summer B. The C.S. Ironclad Virginia: With Data and References for a Scale Model. Newport News, Virginia, 1937.
Elliott, Robert G. Ironclad of the Roanoke: Gilbert Elliott's Albemarle. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane Publishing Co., 1994.
Field, Ron. Confederate Ironclad vs. Union Ironclad: Hampton Roads 1862. United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing, 2008.
Holzer, Harold and Mulligan, Tim, ed. The Battle of Hampton Roads: New Perspectives on the USS Monitor and CSS Virginia. Fordham University Press, 2006.
MacBride, Robert. Civil War Ironclads: The Dawn of Naval Armor. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: 1962.
Melton, Maurice. The Confederate Ironclads. South Brunswick, New Jersey: Thomas Yoseloff Ltd., 1968.
Mindell, David A. War, Technology, and Experience Aboard the U.S.S. Monitor. 2000.
Mokion, Arthur. Ironclad: The Monitor & the Merrimack. Novato, California: Presidio Press, 1991. .
Nelson, James L. Reign of Iron: The Story of the First Battling Ironclads, the Monitor and the Merrimack. William Marrow, 2004.
Quarstein, John. C.S.S. Virginia: Mistress of Hampton Roads. Lynchburg, Virginia: H.E. Howard, Inc., 2000.
Quarstein, John V. The Monitor Boys: The Crew of the Union's First Ironclad. Charleston, South Carolina: The History Press, 2011.
Quarstein, John V. The CSS Virginia: Sink Before Surrender. Charleston, South Carolina: The History Press, 2012. .
Quarstein, John V. A History of Ironclads. Charleston, South Carolina: History Press, 2006.
Roberts, William H. Civil War Ironclads: The U.S. Navy and Industrial Mobilization. Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003.
Smith, Jr., Myron J. The CSS Arkansas: A Confederate Ironclad on Western Waters. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2011. .
Smith, Jr., Myron J. The USS Carondelet: A Civil War Ironclad in Western Waters. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2010.
Still, Jr., William N. Iron Afloat: The Story of the Confederate Armorclads. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1985, 1988. . Originally published Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 1971.
Confederate raiders
Baldwin, John, and Ron Powers. Last Flag Down: The Epic Journey of the Last Confederate Warship. New York: Crown Publishers, 2007. .
Chaffin, Tom. Sea of Gray: The Around—the—World Odyssey of the Confederate Raider Shenandoah. New York: Hill & Wang, 2006. .
De Kay, James T. The Rebel Raiders: The Astonishing History of the Confederacy's Secret Navy. New York: Ballantine Books, 2002.
Morgan, Murray. Confederate Raider in the North Pacific: The Saga of the C.S.S. Shenandoah, 1864–65. Washington State University Press, 1948.
Robinson III, Charles M. Shark of the Confederacy: The Story of the CSS Alabama. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1995. .
Schooler, Lynn. The Last Shot: The Incredible Story of the C.S.S. Shenandoah and the True Conclusion of the American Civil War. New York: HarperCollins, 2005. .
Whittle, William C. The Voyage of the CSS Shenandoah: A Memorable Cruise. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 2005.
Unit histories
Brown, J. Willard. The Signal Corps in the War of the Rebellion. Boston, Massachusetts: U.S. Veteran Signal Corps Association, 1896.
Glatthaar, Joseph T. Soldiering in the Army of Northern Virginia: A Statistical Portrait of the Troops Who Served Under Robert E. Lee. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2011. .
Tennesseans in the Civil War: A Military History of Confederate and Union Units with Available Rosters of Personnel, two volumes. Nashville, Tennessee: Civil War Centennial Commission, 1964.
Union military units
Confederate military units
Strategy and command
Adams, Michael C.C. Our Masters the Rebels: A Speculation on Union Military Failure in the East, 1861–1865. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1978.
Bartholomes, Jr., J. Boone Buff. Facings and Gilt Buttons: Staff and Headquarters Operations in the Army of Northern Virginia, 1861–1865. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1998.
Bledsoe, Andrew S. Citizen-Officers: The Union and Confederate Volunteer Junior Officer Corps in the American Civil War. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2015. .
Burne, Alfred H. Lee, Grant and Sherman: A Study in Leadership in the 1864–1865 Campaign. Aldershot: Gale and Polden, 1938.
Davis, William C. Crucible of Command: Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee – The War They Fought, The Peace They Forged. Boston: Da Capo Press, A Member of Perseus Books Group, 2014. .
Fredricksbon, George M. Why the Confederacy Did Not Fight a Guerrilla War after the Fall of Richmond: A Comparative View. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania: Gettysburg College, 1996.
Hagerman, Edward. The American Civil War and the Origins of Modern Warfare: Ideas, Organization and Field Command. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1988.
Harsh, Joseph L. Confederate Tide Rising: Robert E. Lee and the Making of Southern Strategy, 1861–1862. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1998. .
Hess, Earl J. Field Armies and Fortifications in the Civil War: The Eastern Campaigns, 1861–1864. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.
Jones, Archer. Civil War Command and Strategy: The Process of Victory and Defeat. New York: The Free Press, 1992.
Jones, Edward C. The Right Hand of Command: Use and Disuse of Personal Staff in the American Civil War. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 2000.
McPherson, Robertson, Sears, Symonds, Waugh. Hearts Touched by Fire, The Modern Library, New York, 2011
Gallagher, Gary W.; and Joseph T. Glatthaar. Leaders of the Lost Cause: New Perspectives on the Confederate High Command, 2004.
Silkenat, David. Raising the White Flag: How Surrender Defined the American Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019. .
Stoker, Donald. The Grand Design: Strategy and the U.S. Civil War (Oxford UP. 2010) excerpt
Tanner, Robert G. Retreat to Victory?: Confederate Strategy Reconsidered. Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources Inc., 2001.
Vandiver, Frank E. Rebel Brass: The Confederate Command System. New York: 1956.
Winkler, H. Donald. Civil War Goats and Scapegoats. Cumberland House, 2008.
Wood, W.J. Civil War Generalship: The Art of Command. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1997. .
Woodworth, Steven E., ed. Civil War Generals in Defeat. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1999. .
Woodworth, Steven E., ed. Leadership and Command in the American Civil War. New York: Da Capo, 1996.
Technology, weapons, logistics
Albaugh III, William A. Confederate Edged Weapons. New York: 1960.
Albaugh, William A., Hugh Benet, Jr., and Edward Simmons. Confederate Handguns.
Albert, Alphaeus H. Buttons of the Confederacy.
Army Jr., Thomas F. Engineering Victory: How Technology Won the Civil War (Johns Hopkins Studies in the History of Technology, 2016).
Bilby, Joseph G. Civil War Firearms: Their Historical Background, Tactical Use and Modern Collecting and Shooting. Conshocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Books, Inc.
Bilby, Joseph G. A Revolution in Arms: A History of the First Repeating Rifles. Westholme, 2006.
Black, III, Robert C. The Railroads of the Confederacy. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1952.
Bragg, C.L., Charles D. Ross, Gordon A. Baker, Stephanie A.T. Jacobe, and Theodore P. Savas, eds. Never for Want of Powder: The Confederate Powder Works in Augusta, Georgia. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 2007.
Bruce, Robert V. Lincoln and the Tools of War 1956.
Burke, James C. The Wilmington & Weldon Railroad in the Civil War. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2013. .
Clark, John E. Railroads in the Civil War: The Impact of Management On Victory And Defeat. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2004.
Coates, Earl J. and Dean S. Thomas. An Introduction To Civil War Small Arms. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania: Thomas Publications, 1990.
Coggins, Jack. Arms and Equipment of the Civil War. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1962.
Cornish, Joseph Jenkins. The Air Arm of the Confederacy: A history of origins and usages of war balloons by the Southern Armies during the American Civil War. Richmond, Virginia: Richmond Civil War Centennial Committee, 1963.
Davis, Carl L. Arming the Union: Small Arms in the Union Army. Port Washington, New York: Kennikat Press, Inc., 1974.
Edwards, William B. Civil War Guns. New York: 1962.
Griffith, Paddy. Battle Tactics of the Civil War. Yale University Press, 1989. .
Field, Ron. Brassey's History of Uniforms: American Civil War, Confederate Army. McLean, Virginia: Brassey's Inc., 1997.
Hagerman, Edward. The American Civil War and the Origins of Modern Warfare: Ideas, Organization, and Field Command. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1988.
Hazlett, James C.; Olmstead, Edwin; and Parks, M. Hume. Field Artillery Weapons of the Civil War. University of Illinois Press, 2004.
Hess, Earl J. Civil War Logistics: A Study of Military Transportation (2017) online review
Hess, Earl J. Field Armies and Fortification in the Civil War: The Eastern Campaigns, 1861–1864. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.
Hess, Earl J. Grant and Lee: Field Fortifications in the Overland Campaign. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007. .
Hess, Earl J. In the Trenches at Petersburg: Field Fortifications & Confederate Defeat. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009. .
Hess, Earl J. The Rifle Musket in Civil War Combat. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 2009.
Hodges, Jr., Robert R. American Civil War Railroad Tactics. United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing, 2009.
Johnston II, Angus James. Virginia Railroads in the Civil War. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1961.
Keim, Lon W. Confederate General Service Accoutrement Plates.
Kerksis, Sydney C. Field Artillery Projectiles of the Civil War, 1861–1865.
Kerksis, Sydney C. Heavy Artillery Projectiles of the Civil War, 1861–1865.
Madaus, H. Michael and Robert D. Needham. Battleflags of the Confederate Army of the Tennessee.
Maier, Larry B. and Joseph W. Stahl. Identification Discs in the Civil War. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., Inc., 2008.
McKee, W. Reid and M.W. Mason, Jr. Civil War Projectiles, Small Arms and Field Artillery.
Morton, John W. The Artillery of Nathan Bedford Forrest's Cavalry "The Wizard of the Saddle". Nashville, Tennessee: Publishing House of the M.E. Church, South, 1909.
Murphy, John M. Confederate Carbines and Musketoons.
Naisawald, L. VanLoan. Canon Blasts: Civil War Artillery in the Eastern Armies. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane, 2004.
Perry, Milton F. Infernal Machines: The Story of Confederate Submarine and Mine Warfare. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1965.
Philips, Stanley S. Bullets Used in the Civil War, 1861–1865.
Philips, Stanley S. Civil War Corps Badges and Other Related Awards, Badges, Medals of the Period.
Pitman, John. Breech Loading Carbines of the United States Civil War Period.
Plum, William R. The Military Telegraph During the Civil War in the United States, an Exposition of ancient and Modern Means of Communications, and of the Federal and Confederate Cipher Systems, Also a Running Account of the War between the States, two volumes. Chicago, Illinois: Jensen, McClug & Company, Publishers, 1882.
Reilly, Robert M. United States Military Small Arms 1816–1865.
Riling, Ray, ed. Uniforms and Dress of the Army and Navy of the Confederate States.
Ripley, Warren. Artillery and Ammunition of the Civil War.
Ross, Charles D. Trial by Fire: Science, Technology and the Civil War. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane Publishing, 2000.
Rutherford, Kenneth R. America’s Buried History: Landmines in the Civil War. Savas Beatie, 2020. .
Smith, Robin. Brassey's History of Uniforms: American Civil War, Union Army. McLean, Virginia: Brassey's Inc., 1997.
Stamatelos, James. Notes on the Uniforms and Equipments of the United States Cavalry, 1861–1865.
Summers, Festus P. The Baltimore and Ohio in the Civil War. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1939.
Tucker, Spencer. Arming the Fleet. U.S. Ordnance in the Muzzle-Loading Era (1988)
Turner, George Edgar. Victory Rode the Rails: The Strategic Place of the Railroads in the Civil War. New York: Bobbs Merrill, 1963.
Wilson, Harold S. Confederate Industry, Manufacturers and Quartermasters in the Civil War. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 2002.
Winey, Michael J. Union Army Uniforms at Gettysburg. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania: Thomas, 1998.
Wise, Arthur and Francis A. Lord. Uniforms of the Civil War.
Woodhead, Henry, ed. Echoes of Glory: Arms and Equipment of the Confederacy. Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1991.
Woodhead, Henry, ed. Echoes of Glory: Arms and Equipment of the Union. Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1991.
Reconstruction
See Reconstruction: Bibliography for complete guide
Medical
Adams, George Worthington. Doctors in Blue: The Medical History of the Union Army in the Civil War. New York: Henry Schuman, 1952.
Bell, Andrew McIlwaine. Mosquito Soldiers: Malaria, Yellow Fever, and the Course of the Civil War. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2010.
Cunningham, Horace Herndon. Doctors in Gray: The Confederate Medical Service. (reprint Peter Smith, 1970)
Downs, Jim. Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction. (Oxford University Press, 2012)
Duncan, Louis C. The Medical Department of the United States Army in the Civil War. Gaithersburg, Maryland: Olde Soldiers Books, 1987.
Flannery, Michael A. Civil War Pharmacy: A History of Drugs, Drug Supply and Provision, and Therapeutics for the Union and Confederacy. London: Pharmaceutical Press, 2004.
Freemon, Frank R. Gangrene and Glory: Medical Care during the American Civil War. University of Illinois Press, 2001.
Green, Carol C. Chimborazo: The Confederacy's Largest Hospital. University of Tennessee Press, 2004.
Grzyb, Frank L. Rhode Island's Civil War Hospital: Life and Death at Portsmouth Grove, 1862–1865. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2012. .
Hilde, Libra R. Worth a Dozen Men: Women and Nursing in the Civil War South. University of Virginia Press, 2012. .
Humphreys, Margaret. Intensely Human: The Health of the Black Soldier in the American Civil War. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008.
Humphreys, Margaret. Marrow of Tragedy: The Health Crisis of the American Civil War. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2013.
Lande, R. Gregory. Madness, Malingering, and Malfeasance: The Transformation of Psychiatry and the Law in the Civil War Era. Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 2003.
McGaugh, Scott. Surgeon in Blue: Jonathan Letterman, The Civil War Doctor Who Pioneered Battlefield Care. Arcade Publishing, 2013. .
Miller, Brian Craig. Empty Sleeves: Amputation in the Civil War South (University of Georgia Press, 2015). xviii, 257 pp.
Patterson, Gerard A. Debris of Battle: The Wounded of Gettysburg. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1997. .
Robertson, James I (ed). The Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion, seven volumes. Wilmington, North Carolina: Broadfoot Publishing Co, 1990–1992 reprint.
Rutkow, Ira M. Bleeding Blue and Gray: Civil War Surgery and the Evolution of American Medicine. New York: Random House, 2005.
Schmidt, James M. and Guy R. Hasegawa, eds. Years of Change and Suffering: Modern Perspectives on Civil War Medicine. Edinborough Press, 2009.
Schroeder–Lein, Glenna R. The Encyclopedia of Civil War Medicine. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2012.
Schroeder–Lein, Glenna R. Confederate Hospitals on the Move: Samuel H. Stout and the Army of Tennessee. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1994.
Schultz, Jane E. Women at the Front: Hospital Workers in Civil War America. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
Steiner, Paul E. Disease in the Civil War: Natural Biological Warfare in 1861–1865. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1968.
Welsh, Jack D. Medical Histories of Confederate Generals. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1995.
Welsh, Jack D. Medical Histories of Union Generals. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1997.
Primary sources
Barnes, Joseph H. et al., eds. The Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion, 1861–1865, 6 vols. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1870–88.
Child, William. Letters from a Civil War Surgeon: The Letters of Dr. William Child of the Fifth New Hampshire Volunteers. Solon, Maine: Polar Bear and Company, 2001.
Holland, Mary Gardner, ed. Our Army Nurses: Stories from Women in the Civil War (1895) excerpts
Josyph, Peter ed. The Wounded River: The Civil War Letters of John Vance Lauderdale, M.D. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1993.
Quinn, E. Moore. "'I have been trying very hard to be powerful "nice"': the correspondence of Sister M. De Sales (Brennan) during the American Civil War," Irish Studies Review (2010) 18#2 pp 213-233, for letters from a Catholic nun who was in charge of a Confederate hospital
Gemrig's illustrated catalogue of surgical instruments, ca 1868
Robertson Hospital Register, Statistical data on 1,329 patients. VCU Libraries Digital Collections.
Sanger Historical Files (1859–1865), Excerpts, Includes letters, reports, and hospital records of the Medical College of Virginia during the American Civil War. VCU Libraries Digital Collections.
Welsh, Jack D. Two Confederate Hospitals and Their Patients, Atlanta to Opelika (Mercer University Press, 2005) 183 pp. and CDROM; statistical data on 18,000 patients
Constitutional and legal
Edwards, Laura F. A Legal History of the Civil War and Reconstruction: A Nation of Rights (Cambridge University Press, 2015) 212 pp.
Hyman Harold. "A More Perfect Union ": The Impact of the Civil War and Reconstruction on the Constitution. 1973.
McCurry, Stephanie. "Enemy Women and the Laws of War in the American Civil War" Law & History Review (August 2017). pp 667-710 DOI, 10.1017/s0738248017000244.
Neely; Mark E., Jr. The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties (1991).
Neely, Jr., Mark E. Lincoln and the Triumph of the Nation: Constitutional Conflict in the American Civil War. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2011.
Paludan, Phillip S. "The American Civil War Considered as a Crisis in Law and Order," American Historical Review, Vol. 77, No. 4 (Oct., 1972), pp. 1013–1034 in JSTOR
Randall, James G. Constitutional Problems under Lincoln (1926)
Slavery and emancipation
Belz, Herman. Emancipation and Equal Rights: Politics and Constitutionalism in the Civil War Era (1978) online
Biddle, Daniel R., and Murray Dubin. "'God Is Settling the Account': African American Reaction to Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation", Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography (Jan. 2013) 137#1 57–78.
Blight, David W. A Slave No More: Two Men Who Escaped to Freedom: Including Their Own Narratives of Emancipation. Orlando: Harcourt, 2007.
Chambers Jr, Henry L. "Lincoln, the Emancipation Proclamation, and Executive Power." Maryland Law Review 73 (2013): 100+ online
Durden, Robert F. The Gray and the Black: The Confederate Debate on Emancipation. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1972.
Fehrenbacher, Don Edward. The Dred Scott Case: Its Significance in American Law and Politics, New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
Foner, Eric. The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2011.
Guelzo, Allen C. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in American. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004.
Harrold, Stanley. Border War: Fighting Over Slavery Before the Civil War. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2010.
Harold Holzer, Edna Greene Medford, and Frank J. Williams. The Emancipation Proclamation: Three Views (2006)
Huston, James L. Calculating the Value of the Union: Slavery, Property Rights, and the Economic Origins of the Civil War. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2003.
Lightner, David L. Slavery and the Commerce Power: How the Struggle against the Interstate Slave Trade Led to the Civil War. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006.
Masur, Louis P. Lincoln's Hundred Days: The Emancipation Proclamation and the War for the Union (Harvard University Press; 2012)
Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union: vol 6. War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863 (1960)
Mitchell, Charles W. "Maryland Voices of the Civil War" (2007) (Part 3)
Mohr, Clarence L. On the Threshold of Freedom: Masters and Slaves in Civil War Georgia. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1986.
Morrison, Michael. Slavery and the American West: The Eclipse of Manifest Destiny and the Coming of the Civil War (1997)
Oakes, James. The Radical and the Republican: Frederick Douglass, Abraham Lincoln, and the Triumph of Antislavery Politics. New York: W. W. Norton, 2007.
Oakes, James. Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861-1865. New York: W. W. Norton, 2013.
Russo, Peggy A. and Finkelman, Paul, eds. Terrible Swift Sword: The Legacy of John Brown. Ohio University Press, 2005.
Siddali, Silvana R. From Property To Person: Slavery And The Confiscation Acts, 1861–1862 (2005)
Vorenberg, Michael. Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment (2001) online
Vorenberg, Michael, ed. The Emancipation Proclamation: A Brief History with Documents (2010), primary and secondary sources
International affairs
American Civil Wars: A Bibliography. A comprehensive bibliography of the United States Civil War's international entanglements and parallel civil strife in the Americas in the 1860s.
Adams, Ephraim D. Great Britain and the American Civil War (2 vols. 1925).
Bennett, John D. The London Confederates: The Officials, Clergy, Businessmen and Journalists Who Backed the American South During the Civil War. McFarland, 2012. .
Blackett, R. J. M. Divided Hearts: Britain and the American Civil War (2001).
Blumenthal, Henry. "Confederate Diplomacy: Popular Notions and International Realities," Journal of Southern History, Vol. 32, No. 2 (May 1966), pp. 151–171 in JSTOR
Boyko, John. Blood and Daring: How Canada Fought the American Civil War and Forged a Nation. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2013. .
Campbell, Duncan Andrew. English Public Opinion and the American Civil War (2003).
Case, Lynn Marshall. The United States and France: Civil War Diplomacy. (U of Pennsylvania Press, 1970).
Daddysman, James W. The Matamoros Trade: Confederate Commerce, Diplomacy, and Intrigue. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1984.
Doyle, Don H. The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War (2014) Excerpt and text search
Ellison, Mary. Support for Secession: Lancashire and the American Civil War. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1972.
Ferris, Norman B. Desperate Diplomacy: William H. Seward's Foreign Policy, 1861. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press, 1976.
Foreman, Amanda. A World on Fire: Britain's Crucial Role in the American Civil War. New York: Random House, 2011. .
Hubbard, Charles M. The Burden of Confederate Diplomacy. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press, 1998. .
Hyman, Harold Melvin. Heard Round the World; the Impact Abroad of the Civil War. New York: Knopf, 1969.
Jenkins, Brian. Britain & the War for the Union. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1974.
Jones, Howard. Blue & Gray Diplomacy: A History of Union and Confederate Foreign Relations (2010) online
Jones, Howard. Union in Peril: The Crisis over British Intervention in the Civil War. (U of North Carolina Press, 1992).
Jones, Howard. Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1999. .
Mahin, Dean B. One War at a Time: The International Dimensions of the American Civil War. Washington, DC: Brassey's, 2000. . Originally published: Washington, DC: Brassey's, 1999.
May, Robert E., ed. The Union, the Confederacy, and the Atlantic Rim. Revised edition. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2013, . Originally published by Purdue University Press, 1995.
Mayers, Adam. Dixie and the Dominion: Canada, the Confederacy, and the War for the Union. Dundurn Press, 2004. .
Merli, Frank J. The Alabama, British Neutrality, and the American Civil War. Indiana University Press, 2004.
Myers, Phillip E. Caution and Cooperation: The American Civil War in British–American Relations. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2008.
Owsley, Frank Lawrence. King Cotton Diplomacy: Foreign relations of the Confederate States of America, 2nd edition. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1959.
Sainlaude, Stève The Imperial Government and the American Civil War, the diplomatic action. Paris: L'Harmattan, 2011.
Sainlaude, Stève France and the Confederacy (1861–1865). Paris: L'Harmattan, 2011.
Sebrell II, Thomas E. Persuading John Bull: Union and Confederate Propaganda in Britain, 1860–1865. Lexington Books, 2014.
Collected biographies
Bowman, John S. Who Was Who in the Civil War.(Random House, 1994).
Hubbell, John T. Biographical Dictionary of the Union: Northern Leaders of the Civil War. (Greenwood, 1995).
McNeese, Tim. Civil War Leaders (Infobase Publishing, 2009) Popular history.
Ritter, Charles F., and Jon L. Wakelyn, eds., Leaders of the American Civil War: A Biographical and Historiographical Dictionary (1998) short biographies and valuable historiographical summaries.
Sifakis, Stewart. Who was who in the Union: A Comprehensive, Illustrated Biographical Reference to More Than 1,500 of the Principal Union Participants in the Civil War (Facts on File, 1988).
Sifakis, Stewart. Who Was Who in the Civil War: A comprehensive, illustrated biographical reference to more than 2,500 of the principal Union and Confederate participants in the War Between the States (2014), 780pp
Sifakis, Stewart. Who was who in the Confederacy: A Comprehensive, Illustrated Biographical Reference to More Than 1,000 of the Principal Confederacy Participants in the Civil War (Facts on File, 1988).
Spencer, James. Civil War generals: categorical listings and a biographical directory (Greenwood, 1986).
Military leaders
Soldiers and sailors
(no author listed) Official Roster of the Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion, 1861–1866, eight volumes. Cincinnati, Ohio: The Ohio Valley Press, 1888.
(no author listed) The Soldier of Indiana in the War for the Union. Indianapolis, Indiana: Merrill, 1869.
Bennett, Michael J. Union Jacks: Yankee Sailors in the Civil War. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
Booth, Andrew. Records of Louisiana Confederate Soldiers and Louisiana Confederate Commands, three volumes. New Orleans, Louisiana: no publisher listed, 1920.
Broadfoot Publishing Company. The Roster of Confederate Soldiers 1861–1865, sixteen volumes. Wilmington, North Carolina: Broadfoot Publishing Company, 1995–1996.
Broadfoot Publishing Company. The Roster of Union Soldiers 1861–1865, thirty–three volumes. Wilmington, North Carolina: Broadfoot Publishing Company, 1996 to date.
Frank, Joseph Allan and George A. Reaves. Seeing the Elephant: Raw Recruits at the Battle of Shiloh (1989)
Giesberg, Judith Ann. Sex and the Civil War: Soldiers, Pornography, and the Making of American Morality (U of North Carolina Press, 2017).
Glatthaar, Joseph T. The March to the Sea and Beyond: Sherman's Troops in the Savannah and Carolinas Campaigns. New York: New York University Press, 1985. .
Glatthaar, Joseph T. and Aaron Charles Sheehan. The View from the Ground: Experiences of Civil War Soldiers (2006)
Glatthaar, Joseph T. General Lee's Army: From Victory to Collapse. New York: Free Press, 2008. .
Hartman, David W. and David J. Coles, comps. Biographical Rosters of Florida's Confederate and Union Soldiers, 1861–1865, five volumes. Wilmington, North Carolina: Broadfoot Publishing, 1995.
Hess, Earl J. The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 1997. .
Hilderman, Walter C., III. They Went into the Fight Cheering! Confederate Conscription in North Carolina. Boone, North Carolina: Parkway, 2005.
Johnson, Edward C., Gail R. Johnson, and Melissa Johnson William. All Were Not Heroes: A Study of "the List of U.S. Soldiers Executed by U.S. Military Authorities During the Late War". Chicago, Illinois: privately published, 1997.
Loon, Ella. Desertion During the Civil War. Boston, Massachusetts: Century Company, 1928.
Loury, Thomas P. Don't Shoot That Boy!: Abraham Lincoln and Military Justice. Mason City, Iowa: Savas Publishing, 199.
Loury, Thomas P. and Lewis Laska. Confederate Death Sentences: A Reference Guide. Charleston, South Carolilna: Booksarge, 2008.
McPherson, James M. For Cause and Country: Why Men Fought in the Civil War. Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press, 1997. . (pbk.)
Mitchell, Reid. Civil War Soldiers: Their Expectations and Their Experiences. New York: Viking, 1988.
Mitchell, Reid. The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Noe, Kenneth W. Reluctant Rebels: The Confederates Who Joined the Army After 1861. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2010. .
Nosworthy, Brent. The Bloody Crucible of Courage: Fighting Methods and Combat Experience of the Civil War. Carroll & Graf, 2003.
Reid, Richard M. Freedom for Themselves: North Carolina's Black Soldiers in the Civil War Era. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2008.
Still Jr. William N. The Common Sailor: The Civil War's Uncommon Man—Yankee Blue Jackets and Confederate Tars. (1985)
Sutherland, Jonathan. Confederate Troops of the American Civil War. Wiltshire, United Kingdom: The Crowood Press, 2005. .
Thompson, Jerry Don. Mexican–Texans in the Union Army. El Paso, Texas: Western Press, 1986.
Weitz, Mark A. More Damning than Slaughter: Desertion in the Confederate Army. University of Nebraska Press, 2005.
Wiley, Bell Irvin. The Life of Billy Yank: The Common Soldier of the Union. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978. (paper). First published Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1952.
Wiley, Bell Irvin. The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978. (paper). First published Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill, 1943.
Prisoners
Arnold–Scriber, Theresa and Terry G. Scriber. Ship Island, Mississippi: Rosters and History of the Civil War Prison Jefferson, North Carolina: 2012. .
Beitzell, Edwin W. Point Lookout Prison Camp for Confederates. Abell, Maryland: published by author, 1972.
Burnham, Philip. So Far from Dixie: Confederates in Yankee Prisons. New York: Taylor Trade Publishing, 2003.
Butts, Michele Tucker. Galvanized Yankees on the Upper Missouri: The Face of Loyalty (2003).
Casstevens, Frances. George W. Alexander and Castle Thunder: A Confederate Prison and Its Commandant. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2004.
Cloyd, Benjamin G. Haunted by Atrocity: Civil War Prisons in American Memory. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2010.
Denney, Robert E. Civil War Prisons & Escapes: A Day–by–Day Chronicle. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., 1993.
Fetzer, Jr., Dale and Bruce E. Mowdey. Unlikely Allies: Fort Delaware's Prison Community in the Civil War. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 2002. .
Gray, Michael P. The Business of Captivity in the Chemung Valley: Elmira and Its Civil War Prison (2001)
Hesseltine, William B. Civil War Prisons: A Study in War Psychology. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1930. .
Horigan, Michael. Elmira: Death Camp of the North. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 2002. .
Kelley, Daniel G. What I Saw and Suffered in Rebel Prisons. Buffalo, New York: Thomas, Howard and Johnson, 1868.
Lawrence, F. Lee and Robert Glover. Camp Ford, C.S.A.: The Story of Union Prisoners in Texas. Austin, Texas: Texas Civil War Centennial Advisory Committee, 1964.
Levy, George, To Die in Chicago: Confederate Prisoners at Camp Douglas 1862–1865. Gretna, Louisiana: Pelican Publishing Company, revised edition 1999. . First published 1994.
Lisarelli, Daniel Francis. The Last Prison: The Untold Story of Camp Groce CSA. Unpublish.com/books/lisarelli.htm, 1999.
Marvel, William. Andersonville: The Last Depot. University of North Carolina Press, 1994.
McAdams, Benton. Rebels at Rock Island: The Story of a Civil War Prison. De Kalbe, Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 2005.
Parker, Sandra V. Richmond's Civil War Prisons. Lynchburg, Virginia: H.E. Howard, 1990.
Sanders, Charles W., Jr. While in the Hands of the Enemy: Military Prisons of the Civil War. Louisiana State University Press, 2005.
Scharf, Jack E. Lee's Bold Plan for Point Lookout: The Rescue of Confederate Prisoners That Never Happened. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2008.
Speer, Lonnie R. Portals to Hell: Military Prisons of the Civil War. 1997.
Speer, Lonnie. War of Vengeance: Acts of Retaliation Against Civil War POWs. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 2002.
Triebe, Richard H. Fort Fisher to Elmira: The Fateful Journey of 518 Confederate Soldiers. CreateSpace, 2011.
Watson, Ronald G., editor. "Death Does Seem to Have All He Can Attend to": The Civil War Diary of an Anderson Survivor. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland Publishing, 2014. .
Wheelan, Joseph. Libby Prison Breakout: The Daring Escape from the Notorious Civil War Prison. New York: Public Affairs, 2010. .
Violence and death
Carmichael, Peter S. The War for the Common Soldier: How Men Thought, Fought, and Survived in Civil War Armies (2018) excerpt
Faust, Drew Gilpin. This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War (2008) excerpt
Hacker, J. David. "A Census-Based Count of the Civil War Dead" Civil War History 57.4 (2011): 307–348.
Hacker, J. David. "Has the Demographic Impact of Civil War Deaths Been Exaggerated?." Civil War History 60.4 (2014): 453-458 excerpt
Marshall, Nicholas. "The Great Exaggeration: Death and the Civil War" Journal of the Civil War Era 4#1 (2014) pp. 3–27 online
Neff, John R. Honoring the Civil War Dead: Commemoration and the Problem of Reconciliation (UP of Kansas, 2016) online.
Schantz, Mark S. Awaiting the Heavenly Country: The Civil War and America's Culture of Death (Cornell UP, 2008).
Scott, Sean A. "'Earth Has No Sorrow That Heaven Cannot Cure': Northern Civilian Perspectives on Death and Eternity during the Civil War," Journal of Social History (2008). 41#4:843-866 online
Sheehan-Dean, Aaron. The Calculus of Violence: How Americans Fought the Civil War (Harvard UP, 2018). Pp. 465. excerpt also online review
Steplyk, Jonathan M. Fighting Means Killing: Civil War Soldiers and the Nature of Combat (UP of Kansas, 2018) online
Sutherland, Daniel E. Guerrillas, Unionists, and Violence on the Confederate Home Front (U of Arkansas Press, 2009).
Swanson, David A., and Richard Verdugo. "The Civil War’s Demographic Impact on White Males in Mississippi." Journal of the Mississippi Academy of Sciences 62#3 (2017) : 309+ oneline.
Homefront
States, regions, and local
Guerillas
Barton, O.S. Three Years with Quantrill: A True Story by His Scout John McCorkle. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma press, 1992.
Beilein, Joseph M. and Matthew Christopher Hulbert, eds. The Civil War Guerrilla: Unfolding the Black Flag in History, Memory, and Myth. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2015. .
Brant, Marley. The Outlaw Youngers: A Confederate Brotherhood. New York: Madison Books, 1992. .
Breihan, Carl W. Quantrill and his Civil War Guerillas. Denver, Colorado: Sage Books, 1959.
Brownlee, Richard S. Gray Ghosts of the Confederacy: Guerilla Warfare in the West, 1861–1865. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1958.
Castel, Albert. William Clark Quantrill: His Life and Times. New York: Frederick Fell, Inc., Publishers, 1962.
Castel, Albert and Thomas Goodrich. Bloody Bill Anderson: The Short Savage Life of a Civil War Guerilla. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 1998. .
Connelley, William Elsey. Quantrill and the Border Wars. New York: Pageant Book Company, 1956.
Crouch, Richard E. Rough–Riding Scout: The Story of John W. Mobberley, Loudoun's Own Civil War Guerilla Hero. Arlington, Virginia: Edden Editions.
Dyer, Robert L. Jesse James and the Civil War in Missouri. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 1994.
Edwards, John N. Noted Guerillas, or the Warfare of the Border. Being a History of the Lives and Adventures of Quantell, Bill Anderson, George Todd, Dave Poole, Fletcher Taylor, Peyton Long, Oll Shepherd, Arch Clements, John Maupin, Tuck and Woot Hill, Wm. Gregg, Thomas Maupin, the James Brothers, the Younger Brothers, Arthur McCoy, and Numerous Other Well Known Guerillas of the West. St. Louis, Missouri: Bryan, Brand & Company, 1877.
Erwin, James W. Guerilla Hunters in Civil War Missouri. Charleston, South Carolina: The History Press, 2012. .
Fellman, Michael. Inside War: The Guerilla Conflict in Missouri During the American Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. .
Goodrich, Thomas. Black Flag: Guerilla Warfare on the Western Border, 1861–1865. Indianapolis, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1995. .
Hulbert, Matthew Christopher. The Ghosts of Guerrilla Memory: How Civil War Bushwhackers Became Gunslingers in the American West. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2016. .
Jones, Virgil Carrington. Gray Ghosts and Rebel Raiders. Atlanta: Mockingbird Books, 1973. . First published New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1956.
Leslie, Edward E. The Devil Knows How to Ride: The True Story of William Clarke Quantrill and His Confederate Raiders. New York: Random House, 1996. .
Mackey, Robert R. The Uncivil War: Irregular Warfare in the Upper South, 1861–1865. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004.
Mays, Thomas D. Cumberland Blood: Champ Ferguson's Civil War. Carbondale, Southern Illinois University Press, 2008. .
McKnight, Brian D. Confederate Outlaw: Champ Ferguson and the Civil War in Appalachia. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2011. .
McLachlan, Sean. American Civil War Guerilla Tactics. United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing, 2009. .
Mountcastle, Clay. Punitive War: Confederate Guerillas and Union Reprisals. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 2009.
Nichols, Bruce. Guerilla Warfare in Civil War Missouri, 1862. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 2004.
O'Brien, Sean Michael. Mountain Partisans: Guerrilla Warfare in the Southern Appalachians, 1861–1865. Praeger, 1999.
Peterson, Paul R. Quantrill of Missouri: The Making of a Guerilla Warrior. Nashville, Tennessee: Cumberland House, 2003.
Sensing, Thurman. Champ Ferguson: Confederate Guerilla. Vanderbilt University Press, 1942. .
Settle, William A. Jesse James Was His Name; or, Fact and Fiction Concerning the Careers of the Notorious James Brothers of Missouri. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 1966.
Schultz, Duane. Quantrill's War: The Life and Times of William Clarke Quantrill 1837–1865. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996. .
Sheridan, Richard B., ed. Quantrill and the Lawrence Massacre – a Reader. Lawrence, Kansas: no publisher listed, 1997.
Stiles, T.J. Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002.
Sutherland, Daniel E. "Sideshow No Longer: A Historiographical Review of the Guerrilla War." Civil War History 46.1 (2000): 5-23; American Civil War, 1861–65
Sutherland, Daniel E. Guerrillas, Unionists, and Violence on the Confederate Home Front. Fayetteville, Arkansas: University of Arkansas Press, 2009.
Sutherland, Daniel E. A Savage Conflict: The Decisive Role of Guerillas in the American Civil War. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2009.
Ethnic groups
Bailey, Anne J. Invisible Southerners: Ethnicity in the Civil War. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 2006.
Kamphoefner, Walter D. et al. eds. Germans in the Civil War: The Letters They Wrote Home. 2006.
Kaufmann, Wilhelm. The Germans in the American Civil War, With a Biographical Directory. Carlisle, Pa.: John Kallmann Publishers, 1999.
Keller, Christian B. Chancellorsville and the German: Nativism, Ethnicity, and Civil War Memory. New York: Fordham University Press, 2007.
Kohl, Lawrence. The Irish Brigade and Its Campaigns. 1994.
Lause, Mark A. Race and Radicalism in the Union Army. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 2009.
Lonn, Ella, Foreigners in the Confederacy. 1940.
McCarthy, Cal. Green, Blue & Grey: The Irish in the American Civil War. 2010.
Mahin, Dean B. The Blessed Place of Freedom: Europeans in Civil War America. Dulles, Virginia: Brassey's Inc., 2002.
Samito, Christian G. Becoming American Under Fire: Irish Americans, African Americans, and the Politics of Citizenship During the Civil War Era. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2009.
Sarna, Jonathan D. and Adam Mendelshon, eds. Jews and the Civil War: A Reader. New York University Press, 2010.
Thompson, Jerry D. Mexican Texans in the Union Army. El Paso, Texas: Texas Western Press, 1986.
Tucker, Phillip Thomas. Irish Confederates: The Civil War's Forgotten Soldiers. 2007.
Ural, Susannah J., ed. Civil War Citizens: Race, Ethnicity, and Identity in America's Bloodiest Conflict. New York: New York University Press, 2010. .
Vida, Istvan Kornel. Hungarian Émigrés in the American Civil War: A History and Biographical Dictionary. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2011. .
African Americans
Barrow, Charles Kelly, J.H. Segars, and R.B. Rosenburg, editors. Forgotten Confederates: An Anthology about Black Southerners. Murfreesboro, Tennessee: Southern Heritage Press, 1995.
Bergeron, Arthur W. and Richard M. Rollins. Black Southerners in Gray: Essays on Afro-Americans in Confederate Armies. Rank and File Publications, 1994.
Berlin, Ira, Joseph P. Reidy, and Leslie S. Rowland, eds. Freedom's Soldiers: The Black Military Experience in the Civil War. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Blatt, Martin H., Thomas J. Brown, and Donald Yacovone, editors. Hope and Glory: Essays on the Legacy of the 54th Massachusetts Regiment. Amherst, Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001.
Brown, William Wlls. The Negro in the American Rebellion: His Heroism and His Fidelity, edited by John D. Smith. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2003.
Burchard, Peter. One Gallant Rush: Robert Gould Shaw and His Brave Black Regiment. New York: St. Martin's, 1965.
Cimprich, John. Fort Pillow, a Civil War Massacre, and Public Memory. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2005.
Cornish, Dudley Taylor. The Sable Arm: Black Troops in the Union Army, 1861–1865. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1987.
Downs, Jim. Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Durden, Robert Franklin. The Gray and the Black: The Confederate Debate on Emancipation. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2000.
Gannon, Barbarra A. The Won Cause: Black and White Comradeship in the Grand Army of the Republic. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2011. .
Gladstone, William A. United States Colored Troops, 1863–1867. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania: Thomas Publications, 1990.
Glatthaar, Joseph T. Forged in Battle: The Civil War Alliance of Black Soldiers and White Officers. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1990. .
Glatthaar, Joseph T. The Civil War's Black Soldiers. Eastern National Park and Monument Association, 1996.
Hollandsworth, Jr., James G. The Louisiana Native Guards: The Black Military Experience During the Civil War. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1995.
Humphreys, Margaret. Intensely Human: The Health of the Black Soldier in the American Civil War. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008.
Levine, Bruce. Confederate Emancipation: Southern Plans to Free and Arm Slaves during the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. .
Longacre, Edward G. A Regiment of Slaves: The 4th United States Colored Infantry, 1863–1866. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 2003.
Magness, Philip W. and Sebastion N. Page. Colonization After Emancipation: Lincoln and the Movement for Black Resettlement. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 2011.
McPherson, James. The Negro's Civil War: How American Blacks Felt and Acted During the War for the Union. 1965. New York: Ballantine Books, 1991.
Quarles, Benjamin. The Negro in the Civil War. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown, 1953.
Reed, Richard M. Freedom for themselves: North Carolina's Black Soldiers in the Civil War Era. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2008.
Robinson, Armstead L. Bitter Fruits of Bondage: The Demise of Slavery and the Collapse of the Confederacy, 1861–1865. Charlottesville, Virginia: University Press of Virginia, 2005.
Rollins, Richard, editor. Black Southerners in Gray: Essays on Afro-Americans in Confederate Armies. Murfreesboro, Tennessee: Southern Heritage Press, 1994.
Segars, J.H. and Charles Kelly Barrow, compilers. Black Southerners in Confederate Armies: A Collection of Historical Accounts. Atlanta, Georgia: Southern Lion Books, 2001.
Trudeau, Noah Andre. Like Men of War: Black Troops in the Civil War 1862–1865. Edison, NJ: Castle Books, 2002. . Originally published: New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1998.
Ward, Andrew. River Run Red: The Fort Pillow Massacre in the American Civil War. New York: Viking, 2005.
Williams, George Washington. A History of the Negro Troops in the War of the Rebellion, 1861–1865. New York: 1888.
Wilson, Keith, editor. Honor in Command: Lt. Freeman S. Bowley's Civil War Service in the 30th United States Colored Infantry. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 2006.
Primary sources
Adair, Lyle, and Glenn Robins. They Have Left Us Here to Die: The Civil War Prison Diary of Sgt. Lyle Adair, 111th U.S. Colored Infantry. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2011.
American Indians
Abel, Annie Heloise. The American Indian as a Participant in the Civil War. Cleveland, Ohio: Authr Clarke, 1919.
Abel, Annie Heloise. The American Indian as Slaveholder and Secessionist: An Omitted Chapter of the Southern Confederacy. Cleveland, Ohio: A. H. Clark Company, 1919.
Berg, Scott W. 38 Nooses: Lincoln, Little Crow, and the Beginning of the Frontier's End. New York: Pantheon, 2012.
Confer, Clarissa W. The Cherokee Nation in the Civil War. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007.
Crow, Vernon H. Storm in the Mountains: Thomas' Confederate Indians and Mountaineers. Cherokee, North Carolina: Museum of the Cherokee Indians, 1982.
Crowe, Clint. Caught in the Maelstrom: The Indian Nations in the Civil War, 1861-1865. Savas Beatie, 2019. .
Cunningham, Frank. General Stand Watie's: Confederate Indians. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1959.
Danziger, Jr., Edmund J. Indians and Bureaucrats: Administrating the Reservation Policy During the Civil War. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1974.
Franks, Kenny A. Stand Watie and the Agony of the Cherokee Nation. Memphis, Tennessee: Memphis State University Press, 1979.
Hauptman, Laurence M. Between Two Fires: American Indians in the Civil War. New York: The Free Press, 1995. .
Hauptman, Lawrence M. The Iroquois in the Civil War: From Battlefield to Reservation. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1993.
Kelman, Ari. A Misplaced Massacre: Struggling over the memory of Sand Creek. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2013.
Madsen, Brigham D. The Shoshoni Frontier and the Bear River Massacre. Provo, Utah: University of Utah Press, 1985.
McBride, Lela Jean. Opothleyaholo and the Loyal Muskogee: Their Flight to Kansas in the Civil War. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2000. .
Minges, Patrick. Slavery in the Cherokee Nation: The Keetowah Society and the Defining of a People, 1855–1867. Routledge, 2003.
Nichols, David A. Lincoln and the Indians: Civil War Policy and Politics. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 1978.
Oehler, C.M. The Great Sioux Uprising. New York: Oxford University Press, 1959.
Primary sources
Baird, W. David, editor. A Creek Warrior for the Confederacy: The Autobiography of Chief G.W. Greyson. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998.
Edwards, Whit. "The Prairie Was on Fire": Eyewitness Accounts of the Civil War in the Indian Territory. Oklahoma Historical Society, 2001.
Hauptman, Laurence M., ed. A Seneca Indian in the Union Army: The Letters of Sergeant Isaac Newton Parker. Columbia, Maryland: White Mane Publishing Co., 1995.
Moulton, Gary E., ed. The Papers of John Ross, two volumes. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985.
Women
National
Berkin, Carol. Civil War Wives: The Lives and Times of Angelina Grimke Weld, Varina Howell Davis and Julia Dent Grant. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009. .
Clinton, Catherine and Silber, Nina, eds. Battle Scars: Gender and Sexuality in the American Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
Frank, Lisa Tendric, ed. Women in the American Civil War. ABC-CLIO, 2008.
Giesberg, Judith, and Randall M. Miller, eds. Women and the American Civil War: North-South Counterpoints (2018) online review
Harper, Judith E. Women during the Civil War: An Encyclopedia. Routledge, 2004.
Holstein, Anna Morris. Three Years In Field Hospitals Of The Army Of The Potomac, J.B. Lippincott & Company, 1867
McDevitt, Theresa. Women and the American Civil War: An Annotated Bibliography. Praeger, 2003.
Massey, Mary Elizabeth. Bonnet Brigades: American Women and the Civil War. 1966.
Mitchell, Reid. The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Murphy, Kim. I Had Rather Die: Rape in the Civil War. Virginia: Coachlight Press, LLC, 2014.
Schultz, Jane E. Women at the Front: Hospital Workers in Civil War America. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
Young, Elizabeth. Disarming the Nation: Women's Writing and the American Civil War. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999.
North
Anderson, J. L. "The Vacant Chair on the Farm: Soldier Husbands, Farm Wives, and the Iowa Home Front, 1861–1865," Annals of Iowa (2007) 66: 241-265
Attie, Jeanie. "Patriotic Toil: Northern Women and the American Civil War." Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998.
Bahde, Thomas. "'I never wood git tired of wrighting to you.'" Journal of Illinois History, 2009. 12:129-55
Fleischner, Jennifer. Mrs. Lincoln and Mrs. Keckly: The Remarkable Story of the Friendship Between a First Lady and a Former Slave. New York: Broadway Books, 2003.
Gallman, Matthew J. Mastering Wartime: A Social History of Philadelphia During the Civil War. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Gallman, Matthew J, America's Joan of Arc: The Life of Anna Elizabeth Dickinson. Oxford University Press, 2006.
Giesberg, Judith. Army at Home: Women and the Civil War on the Northern Home Front. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2009.
Hall, Richard. Patriots in Disguise. New York: Paragon House, 1993.
Marten, James. Children for the Union: The War Spirit on the Northern Home Front. Ivan R. Dee, 2004.
Scott, Sean A. "'Earth Has No Sorrow That Heaven Cannot Cure': Northern Civilian Perspectives on Death and Eternity during the Civil War," Journal of Social History, 2008. 41:843-866
Silber, Nina. Daughters of the Union: Northern Women Fight the Civil War. Harvard University Press, 2005.
Smith, Michael T. "The Beast Unleashed: Benjamin F. Butler and Conceptions of Masculinity in the Civil War North." New England Quarterly 2006 79(2): 248–276.
Venet, Wendy Hamand. A Strong-Minded Woman: The Life of Mary Livermore. University of Massachusetts Press, 2005.
Black South
Frankel, Noralee. Freedom's Women: Black Women and Families in Civil War Era Mississippi. 1999.
Schwalm, Leslie A. (1997). "'Sweet Dreams of Freedom': Freedwomen's Reconstruction of Life nd Labor in Lowcountry South Carolina," Journal of Women's History 9: 9-38
Wiley, Bell I. Confederate Women. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood, 1975.
White South
no author listed. Confederate Women of Arkansas in the Civil War, 1861–'65. Little Rock, Arkansas: State Committee on Memorial to Women of the Confederacy, 1907.
Anderson, Lucy London. North Carolina Women of the Confederacy. Fayettesville, North Carolina: published by author, 1926.
Andrews, Eliza Frances. The War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl: 1864–1865. New York: Appleton, 1908.
Andrews, Matthew Page, compiler. Women of the Southern War Times. Baltimore, Maryland: Norman Remington, 1927.
Berry, Stephen W., II. All that Makes a Man: Love and Ambition in the Civil War South. Oxford University Press, 2003.
Brock, Darla. "'Our Hands Are At Your Service': The Story of Confederate Women in Memphis." West Tennessee Historical Society Papers (1991) 45: 19-34
Drago, Edmund L. Confederate Phoenix: Rebel Children and Their Families in South Carolina. Fordham University Press, 2008. .
Faust, Drew. Mothers of Invention: Women of the Slaveholding South in the American Civil War. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1996.
Frank, Lisa T. The Civilian War: Confederate Women and Union Soldiers During Sherman's March. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2015. .
Gardner, Sarah E. Blood and Irony: Southern White Women's Narratives of the Civil War, 1861–1937. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
Genovese, Eugene D. A Consuming Fire: The Fall of the Confederacy in the Mind of the White Christian South Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009.
Hilde, Libra R. Worth a Dozen Men: Women and Nursing in the Civil War South. Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia Press, 2012. .
Jabour, Anya. Scarlett's Sisters: Young Women in the Old South. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2009.
Ott, Victoria E. Confederate Daughters: Coming of Age during the Civil War. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 2008. .
Rable. George. Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1989.
Revels, Tracy J. Grander in Her Daughters: Florida's Women during the Civil War. University of South Carolina Press, 2004.
Roberts, Giselle. The Confederate Belle. University of Missouri Press, 2003.
Strasser, William A. (1999). "'A Terrible Calamity Has Befallen Us': Unionist Women in Civil War East Tennessee". Journal of East Tennessee History. 71: 66-88
Whites, LeeAnn. The Civil War as a Crisis in Gender: Augusta, Georgia, 1860–1890 Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1995.
Whites, LeeAnn and Alecia P. Long, editors. Occupied Women: Gender, Military Occupation, and the American Civil War. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2010. .
Wiley, Bell Irvin. Confederate Women, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1975.
Primary sources
Baird, Nancy Disher, ed. Josie Underwood's Civil War Diary. University Press of Kentucky, 2009.
Berlin, Jean V., ed. A Confederate Nurse: The Diary of Ada W. Bacot, 1860–1863. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1994.
Dawson, Sarah Morgan. A Confederate Girl's Diary. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1960.
Fain, John N. Sanctified Trial: The Diary of Eliza Rhea Anderson Fain, a Confederate Woman in East Tennessee. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press, 2002.
Heller III, J. Roderick, and Carolynn Ayres Heller, eds. The Confederacy in on Her Way up the Spout: Letters to South Carolina, 1861–1864. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1992.
McGuire, Judith Breckinbrough. Diary of a Southern Refugee During the War: Annotated Edition. Edited by James I. Robertson. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2014. .
Robertson, Mary D., ed. Lucy Breckinridge of Grove Hall: The Journal of a Virginia Girl, 1862–1864. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1994.
Rohr, Nancy M., ed. Incidents of War: The Civil War Journal of Mary Jane Chadick. Boaz, Alabama: SilverThreads Publishing, 2005.
Woodward, C. Vann, Ed., Mary Chesnut's Civil War, Yale University Press, 1981,
Ideology, rhetoric, religion
(no author listed) Report of the Committee on the Destruction of Churches in the Diocese of South Carolina During the Late War: Presented to the Protestant Episcopal Convention, May 1868. Charleston, South Carolina: J. Walker, Printer, 1868.
Bennett, William. A Narrative of the Great Revival which Prevailed in the Southern Armies. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Claxton, Remsen, and Haffelfinger, 1877.
Brinsfield, John W.; Davis, William C.; Maryniak, Benedict; and Robertson, James I., eds. Faith in the Fight: Civil War Chaplains. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 2003.
Dorn, T. Felder. Challenges on the Emmaus Road: Episcopal Bishops Confront Slavery, Civil War and Emancipation. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 2013. .
Durkin, Joseph T. Confederate Chaplin: A War Journal of Rev. James B. Sheeran, C.SS.R. Fourteenth Louisiana, CSA. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Bruce Publishing Company, 1960.
Faust, Drew Gilpin. The Creation of Confederate Nationalism: Ideology and Identity in the Civil War South. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1988.
Foner, Eric. Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1970. .
Frederickson, George M. The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union. New York: Harper & Row, 1965.
Gallman, J. Matthew. Defining Duty in the Civil War. The University of North Carolina Press, 2015.
Gourley, Bruce T. Diverging Loyalties: Baptists in Middle Georgia During the Civil War. Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press, 2011.
Guelzo, Allen C. Abraham Lincoln as a Man of Ideas. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 2009.
Hutchison, Coleman. Apples and Ashes: Literature, Nationalism and the Confederate States of America Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012.
Korn, Bertram. American Jewry and the American Civil War. New York: Athenaeum, 1970.
Lehman, James O. and Steven M. Nolt. Mennonites, Amish, and the American Civil War. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University, 2007.
McPherson, James. What They Fought For, 1861–1865. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1994.
Miller, Randall M., Harry S. Stout, and Charles Reagan Wilson, eds. Religion and the American Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. .
Neff, John R. Honoring the Civil War Dead: Commemoration and the Problem of Reconciliation. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 2005.
Nelson, Jacquelyn Sue. Indiana Quakers confront the Civil War. Indiana Historical Society, 1991.
Noll, Mark A. The Civil War as a Theological Crisis. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2006.
Rolfs, David. No Peace for the Wicked: Northern Protestant Soldiers in the American Civil War. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press, 2009. .
Sarna, Jonathan D. When Grant Expelled the Jews. New York: Schocken Books, 2012.
Scott, Sean A. A Visitation of God: Northern Civilians Interpret the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. .
Silver, James W. Confederate Morality and Church Propaganda. New York: W.W. Norton, 1967.
Stout, Harry S. Upon the Altar of the Nation: A Moral History of the Civil War. 2006.
Wells, Cheryl A. Civil War Time: Temporality and Identity in America, 1861–1865. University of Georgia Press, 2005.
Wills, Garry. Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America. New York: Literary Research, Inc., 1992.
Wilson, Douglas L. Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln (1999).
Wilson, Edmund. Patriotic Gore: Studies in the Literature of the American Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press 1962; reprinted: Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1984. .
Veterans
(no author listed) Report of Seventh Annual Reunion of the 64th N.Y. Regimental Association at Salamanca, New York, August 21 and 22, 1895. New York: Randolph Publishing, 1894.
(no author listed) Reunions of the Nineteenth Main Regiment Association. Augusta, Maine: Press of Sprague, Owen and Nash, 1878.
Carroon, Robert G. and Dana B. Shoaf. Union Blue: The History of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane Books, 2001.
Dearing, Mary R. Veterans in Politics: The Story of the G.A.R. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1952.
Frazier, John W. Reunions of the Blue and Gray. Philadelphia Brigade and Pickett's Division, July 2, 3, 4, 1887 and Sept. 15, 16, 17, 1906. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Ware Brothers, 1906.
Gannon, Barbara A. The Won Cause: Black and White Comradeship in the Grand Army of the Republic. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2011. .
Heuvel, Sean M. Images of America: Remembering Virginia's Confederates. Arcadia Publishing, 2010. .
Hunt, Robert. The Good Men Who Won the War: Army of the Cumberland Veterans and Emancipation Memory. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 2010.
O'Mara, Daniel A. Proceedings of the Associated Survivors of the Fifty-Ninth Reg't, N.Y. Vet. Vols. First Annual Re-Union and Dedication of Monument at Gettysburg, Pa., July 3d, 1889. New York: Wm. Finley, Printer, 1889.
Shaffer, Donald R. After the Glory: The Struggles of Black Civil War Veterans. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2004.
Work, J.B., ed. Re–Union of Col. Dan McCook's Third Brigade, Second Division, Fourteenth A.C., "Army of the Cumberland": Assault of Col. Dan McCook's Brigade on Kenesaw Mountain, Ga., June 27, 1864/August 27th and 29th, 1900. Chicago, Illinois: Allied, 1901.
Historiography
Bailey, Anne J., and Daniel E. Sutherland. "The history and historians of Civil War Arkansas." Arkansas Historical Quarterly 58.3 (1999): 232–63. in JSTOR, historiography.
Aimone, Alan C. and Barbara A. A User's Guide to the Official Records of the American Civil War. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane Publishing Company, Inc., 1993. .
Aaron, Daniel. The Unwritten War: American Writers and the Civil War. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973.
Binnington, Ian. Confederate Visions: Nationalism, Symbolism, and the Imagined South in the Civil War. Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia Press, 2013. .
Blight, David W. Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2001.
Boritt, Gabor S., ed. The Historian's Lincoln. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1988.
Bresnahan, Jim, ed. Revisioning the Civil War: Historians on Counter-Factual Scenarios. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2006. .
Brown, Thomas J., ed. Remixing the Civil War: Meditations on the Sesquicentennial. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011. .
Catton, Bruce. Reflections on the Civil War. Edited by John Leekley. Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1981. .
Cook, Robert J. Troubled Commemoration: The Civil War Centennial, 1961–1965. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2007. .
Coske, John M. The Confederate Battle Flag: America's Most Embattled Emblem. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2005.
Connelly, Thomas L., The Marble Man. Robert E. Lee and His Image in American Society. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977.
Cox, Karen L. Dixie's Daughters: The United Daughters of the Confederacy and the Preservation of Confederate Culture. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 2003.
; covers Lincoln, Walt Whitman, Sherman, Ambrose Bierce, and Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain.
Donald, David ed. Why the North Won the Civil War. 1977. .
Foner, Eric et al. "Talking Civil War History: A Conversation with Eric Foner and James McPherson," Australasian Journal of American Studies (2011) 30#2 pp. 1–32 in JSTOR
Foner, Eric. "The Causes of the American Civil War: Recent Interpretations and New Directions." In Beyond the Civil War Synthesis: Political Essays of the Civil War Era, edited by Robert P. Swieringa. 1975.
Fuller, Randell. From Battlefields Rising: How the Civil War Transformed American Literature. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. .
Gallagher, Gary W. The Civil War at Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press and the Great American Conflict. Wilmington, North Carolina: Broadfoot, 1989.
Gallagher, Gary W. Lee & His Army in Confederate History. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. .
Gallagher, Gary W. Lee and His Generals in War and Memory. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1998. .
Gallagher, Gary W. and Alan T. Nolan, editors. The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War History. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2000.
Goldfield, David. Still Fighting the Civil War: The American South and Southern History. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2002.
Hartwig, D. Scott. The Battle of Antietam and the Maryland Campaign of 1862: A Bibliography. Westport, Connecticut: Meckler, 1990.
Hattaway, Herman. Reflections of a Civil War Historian: Essays on Leadership, Society, and the Art of War. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 2004.
Janney, Caroline E. Burying the Dead but Not the Past: Ladies' Memorial Associations and the Lost Cause. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2008.
Lawson, Melinda. Patriot Fires: Forging a New American Nationalism in the Civil War North. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 2002.
Mackowski, Chris and Kristopher D. White. The Story Behind the Personal Memoirs of Ulysses S. Grant. Savas Beatie, LLC, 2013. .
Marshall, Anne E. Creating Confederate Kentucky: The Lost Cause and Civil War Memory in a Border State. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2010. .
Martinez, J. Michael, William D. Richardson, and Ron Me Ninch-Su, editors. Confederate Symbols in the Contemporary South. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 2000.
McMurry, Richard M. The Fourth Battle of Winchester: Towards a New Civil War Paradigm. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2002.
Neely, Jr., Mark E. The Civil War and the Limits of Destruction. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2007.
Onuf, Nicholas and Peter Onuf. Nations, Muskets, and War: Modern History and the American Civil War. Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia Press, 2006.
Osterweis, Rollin G. The Myth of the Lost Cause, 1865–1900. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon, 1973.
Panabaker, James. Shelby Foote and the Art of History: Two Gates to the City. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press, 2004.
Pressly, Thomas. Americans Interpret Their Civil War. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1966.
Prince, L. Michael. Rally 'Round the Flag, Boys!: South Carolina and the Confederate Flag. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 2004.
Ritter, Charles F., and Jon L. Wakelyn, eds., Leaders of the American Civil War: A Biographical and Historiographical Dictionary (1998) short biographies and valuable historiographical summaries.
Ross, Charles. Civil War Acoustic Shadow. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane Books, 2001.
Rubin, Anne Sarah. Through the Heart of Dixie: Sherman's March and American Memory (U of North Carolina Press, 2014). .
Smith, John David. "Whither Kentucky Civil War and Reconstruction Scholarship?." Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 112.2 (2014): 223-247. online
Tulloch, Hugh. The Debate on the American Civil War Era. 1999.
Varney, Frank P. General Grant and the Rewriting of History: How the Destruction of General William S. Rosecrans Influenced Our Understanding of the Civil War. Savas Beatie, LLC, 2013. .
Warren, Craig. Scars to Prove It: The Civil War Soldiers and American Fiction. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2009. .
Watchell, Cynthia. War No More: The Antiwar Impulse on American Literature, 1861–1914. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2010. .
, the standard summary of the historiography.
Surveys and reference books
American Annual Cyclopaedia for 1861 (N.Y.: Appleton's, 1864), an extensive collection of reports on each state, Congress, and military activities, and many other topics; annual issues from 1861 to 1901
Appletons' annual cyclopedia and register of important events: Embracing political, military, and ecclesiastical affairs; public documents; biography, statistics, commerce, finance, literature, science, agriculture, and mechanical industry, Volume 3 1863 (1864), thorough coverage of the events of 1863
Axelrod, Alan. The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Civil War. Indianapolis, Indiana: Alpha Books, 2004.
Barney, William L. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. .
Beringer, Richard E., Archer Jones, and Herman Hattaway, Why the South Lost the Civil War 1986; also, The Elements of Confederate Defeat: Nationalism, War Aims, and Religion (1988), abridged version.
Blair, Jayne E. The Essential Civil War: A Handbook to the Battles, Armies, Navies, and Commanders. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., 2006.
Bordewich, Fergus M. Congress at War: How Republican Reformers Fought the Civil War, Defied Lincoln, Ended Slavery, and Remade America. New York, NY: Knopf, 2020.
Bouton, Edward. Events of the Civil War. Miami, FL: Hardpress Publishing, 2012.
Campaigns of the Civil War, New York: Scribner, in 15 volumes:
John G. Nicolay (1881), The Outbreak of Rebellion, reprint, New York: Da Capo, 1995.
Manning Force (1881), From Fort Henry to Corinth.
Alexander S. Webb (1881), The Peninsular: McClellan's Campaign of 1862.
John Codman Ropes (1881), The Army under Pope.
James Russell Soley (1883), The Blockade and the Cruisers.
Francis Winthrop Palfrey (1885), The Antietam and Fredericksburg, reprint, New York: Da Capo, 1996.
Abner Doubleday (1882), Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, reprints, New York: Da Capo, 1994, and Saint Petersburg, FL: Red and Black, 2009.
Henry M. Cist (1882), The Army of the Cumberland.
Francis Vinton Greene (1882), The Mississippi.
Daniel Ammen (1883), The Atlantic Coast.
Jacob Dolson Cox (1882), Atlanta, reprint, retitled as Sherman's Battle for Atlanta, New York: Da Capo, 1994.
Jacob Dolson Cox, (1882), The March to the Sea, Franklin and Nashville, reprint, retitled as Sherman's March to the Sea, Hood's Tennessee Campaign and the Carolina Campaigns of 1865, New York: Da Capo, 1994.
George Edward Pond (1882), The Shenandoah Valley in 1864.
Andrew A. Humphreys (1883), The Virginia Campaign of '64 and '65: The Army of the Potomac and the Army of the James, reprint, New York: Da Capo, 1995.
Alfred Thayer Mahan (1883), The Gulf and Inland Waters.
Catton, Bruce. The Picture History of the Civil War. New York: American Heritage, 1960. .
Catton, Bruce. The Centennial History of the Civil War. 3 volumes. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1961–1965. .
Catton, Bruce. The Centennial History of the Civil War. Vol. 1, The Coming Fury. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1961. .
Catton, Bruce. The Centennial History of the Civil War. Vol. 2, Terrible Swift Sword. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1963. .
Catton, Bruce. The Centennial History of the Civil War. Vol. 3, Never Call Retreat. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965. .
Catton, Bruce. This Hallowed Ground: The Story of the Union Side of the Civil War 1956.
Cooper, Charles R. Chronological and Alphabetical Record of the Engagements of the Great Civil War. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: The Caston Press, 1904.
Cooper, Jr., William J. and John M. McCardell, Jr. In the Cause of Liberty: How the Civil War Redefined American Ideals. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2009.
Copley, Richard L. The Civil War: A History in 3-D. Copleys Graphics LLC, 2009.
Cozzens, Peter, ed. Battles & Leaders of the Civil War, volume 5. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002. .
Cozzens, Peter, ed. Battles & Leaders of the Civil War, volume 6. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004. .
Davis, William C. The Battlefields of the Civil War. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000. .
Davis, William C. The Imperiled Union, 1861–1865, three volumes, 1983.
Doyle, Don H. The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War. New York: Basic Books, 2015. .
Draper, John William. History of the American Civil War, three volumes. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1870.
Eaton, Clement. History of the Southern Confederacy. New York: The MacMillan Company, 1954.
Volume I - Secession and Civil History of the Confederate States
Volume II - Maryland and West Virginia
Volume III - Virginia by Jedediah Hotchkiss
Volume IV - North Carolina by D. H. Hill, Jr.
Volume V - South Carolina by Ellison Capers
Volume VI - Georgia
Volume VII - Alabama and Mississippi
Volume VIII - Tennessee
Volume IX - Kentucky and Missouri
Volume X - Louisiana and Arkansas
Volume XI - Texas and Florida
Volume XII - Military and Post War History
Denney, Robert E. The Civil War Years: A Day-by-Day Chronicle. New York: Gramercy Books, 1992. .
Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .
Faust, Patricia L. (ed.) Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War 1986. .
Fishel, Edwin C. The Secret War for the Union: The Untold Story of Military Intelligence in the Civil War. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin, 1996.
Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. 3 vols. New York: Random House, 1974. .
Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 1, Fort Sumter to Perryville. New York: Random House, 1958. .
Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 2, Fredericksburg to Meridian. New York: Random House, 1958. .
Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 3, Red River to Appomattox. New York: Random House, 1974. .
Ford, Lacy K., ed. A Companion to the Civil War and Reconstruction. Blackwell, 2005.
Gallagher, Gary. The Confederate War. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1998.
Gallagher, Gary W. The Union War. New York: Harvard University Press, 2011. .
Gallagher, Gary W., Stephen Engle, Robert Krick, and Joseph Glatthaar. The American Civil War: This Mighty Scourge of War. United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing, 2003.
Gibboney, Douglas Lee: Tragic Glory: A Concise, Illustrated History of the Civil War. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Sergeant Kirkland's, 1997. .
Goldfield, David. America Aflame: How the Civil War Created a Nation. Bloomsbury Press, 2011.
Goodheart, Adam. 1861: The Civil War Awakening. New York: Vintage Books, 2011. .
Guelzo, Allen C. Fateful Lightning: A New History of the Civil War & Reconstruction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. .
Hannings, Bud. Every Day of the Civil War: A Chronological Encyclopedia. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2010.
Hattaway, Herman, and Archer Jones. How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1983. .
Hattaway, Herman. Shades of Blue and Gray: An Introductory Military History of the Civil War. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 1997.
Heidler, David S., and Jeanne T. Seidler, editors. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social and Military History. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2002.
Holzer, Harold, and Sara Vaughn Gabbard. 1865: America Makes War and Peace in Lincoln's Final Year (Southern Illinois University Press, 2015). viii, 199 pp.
Hughes, Mark. The New Civil War Handbook: Facts and Photos for Readers of All Ages. Savas Beatie, LLC, 2009. .
Hummel, Jeffrey Rogers. Emancipating Slaves, Enslaving Free Men: A History of the American Civil War. Chicago, Illinois: Open Court, 1996.
Johnson, Robert Underwood and Clarence C. Buel, eds. Battles and Leaders of the Civil War. 4 volumes. New York: Century Co., 1884–1888. . Later edition: New York: Castle Books, 1956.
From Sumter to Shiloh.
North to Antietam.
Retreat from Gettysburg.
The Way to Appomattox.
Jones, Robert H. Disrupted Decades: The Civil War and Reconstruction Years. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973.
Kagan, Neil, and Stephen G. Hyslop. National Geographic Atlas of the Civil War: A Comprehensive Guide to the Tactics and Terrain of Battle. Washington D.C.: National Geographic, 2008. .
Keegan, John. The Civil War: A Military History, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010.
Kennedy, Frances H. (editor) The Civil War Battlefield Guide, 2nd edition. New York: The Conservation Fund, 1998. .
Long, E. B. The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac 1861–1865. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1971.
Lowry, Don. Dark and Cruel War: The Decisive Months of the Civil War, September–December 1864. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1993.
Lowry, Thomas P. A Thousand Stories You Didn't Know About the Civil War. No place of publication: published by the author, 2014.
Marten, James and A. Kristen Foster. More Than a Contest Between Armies: Essays on the Civil War Era. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2008.
Masur, Louis P. The Civil War: A Concise History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
McPherson James M. The Atlas of the Civil War. Philadelphia: Running Press Book Publishers, 2005. .
McPherson James M. Fields of Fury: The American Civil War. New York: Bryon Press Visual Publications, Inc., 2002.
McPherson James M. Ordeal by Fire: the Civil War and Reconstruction. (1992), uses modernization interpretation; the text is different from his Battle Cry book
Mitchell, Joseph B. Military Leaders in the Civil War. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1972.
Mosocco, Ronald A. The Chronological Tracking of the American Civil War per the Official Records of the War of the Rebellion. Williamsburg, Va: James River Publications, 1994.
Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union, an 8-volume set (1947–1971).
Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852
A House Dividing, 1852–1857
Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859
Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861
The Improvised War, 1861–1862
War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863
The Organized War, 1863–1864
The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865
Miller, Francis T., ed. The Photographic History of the Civil War, ten volumes. New York: Review of Reviews, 1912.
Olson, Christopher J. The American Civil War: A Hands-On History. New York: Hill & Wang, 2006.
Pollard, Edwin. The First Year of the War. Richmond, Virginia: West and Johnston, 1862.
Rhodes, James Ford. History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 (1920 and numerous editions) five volumes.
Rhodes, James Ford. A History of the Civil War, 1861–1865 (Pulitzer Prize winner).
Shotwell, Walter. The Civil War in America. New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1923.
Stoddard, Brooke C., and Daniel P. Murphy. The Everything Civil War Book. New York: Everything Books, 2009.
Swinton, William. The Twelve Decisive Battles of the Civil War. New York: Dick and Fitzgerald, 1867.
Symonds, Craig L. A Battlefield Atlas of the Civil War. Annapolis, Maryland: The Nautical and Aviation Publishing Company of America, 1983. .
Thomas, Emory M. The American War and Peace, 1860–1877. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice–Hall, Inc., 1973.
Trudeau, Noah Andre. Out of the Storm: The End of the Storm, April–June 1865. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown and Company, 1994. .
Varon, Elizabeth. Disunion: The Coming of the American Civil War 1789–1859. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2009.
Wagner, Margaret E. Gary W. Gallagher, and Paul Finkelman, eds. The Library of Congress Civil War Desk Reference. 2002.
Weigley, Russell F. A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2000.
Wink, Jay. April 1865: The Month That Saved America. New York: HarperCollins, 2006. . First published 2001.
Woodworth, Steven E., and Kenneth J. Winkle. Oxford Atlas of the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. .
Wooster, Robert. The Civil War Bookshelf: 50 Must-Read Books About the War Between the States. New York: Citadel Press, Kensington Publishing Corp., 2001. .
Wright, John D., editor. Oxford Dictionary of Civil War Quotations. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
Wright, Mike. What They Didn't Teach You About the Civil War. Novato, California: Presidio Press, 1997.
Maps, photographs, environment
Adelman, Gary E. and John J. Richter, editors. Ninety-Nine Historic Images of Civil War Washington. Washington, D.C.: The Center for Civil War Photography and the Civil War Preservation Trust, 2006.
Brady, Lisa M. "The Wilderness of War: Nature and Strategy in the American Civil War," Environmental History 10, no. 3 (July 2005): 421-447
Brady, Lisa M. War upon the Land: Military Strategy and the Transformation of Southern Landscapes during the American Civil War (Environmental History and the American South) (2012) excerpt and text search
Browning, Judkin and Timothy Silver. An Environmental History of the Civil War (2020) online review
Davis, William C., Bell I. Wiley and The National Historical Society. The Image of War, 1861–1865,6 volumes. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1981–1984. .
Volume I: Shadows of the storm.. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1981. .
Volume II: The Guns of '62. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1982. .
Volume III: The Embattled Confederacy. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1982. .
Volume IV: Fighting for Time. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1983. .
Volume V: The South Besieged. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1983. .
Volume VI: The End of an Era. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1984. .
Davis, William C., William A. Frassanito and The National Historical Society. Touched by Fire: A Photographic Portrait of the Civil War. 2 volumes. Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1985–1986.
Davis, William C. and William A. Frassanito. Touched by Fire: A Photographic Portrait of the Civil War. Volume One. Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1985. .
Davis, William C. and William A. Frassanito. Touched by Fire: A Photographic Portrait of the Civil War. Volume Two. Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1986. .
Drake, Brian Allen, ed. The Blue, the Gray, and the Green: Toward an Environmental History of the Civil War (University of Georgia Press; 2015) 250 pages; Scholarly essays examining climate, disease & landscape issues.
Esposito, Vincent J. West Point Atlas of American Wars. Frederick A. Praeger, 1959.
Gallman, James Matthew, Gary W. Gallagher. Lens of War: Exploring Iconic Photographs of the Civil War. University of Georgia Press; 2015.
Gottfried, Bradley M. The Maps of First Bull Run: An Atlas of the First Bull Run (Manassas) Campaign, including the Battle of Ball's Bluff, June–October 1861. New York: Savas Beatie, 2009. .
Gottfried, Bradley M. The Maps of Gettysburg: An Atlas of the Gettysburg Campaign, June 3–13, 1863. New York: Savas Beatie, 2007. .
Guernsey, Alfred H. and Henry M. Alden, editors. Harper's Pictorial History of the Great Rebellion, two volumes. Chicago, Illinois: McDonnell Brothers, 1868.
Imhof, John D. Gettysburg: Day Two – A Study In Maps. Baltimore, Maryland: Butternut & Blue, 1999. .
Krick, Robert K. Civil War Weather in Virginia. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 2007.
O'Shea, Richard. American Heritage Battle Maps of the Civil War. Tulsa, Oklahoma: Council Oak Books, 1992. .
Swanson, Mark. Atlas of the Civil War: Month By Month. U. of Georgia Press, 2004. 141 pp.
Symonds, Craig L. A Battlefield Atlas of the Civil War. Annapolis, Maryland: The Nautical and Aviation Publishing Company of America, 1983. .
Ward, Geoffrey C. The Civil War (1990), based on PBS series by Ken Burns; visual emphasis
Woodhead, Henry, ed. Echoes of Glory: Illustrated Atlas of the Civil War. Alexandria, Virginia: Time–Life Books, 1991. .
Bibliographies
Barbuto, Domenica M. and Martha Kreisel. Guide to Civil War Books: An Annotated Selection of Modern Works on the War Between the States. Chicago, Illinois: American Library Association, 1996.
Broadfoot, Thomas. Civil War Books: A Priced Checklist, 5th edition. Wilmington, North Carolina: Broadfoot Publishing Co., 2000.
Cole, Harold L. Civil War Eyewitnesses: An Annotated Bibliography of Books and Articles, 1955–1986. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1988.
Dornbusch, Charles E. Military Bibliography of the Civil War, three volumes. New York: New York Public Library, 1971–87; fourth volume, Dayton, Ohio: Press of Morningside, 1994.
Dozier, Graham T., comp. Virginia's Civil War: A Guide to Manuscript Collections at the Virginia Historical Society. Richmond, Virginia: Virginia Historical Society, 1998.
Eicher, Jr., David. The Civil War in Books: An Analytical Bibliography. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1997.
Freeman, Frank R. Microbes and Minie Balls: An Annotated Bibliography of Civil War Medicine. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Fairleigh–Dickinson University Press, 1995.
Harwell, Richard. The Confederate Hundred: A Bibliographic Selection of Confederate Books. Urbana, Illinois: Beta Phi Mu, 1964.
Kelsey, Marie Ellen, compiler. Ulysses S. Grant: A Bibliography. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2005.
Meredith, Lee W. Guide to Civil War Periodicals, two volumes. Twentynine Palms, California: Historical Indexes, 1991 and 1996.
Murdock, Eugene C. The Civil War in the North: A Selective Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland Publishing, 1987.
Nagle, Robert. Further Readings on Civil War Fiction. An online annotated bibliography of fiction and literary essays about the Civil War, from the 19th century to the present. First published as an appendix in the ebook Soldier Boys: Tales of the Civil War by author Jack Matthews, 2016.
Ryan, Daniel J. The Civil War Literature of Ohio. Cleveland, Ohio: Burrows Brothers Company, 1911.
Sauers, Richard A. The Gettysburg Campaign, June 3 – August 1, 1863: A Comprehensive, Selectively Annotated Bibliography. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1982.
Seagrave, Ronald R. Civil War Books – Confederate and Union: A Bibliography and Price Guide. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Sergeant Kirkland's Museum and Historical Society, 1995.
Smith, David R. The Monitor and the Merimac: A Bibliography. Los Angeles, California: 1968.
Smith, Jr., Myron J. American Civil War Navies: A Bibliography. Metuchen, New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1972.
United States War Department. Bibliography of State Participation in the Civil War. Washington, D.C.: 1913.
Westcote, Walter. Books on the American Civil War Era: A Critical Bibliography. El Dorado Hills, California: Savas Beatie Publishing. 2017.
Woodworth, Steven E., ed. The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1996.
Wright, John H. Compendium of the Confederacy: An Annotated Bibliography, two volumes. Broadfoot Publishing Company, 1989.
Newspapers in the Civil War
The Most Fearful Ordeal: Original Coverage of the Civil War by Writers and Reporters of the New York Times. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2004.
Andrews, J. Cutler. The North Reports the Civil War. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1955.
Andrews, J. Cutler. The South Reports the Civil War. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1970.
Cortissoz, Royal. The Life of Whitelaw Reid, two volumes. New York: Scribners, 1921.
Harris, Brayton. War News Blue and Gray in Black and White: Newspapers in the Civil War.
Holzer, Harold. Lincoln and the Power of the Press: The War for Public Opinion. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014.
Holzer, Harold, and Craig L. Symonds, editors. The New York Times Complete Civil War 1861–1865. New York: Black Dog and Leventhal Publishers, 2010.
Marszalek, John F. Sherman's Other War: The General and the Civil War Press. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1999.
Munson, E.B., ed. Confederate Correspondent: The Civil War Reports of Jacob Nathaniel Raymer, Fourth North Carolina. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland Publishers, 2009.
Perry, James M. A Bohemian Brigade: The Civil War Correspondents – Mostly Rough, Sometimes Ready. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2000.
Reynolds, Donald F. Editors Make War: Southern Newspapers in the Secession Crisis. Nashville, Tennessee: Vanderbilt University Press, 1966.
Smart, James G., ed. A Radical View: The "Agate" Dispatches of Whitelaw Reid, 1861–1865, two volumes. Memphis, Tennessee: Memphis State University Press, 1976
Starr, Louis M. Bohemian Brigade: Civil War Newsmen in Action. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1952.
Stepp, John W. and I. William Hill, eds. and comps. Mirror of the War: The Washington Star Reports the Civil War. New York: Castle Books for The Evening Star Newspapers Company, 1961.
Styple, William B. Writing & Fighting the Confederate War: The Letters of Peter Wellington Alexander, Confederate War Correspondent. Kearny, New Jersey: Belle Grove Publishing, 2002.
Art and music
Cornelius, Steven H. Music of the Civil War Era. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2004.
Davis, James A. Music Along the Rapidan: Civil War Soldiers, Music, and Community during Winter Quarters, Virginia. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2014.
Holzer, Harold and Mark E. Neely, Jr. Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory: The Civil War in Art. New York: Orion Books, 1993.
Kelley, Bruce and Mark A. Snell. Bugle Resounding: Music and Musicians of the Civil War. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 2004.
Neely, Jr., Mark E., Harold Holzer, and Gabor S. Boritt. The Confederate Image: Prints of the Lost Cause. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1987.
Popular culture, novels, films
Brown, Thomas J. The Public Art of Civil War Commemoration: A Brief History with Documents. Boston and New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2004.
Browne, Ray B. The Civil War and Reconstruction. American Popular Culture Through History, 2003.
Cassidy, John M. Civil War Cinema: A Pictorial History of Hollywood and the War between the States. Missoula, Montana: Pictorial Histories Publishing Company, 1986.
Cullen, Jim. The Civil War in Popular Culture: A Reusable Past. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995.
Ehle, John Time of Drums. Harper & Row, 1970. (historical fiction)
Fahs, Alice, and Joan Waugh, editors. The Memory of the Civil War in American Culture. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
Gallagher, Gary W. Causes Won, Lost, and Forgotten: How Hollywood and Popular Art Shape What We Know about the Civil War. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2008. .
Holzer, Harold. Mine Eyes Have Seen The Glory: The Civil War in Art. 1993.
Hulbert, Matthew Christopher and John C. Inscoe, eds. Writing History With Lightning: Cinematic Representations of Nineteenth-Century America. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2019. .
Jones, Madison. Nashville 1864: The Dying of the Light. Nashville, Tennessee: J. S. Sanders & Company, 1997. .
Kinnard, Roy. The Blue and Gray on the Silver Screen: More than 80 Years of Civil War Movies. Secaucus, New York: Carol Publishing, 1996.
McWhirter, Christian. Battle Hymns: The Power and Popularity of Music in the Civil War. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2012.
Nagle, P. G. Glorieta Pass [a novel]. New York: Forge, 1999. .
Sears, Stephen W. American Heritage Century Collection of Civil War Art (1983)
Sears, Stephen W., ed. Civil War: A Treasury of Art and Literature (1992)
Sherbourne, James. The Way to Fort Pillow. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1972. (historical fiction)
Spehr, Paul C., compiler. The Civil War in Motion Pictures: A Bibliography of Films Produced in the United States since 1897. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1961.
Terman, M. R. Hiram's Honor: Reliving Private Terman's Civil War (2009) and Hiram's Hope: The Return of Isaiah (2014).
Warren, Craig A. Scars to Prove It: The Civil War Soldier and American Fiction. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2009.
Wills, Brian Steel. Gone with the Glory: The Civil War in Cinema. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006.
Wilson, Edmund. Patriotic Gore: Studies in the Literature of the American Civil War (1962)
Tour guides
(Anonymous) The Civil War Preservation Trust's Civil War Sites: The Official Guide to Battlefields, Monuments, and More. Old Saybrook, Connecticut: Globe Pequot Press, 2003.
(no author listed) A Guide to the Fortifications and Battlefields Around Petersburg. Petersburg, Virginia: Daily Index Job Print, 1866.
(no author listed) "Southern Battlefields": A List of Battlefields on and near the Lines of the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railway and Western & Atlantic Railroad. Nashville, Tennessee: Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railway, no date listed.
Bishop, Randy. Mississippi's Civil War Battlefields: A Guide to Their History and Preservation. Gretna, Louisiana: Pelican Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2010.
Bowery, Jr. Charles R. and Ethan S. Rafuse, eds. Guide to the Richmond-Petersburg Campaign. The U. S. Army War College Guides to Civil War Battles. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2014. .
Cahill, Lora Schmidt, and David L. Mowery. Morgan's Raid Across Ohio: The Civil War Guidebook of the John Hunt Morgan Heritage Trail. Edited by Edd Sharp and Michele Collins. Ohio Historical Society, 2013.
Calkins, Chris M. From Petersburg to Appomattox: A Tour Guide to the Route's of Lee's Withdrawal and Grant's Pursuit, April 2 – 9, 1865. Farmville, Virginia: Farmville Herald, 1983.
Civil War Preservation Trust. Civil War Sites: The Official Guide to Battlefields, Monuments, and More. Guilford, Connecticut: Globe Pequot Press, 2003.
Dunkerly, Robert M., Donald C. Pfanz, and David R. Ruth. No Turning Back: A Guide to the 1864 Overland Campaign, from the Wilderness to Cold Harbor, May 4-June 13, 1864. Savas Beatie, 2014. .
Johnson, Clint. Touring the Carolinas' Civil War Sites. Second Edition. Winston-Salem, NC: John F. Blair, Publisher, 2011 .
Johnson, Clint. Touring Virginia's and West Virginia's Civil War Sites. Winston-Salem, NC: John F. Blair, Publisher, 1999. .
Krumenaker, Lawrence. Walking the Line: Rediscovering and Touring the Civil War Defenses on Modern Atlanta's Landscape. Hermograph Press, 2014. .
Lee, Richard McGowan. General Lee's City: An Illustrated Guide to the Historic Sites of Confederate Richmond. EPM Publications, 1987.
Miles, Jim. Paths to victory: a history and tour guide of the Stone's River, Chickamauga, Chattanooga, Knoxville, and Nashville Campaigns. Rutledge Hill Press, 1991.
Miles, Jim. To the Sea: A History and Tour Guide of Sherman's March. Turner Publishing Company, 1999.
Morgan, Bill. The Civil War Lover's Guide to New York City. Savas Beatie, LLC, 2013. .
Salmon, John S. The Official Virginia Civil War Battlefield Guide. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 2001.
Shively, Julie. The Ideals Guide to American Civil War Places. Nashville, Tennessee: Ideals Publications, 1999.
Spruill III, Matt, and Matt Spruill IV. Echoes of Thunder: A Guide to the Seven Days' Battles. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press, 2006.
Taylor, Paul. Discovering the Civil War in Florida: A Reader and Guide. Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press, Inc., 2001. .
Walk, Gregory. Friend and Foe Alike: A Tour Guide to Missouri's Civil War. St. Louis, Missouri: Missouri's Civil War Heritage Foundation, Inc., 2010, 2012.
Winter, William C. The Civil War in St. Louis: A Guided Tour. St. Louis, Missouri: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1994.
Wright, Muriel H. and Leroy H Fischer. Civil War Sites in Oklahoma. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Historical Society, 1967.
Yates, Bowling C. Historical Guide for Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park and Marietta, Georgia. No publisher listed, 1976.
Monuments, battlefields, and battlefield preservation
Baruch, Mildred C. and Ellen J. Beckman. Civil War Union Monuments. Washington, D.C.: Daughters of Union Veterans of the Civil War, 1978.
Boge, Georgie and Margie Holder Boge. Paving Over the Past: A History and Guide to Civil War Battlefield Preservation. Montclair, New Jersey: G–2 Military History Specialists, 1993.
Butler, Douglas J. North Carolina Civil War Monuments: An Illustrated History. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2013. .
Dillahunty, Albert. Shiloh National Military Park, Tennessee. Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1955.
Emerson, B.A.C. Historic Southern Monuments: Representative Memorials of the Heroic Dead of the Southern Confederacy. New York and Washington, D.C.: Neale, 1911.
Keefer, Bradley S. Conflicting Memories on the "River of Death": The Chickamauga Battlefield and the Spanish–American War, 1863–1933. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2013. .
Linton, Roger C. Chickamauga: A Battlefield History in Images. University of Georgia Press, 2004. .
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Nevins, Allan, ed. A Diary of Battle: The Personal Journals of Colonel Charles S. Wainwright, 1861–1865. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1962.
Northen III, Charles Swift, editor. All Right Let Them Come: The Civil War Diary of an East Tennessee Confederate. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press, 2003.
O'Beirne, Keven E., ed. My Life in the Irish Brigade: The Civil War Memoirs of Private William McCarter, 116th Pennsylvania Infantry. Campbell, California: Savas, 1996.
Oeffinger, John C., ed. A Soldier's General: The Civil War Letters of Major General Lafayette McLaws. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2002.
Osborne, Seward R., ed. The Civil War Diaries of Col. Theodore B. Gates, 20th New York State Militia. Hightstown, New Jersey: Longstreet House, 1991.
Patch, Eileen Mae Knapp, ed. This from George: The Civil War Letters of Sergeant George Magusta Englis, 1861–1865, Company K, 89th New York Regiment of Volunteer Infantry Known as the Dickinson Guard. Binghamton, New York: Broome County Historical Society, 2001.
Patrick, Jeffrey L. and Robert J. Willey, eds. Fighting for Liberty and Right: The Civil War Diary of William Bluffton Miller, Company K, Seventy–fifth Indiana Volunteer Infantry. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press, 2005.
Patrick, Marsena R. Inside Lincoln's Army: The Diary of Marsena Rudolf Patrick, Provost Marshall General, Army of the Potomac, edited by Davis S. Sparks. New York: Yoseloff, 1964.
Paxton, Frank. The Civil War Letters of General Frank "Bull" Paxton, CSA, edited by John Gallatin Paxton. Hillsboro, Texas: Hill Junior College Press, 1978.
Phillips, Brenda D., ed. Personal Reminiscences of a Confederate Soldier Boy: Robert M. Magill, Co. F, 39th Ga. Reg. Inf. Milledgeville, Georgia: Boyd Publishing, 1993.
Pitcock, Cynthia D. and Bill J. Gurley, eds. "I Acted from Principle": The Civil War Diary of Dr. William M. McPheeters, Confederate Surgeon in the Trans-Mississippi. Fayetteville, Arkansas: University of Arkansas Press, 2002.
Poriss, Gerry H and Ralph G Poriss, eds. While My Country Is in Danger: The Life and Letters of Lieutenant Colonel Richard S. Thompson, Twelfth New Jersey Volunteers. Hamilton, New York: Edmonston Publishing, 1994.
Porter, Charles W., editor. In the Devil's Dominions: A Union Soldier's Adventures in Bushwhacker Country. Nevada, Missouri: Bushwhacker Museum, 1998.
Quaife, Milo M., ed. From the Cannon's Mouth: The Civil War Letters of General Alpheus S. Williams. Detroit, Michigan: Wayne State University Press, 1959.
Raab, Steven S., ed. With the 3rd Wisconsin Badgers: The Living Experience of the Civil War Through the Journals of Van R. Willard. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole, 1999.
Racine, Philip N. "Unspoiled Heart": The Journal of Charles Mattocks of the 17th Maine. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press, 1994.
Radigan, Emily N., editor. "Desolating This Fair Country": The Civil War Diary and Letters of Lt. Henry C. Lyon, 34th New York. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 1999.
Reid–Green, Marcia, ed. Letters Home: Henry Matrau of the Iron Brigade. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1993.
Reiger, Paul E., ed. Through One Man's Eyes: Civil War Letters of James G. Theaker. Mount Vernon, Ohio,: Printing Arts Press, Inc., 1974
Reinhart, Joseph R. A German Hurrah!: Civil War Letters of Fredrich Bertsch and Wilhelm Stangel, 9th Ohio Infantry. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2011.
Reyburn, Philip J. and Terry L. Wilson, eds. "Jottings from Dixie": The Civil War Dispatches of Sergeant Major Stephen F. Fleharty, U.S.A. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1999.
Risley, Ford, ed. The Civil War: Primary Documents on Events from 1860 to 1865. Greenwood, 2004.
Richie, Norman L., ed. Four Years in the First New York Light Artillery: The Papers of David F. Ritchie. Hamilton, New York: Edmonston, 1997.
Robertson, Jr., James I., ed. The Civil War Letters of General Robert McAllister. New Jersey Civil War Centennial, 1965.
Robertson, Jr., James I., ed. Soldier of Southwestern Virginia: The Civil War Letters of Captain John Preston Sheffey. Louisiana State University Press, 2004.
Roper, John Herbert, ed. Repairing the March of Mars: The Civil War Diaries of John Samuel Apperson, Hospital Steward in the Stonewall Brigade, 1861–1865. Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press, 2001.
Rosenblatt, Emil and Ruth Rosenblatt, eds. Hard Marching Every Day: The Civil War Letters of Private Wilbur Fisk, 1861–1865. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1991.
Samito, Christian G. Fear Was not in Him: The Civil War Letters of Major General Francis Barlow, U.S.A. New York: Fordham University Press, 2004.
Sand, Peter H. and John F. McLaughlin, editors. Crossing Antietam: The Civil War Letters of Captain Henry Augustus Sand, Company A, 103rd New York Volunteers. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2016. .
Sauers, Richard A., ed. The Civil War Journal of Colonel William J. Bolton, 51st Pennsylvania, April 20, 1861 – August 2, 1865. Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Publishing, 2000.
Schafer, Joseph, ed. Intimate letters of Carl Schurz, 1841–1869. Madison, Wisconsin: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1928.
Schiller, Herbert M., ed. A Captain's War: The Letters and Diaries of William H.S. Burgwyn, 1861–1865. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane Publishing Co., 1994.
Schmidt, Martin F., ed. General George Crook: His Autobiography. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1946.
Schulz, Charles R., editor. "Hurrah for the Texans": Civil War Letters of George W. Ingram. College Station, Texas: Friends of the Texas A&M University Library, 1974.
Scott, Robert G., ed. Fallen Leaves: The Civil War Letters of Major Henry Livermore Abbott. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1991.
Scott, Robert Garth. Forgotten Valor: The Memoirs, Journals, & Civil War Letters of Orlando B. Wilcox. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1999.
Seagrave, Pia Seija, ed. A Boy Lieutenant: Memoirs of Freeman S. Bowley, 30th United States Colored Troops Officer. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Sergeant Kirkland's Museum and Historical Society, 1997.
Sears, Stephen W., ed. Mr Dunn Browne's Experiences in the War: The Civil War Letters of Samuel W. Fiske. New York: Fordham University PRess, 1998.
Sears, Stephen W., ed. On Campaign with the Army of the Potomac: The Civil War Journal of Theodore Ayrault Dodge. New York: Cooper Square Press, 2001.
Silliker, Ruth L. The Rebel Yell and the Yankee Hurrah: The Civil War Journal of a Maine Volunteer. Camden, Maine: Down East Books, 1985.
Simmons, Marc, editor. The Battle at Valley's Ranch: First Account of the Gettysburg of the West. Santa Fe, New Mexico: San Pedro, 1987.
Simpson, Brooks D., Stephen W. Sears and Aaron Sheehan-Dean, eds. The Civil War: The First Year Told by Those Who Lived It. New York: The Library of America, 2011. .
Simpson, Brooks D. The Civil War: The Third Year Told by Those Who Lived It. New York: The Library of America, 2013. .
Sizer, Lyde Cullen and Cullen, Jim, ed. The Civil War Era: An Anthology of Sources. Blackwell, 2005.
Smith, Barbara A., compiler. The Civil War Letters of Col. Elijah H.C. Cavins, 14th Indiana. Owensboro, Kentucky: Cook-McDowell Publications, 1981.
Spurlin, Charles D., editor. The Civil War Diary of Charles A Leuschner. Austin, Texas: Aekin, 1992.
Still, Jr., William N. "What Finer Tradition": The Memoirs of Thomas O. Selfridge, Jr., Rear Admiral, U.S.N. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1987.
Styple, William B., ed. Letters from the Peninsula: The Civil War Letters of General Philip Kearny. Kearny, New Jersey: Belle Grove, 1988.
Styple, William B., ed. Our Noble Blood: The Civil War Letters of Regis de Trobriand, Major–General U.S.V. Kearny, New Jersey: Belle Grove Publishing, 1997.
Styple, William B., ed. With a Flash of His Sword: The Writings of Major Holman S. Melcher 20th Maine Infantry. Kearny, New Jersey: Bell Grove, 1994.
Styple, William B., ed. Writing and Fighting in the Civil War: Soldier Correspondence to the New York Sunday Mercury. Kearny, New Jersey: Belle Grove, 1994.
Sumner, Merlin E., ed. The Diary of Cyrus B. Comstock. Dayton, Ohio: Morningside House, 1987.
Summersell, Charles G. The Journal of George Townley Fullam: Boarding Officer of the Confederate Sea Raider Alabama. University, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1973.
Tapert, Annette, ed. The Brothers' War: Civil War Letters to Their Loved Ones from the Blue and Gray. New York: Vintage Books, 1989.
Tappan, George, ed. The Civil War Journal of Lt. Russell M. Tuttle, New York Volunteer Infantry. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2006.
Tate, Thomas K., ed. The Civil War Letters of a Confederate Artillery Officer (Col. Frank Huger, C.S.A.). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., 2011.
Thomas, Mary Warner, and Richard A. Sauers, editors. The Civil War Letters of First Lieutenant James B. Thomas Adjutant, 107th Pennsylvania Volunteers. Baltimore, Maryland: Butternut & Blue, 1995.
Thompson, Jerry, editor. Civil War in the Southwest: Recollections of the Sibley Brigade. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 2001.
Thompson, Jerry, editor. From Desert to Bayou: The Civil War Journal and Sketches of Morgan Wolf Merrick. El Paso, Texas: Texas Western Press, 1991.
Thompson, Jerry, editor. Westward the Texans: The Civil War Journal of Private William Randolph Howell. El Pas, Texas: Texas Western Press, 1990.
Thompson, Jerry, Robert Wooster, and Ben E. Pingenot, editors. The Reminiscences of Major General Zenas R. Bliss. Austin, Texas: Texas State Historical Association, 2007.
Thompson, Robert M. and Richard Wainwright, eds. The Confidential Correspondence of Gustavus V. Fox, two volumes. New York, 1919.
Tilley, Nannie M., editor. Federals on the Frontier: The Diary of Benjamin F. McIntyre, 1862–1864. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 1963.
Tower, R. Lockwood, ed. A Carolinian Goes to War: The Civil War Narrative of Arthur Middleton Manigault, Brigadier General, C.S.A. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1983.
Turino, Kenneth C., editor. The Civil War Diary of Lieut. J.E. Hodgkins, 19th Massachusetts Volunteers, from August 11, 1862 to June 3, 1865. Camden, Maine, Picton Press, 1994.
Turner, Charles W., ed. My Dear Emma: (War Letters of Col. James K. Edmondson, 1861–1865). Verona, Virginia: McClure Printing Company, 1978.
Turner, Charles W., ed. Ted Barclay, Liberty Hall Volunteers: Letters from the Stonewall Brigade (1861–1864). Natural Bridge Station, Virginia: Rockbridge Publishing Company, 1992.
Turner, Nat, ed. A Southern Soldier's Letters Home: The Civil War Letters of Samuel Burney, Army of Northern Virginia. Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press, 2003.
Underhill, Charles Sterling. 'Your Soldier Boy Samuel': Civil War Letters of Lt. Samuel Edmund Nichols, Amherst, '65 of the 37th Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteers. published by the author, 1929.
Vanderslice, Catherine, editor. The Civil War Letters of George Washington Beidelman. New York: Vantage Press, 1978.
Viola, Herman J., ed. The memoirs of Charles Henry Veil: A Soldier's Recollections of the Civil War and the Arizona Territory. New York: Orion, 1993.
Walker, Charles N. and Rosemary Walker, editors. Diary of the War by Robt. S. Robertson. Fort Wayne, Indiana: Allen County-Fort Wayne Historical Society, 1965.
Walton, William, ed. A Civil War Courtship: The Letters of Edwin Weller from Antietam to Atlanta. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1980.
Ward, Eric, ed. The Civil War Letters of George G. Benedict. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 2002.
Watson, Ronald G., editor. "Death Does Seem to Have All He Can Attend to": The Civil War Diary of an Andersonville Survivor. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland Publishing, 2014. .
Weld, Stephen M., ed. War Diary and Letters of Stephen Minot Weld, 1861–1865. Boston, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1979.
White, Russell C., ed. The Civil War Diary of Wyman S. White, First Sergeant of Company F, 2nd United States Sharpshooter Regiment, 1861–1865. Baltimore, Maryland: Butternut & Blue, 1997.
White, William Lee and Charles Denny Runion, eds. Great Things Are Expected of Us: The Letters of Colonel C. Irvine Walker, 10th South Carolina Infantry, C.S.A. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press, 2009.
Whitehouse, Hugh L., ed. Letters from the Iron Brigade: George Washington Patridge, Jr., 1839–1863, Civil War Letters to His Sister. Indianapolis, Indiana: Guild Press of Indiana, 1994.
Wiggins, Sarah Woolfolk. TheJournals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857–1878. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1995.
Wiley, Bell Irvin, editor. "This Infernal War": The Confederate Letters of Sergeant Edwin H. Fay. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 1958.
Wiley, Kenneth, ed. Norfolk Blues: The Civil War Diary of the Norfolk Light Artillery Blues. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: Burd Street Press, 1997.
Williams, Edward B., ed. Rebel Brothers: The Civil War Letters of the Truehearts. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 1995.
Williams, Richard B., editor. Stonewall's Prussian Mapmaker: The Journals of Captain Oscar Hincichs. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2014. .
Wilson, John P. and Jerry Thompson, editors. The Civil War in West Texas and New Mexico: The Lost Letterbook of Brigadier General Henry Hopkins Sibley. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 2001.
Winther, Oscar Osburn, ed. With Sherman to the Sea: The Civil War Letters, Diaries & Reminiscences of Theodore F. Upson. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1958.
Wittenberg, Eric J., ed. One of Custer's Wolverines: The Civil War Letters of Brevet Brigadier General James H. Kidd, 6th Michigan Cavalry. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2000.
Wittenberg, Eric J., ed. Under Custer's Command: The Civil War Journal of James Henry Avery. Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 2000.
Wynne, Lewis N. and Robert A. Taylor, eds. This War So Horrible: The Civil War Diary of Hiram Smith Williams. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1993.
Yearns, W. Buck and Barret, John G., eds. North Carolina Civil War Documentary, 1980.
Confederate official government documents major online collection of complete texts in HTML format, from U. of North Carolina
The Civil War Letters of Forrest Little a digitized collection of actual letters from an ordinary Union soldier chronicling his everyday life and the drama of battle, from Saint Mary's College of California
Photographs of the Civil War - a Library of Congress exhibition This exhibition from the Library of Congress features Civil War-era ambrotype and tintype photographs of Union and Confederate soldiers. The collection's detailed portraits document the soldier uniforms, weapons, musical instruments and other possessions and include significant representation of African American troops and the families of soldiers.
Memoirs
Anderson, Ephraim McD. Memoirs, Historical and Personal, Including the Campaigns of the First Missouri Confederate Brigade, ed. by Edwin C. Bearss. Dayton, Ohio: Morningside, 1972.
Armes, Augustus. Ups and Downs of an Army Officer. Washington, D.C.: no publisher listed, 1900.
Aschmann, Rudolf. Memoirs of a Swiss Officer in the American Civil War, Heinz K. Meier, ed. Bern, Switzerland: Herbert Lang, 1972.
Baird, W. David, editor. A Creek Warrior for the Confederacy: The Autobiography of Chief G.W. Greyson. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988.
Ballard, Alfred. Gone for a Soldier: The Civil War Memoirs of Private Alfred Ballard, edited by David Herbert Donald. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown, 1975.
Bancroft, Frederic and William A. Dunning, eds. The Reminiscences of Carl Schurz, five volumes. New York: The McClure Company, 1908.
Barney, Chester. Recollections of Field Service with the Twentieth Iowa Infantry Volunteers; or, What I Saw in the Army; Embracing Accounts of Marches, Battles, Sieges, and Skirmished in Missouri, Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama, Florida, Texas, and along the Northern Border of Mexico. Davenport, Iowa: Davenport Gazette, 1865.
Bassett, Edward. From Bull Run to Bristow Station, edited by M.H. Bassett. St. Paul, Minnesota: North Central Publishing, 1962.
Bates, David Homer. Lincoln in the Telegraph Office: Recollections of the United States Military Telegraph Corps during the Civil War. New York: Century Co., 1907.
Beale, G.W. A Lieutenant of Cavalry in Lee's Army. Boston, Massachusetts: Gorham Press, 1918.
Benson, Susan Williams, ed. Berry Benson's Civil War Book: Memoirs of a Confederate Scout and Sharpshooter. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1992.
Benton, Charles E. As Seen from the Ranks: A Boy in the Civil War. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1902.
Billings, John D. Hardtack and Coffee, or the Unwritten Story of Army Life. Boston, Massachusetts: G. M. Smith, 1887.
Bloodgood, John D. Personal Reminiscences of the War. New York: Hunt and Eaton, 1893.
Booth, George W. Personal Reminiscences of a Maryland Soldier in the War Between the States. Baltimore, Maryland: Fleet, McGinley and Co., 1898.
Borton, Benjamin. Awhile with the Blue; Or, Memories of War Days, the True Story of a Private. Passaic, New Jersey: William Taylor, 1898.
Bowen, Ronald. From Ball's Bluff to Gettysburg . . . And Beyond, edited by Gregory A. Coco. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania: Thomas Publications, 1994.
Brainerd, Wesley. Bridge Building in Wartime: Colonel Wesley Brainerd's Memoir of the 50th New York Volunteer Engineers, edited by Ed Malles. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press, 1997.
Brown, Augustus C. The Diary of a Line Officer. New York: no publisher listed, 1906.
Brown, Kent Masterson, ed. One of Morgan's Men: Memoirs of Lieutenant John M. Porter of the Ninth Kentucky Cavalry. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2011. .
Buell, Augustus. "The Cannoneer": Recollections of Service in the Army of the Potomac. Washington, D.C.: National Tribune, 1890.
Casler, John O. Four Years in the Stonewall Brigade. Girard, Kansas: Appeal Publishing Co., 1906.
Clark, Willene B., ed. Valleys of the Shadow: The Memoir of Confederate Captain Reuben G. Clark, Company I, 59th Tennessee Mounted Infantry. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press, 1994.
Cochrane, John. The War for the Union: Memoir of Gen. John Cochrane. New York: no publisher listed, 1875.
Cockrell, Monroe F., ed. Gunner with Stonewall: Reminiscences of William Thomas Poague. Jackson, Tennessee: McCowat–Mercer, 1957.
Cole, Jacob H. Under Five Commanders: Or, a Boy's Experiences with the Army of the Potomac. Paterson, New Jersey: New Print, 1906.
Cox, Jacob D. Military Reminiscences of the Civil War, two volumes. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1910.
Cozzens, Peter, and Robert I. Girardi, eds. The Military Memoirs of General John Pope. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1998.
Crotty, D.B. Four Years Campaigning in the Army of the Potomac. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Dygert Brothers, 1874.
Dana, Charles A. A Recollection of the Civil War with the Leaders at Washington and in the Field in the Sixties. New York: D. Appleton, 1899.
Davis, Varina H. Jefferson Davis, Ex–President of the Confederate States of America: A Memoir by His Wife, two volumes. New York, 1890.
Dawes, Rufus R. Service with the Sixth Wisconsin Volunteers. Marietta, Ohio: E. R. Alderman & Sons, 1890.
Douglas, Henry Kyd. I Rode with Stonewall. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1940.
Du Forest, John W. A Volunteer's Adventures: A Union Captain's Record of the Civil War, James W. Croushore, ed. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1946.
Durkin, Joseph T., ed. Confederate Chaplain: A War Journal of Rev. James B. Sheeran, C.Ss.R., Fourteenth Louisiana, C.S.A. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Bruce Publishing Company, 1960.
Early, Jubal A. Autobiographical Sketch and Narrative of the War between the States. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: J. B. Lippincott, 1912.
Early, Jubal A. A Memoir of the Last Year of the War for Independence, in the Confederate States of America, Containing an Account of His Commands in the Years 1864 and 1865. Lynchburg, Virginia: C. W. Button, 1867.
Eckert, Edward K. and Nicholas J. Amato. Ten Years in the Saddle: The Memoir of William Woods Averell, 1851–1862. San Rafael, California: Presidio Press, 1978.
Favill, Josiah M. The Diary of a Young Officer Serving with the Armies of the United States during the War of the Rebellion. Chicago, Illinois:: R.R. Donnelley and Sons, 1909.
French, S.G. Two Wars: An Autobiography. Nashville, Tennessee: Confederate Veteran, 1901.
Fuller, Charles. Personal Recollections of the War of 1861. Sherburne, New York: News Job Printing House, 1906.
Galwey, Thomas F. The Valiant Hours: Narrative of "Captain Brevet," An Irish-American in the Army of the Potomac, edited by W.S. Nye. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole, 1961.
Gerrish, Henry. Letter to Lyman: The Personal Letter of a Civil War Soldier to His Grandson, Walter Lyman Medding, Recounting His Wartime Experiences, edited by Walter S. Medding. Springfield, Virginia: Genealogical Books in Print, 1978.
Gibbon, John. Personal Recollections of the Civil War. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1928.
Gill, John. Reminiscences of Four Years as a Private Soldier in the Confederate Army. Baltimore, Maryland: Sun Printing Office, 1904.
Gordon, John B. Reminiscences of the Civil War. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1903.
Grant, Ulysses S. Personal Memoirs, two volumes. New York: Charles L. Webster, 1885.
Grant, Ulysses S. Memoirs and Selected Letters, edited by Mary Drake McFeely and William S. McFeely. The Library of America, 1990. .
Graybill, John H. Diary of a Confederate Soldier, edited by Ruth Woods Dayton. Philippi, West Virginia: privately published, 1961.
Hagood, Johnson C. Memoirs of the War of Secession. Columbia, South Carolina: State Company, 1910.
Haley, John. The Rebel Yell and the Yankee Hurrah: The Civil War Journal of a Maine Volunteer, edited by Ruth L. Silliker. Camden, Maine: Down East Books, 1985.
Haynes, Dennis E. "A Thrilling Narrative": The Memoir of a Southern Unionist. Washington, D.C.: McGill and Witherow, 1866.
Hazen, William Babcock. A Narrative of Military Service. Boston, Massachusetts: Ticknor and Company, 1885.
Heth, Henry. The Memoirs of Henry Heth. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1974.
Hitchcock, Frederick L. War from the Inside; Or, Personal Experiences, Impressions, and Reminiscences of One of the "Boys" in the War of the Rebellion. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: J.B. Lippincott, 1904.
Hood, John B. Advance and Retreat: Personal Experiences in the United States and Confederate States Armies. New Orleans, Louisiana: Hood Orphan Memorial Fund, 1880.
Hotchkiss, Jedediah. Make Me a Map of the Valley: The Civil War Journal of Stonewall Jackson's Topographer, edited by Archie P. McDonald. Dallas, Texas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1973.
Howard, McHenry. Recollections of a Maryland Staff Officer Under Johnston, Jackson and Lee. Baltimore, Maryland: Williams and Wilkins, 1914.
Howard, Oliver Otis. Autobiography of Oliver Otis Howard, Major General United States Army, two volumes. New York: The Baker & Taylor Co., 1914.
Hyde, Thomas W. Following the Greek Cross, or Memoirs of the Sixth Army Corps. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin, 1895.
Jackson, Mary Anna. Memoirs of Stonewall Jackson. Louisville, Kentucky: The Prentice Press, 1895.
Johnston, Joseph E. Narrative of Military Operations. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1874.
Jones, J. B. A Rebel War Clerk's Diary at the Confederate States Capital, two volumes. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: J. B. Lippencott, 1866.
Jones, Terry L., editor. The Civil War Memoirs of Captain William J. Seymour: Reminiscences of a Louisiana Tiger. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1991.
Kellersberger, Getulius. Memoirs of an Engineer in the Confederate Army in Texas, translated by Helen S. Sundstrom. Austin, Texas: privately published, 1957.
Koonce, Donald B., editor. Doctor to the Front: The Recollections of Confederate Surgeon Thomas Fanning Wood, 1861–1865. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press, 2000.
Lockwood, James D. Life and Adventures of a Drummer-Boy; Or, Seven Years a Soldier. Albany, New York: J. Skinner, 1893.
Long, A. L. Memoirs of General Robert E. Lee: His Military and Personal History Embracing a Large Amount of Information Hitherto Unpublished.. New York: J. M. Stoddart, 1886.
Longstreet, James B. From Manassas to Appomattox. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: J. B. Lippincott, 1896.
Lyman, Theodore. Meade's Headquarters, 1863–1865, edited by George G. Agassiz. Boston, Massachusetts: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1922.
Marshall, Charles. An Aide–de–camp of Lee, edited by Sir Frederick Maurice. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown, 1927.
Martin, John C. Lest We Forget Published by the Democrat Publishing Company of Madison, Wisconsin, under the sponsorship of the Wisconsin State Legislature, 1927.
Maury, Dabney H. Recollections of a Virginian. New York: 1894.
McCarter, William. My Life in the Irish Brigade: The Civil War Memoirs of Private William McCarter, 116th Pennsylvania Infantry. Edited by Kevin O'Brien. Campbell, California: Savas, 1996.
McClellan, George B. McClellan's Own Story. New York: Charles L. Webster, 1887.
McKim, Randolph Harrison. A Soldier's Recollections: Leaves from the Diary of a Young Confederate with an Oration on the Motives and Arms of the Soldiers of the South. New York: Longman's 1911.
Miller, Edward Gee. Captain Edward Gee Miller of the 20th Wisconsin: His War, 1862–1865, ed. by W. J. Lemke. Fayetteville, Arkansas: Washington County Historical Society, 1960.
Neese, George M. Four Years in the Confederate Horse Artillery. New York: Neale Publishing Company, 1911.
Noe, Kenneth W., ed. A Southern Boy in Blue: The Memoir of Marcus Woodcock, 9th Kentucky Infantry (USA). Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press, 1997.
Opie, John N. A Rebel Cavalryman with Lee, Stuart and Jackson. Chicago, Illinois: W. B. Conkey Co., 1899.
Paine, Halbert Eleazer. A Wisconsin Yankee in Confederate Bayou Country: The Civil War Reminiscences of a Union General, edited by Samuel C. Hyde, Jr. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2009.
Palmer, Edwin. The Second Brigade or, Camp Life. Montpelier, Vermont: E. P. Walton Co., 1864.
Peck, R. H. Reminiscences of a Confederate Soldier. Fincastle, Virginia: published by author, 1913.
Poague, William T. Gunner with Stonewall. Jackson, Tennessee: McCowart–Mercer Press, 1957.
Porter, Horace. Campaigning with Grant. New York: Century Company, 1906.
Rhodes, Elisha Hunt. All For the Union, edited by Robert H. Rhodes. Lincoln, Rhode Island: Andrew Mowbray, 1985.
Schmitt, Martin F., ed. General George Crook: His Autobiography. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1960.
Schofield, John M. Forty–six Years in the Army. New York: Century, 1897.
Selfridge, Jr., Thomas O. Memoirs of Thomas O. Selfridge, Jr., Rear–Admiral, USN. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1924.
Semmes, Raphael. Memoirs of Service Afloat, During the War Between the States. Baltimore, Maryland: Kelly, Piet and Company, 1869.
Sheehan-Dean, Aaron, ed. The Civil War: The Final Year Told by Those Who Lived It. New York: The Library of America, 2014. .
Sherman, William Tecumseh, Memoirs of General William T. Sherman. 2 vols. 1875.
Simon, John Y., ed., The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant. Southern Illinois University Press, 1967–present. As of 2006, volumes 1 to 28 covering through September 1878 have been published.
Small Harold A., ed. The Road to Richmond: The Civil War Memoirs of Major Abner R. Small of the Sixteenth Main Volunteers. New York: Fordham University Press, 2000.
Smith, William F. Autobiography of Major General William F. Smith, 1861–1864, edited by Herbert M. Schiller. Dayton, Ohio: Morningside, 1990.
Smith, William F. From Chattanooga to Petersburg under General Grant and Butler: A Contribution to the History of the War, and a Personal Vindication. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin, 1893.
Sorrel, G. Moxley. Recollections of a Confederate Staff Officer. New York: Neale, 1905.
Spear, Abbott et al., eds. The Civil War Recollections of General Ellis Spear. Orono, Maine: University of Maine Press, 1997.
Stanley, David S. Personal Memoirs of Major General D. S. Stanley, U.S.A. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1917.
Taylor, Richard: Destruction and Reconstruction: Personal Experiences of the Late War. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1879.
Tilney, Robert. My Life in the Army: Three Years and a Half with the Fifth Army Corps, Army of the Potomac, 1862–1865. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Ferris and Leach, 1912.
Tyler, Mason Whiting. Recollections of the Civil War, With Many Original Diary Entries and Letters Written From the Seat of War, and With Annotated References. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1912.
Von Borcke, Heros. Memoirs of the Confederate War for Independence. New York: Peter Smith, 1938.
Wallace, Lew. Lew Wallace: An Autobiography, two volumes. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1906.
Watkins, Samuel R. Company Aytch, or a Sideshow of the Big Show. Nashville, Tennessee: Cumberland Presbyterian Publishing House, 1882.
Wilkenson, Frank. Recollections of a Private Soldier in the Army of the Potomac. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1893.
Williams, R.L. With the Border Ruffians: Memories of the Far West, 1852–1868. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1907.
Wills, Charles W. Army Life of an Illinois Soldier. Washington, D.C.: Globe Printing Company, 1906.
Wilson, James. Under the Old Flag, two volumes. New York: 1912.
Wilson, LeGrand J. The Confederate Soldier. Memphis, Tennessee: Memphis State University Press, 1973.
Woodward, C. Vann, ed. Mary Chesnut's Civil War. Yale University Press, 1981. .
Worsham, John H. One of Jackson's Foot Cavalry. New York: Neale Publishing Co., 1912.
Wright, Charles A. A Corporal's Story: Experiences in the Ranks of Company C, 81st Ohio Vol. Infantry, during the War for the Maintenance of the Union, 1861–1864. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: James Beale, 1887.
Wright, James A. No More Gallant a Deed: A Civil War Memoir of the First Minnesota Volunteers, ed. by Steven J. Keillor. St. Paul, Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2001.
For the most recent surveys see:
Guelzo, Allen C. Fateful Lightning: A New History of the Civil War & Reconstruction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. .
Fellman, Michael et al. This Terrible War: The Civil War and its Aftermath (2nd. ed. 2007).
Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .
Donald, David et al. The Civil War and Reconstruction. 2001.
McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. .
Sheehan-Dean, Aaron, ed. A Companion to the U.S. Civil War. New York: Wiley Blackwell, 2014. . 2 vol. 1232pp; 64 topical chapters by experts; emphasis on historiography.
Other
Alford, Kenneth D. Civil War Museum Treasures: Outstanding Artifacts and the Stories Behind Them. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2008. .
Ammen, William. Personnel of the Civil War, two volumes. New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1961.
Armistead, Gene C. Horses and Mules in the Civil War: A Complete History with a Roster of More Than 700 War Horses. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2013. .
Armstrong, Richard L. "God Alone Knows Which Was Right": The Blue and Gray Terrill Family of Virginia in the Civil War. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2010. .
Barnard, George N. Photographic Views of Sherman's Campaign. New York: Dover, 1977.
Bernstein, Iver. The New York City Draft Riots: Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Blight, David W. Frederick Douglass' Civil War: Keeping Faith in Jubilee. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1989.
Boyd, Steven R. Patriotic Envelops of the Civil War: The Iconography of Union and Confederate Covers. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2010. .
Bunch, Jack. Roster of the Courts–Martial in the Confederate States Army. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane Books, 2001.
Burkhardt, George S. Confederate Rage, Yankee Wrath: No Quarter in the Civil War. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 2007.
Burns, Stanley B. Shooting Soldiers: Civil War Medial Photography by R. B. Bontecou. published by author, 2011.
Carter, Alice. E. and Richard Jensen. The Civil War on the Web: A Guide to the Very Best Sites. Wilmington, Delaware: SR Books, 2003.
Church, William. The Life of John Ericsson. New York: 1890.
Coco, Gregory. The Civil War Infantryman: In Camp, on the March, and in Battle. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania: Thomas Publications, 1998.
Connelly, T. Lawrence. Will Success Spoil Jeff Davis?: The Last Book about the Civil War. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963.
Criswell, Grover C. Confederate and Southern State Bonds.
Crofts, Daniel W. Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1989.
Crown, Jr., Francis J. Confederate Postal History.
Current, Richard Nelson. Lincoln's Loyalists: Union Soldiers from the Confederacy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Davis, William C. A Taste for War: The Culinary History of the Blue and the Gray. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 2011. .
Davis, William C. and Bell I. Wiley, eds. Photographic History of the Civil War, two volumes. New York: Black Dog and Leventhal, 1994.
Dew, Charles B. Ironmaker to the Confederacy: Joseph R. Anderson and the Tredegar Iron Works. New Haven, Connecticut: 1966.
Evans, Charles M. War of the Aeronauts: A History of Ballooning in the Civil War. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 2002. .
Faust, Drew Gilpin. The Creation of Confederate Nationalism: Ideology and Identity in the Civil War South. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1989.
Faust, Patricia L., ed. The Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War. New York: Harper & Row, 1986.
Feis, William B. Grant's Secret Service: The Intelligence War from Belmont to Appomattox. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 2002.
Fishel, Edwin C. The Secret War for the Union. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997.
Freehling, William W. The Road to Disunion: The Secessionists at Bay. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Garrison, Webb. Mutiny in the Civil War. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane Publishing Co., Inc. .
Garrison, Webb and Cheryl Garrison. Webb Garrison's Civil War Dictionary: An Illustrated Guide to the Everyday Language of Soldiers and Civilians. Cumberland House Publishing, 2009.
Gibboney, Douglas Lee. Scandals of the Civil War. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: Burd Street Press, 2013. .
Griffin, John Chandler. A Pictorial History of the Confederacy. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2009. .
Hall, Kenneth E. Stonewall Jackson and Religious Faith in Military Command. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2005. .
Hardin, David. After the War: The Lives and Images of Major Civil War Figures After the Shooting Stopped. Ivan R. Dee, 2010.
Harris, Sherry. Civil War Records: A Useful Tool: A Step by Step Guide to the Availability and Acquisition of Civil War Records, two volumes. Yorba Linda, California: Shumway Family History Services, 1990–1993.
Kelly, C. Brian. Best Little Stories From The Civil War. Charlottesville, Virginia: Montpelier Publishing, 1995.
Klement, Frank L. Dark Lanterns: Secret Political Societies, Conspiracies, and Treason Trials in the Civil War. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1984.
Knight, H. Jackson. Confederate Invention: The Story of the Confederate States Patent Office and Its Inventors. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2011. .
Kurtz, Lucy Fitzhugh and Benny Ritter. A Roster of Confederate Soldiers Buried in Stonewall Cemetery, Winchester Virginia. Winchester, Virginia: Farmers and Merchants National Bank, 1984.
Leigh, Philip. Lee's Lost Dispatch and Other Civil War Controversies. Yardley, PA: Westholme Publishing, 2015. .
Lewis, Felice Flanery. Trailing Clouds of Glory: Zachary Taylor's Mexican War Campaign and His Emerging Civil War Leaders. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 2010. .
Lossing, Benson J. Pictorial Field Books of the Civil War: Journeys through the Battlefields in the Wake of Conflict, three volumes. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
McClintock, Russell. Lincoln and the Decision for War: The Northern Response to Secession. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2008.
McManus, Stephen, Donald Thompson, and Thomas Churchill. The Civil War Research Guide: A Guide for Researching Your Civil War Ancestor. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 2003. .
McMurry, Richard M. Virginia Military Institute Alumni in the Civil War. Lynchburg, Virginia: H.E. Howard, 1999.
Morris, Jr., Roy. The Better Angel: Walt Whitman in the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Murdock, Eugene C. Patriotism Limited, 1862–1865: The Civil War Draft and Bounty System. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1967.
Murdock, Eugene C. One Million Men: The Civil War Draft in the North. Madison, Wisconsin: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1971.
National Archives and Records Administration. A Guide to Civil War Maps in the National Archives. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, 1986.
Nickels, Cameron C. Civil War Humor. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 2010. .
Philips, Stanley S. Excavated Artifacts from Battlefields and Camp Sites of the Civil War.
Pritchard, Shannon. Collecting the Confederacy: Artifacts and Antiques from the War Between the States. Savas Beatie, LLC, 2007. .
Quigley, Robert D. Civil War Spoken Here. Collingswood, New Jersey: CW Historicals, 1994.
Ray, Delia. A Nation Torn
Rickard, James H. Services With Colored Troops in Burnside's Corps. Providence, Rhode Island: Rhode Island Soldiers and Sailors Historical Society, 1894.
Ringle, Dennes J. Life in Mr. Lincoln's Navy. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1999.
Schantz, Mark S. Awaiting the Heavenly Country: The Civil War and America's Culture of Death. Cornell University Press, 2008.
Schmidt, James M. Lincoln's Labels: America's Best Known Brands and the Civil War. Edinborough Press, 2009.
Simmons, Jr., Donald C. Confederate Settlements in British Honduras. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2001. .
Smith, Andrew F. Starving the South – How the North Won the Civil War. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2011. .
Stokes, Karen. The Immortal 600: Surviving Civil War Charleston and Savannah. Charleston, South Carolina: The History Press, 2013. .
Thienel, Philip M. Mr. Lincoln's Bridge Builders: The Right Hand of American Genius. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane, 2000.
Varhola, Michael J. Everyday Life During the Civil War. Cincinnati, Oh: Writer's Digest Books, 1999.
Wardlaw, Trevor P. Sires and Sons: The Story of Hubbard's Regiment. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2015.
Waugh, John C. The Class of 1846: From West Point to Appomattox: Stonewall Jackson, George McClellan, and Their Brothers. New York: Warner, 1994.
Wilson, Mindwell Crampton, ed. Indiana Battle Flags. Indianapolis, Indiana: Indiana Battle Flag Commission, 1929.
Woodworth, Steven E., and Kenneth J. Winkle. Atlas of the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Zucchero, Michael. Loyal Hearts: Histories of Civil War Canines. Schroder Publications, 2009.
See also
Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant
Notes
Further reading
For a guide to the bibliography see:
Woodworth, Steven E.; ed. The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research. Greenwood Press, 1996.
Eicher, David J. The Civil War in Books An Analytical Bibliography. 1997.
Murdock, Eugene C. Civil War in the North: A Selected, Annotated Bibliography. Garland, 1987.
Sheehan-Dean, ed., Aaron (2014). A Companion to the U.S. Civil War (2 vol. 2014) comprehensive 98 page bibliography is online free
For a guide to web sources see:
Carter, Alice E.; Jensen, Richard. The Civil War on the Web: A Guide to the Very Best Sites—Completely Revised and Updated. 2003.
For an older short survey that is online and won the Pulitzer Prize (1918), see:
Rhodes, James Ford. A History of the Civil War, 1861–1865.
American Civil War |
5920338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomistix | Atomistix | Atomistix A/S was a software company developing tools for atomic scale modelling. It was headquartered in Copenhagen, Denmark, with a subsidiary for Asia Pacific in Singapore and for the Americas in California. In September 2008 Atomistix A/S went bankrupt, but in December 2008 the newly founded company QuantumWise announced that they had acquired all assets from the Atomistix estate and would continue the development and marketing of the products Atomistix ToolKit and Atomistix Virtual NanoLab. QuantumWise was then acquired by Synopsys in 2017.
History
The company was founded in October 2003 by Dr. Kurt Stokbro, Dr. Jeremy Taylor and Dr. Thomas Magnussen. Dr. Stokbro and Dr. Taylor are co-authors on the article [1] introducing the electron transport method and program TranSIESTA (based on the SIESTA program [2]) for academic research. This method, and methods used in Dr. Taylor Ph.D. research, was the starting point for Atomistix first product, TranSIESTA-C. The C refers to the program being written in the C programming language as opposed to Fortran in which TranSIESTA was written. This code had been completely reengineered and further developed into the commercial products marketed by the company today.
Since the very beginning the company had been working in close collaboration with the Nano-Science Center at the Niels Bohr Institute of Copenhagen University, to enhance the product development, and had instituted cooperations with leading nanotechnology centers, experts and private companies around the world.
Business
The management team consisted of:
Børge Witthøft, President and Chief Executive Officer (CEO).
Dr. Jeremy Taylor, Co-founder and Chief Technical Officer (CTO).
Klaus Melchior, Chief Operating Officer (COO) and Chief Financial Officer (CFO).
Niels Nielsen, Vice President (VP) Sales and Marketing.
Products
Atomistix A/S provided the following products:
Atomistix ToolKit (ATK)
Atomistix Virtual NanoLab (VNL)
Legacy Products:
IView
TranSIESTA-C
These products represented a package of integrated software modules for quantum chemistry modelling, providing a user-friendly graphical interface interaction to complex computational methods.
From the usability point of view, the setup of the computation is done through Atomistix Virtual NanoLab, a metaphoric interface, mimicking in silico the approach of an experiment in a real laboratory. The underlying computational engine is the Atomistix ToolKit (ATK) which is the next generation of TranSIESTA-C. ATK also has a Python based interface NanoLanguage and a text file interface.
The methods used in the software products are based primarily on density functional theory (DFT) and non-equilibrium Green's function (NEGF) techniques and also all the underlying quantum mechanics.
See also
Semiconductor
Nanotechnology
Molecular modelling
Software for molecular modeling
References
Sources
External links
QuantumWise website
Danish companies established in 2003
Nanotechnology companies
Software companies of Denmark
Software companies based in Copenhagen |
1126592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporally%20ordered%20routing%20algorithm | Temporally ordered routing algorithm | The Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) is an algorithm for routing data across Wireless Mesh Networks or Mobile ad hoc networks.
It was developed by Vincent Park and Scott Corson at the University of Maryland and the Naval Research Laboratory. Park has patented his work, and it was licensed by Nova Engineering, who are marketing a wireless router product based on Park's algorithm.
Operation
The TORA attempts to achieve a high degree of scalability using a "flat", non-hierarchical routing algorithm. In its operation the algorithm attempts to suppress, to the greatest extent possible, the generation of far-reaching control message propagation. In order to achieve this, the TORA does not use a shortest path solution, an approach which is unusual for routing algorithms of this type.
TORA builds and maintains a Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) rooted at a destination. No two nodes may have the same height.
Information may flow from nodes with higher heights to nodes with lower heights. Information can therefore be thought of as a fluid that may only flow downhill. By maintaining a set of totally ordered heights at all times, TORA achieves loop-free multipath routing, as information cannot 'flow uphill' and so cross back on itself.
The key design concepts of TORA is localization of control messages to a very small set of nodes near the occurrence of a topological change. To accomplish this, nodes need to maintain the routing information about adjacent (one hop) nodes. The protocol performs three basic functions:
Route creation
Route maintenance
Route erasure
During the route creation and maintenance phases, nodes use a height metric to establish a directed acyclic graph (DAG) rooted at destination. Thereafter links are assigned based on the relative height metric of neighboring nodes. During the times of mobility the DAG is broken and the route maintenance unit comes into picture to reestablish a DAG routed at the destination.
Timing is an important factor for TORA because the height metric is dependent on the logical time of the link failure.
TORA's route erasure phase is essentially involving flooding a broadcast clear packet (CLR) throughout the network to erase invalid routes
Route creation
A node which requires a link to a destination because it has no downstream neighbours for it sends a QRY (query) packet and sets its (formerly unset) route-required flag. A QRY packet contains the destination id of the node a route is sought to. The reply to a query is called an update UPD packet. It contains the height quintuple of the neighbour node answering to a query and the destination field which tells for which destination the update was meant for.
A node receiving a QRY packet does one of the following:
If its route required flag is set, this means that it doesn't have to forward the QRY, because it has itself already issued a QRY for the destination, but better discard it to prevent message overhead.
If the node has no downstream links and the route-required flag was not set, it sets its route-required flag and rebroadcasts the QRY message.
A node receiving an update packet updates the height value of its neighbour in the table and takes one of the following actions:
If the reflection bit of the neighbours height is not set and its route required flag is set it sets its height for the destination to that of its neighbours but increments d by one. It then deletes the RR flag and sends an UPD message to the neighbours, so they may route through it.
If the neighbours route is not valid (which is indicated by the reflection bit) or the RR flag was unset, the node only updates the entry of the neighbours node in its table.
Each node maintains a neighbour table containing the height of the neighbour nodes. Initially the height of all the nodes is NULL. (This is not zero "0" but NULL "-") so their quintuple is (-,-,-,-,i). The height of a destination neighbour is (0,0,0,0,dest).
Node C requires a route, so it broadcasts a QRY.
The QRY propagates until it hits a node which has a route to the destination, this node then sends an UPD message.
The UPD is also propagated, while node E sends a new UPD.
Route Maintenance
Route maintenance in TORA has five different cases according to the flowchart below:
Example
B still has a downstream link to the destination so no action is needed
partition detection and route erasure
he links D-F and E-F reverse. Node D propagates the reference level.
Node E now "reflects" the reference level. The reference heights of the neighbours are equal with the reflection bit not set. E sets the reflection bit to indicate the reflection and sets its offset to 0. Node C just propagates the new reference level.
Node A now propagates the reference level.
Route Erasure
When a node has detected a partition it sets its height and the heights of all its neighbours for the destination in its table to NULL and it issues a CLR (Clear) packet. The CLR packet consists of the reflected reference level (t,oid,1) and the destination id.
If a node receives a CLR packet and the reference level matches its own reference level it sets all heights of the neighbours and its own for the destination to NULL and broadcasts the CLR packet. If the reference level doesn't match its own it just sets the heights of the neighbours its table matching the reflected reference level to NULL and updates their link status
References
External links
TORA Specification (Internet Draft 2001, expired)
MODIS Group Management of Data and Information Systems
Routing algorithms
Wireless networking
Ad hoc routing protocols |
873034 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20SCO%E2%80%93Linux%20disputes | Timeline of SCO–Linux disputes | Beginning in 2003, The SCO Group was involved in a dispute with various Linux vendors and users. SCO initiated a series of lawsuits, the most known of which were SCO v. IBM and SCO v. Novell, that had implications upon the futures of both Linux and Unix. SCO claimed that Linux violated some of SCO's intellectual properties. Many industry observers were skeptical of SCO's claims, and they were strongly contested by SCO's opponents in the lawsuits, some of which launched counter-claims. By 2011, the lawsuits fully related to Linux had been lost by SCO or rendered moot and SCO had gone into bankruptcy. However the SCO v. IBM suit continued for another decade, as it included contractual disputes related to both companies' involvement in Project Monterey in addition Linux-related claims. Finally in 2021 a settlement was reached in which IBM paid the bankruptcy trustee representing what remained of SCO the sum of $14.25 million.
Timeline
June 2002
On 27 June 2002, Caldera International has a change in management, with Darl McBride, formerly an executive with Novell, FranklinCovey, and several start-ups, taking over as CEO from Ransom Love. Caldera International had completed its purchase of Unix assets from The Santa Cruz Operation (SCO) the previous year. From the start of his time as CEO, McBride considers the possibility of claiming ownership of some of the code within Linux.
August 2002
On August 26, 2002, Caldera International changes its name back to SCO, in the form of the new name The SCO Group.
October 2002
McBride creates an internal organization "to formalize the licensing of our intellectual property".
January 2003
SCO retains lawyer David Boies, announcing that they would be investigating infringement on their intellectual property pertaining to their ownership of UNIX. Over the next several months, the executives of SCO issue a number of press releases and public statements alleging unspecified violations of their UNIX intellectual property rights in Linux. They also begin to raise questions of the validity of the GPL.
March 2003
In SCO v. IBM, SCO sues IBM over its contributions to Linux, claiming that IBM stole UNIX trade secrets and gave them to Linux kernel developers. The suit was filed originally in the Utah State Court, but was immediately removed to Federal Court.
May 2003
The SCO Group says they sent letters to 1,500 of the world's largest corporations, including the Fortune 500 companies, alleging that the use of Linux may infringe a copyright they hold on the original UNIX source code. They say that the Linux kernel, the core of the operating system contains copyrighted SCO source code. In this letter they also announce the suspension of their own Linux-related activities.
July 2003
The SCO Group files an amended complaint.
August 2003
SCO announces that they intend to issue invoices to companies using Linux.
In Red Hat v. SCO, Red Hat files suit in the United States District Court for the District of Delaware asking for a permanent injunction blocking SCO from asserting that Red Hat infringed on SCO's intellectual property with their Linux product.
IBM files its counterclaims, alleging that SCO has violated the GPL, several patents, and the Lanham Act by falsely accusing IBM of violating SCO's IP rights.
September 2003
SCO CEO, Darl McBride, writes an open letter to the free software community. In this letter he accuses the free software community of being responsible for recent DDoS attacks on the SCO website and once again asserts that Linux violates SCO's intellectual properties.
IBM files amended counterclaims, including a claim of copyright infringement.
October 2003
BayStar Capital and Royal Bank of Canada invest $US50 million in SCO to support the legal cost of the SCOsource program.
SCO announces that it would not attempt invoicing Linux users after being threatened with mail fraud.
December 2003
SCO sends a letter to all Unix licensees asking them to certify certain questions regarding the use of Linux.
SCO sends a letter claiming ownership of the Linux ABI code.
January 2004
SCO sends a letter to the United States Congress, raising issues such as the economics of open source development and the legality of the GPL.
In, SCO v. Novell, SCO files slander of title suit against Novell.
February 2004
The SCO Group becomes the target of the Mydoom computer worm, which was programmed to launch a denial of service attack on the company's website beginning on February 1, 2004. The Group has also been the subject of a Google bomb campaign. Google returns SCO's website as the number one hit for the phrase "litigious bastards."
SCO files a second amended complaint against IBM. It drops the trade secret claims, but adds claims of copyright infringement.
March 2004
In SCO v. AutoZone, SCO files suit against AutoZone in Nevada state court.
In SCO v. DaimlerChrysler, SCO files suit against DaimlerChrysler.
IBM files second amended counterclaims.
April 2004
The Red Hat v. SCO case is stayed until resolution of the SCO v. IBM case.
May 2004
IBM files a motion for partial summary judgment on a claim for declaratory judgment of non-infringement. This would confirm that IBM has not infringed on any SRVx code in its Linux activities.
June 2004
The SCO v. Novell case is dismissed due to inadequate pleading of special damages.
July 2004
The SCO v. AutoZone case is stayed pending the outcome in SCO v. IBM.
All claims in the SCO v. DaimlerChrysler case are dismissed except on the matter of breach of section 2.05, in that DC did not submit their response in a timely manner.
SCO files an amended complaint in SCO v. Novell.
August 2004
IBM files motion for partial summary judgment on breach of contract claims in SCO v. IBM. This judgment would confirm that the AT&T license agreement placed no restrictions on derivative works.
IBM files motion for partial summary judgment on its counterclaim for copyright infringement in SCO v. IBM. This judgment would find SCO guilty of copyright infringement of IBM's contributions to Linux.
Randall Davis (MIT) files his second declaration on behalf of IBM. In it, he describes his examination of SCO's claims of infringement, using both the "COMPARATOR" and "SIM" tools. He concluded that, "Despite an extensive review, I could find no source code in any of the IBM Code [including AIX, Dynix, Linux, or JFS] that incorporates any portion of the source code contained in the Unix System V Code or is in any other manner similar to such source code. Accordingly, the IBM Code cannot be said, in my opinion, to be a modification or a derivative work based on Unix System V Code."
Novell files a motion to dismiss.
December 2004SCO v. DaimlerChrysler case is dismissed without prejudice based on stipulation of the parties. If SCO wishes to pursue the remaining claim (i.e. whether DaimlerChrysler replied in a timely manner) again, they must pay DaimlerChrysler's legal fees from August 9, 2004.
SCO appeals to Michigan Court of Appeals.
January, 2005
SCO's appeal of the DaimlerChrysler case is dismissed.
February, 2005
IBM's motions for partial summary judgment are denied without prejudice, to be refiled after the close of discovery.
June 2005
On June 20, expert Brian W. Kernighan filed a declaration on behalf of IBM. He testified that he had performed an analysis of SCO's specific claims and that there was no similarity between the portions of Linux identified by SCO and the allegedly copyrighted works.
July 2005
On July 1, U.S. Federal Judge Dale A. Kimball denied The SCO Group's motion to amend their claim against IBM again (a third amended complaint) and include new claims regarding Monterey on the PowerPC architecture. In the same decision, the five-week jury trial date was set for February 2007.
Novell files its answer with the court, denying SCO's claims.
Novell files counterclaims asking the court to force SCO to turn over the revenues it had received from UNIX licenses, less a 5% administrative fee. Additionally, Novell asks the court to place the funds in a "constructive trust" in order to ensure that SCO can pay Novell since the company's assets are depleting rapidly.
On July 14, Groklaw obtained an email from Michael Davidson to SCO Group senior vice president Reginald Broughton sent on August 13, 2002. In it, Davidson describes The Santa Cruz Operation's own investigation into whether or not Linux contained proprietary UNIX source code. "At the end, we had found absolutely nothing, i.e., no evidence of any copyright infringement whatsoever", Davidson concluded. At which time SCO presented as evidence an e-mail from a Robert Swartz, a consultant hired by SCO to compare UNIX and Linux source files, that copyright infringement could exist.
December 2005
Final deadline passes in SCO v. IBM to disclose allegedly misused material with specificity. SCO provides IBM with a list of 294 alleged violations.
January 2006
SCO files a second amended complaint against Novell. It adds claims of copyright infringement, unfair competition and breach of a non-compete agreement.
April 2006
SuSE (now owned by Novell) files an arbitration request with the ICC International Court of Arbitration. It asks to preclude SCO from asserting proprietary rights to any code in Linux.
Novell files a motion to stay the case pending the resolution of SuSE arbitration.
May 2006
SCO and IBM exchange initial expert reports.
June 2006
Most of the items on SCO's list of allegedly misused material are stricken by the magistrate judge in SCO v. IBM due to lack of specificity.
November 2006
On November 29, Judge Kimball affirmed Magistrate Judge Brooke Wells' June 28, 2006 Order striking most of SCO's claimed evidence of code misuse as being too vague to be worth adjudicating.
December 2006
On December 1, Wells ruled from the bench in accepting IBM's motion to limit SCO's claims to those supported by evidence submitted by December 22, 2005 and not rejected by the court. SCO stock subsequently lost roughly 50% of its value in three days of exceptionally heavy trading.
April 2007
SCO brings Pamela Jones of Groklaw into both SCO v. IBM and SCO v. Novell cases. They claim that they have attempted to serve Jones although she denies knowledge of any such attempts.
August 2007
On August 10, Judge Dale Kimball issued a ruling in SCO v. Novell which found that "Novell is the owner of the UNIX and UnixWare copyrights" and SCO to be in breach of its SVRX licensing agreement with Novell. The ruling also cast further doubt on SCO's claims that IBM and Linux infringe against any SCO source code, and upheld Novell's right to force SCO to waive its copyright claims against IBM and Sequent. In response, on Monday, August 13, SCO stock fell over 70%, to 44 cents a share.
September 2007
The trial in SCO v. Novell was due to start on Monday September 17, in order to determine how much money SCO owed Novell. On September 14, SCO Group filed a voluntary petition for reorganization under Chapter 11 of the United States Bankruptcy Code. As a result of the petition for bankruptcy, all pending litigation was automatically stayed as per U.S.C. § 362. On September 27, NASDAQ issued SCO a notice of potential delisting, under their discretionary authority. SCO appealed this decision, but on September 19, it received another delisting warning for an insufficient bid price. On October 23, SCO announced that they had reached an agreement with York Capital Management. Pending Bankruptcy Court approval, York was to purchase most of SCO's business for a total of approximately $36 million, including financing. After Novell, IBM, and the United States Trustee objected to the deal, SCO withdrew the proposed sale on November 20, without prejudice.
November 2007
Novell succeeded in getting a court to lift SCO's Chapter 11 immunity from legal action and will continue with legal action against SCO.
December 2007
SCO stock is delisted from the NASDAQ stock exchange.
July 2008
Novell granted award of 2.5 million against SCO.
August 2009
On August 24, the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit partially reverses summary judgment in SCO v. Novell, deciding that an issue of fact was present that should have been reserved for a trial. It affirmed the judgment on royalties due, while reversing the summary judgments on ownership of UNIX and UnixWare copyrights, SCO's claim seeking specific performance, the scope of Novell's rights under Section 4.16 of the APA, and the application of the covenant of good faith and fair dealing to Novell's rights under Section 4.16 of the APA. The reversed judgments were remanded to trial.
October 2009
On October 14, 2009, SCO Group announced that the company had terminated CEO Darl McBride's contract.
March 2010
The SCO Group's case against Novell for slander of title is heard by a jury in Utah, which ruled in favor of Novell. The jury determines that the Unix copyrights never transferred to SCO. A lawyer for SCO responds that the court still needed to rule on whether Novell had the right to waive SCO's claims against IBM in a related suit and whether Novell is obligated by the sales contract to transfer the copyright to SCO. And SCO decides to continue the lawsuit against IBM for causing a decline in SCO revenues.
May 2010
Remaining issues in SCO v. Novell settled by the District Court in favor of Novell and against SCO.
June 2010
Judge Ted Stewart decides that SCO is obligated to recognize Novell's waiver of SCO's purported claims against IBM and Sequent. The Court also judges in favor of Novell and against SCO on SCO's claim for breach of the implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing, ordering the case to be closed.
December 2010
SCO files an appeal of SCO v. Novell, scheduled to be heard on January 20, 2011.
April 2011
Having sold off its operating assets other than the lawsuits, The SCO Group, Inc. then renames itself TSG Group, Inc.
August 2011
On August 30, 2011, the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit affirms SCO's loss to Novell in the second jury/bench trial. SCO's appellate brief had argued that there were evidentiary errors and other issues at trial. The affirmed verdict held that Novell did not transfer the UNIX copyrights to SCO in the amended asset purchase agreement, and that Novell has the right to waive certain alleged license violations.
August 2012
TSG Group, Inc. files to convert from Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection to Chapter 7 liquidation stating "There is no reasonable chance of rehabilitation" and that it is looking to reduce bankruptcy costs on itself while continuing to pursue the SCO v. IBM suit.
June 2013
On June 14, 2013, Judge David Nuffer rules on SCO v. IBM motions, granting SCO's motion for reconsideration and reopening the case.
June 2015
Magistrate Judge Paul M. Warner was added to the case, to oversee settlement discussions.
February 2016
On February 26, 2016, SCO and IBM filed a joint motion for final entry of judgement against SCO. This enables SCO, if it wishes, to appeal the partial summary judgements in favor of IBM. Due to its bankruptcy, its only remaining asset is its right to appeal the failure of its legal claims against IBM.
October 2017
On October 30, 2017, the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit issues a ruling partially in favor of the SCO Group, saying that SCO's claims that, as part of Project Monterey, IBM misappropriated SCO's proprietary code in relation a "sham" version of Monterrey for IBM AIX for PowerPC, could go forward. The case is remanded to Judge Nuffer in U.S. federal court.
February 2018
SCO and IBM restate their remaining claims before Judge Nuffer and discuss a plan to move toward final judgement.
May 2020
Magistrate Judge Warner was no longer assigned to overseeing settlement discussions.
March 2021
On March 31, 2021 Xinuos, Inc., the company that develops and markets the Unix-based OS's previously maintained by SCO, filed a copyright infringement and antitrust lawsuit against International Business Machines Corp. and Red Hat, Inc. in the United States District Court of the Virgin Islands, St. Thomas and St. John Division alleging that IBM and Red Hat, using wrongfully copied software code, have engaged in additional, illegal anti-competitive misconduct to corner the billion-dollar market for Unix and Linux server operating systems. IBM rejected the claims as "without merit" and "defying logic".
August 2021
Word came of a possible final settlement in the SCO v. IBM'' case, wherein documents filed in the case indicated that the bankruptcy trustee for TSG Group and IBM appeared to be on the verge of settling the outstanding, Project Monterey-based, claims in the matter for $14.25 million. As part of this, the trustee would give up any future related claims against IBM.
November 2021
The settlement was made under those terms, with IBM paying the TSG bankruptcy trustee $14.25 million and the trustee giving up all future claims and with each party paying their own legal costs.
See also
SCO-Linux controversies
SCO v. IBM
SCO v. DaimlerChrysler
SCO v. AutoZone
SCO v. Novell
Red Hat v. SCO
Xinuos
References
Timeline
SCO/Linux controversies
SCO/Linux controversies |
32750614 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplenote | Simplenote | Simplenote is a note-taking application with Markdown support. In addition to being accessible via most web browsers, cross-platform apps are available on Android, Linux, Windows, iOS, and macOS.
Simplenote has an externally accessible API, allowing other clients to be written: macOS Dashboard widget DashNote; nvPY, a cross-platform Simplenote client; amongst others. In addition, the macOS program Notational Velocity and the Windows utility ResophNotes can also sync with Simplenote.
History
Simplenote was originally developed by Simperium in 2008.
Simplenote Premium was introduced on November 23, 2009. It removed ads and added extra features such as syncing Simplenote with Dropbox.
Automattic acquired Simperium and Simplenote on January 24, 2013. In September, Automattic released an Android version and later relaunched Simplenote, which suspended the premium service and removed ads for all users.
In May 2016, an official client for Linux for Simplenote was released.
Automattic open sourced code for its Android, Electron, iOS, and macOS Simplenote apps in August 2016, making all its client apps open source.
Reception
The application was reviewed by Mac Life, reviewed in the book Lifehacker: The Guide to Working Smarter, Faster, and Better, and covered in the book The Business of iPhone and iPad App Development.
References
External links
Android (operating system) software
Automattic
Free note-taking software
Freeware
IOS software
Linux
MacOS text-related software
Note-taking software
Windows text-related software |
49863564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center%20for%20Minorities%20and%20People%20with%20Disabilities%20in%20Information%20Technology | Center for Minorities and People with Disabilities in Information Technology | The Center for Minorities and People with Disabilities in Information Technology (CMD-IT) is an American 501(c)(3), non-profit organization of public and private agencies, corporations, and institutions that focuses on supporting the development of an information technology workforce strong in underrepresented groups including African Americans, Native Americans, Hispanics, and People with disabilities. CMD-IT works with key advisors in the IT field and is responsible for the Underrepresented Women in Computing Committee at the annual Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing, one of the world's largest gatherings of Women in Technology.
Programs and initiatives
CMD-IT ("command it") supports the following programs and initiatives:
Tapia Conference. The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Richard Tapia Celebration of Diversity in Computing is a leading conference for celebrating diversity in computing. Tapia 2019 conference demographics included 30% African American, 20% Hispanic, 52% Women, and 12% people with disabilities. The Tapia Conference is sponsored by Association for Computing Machinery and presented by CMD-IT.
Academic Career Workshops for Underrepresented Participants. In these workshops, underrepresented assistant- and associate-level faculty, senior doctoral students, and post-docs are mentored in areas related to the academic career ladder. The workshops include panels of diverse senior faculty focused on areas such as the tenure and promotion process, launching a research program, effective teaching, and proposal writing. The workshops have been funded by NSF since 2007.
Newsletter. The organization newsletter is distributed monthly to over 8000 students, faculty, and professionals. It includes a calendar of events from different organizations and groups focused on the target groups and two to three important articles about current news or initiatives related to minorities and people with disabilities in IT.
Graduation Statistics of Underrepresented Groups in Computing. This project utilizes multiple databases, including WebCASPAR and CRA Taulbee Survey, to gather statistics about the graduation rates for the different computer science degree levels (associate, bachelor, masters, doctorate) for ethnic minorities and where possible, people with disabilities.
CMD-IT University Award for Retention of Minorities and Students with Disabilities in Computer Science. CMD-IT recognizes academic institutions for success in retaining underrepresented groups in computer science. The awards are presented at the ACM Richard Tapia Celebration of Diversity in Computing conferences. Recent recipients include Georgia Tech in 2017, University of North Caroline Charlotte in 2018, and University of Texas El Paso in 2019.
Achievement Award for Scientific Scholarship, Civic Science and Diversifying Computing. CMD-IT recognizes distinguished scientists and engineers for their contributions and service. Recent recipients include Dr. Cristina Villalobos of UTRGV in 2019 and Dr. Ayanna Howard, JPL's "Bionic Woman" in 2018.
See also
Association for Computing Machinery
Coalition to Diversify Computing
Computing Research Association Taulbee Survey (Gender and Diversity)
Diversity in computing
Dr. Valerie Taylor, CEO and President
Richard Tapia Celebration of Diversity in Computing
Women in Computing
References
External links
Official website
CRA Taulbee Survey website
Computer science education
Diversity in computing
Information technology organizations based in North America
2010 establishments in the United States |
24594678 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WoW64 | WoW64 | In computing on Microsoft platforms, WoW64 (Windows 32-bit on Windows 64-bit) is a subsystem of the Windows operating system capable of running 32-bit applications on 64-bit Windows. It is included in all 64-bit versions of Windows—including Windows XP Professional x64 Edition, IA-64 and x64 versions of Windows Server 2003, as well as x64 versions of Windows Vista, Windows Server 2008, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows Server 2012, Windows 8.1, Windows 10, Windows Server 2016, Windows Server 2019, and Windows 11, as well as ARM64 versions of Windows 10, Windows 11 and Windows Server 2022. In Windows Server Server Core, it is an optional component. It is not available in Windows Nano Server variants. WoW64 aims to take care of many of the differences between 32-bit Windows and 64-bit Windows, particularly involving structural changes to Windows itself.
Translation libraries
The WoW64 subsystem comprises a lightweight compatibility layer that has similar interfaces on all 64-bit versions of Windows. It aims to create a 32-bit environment that provides the interfaces required to run unmodified 32-bit Windows applications on a 64-bit system. WOW64 is implemented using several DLLs, some of which include:
Wow64.dll, the core interface to the Windows NT kernel that translates (thunks) between 32-bit and 64-bit calls, including pointer and call stack manipulations
Wow64win.dll, which provides the appropriate entry-points for 32-bit applications (win32k thunks)
Wow64cpu.dll, which takes care of switching the processor from 32-bit to 64-bit mode. This is used in x86-64 implementations of Windows only.
Other DLLs and binaries are included for Itanium and ARMv8 64-bit architectures to provide emulation to x86 or for 32-bit entry points if the architecture has a native 32-bit operating mode.
Architectures
Despite its outwardly similar appearance on all versions of 64-bit Windows, WoW64's implementation varies depending on the target instruction set architecture. For example, the version of 64-bit Windows developed for the Intel Itanium 2 processor (known as the IA-64 architecture) uses Wow64win.dll to set up the emulation of x86 instructions within the Itanium 2's unique instruction set. This emulation is a much more computationally expensive task than the Wow64win.dll's functions on the x86-64 architecture, which switches the processor hardware from its 64-bit mode to compatibility mode when it becomes necessary to execute a 32-bit thread, and then handles the switch back to 64-bit mode.
Registry and file system
The WoW64 subsystem also handles other key aspects of running 32-bit applications. It is involved in managing the interaction of 32-bit applications with the Windows components such as the Registry, which has distinct keys for 64-bit and 32-bit applications. For example, HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\Software\Wow6432Node is the 32-bit equivalent of HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\Software (although 32-bit applications are not aware of this redirection). Some Registry keys are mapped from 64-bit to their 32-bit equivalents, while others have their contents mirrored, depending on the edition of Windows.
The operating system uses the %SystemRoot%\system32 directory for its 64-bit library and executable files. This is done for backward compatibility reasons, as many legacy applications are hardcoded to use that path. When executing 32-bit applications, WoW64 transparently redirects 32-bit DLLs to %SystemRoot%\SysWoW64, which contains 32-bit libraries and executables. Exceptions from these redirects are
%SystemRoot%\system32\catroot
%SystemRoot%\system32\catroot2
%SystemRoot%\system32\driverstore (redirected only for Windows Server 2008, Windows Vista, Windows Server 2003 and Windows XP)
%SystemRoot%\system32\drivers\etc
%SystemRoot%\system32\logfiles
%SystemRoot%\system32\spool
32-bit applications are generally not aware that they are running on a 64-bit operating system. 32-bit applications can access %SystemRoot%\System32 through the pseudo directory %SystemRoot%\sysnative.
There are two Program Files directories each visible to both 32-bit and 64-bit applications. The directory that stores the 32 bit files is called Program Files (x86) to differentiate between the two, while the 64 bit maintains the traditional Program Files name without any additional qualifier.
Application compatibility
32-bit applications that include only 32-bit kernel-mode device drivers, or that plug into the process space of components that are implemented purely as 64-bit processes (e.g. Windows Explorer) cannot be executed on a 64-bit platform.
32-bit service applications are supported. The SysWOW64 folder located in the Windows folder on the OS drive contains several applications to support 32-bit applications (e.g. cmd.exe, odbcad32.exe, to register ODBC connections for 32-bit applications). 16-bit legacy applications for MS-DOS and early versions of Windows are usually incompatible with 64-bit versions of Windows Vista, 7, 8, and 10, but can be run on a 64-bit Windows OS via virtualization software. 32-bit versions of Windows XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10 on the other hand, can usually run 16-bit applications with few to no problems. 16-bit applications cannot be directly run under x64 editions of Windows, because the CPU does not support VM86 mode when running in x64.
Internet Explorer is implemented as both a 32-bit and a 64-bit application because of the large number of 32-bit ActiveX components on the Internet that would not be able to plug into the 64-bit version.
Previously, the 32-bit version was used by-default and it was difficult to set the 64-bit version to be the default browser. This changed in Internet Explorer 10, which ran 32-bit add-ons inside a 64-bit session, eliminating the need to switch between the two versions. If a user was to go into the 32-bit folder (typically C:\Program Files (x86)\Internet Explorer) and double-click the iexplore.exe file there, the 64-bit version will still load. In Internet Explorer 9 and previous, this would load only the 32-bit version.
, a bug in the translation layer of the x64 version of WoW64 also renders all 32-bit applications that rely on the Windows API function GetThreadContext incompatible. Such applications include application debuggers, call stack tracers (e.g. IDEs displaying call stack) and applications that use garbage collection (GC) engines. One of the more widely used but affected GC engines is the Boehm GC. It is also used as the default garbage collector of the equally popular Mono. While Mono has introduced a new (but optional) GC as of October 2010 called SGen-GC, it performs stack scanning in the same manner as Boehm GC, thus also making it incompatible under WoW64. No fix has been provided as of July 2016, although workarounds have been suggested.
Performance
According to Microsoft, 32-bit software running under WOW64 has similar performance to executing under 32-bit Windows, but with fewer threads possible and other overheads.
A 32-bit application can be given a full 4 gigabytes of virtual memory on a 64-bit system, whereas on a 32-bit system, some of this addressable memory is lost because it is used by the kernel and memory-mapped peripherals such as the display adaptor, typically resulting in apps being able to use either 2GB or 3GB of RAM at most.
See also
Shim (computing)
User Account Control also has a mechanism for dealing with "older" programs that write files to specific areas, on "newer" windows. Files written from a process without administrator privileges to protected locations, such as Program Files and windows\system32, will be redirected to a virtual store directory.
Windows on Windows
References
External links
MSDN page on running 32 bit apps on 64 bit Windows
Windows NT architecture
Compatibility layers |
2004122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-based%20access%20control | Context-based access control | Context-based access control (CBAC) is a feature of firewall software, which intelligently filters TCP and UDP packets based on application layer protocol session information. It can be used for intranets, extranets and internets.
CBAC can be configured to permit specified TCP and UDP traffic through a firewall only when the connection is initiated from within the network needing protection. (In other words, CBAC can inspect traffic for sessions that originate from the external network.) However, while this example discusses inspecting traffic for sessions that originate from the external network, CBAC can inspect traffic for sessions that originate from either side of the firewall. This is the basic function of a stateful inspection firewall.
Without CBAC, traffic filtering is limited to access list implementations that examine packets at the network layer, or at most, the transport layer. However, CBAC examines not only network layer and transport layer information but also examines the application-layer protocol information (such as FTP connection information) to learn about the state of the TCP or UDP session. This allows support of protocols that involve multiple channels created as a result of negotiations in the FTP control channel. Most of the multimedia protocols as well as some other protocols (such as FTP, RPC, and SQL*Net) involve multiple control channels.
CBAC inspects traffic that travels through the firewall to discover and manage state information for TCP and UDP sessions. This state information is used to create temporary openings in the firewall's access lists to allow return traffic and additional data connections for permissible sessions (sessions that originated from within the protected internal network).
CBAC works through deep packet inspection and hence Cisco calls it 'IOS firewall' in their Internetwork Operating System (IOS).
CBAC also provides the following benefits:
Denial-of-service prevention and detection
Real-time alerts and audit trails
See also
References
Computer access control
Firewall software
Packets (information technology)
Data security
Access control |
18963659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20University%20of%20Ljubljana%20people | List of University of Ljubljana people | This is a partially sorted list of notable persons who have had ties to the University of Ljubljana.
Distinguished faculty
Architecture
Jože Plečnik
Edvard Ravnikar
Ivan Vurnik
The arts
Božidar Jakac, drawing and graphics
Boris Kalin, sculpture
Gojmir Anton Kos, painting
Pino Mlakar, performing arts
Economics, administration and political science
Mihael Brejc, public administration
Milko Brezigar, economics
Vlado Dimovski, economics and management
Andrej Gosar, economics and political theory
Dušan Mramor, economics
Dušan Radonjič, economics
Dimitrij Rupel, international relations
Gregor Virant, public administration
Humanities and social sciences
Miran Božovič, philosophy
Milan Brglez, political theory, international relations
Aleš Debeljak, cultural studies
Božidar Debenjak, philosophy
Mladen Dolar, philosophy
Mitja Ferenc, history
Arturo Gavazzi, geography
Christian Gostečnik, theology and psychology
Bogo Grafenauer, Medieval history
Vekoslav Grmič, theology
Miran Hladnik, literary historian
Toussaint Hočevar, economic history
Gert Hofmann, German literature
Dean Komel, philosophy
Milko Kos, history
Avgust Pavel, ethnology and philology
Dušan Pirjevec, comparative literature
Janko Pleterski, history
Igor Pribac, philosophy of history
Janko Prunk, history
Rado Riha, philosophy and psychoanalysis
Franc Rode, theology
Dimitrij Rupel, sociology, international relations
Vasko Simoniti, history
Igor Škamperle, cultural sociology
Peter Štih, history
Anton Stres, theology
Gregor Tomc, sociology
Aleš Ušeničnik, theology
Marta Verginella, history
Sergij Vilfan, legal history
Peter Vodopivec, history
Adela Žgur, German and English literature
Slavoj Žižek, philosophy
Alenka Zupančič, philosophy
Fran Zwitter, history
Law
France Bučar, law and public administration
Boris Furlan, philosophy of Law
Peter Jambrek, Constitutional Law
Leonid Pitamic, philosophy of Law
Danilo Türk, international law
Linguistics
Dalibor Brozović
Janez Orešnik
Marko Snoj
Jože Toporišič
Zinka Zorko
Mathematics
Josip Globevnik
Dragan Marušič
Marko Petkovšek
Josip Plemelj
Medicine
Bojan Accetto, gerontology
Milan Pogačnik, veterinary medicine
Natural sciences
France Adamič, biology
Robert Blinc, physics
Matija Gogala, biology
Anton Peterlin, physics
Wojciech Rubinowicz, theoretical physics
Janez Strnad, physics
Martin Čopič, physics
Technology
Ivan Bratko, computer science
Bojan Kraut, civil engineering
Tomaž Pisanski, computer science
Franc Solina, computer science
Denis Trček, computer science
Milan Vidmar, electrical engineering
Blaž Zupan, computer science
Notable alumni
Architects
Marjetica Potrč
Edvard Ravnikar
Vojteh Ravnikar
Artists
Stojan Batič, sculptor
Janez Lapajne, film director
Miljenko Licul, designer
Adriana Maraž, painter
Pino Mlakar, choreographer
Authors
France Balantič, poet
Vladimir Bartol, writer
Matej Bor, poet
Ivo Brnčić, author and critic
Aleš Debeljak, poet and sociologist
Jože Javoršek, playwright and essayist
Edvard Kocbek, poet
Srečko Kosovel, poet
Juš Kozak, writer
Primož Kozak, playwright and essayist
Feri Lainšček, novelist and screenwriter
Iztok Osojnik, poet
Žarko Petan, essayist
Alojz Rebula, writer and essayist
Tomaž Šalamun, poet
Dušan Šarotar, writer, literary critic and editor
Rudi Šeligo, novelist, playwright and politician
Peter Semolič, poet
Anja Štefan, writer, poet and story teller
Aleš Šteger, poet
Bojan Štih, stage director, literary critic and essayist
Businessmen
Filip Smrekar Apih
Zoran Janković
Law
Ljuba Prenner (1906-1977) noted criminal attorney and author of the first crime novel published in Slovenia.
Physicians
Bojan Accetto
Janez Janež
Milan Pogačnik
Politicians and diplomats
Janez Drnovšek, President of Slovenia 2002-2007
Mitja Gaspari, economist and politician
Peter Jambrek, sociologist, jurist and politician
Janez Janša, politician
Iztok Jarc, diplomat and politician
Romana Jordan Cizelj, Member of European Parliament
Jelko Kacin, politician
Milan Kučan, President of Slovenia
Dragutin Mate, diplomat and politician
Mojca Drčar Murko, journalist and Member of the European Parliament
Ljudmila Novak, Member of European Parliament
Borut Pahor, politician
Lojze Peterle, politician, head of the first democratic Government of Slovenia
Milan Pogačnik, politician
Janez Potočnik, European Commissioner
Jože Pučnik, dissident, sociologist, president of the DEMOS coalition
Anton Rop, former Prime Minister of Slovenia
Dimitrij Rupel, Foreign Minister of Slovenia, writer
Matjaž Šinkovec, diplomat and politician
Jožef Školč, politician
Danilo Türk, diplomat; former Assistant Secretary-General for Political Affairs for the United Nations; President of Slovenia
Milan Zver, politician, sociologist and political scientist
Melania Trump, Former First Lady of the United States
Scientists and academians
Robert Blinc, physicist
Katja Boh, sociologist, diplomat and politician
Davorin Dolar, chemist
Mladen Dolar, philosopher
Draga Garašanin, prehistorian and archaeologist
Boris M. Gombač, historian
Andreja Gomboc, astrophysicist
Bogo Grafenauer, historian
Taras Kermauner, literary theoretician and historian
Milan Komar, philosopher
Rado Lenček, Professor of Slavic Studies at Columbia University
Jure Leskovec, computer scientist
Oto Luthar, historian
Vasilij Melik, historian
Janez Orešnik, linguist
Jože Pirjevec, historian
Janko Pleterski, historian, diplomat and politician
Dušan Repovš, mathematician
Rado Riha, philosopher
Renata Salecl, legal theorist
Ljubo Sirc, economist, professor at Glasgow University
Simona Škrabec, literary theorist; professor at the Autonomous University of Barcelona
Anton Strle, theologian
Janez Strnad, physicist
Gregor Tomc, sociologist and musician
Ivan Vidav, mathematician
Milica Kacin Wohinz, historian
Egon Zakrajšek, computer scientist
Slavoj Žižek, philosopher
Alenka Zupančič, philosopher
Fran Zwitter, historian
Others
Janez Gradišnik, translator
Bruno Parma, chess player and Grandmaster
Alenka Puhar, columnist, historian, political activist
See also
Education in Slovenia
List of people from Ljubljana
References
Ljubljana
People
University |
47611603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt%20Nanotechnology%20Center | Egypt Nanotechnology Center | Egypt Nanotechnology Center (EGNC) (Arabic: مركز مصر للنانو تكنولوجي) is the joint result of partnership agreement between the Egyptian Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (Egypt) represented by Information Technology Industry Development Agency (ITIDA), Egyptian Ministry of Higher Education represented by Cairo University and Egyptian Ministry of Scientific Research represented by the Science and Technological Development Fund (SCID). It represents a state of art initiative launched by the Egyptian government in 2008 to support industrial research novelty.
History
The center was proposed by the Egyptian government in 2008 and planning for the centre was based on a memorandum of understanding signed in September 2008 between the development agency, on behalf of the Egyptian Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (Egypt), SCID and IBM.
The development of human capital started by sending 10 Egyptian researchers to gain industrial R&D experience in IBM’s research labs in Yorktown Heights and Zurich. During their post, they work in collaboration with IBM’s scientists on five main projects. Cairo University and Nile University were the founding academic partners of EGNC, and additional academic partners have been such as Mansoura University, and the Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology.
The center has 44 patents and published 25 researches in international scientific periodicals of nanotechnology applications in the period between 2009 and 2013
Aims and Vision
This state of the art research center will contribute to the growth of the national economy through the development of human capital, the production of valuable intellectual property and the promotion of nanotechnology applications in all sectors that are relevant to the economic development of Egypt. The aim of the Center is to build and strengthen applied and industrial research and its infrastructure in the areas of greatest strategic value to Egypt's long-term competitiveness and development. The center also aims at making the Egyptian economy become among the top 10 in the world in terms of the relative growth resulting from the development and application of nanotechnology.
Structure
The EGNC will include 28 specialized laboratories that equipped with the most up-to-date nanotechnology devices to help researchers work on the advanced Nano-science and Nanotechnology projects. The building include the largest clean room in Egypt with an area of 600 m2 which will be expanded to 2000 m2. This clean room will be open to the Egyptian public and private sector research activities. Another vital objective of the EGNC is to help researchers complete the projects they are working on within similar environment and help them translate their knowhow into useful applications that can be used in different Industries.
Partners
The EGNC is funded mainly by Egyptian Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (Egypt), Egyptian Ministry of Higher Education, Egyptian Ministry of Scientific Research, Information Technology Industry Development Agency (ITIDA) and Science and Technological Development Fund (SCID).
The center also have many academic partners including Cairo University and Nile University, in addition to technology partners as IBM. The EGNC is also involved in joint projects with abroad universities and institutes as the Integrated Water Technologies (IWaTec) program with University of Duisburg-Essen.
Current Research Focus
Research in EGNC focuses on solar energy, healthcare and drug design, water purification technologies, advanced software tools, simulation methods, multi-scale modeling techniques and algorithms.
Current areas of focus for research include thin film silicon photovoltaics, energy recovery from concentrated photovoltaics for desalination, biosensors and computational modeling and simulation, Graphene Transparent Electrode and Nano-Biotechnology.
See also
List of nanotechnology organizations
References
2009 establishments in Egypt
Research institutes in Egypt
Science and technology in Egypt
Scientific organisations based in Egypt
Egyptian scientists
Nanotechnology institutions
Nanotechnology centers in Egypt |
3781602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Scheidt | Edward Scheidt | Edward Michael Scheidt is a retired Chairman of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Cryptographic Center and the designer of the cryptographic systems used in the Kryptos sculpture at CIA Headquarters in Langley, Virginia.
Early life
Scheidt was born July 20, 1939 in Santa Monica, California United States. He graduated in 1957 from Cor Jesu High School in New Orleans and then joined the Army, where he worked in Signals Intelligence.
CIA
In 1963, he was hired as a communications officer for the CIA, in the Office of Communications, which began a 26-year career, retiring in December 1989. Scheidt spent 12 years posted overseas, including serving in Laos in the early 1960s, Lebanon in the late 1960s, and a tour in Southeast Asia. Most often he used one-time pad paper systems of encryption. Scheidt received a B.A. in business administration from the University of Maryland in 1970 and a degree in telecommunications from George Washington University in 1975.
Scheidt is best known for his involvement with Kryptos, a sculpture in the CIA courtyard which contains one of the world's most famous unsolved codes. Kryptos was created by Washington DC sculptor Jim Sanborn, who was commissioned by the CIA in the 1980s to create art around their new Headquarters building in 1988. After Sanborn decided he wanted to incorporate some encrypted messages in his artwork, he was teamed with Scheidt, who was in the process of retiring and was called by then-director William H. Webster "The Wizard of Codes". Up until that point, Sanborn had never used encryption or text in his work. Scheidt taught various encryption methods to Sanborn, who chose the exact messages to be encrypted. Of the messages on the sculpture, three have been solved, but the fourth section, 97 or 98 characters at the very bottom, remains uncracked."
In 1991, journalist Bill Gertz referred to Scheidt as the "Deep Throat of Codes" while describing his clandestine meetings with Sanborn. This nickname was later said to have been applied to Scheidt by Webster before being added to Scheidt's bio on the TecSec website by 2015.
TecSec
In the early 1990s, Scheidt noted that encryption, which originated for primarily one-to-one communications, now faced new and substantially different key management requirements in large network or virtual network environments. It was into this technologically dynamic environment that Ed co-founded TecSec Inc., a software encryption company in 1990 in Vienna, Virginia, where as of 2020 he works as Chief Scientist.
One of their first ventures was to manufacture portable satellite versions of the secure STU-III telephones used by the government. Scheidt manufactured the first model in his home basement workshop, and approximately 500 were in use worldwide by the United States Foreign Service as of 2002. The company also set out to create an encryption design with its key management that could be cited in standards or use components of standards.
In forming TecSec and building the company's large IP library, he anticipated the flexibility and mobility required of 21st Century communication systems with a key management system that is primarily client-based and much less dependent upon a central server. The relative scalability achieved by this approach, together with encryption at the object level, provides enforced role based access and granularity not otherwise available. Ed remains deeply involved in the company's product development and expanding application solutions, just as he is in general management.
In February 2010 TecSec filed a lawsuit against several large tech vendors claiming infringement of several patents covering encryption technology.
Other
As of September 2020, Scheidt is vice chair, ANSI X9F for global security standards, Accredited Standards Committee X9, which develops and promotes standards for the US financial services industry. Scheidt is also convenor of ISO TC68/SC2/Working group (WG) 17 for the creation of the digital currency security Technical Specification international standard. WG17 includes representation from various countries and commercial interest. As convenor of WG17, Scheidt represents ISO to ITU for their Fiat digital currency efforts.
References
Further reading
"Information-Centric Security", February 6, 2004, Pentagon report, co-written with Wai Tsang and Karen Burkardsmaier
External links
Kryptos FAQ
TecSec information page
"Techway", November 7, 2002, The Washington Post
Bouchercon 2001
The Peggy Smedley Show, 5 August 2014
Living people
Modern cryptographers
American cryptographers
People of the Central Intelligence Agency
1939 births
Brother Martin High School alumni
George Washington University alumni
People from New Orleans
Mathematicians from California
Mathematicians from Louisiana |
1014399 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PERQ | PERQ | The PERQ, also referred to as the Three Rivers PERQ or ICL PERQ, was a pioneering workstation computer produced in the late 1970s through the early 1980s. In June 1979, the company took its very first order from the UK's Rutherford Appleton Laboratory and the computer was officially launched in August 1979 at SIGGRAPH in Chicago. It was the first commercially produced personal workstation with a Graphical User Interface. The design was heavily influenced by the original workstation computer, the Xerox Alto, which was never commercially produced. The origin of the name "PERQ" was chosen both as an acronym of "Pascal Engine that Runs Quicker," and to evoke the word perquisite commonly called perks, that is employee additional benefits.
The workstation was conceived by six former Carnegie Mellon University alumni and employees, Brian S. Rosen, James R. Teter, William H. Broadley, J. Stanley Kriz, Raj Reddy and Paul G. Newbury, who formed the startup Three Rivers Computer Corporation (3RCC) in 1974. Brian Rosen also worked at Xerox PARC on the Dolphin workstation. As a result of interest from the UK Science Research Council (later, the Science and Engineering Research Council), 3RCC entered into a relationship with the British computer company ICL in 1981 for European distribution, and later co-development and manufacturing. The PERQ was used in a number of academic research projects in the UK during the 1980s. 3RCC was renamed PERQ System Corporation in 1984. It went out of business in 1986, largely due to competition from other workstation manufacturers such as Sun Microsystems, Apollo Computer and Silicon Graphics.
Hardware
Processor
The PERQ CPU was a microcoded discrete logic design, rather than a microprocessor. It was based around 74S181 bit-slice ALUs and an Am2910 microcode sequencer. The PERQ CPU was unusual in having 20-bit wide registers and a writable control store (WCS), allowing the microcode to be redefined. The CPU had a microinstruction cycle period of 170 ns (5.88 MHz).
PERQ 1
The original PERQ (also known as the PERQ 1), launched in 1980, was housed in a pedestal-type cabinet with a brown fascia and an 8-inch floppy disk drive mounted horizontally at the top.
The PERQ 1 CPU had a WCS comprising 4k words of 48-bit microcode memory. The later PERQ 1A CPU extended the WCS to 16k words. The PERQ 1 could be configured with 256 kB, 1MB or 2 MB of 64-bit-wide RAM (accessed via a 16-bit bus), a 12 or 24 MB, 14-inch Shugart SA-4000-series hard disk, and an 8-inch floppy disk drive. The internal layout of the PERQ 1 was dominated by the vertically mounted hard disk drive. It was largely this that determined the height and depth of the chassis.
A basic PERQ 1 system comprised a CPU board, a memory board (incorporating the framebuffer and monitor interface) and an I/O board (IOB, also called CIO). The IOB included a Zilog Z80 microprocessor, an IEEE-488 interface, an RS-232 serial port, hard and floppy disk interfaces and speech synthesis hardware. PERQ 1s also had a spare Optional I/O (OIO) board slot for additional interfaces such as Ethernet.
A graphics tablet was standard. Most PERQ 1s were supplied with an 8½ ×11-inch, 768×1024 pixel portrait orientation white phosphor monochrome monitor.
PERQ 2
The PERQ 2 (codenamed Kristmas during development) was announced in 1983. The PERQ 2 could be distinguished from the PERQ 1 by its wider, ICL-designed cabinet, with a lighter-coloured fascia, vertical floppy disk drive and three-digit diagnostic display.
The PERQ 2 used the same 16k WCS CPU as the PERQ 1A and had a 3-button mouse in place of the graphics tablet. It was configured with a quieter 8-inch 35 MB Micropolis Corporation 1201 hard disk, 1 or 2 MB of RAM and had the option of the PERQ 1's portrait monitor or a 19-inch, 1280×1024 landscape orientation monitor.
Due to manufacturing problems with the original 3RCC PERQ 2 (also known as the K1), ICL revised the hardware design, resulting in the PERQ 2 T1 (or ICL 8222).
The later PERQ 2 T2 (ICL 8223) and PERQ 2 T4 models replaced the 8-inch hard disk with a 5¼-inch hard disk, which also allowed for a second disk to be installed internally.
The T4 model (of which only around 10 are thought to have been produced) had an extended 24-bit CPU and backplane bus, allowing the use of a 4MB RAM board.
The PERQ 2 retained the PERQ 1's OIO slot, but replaced the IOB with either an EIO (Ethernet I/O) or NIO (Non-Ethernet I/O) boards. These were similar to the IOB, with the addition of a non-volatile real-time clock, a second RS-232 port, and (on the EIO board) an Ethernet interface.
PERQ 3
The PERQ 3A (otherwise known as the ICL 3300 Advanced Graphics Workstation) was developed by ICL as a replacement for the PERQ 2. The PERQ 3A had an all-new hardware architecture based around a 12.5 MHz Motorola 68020 microprocessor and 68881 floating-point unit, plus two AMD 29116A 32-bit bit slice processors which acted as graphics co-processors. It also had up to 2 MB of RAM, a SCSI hard disk and was housed in a desktop "mini-tower"-style enclosure. The operating system was a port of UNIX System V Release 2 called PNX 300. Prototype units were produced in 1985, but the project was cancelled before full production commenced (the project had run late and ICL decided it was a solution provider - it would sell Sun workstations as part of the solution).
Another workstation design under development at the time of the company's demise, the PERQ 3B was a colour model (sometimes referred to as the PERQ 5) was taken over by Crosfield Electronics for its Crosfield Studio 9500 page layout workstation. The workstation was also known internally as Python, was developed in 1986 jointly by MegaScan and Conner Scelza Associates (both in Gibsonia, Pittsburgh) and the Crosfield team (in Hemel Hempstead, England). MegaScan, led by Brian Rosen, developed the workstation electronics and Conner Scelza Associates (led by Jerry Conner and Don Scelza) ported UNIX and wrote all the other supporting software. Crosfield (led by Andrew Chapman) were the overall project managers and had embedded engineers in MegaScan (Simon Butler and Mark Somervail) and Conner Scelza (Roger Willcocks).
The Crosfield requirement was for a very high performance graphics system (known as Viper, developed by their subsidiary benchMark Technologies) and a large (at the time) amount of disk storage. The Crosfield team in Hemel Hempstead developed an early RAID solution that supported up to 8 SCSI controllers operating in parallel with data streaming from 5¼-inch full-height drives and a fast fibre-optic network known as GALAN. Prototypes were running in late 1986 in both the US and UK and volume production from Crosfield's Peterborough factory started early 1987.
Peripherals
Various optional OIO boards were produced for the PERQ 1 and 2: 3RCC OIO boards provided a 16-bit parallel PERQlink interface (intended for downloading microcode from another PERQ at boot time) plus Ethernet and/or a Canon CX laser printer controller. Thus, a PERQ 2 could be configured with two Ethernet ports (EIO plus OIO). A dot-matrix printer could also be connected to the RS-232 or IEEE-488 ports. Other third-party OIO boards were produced to interface to other devices, such as QIC-02 tape drives or video cameras.
Software
The PERQ's original p-Code-like instruction set (called Q-Code) was optimized for Pascal (specifically, an extended PERQ Pascal). Q-Code instructions could be executed at a rate of up to 1 million instructions per second. This gave rise to the alternative definition of the PERQ name: Pascal Evaluation Real Quick. In fact it was generally more efficient to use Pascal than to attempt to create "assembly language" programs directly with Q-Code.
Operating systems
A variety of operating systems were developed for the PERQ. These included:
POS (PERQ Operating System) The initial single-task operating system for PERQ workstations, developed by 3RCC. POS and its utilities were written in PERQ Pascal.
MPOS (Multitasking POS) A multitasking version of POS, not officially released by 3RCC.
Accent A multitasking research operating system developed at CMU, with a window manager called Sapphire. Accent was a predecessor of the Mach kernel which many later operating systems would use. A UNIX System V-compatible environment running under Accent in a Sapphire window, called QNIX, was developed by Spider Systems.
PNX ( ) A port of Unix for the PERQ, based on Seventh Edition Unix and UNIX System III. This was developed by ICL at Bracknell, Dalkeith Palace and later Kidsgrove (Staffordshire) for the UK research community. PNX used its own microcode, more appropriate for the C programming language, called C-Code.
FLEX Developed by the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment, FLEX was implemented in microcode and similar to other early workstation systems such as Lisp machines, UCSD Pascal or Modula-2, except that the language of choice was ALGOL 68.
Applications
The PERQ was a popular early graphical workstation; therefore, it helped spawn many early third-party applications that took advantage of the graphical user interface and bitmapped graphics. Intran (around 1982) produced a pioneering graphical program suite called MetaForm, which consisted of the separate Graphics Builder, Font Builder, Form Builder, and File Manager programs. The PERQ also served as a dedicated platform for several pioneering hypertext programs, such as ZOG, KMS, and Guide. DP ("Drawing Program"), a CAD system used for creating circuit diagrams on the PERQ, was written by Dario Giuse at CMU.
References
External links
ICL Technical Journal - November 1982
All About PERQ Workstations
DigiBarn: The Three Rivers PERQ
PERQ Documentation at bitsavers.org
Graphical User Interface Gallery: Three Rivers / ICL Perq
Rutherford Laboratory Atlas Computing Division: Single User System Programme archive. Includes detailed material relating to PERQ history as it affected a joint project involving the Science and Engineering Research Council and ICL.
PERQemu: a PERQ 1 emulator for Microsoft Windows/Mono (under development, v0.21 is capable of booting and running POS)
Computer-related introductions in 1980
Personal computers
ICL workstations |
2199995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedicated%20hosting%20service | Dedicated hosting service | A dedicated hosting service, dedicated server, or managed hosting service is a type of Internet hosting in which the client leases an entire server not shared with anyone else. This is more flexible than shared hosting, as organizations have full control over the server(s), including choice of operating system, hardware, etc.
There is also another level of dedicated or managed hosting commonly referred to as complex managed hosting. Complex Managed Hosting applies to both physical dedicated servers, Hybrid server and virtual servers, with many companies choosing a hybrid (combination of physical and virtual) hosting solution.
There are many similarities between standard and complex managed hosting but the key difference is the level of administrative and engineering support that the customer pays for – owing to both the increased size and complexity of the infrastructure deployment. The provider steps in to take over most of the management, including security, memory, storage and IT support. The service is primarily proactive in nature. Server administration can usually be provided by the hosting company as an add-on service. In some cases a dedicated server can offer less overhead and a larger return on investment. Dedicated servers are hosted in data centers, often providing redundant power sources and HVAC systems. In contrast to colocation, the server hardware is owned by the provider and in some cases they will provide support for operating systems or applications.
Using a dedicated hosting service offers the benefits of high performance, security, email stability, and control. Due to the relatively high price of dedicated hosting, it is mostly used by websites that receive a large volume of traffic.
Operating system support
Availability, price and employee familiarity often determines which operating systems are offered on dedicated servers. Variations of Linux and Unix (open source operating systems) are often included at no charge to the customer. Commercial operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server, provided through a special program called Microsoft Services Provider License Agreement, or SPLA.
Red Hat Enterprise is a commercial version of Linux offered to hosting providers on a monthly fee basis. The monthly fee provides OS updates through the Red Hat Network using an application called Yum. Other operating systems are available from the open source community at no charge. These include CentOS, Fedora Core, Debian, and many other Linux distributions or BSD systems FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD.
Support for any of these operating systems typically depends on the level of management offered with a particular dedicated server plan. Operating system support may include updates to the core system in order to acquire the latest security fixes, patches, and system-wide vulnerability resolutions. Updates to core operating systems include kernel upgrades, service packs, application updates, and security patches that keep the server secure and safe. Operating system updates and support relieves the burden of server management from the dedicated server owner.
Bandwidth and connectivity
Bandwidth refers to the data transfer rate or the amount of data that can be carried from one point to another in a given time period (usually a second) and is often represented in bits (of data) per second (bit/s).
95th percentile method
Line speed, billed on the 95th percentile, refers to the speed in which data flows from the server or device, measured every 5 minutes for the month, and dropping the top 5% of measurements that are highest, and basing the usage for the month on the next-highest measurement. This is similar to a median measurement, which can be thought of as a 50th percentile measurement (with 50% of measurements above, and 50% of measurements below), whereas this sets the cutoff at 95th percentile, with 5% of measurements above the value, and 95% of measurements below the value. This is also known as Burstable billing. Line speed is measured in bits per second (or kilobits per second, megabits per second or gigabits per second).
Line speed, assessed every 5 minutes for the month and based on the next-highest measurement, is billed on the 95th percentile. This is comparable to median measurement, which is a 50th percentile measurement, whereas this places the cutoff at the 95th percentile, with 5% of measurements above the value and 95% of measurements below the value. A bit per second is the unit of measurement for line speed.
Unmetered method
The second bandwidth measurement is unmetered service where providers cap or control the “top line” speed for a server. Top line speed in unmetered bandwidth is the total Mbit/s allocated to the server and configured on the switch level. Unmetered bandwidth services usually incur an additional charge.
The next type of bandwidth measurement is unmetered examine, which limits or controls a server's top-line rate. The total Mbit/s allocated to the server and configured on the switch level is the top line speed in unmetered bandwidth. Unmetered bandwidth services are frequently subject to a surcharge.
Total transfer method
Some providers will calculate the Total Transfer, which is the measurement of actual data leaving and arriving, measured in bytes. Although it is typically the sum of all traffic into and out of the server, some providers measure only outbound traffic (traffic from the server to the internet).
Some providers will calculate the Total Transfer, which measures actual data leaving and arriving in bytes, as assessed by some providers. Although most providers track all traffic entering and leaving the server, others also track outbound traffic.
Bandwidth pooling
One of the reasons for choosing to outsource dedicated servers is the availability of high powered networks from multiple providers. As dedicated server providers utilize massive amounts of bandwidth, they are able to secure lower volume based pricing to include a multi-provider blend of bandwidth. To achieve the same type of network without a multi-provider blend of bandwidth, a large investment in core routers, long term contracts, and expensive monthly bills would need to be in place. The expenses needed to develop a network without a multi-provider blend of bandwidth does not make sense economically for hosting providers.
Many dedicated server providers include a service level agreement based on network up-time. Some dedicated server hosting providers offer a 100% up-time guarantee on their network. By securing multiple vendors for connectivity and using redundant hardware, providers are able to guarantee higher up-times; usually between 99-100% up-time if they are a higher quality provider. One aspect of higher quality providers is they are most likely to be multi-homed across multiple quality up-link providers, which in turn, provides significant redundancy in the event one goes down in addition to potentially improved routes to destinations.
Bandwidth consumption over the last several years has shifted from a per megabit usage model to a per gigabyte usage model. Bandwidth was traditionally measured inline speed access that included the ability to purchase needed megabits at a given monthly cost. As the shared hosting model developed, the trend towards gigabyte or total bytes transferred, replaced the megabit line speed model so dedicated server providers started offering per gigabyte.
The availability of high-speed networks from numerous suppliers is one of the reasons for outsourcing dedicated servers. Dedicated server providers can get lower volume-based pricing to incorporate a multi-provider mix of bandwidth since they use enormous amounts of bandwidth. For hosting providers, the costs of developing a network without a multi-provider blend of bandwidth are prohibitively expensive. A substantial investment in core routers, long-term
contracts and expensive monthly payments would be required to build the same type of network without a multi-provider blend of bandwidth.
Many dedicated server providers are included in a service level agreement based on network uptime. Some dedicated server hosting companies promise that their network will be up and running at all times. Providers are able to guarantee higher up-times by obtaining numerous vendors for connectivity and deploying redundant hardware. Typically, 99-100 percent up-time if they are a higher grade service. Higher-quality providers are more likely to be multi-homed across numerous high-quality up-link providers, providing significant redundancy in the event one fails, as well as potentially better routes to destinations.
Traditionally, bandwidth was measured inline speed access, which included purchasing needed megabits for a set monthly fee. The gigabyte of total bytes transmitted model supplanted the megabit line speed model as the shared hosting prototype progressed, and so the dedicated server providers started to provide per gigabyte. The utilization of bandwidth has shifted from megabits to gigabytes in recent years.
Management
Dedicated hosting services primarily differ from managed hosting services in that managed hosting services usually offer more support and other services. As such, managed hosting is targeted towards clients with less technical knowledge, whereas dedicated hosting services, or unmanaged hosting services, are suitable for web development and system administrator professionals.
To date, no industry standards have been set to clearly define the management role of dedicated server providers. What this means is that each provider will use industry standard terms, but each provider will define them differently. For some dedicated server providers, fully managed is defined as having a web based control panel while other providers define it as having dedicated system engineers readily available to handle all server and network related functions of the dedicated server provider.
Server management can include some or all of the following:
Operating system updates
Application updates
Server monitoring
SNMP hardware monitoring
Application monitoring
Application management
Technical support
Firewall services
Anti-spam software
Antivirus updates
Security audits
DDoS protection and mitigation
Intrusion detection
Backups and restoration
Disaster recovery
DNS hosting service
Load balancing
Database administration
Performance tuning
Out-of-band Management
Software installation and configuration
User management
Programming consultation
Dedicated hosting server providers define their level of management based on the services they provide. In comparison, fully managed could equal self managed from provider to provider.
Administrative maintenance of the operating system, often including upgrades, security patches, and sometimes even daemon updates are included. Differing levels of management may include adding users, domains, daemon configuration, or even custom programming.
Dedicated server hosting providers may provide the following types of server managed support:
Fully managed – Includes monitoring, software updates, reboots, security patches and operating system upgrades. Customers are completely hands-off.
Managed – Includes medium level of management, monitoring, updates, and a limited amount of support. Customers may perform specific tasks.
Self-managed – Includes regular monitoring and some maintenance. Customers provide most operations and tasks on dedicated server.
Unmanaged – Little to no involvement from service provider. Customers provide all maintenance, upgrades, patches, and security.
Security
Dedicated hosting server providers utilize extreme security measures to ensure the safety of data stored on their network of servers. Providers will often deploy various software programs for scanning systems and networks for obtrusive invaders, spammers, hackers, and other harmful problems such as Trojans, worms, and crashers (Sending multiple connections). Linux and Windows use different software for security protection.
Software
Providers often bill for dedicated servers on a fixed monthly price to include specific software packages. Over the years, software vendors realized the significant market opportunity to bundle their software with dedicated servers. They have since started introducing pricing models that allow dedicated hosting providers the ability to purchase and resell software based on reduced monthly fees.
Microsoft offers software licenses through a program called the Service Provider License Agreement. The SPLA model provides use of Microsoft products through a monthly user or processor based fee. SPLA software includes the Windows Operating System, Microsoft SQL Server, Microsoft Exchange Server, Microsoft SharePoint and shoutcast hosting, and many other server based products.
Other software applications available are specialized web hosting specific programs called control panels. Control panel software is an all-inclusive set of software applications, server applications, and automation tools that can be installed on a dedicated server. Control panels include integration into web servers, database applications, programming languages, application deployment, server administration tasks, and include the ability to automate tasks via a web based front end.
Limitations
Many providers do not allow IRC (bots, clients or daemons). This is due to rogue IRC users triggering DDoS attacks against the provider, which may overwhelm their networks, lowering service quality for all customers.
Adult content is disallowed by many providers as it may either be of questionable legality or consume large amounts of bandwidth.
Copyright violations – Hosting copyrighted material of which an individual does not own the copyright to is against the terms of service of most hosting companies.
See also
Data center
Hosting environment
Virtual private server
Cloud computing
Reseller web hosting
References
Internet hosting
Service industries
Telecommunication services
Web hosting
de:Server#Dedizierte Server |
51851583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundart%20Chameleon | Soundart Chameleon | The Soundart Chameleon was a hardware synthesizer module, designed by the Spanish company Soundart. The name Chameleon comes from the fact that the machine was able to change its "skins", which are different sound engines. The Chameleons were produced from 2002 to 2004, until the company went bankrupt.
Internal structure
The Chameleon was built around two processors:
a 24-bits fixed point Motorola DSP56303 Digital Signal Processor, clocked at 100 MHz
a 32-bits ColdFire microcontroller (model MCF5206), clocked at 40 MHz
Each processor has its own dedicated DRAM (4MWords) for the DSP, 8MB for the microcontroller). The system stores the operating system (RTEMS), the firmware for the microcontroller and the DSP code into a 1MB Flash.
When the Chameleon starts, the ColdFire boots the RTOS and its own application from the Flash. It then loads the DSP using the DSP HPI (Host Port Interface).
The microcontroller communicates with its environment using two serial ports. The first serial port is connected to the MIDI interface. The second serial port is connected to the front panel circuit board. The front panel has its own microcontroller, used to control the LCD and the various push-buttons, knobs and potentiometers on the front panel.
The RS-232 debug port located at the back is used to upload new "skins" in the Chameleon, from the development environment running on a PC. The debug port is connected to the front panel board which acts as a bridge with the Chameleon main board.
Open software architecture
The Chameleon was designed since the beginning as a completely open architecture system. A complete access was given to the two processors. Writing a "skin" requires then to write two programs:
the DSP program (written normally in assembly), for the real-time audio processing, the microcontroller program (written normally in C), for the MIDI, control rate processing and user interface tasks
To simplify system integration, the Chameleon runs on RTEMS real-time operating system. The whole MIDI communication is handled by the MIDIShare library.
The Chameleon Development Kit contained all the software tools required to write a complete skin:
the Motorola Suite56 DSP tools for the DSP
the GNU C compiler for the ColdFire
the Chameleon Development environment (CDE)
the Chameleon Toolkit
A "skin" had to be written using the two first tools, the CDE acting an Integrated Development Environment (the CDE was in charge of calling the required tools depending on the file to generate)
Once the "skin" had been generated by the CDE, the Chameleon Toolkit was used to upload the different files within the Chameleon hardware through the RS-232 port.
The tool package also included all required libraries to interface with RTEMS, MIDIShare, DSP communication libraries, etc.
Although the development environment was considered as highly professional and facilitating as much as possible the design of "skins", the Chameleon remained a machine that required knowledge in multiple domains (MIDI, digital signal processing, real-time operating system, etc.).
Even if the Chameleon was designed to allow any user to create its own "skin", the vast majority of them were made by Soundart programmers only, and only a few skins were made by users (a noticeable one being the Monowave, written by English programmer Paul Maddox). Most users were expecting more skins to be available, with caught almost all resources from Soundart, leading the company in turn to bankrupt as it could not face the related costs.
Chameleon MkII
In July 2004, Soundart announced that a new version of Chameleon was being designed. This new version, called Chameleon mkII, provided a lot of enhancements compared to the first model:
4 analog audio inputs (2 for the first version)
6 analog audio outputs (2 for the first version)
more powerful DSP
S/P-DIF digital audio interface
one input can be switched to microphone input
Flash card slot to store skins and sounds
USB interface to replace the RS-232 interface
Internal power supply
New soundskins dedicated to mkII were also announced (SID emulator, electric piano, Phase Distortion synthesizer, etc.) but they were never presented.
The Chameleon mkII was announced to be available in 2005, but it never came into production, as the company went bankrupt before. It is assumed that the mkII never existed physically, even in term of prototype, since no photos of the machine could ever be seen. Only a computer rendered image exists of this machine.
Chameleon nowadays
The production of Chameleon stopped totally in 2004. A group of enthusiasts has created a dedicated website, in order to continue to provide informations to developers who want to write their own "skins".
This website provides the whole documentation package, the original toolchain and the source code of a few commercial skins. Closed-source skins are also available in form of binary files.
The maintenance of existing Chameleons is however quite difficult, since the two main chips (DSP and ColdFire processor) are not manufactured anymore. Moreover, the schematics are not available. Consequently, a dead motherboard means most of the time that the Chameleon can not be repaired.
Other hardware plugin hosts
The Chameleon was not the only hardware host designed to run plugins on a DSP. Other machines have been marketed with similar concepts.
It shall be noted that machines listed here all use a DSP to perform real-time audio processing. They differ from Linux-based plugins hosts, like the Muse Receptor or SM ProAudio V-Machine. These machines are computers, very similar to PC, running a special version of Linux along with a Wine layer to emulate Windows. The processing is performed on x86 processor, not on a dedicated DSP.
Creamware Noah
The Noah has been designed by German company Creamware. It was produced from 2003 to 2006, until Creamware went bankrupt. The Noah was built around Analog Devices' SHARC DSP, with 32 bits floating point support (the DSP56300 inside the Chameleon is 24 bits fixed point).
The Noah is designed to run the plugins originally designed for the Creamware DSP expansion boards (B2003, Minimax, Pro-One, Lightwave, etc.). It is not possible for the user to create and load its own plugins in the Noah.
Use Audio Plugiator / ASX / iCON X-Synth
The Plugiator module, the ASX (Authentic Sound eXpansion) board and the iCON X-Synth board are basically the same product, designed by Indian company inDSP. This company was founded by a former Creamware associate.
When Creamware ceased activities, the associates reached an agreement that they may re-use the source code from original Creamware products. InDSP then created a very low cost platform, based on ADSP-21364 DSP associated with an ATMega32 microcontroller. The only difference between the Plugiator and the ASX/X-Synth is that Plugiator has a very simplified user interface, which allows stand alone operation, while the ASX requires to be installed in a master keyboard (made by CME for the ASX, or made by iCON for the X-Synth). The ASX and the X-Synth have exactly the same circuitry, the only difference between the two being the type of connector used to interface with host keyboard.
Seven plugins were created from the original Creamware source (Minimax, LightWave, B8000, Vocoder, Prodyssey, Pro12 and FMagia), and an eighth one was created specifically for the new platform (Drums&Bass). The Plugiator has then a very similar sound to Noah and older Creamware DSP boards.
The inDSP systems are delivered with 3 plugins pre-installed, the Vocoder being available for free once users have been registered. The four other plugins must be purchased separately. The communication protocol over USB and the Flash memory content are encrypted in order to avoid illegal copies between two systems of the same plugin.
The inDSP boards are not open platforms, and, normally, only the plugins originally written by inDSP can be executed. However, a member of MIDIBox community has made a reverse engineering of the original hardware and has described a way to use the ASX/X-Synth as a low-cost platform for custom DSP code.
ToneCore DSP
In January 2008, US company Line6 announced the launch of the ToneCore DSP Kit. This kit takes the form of a guitar effect pedal, which contains a 24-bits Freescale DSP56364, running at 100 MHz. The DSP program is loaded by a micro-controller, in charge of the user interface and USB communication port.
The DSP program for the ToneCore is written in assembly on PC, using an assembler provided with the ToneCore Development Kit. Even if the global hardware concept is very similar to the one used on Chameleon (DSP associated with a micro-controller for user interface and communication), it shall be noted that the micro-controller code can not be modified on the ToneCore, and is not available to the developer. Moreover, the ToneCore platform does not include MIDI interface.
HorusDSP
In March 2016, the French company BEB has presented an open DSP platform solution, dedicated to sound synthesis, called HorusDSP. The main hardware is built around a SigmaDSP ADAU1701. It is powered by Eurorack power supply backplane and includes a 5V converter for the controller board and a MIDI IN interface.
The HorusDSP main board can be connected to different controllers:
KissBox RTP-MIDI OEM controller, with dedicated control software in it
MIDIBOX MBHP-NG with STM32F407 processor
Arduino Zero or Due (Uno and Mega2560 can also be used but their processing power in 32 bits is limiting the capabilities of the system)
BEB proposes various firmware releases that can be run on the HorusDSP module, like dual harmonic oscillator, quad saw/square oscillator, filters, etc. Users can also create their own DSP programs, using the free SigmaStudio tool, available from Analog Devices. Once compiled in SigmaStudio, they can be downloaded via RTP-MIDI to the DSP.
When MIDIBOX or Arduino control boards are used, it is possible for the user to write the complete control application. The control boards can also get access to the local MIDI port, and it is possible to create a complete custom user interface.
References
Synthesiser modules |
30445695 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1915%20USC%20Trojans%20football%20team | 1915 USC Trojans football team | The 1915 USC Trojans football team represented the University of Southern California (USC) in the 1915 college football season. In their second and final year under head coach Ralph Glaze, the Trojans compiled a 3-4 record and outscored their opponents by a combined total of 132 to 119. The season featured USC's first ever games against both California (a 28-10 win at Berkeley and a 23-21 loss in Los Angeles) and Oregon (a 34-0 loss).
Schedule
References
USC Trojans
USC Trojans football seasons
USC Trojans football |
29039216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AH-Software | AH-Software | AH-Software is the software brand of AHS Co., Ltd., an importer of digital audio workstations and encoders in Tokyo, Japan. It is also known as the developer of Voiceroid and a number of Vocaloid voicebanks.
Products and services
Vocaloid Products
AHS released their first Vocaloids on December 4, 2009, named SF-A2 Miki, Kaai Yuki, and Hiyama Kiyoteru. Kaai Yuki became the first Vocaloid to use a child's voice. AHS also published a Hello Kitty-based Vocaloid, "Nekomura Iroha", based on the Kittyler featured in the game Hello Kitty to Issho! Block Crash 123!! in cooperation with Sanrio. AHS are also heading the first project led by producers working with the software.
Vocaloid 2 Products
Vocaloid 3 Products
Vocaloid 4 Products
Vocaloid 5 Products
Speech Synthesis
Voiceroid
Tsukuyomi Shouta; based on a seven-year-old male.
Tsukuyomi Ai; based on a five-year-old female.
Yoshida-Kun; based on the character from Eagle Talon.
Tsurumaki Maki; a teenage female musician voiced by Tomoe Tamiyasu.
Yuzuki Yukari
Tohoku Zunko; a teenage female created to promote the recovery of the Tohoku region. She was released as a Vocaloid on June 5, 2014.
Kotonoha Akane・Aoi; two females that are a pair of sisters.
Minase Kou; a male teacher (like Hiyama Kiyoteru).
Kyomachi Seika; a young adult female voiced by Rika Tachibana and produced in collaboration with Tsukurujyo, a production group based in Seika, Kyoto. She was adopted as the district mascot.
Tohoku Kiritan; Zunko's youngest sister, a preteen voiced by Himika Akaneya. Produced in collaboration with SSS Co., Ltd.
Kizuna Akari
Haruno Sora
Tohoku Itako; Zunko and Kiritan's oldest sister, a young adult voiced by Ibuki Kido. Also a collaboration with SSS Co., Ltd.
Tsuina-chan; based on the character Tsuina the Ogre Hunter, a teenage female voiced by Mai Kadowaki who can speak both Standard and Kansai dialects.
Iori Yuzuru; a young male with androgynous design, produced in collaboration with AI Inc.
Sound editing and recording
Crazy Talk SE.
Jam Band
References
External links
Software companies of Japan
Software companies based in Tokyo
Vocaloid production companies
Japanese brands
Software companies established in 2005
Japanese companies established in 2005 |
8039960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emission-aware%20programming | Emission-aware programming | Emission-aware programming is a design philosophy aiming to reduce the amount of electromagnetic radiation emitted by electronic devices through proper design of the software executed by the device, rather than changing the hardware.
Emission sources
Emission considerations require the evaluation of many details such as the clock frequencies and switching rates which are related to the oscillator. Rise/fall times and signal harmonics are related to the output driver. The data transfer rates can be dependent on hardware or can be controlled by software and often have to meet a certain protocol. Impedances, trace loading and the various circuit components are hardware related and must be considered from the beginning of the design.
Three basic actions for emission reduction can be defined:
Avoidance of unnecessary RF noise.
Only this action can be applied to software-based emission control. Reduction of, for instance, the switching frequency or the number of switching circuits reduces the power consumption and therefore the emissions. For example this could be low voltage operation or the usage of power reduction modes.
Keeping RF energy insulated from antenna structures.
RF energy is not a problem if the structures dealing with it are too small for acting as effective antennas. A decoupling capacitor keeps most of the RF energy locally in a small loop between the device and the capacitor as shown in the figure.
Transforming RF energy into heat.
Any impedance formed by coils, capacitors, resistors, ferrites etc. can be used for this purpose.
In the following all components that can be influenced by the software design will be described.
Oscillator
Microcontrollers require a clock source for the switching of the internal transistors. Almost all controllers require an external crystal or ceramic resonator. Since the ceramic resonator is potentially sensitive to spikes which can shorten clock periods typically a Pierce oscillator configuration is used. Harmonic frequencies of the clock cause unwanted emissions.
The circuit internal to the MC in simplified form is a NAND gate followed by an inverter.
The external oscillator is not the only source of emissions. The system clock circuits consists of an internal RF divider followed by large amplifiers. These amplifiers drive long lines inside the components and might cause interferences.
The use of internal oscillators instead of external ones should be preferred. (An additional hardware measure is the use of spread spectrum oscillators.)
Power supply
The field strength is proportional to the current as a consequence the power supply, providing the current for the entire system, is a strong source of emissions. Physically, a reduction of the power consumption of the system and the minimising of circuit loops (by the usage of decoupling capacities) emitting the noise, improves the EME performance.
A software based solution is to temporary disable peripheral devices when not needed and thereby reduce unnecessary power consumption.
I/O pins
If an MC uses external memory space or peripheral devices continuous transitions on several data/address bus lines are implied. The emission depends on the frequency of the transitions, their quantity, rise/fall time and duration. The quantity of transitions, of port traffic can be influenced by the use of interrupts instead of continuous polling of ports. The use of interrupts is software based as well.
For the IRQ or reset pins (input pins) the termination is more important than for general I/O ports. If noise causes these two pins to mis-trigger it will have a negative effect on the circuit behavior. A high current consumption is often observed, particularly in CMOS devices, when the input pins are unconnected due to leakage current internal to the IC. Terminating high impedance input pins can therefore lead to a reduction in supply current and hence reduces emission.
With most MC the internal pull-up resistors can be used to set unused pins to a defined voltage level.
Ringing
To achieve fastest possible transmission rates the fastest possible switching rates are applied. The faster the switching rate the more likely over- and undershooting (ringing) will occur. Ringing of the output signal is mainly caused by parasitic elements of the output structure e.g. the capacitive components like the parasitic capacities and the load capacitances as well as the parasitic inductances that are built by the bond wire and the lead frame.
In four techniques to reduce ringing are described:
Digital control
Increasing the on-resistance
Feedback control
Skewing of the output driver switching
Ground bounce
Ground bounce is a voltage bounce caused by simultaneous switching of several outputs from one logic state to the other, for example from high to low. The voltage built up across the parasitic inductance of the IC ground return connection causes a transient voltage potential shift in the ground reference potential with respect to the system ground. Ground bounce is caused by CMOS crowbar current and the dynamic switching currents of capacitive loads.
Rise and fall time
One way of reducing the emissions of an MC System is to extend the rise and fall time (slew rate control). Some controllers like the Motorola HCS08 offer the feature of software controlled slew rate output buffers enabling the user to extend the rise time from 3 ns to 30 ns for each pin separately.
Some microcontrollers offer current limiting, a way of limiting the maximum current driven by the output port (e.g. Motorola MCS12).
Emission control: power saving
The most effective way of reducing emissions is to temporarily shut down unused modules in the MC, thereby saving power. Most microcontrollers support several sleep modes.
Conclusion
In order to reduce electromagnetic emissions on software basis the following measures should be considered:
Oscillator (kind and frequency)
Power (Saving modes, low voltage operation and supply)
I/O port switching frequency and power (if possible: slew rate control and skewing)
Most software implemented improvements on emission can only be detected using an average-detector.
See also
Electromagnetic compatibility
EMC-aware programming
Immunity-aware programming
List of EMC directives
Low-power electronics
Notes
References
Electromagnetic compatibility
Embedded systems |
38267353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug-in%20electric%20vehicle%20fire%20incidents | Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents | Numerous plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents have taken place since the introduction of mass-production plug-in electric vehicles. As a result of these incidents, the United States, Department of Transportation's National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) conducted a study in 2017 to establish whether lithium-ion batteries in plug-electric vehicles pose an exceptional fire hazard. The research looked at whether the high-voltage batteries can cause fires when they are being charged, and when the vehicles are involved in an accident. Regarding the risk of electrochemical failure, [this] report concludes that the propensity and severity of fires and explosions from the accidental ignition of flammable electrolytic solvents used in Li-ion battery systems are anticipated to be somewhat comparable to or perhaps slightly less than those for gasoline or diesel vehicular fuels. The overall consequences for Li-ion batteries are expected to be less because of the much smaller amounts of flammable solvent released and burning in a catastrophic failure situation.
The NHTSA in 2021 opened a new Battery Safety Initiative investigation into ev car fires in light of the continuing numerous fire incidents.
They were thermal runaway incidents related to the lithium-ion batteries. The brands involved were the Zotye M300 EV, Chevrolet Volt, Fisker Karma, Dodge Ram 1500 Plug-in Hybrid, Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, Mitsubishi i-MiEV and Outlander P-HEV.
, four fires after an impact have been reported associated with the batteries of plug-in electric cars. The first crash related fire was reported in China in May 2012, after a high-speed car crashed into a BYD e6 taxi in Shenzhen. Two incidents occurred with the Tesla Model S in October 2013, one when a Model S caught fire after the electric car hit metal debris on a highway in Kent, Washington, and another involving a loss of control and collision with a tree in Merida, Mexico. A Tesla Model S being driven on a highway near Murfreesboro, Tennessee caught fire in November 2013 after it struck a tow hitch on the roadway, causing damage beneath the vehicle.
A Mitsubishi Outlander fire in May 2019 appeared to be related to immersion in salt water (which is electrically conductive), probably for an hour or two.
General Motors, Nissan and Tesla have published a guide for firefighters, and first responders to properly handle a crashed electric-drive vehicle and safely disable its battery and other high voltage systems.
The difference with ev car fires is the use of high voltage lithium-ion batteries which can short and break down and spontaneously combust, and also that lithium-ion fires are difficult to extinguish and produce toxic smoke.
Background
Frequency of vehicle fires
Fire incidents in highway capable vehicles occur relatively frequently. A study of U.S. fires from 20032007 finds that fire departments respond to an average of 287,000 vehicle fires per year, or 30 vehicle fires per hour, and that vehicles were involved in 17% of all reported U.S. fires. The study also finds that roughly 90 highway vehicle fires and 0.15 highway vehicle fire deaths were reported per billion miles driven.
Thermal runaway
Lithium-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture if overheated or overcharged, and in extreme cases this can lead to combustion. To reduce these risks, lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range. When handled improperly, or if manufactured defectively, some rechargeable batteries can experience thermal runaway resulting in overheating. Sealed cells will sometimes explode violently if safety vents are overwhelmed or nonfunctional. Reports of exploding cellphones have been published in newspapers. In 2006, batteries from Apple, HP, Toshiba, Lenovo, Dell and other notebook manufacturers were recalled because of fire and explosions.
Safety guidelines for fire hazard
In the United States, General Motors ran, in several cities, a training program for firefighters and first responders to demonstrate the sequence of tasks required to safely disable the Chevrolet Volt's powertrain and its 12 volt electrical system, which controls its high-voltage components, and then proceed to extricate injured occupants. The Volt's high-voltage system is designed to shut down automatically in the event of an airbag deployment, and to detect a loss of communication from an airbag control module. GM also made available an Emergency Response Guide for the 2011 Volt for use by emergency responders. The guide also describes methods of disabling the high voltage system and identifies cut zone information. Nissan also published a guide for first responders that details procedures for handling a damaged 2011 Leaf at the scene of an accident, including a manual high-voltage system shutdown, rather than the automatic process built-in the car's safety systems.
NHTSA research of fire risk
In August 2012, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) decided to begin a million study of whether lithium-ion batteries in plug-electric vehicles pose a potential fire hazard. The research looked at whether the high-voltage batteries can cause fires when they are being charged and when the vehicles are involved in an accident. The research from 2013 was initiated to evaluate the fire risk 400-volt lithium ion batteries pose. General Motors assisted the NHTSA researchers, and the study was issued in October 2017. The report concluded, "...ignition of flammable electrolytic solvents used in Li-ion battery systems are anticipated to be somewhat comparable to or perhaps slightly less than those for gasoline or diesel vehicular fuels. The overall consequences for Li-ion batteries are expected to be less because of the much smaller amounts of flammable solvent released and burning in a catastrophic failure situation."(p. 11-2)
On October 24, 2019, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration opened a Defect Petition for Tesla Model S and X vehicles manufactured between 2012 and 2019 related to battery fires not caused by collision or impact.
Electric vehicle incidents
A Future EV
About 6 a.m. on 17 November 2010 a fire broke out on the vehicle deck of the MS Pearl of Scandinavia on its way from Oslo to Copenhagen. The ferry's fire sprinkler system put out the fire before any of the crew or the 490 sleeping passengers were injured and the ship could dock in Copenhagen under its own power. It was determined that the cause of the fire was a short circuit in the plug of an extension cord used to charge a rebuilt Nissan Qashqai, converted into a battery electric vehicle by the Sakskøbing based company A Future EV. The company owner was returning from Norway where the vehicle had started the approval process for general sale there, and had used an extension cord to charge the vehicle from a general purpose power outlet on the ferry. The ferry operator DFDS Seaways consequently prohibited vehicle charging on board its ferries while the investors withdrew their support for the vehicle company forcing it into bankruptcy.
Zotye M300 EV
A Zotye M300 EV operating as a taxicab caught fire in Hangzhou, China, in April 2011. No one was injured as the driver and two passengers evacuated the electric car in time. Due to the incident, the city authorities decided to halt all electric taxis on safety concerns, 15 of which were M300 EVs out of a fleet of 30 electric taxis. The city's official investigation team found the cause of the fire was the car's defective battery pack due to lack of quality control during manufacturing. According to the investigation report, the battery pack problems include: leaking of battery cells; damage of the insulation between battery cells and the walls of the aluminum container in which the cells were stacked; short circuits occurred within certain containers and those involving supporting and connecting parts. One of the stronger short circuits ignited the car's back seats. The lead investigators said that "...in sealing and packing the battery cells, in loading and unloading the battery stacks, insufficient attention had been paid to several safety factors; monitoring procedures had been inefficient or neglected in the process of manufacturing, battery charging/switching, and vehicle driving, failing to detect anomalies." The report added that the battery cells on the car were made by Zhejiang Wanxiang Group.
Chevrolet Bolt
As of August 2021, Electrek had compiled a list of 18 battery-related Chevrolet Bolt fires, and one possible-battery related fire. The frequent fires resulted in a recall of about 110,000 Chevrolet Bolt and Bolt EUV EVs from the 2017 through 2022 model years.
Even after the recall, several fires occurred in vehicles that had received the new software and been checked by a dealer — including one in a vehicle owned by a Vermont state lawmaker. Another fire happened in New Jersey, the company told CNBC. GM says it's still investigating the fires, and is asking owners who haven't gotten the fix to take their Bolts in to a dealer regardless. At least nine fires have been documented, and the company has started buying back some Bolts. Moreover, the company recommended that Bolt owners park their cars outside and at least 50 feet away from other vehicles.
On September 13, 2021, a Chevrolet Bolt caught fire in a private garage in Cherokee County, Georgia, USA. The owner had either been unaware or simply ignored the recommendation to park outside.
Chevrolet Volt
As a result of a crash-tested Chevrolet Volt that caught fire in June 2011 three weeks after the testing, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) issued a statement saying that the agency does not believe the Volt or other electric vehicles are at a greater risk of fire than gasoline-powered vehicles. They added: "In fact, all vehicles –both electric and gasoline-powered – have some risk of fire in the event of a serious crash." The NHTSA announced in November 2011 that it was working with all automakers to develop post-crash procedures to keep occupants of electric vehicles and emergency personnel who respond to crash scenes safe.
In further testing of the Volt's batteries carried out by NHTSA in November 2011, two of the three tests resulted in thermal events, including fire. Therefore, the NHTSA opened a formal safety defect investigation on November 25, 2011, to examine the potential risks involved from intrusion damage to the battery in the Chevrolet Volt.
On January 5, 2012, General Motors announced that it would offer a customer satisfaction program to provide modifications to the Chevrolet Volt to reduce the chance that the battery pack could catch fire days or weeks after a severe accident. General Motors explained the modifications will enhance the vehicle structure that surround the battery and the battery coolant system to improve battery protection after a severe crash. The safety enhancements consist of strengthening an existing portion of the Volt's vehicle safety structure to further protect the battery pack in a severe side collision; add a sensor in the reservoir of the battery coolant system to monitor coolant levels; and add a tamper-resistant bracket to the top of the battery coolant reservoir to help prevent potential coolant overfill. On January 20, 2012, the NHTSA closed the Volt's safety defect investigation related to post-crash fire risk. The agency concluded that "no discernible defect trend exists" and also found that the modifications recently developed by General Motors are sufficient to reduce the potential for battery intrusion resulting from side impacts. The NHTSA also said that "based on the available data, NHTSA does not believe that Chevy Volts or other electric vehicles pose a greater risk of fire than gasoline-powered vehicles." The agency also announced it has developed interim guidance to increase awareness and identify appropriate safety measures regarding electric vehicles for the emergency response community, law enforcement officers, tow truck operators, storage facilities and consumers.
Fisker Karma
In December 2011, Fisker Automotive recalled the first 239 Karmas delivered to the U.S. due to a risk of battery fire caused by coolant leak. Of the 239 cars, less than fifty had been delivered to customers, the rest were in dealerships. In the report filed by Fisker Automotive with the NHTSA, the carmaker said some hose clamps were not properly positioned, which could allow a coolant leak and an electrical short could possibly occur if coolant enters the battery compartment, causing a thermal event within the battery, including a possible fire. In May 2012 a Fisker Karma was involved in a home fire that also burnt two other cars in Fort Bend County, Texas. The chief fire investigator said the Karma was the origin of the fire that spread to the house, but the exact cause is still unknown. The plug-in hybrid electric car was not plugged in at the time the fire started and it was reported that the Karma's battery was intact. The carmaker release a public statement saying that "...there are conflicting reports and uncertainty surrounding this particular incident. The cause of the fire is not yet known and is being investigated." Fisker Automotive also stated that the battery pack "does not appear to have been a contributing factor in this incident." The NHTSA is conducting a field inquiry of the incident, and is working with insurance adjusters and Fisker to determine the fire's cause.
A second fire incident took place in August 2012 when a Karma caught fire while stopped at a parking lot in Woodside, California. According to Fisker engineers, the area of origin for the fire was determined to be outside the engine compartment, as the fire was located at the driver's side front corner of the car. The evidence suggested that the ignition source was not the lithium-ion battery pack, new technology components or unique exhaust routing. The investigation conducted by Fisker engineers and an independent fire expert concluded that the cause of the fire was a low temperature cooling fan located at the left front of the Karma, forward of the wheel. An internal fault caused the fan to fail, overheat and started a slow-burning fire. Fisker announced a voluntary recall on all Karmas sold to replace the faulty fan and install an additional fuse.
BYD e6
In May 2012, after a Nissan GTR crashed into a BYD e6 taxi in Shenzhen, China, the electric car caught fire after hitting a tree killing all three occupants. The Chinese investigative team concluded that the cause of the fire was that "electric arcs caused by the short-circuiting of high voltage lines of the high voltage distribution box ignited combustible material in the vehicle including the interior materials and part of the power batteries." The team also noted that the battery pack did not explode; 75% of the single cell batteries did not catch fire; and no flaws in the safety design of the vehicle were identified.
BYD Han EV
In July 2021, a BYD Han EV was crash-tested in China. Having been parked for 48 hours after the test, the vehicle caught fire and burned to the ground.
BYD Tang EV
On November 15, 2021, a BYD Tang EV caught fire in a workshop in Kristiansand, Norway.
Dodge Ram 1500 Plug-in Hybrid
In September 2012 Chrysler temporarily suspended a demonstration program that was conducting with 109 Dodge Ram 1500 Plug-in Hybrids and 23 Chrysler Town & Country plug-in hybrids. All units deployed in the program were recalled due to damage sustained by three separate pickup trucks when their 12.9 kWh battery packs overheated. The carmaker plans to upgrade the battery packs with cells that use a different lithium-ion chemistry before the vehicles go back on service. Chrysler explained that no one was injured from any of the incidents, and the vehicles were not occupied at the time, nor any of the minivans were involved in any incident, but they were withdrawn as a precaution. The carmaker reported that the demonstration fleet had collectively accumulated 1.3 million miles (2.1 million km) before the vehicles were recalled. The demonstration is a program jointly funded by Chrysler and the U.S. Department of Energy that includes the first-ever factory-produced vehicles capable of reverse power flow. The experimental system would allow fleet operators to use their plug-in hybrids to supply electricity for a building during a power outage, reduce power usage when electric rates are high or even sell electricity back to their utility company.
Fires related to Hurricane Sandy flood
In separate incidents during the storm and flooding caused by Hurricane Sandy on the night of October 29, 2012, one Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid and 16 Fisker Karmas caught fire while being parked at Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal. The vehicles were partially submerged by flash floods caused by the hurricane. In the case of the Toyota's incident, a Prius PHV burned and two other Priuses, a conventional hybrid and a plug-in, just smoldered. A Toyota spokeswoman said the fire “likely started because saltwater got into the electrical system.” She also clarified that the incident affected only three cars out of the 4,000 Toyotas that were at the terminal during the storm, including more than 2,128 plug-in or hybrid models. Fisker Automotive spokesman said that the Karmas were not charging at the time of the fire and there were no injuries. After an investigation by Fisker engineers, witnessed by NHTSA representatives, the company said that the origin of the fire was "residual salt damage inside a Vehicle Control Unit submerged in seawater for several hours. Corrosion from the salt caused a short circuit in the unit, which led to a fire when the Karma's 12-Volt battery fed power into the circuit." The company explained that Sandy's heavy winds spread that fire to other Karmas parked nearby, and also ruled out the vehicles' lithium-ion battery packs as a cause of, or a contributing factor to, the fire.
Mitsubishi i-MiEV and Outlander P-HEV
In March 2013 Mitsubishi Motors reported two separate incidents with lithium-ion batteries used in its plug-in electric cars, one with a Mitsubishi i-MiEV electric car and the other with an Outlander P-HEV plug-in hybrid. The battery packs are produced by GS Yuasa, the same company that supplies the batteries for the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, whose entire fleet was grounded in January 2013 for battery problems. The lithium-ion battery of an i-MiEV caught fire at the Mizushima battery pack assembly plant on March 18 while connected to a charge-discharge test equipment. Three days later, the battery pack of an Outlander P-HEV at a dealership in Yokohama overheated and melted some of the battery cells, after the vehicle had been fully charged and stood for one day. Nobody was injured in either incident.
Mitsubishi did not issue a recall but halted production and sales of the two models until it determines the causes of the battery problems. The carmaker advised owners of the Outlander plug-in hybrid to drive only on gasoline mode for the time being. In the case of the i-MiEV, the problem is related with a change in GS Yuasa manufacturing process, and Mitsubishi called fleet-vehicle operators with i-MiEVs whose batteries were made under the same process as those that overheated and is working on a possible fix. In August 2013, and after changing a production process to avoid damaging any batteries, Mitsubishi restarted production of the Outlander plug-in hybrid.
In May 2019 an Outlander caught fire after immersion in salt water. The vehicle was being used to haul a boat trailer out of the water at a Port Moody boat ramp when the driver lost control. After a tow truck recovered the Outlander, what appears to be the battery pack caught fire.
Tesla Model S, 3, X, and Y
A Tesla Model S caught fire after the vehicle hit debris on a highway in Kent, Washington, on October 1, 2013. According to the driver, he hit something while traveling in the HOV lane of Washington State Route 167, and exited because the car reported a problem and told him to stop. Flames began coming out of the front of the car at the end of the off-ramp, so the driver left the car. The fire was caught on video by a witness and posted on several websites. According to the Kent Fire Department incident report, initial attempts to extinguish the fire with water were unsuccessful, as the fire reignited underneath the vehicle after appearing to be extinguished. Then, the firefighters cut a hole to apply water directly to the burning battery. According to Tesla, the car owner was alerted by onboard systems to stop the car and exit the vehicle, which he did without injury.
The carmaker confirmed the fire began in the battery pack and it was caused by an impact to one of the battery pack modules by a large piece of metal from a semi-trailer and that the design of the battery pack had isolated the fire to the front section's internal firewalls.
The company also said that conventional gasoline-powered cars were much more vulnerable to such a situation, because they have less underbody protection. It also noted that the battery pack holds only about 10% of the energy contained in a gasoline tank and is spread across 16 firewalled modules, meaning that the combustion potential is only about 1% as much. Elon Musk posted on his blog that, based on U.S. automobile miles-per-fire statistics from the National Fire Protection Association, a driver is "5 times more likely to experience a fire in a conventional gasoline car than a Tesla." After news of the accident, Tesla stock fell 6.24% in NASDAQ trading the next day, and an additional 4% the following day, closing at . The stock recovered by 4.4% at the closing of the week.
Tesla's CEO, Elon Musk, issued an official statement on October 4, 2013. The statement said that a curved piece of metal from a semi-trailer that had fallen on the roadway appeared to have impaled the plate on the base of the vehicle. According to the statement, in order for the object to have made a diameter hole in the plate, the object must have had enough leverage to produce approximately . After the driver exited the car, the statement continued, the frontmost of the car's 16 battery modules caught fire due to the initial damage, but the battery pack's internal firewalls kept the fire from spreading and vents directed the flames away from the car down towards the pavement. The statement also noted that the fire never entered the passenger compartment. According to Tesla, the firefighters observed standard procedure, and gained access to the source of the fire by puncturing holes in the top of the battery's protective metal plate and applying water. However, the company noted that although the water and dry-chemical fire extinguisher quickly put out the fire, the firefighters should not have punctured the firewall since the new holes allowed flames to enter the front trunk of the vehicle. Musk closed the official statement explaining that the result of this accident could have been "far worse" had a conventional gasoline-powered car encountered the same object on the highway, because most gasoline cars do not have an armored underbody, leaving the fuel lines and tank vulnerable. He also noted that Tesla's battery pack only contains about 10% as much energy as a standard tank of gasoline and it is divided into 16 sections means that the combustion potential is about 1% of a comparable gasoline-powered car. Based on U.S. statistics from the National Fire Protection Association, Musk's statement claimed that a fire was five times more likely in a gasoline car than in a Tesla car.
The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) was not able to send investigators to the scene of the incident due to the U.S federal government shutdown. After the agency reopened, the NHTSA began gathering data of the incident. On 24 October 2013, the agency announced it will not open a formal investigation into the Model S fire incident, saying that they had not found evidence that the fire was caused by a vehicle defect or noncompliance.
A second reported fire occurred on October 18, 2013 in Merida, Mexico. In this case the vehicle was being driven at high speed through a roundabout and crashed through a wall and into a tree. The NHTSA did not investigate this incident because it occurred outside the U.S. There have since been several additional fires, caused by catastrophic high speed collisions, which are omitted from this list because they do not illustrate problems unique to electric drive trains. (Incidents which illustrate issues with Tesla's Autopilot features, including some that lead to car fires, are listed here)
A Tesla Model S being driven on Interstate 24 near Murfreesboro, Tennessee caught fire on November 6, 2013, after it struck a tow hitch on the roadway, causing damage beneath the vehicle. Tesla Motors stated that it would conduct its own investigation, and as a result of these incidents, the company announced its decision to extend its current vehicle warranty to cover fire damage and to apply a software update on Model S cars to increase the ground clearance of the Model S when driving at highway speed.
On November 19, 2013, based on the two fire incidents occurring on U.S. public highways, the NHTSA opened a preliminary evaluation to determine if undercarriage strikes presented an undue fire risk on the 2013 Tesla Model S. An estimated population of 13,108 Model S cars were part of this initial investigation.
On November 15, 2013, a fire broke out in an Irvine, California garage where a Tesla Model S was plugged in and charging. The fire appears to have originated at the wall connection where the Tesla charging equipment was plugged in. Shortly afterwards, Tesla updated the Model S firmware to reduce charging current when power fluctuations were detected and replaced wall adapters with a new unit containing a thermal fuse.
On November 18, 2013, Tesla released a software update to the air suspension system to increase the ground clearance at highway speeds and requested that the NHTSA conduct an investigation into the fire incidents. Another fire incident took place in Toronto, Canada, in early February 2014. The Model S was parked in a garage and it was not plugged in or charging when the fire started. , the origin of the fire was still unknown. Tesla's response was that "[i]n this particular case, we don't yet know the precise cause, but have definitively determined that it did not originate in the battery, the charging system, the adapter or the electrical receptacle, as these components were untouched by the fire."
On March 28, 2014, the NHTSA announced that it had closed the investigation into whether the Model S design was making the electric car prone to catch fire, after the automaker said it would provide more protection to its lithium-ion batteries. According to the NHTSA, the titanium underbody shield and aluminum deflector plates, along with increased ground clearance, reduce the severity, frequency, and fire risk of underbody strikes. All Model S cars manufactured after March 6 have the aluminum shield over the battery pack replaced with a new three-layer shield designed to protect the battery and charging circuitry from being punctured even in very high speed impacts. The new shielding features a hollow aluminum tube to deflect impacting objects, a titanium shield to protect sensitive components from puncture damage, and an aluminum extrusion to absorb impact energy. The new shields, which decrease vehicle range by 0.1%, will be installed free-of-charge in existing Model S vehicles by request or during the next scheduled maintenance. According to the NHTSA, the titanium underbody shield and aluminum deflector plates, along with increased ground clearance, "should reduce both the frequency of underbody strikes and the resultant fire risk."
A fire occurred in a Tesla Model S charging at a Tesla Supercharger in Norway on January 1, 2016. The fire was slow, and the owner had time to unplug the car and retrieve possessions. An investigation by the Norwegian Accident Investigation Board (AIBN) indicated that the fire originated in the car, but was otherwise inconclusive. In March 2016, Tesla stated that their own investigation into the incident concluded that the fire was caused by a short circuit in the vehicle's distribution box, but that the amount of damage prevented them from determining the exact cause. Tesla stated that the Supercharger detected the short circuit and deactivated, and a future Model S software update would stop the vehicle from charging if a short circuit is detected.
On August 15, 2016 a new Tesla Model S 90D spontaneously caught fire during a promotional test drive in Biarritz, France. Following a sudden, loud noise the dashboard presented the driver with a warning of a "charging" problem. Following advice from a passenger Tesla employee, the driver pulled over and all three occupants safely exited the vehicle. Moments later the vehicle started burning and although firefighters quickly arrived, the fire completely destroyed the vehicle within 5 minutes. Tesla subsequently determined that the vehicle in question had a "bolted electrical connection" which would normally have been tightened by a robot, but which in this case had been "improperly tightened" by a human, causing the fire.
On August 25, 2017, the driver of a Model X lost control of the vehicle, which went over an embankment and struck a garage in Lake Forest, California, starting a fire that damaged the car and structure. The NTSB stated the resulting battery fire was under investigation.
On May 8, 2018, an 18-year-old lost control of his Tesla Model S while driving 116 mph in a 30 mph zone and hit the curb, a wall, the curb and a light pole causing the battery pack to ignite; the car was reportedly modified to be limited to a top speed of 85 mph. The driver and passenger died in the crash and subsequent fire. The battery pack reignited twice, requiring fire fighters to extinguish the burning battery pack three times. In reaction to this accident, Tesla sent an over-the-air firmware update that allows limiting the top speed to between 50 and 90 mph dedicated to the deceased driver.
On May 10, 2018, a Tesla S caught fire after hitting the guard-rail on the Swiss A2 highway on Monte Ceneri, between Lugano and Bellinzona, killing the 48-year-old German driver.
On June 16, 2018 pedestrians on a Los Angeles street alerted a driver of a Tesla Model S that smoke was emanating from his vehicle. The driver pulled over and safely exited the vehicle and flames started shooting out from under it. Firefighters quickly extinguished the fire, which left the cabin unaffected. The National Transportation Safety Board subsequently stated that they will monitor Tesla's investigation of the fire to learn more about fires in battery-powered vehicles, while the NHTSA stated that it collects information regarding the incident and will take action as warranted.
On February 8, 2019, A Tesla Model S caught on fire in a private garage in Pittsburgh. Two months later, on April 8, it caught on fire again, while it was under investigation.
On February 24, 2019 a Tesla Model S that crashed into a tree burst into flames and burned its driver beyond recognition Sunday evening along Flamingo Road in Davie Florida, then repeatedly caught fire after being brought to the tow yard used by police.
Also on February 24, 2019 a Tesla Model X was consumed by fire in the middle of frozen Lake Champlain. More than two years later, the investigation concluded that the car had been set on fire and the owner was charged with federal fraud.
On April 21, 2019, a Tesla Model S was exploded in an underground garage in Shanghai, China. Five cars were damaged by the fire.
On May 4, 2019, Tesla Model S, not plugged in, with smoke observed near the rear right tire.
On May 13, 2019 a Tesla Model S, caught on fire while parked in Hong Kong.
On June 1, 2019, a Tesla Model S burned down while supercharging in Belgium.
On August 10, 2019, a Tesla Model 3 collided with a truck on a high-speed road in Moscow, Russia, and subsequently burned down.
On November 12, 2019 a Tesla Model X from 2017 burst into flames while charging, leaving the vehicle completely destroyed in Chester, England.
On January 19, 2021 a Tesla Model 3 exploded in an underground residential parking garage in Shanghai on Tuesday, Chinese media reported.
In July 2021, one of the first 250 issued Model S Plaid's spontaneously burst into fire as its owner was driving it. In September 2021 alone, there were five fire related incidents involving Teslas.
February 22, 2022, State Farm sues Tesla after another home was destroyed by fire.
Tesla Model S and X NHTSA Probe (2019)
Related to several reported fires, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) opened a probe (Defect Petition DP19-005) on October 24, 2019, into all Tesla Model S and X cars manufactured between 2012 and 2019. The defect alleged by the probe regards "High voltage battery fires that are not related to collision or impact damage to the battery pack". It requests a wide range of information regarding details on the engineering and production of the specified vehicles as well as any software updates since January 1, 2017 which affect the "charging rate, charging capacity, and thermal management during or after charging."
Nissan Leaf
On September 1, 2015, a Nissan Leaf caught fire and was destroyed on a road in Flower Mound, Texas without causing injuries. The cause of the fire was not confirmed.
On October 16, 2020, a Nissan Leaf and a residential house burned down in the village of Sychavka in Lyman Raion, Odessa Oblast, Ukraine. It is unclear whether the fire started in the house or in the car. A resident of the house died in the fire.
On November 3, 2020, a Nissan Leaf caught fire in Chornomorsk near Odessa, Ukraine, leaving the car completely destroyed. The police suspected arson.
On July 8, 2021, a Nissan Leaf caught fire in Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine, while charging at a public charing station outside a shopping centre.
On August 28, 2021, a Nissan Leaf caught fire while parked outside in Saga, Japan. According to the owner, the car had been left outside after heavy rainfall in the area and suddenly caught fire two weeks later.
On September 14, 2021, a Nissan Leaf caught fire in Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Russia, probably while charging via an extension cord.
Also on September 14, 2021, a 2017 Nissan Leaf caught fire in Kremenchuk, Ukraine, the cause being unknown.
VW ID.3
On August 14, 2021, a VW ID.3 caught fire in Groningen, Netherlands. The driver had just put her child in the car when the car began to smoke. She managed to save her child and stepped away from the vehicle. According to witnesses, at least five loud blasts were heard, after each of which the fire seemed to intensify.
On August 23, 2021, a VW ID.3 caught fire while travelling in Kellmünz, Germany. According to the driver, the car displayed several error messages, and suddenly he noticed smoke. The car was submerged in water by the firefighters.
On September 14, 2021, a VW ID.3 caught fire while travelling near the Lunner Tunnel in Lunner municipality, Norway. The driver, who noticed the smoke while driving, was not injured.
On October 27, 2021, a VW ID.3 caught fire in a parking lot in Brühl, Germany.
VW ID.4
On November 21, 2021, a VW ID.4 caught fire while charging in a parking garage in Ravensburg, Germany.
VW e-Golf
On December 7, 2017 a VW e-Golf caught fire in Triangel, Germany. Responding for the first time to a high-voltage battery electric vehicle fire, the firefighters first cooled the vehicle then moved it into a container which they then filled with water.
On September 3, 2021, a VW e-Golf caught fire in Dumbrăviţa, Romania. The firefighters used a container to submerge the car in water.
Porsche Panamera E-Hybrid
On March 16, 2018, a Panamera E-Hybrid that was plugged into a household outlet for charging in Thailand burst into flames.
On May 1, 2019, a Panamera E-Hybrid caught fire after colliding violently against a Pillar of a bridge in Leça, Matosinhos, Portugal it carried 6 people, 2 died in the fire, another 2 died of injuries in the Hospital "including the driver" 2 others survived
Porsche Taycan
On February 16, 2020, a Porsche Taycan burned while parked in a residential garage in Florida, after which Porsche started investigating the incident.
On April 2, 2021, a Porsche Taycan caught fire while charging in Skjeberg, Norway.
On October 12, 2021, a new Porsche Taycan caught fire in Red Hill, Victoria, Australia. The vehicle had just been driven into a local estate, when smoke began coming out from under the bonnet. As the fire shut down the 12-volt electrical system, the firefighters were unable to open the bonnet to get at the lithium battery. Reputedly, the Porsche Taycan Cross Turismo was the only car of its kind in Australia.
Porsche battery prototype
On 17 August 2021, a battery prototype for electric cars caught fire at the Porsche Engineering site in Bietigheim-Bissingen, Germany.
Hyundai Ioniq
On June 11, 2021, a fully electric Hyundai Ioniq caught fire in Sehnde-Müllingen, Germany.
On November 13, 2021, a fully electric Hyundai Ioniq caught fire in Haßfurt, Germany. According to local police, the fire was caused either by a technical issue or arson.
Hyundai Kona Electric
The first reported Hyundai Kona fire took place in Hyundai's Ulsan production plant in May 2018.
A second fire also occurred on the Ulsan production line on August 16, 2018.
On July 26, 2019, a Kona Electric was parked in a residential garage in Montreal, Canada. The owner reported that the car was not plugged in at the time. An unprovoked fire began, and this triggered an explosion that projected the garage door across the street and caused damage to the attached structure. There were no injuries.
Another Kona Electric caught fire while charging in Gangneung, Gangwon Province, South Korea on July 28, 2019.
A fire in a Kona Electric occurred in Bucheon, Gyeonggi Province, South Korea on August 9, 2019. The flames began at the floor of the rear seat of the vehicle, which was parked at the time.
On August 13, 2019, a Kona Electric caught fire while being charged in an underground parking level at an apartment in Sejong City, South Korea. The vehicle was completely destroyed.
On September 17, 2019, in Leonstein, Austria a battery fire reportedly occurred while driving.
On April 2, 2020, a Kona EV fire occurred in Gyeonggi Ansan South Korea while parked after a full charge.
On May 29, 2020, a Kona EV which after full charge at the electric charging station in Sangyeok-dong, Buk-gu, Daegu, Korea caught on fire. The fire went out in two hours, but the vehicle was completely burned, causing 29 million won of property damage.
On August 7, 2020, another Kona EV fire occurred in Buk-gu, Daegu City South Korea while charging.
On August 24, 2020, Kona EV fire occurred in Jeongeup, Jeonbuk South Korea while parked after a full charge.
Kona EV caught fire in Jeju Island, South Korea on Sept. 26, 2020. The vehicle was parked, connected to an EV charger inside the parking lot of an apartment building.
On Oct 4, 2020, a Hyundai Kona electric vehicle (EV) burst into flames in the early hours of Sunday morning while parked in the underground parking lot of an apartment in Daegu, South Korea.
The 14th Kona electric vehicle fire accident occurred at 3:41 am on October 17, 2020, at the electric vehicle rapid charging site at the Wabu-eup Community Service Center, Namyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea.
On October 18, 2020, Hyundai Motor, citing an investigation by Korea's transport ministry acknowledged a battery issue that led to a worldwide recall of 77,000 Kona EVs.
On January 23, 2021, The fire mysteriously broke out at a Kona Electric being charged at a taxi company in Yucheon-dong, Dalseo-gu, Daegu at 4:11 p.m. on Jan. 23. The battery underneath the vehicle was identified as the ignition point.
A fire broke out in a Kona EV parked in a pension near a beach in Boryeong, Chungcheongnam-do South Korea on the 18th of June 2021.
Emergency services in Oslo, Norway were called out to Båhusveien on Sinsen on June 16, 2021 to extinguish a Kona EV fire
On July 1, 2021, a Hyundai Kona Electric caught fire in an underground parking lot in Saesam Village 3, Boram-dong, Sejong-si, South Korea
On July 4, 2021, another Hyundai Kona Electric caught fire in Oslo, Norway.
On July 12, 2021, a Hyundai Kona Electric caught fire in an accident in Alver, Norway.
On July 30, 2021, a Hyundai Kona Electric caught fire in Rhaudermoor, Germany.
Audi E-Tron
On January 20, an Audi E-Tron Sportback caught fire near a car dealership in Munich, Germany, causing nearby windows to burst.
On Februar 16, 2021, an Audi E-Tron caught fire near Skaret, Norway. The fire was likely caused by an electric drill, not the car itself.
Audi E-Tron GT
On 30 July 2021, an Audi E-Tron GT caught fire while charging at a public charging station in Munich, Germany. Both the car and the charging station was destroyed in the fire.
BMW i3
On November 11, 2020, a BMW i3 caught fire in Vorendaal, Netherlands, while conntected to a charging station.
On April 22, 2021, the mayor's BMW i3 caught fire in Alpen, Germany.
On April 27, 2021, a BMW i3 caught fire in a private garage in Schorndorf, Germany.
On May 3, 2021, a BMW i3-REx caught fire while travelling between Picton and Nelson in New Zealand. The fire was preceded by a warning on the car's dashboard "can't continue journey, please contact dealership immediately". After pulling over at the first safe location, flames were seen licking from under the rear wheel arch. The occupants were able to exit the vehicle without harm, and remove most of their luggage before the fire intensified. The vehicle was completely destroyed. The cause of the fire is unknown.
On July 6, 2021, a BMW i3 suddenly caught fire while travelling in Warsaw, Poland. The driver managed to escape the vehicle.
On August 28, 2021, a BMW i3 burned out in Berlin-Halensee, Germany. The fire was likely caused by arson.
On August 30, 2021, an electric BMW prototype caught fire while parked within the BMW premises in Eching, Germany. Once extinguished by the firefighters, the car reignited and had to be submerged in water. The exact cause is unknown.
On October 7, 2021, a BMW i3 caught fire in a parking lot in Chester, United Kingdom.
BMW i8
On March 25, 2019. According to the fire department in Tilburg, the Netherlands, the BMW i8 began to smoke while in the car dealership. The staff called the gift service. The BMW i8 was put in a water tank, which may also contain other substances, in order to prevent the vehicle battery from exploding. (Tilburg, the Netherlands)
Renault Zoe
On October 4, 2020, a Renault Zoe caught fire in Karmøy, Norway. Local residents were evacuated from a nearby building as a precaution.
On December 15, 2020, a Renault Zoe caught fire while parked in the Bjørndal suburb of Oslo, Norway.
On December 30, 2020, a 2017 Renault Zoe caught fire in a parking garage in Sandvika, Norway.
On January 3, 2021, a Renault Zoe caught fire while connected to a charging station in Illingen-Hüttigweiler, Germany. Parked next to the Zoe was another electric car, a Škoda Citigo e-iV, that also caught fire.
On January 25, 2021, a Renault Zoe caught fire while travelling in Quimperlé, France. The driver and his daughter managed to exit the car without any injuries.
On January 29, 2021, a Renault Zoe caught fire while charging at a public charging station in Teterow, Germany. The police suspected the cause to be arson.
On February 16, 2021, a Renault Zoe caught fire while parked (and possibly charging) in Bamberg, Germany.
On February 17, 2021, a Renault Zoe caught fire in the Amberg Tunnel near Feldkirch, Austria. The driver managed to exit the tunnel through the north entrance and stopped on the shoulder, where the firefighters subsequently extinguished the fire.
On May 31, 2021, a Renault Zoe caught fire in a private parking lot in Mulhouse, France.
On June 13, 2021, a Renault Zoe suddenly burst into flames while on the read near Villeneuve-lès-Béziers, France, injuring both occupants, one of whom suffered severe burns.
On July 20, 2021, a Renault Zoe caught fire while charging at a public charging station in Stadskanaal, Netherlands.
On August 14, 2021, a Renault Zoe caught fire in Stolberg, Germany.
On November 11, 2021, a Renault Zoe caught fire in Vennesla, Norway. The driver had to rescue her baby from the burning car.
Peugeot e-208
On September 8, 2021, a Peugeot e-208 caught fire while charging in Oslo, Norway. Because of the potentially toxic smoke, local residents were asked to keep their windows shut until the fire was completely extinguished.
Peugeot Partner
On October 21, 2021, two fully electric Peugeot Partners caught fire in Trondheim, Norway.
On November 15, 2021, a fully electric Peugeot Partner caught fire in Sortland, Norway. According to the occupants, they noticed the flames while looking for a parking spot and then quickly exited the van.
Fiat 500e
On September 21, 2021, a Fiat 500e crashed into a tree near Schmogrow-Fehrow, Germany, and caught fire. The driver was injured and taken to hospital.
Roewe i6
On September 17, 2021, a SAIC Roewe i6 Max crashed into a newspaper stand in Huizhou, China, leaving six people dead and another 13 injured.
Jaguar I-Pace
On September 11, 2020, a Jaguar I-Pace crashed into a tree and caught fire in Oslo, Norway.
On August 23, 2021, a Jaguar I-Pace caught fire while parked near Redmond, Oregon, USA. The battery melted and it took around two hours to put out the fire.
On October 25, 2021, a Jaguar I-Pace caught fire while charging in Székesfehérvár, Hungary. The fire reignited several times.
Nio EC6
On 30 July 2021, an electric NIO EC6 crashed into a guardrail in Shanghai, China, and caught fire. The driver died in the accident.
StreetScooter
On July 29, 2021, a StreetScooter caught fire in a workshop in Trier, Germany, due to a fault in the battery. As a result, the workshop building was so unstable it had to be demolished.
Electric ships
The Norwegian ferry MF Ytterøyningen operated by Norled was delivered in 2006 and is equipped with a Corvus Orca Energy storage system (ESS) with 1989 kWh capacity. A small fire was reported on October 10, 2019 in the battery room. The ferry returned to harbor under its own power where passengers and crew were evacuated to land. Overnight, however, a serious gas explosion rocked the battery room causing significant damage. Norwegian authorities have issued a statement and hazard warning
Norwegian broadcasting company NRK reported that twelve firefighters were taken to hospital for exposure to hazardous gases associated with the batteries.
See also
Boeing 787 Dreamliner battery problems (related to lithium-ion batteries)
Lithium-ion batteries and safety
UPS Airlines Flight 6, a crash caused by the thermal runaway of its lithium-ion battery cargo
Vehicle fire
References
External links
NHTSA Interim Safety Guidance for Vehicle Owner/General Public
NHTSA Interim Safety Guidance for Law Enforcement/Emergency Medical Services/Fire Department
NFPA Chevrolet Volt Emergency Response Guide
Should Battery Fires Drive Electric Cars Off the Road?, Scientific American, 12 November 2013.
Videos
Tesla Model S EV Safety Training for Emergency Responders, YouTube. Production: Ron Moore and Brock Archer, with collaboration of Tesla Motors, October 2013.
Battery electric vehicles
Electric vehicle industry
Lithium-ion batteries
Plug-in hybrid vehicles
Accidents |
67860745 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%20Maricopa%20County%20presidential%20ballot%20audit | 2021 Maricopa County presidential ballot audit | The 2021 Maricopa County presidential ballot audit, commonly referred to as the Arizona audit, was an examination of ballots cast in Maricopa County during the 2020 United States presidential election in Arizona initiated by Republicans in the Arizona State Senate and executed by private firms. Begun in April 2021, the audit stirred controversy due to extensive previous efforts by Trump and his allies to overturn the election and due to assertions of rule violations and irregularities in the conduct of the recount, leading to claims that the audit was essentially a disinformation campaign. In June 2021, Maggie Haberman of The New York Times and Charles Cooke of National Review reported Trump had told associates that based on the results of the audit, he would be reinstated as president in August 2021. By early August, no evidence of widespread fraud had surfaced.
From the beginning of the audit, several concerns surfaced, including how the audit was being conducted, its legality, the conduct of auditors, and security issues at the site. The audit spawned interest in pursuing similar efforts in other states, causing the United States Department of Justice to warn Republican legislatures of potential violations of federal law. Conspiracy theory issues also arose as many commentators across the political spectrum, including Republicans, characterized the effort as a sham or "fraudit" that was an element of the big lie that the presidential election had been stolen from Trump.
The auditors released a report in September 2021, finding no proof of fraud and that their ballot recount increased Biden's margin of victory by 360 votes. County election officials released a final report in January 2022 finding that nearly all of the auditors' allegations of irregularities were false or misleading.
Origins
After the 2020 presidential election was called for Biden, Trump and his allies made many allegations of election fraud that were dismissed by numerous state and federal judges, election officials, governors, and government agencies as completely baseless. Multiple congressional Republicans, as well as governors and other elected officials, refused to acknowledge Biden's victory. The Trump campaign and its allies filed at least 63 lawsuits, including to the Supreme Court, all of which were rejected. Trump pressured Republican officials in key states to block the certification of votes. Trump also pressured the Justice Department to challenge the election results. The Justice Department and Department of Homeland Security found no evidence of significant election fraud. Trump's failed efforts preceded the January 6 attack on the U.S. Capitol.
Trump was only the second Republican presidential nominee to lose Arizona since 1948, losing the state by 10,400 votes. This was due almost entirely to Biden carrying Maricopa County, by far the state's largest county (it has over 61 percent of the state's population) by 45,000 votes, the first time a Republican had lost the county in 72 years. After the Associated Press and Fox News declared Biden the winner in Arizona as ballot counting continued, Trump and Arizona Republican Party chair Kelli Ward sought to intervene, with Ward sending a text message to a Republican election official to say she had spoken with Trump and "We need you to stop the counting." She also asked the official to contact Trump attorney Sidney Powell, adding, "I know you don't want to be remembered as the guy who led the charge to certify a fraudulent election."
In Maricopa County, no discrepancies had been found in either a hand count audit on November 4, 2020, nor an additional physical hand recount of 47,000 ballots (2% of election-day ballots plus 5,000 early voting ballots) conducted from November 7 through November 9, 2020. On February 23, 2021, Maricopa County announced that forensic audits of their vote tabulation equipment by two independent auditors accredited by the federal Election Assistance Commission had found no irregularities.
On March 31, 2021, the Arizona Senate Republican caucus, led by Senate President Karen Fann, hired four firms to examine the ballots in Maricopa County in the races for President and for the United States Senate, with a Florida-based company called Cyber Ninjas being the lead firm. Cyber Ninjas' owner, Doug Logan, is a Trump supporter and a proponent of Trump's claims of voter fraud. The process involves an audit to search for evidence of fraud, and a hand recount of the 2.1 million ballots cast in Maricopa County. The hand recount is managed by Wake Technology Services, which reportedly had been hired for a previous audit in a rural Pennsylvania county by Trump attorney Sidney Powell, who has promoted numerous conspiracy theories about the election. The firm works primarily in the healthcare sector with little to no experience with elections.
The Arizona Republicans provided $150,000 of funding from the State Senate operating budget, while nearly $5.7 million was provided by five groups spearheaded by Trump supporters seeking to delegitimize the 2020 election results, including lawyer Sidney Powell, and the following other persons. Patrick Byrne, the former CEO of Overstock.com and promoter of 2020 election conspiracy theories, donated one million dollars to the effort and created a website to raise further funds, which was promoted by former Trump national security advisor Michael Flynn. The fundraising was conducted through a 501(c)(4) organization, a tax code provision intended primarily for the promotion of social welfare. One America News personalities also created a dark money organization to raise funds, while providing extensive coverage of the audit that drew praise from Trump. Senator Wendy Rogers, who supported the claims that Trump had won the election in Arizona as well as nationally, extensively promoted the audit on social media.
CueCat inventor J. Hutton Pulitzer claims to have invented a system for detecting "kinematic markers" which is being used by Cyber Ninjas. Pulitzer is also said to be the originator of the claim that Chinese ballots with paper containing bamboo are part of the claimed fraud.
Conduct and concerns
The audit began on April 22, 2021 and was expected to last 60 days. That day, Arizona Senate Democrats filed a lawsuit to stop the audit. The next day Judge Christopher Coury agreed to suspend the audit for three days until the contractors can present documentation on how they will conduct the audit. The suspension was conditioned on the Arizona Senate Democrats posting a $1 million bond to cover the cost that the delay could cost the Arizona State Senate Republicans. But because the Arizona State Senate Democrats refused to post the bond, the suspension did not go into effect. By May 5, Arizona Senate Democrats reached a settlement with the Arizona Senate Republicans to allow independent elections experts to observe the audit. The agreement authorizes Secretary of State Katie Hobbs to file suit against Cyber Ninjas for breach of contract if the company does not live up to the agreement.
Former Arizona Secretary of State Ken Bennett, a Republican, had been designated as the State Senate's liaison to the audit. On May 5, 2021, Hobbs sent a letter to Bennett, detailing additional concerns with the way the audit was being conducted. Her letter cited the audit's disclosed procedures (departures from and ignorance of best practices for hand recounts) and the reports of the observers sent from the Secretary of State's office (including sloppy handling of ballots). A response from the audit's Twitter account asserted that Hobbs's allegations were "baseless claimes [sic]".
Also on May 5, the United States Department of Justice sent Karen Fann, president of the Arizona State Senate, a letter expressing concerns that the audit may violate federal laws. One concern is that the law requires election officials to maintain custody of all voting records for up to 22 months. Another concern is that the statement of work for Cyber Ninjas authorizes Cyber Ninjas to knock on voters' doors to ask them if they have voted in the 2020 elections, which may amount to voter intimidation and constitute a violation of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. After the Department of Justice threatened to sue over this plan, Cyber Ninjas agreed not to do it.
The Arizona Republic reported in May that because Senate Republicans had given private companies and individuals unfettered and unmonitored access to voting machines, the county might need to expend significant funds and time to ensure the equipment would meet federal, state and local requirements for certifying and protecting election equipment. Hobbs, the Secretary of State, later informed the Board of Supervisors that election technology and security experts, including at the federal Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, unanimously advised her that the machines should not be reused in future elections because no methods exist to adequately secure them. The auditors also requested the county provide network routers, though election security experts said this presented a security threat and there was no evident reason the auditors needed them. Bennett said auditors needed the routers to see if the election management system (EMS) was connected to the internet during the election, though a county official said the auditors already had other means to perform that check. Independent forensic audits before and after the election found the system was not connected to the Internet, and county officials said it never had been. Sellers said it might cost as much as $6 million if the county had to replace the routers because their integrity could no be longer assured after they were given to the auditors. The County Board of Supervisors voted on July 14 to spend $2.8 million to replace voting equipment that the auditors had accessed.
June 2021
On June 2, Hobbs issued a report detailing observations made to that point by election observers from her office, alleging various infractions on the part of the auditors. These included leaving security gates open, leaving confidential materials unattended, and bringing "prohibited items including cellphones and pens with black or blue ink" to the counting floor. In particular, black and blue ink pens are prohibited because they can be used to modify ballots that were cast.
The objectivity of the audit has been called into question due to the involvement of Logan. Additionally, Anthony Kern, a former Republican state lawmaker who was present at the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, has been seen tallying votes. Kern, who was himself named on the ballots as a would-be Trump presidential elector as well as running for re-election to the Arizona House of Representatives, has since been removed from the group with access to the ballots. Former Republican Secretary of State Ken Bennett continued advising the audit, and Hobbs, the current Secretary of State, criticized Bennett's efforts, saying he needs to "either do it right, or don't do it at all."
The audit has produced division among Arizona Republicans. After initially supporting the audit, on May 9 Paul Boyer, a member of the Arizona State Senate Republican caucus, criticized the audit, saying "it makes us look like idiots." The Maricopa County Board of Supervisors, which is dominated by Republicans, also opposed the audit. On May 17, the board held a hearing and sent Fann a twelve-page letter to dispute her allegations of wrongdoing by county officials. Republican board chairman Jack Sellers stated that the allegations were actually due to the incompetence of the auditors and accused Fann of an "attempt at legitimatizing a grift disguised as an audit." Fann, however, continued to support the audit, and sent the Board of Supervisors a four-page letter stating that "serious issues" had arisen during the audit. Arizona Republican Party Chairwoman Kelli Ward released multiple videos about the audit, in which she criticized the Board of Supervisors and raised "the possibility of placing the validity of the entire 2020 election into question." A poll conducted at the end of March found that 78.3% of Arizona Republicans believed "that there was significant voter fraud in the 2020 United States Presidential Election which compromised the integrity of the election."
It was reported in June 2021 that a Cyber Ninjas subcontractor had transported copies of voting systems data to a supposed "lab" in Bigfork, Montana. The exact nature of the data and what efforts had been taken to keep it secure was unclear. A CNN reporter traveled to the location listed in property records for the subcontractor and found a cabin in a wooded non-commercial area.
In late June 2021, the Monmouth University Polling Institute reported that a majority of Americans viewed this and similar audits as "partisan efforts to undermine valid election results".
The auditors announced on June 25 they had finished counting and photographing the 2.1 million ballots, and Bennett stated a final report would come in weeks or months. On July 9, Fann announced the Senate would conduct another ballot count as a check on the work done by Cyber Ninjas and the earlier count by county election officials.
July 2021
On July 14, two House Democrats, Carolyn Maloney and Jamie Raskin, opened an investigation into Cyber Ninjas, sending a letter to Logan requesting documents and records of any communications between the company and Trump or his allies, as well as information on who was funding the audit. The next day, a Maricopa County judge ruled that all information relating to the audit were public records, including communications between the audit participants and information about who was financing the audit, rejecting an argument by Senate Republicans that information held by Cyber Ninjas and other private contractors were not subject to the Arizona public records law. The judge found that government officials could not shield information about their official activities by farming it out to private companies. Another judge and an appeals court agreed, and in September the Arizona Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal from Senate Republicans, requiring the documents to be released.
July 15 hearing on preliminary findings
On July 15, preliminary findings were presented by Doug Logan, Ken Bennett and Ben Cotton, in an Arizona Senate hearing lead by Arizona Senate member Warren Petersen and Arizona Senate president Karen Fann. During the hearing, Logan incorrectly asserted the county had 74,243 "mail-in ballots" that had no record of being sent to voters, though he acknowledged the discrepancy could have been caused by record keeping errors. The incorrect information was quickly repeated by lawmakers and Republican commentators, echoing a similar false claim that had been made in Pennsylvania soon after the election. County officials and election experts said Cyber Ninjas had misinterpreted data files when examining mail-in ballot figures, leading to an incorrect conclusion. County officials said Logan did not appear to understand that early votes in the county were not cast solely through mail-in ballots, but that some early votes were cast at in-person voting centers. The in-person early votes would not see a record of being mailed to voters, since those ballots were provided directly at the in-person voting centers, rather than being sent to voters by mail. Tammy Patrick, who had been a federal compliance officer for Maricopa County elections for eleven years, said the auditors had examined early versions of the data that the county had provided to political parties to aid their get-out-the-vote efforts, but those early versions were not intended to and did not reflect the final official tallies.
Logan also noted about 168,000 ballots with faulty printing that caused the print on the front and back to be slightly misaligned, which he claimed could cause voters to cast ballots for the wrong candidate if voting machine ink bleeds through the ballot, or if a Sharpie marker is used. He said the voting machines used "a lot of very thin paper stock", though the paper was among the types recommended by the vendor of the voting machines that print completed ballots. An independent audit months before the election ran 1.5 million test ballots through the voting machines; two ballots jammed in the tabulators but the test vote was found to be accurate. The county said it used 80lb Vote Secure paper for all mail-in and in-person ballots, and before the election said it would provide polling places with fine-tipped Sharpies because they had the fastest-drying ink to minimize smudged ballots. Logan acknowledged the matter required further analysis, though election experts said bleed-through does not affect the vote count because of printing alignment issues, and a bipartisan process had been in place to flag and examine unreadable ballots. Logan also claimed to have an affidavit asserting that signature verification standards had been progressively relaxed during the election until "they were just told to let every single mail-in ballot through", which Republican county recorder Stephen Richer strongly denied. Neither county officials nor Senate Democrats were permitted to participate in Logan's presentation.
Post-hearing developments
Soon after Logan's presentation, Trump released three statements in which he made multiple false assertions regarding the findings. He falsely claimed the 168,000 ballots Logan had identified had been printed on illegal paper and were unofficial. He also characterized as "magically appearing ballots" the 74,243 mail-in ballot discrepancy that Logan had incorrectly found. Trump asserted that "all the access logs to the machines were wiped, and the election server was hacked during the election", though there was no evidence to support the claim. The county said that months before the election an individual had inappropriately downloaded publicly-available data from the county website; a forensic audit by two firms months before the election found the election management system was airgapped from the website and the internet. He then said the incidence of fraud and irregularities was many times more than would be needed to change the election outcome, though the number of identified potential fraud cases was far smaller than Biden's margin of victory. Trump echoed a claim Logan had made, stating "11,000 voters were added to the voter rolls AFTER the election and still voted", though this was explained by voters casting provisional ballots and later being added to the rolls after their eligibility to vote was confirmed.
On July 16, the auditors claimed they did not have enough information to complete their report, and requested that the Arizona Senate subpoena further records and survey tens of thousands voters at their residences. Logan said during the July 15 presentation that his assertions of a 74,243 mail-in ballot discrepancy, found to be incorrect, merited the household survey. Cyber Ninjas had in May agreed to not survey households, after the Justice Department threatened to sue over the practice.
A July Associated Press investigation found that Arizona election officials had identified 182 ballots out of 3.4 million cast statewide that were sufficiently problematic to be referred to investigators for further review. Four of those incidents had led to charges, two against Democratic voters and two against Republicans. A spokesman for Arizona Republican attorney general Mark Brnovich had said in April that 21 active investigations were underway, though he did not indicate how many related to the November 2020 election.
Fann expressed confidence in Cyber Ninjas, asserting "they are working with a number of other contractors that have experience in audits and in their expertise in their own fields." The Arizona Republic had reported in June that none of the contractors involved in the audit were certified by the federal Election Assistance Commission, while two firms that had conducted forensic audits for the county before the election were certified. In late July, Bennett confirmed that he was being shut out of the auditors' second ballot count because he questioned the lack of transparency in the processes being used, which he characterized as "hide-the-ball-from-me stuff". He said he believed an independent group should have conducted the second count after the auditors' first count did not match the official results. He added he had "indirectly...allowed some information that was supposed to be private to get out," referring to partial ballot count data given to an outside election auditing firm which found the Cyber Ninjas second count was a 99.9% match with the official count. The CEO of the outside firm said that if the difference was extrapolated to all 2.1 million ballots, the count would differ by 124 votes.
Trump chief spokesperson Liz Harrington often tweeted about the audit, and on July 26 she appeared on Special Report with Bret Baier on Fox News to falsely assert that Logan's analysis meant there were 275,000 "potential fraudulent ballots."
On July 26, the Republican Senate issued new subpoenas for the envelopes bearing signatures for mail-in ballots, as well as for all routers, and passwords and log-in information for the ballot tabulation devices. County officials had previously told the auditors that access to such equipment was unnecessary and posed a security threat, including possible access to sensitive information in the county sheriff's office. County supervisors and the election voting machine vendor, Dominion Voting Systems, refused to comply with most of the demands in the subpoenas days later, responding that much of the materials had already been provided under subpoenas months earlier. The supervisors also said some of the requested materials were held in the Recorder's office, which was not named in the subpoenas. The demand for routers was again flatly denied on security concerns. The supervisors noted the subpoenas had not been authorized by a Senate vote, while Dominion asserted the subpoena it received demanded information the company did not have and that it would take Cyber Ninjas to court to protect its proprietary rights. Fann responded she would grant more time for compliance while the auditors considered their options for gaining access to the routers and passwords. Senate Republicans and the Board of Supervisors reached a settlement on September 17 in which the demand for routers, network logs and the voter registration database would be withdrawn in exchange for the Board dropping its effort to recoup from the auditors the $2.8 million that had been authorized to replace voting equipment that had been potentially compromised by the auditors. The settlement called for a special master to arrange for an independent technology team to examine the routers and answer questions about how they were used in the 2020 election and how they will be used in future elections.
On July 27, Twitter banned the audit's official account for violating rules regarding platform manipulation and spam.
Cyber Ninjas released a summary of its major donors on July 28, indicating $5.7 million was raised from five groups associated with individuals who had cast doubt on the presidential election, including Byrne, Flynn and Powell, as well as OANN personalities Chanel Rion and Christina Bobb.
August 2021
Attorney General Mark Brnovich stated that the Maricopa County Board of Supervisors violated state law by not complying with election audit subpoena. The Maricopa Board of Supervisors, in response, said that there was no violation, since the Senate lacked the power of enforcement when not in legislative session.
Concurrently, on August 3, a county judge enforced a previous ruling from July wherein he rejected the argument from Senate Republicans that they were immune from suits to release their audit records, ordering the records released immediately; the order was expected to be appealed to a higher court. On August 25, Maricopa County Superior Court Judge John Hannah ordered Cyber Ninjas to preserve all records of their audit for later public release.
September 2021
On September 23, 2021, Maricopa County claimed that the report from the audit would show that Biden had indeed won the county. The New York Times has reported that draft versions of the report it had seen showed Biden to have won slightly more votes and Trump to have won slightly fewer than the official count had.
Conspiracy theory issues
Many commentators across the political spectrum, including Republicans, characterized the effort as a sham or "fraudit" that was an element of the big lie that the presidential election had been stolen from Trump. As part of the audit, auditors have been looking for secret watermarks, machine-markings, and bamboo fibers within the ballots. The testing for bamboo fibers was intended to prove a conspiracy theory that counterfeit ballots were shipped from South Korea or mainland China to be counted in the election. The audit was supposed to have concluded on May 14, but as of May 9, only 12% of the ballots were counted. The audit was being conducted at the main floor of the Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum, which was not available for this activity beyond the original target date. Consequently, the audit went on hiatus on May 14 and resumed on May 24.
Karen Fann made an allegation, later amplified by Trump in a May 15 post on his blog, asserting that Maricopa County election officials deleted the voting database after the election. Maricopa County Recorder Stephen Richer, a Republican who oversees elections, tweeted that Trump's post was "unhinged", noting he was looking at the database on his computer at that moment. Richer added, "We can't indulge these insane lies any longer." The auditors later acknowledged they had been examining hard drives the wrong way and the database had not been deleted, though the CEO of a Cyber Ninjas subcontractor, Ben Cotton, later said he was "able to recover all of those deleted files." After he continued to repeatedly characterize the data as "deleted" during a Senate hearing, Fann said she stood by that characterization but said she would not refer the matter to law enforcement because "we never said there was any wrongdoing."
In June 2021, it was reported that Trump had told associates that based on the results of the audit, he would be reinstated as president by August 2021.
By August, false assertions spread on the internet that fraud had been discovered in the form of "lost" and "ghost" ballots that would've assured a Trump victory. Some of the false claims originated with outspoken Trump supporter Mike Lindell, fake news website The Gateway Pundit and an Arizona real estate broker.
The Arizona vote audit report in September showed that Trump had 261 fewer votes than had been counted whilst Biden had 99 more votes.
Alleged mishandling of employee sexual harassment complaints
On July 1, 2021, KTVK reported that a former employee of the audit had spoken with them and claimed that the audit organizers had, for weeks, ignored sexual harassment complaints from her and several other employees, allowing recurrent incidents of harassment to persist. The employee provided the outlet with statements from seven witnesses and alleged victims who corroborated her account.
Findings
Released on September 24, 2021, the audit results did not find proof of fraud to support allegations of a stolen election. The report did, however, identify several factors which the report characterized as anomalies. Maricopa County officials criticized the report as "littered with errors & faulty conclusions".
Vote count
The audit's report found that the auditors' ballot recount increased Biden's margin of victory by 360 votes compared to the official count. Cyber Ninjas asserted they found problems with election conduct and alleged widespread anomalies in the election count that set the result in doubt. The report called into question a total of 53,305 ballots for varying reasons, though it noted multiple times there could be legitimate explanations for discrepancies.
Other claims
The auditors misleadingly stated that voting data had been deleted from the EMS server just before their audit was set to begin. The data had actually been archived to permanent storage systems in February, before a county-commissioned audit was to begin, and no data were missing. The auditors also asserted that some voting equipment was connected to the Internet, citing a server in the Recorder's office, but county officials noted that server was not part of the EMS and maintained the EMS was not connected to the Internet. In its report, the auditors said 3,432 more ballots were cast than were shown in a file of voters provided by the county, but the county explained that certain government officials and others are excluded from that file for their personal security because the file contains home addresses. One audit team member, Shiva Ayyadurai, who is known to promote conspiracy theories, claimed to have found faulty or missing signatures on ballot envelopes that could have resulted in thousands of duplicate ballots being counted, though election workers contact such voters so they can "cure" the errors and their ballots can be counted. The county said no duplicate ballots were counted.
Ayyadurai also said he found 17,322 duplicate ballot envelope images, which he suggested might mean ballots had been counted more than once. However, election workers may take multiple images of a ballot envelope as the signature curing process proceeds with voters, and each envelope bears a barcode to track that process and ensure that only one ballot is counted per voter. Ayyadurai asserted the receipt of envelopes "surged right after the election was over," though state law allows election workers five business days after elections to cure signatures, so there was a spike in such activity for those who voted on or just before election day. During the curing process, a ballot may be recorded as received by mail more than once, but it is counted as a vote only once. Ayyadurai's analysis was mischaracterized on social media and alternative news sites as having found 17,322 duplicate ballots.
Auditors said they found 5,047 Arizona voters with the same names and birth years who potentially voted twice, including in Maricopa County. County officials countered that matching names and birth years was not unusual in a state with 7 million residents.
Cyber Ninjas identified as a "critical" issue that 23,344 voters had their ballots mailed to old addresses. The county responded there were numerous legal reasons for this, including that the voter served in the military, had recently moved but not yet updated their driver license address, or had requested a one-time temporary address. The auditors used a commercial database system to compare addresses, saying they found voters who had moved out of state or died before they voted, though that database system is not always accurate and the auditors conceded it was not comprehensive. The auditors said that "a number" of the 86,391 individuals they could not find in the database — which Trump characterized as "phantom voters" — "are in fact real people with a limited public record and commercial presence; but it is unclear how large that number is." Barry Burden, director of the Elections Research Center at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, said it was unclear how data were collected for the database.
Election workers can make a duplicate of a ballot that tabulation machines reject due to damage. Cyber Ninjas said it counted 2,592 more duplicated ballots than had originally been sent for duplication. County officials said they were confident the duplication process was accurate, pointing to a court case that affirmed the process that was used.
Edited version of the report
An edited version of the report, which stated: "The election should not be certified, and the reported results are not reliable", was spread by QAnon and The Gateway Pundit, the latter of which baselessly claimed that the Arizona State Senate had pressured for the above line to be removed. Cyber Ninjas CEO Doug Logan has said that this edited report "is a false version" of the audit report, and that the notion that the Arizona State Senate had issued threats to suppress the edited report was "absolutely false". Arizona State Senate audit liaison Randy Pullen, a former chairman of the Arizona Republican Party, also stated that the edited report was "a fake document", and further said that "there was never a discussion about decertifying" the election. During a October 2021 podcast where conservative activist Joe Oltmann was interviewing Doug Logan, Oltmann admitted to being the person who released the edited version of the report.
Aftermath
The United States House Committee on Oversight and Reform held a hearing on the audit on October 7, 2021. Logan had declined an invitation to attend; in her September letter inviting him, committee chairwoman Carolyn Maloney wrote she had not received the Cyber Ninjas documents she had requested from him in July. Bennett, Sellers and Gates attended. In his testimony, Bennett stated that auditors found several areas where election laws or procedures "were or may have been" violated. He repeated the incorrect claim that files had been deleted, which Gates clarified was actually due to auditors looking in the wrong place for the files. Republican committee member Andy Biggs of Arizona falsely stated "we don't know" who won the presidential vote in Arizona. Logan had stated that his audit could not conclude if there was fraud in the mail in ballots, just that it was "highly suspicious".
On October 8, the county Elections Department and Recorder's office released a preliminary "top line" analysis of the auditor's report, finding it repeatedly made faulty claims. The preliminary analysis was to be followed by a deeper analysis.
In November 2021, the Arizona State Senate released financial records indicating the audit cost nearly $9 million, generating an operating loss of over $2 million. The records did not include income and expenses for Cyber Ninjas. The Senate contributed $50,000 of the $150,000 it had authorized. In November, Vice quoted Nick Moseder, who spread election disinformation on social media, saying Logan told him he was $2.1 million in debt due to the audit. Asked in October if he would conduct an audit for another state, Logan said, "If in prayer, the Lord told me to do it, I would do it again. Otherwise, no, I would not be inclined to, and quite frankly, it’s not because of the left, it’s because of the right," adding he had received many messages from Trump supporters accusing him of "not doing enough, that I did not put enough on the line."
In January 2022, county election officials released a final report finding nearly every claim the auditors made was false or misleading. The next day, Cyber Ninjas announced it was shutting down, as a Maricopa County judge imposed a $50,000 contempt fine on the company for every day it refused to hand over documents as it had been ordered to do months earlier.
See also
United States presidential elections in Arizona
2020 Arizona elections
2020 United States presidential election
Post-election lawsuits related to the 2020 United States presidential election from Arizona
References
Further reading
External links
(Auto-generated transcript at )
Arizona
2021 controversies in the United States |
247137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharp%20Zaurus | Sharp Zaurus | The Sharp Zaurus is the name of a series of personal digital assistants (PDAs) made by Sharp Corporation. The Zaurus was the most popular PDA during the 1990s in Japan and was based on a proprietary operating system. The first Sharp PDA to use the Linux operating system was the SL-5000D, running the Qtopia-based Embedix Plus. The Linux Documentation Project considers the Zaurus series to be "true Linux PDAs" because their manufacturers install Linux-based operating systems on them by default. The name derives from the common suffix applied to the names of dinosaurs.
History
In September 1993, Sharp introduced the PI-3000, the first in the Zaurus line of PDAs, as a follow-on to Sharp's earlier Wizard line of PDAs (the Wizard also influenced Apple's Newton). Featuring a black and white LCD screen, handwriting recognition, and optical communication capabilities among its features, the Zaurus soon became one of Sharp's best selling products.
The PI-4000, released in 1994, expanded the Zaurus' features with a built-in modem and facsimile functions. This was succeeded in 1995 by the PI-5000, which had e-mail and mobile phone interfaces, as well as PC linking capability. The Zaurus K-PDA was the first Zaurus to have a built-in keyboard in addition to handwriting recognition; the PI-6000 and PI-7000 brought in additional improvements.
In 1996 Sharp introduced the Sharp Zaurus ZR-5800. It used the same compact design, ports and pointing device as the previous Zaurus models. The changes were mostly in the ROM. It came with 2 MB RAM and a backlit 320x240 LCD display.
During this time, Sharp was making significant advances in color LCD technology. In May 1996, the first color Zaurus was released; the MI-10 and MI-10DC were equipped with a five-inch (12.7 cm) color thin-film transistor (TFT) LCD screen. This model had the ability to connect to the internet, and had a built-in camera and audio recorder. Later that year, Sharp developed a forty-inch (100 cm) TFT LCD screen, the world's largest at the time. In December, the MI-10/10DC Zaurus was chosen as the year's best product by Information Display Magazine in the United States.
Sharp continued to make advancements in display technology; the Zaurus gained additional multimedia capabilities, such as video playback, with the introduction of the MI-E1 in Japan in November 2000. The MI-E1 was also the first Zaurus to support both Secure Digital and Compact Flash memory cards, a feature which would become standard on future models as well.
Although the MI series sold well in Japan, it was never released in either the USA or Europe, and the Japanese user interface was never translated into any other language. The machines released outside Japan were the Linux based SL series, the first of which was the SL-5000D "developer edition". This was shortly followed by the SL-5500; both used 'Embedix' - an embedded version of the Linux operating system developed by Lineo - combined with Qtopia, the Qt toolkit-based embedded application environment developed by Trolltech.
The development of the MI series in Japan was continued for a while, but the MI-E25DC has been officially declared to be the last MI-Series Zaurus.
Sharp has continued development of the SL series in Japan releasing the SL-C700, C750, C760 and C860 models which all feature 640x480 VGA screen resolution. They are all based on faster 400 MHz Intel XScale technology, although the SL-C700 was flawed and the apparent speed was the same as the 206 MHz SL-5500. All four of the SL-C models are clamshell type devices with the unusual ability to rotate the screen. This allows the device to be used in landscape mode with the keyboard, much like a miniature notebook PC, or in portrait mode as a PDA.
Sharp introduced a very different device from the clamshells in the form of the SL-6000 in early 2004; the SL-6000L (Wi-Fi only, no Bluetooth) was sold in North America, the last and only device since the 5xxx series to be officially sold outside Japan. It returned to the slider form of the 5xxx, but with a VGA display; a slider with a few key buttons covered a thumbboard. There was a joint project with IBM; the 6000 did not gain mass popularity and Amazon sold off their remaindered stock.
In October 2004 Sharp announced the SL-C3000 - the world's first PDA with an integrated hard disk drive (preceding the Palm Life Drive). It featured a similar hardware and software specification to the earlier C860 model; the key differences were that it only had 16 MB of flash memory yet gained an internal 4 GB Hitachi microdrive, a USB Host port, and "lost" the serial port (in some cases the components were not fitted to the motherboard or were incapable of driving the regular serial adaptor cables). The keyboard feel and layout changed somewhat, and most owners preferred it over the 760/860.
In March 2005 the C3000 product was joined by the SL-C1000 which returned to the traditional 128 MB flash memory but lost the internal micro-drive. The C1000 was cheaper, lighter, faster in execution due to running from flash memory, but would require the user to "waste" the SD or CF card slots to fit a memory card for mass storage; at the time the largest card supported was 1GB. The C1000 cannot be upgraded to fit an internal micro-drive because vital components were missing, but the space can be used to fit internal Bluetooth and Wi-Fi modules using the USB host facility.
In June 2005, Sharp released the SL-C3100, which had flash capacity of the C1000 yet also had the micro-drive, and proved a very popular model indeed. The 1000, 3000 and 3100 models were overclockable, boosting the device's ability to play back video more smoothly.
In March 2006 the latest model launched, predictably labelled as the SL-C3200. It is basically an SL-C3100 but with the newer 6 GB Hitachi micro-drive and another tweak to the case colours. The Intel PXA270 CPU is a later variant, and some would regard as inferior because it cannot be overclocked so highly. The kernel gained a vital tweak to the Sharp proprietary SD/MMC module and allowed 4GB SD cards to be used (and this was quickly borrowed by 3000 and 3100 owners). The software package gained text-to-speech software from Nuance Communications and an upgraded dictionary.
While the SL series devices have long been sold only in Japan, there are companies in Japan who specialise in exporting them worldwide; sometimes without modifying them at all, sometimes an English conversion is available at extra cost. Not all Zaurus models came from Sharp with universal (100/110/240 V) power supplies (the Zaurus takes a regulated 5 V/1 A supply), so either an additional or an exchanged power adaptor would be needed, and not all exporters provide this by default. When buying directly from an exporter in Japan, the buyer is liable for import duties and taxes, and attempting to avoid them can be a criminal offense.
There are also companies in the US, UK and DE who are unofficial resellers; one notable example is Trisoft who prepare and certify the device to "CE" standard compliance.
Since there is no official export channel from Japan, Sharp offers no warranty or repair service outside Japan, so foreign buyers are dependent on their chosen reseller to handle repairs, usually by sending to their agent in Japan who acts as if the device was owned and used in Japan in order to have it repaired by Sharp, before sending it back to the owner. Whilst Zauruses are actually quite robust devices, due to their miniaturization they are not easily repairable by casual electronics hobbyists.
In January 2007, it was reported that Sharp would discontinue production of the Zaurus line after February 2007. Later, in March, a European supplier tried to buy a batch of Zauruses as demand was still strong and noticed that they were all manufactured after Sharp's original cut-off date, however, Sharp was not able to explain its plans.
Their later units were the WS003SH and WS004SH which, whilst adding wireless and cellular phone and data features, ran the Windows Mobile 5.0 operating system/application suite.
Models
Personal Information (PI) series
Pi² T, proof of concept model presented in April 1992
PI-3000, the first model, introduced to the Japanese market on October 1, 1993
PI-4000/FX, second generation with ink and fax capabilities, on sale in Japan June 1994
PI-5000/FX/DA, first model capable of syncing data to a personal computer, going on sale in November 1994.
PI-4500, introduced in January 1995
PI-6000/FX, featuring a new handwriting recognition software, on sale in Japan August 1995.
PI-6000DA, adding a digital adapter for cellular phones, introduced on December 12, 1995
PI-7000, dubbed AccessZaurus (アクセスザウルス) sports a built in modem, is introduced in February 1996.
Note: Confusingly, Sharp made another unit called the "PI-7000 ExpertPad", which was a Newton based device, not a Zaurus.
PI-6500, was introduced to the Japanese market with a list price of 55,000 Yen on November 22, 1996. Measuring 147x87x17 mm and weighing 195 g including the batteries, it sports a 239x168 dot matrix display and 715 KB of user addressable memory.
PI-8000, went on sale on January 24, 1997 with a list price of 80,000 Yen. It featured a 319x168 dot matrix display, 711KB user addressable memory, measuring 157 x 90 x 17 mm, and weighing 215 g including batteries.
PI-6600, the last AccessZaurus with a 239 x 168 dot matrix display, measuring 147 x 87 x 17 mm and a weight of 195 g including batteries. It went on sale in Japan on September 25, 1997.
K-PDA (ZR) series
ZR-3000, 320x240 touch screen, 1 MB RAM.
ZR-3500, similar to the ZR-3000, with new internal 14.4/9.6 kbit/s modem.
ZR-5000/FX, a clam-shell model only sold outside Japan, going on sale in January 1995.
ZR-5700
ZR-5800 Having a touch screen and 2 MB of RAM.
MI series
MI-10DC/10, nicknamed ColorZaurus, was the first model to have a color display. The DC model featured a digital camera and was initially priced 155,000 Yen. The MI-10 was listed as 120,000 Yen. Both models went on sale on June 25, 1996.
MI-506DC/506/504, PowerZaurus
MI-110M/106M/106, ZaurusPocket
MI-610/610DC, PowerZaurus
MI-310, ZaurusColorPocket
MI-EX1, Zaurus iCRUISE - This was the first PDA with a 640x480 resolution display
MI-C1-A/S, PowerZaurus
MI-P1-W/A/LA, Zaurus iGeti
MI-P2-B, Zaurus iGeti - More internal software, more Flash
MI-P10-S, Zaurus iGeti - Larger RAM and Flash than P1/P2
MI-J1, Internet Dictionary Zaurus
MI-E1, First vertical display model - mini keyboard
MI-L1, Stripped down E1 - lacks display backlight
MI-E21, Enhanced version of E1 - double RAM and ROM size
MI-E25DC, a MI-E21 with an internal 640 x 480 digital camera
Other MI Series related devices
BI-L10, Business Zaurus - Mono screen, 4 Mb IRDA, Network Adapter
MT-200, Communications pal - Keyboard input, limited I/O
MT-300, Communications pal - 4 MB flash, restyled
MT-300C, Communications pal - CDMAone version
Browser Board, MT-300 with NTT DoCoMo specific software
Linux based SL series
SL-5000D, a developer edition of the SL-5500, containing 32 MB of RAM. (2001)
SL-5500 (Collie), the first new Zaurus to be sold outside Japan, is based on the Intel SA-1110 StrongARM processor running at 206 MHz, has 64 MB of RAM and 16MB Flash, a built-in keyboard, CompactFlash (CF) slot, Secure Digital (SD) slot, and Infrared port. (2002)
SL-A300 (Discovery), an ultra-light PDA with no keyboard, sold only in Japan (2003)
SL-5600 (Poodle), the successor to the SL-5500, with greater processing capability, increased RAM and an inbuilt speaker and microphone. Based on the Intel XScale 400 MHz processor. However some had a Cache bug on the PXA-250 processor (easily fixed!). Popular ROMs for the SL-5600 include Watapon, Synergy, and OpenZaurus. (2002)
SL-B500, name of the SL-5600 in Japan
SL-C700 (Corgi), a clam-shell model and the first PDA to use Sharp's "System LCD", sold only in Japan. (2003)
SL-C750 (Shepherd), an improved version of the SL-C700 with longer battery life, a faster processor and updated software, sold only in Japan. (2003)
SL-C760 (Husky), an improved version of the SL-C700 with double the internal flash storage of the SL-C750 and a larger battery, sold only in Japan. (2004)
SL-C860 (Boxer), similar to SL-C760, it contains a software upgrade which allows it to be recognised as a USB storage device and has built in English-Japanese translation software, sold only in Japan. (2004)
SL-6000 (Tosa) (2005), the successor to the SL-5600, available in 3 versions:
SL-6000N, 4" VGA display, Intel XScale PXA255 400 MHz processor, 64 MB flash memory, 64 MB SDRAM, CF and SD slots, and IR port. Built in microphone, speaker, USB host port. There seems to be a version called HC-6000N equipped with Microsoft Windows Mobile 2003 Second Edition, and a handheld from Hitachi called FLORA-ie MX1 with same hardware, both are only available in Japan.
SL-6000L, same as SL-6000N, also with built-in 802.11b Wi-Fi.
SL-6000W, same as SL-6000N, also with built-in 802.11b Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
SL-C3000 (Spitz), similar to SL-C860, the SL-C3000 contains a USB host port to allow the connection of USB devices such as keyboards and mice. It also features an Intel Xscale PXA270 416 MHz CPU. While that model features only 16 MB flash storage it has a 4 GB Hitachi HDD and was the first PDA to feature a hard disk. It is sold only in Japan.
SL-C1000 (Akita), similar to SL-C3000, but with 128 MB Flash ROM instead of HDD.
SL-C3100 (Borzoi), similar to SL-C3000, Flash ROM has been increased 128 MB, still has 4 GB HDD.
SL-C3200 (Terrier), latest clam-shell model, released on March 17, 2006, similar to SL-C3100. HDD has been increased to 6 GB, comes with updated dictionary, text to speech software from Nuance Communications and TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication) test.
Operating systems
These are frequently called 'ROMs' in the community because the Zaurus' OS is usually stored in embedded flash memory, and are installed using a flashing tool. There's also a special "rescue" mode NOR flash (or P2ROM in newer models) in all Zauruses since the 5xxx series which allows
recovery from a corrupted OS.
OpenZaurus, which uses the OPIE or GPE graphical user interfaces and is designed for the power user. OpenZaurus does not include the proprietary software that comes with Sharp's distribution. OpenZaurus development has been dropped in favour of Ångström which is also based on the OpenEmbedded build environment, but supports a larger range of devices, not limited to Zauri.
Ångström distribution, the replacement for OpenZaurus. OpenZaurus no longer is being developed for, as its developers now work on Ångström distribution. Ångström is an OpenEmbedded build system based Zaurus distribution with its current images being console and an X11 GPE based ROM.
pdaXrom, a distribution based on the X graphics system and the matchbox/openbox user interface.
Cacko, an alternative to the original Sharp ROM, it is based on the same Qt graphics system with as many underlying parts of the OS upgraded as possible yet still maintains full compatibility and allows the proprietary Sharp applications to be run.
In August 2007 a port of Gentoo Linux was started which offers some promise.
Zubuntu, based on the ARM port of Ubuntu for the clam-shell models C3x00 et al., SL-6000 was started in 2008.
Arch Linux ARM has been ported in 2015 on the C3x00 models.
For the Sharp and Cacko ROMs, there are third party and somewhat experimental kernels such as "Tetsu's" (a Japanese Zaurus expert) which offer interesting optimisations and drivers for unusual hardware. It is possible to replace only the Linux kernel which can give better performance while maintaining compatibility and retaining installed software that comes with a "stock" ROM.
As well as the choice of GUI (qt/qtopia, X11 + matchbox, X11 + E17 etc.), one key difference is the choice of whether the kernel was built with using ARM standard EABI or not, and whether it uses software or hardware floating point (code using hardware floating point is actually slower because the hardware doesn't support it, so those instructions cause an exception which then has to be handled by the kernel, with noticeable overhead).
There was a port of OpenBSD for several Zaurus models. The port is available on the SL-C3000, SL-C3100, and SL-C3200 with development continuing in order to expand support to the C860 and C1000. This port of OpenBSD does not however replace the original operating system entirely, nor is it made available as a ROM image, instead it uses the original Linux install as a bootloader and installs the same as OpenBSD would on any other platform. There is also a NetBSD port is in development, based on the work from OpenBSD. In early September 2016, the OpenBSD Project ceased support for the Zaurus port of their operating system.
Software
With the switch to the Linux operating system the Zaurus became capable of running variations of a wide variety of proprietary and open source software, including web and FTP servers, databases, and compilers. Developers have created several replacement Linux distributions for the Zaurus.
Software provided by Sharp includes basic PDA packages such as a datebook, addressbook, and to do list. These PIM applications are fairly unsophisticated, and a number of individuals and groups have developed alternatives. One popular - and free - alternative that runs on the Sharp ROM and OpenZaurus as well as Windows and Linux is the KDE PIM/Platform-independent set of applications. KDE PIM/PI is based on PIM applications from the KDE desktop suite for Linux. KDE PIM/PI includes KOrganizer/Platform-independent (or KOPI), KAddressbook/Platform-independent (or KAPI), K-OpieMail/pi (or OMPI), K-Phone/pi (kppi) and PwM/PI, a password manager with strong encryption.
In addition to standard PDA applications there are many programs available that are more commonly associated with desktop and laptop computers. Among these are a selection of office programs, web browsers, media applications and many others.
References
External links
Official Japan Zaurus Site
Personal digital assistants
Linux-based devices
Embedded Linux
Zaurus
Qt (software) |
1918289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scenario%20%28computing%29 | Scenario (computing) | In computing, a scenario (, ; borrowed from Italian scenario (), derived from Latin scena, meaning "scene") is a narrative of foreseeable interactions of user roles (known in the Unified Modeling Language as 'actors') and the technical system, which usually includes computer hardware and software.
A scenario has a goal, which is usually functional. A scenario describes one way that a system is or is envisaged to be used in the context of an activity in a defined time-frame. The time-frame for a scenario could be (for example) a single transaction; a business operation; a day or other period; or the whole operational life of a system. Similarly the scope of a scenario could be (for example) a single system or a piece of equipment; an equipped team or a department; or an entire organization.
Scenarios are frequently used as part of the system development process. They are typically produced by usability or marketing specialists, often working in concert with end users and developers. Scenarios are written in plain language, with minimal technical details, so that stakeholders (designers, usability specialists, programmers, engineers, managers, marketing specialists, etc.) can have a common ground to focus their discussions.
Increasingly, scenarios are used directly to define the wanted behaviour of software: replacing or supplementing traditional functional requirements. Scenarios are often defined in use cases, which document alternative and overlapping ways of reaching a goal.
Types of scenario in system development
Many types of scenario are in use in system development. Alexander and Maiden list the following types:
Story: "a narrated description of a causally connected sequence of events, or of actions taken". Brief User stories are written in the Agile style of software development.
Situation, Alternative World: "a projected future situation or snapshot". This meaning is common in planning, but less usual in software development.
Simulation: use of models to explore and animate 'Stories' or 'Situations', to "give precise answers about whether such a scenario could be realized with any plausible design" or "to evaluate the implications of alternative possible worlds or situations".
Storyboard: a drawing, or a sequence of drawings, used to describe a user interface or to tell a story. This meaning is common in Human–computer interaction to define what a user will see on a screen.
Sequence: a list of interactive steps taken by human or machine agents playing system roles. The many forms of scenario written as sequences of steps include Operational Scenarios, Concepts of Operations, and Test Cases.
Structure: any more elaborately-structured representation of a scenario, including Flowcharts, UML/ITU 'Sequence Charts', and especially in software development Use cases.
Negative scenarios or misuse cases may be written to indicate likely threats which should be countered to ensure that systems have sufficient security, safety, and reliability. These help to discover non-functional requirements.
Uses in system development
Scenarios have numerous possible applications in system development. Carroll (1995) lists 10 different "roles of scenarios in the system development lifecycle":
Requirements analysis: scenarios describe the "state-of-the-art" (often called "as-is"); acted scenarios help to discover requirements as analysts "stage a simulated work situation".
User-designer communication: users contribute scenarios important to them, or situations they want to experience or avoid.
Design rationale: rationale can explain design "with respect to particular scenarios of user interaction".
Envisionment: scenarios "can be a medium for working out what a system being designed should look like and do." In this role, scenarios can be "graphical mockups such as storyboards or video-based simulations", and may form early prototypes of the system under design.
Software design: "scenarios can be analyzed to identify the central problem domain objects" needed; the same scenarios can be developed to describe the objects' state, behavior and interactions.
Implementation: software can be built one scenario at a time, helping "to keep developers focused" and "producing code that is more generally useful".
Documentation and Training: "scenarios of interaction that are meaningful to the users" can bridge the gap between the system as built "and the tasks that users want to accomplish using it".
Evaluation and testing: since "a system must be evaluated against the specific user tasks it is intended to support", scenarios are ideal for evaluation.
Abstraction: general rules that apply across different tasks (or systems) can be identified by comparing scenarios.
Team building: "a set of touchstone stories is an important cohesive element in any social system".
In differing styles of system development
The choice of scenario representation varies widely with style of development, which is related to the industrial context.
See also
Happy path
Scenario testing
References
Bibliography
Alexander, Ian and Beus-Dukic, Ljerka. Discovering Requirements: How to Specify Products and Services. Wiley, 2009.
Alexander, Ian F. and Maiden, Neil. Scenarios, Stories, Use Cases. Wiley, 2004.
Carroll, John M. (ed) Making Use: Scenario-based Design of Human-Computer Interactions. MIT Press, 2000.
Carroll, John M. (ed) Scenario-Based Design: Envisioning Work and Technology in System Development. Wiley, 1995.
Cockburn, Alistair. Writing Effective Use Cases. Addison-Wesley, 2001.
Cohn, Mike. User Stories Applied: for Agile Software Development. Addison-Wesley, 2004.
Fowler, Martin. UML Distilled. 3rd Edition. Addison-Wesley, 2004.
External links
Notes on Design Practice: Stories and Prototypes as Catalysts for Communication. by Thomas Erickson, in Carroll, 1995.
Software requirements
Software design
Usability |
41710 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple%20Network%20Management%20Protocol | Simple Network Management Protocol | Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an Internet Standard protocol for collecting and organizing information about managed devices on IP networks and for modifying that information to change device behaviour. Devices that typically support SNMP include cable modems, routers, switches, servers, workstations, printers, and more.
SNMP is widely used in network management for network monitoring. SNMP exposes management data in the form of variables on the managed systems organized in a management information base (MIB) which describe the system status and configuration. These variables can then be remotely queried (and, in some circumstances, manipulated) by managing applications.
Three significant versions of SNMP have been developed and deployed. SNMPv1 is the original version of the protocol. More recent versions, SNMPv2c and SNMPv3, feature improvements in performance, flexibility and security.
SNMP is a component of the Internet Protocol Suite as defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). It consists of a set of standards for network management, including an application layer protocol, a database schema, and a set of data objects.
Overview and basic concepts
In typical uses of SNMP, one or more administrative computers called managers have the task of monitoring or managing a group of hosts or devices on a computer network. Each managed system executes a software component called an agent which reports information via SNMP to the manager.
An SNMP-managed network consists of three key components:
Managed devices
Agentsoftware which runs on managed devices
Network management station (NMS)software which runs on the manager
A managed device is a network node that implements an SNMP interface that allows unidirectional (read-only) or bidirectional (read and write) access to node-specific information. Managed devices exchange node-specific information with the NMSs. Sometimes called network elements, the managed devices can be any type of device, including, but not limited to, routers, access servers, switches, cable modems, bridges, hubs, IP telephones, IP video cameras, computer hosts, and printers.
An agent is a network-management software module that resides on a managed device. An agent has local knowledge of management information and translates that information to or from an SNMP-specific form.
A network management station executes applications that monitor and control managed devices. NMSs provide the bulk of the processing and memory resources required for network management. One or more NMSs may exist on any managed network.
Management information base
SNMP agents expose management data on the managed systems as variables. The protocol also permits active management tasks, such as configuration changes, through remote modification of these variables. The variables accessible via SNMP are organized in hierarchies. SNMP itself does not define which variables a managed system should offer. Rather, SNMP uses an extensible design that allows applications to define their own hierarchies. These hierarchies are described as a management information base (MIB). MIBs describe the structure of the management data of a device subsystem; they use a hierarchical namespace containing object identifiers (OID). Each OID identifies a variable that can be read or set via SNMP. MIBs use the notation defined by Structure of Management Information Version 2.0 (SMIv2, ), a subset of ASN.1.
Protocol details
SNMP operates in the application layer of the Internet protocol suite. All SNMP messages are transported via User Datagram Protocol (UDP). The SNMP agent receives requests on UDP port 161. The manager may send requests from any available source port to port 161 in the agent. The agent response is sent back to the source port on the manager. The manager receives notifications (Traps and InformRequests) on port 162. The agent may generate notifications from any available port. When used with Transport Layer Security or Datagram Transport Layer Security, requests are received on port 10161 and notifications are sent to port 10162.
SNMPv1 specifies five core protocol data units (PDUs). Two other PDUs, GetBulkRequest and InformRequest were added in SNMPv2 and the Report PDU was added in SNMPv3. All SNMP PDUs are constructed as follows:
The seven SNMP PDU types as identified by the PDU-type field are as follows:
GetRequest A manager-to-agent request to retrieve the value of a variable or list of variables. Desired variables are specified in variable bindings (the value field is not used). Retrieval of the specified variable values is to be done as an atomic operation by the agent. A Response with current values is returned.
SetRequest A manager-to-agent request to change the value of a variable or list of variables. Variable bindings are specified in the body of the request. Changes to all specified variables are to be made as an atomic operation by the agent. A Response with (current) new values for the variables is returned.
GetNextRequest A manager-to-agent request to discover available variables and their values. Returns a Response with variable binding for the lexicographically next variable in the MIB. The entire MIB of an agent can be walked by iterative application of GetNextRequest starting at OID 0. Rows of a table can be read by specifying column OIDs in the variable bindings of the request.
GetBulkRequest A manager-to-agent request for multiple iterations of GetNextRequest. An optimized version of GetNextRequest. Returns a Response with multiple variable bindings walked from the variable binding or bindings in the request. PDU specific non-repeaters and max-repetitions fields are used to control response behavior. GetBulkRequest was introduced in SNMPv2.
Response Returns variable bindings and acknowledgement from agent to manager for GetRequest, SetRequest, GetNextRequest, GetBulkRequest and InformRequest. Error reporting is provided by error-status and error-index fields. Although it was used as a response to both gets and sets, this PDU was called GetResponse in SNMPv1.
Asynchronous notification from agent to manager. While in other SNMP communication, the manager actively requests information from the agent, these are PDUs that are sent from the agent to the manager without being explicitly requested. SNMP traps enable an agent to notify the management station of significant events by way of an unsolicited SNMP message. Trap PDUs include current sysUpTime value, an OID identifying the type of trap and optional variable bindings. Destination addressing for traps is determined in an application-specific manner typically through trap configuration variables in the MIB. The format of the trap message was changed in SNMPv2 and the PDU was renamed SNMPv2-Trap.
Acknowledged asynchronous notification. This PDU was introduced in SNMPv2 and was originally defined as manager to manager communication. Later implementations have loosened the original definition to allow agent to manager communications. Manager-to-manager notifications were already possible in SNMPv1 using a Trap, but as SNMP commonly runs over UDP where delivery is not assured and dropped packets are not reported, delivery of a Trap was not guaranteed. InformRequest fixes this as an acknowledgement is returned on receipt.
specifies that an SNMP implementation must accept a message of at least 484 bytes in length. In practice, SNMP implementations accept longer messages. If implemented correctly, an SNMP message is discarded if the decoding of the message fails and thus malformed SNMP requests are ignored. A successfully decoded SNMP request is then authenticated using the community string. If the authentication fails, a trap is generated indicating an authentication failure and the message is dropped.
SNMPv1 and SNMPv2 use communities to establish trust between managers and agents. Most agents support three community names, one each for read-only, read-write and trap. These three community strings control different types of activities. The read-only community applies to get requests. The read-write community string applies to set requests. The trap community string applies to receipt of traps. SNMPv3 also uses community strings, but allows for secure authentication and communication between SNMP manager and agent.
Protocol versions
In practice, SNMP implementations often support multiple versions: typically SNMPv1, SNMPv2c, and SNMPv3.
Version 1
SNMP version 1 (SNMPv1) is the initial implementation of the SNMP protocol. The design of SNMPv1 was done in the 1980s by a group of collaborators who viewed the officially sponsored OSI/IETF/NSF (National Science Foundation) effort (HEMS/CMIS/CMIP) as both unimplementable in the computing platforms of the time as well as potentially unworkable. SNMP was approved based on a belief that it was an interim protocol needed for taking steps towards large-scale deployment of the Internet and its commercialization.
The first Request for Comments (RFCs) for SNMP, now known as SNMPv1, appeared in 1988:
— Structure and identification of management information for TCP/IP-based internets
— Management information base for network management of TCP/IP-based internets
— A simple network management protocol
In 1990, these documents were superseded by:
— Structure and identification of management information for TCP/IP-based internets
— Management information base for network management of TCP/IP-based internets
— A simple network management protocol
In 1991, (MIB-1) was replaced by the more often used:
— Version 2 of management information base (MIB-2) for network management of TCP/IP-based internets
SNMPv1 is widely used and is the de facto network management protocol in the Internet community.
SNMPv1 may be carried by transport layer protocols such as User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Internet Protocol (IP), OSI Connectionless-mode Network Service (CLNS), AppleTalk Datagram Delivery Protocol (DDP), and Novell Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX).
Version 1 has been criticized for its poor security. The specification does, in fact, allow room for custom authentication to be used, but widely used implementations "support only a trivial authentication service that identifies all SNMP messages as authentic SNMP messages.". The security of the messages, therefore, becomes dependent on the security of the channels over which the messages are sent. For example, an organization may consider their internal network to be sufficiently secure that no encryption is necessary for its SNMP messages. In such cases, the "community name", which is transmitted in cleartext, tends to be viewed as a de facto password, in spite of the original specification.
Version 2
SNMPv2, defined by and , revises version 1 and includes improvements in the areas of performance, security and manager-to-manager communications. It introduced GetBulkRequest, an alternative to iterative GetNextRequests for retrieving large amounts of management data in a single request. The new party-based security system introduced in SNMPv2, viewed by many as overly complex, was not widely adopted. This version of SNMP reached the Proposed Standard level of maturity, but was deemed obsolete by later versions.
Community-Based Simple Network Management Protocol version 2, or SNMPv2c, is defined in –. SNMPv2c comprises SNMPv2 without the controversial new SNMP v2 security model, using instead the simple community-based security scheme of SNMPv1. This version is one of relatively few standards to meet the IETF's Draft Standard maturity level, and was widely considered the de facto SNMPv2 standard. It was later restated as part of SNMPv3.
User-Based Simple Network Management Protocol version 2, or SNMPv2u, is defined in –. This is a compromise that attempts to offer greater security than SNMPv1, but without incurring the high complexity of SNMPv2. A variant of this was commercialized as SNMP v2*, and the mechanism was eventually adopted as one of two security frameworks in SNMP v3.
64-bit counters
SNMP version 2 introduces the option for 64-bit data counters. Version 1 was designed only with 32-bit counters which can store integer values from zero to 4.29 billion (precisely 4,294,967,295). A 32-bit version 1 counter cannot store the maximum speed of a 10 gigabit or larger interface, expressed in bits per second. Similarly, a 32-bit counter tracking statistics for a 10 gigabit or larger interface can roll over back to zero again in less than one minute, which may be a shorter time interval than a counter is polled to read its current state. This would result in lost or invalid data due to the undetected value rollover, and corruption of trend-tracking data.
The 64-bit version 2 counter can store values from zero to 18.4 quintillion (precisely 18,446,744,073,709,551,615) and so is currently unlikely to experience a counter rollover between polling events. For example, 1.6 terabit Ethernet is predicted to become available by 2025. A 64-bit counter incrementing at a rate of 1.6 trillion bits per second would be able to retain information for such an interface without rolling over for 133 days.
SNMPv1 & SNMPv2c interoperability
SNMPv2c is incompatible with SNMPv1 in two key areas: message formats and protocol operations. SNMPv2c messages use different header and protocol data unit (PDU) formats than SNMPv1 messages. SNMPv2c also uses two protocol operations that are not specified in SNMPv1. To overcome incompatibility, defines two SNMPv1/v2c coexistence strategies: proxy agents and bilingual network-management systems.
Proxy agents
An SNMPv2 agent can act as a proxy agent on behalf of SNMPv1 managed devices. When an SNMPv2 NMS issues a command intended for an SNMPv1 agent it sends it to the SNMPv2 proxy agent instead. The proxy agent forwards Get, GetNext, and Set messages to the SNMPv1 agent unchanged. GetBulk messages are converted by the proxy agent to GetNext messages and then are forwarded to the SNMPv1 agent. Additionally, the proxy agent receives and maps SNMPv1 trap messages to SNMPv2 trap messages and then forwards them to the NMS.
Bilingual network-management system
Bilingual SNMPv2 network-management systems support both SNMPv1 and SNMPv2. To support this dual-management environment, a management application examines information stored in a local database to determine whether the agent supports SNMPv1 or SNMPv2. Based on the information in the database, the NMS communicates with the agent using the appropriate version of SNMP.
Version 3
Although SNMPv3 makes no changes to the protocol aside from the addition of cryptographic security, it looks very different due to new textual conventions, concepts, and terminology. The most visible change was to define a secure version of SNMP, by adding security and remote configuration enhancements to SNMP. The security aspect is addressed by offering both strong authentication and data encryption for privacy. For the administration aspect, SNMPv3 focuses on two parts, namely notification originators and proxy forwarders. The changes also facilitate remote configuration and administration of the SNMP entities, as well as addressing issues related to the large-scale deployment, accounting, and fault management.
Features and enhancements included:
Identification of SNMP entities to facilitate communication only between known SNMP entities – Each SNMP entity has an identifier called the SNMPEngineID, and SNMP communication is possible only if an SNMP entity knows the identity of its peer. Traps and Notifications are exceptions to this rule.
Support for security models – A security model may define the security policy within an administrative domain or an intranet. SNMPv3 contains the specifications for a user-based security model (USM).
Definition of security goals where the goals of message authentication service include protection against the following:
Modification of Information – Protection against some unauthorized SNMP entity altering in-transit messages generated by an authorized principal.
Masquerade – Protection against attempting management operations not authorized for some principal by assuming the identity of another principal that has the appropriate authorizations.
Message stream modification – Protection against messages getting maliciously re-ordered, delayed, or replayed to affect unauthorized management operations.
Disclosure – Protection against eavesdropping on the exchanges between SNMP engines.
Specification for USM – USM consists of the general definition of the following communication mechanisms available:
Communication without authentication and privacy (NoAuthNoPriv).
Communication with authentication and without privacy (AuthNoPriv).
Communication with authentication and privacy (AuthPriv).
Definition of different authentication and privacy protocols – MD5, SHA and HMAC-SHA-2 authentication protocols and the CBC_DES and CFB_AES_128 privacy protocols are supported in the USM.
Definition of a discovery procedure – To find the SNMPEngineID of an SNMP entity for a given transport address and transport endpoint address.
Definition of the time synchronization procedure – To facilitate authenticated communication between the SNMP entities.
Definition of the SNMP framework MIB – To facilitate remote configuration and administration of the SNMP entity.
Definition of the USM MIBs – To facilitate remote configuration and administration of the security module.
Definition of the view-based access control model (VACM) MIBs – To facilitate remote configuration and administration of the access control module.
Security was one of the biggest weakness of SNMP until v3. Authentication in SNMP Versions 1 and 2 amounts to nothing more than a password (community string) sent in clear text between a manager and agent. Each SNMPv3 message contains security parameters which are encoded as an octet string. The meaning of these security parameters depends on the security model being used. The security approach in v3 targets:
Confidentiality – Encryption of packets to prevent snooping by an unauthorized source.
Integrity – Message integrity to ensure that a packet has not been tampered while in transit including an optional packet replay protection mechanism.
Authentication – to verify that the message is from a valid source.
v3 also defines the USM and VACM, which were later followed by a transport security model (TSM) that provided support for SNMPv3 over SSH and SNMPv3 over TLS and DTLS.
USM (User-based Security Model) provides authentication and privacy (encryption) functions and operates at the message level.
VACM (View-based Access Control Model) determines whether a given principal is allowed access to a particular MIB object to perform specific functions and operates at the PDU level.
TSM (Transport Security Model) provides a method for authenticating and encrypting messages over external security channels. Two transports, SSH and TLS/DTLS, have been defined that make use of the TSM specification.
the IETF recognizes Simple Network Management Protocol version 3 as defined by – (also known as STD0062) as the current standard version of SNMP. The IETF has designated SNMPv3 a full Internet standard, the highest maturity level for an RFC. It considers earlier versions to be obsolete (designating them variously "Historic" or "Obsolete").
Implementation issues
SNMP's powerful write capabilities, which would allow the configuration of network devices, are not being fully utilized by many vendors, partly because of a lack of security in SNMP versions before SNMPv3, and partly because many devices simply are not capable of being configured via individual MIB object changes.
Some SNMP values (especially tabular values) require specific knowledge of table indexing schemes, and these index values are not necessarily consistent across platforms. This can cause correlation issues when fetching information from multiple devices that may not employ the same table indexing scheme (for example fetching disk utilization metrics, where a specific disk identifier is different across platforms.)
Some major equipment vendors tend to over-extend their proprietary command line interface (CLI) centric configuration and control systems.
In February 2002 the Carnegie Mellon Software Engineering Institute (CM-SEI) Computer Emergency Response Team Coordination Center (CERT-CC) issued an Advisory on SNMPv1, after the Oulu University Secure Programming Group conducted a thorough analysis of SNMP message handling. Most SNMP implementations, regardless of which version of the protocol they support, use the same program code for decoding protocol data units (PDU) and problems were identified in this code. Other problems were found with decoding SNMP trap messages received by the SNMP management station or requests received by the SNMP agent on the network device. Many vendors had to issue patches for their SNMP implementations.
Security implications
Using SNMP to attack a network
Because SNMP is designed to allow administrators to monitor and configure network devices remotely it can also be used to penetrate a network. A significant number of software tools can scan the entire network using SNMP, therefore mistakes in the configuration of the read-write mode can make a network susceptible to attacks.
In 2001, Cisco released information that indicated that, even in read-only mode, the SNMP implementation of Cisco IOS is vulnerable to certain denial of service attacks. These security issues can be fixed through an IOS upgrade.
If SNMP is not used in a network it should be disabled in network devices. When configuring SNMP read-only mode, close attention should be paid to the configuration of the access control and from which IP addresses SNMP messages are accepted. If the SNMP servers are identified by their IP, SNMP is only allowed to respond to these IPs and SNMP messages from other IP addresses would be denied. However, IP address spoofing remains a security concern.
Authentication
SNMP is available in different versions, each has its own security issues. SNMP v1 sends passwords in clear-text over the network. Therefore, passwords can be read with packet sniffing. SNMP v2 allows password hashing with MD5, but this has to be configured. Virtually all network management software support SNMP v1, but not necessarily SNMP v2 or v3. SNMP v2 was specifically developed to provide data security, that is authentication, privacy and authorization, but only SNMP version 2c gained the endorsement of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), while versions 2u and 2* failed to gain IETF approval due to security issues. SNMP v3 uses MD5, Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA) and keyed algorithms to offer protection against unauthorized data modification and spoofing attacks. If a higher level of security is needed the Data Encryption Standard (DES) can be optionally used in the cipher block chaining mode. SNMP v3 is implemented on Cisco IOS since release 12.0(3)T.
SNMPv3 may be subject to brute force and dictionary attacks for guessing the authentication keys, or encryption keys, if these keys are generated from short (weak) passwords or passwords that can be found in a dictionary. SNMPv3 allows both providing random uniformly distributed cryptographic keys and generating cryptographic keys from a password supplied by the user. The risk of guessing authentication strings from hash values transmitted over the network depends on the cryptographic hash function used and the length of the hash value. SNMPv3 uses the HMAC-SHA-2 authentication protocol for the User-based Security Model (USM). SNMP does not use a more secure challenge-handshake authentication protocol. SNMPv3 (like other SNMP protocol versions) is a stateless protocol, and it has been designed with a minimal amount of interactions between the agent and the manager. Thus introducing a challenge-response handshake for each command would impose a burden on the agent (and possibly on the network itself) that the protocol designers deemed excessive and unacceptable.
The security deficiencies of all SNMP versions can be mitigated by IPsec authentication and confidentiality mechanisms. SNMP also may be carried securely over Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS).
Many SNMP implementations include a type of automatic discovery where a new network component, such as a switch or router, is discovered and polled automatically. In SNMPv1 and SNMPv2c this is done through a community string that is transmitted in clear-text to other devices. Clear-text passwords are a significant security risk. Once the community string is known outside the organization it could become the target for an attack. To alert administrators of other attempts to glean community strings, SNMP can be configured to pass community-name authentication failure traps. If SNMPv2 is used, the issue can be avoided by enabling password encryption on the SNMP agents of network devices.
The common default configuration for community strings are "public" for read-only access and "private" for read-write. Because of the well-known defaults, SNMP topped the list of the SANS Institute's Common Default Configuration Issues and was number ten on the SANS Top 10 Most Critical Internet Security Threats for the year 2000. System and network administrators frequently do not change these configurations.
Whether it runs over TCP or UDP, SNMPv1 and v2 are vulnerable to IP spoofing attacks. With spoofing, attackers may bypass device access lists in agents that are implemented to restrict SNMP access. SNMPv3 security mechanisms such as USM or TSM prevent a successful spoofing attack.
RFC references
(STD 16) — Structure and Identification of Management Information for the TCP/IP-based Internets
(Historic) — Management Information Base for Network Management of TCP/IP-based internets
(Historic) — A Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
(STD 17) — Management Information Base for Network Management of TCP/IP-based internets: MIB-II
(Informational) — Coexistence between version 1 and version 2 of the Internet-standard Network Management Framework (Obsoleted by )
(Experimental) — Introduction to Community-based SNMPv2
(Draft Standard) — Structure of Management Information for SNMPv2 (Obsoleted by )
(Standards Track) — Coexistence between Version 1 and Version 2 of the Internet-standard Network Management Framework
(Informational) — Introduction to Version 3 of the Internet-standard Network Management Framework (Obsoleted by )
(STD 58) — Structure of Management Information Version 2 (SMIv2)
(Informational) — Introduction and Applicability Statements for Internet Standard Management Framework
STD 62 contains the following RFCs:
— An Architecture for Describing Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) Management Frameworks
— Message Processing and Dispatching for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
— Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) Applications
— User-based Security Model (USM) for version 3 of the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMPv3)
— View-based Access Control Model (VACM) for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
— Version 2 of the Protocol Operations for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
— Transport Mappings for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
— Management Information Base (MIB) for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
(Experimental) — Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) over Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Transport Mapping
(BCP 74) — Coexistence between Version 1, Version 2, and Version 3 of the Internet-standard Network Management Framework
(Proposed) — The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) Cipher Algorithm in the SNMP User-based Security Model
(Proposed) — Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) over IEEE 802 Networks
(STD 78) — Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) Context EngineID Discovery
(STD 78) — Transport Subsystem for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
(STD 78) — Transport Security Model for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
(Proposed) — Secure Shell Transport Model for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
(Proposed) — Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) Usage for Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) Transport Models.
(STD 78) — Transport Layer Security (TLS) Transport Model for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
(Proposed) — HMAC-SHA-2 Authentication Protocols in the User-based Security Model (USM) for SNMPv3
See also
Agent Extensibility Protocol (AgentX) – Subagent protocol for SNMP
Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP) – Management protocol by ISO/OSI used by telecommunications devices
Common Management Information Service (CMIS)
Comparison of network monitoring systems
Net-SNMP – Open source reference implementation of SNMP
NETCONF – Protocol which is an XML-based configuration protocol for network equipment
Remote Network Monitoring (RMON)
Simple Gateway Monitoring Protocol (SGMP) – Obsolete protocol replaced by SNMP
References
Further reading
External links
Application layer protocols
Internet protocols
Internet Standards
Multi-agent systems
Network management
System administration |
1944675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational%20technology | Educational technology | Educational technology (commonly abbreviated as edutech, or edtech) is the combined use of computer hardware, software, and educational theory and practice to facilitate learning. When referred to with its abbreviation, edtech, it is often referring to the industry of companies that create educational technology.
In addition to practical educational experience, educational technology is based on theoretical knowledge from various disciplines such as communication, education, psychology, sociology, artificial intelligence, and computer science. It encompasses several domains including learning theory, computer-based training, online learning, and m-learning, where mobile technologies are used.
Definition
The Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) defined educational technology as "the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources". It denoted instructional technology as "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning". As such, educational technology refers to all valid and reliable applied education sciences, such as equipment, as well as processes and procedures that are derived from scientific research, and in a given context may refer to theoretical, algorithmic or heuristic processes: it does not necessarily imply physical technology. Educational technology is the process of integrating technology into education in a positive manner that promotes a more diverse learning environment and a way for students to learn how to use technology as well as their common assignments.
Accordingly, there are several discrete aspects to describing the intellectual and technical development of educational technology:
Educational technology as the theory and practice of educational approaches to learning.
Educational technology as technological tools and media, for instance massive online courses, that assist in the communication of knowledge, and its development and exchange. This is usually what people are referring to when they use the term "edtech".
Educational technology for learning management systems (LMS), such as tools for student and curriculum management, and education management information systems (EMIS).
Educational technology as back-office management, such as training management systems for logistics and budget management, and Learning Record Store (LRS) for learning data storage and analysis.
Educational technology itself as an educational subject; such courses may be called "computer studies" or "information and communications technology (ICT)".
Related terms
Educational technology is an inclusive term for both the material tools, processes, and the theoretical foundations for supporting learning and teaching. Educational technology is not restricted to high technology but is anything that enhances classroom learning in the utilization of blended, face to face, or online learning.
An educational technologist is someone who is trained in the field of educational technology. Educational technologists try to analyze, design, develop, implement, and evaluate process and tools to enhance learning. While the term educational technologist is used primarily in the United States, learning technologist is synonymous and used in the UK as well as Canada.
Modern electronic educational technology is an important part of society today. Educational technology encompasses e-learning, instructional technology, information and communication technology (ICT) in education, edtech, learning technology, multimedia learning, technology-enhanced learning (TEL), computer-based instruction (CBI), computer managed instruction, computer-based training (CBT), computer-assisted instruction or computer-aided instruction (CAI), internet-based training (IBT), flexible learning, web-based training (WBT), online education, digital educational collaboration, distributed learning, computer-mediated communication, cyber-learning, and multi-modal instruction, virtual education, personal learning environments, networked learning, virtual learning environments (VLE) (which are also called learning platforms), m-learning, ubiquitous learning and digital education.
Each of these numerous terms has had its advocates, who point up potential distinctive features. However, many terms and concepts in educational technology have been defined nebulously; for example, Fiedler's review of the literature found a complete lack agreement of the components of a personal learning environment. Moreover, Moore saw these terminologies as emphasizing particular features such as digitization approaches, components or delivery methods rather than being fundamentally dissimilar in concept or principle. For example, m-learning emphasizes mobility, which allows for altered timing, location, accessibility and context of learning; nevertheless, its purpose and conceptual principles are those of educational technology.
In practice, as technology has advanced, the particular "narrowly defined" terminological aspect that was initially emphasized by name has blended into the general field of educational technology. Initially, "virtual learning" as narrowly defined in a semantic sense implied entering an environmental simulation within a virtual world, for example in treating posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In practice, a "virtual education course" refers to any instructional course in which all, or at least a significant portion, is delivered by the Internet. "Virtual" is used in that broader way to describe a course that is not taught in a classroom face-to-face but through a substitute mode that can conceptually be associated "virtually" with classroom teaching, which means that people do not have to go to the physical classroom to learn. Accordingly, virtual education refers to a form of distance learning in which course content is delivered by various methods such as course management applications, multimedia resources, and videoconferencing. Virtual education and simulated learning opportunities, such as games or dissections, offer opportunities for students to connect classroom content to authentic situations.
Educational content, pervasively embedded in objects, is all around the learner, who may not even be conscious of the learning process. The combination of adaptive learning, using an individualized interface and materials, which accommodate to an individual, who thus receives personally differentiated instruction, with ubiquitous access to digital resources and learning opportunities in a range of places and at various times, has been termed smart learning. Smart learning is a component of the smart city concept.
History
Helping people and children learn in ways that are easier, faster, more accurate, or less expensive can be traced back to the emergence of very early tools, such as paintings on cave walls. Various types of abacus have been used. Writing slates and blackboards have been used for at least a millennium. From their introduction, books and pamphlets have held a prominent role in education. From the early twentieth century, duplicating machines such as the mimeograph and Gestetner stencil devices were used to produce short copy runs (typically 10–50 copies) for classroom or home use. The use of media for instructional purposes is generally traced back to the first decade of the 20th century with the introduction of educational films (1900s) and Sidney Pressey's mechanical teaching machines (1920s). The first all multiple choice, large-scale assessment was the Army Alpha, used to assess the intelligence and, more specifically, the aptitudes of World War I military recruits. Further large-scale use of technologies was employed in training soldiers during and after WWII using films and other mediated materials, such as overhead projectors. The concept of hypertext is traced to the description of memex by Vannevar Bush in 1945.
Slide projectors were widely used during the 1950s in educational institutional settings. Cuisenaire rods were devised in the 1920s and saw widespread use from the late 1950s.
In the mid-1960s, Stanford University psychology professors, Patrick Suppes and Richard C. Atkinson, experimented with using computers to teach arithmetic and spelling via Teletypes to elementary school students in the Palo Alto Unified School District in California. Stanford's Education Program for Gifted Youth is descended from those early experiments.
Online education originated from the University of Illinois in 1960. Although the internet would not be created for another decade, students were able to access class information with linked computer terminals. Online learning emerged in 1982 when the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute in La Jolla, California, opened its School of Management and Strategic Studies. The school employed computer conferencing through the New Jersey Institute of Technology's Electronic Information Exchange System (EIES) to deliver a distance education program to business executives. Starting in 1985, Connected Education offered the first totally online master's degree in media studies, through The New School in New York City, also via the EIES computer conferencing system. Subsequent courses were offered in 1986 by the Electronic University Network for DOS and Commodore 64 computers. In 2002, MIT began providing online classes free of charge. , approximately 5.5 million students were taking at least one class online. Currently, one out of three college students takes at least one online course while in college. At DeVry University, out of all students that are earning a bachelor's degree, 80% earn two-thirds of their requirements online. Also, in 2014, 2.85 million students out of 5.8 million students that took courses online, took all of their courses online. From this information, it can be concluded that the number of students taking classes online is on the steady increase.
In the recent article, "Shift happens: online education as a new paradigm in learning", Linda Harasim covers an overview on the history of online education as well as a framework for understanding the type of need it addresses, the concept of distance learning has already been invented for many centuries. The value of online education is not found in its ability to have established a method for distance learning, but rather in its power to make this type of learning process more efficient by providing a medium in which the instructor and their students can virtually interact with one another in real time. The topic of online education started primarily in the late 1900s when institutions and businesses started to make products to assist students' learning. These groups desired a need to further develop educational services across the globe, primarily to developing countries. In 1960, the University of Illinois created a system of linked computer terminals, known as the Intranet, to give students access to recorded lectures and course materials that they could watch or use on their free time. This type of concept, called PLATO (programmed logic for automatic teaching operations), was rapidly introduced throughout the globe. Many institutions adopted this similar technique while the internet was in its developmental phase.
In 1971, Ivan Illich published a hugely influential book, Deschooling Society, in which he envisioned "learning webs" as a model for people to network the learning they needed. The 1970s and 1980s saw notable contributions in computer-based learning by Murray Turoff and Starr Roxanne Hiltz at the New Jersey Institute of Technology as well as developments at the University of Guelph in Canada. In the UK, the Council for Educational Technology supported the use of educational technology, in particular administering the government's National Development Programme in Computer Aided Learning (1973–1977) and the Microelectronics Education Programme (1980–1986).
By the mid-1980s, accessing course content became possible at many college libraries. In computer-based training (CBT) or computer-based learning (CBL), the learning interaction was between the student and computer drills or micro-world simulations.
Digitized communication and networking in education started in the mid-1980s. Educational institutions began to take advantage of the new medium by offering distance learning courses using computer networking for information. Early e-learning systems, based on computer-based learning/training often replicated autocratic teaching styles whereby the role of the e-learning system was assumed to be for transferring knowledge, as opposed to systems developed later based on computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL), which encouraged the shared development of knowledge.
Videoconferencing was an important forerunner to the educational technologies known today. This work was especially popular with museum education. Even in recent years, videoconferencing has risen in popularity to reach over 20,000 students across the United States and Canada in 2008–2009. Disadvantages of this form of educational technology are readily apparent: image and sound quality is often grainy or pixelated; videoconferencing requires setting up a type of mini-television studio within the museum for broadcast, space becomes an issue, and specialised equipment is required for both the provider and the participant.
The Open University in Britain and the University of British Columbia (where Web CT, now incorporated into Blackboard Inc., was first developed) began a revolution of using the Internet to deliver learning, making heavy use of web-based training, online distance learning and online discussion between students. Practitioners such as Harasim (1995) put heavy emphasis on the use of learning networks.
With the advent of World Wide Web in the 1990s, teachers embarked on the method of using emerging technologies to employ multi-object oriented sites, which are text-based online virtual reality systems, to create course websites along with simple sets of instructions for their students.
By 1994, the first online high school had been founded. In 1997, Graziadei described criteria for evaluating products and developing technology-based courses that include being portable, replicable, scalable, affordable, and having a high probability of long-term cost-effectiveness.
Improved Internet functionality enabled new schemes of communication with multimedia or webcams. The National Center for Education Statistics estimate the number of K-12 students enrolled in online distance learning programs increased by 65% from 2002 to 2005, with greater flexibility, ease of communication between teacher and student, and quick lecture and assignment feedback.
According to a 2008 study conducted by the U.S Department of Education, during the 2006–2007 academic year about 66% of postsecondary public and private schools participating in student financial aid programs offered some distance learning courses; records show 77% of enrollment in for-credit courses with an online component. In 2008, the Council of Europe passed a statement endorsing e-learning's potential to drive equality and education improvements across the EU.
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is between learners and instructors, mediated by the computer. In contrast, CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-study) learning, while CMC involves educator/tutor facilitation and requires scenarization of flexible learning activities. In addition, modern ICT provides education with tools for sustaining learning communities and associated knowledge management tasks.
Students growing up in this digital age have extensive exposure to a variety of media. Major high-tech companies have funded schools to provide them with the ability to teach their students through technology.
2015 was the first year that private nonprofit organizations enrolled more online students than for-profits, although public universities still enrolled the highest number of online students. In the fall of 2015, more than 6 million students enrolled in at least one online course.
In 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many schools across the world were forced to close, which left more and more grade-school students participating in remote learning, and university-level students enrolling in online courses to enforce distance learning. Organizations such as Unesco have enlisted educational technology solutions to help schools facilitate distance education. The pandemic's extended lockdowns and focus on distance learning has attracted record-breaking amounts of venture capital to the ed-tech sector. In 2020, in the United States alone, ed-tech startups raised $1.78 billion in venture capital spanning 265 deals, compared to $1.32 billion in 2019.
Theory
Various pedagogical perspectives or learning theories may be considered in designing and interacting with educational technology. E-learning theory examines these approaches. These theoretical perspectives are grouped into three main theoretical schools or philosophical frameworks: behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism.
Behaviorism
This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century based on animal learning experiments by Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, and B.F. Skinner. Many psychologists used these results to develop theories of human learning, but modern educators generally see behaviorism as one aspect of a holistic synthesis. Teaching in behaviorism has been linked to training, emphasizing the animal learning experiments. Since behaviorism consists of the view of teaching people how to do something with rewards and punishments, it is related to training people.
B.F. Skinner wrote extensively on improvements of teaching based on his functional analysis of verbal behavior and wrote "The Technology of Teaching", an attempt to dispel the myths underlying contemporary education as well as promote his system he called programmed instruction. Ogden Lindsley developed a learning system, named Celeration, that was based on behavior analysis but that substantially differed from Keller's and Skinner's models.
Cognitivism
Cognitive science underwent significant change in the 1960s and 1970s to the point that some described the period as a "cognitive revolution" particularly in reaction to behaviorism. While retaining the empirical framework of behaviorism, cognitive psychology theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning by considering how human memory works to promote learning. It refers to learning as "all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used" by the human mind. The Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working memory model were established as theoretical frameworks. Computer science and information technology have had a major influence on cognitive science theory. The cognitive concepts of working memory (formerly known as short-term memory) and long-term memory have been facilitated by research and technology from the field of computer science. Another major influence on the field of cognitive science is Noam Chomsky. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load, information processing, and media psychology. These theoretical perspectives influence instructional design.
There are two separate schools of cognitivism, and these are the cognitivist and social cognitivist. The former focuses on the understanding of the thinking or cognitive processes of an individual while the latter includes social processes as influences in learning besides cognition. These two schools, however, share the view that learning is more than a behavioral change but is rather a mental process used by the learner.
Constructivism
Educational psychologists distinguish between several types of constructivism: individual (or psychological) constructivism, such as Piaget's theory of cognitive development, and social constructivism. This form of constructivism has a primary focus on how learners construct their own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality and with other learners who bring different perspectives. Constructivist learning environments require students to use their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate new, related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning (Termos, 2012). Under this framework the role of the teacher becomes that of a facilitator, providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge. Constructivist educators must make sure that the prior learning experiences are appropriate and related to the concepts being taught. Jonassen (1997) suggests "well-structured" learning environments are useful for novice learners and that "ill-structured" environments are only useful for more advanced learners. Educators utilizing a constructivist perspective may emphasize an active learning environment that may incorporate learner centered problem-based learning, project-based learning, and inquiry-based learning, ideally involving real-world scenarios, in which students are actively engaged in critical thinking activities. An illustrative discussion and example can be found in the 1980s deployment of constructivist cognitive learning in computer literacy, which involved programming as an instrument of learning. LOGO, a programming language, embodied an attempt to integrate Piagetan ideas with computers and technology. Initially there were broad, hopeful claims, including "perhaps the most controversial claim" that it would "improve general problem-solving skills" across disciplines. However, LOGO programming skills did not consistently yield cognitive benefits. It was "not as concrete" as advocates claimed, it privileged "one form of reasoning over all others", and it was difficult to apply the thinking activity to non-LOGO-based activities. By the late 1980s, LOGO and other similar programming languages had lost their novelty and dominance and were gradually de-emphasized amid criticisms.
Practice
The extent to which e-learning assists or replaces other learning and teaching approaches is variable, ranging on a continuum from none to fully online distance learning. A variety of descriptive terms have been employed (somewhat inconsistently) to categorize the extent to which technology is used. For example, "hybrid learning" or "blended learning" may refer to classroom aids and laptops, or may refer to approaches in which traditional classroom time is reduced but not eliminated, and is replaced with some online learning. "Distributed learning" may describe either the e-learning component of a hybrid approach, or fully online distance learning environments.
Synchronous and asynchronous
E-learning may either be synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous learning occurs in real-time, with all participants interacting at the same time, while asynchronous learning is self-paced and allows participants to engage in the exchange of ideas or information without the dependency of other participants' involvement at the same time.
Synchronous learning refers to the exchange of ideas and information with one or more participants during the same period. Examples are face-to-face discussion, online real-time live teacher instruction and feedback, Skype conversations, and chat rooms or virtual classrooms where everyone is online and working collaboratively at the same time. Since students are working collaboratively, synchronized learning helps students become more open-minded because they have to actively listen and learn from their peers. Synchronized learning fosters online awareness and improves many students' writing skills.
Asynchronous learning may use technologies such as learning management systems, email, blogs, wikis, and discussion boards, as well as web-supported textbooks, hypertext documents, audio video courses, and social networking using web 2.0. At the professional educational level, training may include virtual operating rooms. Asynchronous learning is beneficial for students who have health problems or who have child care responsibilities. They have the opportunity to complete their work in a low-stress environment and within a more flexible time frame. In asynchronous online courses, students are allowed the freedom to complete work at their own pace. Being a non-traditional student, they can manage their daily life and school with and still have the social aspect. Asynchronous collaborations allow the student to reach out for help when needed and provides helpful guidance, depending on how long it takes them to complete the assignment. Many tools used for these courses are but not limited to: videos, class discussions, and group projects. Through online courses, students can earn their diplomas faster, or repeat failed courses without being in a class with younger students. Students have access to an incredible variety of enrichment courses in online learning, and still participate in college courses, internships, sports, or work and still graduate with their class.
Linear learning
Computer-based training (CBT) refers to self-paced learning activities delivered on a computer or handheld device such as a tablet or smartphone. CBT initially delivered content via CD-ROM, and typically presented content linearly, much like reading an online book or manual. For this reason, CBT is often used to teach static processes, such as using software or completing mathematical equations. Computer-based training is conceptually similar to web-based training (WBT), which is delivered via Internet using a web browser.
Assessing learning in a CBT is often by assessments that can be easily scored by a computer such as multiple-choice questions, drag-and-drop, radio button, simulation or other interactive means. Assessments are easily scored and recorded via online software, providing immediate end-user feedback and completion status. Users are often able to print completion records in the form of certificates.
CBTs provide learning stimulus beyond traditional learning methodology from textbook, manual, or classroom-based instruction. CBTs can be a good alternative to printed learning materials since rich media, including videos or animations, can be embedded to enhance the learning.
However, CBTs pose some learning challenges. Typically, the creation of effective CBTs requires enormous resources. The software for developing CBTs is often more complex than a subject matter expert or teacher is able to use. The lack of human interaction can limit both the type of content that can be presented and the type of assessment that can be performed and may need supplementation with online discussion or other interactive elements.
Collaborative learning
Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) uses instructional methods designed to encourage or require students to work together on learning tasks, allowing social learning. CSCL is similar in concept to the terminology, "e-learning 2.0" and "networked collaborative learning" (NCL). With Web 2.0 advances, sharing information between multiple people in a network has become much easier and use has increased. One of the main reasons for its usage states that it is "a breeding ground for creative and engaging educational endeavors." Learning takes place through conversations about content and grounded interaction about problems and actions. This collaborative learning differs from instruction in which the instructor is the principal source of knowledge and skills. The neologism "e-learning 1.0" refers to direct instruction used in early computer-based learning and training systems (CBL). In contrast to that linear delivery of content, often directly from the instructor's material, CSCL uses social software such as blogs, social media, wikis, podcasts, cloud-based document portals, and discussion groups and virtual worlds. This phenomenon has been referred to as Long Tail Learning. Advocates of social learning claim that one of the best ways to learn something is to teach it to others. Social networks have been used to foster online learning communities around subjects as diverse as test preparation and language education. Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) is the use of handheld computers or cell phones to assist in language learning.
Collaborative apps allow students and teachers to interact while studying. Apps are designed after games, which provide a fun way to revise. When the experience is enjoyable, the students become more engaged. Games also usually come with a sense of progression, which can help keep students motivated and consistent while trying to improve.
Classroom 2.0 refers to online multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs) that connect schools across geographical frontiers. Known as "eTwinning", computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) allows learners in one school to communicate with learners in another that they would not get to know otherwise, enhancing educational outcomes and cultural integration.
Further, many researchers distinguish between collaborative and cooperative approaches to group learning. For example, Roschelle and Teasley (1995) argue that "cooperation is accomplished by the division of labour among participants, as an activity where each person is responsible for a portion of the problem solving", in contrast with collaboration that involves the "mutual engagement of participants in a coordinated effort to solve the problem together."
Social technology, and social media specifically, provides avenues for student learning that would not be available otherwise. For example, it provides ordinary students a chance to exist in the same room as, and share a dialogue with researchers, politicians, and activists. This is because it vaporizes the geographical barriers that would otherwise separate people. Simplified, social media gives students a reach that provides them with opportunities and conversations that allow them to grow as communicators.
Social technologies like Twitter can provide students with an archive of free data that goes back for multiple decades. Many classrooms and educators are already taking advantage of this free resource—for example, researchers and educators at the University of Central Florida in 2011 used Tweets posted relating to emergencies like Hurricane Irene as data-points, in order to teach their students how to code data. Social media technologies also allow instructors the ability to show students how professional networks facilitate work on a technical level.
Flipped classroom
This is an instructional strategy in which computer-assisted teaching is integrated with classroom instruction. Students are given basic essential instruction, such as lectures, before class instead of during class. Instructional content is delivered outside of the classroom, often online. The out-of-class delivery includes streaming video, reading materials, online chats, and other resources. This frees up classroom time for teachers to more actively engage with learners.
Technologies
Educational media and tools can be used for:
task structuring support: help with how to do a task (procedures and processes),
access to knowledge bases (help user find information needed)
alternate forms of knowledge representation (multiple representations of knowledge, e.g. video, audio, text, image, data)
Numerous types of physical technology are currently used: digital cameras, video cameras, interactive whiteboard tools, document cameras, electronic media, and LCD projectors. Combinations of these techniques include blogs, collaborative software, ePortfolios, and virtual classrooms.
The current design of this type of applications includes the evaluation through tools of cognitive analysis that allow to identify which elements optimize the use of these platforms.
Audio and video
Video technology has included VHS tapes and DVDs, as well as on-demand and synchronous methods with digital video via server or web-based options such as streamed video and webcams. Telecommuting can connect with speakers and other experts. Interactive digital video games are being used at K-12 and higher education institutions.
Radio offers a synchronous educational vehicle, while streaming audio over the internet with webcasts and podcasts can be asynchronous. Classroom microphones, often wireless, can enable learners and educators to interact more clearly.
Screencasting allows users to share their screens directly from their browser and make the video available online so that other viewers can stream the video directly. The presenter thus has the ability to show their ideas and flow of thoughts rather than simply explain them as simple text content. In combination with audio and video, the educator can mimic the one-on-one experience of the classroom. Learners have the ability to pause and rewind, to review at their own pace, something a classroom cannot always offer.
Webcams and webcasting have enabled the creation of virtual classrooms and virtual learning environment. Webcams are also being used to counter plagiarism and other forms of academic dishonesty that might occur in an e-learning environment.
Computers, tablets and mobile devices
Collaborative learning is a group-based learning approach in which learners are mutually engaged in a coordinated fashion to achieve a learning goal or complete a learning task. With recent developments in smartphone technology, the processing powers and storage capabilities of modern mobiles allow for advanced development and the use of apps. Many app developers and education experts have been exploring smartphone and tablet apps as a medium for collaborative learning.
Computers and tablets enable learners and educators to access websites as well as applications. Many mobile devices support m-learning.
Mobile devices such as clickers and smartphones can be used for interactive audience response feedback. Mobile learning can provide performance support for checking the time, setting reminders, retrieving worksheets, and instruction manuals.
Such devices as iPads are used for helping disabled (visually impaired or with multiple disabilities) children in communication development as well as in improving physiological activity, according to the iStimulation Practice Report.
Computers in the classroom have been shown to increase rates of engagement and interest when computers and smart devices are utilized educationally in classrooms.
Collaborative and social learning
Group webpages, blogs, wikis, and Twitter allow learners and educators to post thoughts, ideas, and comments on a website in an interactive learning environment. Social networking sites are virtual communities for people interested in a particular subject to communicate by voice, chat, instant message, video conference, or blogs. The National School Boards Association found that 96% of students with online access have used social networking technologies, and more than 50% talk online about schoolwork. Social networking encourages collaboration and engagement and can be a motivational tool for self-efficacy amongst students.
Whiteboards
There are three types of whiteboards. The initial whiteboards, analogous to blackboards, date from the late 1950s. The term whiteboard is also used metaphorically to refer to virtual whiteboards in which computer software applications simulate whiteboards by allowing writing or drawing. This is a common feature of groupware for virtual meetings, collaboration, and instant messaging. Interactive whiteboards allow learners and instructors to write on the touch screen. The screen markup can be on either a blank whiteboard or any computer screen content. Depending on permission settings, this visual learning can be interactive and participatory, including writing and manipulating images on the interactive whiteboard.
Virtual classroom
A virtual learning environment (VLE), also known as a learning platform, simulates a virtual classroom or meetings by simultaneously mixing several communication technologies. Web conferencing software enables students and instructors to communicate with each other via webcam, microphone, and real-time chatting in a group setting. Participants can raise hands, answer polls, or take tests. Students can whiteboard and screencast when given rights by the instructor, who sets permission levels for text notes, microphone rights, and mouse control.
A virtual classroom provides an opportunity for students to receive direct instruction from a qualified teacher in an interactive environment. Learners can have direct and immediate access to their instructor for instant feedback and direction. The virtual classroom provides a structured schedule of classes, which can be helpful for students who may find the freedom of asynchronous learning to be overwhelming. Besides, the virtual classroom provides a social learning environment that replicates the traditional "brick and mortar" classroom. Most virtual classroom applications provide a recording feature. Each class is recorded and stored on a server, which allows for instant playback of any class over the course of the school year. This can be extremely useful for students to retrieve missed material or review concepts for an upcoming exam. Parents and auditors have the conceptual ability to monitor any classroom to ensure that they are satisfied with the education the learner is receiving.
In higher education especially, a virtual learning environment (VLE) is sometimes combined with a management information system (MIS) to create a managed learning environment, in which all aspects of a course are handled through a consistent user interface throughout the institution. Physical universities and newer online-only colleges offer to select academic degrees and certificate programs via the Internet. Some programs require students to attend some campus classes or orientations, but many are delivered completely online. Several universities offer online student support services, such as online advising and registration, e-counseling, online textbook purchases, student governments, and student newspapers.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many schools have been forced to move online. As of April 2020, an estimated 90% of high-income countries are offering remote learning, with only 25% of low-income countries offering the same.
Augmented reality
Augmented reality (AR) provides students and teachers with the opportunity to create layers of digital information, including both virtual world and real-world elements, to interact in real time.
AR technology plays an important role in the future of the classroom where human / AI co-orchestration takes place seamlessly. Students would switch between individual and collaborative learning dynamically, based on their own learning pace, while teachers, with the help of AR, monitor the classroom and provide necessary interventions in cases where computer systems are not yet designed to handle. In this vision, the technology's role is to enhance, rather than replace, human teachers' capabilities.
Learning management system
A learning management system (LMS) is a software used for delivering, tracking, and managing training and education. It tracks data about attendance, time on task, and student progress. Educators can post announcements, grade assignments, check on course activity, and participate in class discussions. Students can submit their work, read and respond to discussion questions, and take quizzes. An LMS may allow teachers, administrators, students, and permitted additional parties (such as parents, if appropriate) to track various metrics. LMSs range from systems for managing training/educational records to software for distributing courses over the Internet and offering features for online collaboration. The creation and maintenance of comprehensive learning content require substantial initial and ongoing investments of human labor. Effective translation into other languages and cultural contexts require even more investment by knowledgeable personnel.
Internet-based learning management systems include Canvas, Blackboard Inc. and Moodle. These types of LMS allow educators to run a learning system partially or fully online, asynchronously or synchronously. Learning Management Systems also offer a non-linear presentation of content and curricular goals, giving students the choice of pace and order of information learned. Blackboard can be used for K-12 education, Higher Education, Business, and Government collaboration. Moodle is a free-to-download Open Source Course Management System that provides blended learning opportunities as well as platforms for distance learning courses.
Learning content management system
A learning content management system (LCMS) is software for author content (courses, reusable content objects). An LCMS may be solely dedicated to producing and publishing content that is hosted on an LMS, or it can host the content itself. The Aviation Industry Computer-Based Training Committee (AICC) specification provides support for content that is hosted separately from the LMS.
A recent trend in LCMSs is to address this issue through crowdsourcing (cf.SlideWiki).
Computer-aided assessment
Computer-aided assessment (e-assessment) ranges from automated multiple-choice tests to more sophisticated systems. With some systems, feedback can be geared towards a student's specific mistakes, or the computer can navigate the student through a series of questions adapting to what the student appears to have learned or not learned. Formative assessment sifts out the incorrect answers, and these questions are then explained by the teacher. The learner then practices with slight variations of the sifted out questions. The process is completed by summative assessment using a new set of questions that only cover the topics previously taught.
Training management system
A training management system or training resource management system is a software designed to optimize instructor-led training management. Similar to an enterprise resource planning (ERP), it is a back office tool which aims at streamlining every aspect of the training process: planning (training plan and budget forecasting), logistics (scheduling and resource management), financials (cost tracking, profitability), reporting, and sales for-profit training providers. A training management system can be used to schedule instructors, venues, and equipment through graphical agendas, optimize resource utilization, create a training plan and track remaining budgets, generate reports and share data between different teams.
While training management systems focus on managing instructor-led training, they can complete an LMS. In this situation, an LMS will manage e-learning delivery and assessment, while a training management system will manage ILT and back-office budget planning, logistics, and reporting.
Standards and ecosystem
Learning objects
Content
Content and design architecture issues include pedagogy and learning object re-use. One approach looks at five aspects:
Fact – unique data (e.g. symbols for Excel formula, or the parts that make up a learning objective)
Concept – a category that includes multiple examples (e.g. Excel formulas, or the various types/theories of instructional design)
Process – a flow of events or activities (e.g. how a spreadsheet works, or the five phases in ADDIE)
Procedure – step-by-step task (e.g. entering a formula into a spreadsheet or the steps that should be followed within a phase in ADDIE)
Strategic principle – a task performed by adapting guidelines (e.g. doing a financial projection in a spreadsheet, or using a framework for designing learning environments)
Pedagogical elements
Pedagogical elements are defined as structures or units of educational material. They are the educational content that is to be delivered. These units are independent of format, meaning that although the unit may be delivered in various ways, the pedagogical structures themselves are not the textbook, web page, video conference, Podcast, lesson, assignment, multiple-choice question, quiz, discussion group or a case study, all of which are possible methods of delivery.
Learning objects standards
Much effort has been put into the technical reuse of electronically based teaching materials and, in particular, creating or re-using learning objects. These are self-contained units that are properly tagged with keywords, or other metadata, and often stored in an XML file format. Creating a course requires putting together a sequence of learning objects. There are both proprietary and open, non-commercial and commercial, peer-reviewed repositories of learning objects such as the Merlot repository. Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) is a collection of standards and specifications that applies to certain web-based e-learning. Other specifications, such as Schools Interoperability Framework, allow for the transporting of learning objects, or for categorizing metadata (LOM).
Artificial intelligence
As artificial intelligence (AI) becomes more prominent in this age of big data, it has also been widely adopted in K-12 classrooms. One prominent class of AI-enhanced educational technology is intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs), designed to provide immediate and personalized feedbacks to students. The incentive to develop ITS comes from educational studies showing that individual tutoring is much more effective than group teaching, in addition to the need for promoting learning on a larger scale. Over the years, a combination of cognitive science theories and data-driven techniques have greatly enhanced the capabilities of ITS, allowing it to model a wide range of students' characteristics, such as knowledge, affect, off-task behavior and wheel spinning. There is ample evidence that ITSs are highly effective in helping students learn. ITSs can be used to keep students in the zone of proximal development (ZPD): the space wherein students may learn with guidance. Such systems can guide students through tasks slightly above their ability level.
Recent works have also focused on developing AI-enhanced learning tools that support human teachers in coordinating classroom activities. The teacher can support students in a way that AI cannot, but is unable to process the large amount of real-time data analytics provided by the computer system. On the other hand, AI can share the workload and recommend the best course of actions (e.g., by pointing out which students require the most help), but can only operate in the pre-specified domain and cannot handle tasks such as providing emotional support or remedial lessons to students in need. However, existing systems were designed under the assumption that students progress at the same pace. Understanding how to support teachers in a realistic, highly differentiated, self-paced classroom, remains an open research problem.
Settings and sectors
Preschool
Various forms of electronic media can be a feature of preschool life. Although parents report a positive experience, the impact of such use has not been systematically assessed.
The age when a given child might start using a particular technology such as a cellphone or computer might depend on matching a technological resource to the recipient's developmental capabilities, such as the age-anticipated stages labeled by Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget. Parameters, such as age-appropriateness, coherence with sought-after values, and concurrent entertainment and educational aspects, have been suggested for choosing media.
At the preschool level, technology can be introduced in several ways. At the most basic is the use of computers, tablets, and audio and video resources in classrooms. Additionally, there are many resources available for parents and educators to introduce technology to young children or to use technology to augment lessons and enhance learning. Some options that are age-appropriate are video- or audio- recording of their creations, introducing them to the use of the internet through browsing age-appropriate websites, providing assistive technology to allow differently-abled children to participate with the rest of their peers, educational apps, electronic books, and educational videos. There are many free and paid educational website and apps that are directly targeting the educational needs of preschool children. These include Starfall, ABC mouse, PBS Kids Video, Teachme, and Montessori crosswords. Educational technology in the form of electronic books [109] offer preschool children the option to store and retrieve several books on one device, thus bringing together the traditional action of reading along with the use of educational technology. Educational technology is also thought to improve hand-eye coordination, language skills, visual attention and motivation to complete educational tasks, and allows children to experience things they otherwise would not. There are several keys to making the most educational use out of introducing technology at the preschool level: technology must be used appropriately, should allow access to learning opportunities, should include the interaction of parents and other adults with the preschool children, and should be developmentally appropriate. Allowing access to learning opportunities especially for allowing disabled children to have access to learning opportunities, giving bilingual children the opportunity to communicate and learn in more than one language, bringing in more information about STEM subjects, and bringing in images of diversity that may be lacking in the child's immediate environment.
Coding is also becoming part of the early learning curriculum and preschool aged children can benefit from experiences that teach coding skills even in a screen free way. There are activities and games that teach hands on coding skills that prepare students for the coding concepts they will encounter and use in their future.
Primary and secondary
E-learning is utilized by public K–12 schools in the United States as well as private schools. Some e-learning environments take place in a traditional classroom; others allow students to attend classes from home or other locations. There are several states that are utilizing virtual school platforms for e-learning across the country that continue to increase. Virtual school enables students to log into synchronous learning or asynchronous learning courses anywhere there is an internet connection.
E-learning is increasingly being utilized by students who may not want to go to traditional brick and mortar schools due to severe allergies or other medical issues, fear of school violence and school bullying and students whose parents would like to homeschool but do not feel qualified. Online schools create a haven for students to receive a quality education while almost completely avoiding these common problems. Online charter schools also often are not limited by location, income level or class size in the way brick and mortar charter schools are.
E-learning also has been rising as a supplement to the traditional classroom. Students with special talents or interests outside of the available curricula use e-learning to advance their skills or exceed grade restrictions. Some online institutions connect students with instructors via web conference technology to form a digital classroom.
National private schools are also available online. These provide the benefits of e-learning to students in states where charter online schools are not available. They also may allow students greater flexibility and exemption from state testing. Some of these schools are available at the high school level and offer college prep courses to students.
Virtual education in K-12 schooling often refers to virtual schools, and in higher education to virtual universities. Virtual schools are "cybercharter schools" with innovative administrative models and course delivery technology.
Education technology also seems to be an interesting method of engaging gifted youths that are under-stimulated in their current educational program. This can be achieved with after-school programs or even technologically-integrated curricula, for example: Virtual reality integrated courses (VRIC) can be developed for any course in order to give them such stimulation. 3D printing integrated courses (3dPIC) can also give youths the stimulation they need in their educational journey. Université de Montréal's Projet SEUR in collaboration with Collège Mont-Royal and La Variable are heavily developing this field.
Higher education
Online college course enrollment has seen a 29% increase in enrollment with nearly one third of all college students, or an estimated 6.7 million students are currently enrolled in online classes. In 2009, 44% of post-secondary students in the USA were taking some or all of their courses online, which was projected to rise to 81% by 2014.
Although a large proportion of for-profit higher education institutions now offer online classes, only about half of private, non-profit schools do so. Private institutions may become more involved with on-line presentations as the costs decrease. Properly trained staff must also be hired to work with students online. These staff members need to understand the content area, and also be highly trained in the use of the computer and Internet. Online education is rapidly increasing, and online doctoral programs have even developed at leading research universities.
Although massive open online courses (MOOCs) may have limitations that preclude them from fully replacing college education, such programs have significantly expanded. MIT, Stanford and Princeton University offer classes to a global audience, but not for college credit. University-level programs, like edX founded by Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, offer wide range of disciplines at no charge, while others permit students to audit a course at no charge but require a small fee for accreditation. MOOCs have not had a significant impact on higher education and declined after the initial expansion, but are expected to remain in some form. Lately, MOOCs are used by smaller universities to profile themselves with highly specialized courses for special-interest audiences, as for example in a course on technological privacy compliance.
MOOCs have been observed to lose the majority of their initial course participants. In a study performed by Cornell and Stanford universities, student-drop-out rates from MOOCs have been attributed to student anonymity, the solitude of the learning experience and to the lack of interaction with peers and with teachers. Effective student engagement measures that reduce drop-outs are forum interactions and virtual teacher or teaching assistant presence - measures which induce staff cost that grows with the number of participating students.
Corporate and professional
E-learning is being used by companies to deliver mandatory compliance training and updates for regulatory compliance, soft skills and IT skills training, continuing professional development (CPD) and other valuable workplace skills. Companies with spread out distribution chains use e-learning for delivering information about the latest product developments. Most of corporate e-learning is asynchronous and delivered and managed via learning management systems. The big challenge in corporate e-learning is to engage the staff, especially on compliance topics for which periodic staff training is mandated by the law or regulations.
Government and public
There is an important need for recent, reliable, and high-quality health information to be made available to the public as well as in summarized form for public health providers. Providers have indicated the need for automatic notification of the latest research, a single searchable portal of information, and access to grey literature. The Maternal and Child Health (MCH) Library is funded by the U.S. Maternal and Child Health Bureau to screen the latest research and develop automatic notifications to providers through the MCH Alert. Another application in public health is the development of mHealth (use of mobile telecommunication and multimedia into global public health). MHealth has been used to promote prenatal and newborn services, with positive outcomes. In addition, "Health systems have implemented mHealth programs to facilitate emergency medical responses, point-of-care support, health promotion and data collection." In low and middle-income countries, mHealth is most frequently used as one-way text messages or phone reminders to promote treatment adherence and gather data.
Benefits
Effective technology use deploys multiple evidence-based strategies concurrently (e.g. adaptive content, frequent testing, immediate feedback, etc.), as do effective teachers. Using computers or other forms of technology can give students practice on core content and skills while the teacher can work with others, conduct assessments, or perform other tasks. Through the use of educational technology, education is able to be individualized for each student allowing for better differentiation and allowing students to work for mastery at their own pace.
Modern educational technology can improve access to education, including full degree programs. It enables better integration for non-full-time students, particularly in continuing education, and improved interactions between students and instructors. Learning material can be used for long-distance learning and are accessible to a wider audience. Course materials are easy to access. In 2010, 70.3% of American family households had access to the internet. In 2013, according to Canadian Radio Television and Telecommunications Commission Canada, 79% of homes have access to the internet. Students can access and engage with numerous online resources at home. Using online resources can help students spend more time on specific aspects of what they may be learning in school, but at home. Schools like the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) have made certain course materials free online. Although some aspects of a classroom setting are missed by using these resources, they are helpful tools to add additional support to the educational system. The necessity to pay for transport to the educational facility is removed.
Students appreciate the convenience of e-learning, but report greater engagement in face-to-face learning environments. Colleges and universities are working towards combating this issue by utilizing WEB 2.0 technologies as well as incorporating more mentorships between students and faculty members.
According to James Kulik, who studies the effectiveness of computers used for instruction, students usually learn more in less time when receiving computer-based instruction, and they like classes more and develop more positive attitudes toward computers in computer-based classes. Students can independently solve problems. There are no intrinsic age-based restrictions on difficulty level, i.e. students can go at their own pace. Students editing their written work on word processors improve the quality of their writing. According to some studies, the students are better at critiquing and editing written work that is exchanged over a computer network with students they know. Studies completed in "computer intensive" settings found increases in student-centric, cooperative and higher-order learning, writing skills, problem solving, and using technology. In addition, attitudes toward technology as a learning tool by parents, students and teachers are also improved.
Employers' acceptance of online education has risen over time. More than 50% of human resource managers SHRM surveyed for an August 2010 report said that if two candidates with the same level of experience were applying for a job, it would not have any kind of effect whether the candidate's obtained degree was acquired through an online or a traditional school. Seventy-nine percent said they had employed a candidate with an online degree in the past 12 months. However, 66% said candidates who get degrees online were not seen as positively as job applicants with traditional degrees.
The use of educational apps generally has a positive effect on learning. Pre- and post-tests have revealed that the use of educational apps on mobile devices reduces the achievement gap between struggling and average students. Some educational apps improve group work by allowing students to receive feedback on answers and promoting collaboration in solving problems. The benefits of app-assisted learning have been exhibited in all age groups. Kindergarten students that use iPads show much higher rates of literacy than non-users. Medical students at University of California Irvine that utilized iPad academically have been reported to score 23% higher on national exams than previous classes that did not.
Disadvantages
Globally, factors like change management, technology obsolescence and vendor- developer partnership are major restraints that are hindering the growth of Educational technology market.
In US, state and the federal government increased funding, as well as private venture capital has been flowing into education sector. However, , none were looking at technology return on investment (ROI) to connect expenditures on technology with improved student outcomes.
New technologies are frequently accompanied by unrealistic hype and promise regarding their transformative power to change education for the better or in allowing better educational opportunities to reach the masses. Examples include silent film, broadcast radio, and television, none of which have maintained much of a foothold in the daily practices of mainstream, formal education. Technology, in and of itself, does not necessarily result in fundamental improvements to educational practice. The focus needs to be on the learner's interaction with technology—not the technology itself. It needs to be recognized as "ecological" rather than "additive" or "subtractive". In this ecological change, one significant change will create total change.
According to Branford et al., "technology does not guarantee effective learning", and inappropriate use of technology can even hinder it. A University of Washington study of infant vocabulary shows that it is slipping due to educational baby DVDs. Published in the Journal of Pediatrics, a 2007 University of Washington study on the vocabulary of babies surveyed over 1,000 parents in Washington and Minnesota. The study found that for every one hour that babies 8–16 months of age watched DVDs and Videos, they knew 6-8 fewer of 90 common baby words than the babies that did not watch them. Andrew Meltzoff, a surveyor in this study, states that the result makes sense, that if the baby's "alert time" is spent in front of DVDs and TV, instead of with people speaking, the babies are not going to get the same linguistic experience. Dr. Dimitri Chistakis, another surveyor reported that the evidence is mounting that baby DVDs are of no value and may be harmful.
Adaptive instructional materials tailor questions to each student's ability and calculate their scores, but this encourages students to work individually rather than socially or collaboratively (Kruse, 2013). Social relationships are important, but high-tech environments may compromise the balance of trust, care and respect between teacher and student.
Massively open online courses (MOOCs), although quite popular in discussions of technology and education in developed countries (more so in the US), are not a major concern in most developing or low-income countries. One of the stated goals of MOOCs is to provide less fortunate populations (i.e., in developing countries) an opportunity to experience courses with US-style content and structure. However, research shows only 3% of the registrants are from low-income countries and although many courses have thousands of registered students only 5-10% of them complete the course. This can be attributed to lack of staff support, course difficulty and low levels of engagement with peers. MOOCs also implies that certain curriculum and teaching methods are superior, and this could eventually wash over (or possibly washing out) local educational institutions, cultural norms and educational traditions.
With the Internet and social media, using educational apps makes the students highly susceptible to distraction and sidetracking. Even though proper use has shown to increase student performances, being distracted would be detrimental. Another disadvantage is an increased potential for cheating. One method is done by creating multiple accounts to survey questions and gather information which can be assimilated so that the master account is able to fill in the correct answers. Smartphones can be very easy to hide and use inconspicuously, especially if their use is normalized in the classroom. These disadvantages can be managed with strict rules and regulations on mobile phone use.
Over-stimulation
Electronic devices such as cellphones and computers facilitate rapid access to a stream of sources, each of which may receive cursory attention. Michel Rich, an associate professor at Harvard Medical School and executive director of the center on Media and Child Health in Boston, said of the digital generation, "Their brains are rewarded not for staying on task, but for jumping to the next thing. The worry is we're raising a generation of kids in front of screens whose brains are going to be wired differently." Students have always faced distractions; computers and cellphones are a particular challenge because the stream of data can interfere with focusing and learning. Although these technologies affect adults too, young people may be more influenced by it as their developing brains can easily become habituated to switching tasks and become unaccustomed to sustaining attention. Too much information, coming too rapidly, can overwhelm thinking.
Technology is "rapidly and profoundly altering our brains." High exposure levels stimulate brain cell alteration and release neurotransmitters, which causes the strengthening of some neural pathways and weakening of others. This leads to heightened stress levels on the brain that, at first, boost energy levels, but, over time, actually augment memory, impair cognition, lead to depression, alter the neural circuitry of the hippocampus, amygdala and prefrontal cortex. These are the brain regions that control mood and thought. If unchecked, the underlying structure of the brain could be altered. Overstimulation due to technology may begin too young. When children are exposed before the age of seven, important developmental tasks may be delayed, and bad learning habits might develop, which "deprives children of the exploration and play that they need to develop." Media psychology is an emerging specialty field that embraces electronic devices and the sensory behaviors occurring from the use of educational technology in learning.
Sociocultural criticism
According to Lai, "the learning environment is a complex system where the interplay and interactions of many things impact the outcome of learning." When technology is brought into an educational setting, the pedagogical setting changes in that technology-driven teaching can change the entire meaning of an activity without adequate research validation. If technology monopolizes an activity, students can begin to develop the sense that "life would scarcely be thinkable without technology."
Leo Marx considered the word "technology" itself as problematic, susceptible to reification and "phantom objectivity", which conceals its fundamental nature as something that is only valuable insofar as it benefits the human condition. Technology ultimately comes down to affecting the relations between people, but this notion is obfuscated when technology is treated as an abstract notion devoid of good and evil. Langdon Winner makes a similar point by arguing that the underdevelopment of the philosophy of technology leaves us with an overly simplistic reduction in our discourse to the supposedly dichotomous notions of the "making" versus the "uses" of new technologies and that a narrow focus on "use" leads us to believe that all technologies are neutral in moral standing. These critiques would have us ask not, "How do we maximize the role or advancement of technology in education?", but, rather, "What are the social and human consequences of adopting any particular technology?"
Winner viewed technology as a "form of life" that not only aids human activity, but that also represents a powerful force in reshaping that activity and its meaning. For example, the use of robots in the industrial workplace may increase productivity, but they also radically change the process of production itself, thereby redefining what is meant by "work" in such a setting. In education, standardized testing has arguably redefined the notions of learning and assessment. We rarely explicitly reflect on how strange a notion it is that a number between, say, 0 and 100 could accurately reflect a person's knowledge about the world. According to Winner, the recurring patterns in everyday life tend to become an unconscious process that we learn to take for granted. Winner writes,
By far, the greatest latitude of choice exists the very first time a particular instrument, system, or technique is introduced. Because choices tend to become strongly fixed in material equipment, economic investment, and social habit, the original flexibility vanishes for all practical purposes once the initial commitments are made. In that sense, technological innovations are similar to legislative acts or political foundings that establish a framework for public order that will endure over many generations. (p. 29)
When adopting new technologies, there may be one best chance to "get it right". Seymour Papert (p. 32) points out a good example of a (bad) choice that has become strongly fixed in social habit and material equipment: our "choice" to use the QWERTY keyboard. The QWERTY arrangement of letters on the keyboard was originally chosen, not because it was the most efficient for typing, but because early typewriters were prone to jam when adjacent keys were struck in quick succession. Now that typing has become a digital process, this is no longer an issue, but the QWERTY arrangement lives on as a social habit, one that is very difficult to change.
Neil Postman endorsed the notion that technology impacts human cultures, including the culture of classrooms, and that this is a consideration even more important than considering the efficiency of a new technology as a tool for teaching. Regarding the computer's impact on education, Postman writes (p. 19):
What we need to consider about the computer has nothing to do with its efficiency as a teaching tool. We need to know in what ways it is altering our conception of learning, and how in conjunction with television, it undermines the old idea of school.There is an assumption that technology is inherently interesting so it must be helpful in education; based on research by Daniel Willingham, that is not always the case. He argues that it does not necessarily matter what the technological medium is, but whether or not the content is engaging and utilizes the medium in a beneficial way.
Digital divide
The concept of the digital divide is a gap between those who have access to digital technologies and those who do not. Access may be associated with age, gender, socio-economic status, education, income, ethnicity, and geography.
Data protection
According to a report by the Electronic Frontier Foundation, large amounts of personal data on children are collected by electronic devices that are distributed in schools in the United States. Often, far more information than necessary is collected, uploaded and stored indefinitely. Aside from name and date of birth, this information can include the child's browsing history, search terms, location data, contact lists, as well as behavioral information. Parents are not informed or, if informed, have little choice. According to the report, this constant surveillance resulting from educational technology can "warp children's privacy expectations, lead them to self-censor, and limit their creativity". In a 2018 public service announcement, the FBI warned that widespread collection of student information by educational technologies, including web browsing history, academic progress, medical information, and biometrics, created the potential for privacy and safety threats if such data was compromised or exploited.
The transition from in-person learning to distance education in higher education due to the COVID-19 pandemic has led to enhanced extraction of student data enabled by complex data infrastructures. These infrastructures collect information such as learning management system logins, library metrics, impact measurements, teacher evaluation frameworks, assessment systems, learning analytic traces, longitudinal graduate outcomes, attendance records, social media activity, and so on. The copious amounts of information collected are quantified for the marketization of higher education, employing this data as a means to demonstrate and compare student performance across institutions to attract prospective students, mirroring the capitalistic notion of ensuring efficient market functioning and constant improvement through measurement. This desire of data has fueled the exploitation of higher education by platform companies and data service providers who are outsourced by institutions for their services. The monetization of student data in order to integrate corporate models of marketization further pushes higher education, widely regarded as a public good, into a privatized commercial sector.
Teacher training
Since technology is not the end goal of education, but rather a means by which it can be accomplished, educators must have a good grasp of the technology and its advantages and disadvantages. Teacher training aims for effective integration of classroom technology.
The evolving nature of technology may unsettle teachers, who may experience themselves as perpetual novices. Finding quality materials to support classroom objectives is often difficult. Random professional development days are inadequate.
According to Jenkins, "Rather than dealing with each technology in isolation, we would do better to take an ecological approach, thinking about the interrelationship among different communication technologies, the cultural communities that grow up around them, and the activities they support." Jenkins also suggested that the traditional school curriculum guided teachers to train students to be autonomous problem solvers. However, today's workers are increasingly asked to work in teams, drawing on different sets of expertise, and collaborating to solve problems. Learning styles and the methods of collecting information have evolved, and "students often feel locked out of the worlds described in their textbooks through the depersonalized and abstract prose used to describe them". These twenty-first century skills can be attained through the incorporation and engagement with technology. Changes in instruction and use of technology can also promote a higher level of learning among students with different types of intelligence.
Assessment
There are two distinct issues of assessment: the assessment of educational technology and assessment with technology.
Assessments of educational technology have included the Follow Through project.
Educational assessment with technology may be either formative assessment or summative assessment. Instructors use both types of assessments to understand student progress and learning in the classroom. Technology has helped teachers create better assessments to help understand where students who are having trouble with the material are having issues.
Formative assessment is more difficult, as the perfect form is ongoing and allows the students to show their learning in different ways depending on their learning styles. Technology has helped some teachers make their formative assessments better, particularly through the use of classroom response systems (CRS). A CRS is a tool in which the students each have a handheld device that partners up with the teacher's computer. The instructor then asks multiple choice or true or false questions and the students answer on their device. Depending on the software used, the answers may then be shown on a graph so students and the teacher can see the percentage of students who gave each answer and the teacher can focus on what went wrong.
Summative assessments are more common in classrooms and are usually set up to be more easily graded, as they take the form of tests or projects with specific grading schemes. One huge benefit of tech-based testing is the option to give students immediate feedback on their answers. When students get these responses, they are able to know how they are doing in the class which can help push them to improve or give them confidence that they are doing well. Technology also allows for different kinds of summative assessment, such as digital presentations, videos, or anything else the teacher/students may come up with, which allows different learners to show what they learned more effectively. Teachers can also use technology to post graded assessments online for students to have a better idea of what a good project is.
Electronic assessment uses information technology. It encompasses several potential applications, which may be teacher or student-oriented, including educational assessment throughout the continuum of learning, such as computerized classification testing, computerized adaptive testing, student testing, and grading an exam. E-Marking is an examiner led activity closely related to other e-assessment activities such as e-testing, or e-learning which are student-led. E-marking allows markers to mark a scanned script or online response on a computer screen rather than on paper.
There are no restrictions on the types of tests that can use e-marking, with e-marking applications designed to accommodate multiple choice, written, and even video submissions for performance examinations. E-marking software is used by individual educational institutions and can also be rolled out to the participating schools of awarding exam organisations. E-marking has been used to mark many well known high stakes examinations, which in the United Kingdom include A levels and GCSE exams, and in the US includes the SAT test for college admissions. Ofqual reports that e-marking is the main type of marking used for general qualifications in the United Kingdom.
In 2014, the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) announced that most of the National 5 question papers would be e-marked.
In June 2015, the Odisha state government in India announced that it planned to use e-marking for all Plus II papers from 2016.
Analytics
The importance of self-assessment through tools made available on educational technology platforms has been growing. Self-assessment in education technology relies on students analyzing their strengths, weaknesses and areas where improvement is possible to set realistic goals in learning, improve their educational performances and track their progress. One of the unique tools for self-assessment made possible by education technology is Analytics. Analytics is data gathered on the student's activities on the learning platform, drawn into meaningful patterns that lead to a valid conclusion, usually through the medium of data visualization such as graphs. Learning analytics is the field that focuses on analyzing and reporting data about student's activities in order to facilitate learning.
Expenditure
The five key sectors of the e-learning industry are consulting, content, technologies, services and support. Worldwide, e-learning was estimated in 2000 to be over $48 billion according to conservative estimates. Commercial growth has been brisk. In 2014, the worldwide commercial market activity was estimated at $6 billion venture capital over the past five years, with self-paced learning generating $35.6 billion in 2011. North American e-learning generated $23.3 billion in revenue in 2013, with a 9% growth rate in cloud-based authoring tools and learning platforms.
Careers
Educational technologists and psychologists apply basic educational and psychological research into an evidence-based applied science (or a technology) of learning or instruction. In research, these professions typically require a graduate degree (Master's, Doctorate, Ph.D., or D.Phil.) in a field related to educational psychology, educational media, experimental psychology, cognitive psychology or, more purely, in the fields of educational, instructional or human performance technology or instructional design. In industry, educational technology is utilized to train students and employees by a wide range of learning and communication practitioners, including instructional designers, technical trainers, technical communication and professional communication specialists, technical writers, and of course primary school and college teachers of all levels. The transformation of educational technology from a cottage industry to a profession is discussed by Shurville et al.
See also
References
External links
"Schools of the Future: Learning On-Line" 1994 documentary from KETC
Technology in society |
33843979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verifiable%20computing | Verifiable computing | Verifiable computing (or verified computation or verified computing) enables a computer to offload the computation of some function, to other perhaps untrusted clients, while maintaining verifiable results. The other clients evaluate the function and return the result with a proof that the computation of the function was carried out correctly. The introduction of this notion came as a result of the increasingly common phenomenon of "outsourcing" computation to untrusted users in projects such as SETI@home and also to the growing desire of weak clients to outsource computational tasks to a more powerful computation service like in cloud computing. The concept dates back to work by Babai et al., and has been studied under various terms, including "checking computations" (Babai et al.), "delegating computations", "certified computation", and verifiable computing. The term verifiable computing itself was formalized by Rosario Gennaro, Craig Gentry, and Bryan Parno, and echoes Micali's "certified computation".
Motivation and overview
The growing desire to outsource computational tasks from a relatively weak computational device (client) to a more powerful computation services (worker), and the problem of dishonest workers who modify their client's software to return plausible results without performing the actual work motivated the formalization of the notion of Verifiable Computation.
Verifiable computing is not only concerned with getting the result of the outsourced function on the client's input and the proof of its correctness, but also with the client being able to verify the proof with significantly less computational effort than computing the function from scratch.
Considerable attention has been devoted in verifying the computation of functions performed by untrusted workers including the use of secure coprocessors, Trusted Platform Modules (TPMs), interactive proofs, probabilistically checkable proofs, efficient arguments, and Micali's CS proofs. These verifications are either interactive which require the client to interact with the worker to verify the correctness proof, or are non-interactive protocols which can be proven in the random oracle model.
Verification by replication
The largest verified computation (SETI@home) uses verification by replication.
The SETI@home verification process involves one client machine and many worker machines.
The client machine sends identical workunits to multiple computers (at least 2).
When not enough results are returned in a reasonable amount of time—due to machines accidentally turned off, communication breakdowns, etc.—or the results do not agree—due to computation errors, cheating by submitting false data without actually doing the work, etc.—then the client machine sends more identical workunits to other worker machines.
Once a minimum quorum (often 2) of the results agree, then the client assumes those results (and other identical results for that workunit) are correct.
The client grants credit to all machines that returned the correct results.
Verifiable computation
Gennaro et al. defined the notion of verifiable computation scheme as a protocol between two polynomial time parties to collaborate on the computation of a function F: {0,1}n → {0,1}m. This scheme consists of three main phases:
Preprocessing. This stage is performed once by the client in order to calculate some auxiliary information associated with F. Part of this information is public to be shared with the worker while the rest is private and kept with the client.
Input preparation. In this stage, the client calculates some auxiliary information about the input of the function. Part of this information is public while the rest is private and kept with the client. The public information is sent to the worker to compute F on the input data.
Output computation and verification. In this stage, the worker uses the public information associated with the function F and the input, which are calculated in the previous two phases, to compute an encoded output of the function F on the provided input. This result is then returned to the client to verify its correctness by computing the actual value of the output by decoding the result returned by the worker using the private information calculated in the previous phases.
The defined notion of verifiable computation scheme minimizes the interaction between the client and the worker into exactly two messages, where a single message sent from each party to the other party during the different phases of the protocol.
An example scheme based on fully homomorphic encryption
Gennaro et al. defined a verifiable computation scheme for any function F using Yao's garbled circuit combined with a fully homomorphic encryption system.
This verifiable computation scheme VC is defined as follows:
VC = (KeyGen, ProbGen, Compute, Verify) consists of four algorithms as follows:
KeyGen(F, λ) → (PK, SK): The randomized key generation algorithm generates two keys, public and private, based on the security parameter λ. The public key encodes the target function F and is sent to the worker to compute F. On the other hand, the secret key is kept private by the client.
ProbGenSK(x) → (σx, τx): The problem generation algorithm encodes the function input x into two values, public and private, using the secret key SK. The public value σx is given to the worker to compute F(x) with, while the secret value τx is kept private by the client.
Compute(PK, σx) → σy: The worker computes an encoded value σy of the function's output y = F(x) using the client's public key PK and the encoded input σx.
VerifySK (τx, σy) → y ∪ ⊥: The verification algorithm converts the worker's encoded output σy into the actual output of the function F using both the secret key SK and the secret “decoding” τx. It outputs y = F(x) if the σy represents a valid output of F on x, or outputs ⊥ otherwise.
The protocol of the verifiable computations scheme defined by Gennaro et al. works as follows:
The function F should be represented as a Boolean circuit on which the key generation algorithm would be applied. The key generation algorithm runs Yao's garbling procedure over this Boolean circuit to compute the public and secret keys. The public key (PK) is composed of all the ciphertexts that represent the garbled circuit, and the secret key (SK) is composed of all the random wire labels. The generated secret key is then used in the problem generation algorithm. This algorithm first generates a new pair of public and secret keys for the homomorphic encryption scheme, and then uses these keys with the homomorphic scheme to encrypt the correct input wires, represented as the secret key of the garbled circuit. The produced ciphertexts represent the public encoding of the input (σx) that is given to the worker, while the secret key (τx) is kept private by the client. After that, the worker applies the computation steps of the Yao's protocol over the ciphertexts generated by the problem generation algorithm. This is done by recursively decrypting the gate ciphertexts until arriving to the final output wire values (σy). The homomorphic properties of the encryption scheme enable the worker to obtain an encryption of the correct output wire. Finally, the worker returns the ciphertexts of the output to the client who decrypts them to compute the actual output y = F(x) or ⊥.
The definition of the verifiable computation scheme states that the scheme should be both correct and secure. Scheme Correctness is achieved if the problem generation algorithm produces values that enable an honest worker to compute encoded output values that will verify successfully and correspond to the evaluation of F on those inputs. On the other hand, a verifiable computation scheme is secure if a malicious worker cannot convince the verification algorithm to accept an incorrect output for a given function F and input x.
Practical verifiable computing
Although it was shown that verifiable computing is possible in theory (using fully homomorphic encryption or via probabilistically checkable proofs), most of the known constructions are very expensive in practice. Recently, some researchers have looked at making verifiable computation practical. One such effort is the work of UT Austin researchers. The authors start with an argument system based on probabilistically checkable proofs and reduce its costs by a factor of 1020. They also implemented their techniques in the Pepper system. The authors note that "Our conclusion so far is that, as a tool for building secure systems, PCPs and argument systems are not a lost cause."
The overall area, which now includes a number of implementations by different groups, has been surveyed.
References
Secure communication
Distributed computing |
12865524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javaid%20Laghari | Javaid Laghari | Javaid Laghari (Urdu: جاويد لغارى; TI is a Pakistani American who was previously professor of electrical and computer engineering, science and technology administrator, senator, and is the author of five books and over 600 publications, and numerous invited talks and interviews. He has served as the Chairperson of the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan from Aug 2009 to Aug 2013 with the status of a Federal Minister. He is an academic, administrator, energy consultant, and a space scientist at heart, and is a staunch supporter of technocratic democracy in Pakistan. He was elected Senator of Pakistan from the Pakistan Peoples Party. Laghari has been a member of the Pakistan Peoples Party, a secular democratic party, was the Deputy Coordinator of the PPP Central Policy Planning Committee and authored the Election Manifesto, which eventually led the party to an election victory in 2009 elections. As Chair of the Energy and Power Committee, he drafted the Energy Policy for the incoming government and served on key Senate Standing Committees, including Energy and Power, Information Technology, and Information and Broadcast. He also chaired the Senate in the absence of Chairperson Senate. He has served as the Science Advisor to Benazir Bhutto during her second and last Prime ministerial term, and has been associated with Bhutto long before becoming Science and Technology Advisor to Bhutto. Dr. Laghari established the Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology (SZABIST) along with Benazir Bhutto and was appointed as the first and founding President of SZABIST. Prior to SZABIST, he was the Director of the Space Power Institute, Director of Graduate Studies, Chairman of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Associate Dean at the State University of New York at Buffalo where he served as among the youngest tenured full professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering. He has also served as Commissioner at the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research (UAE) and as Coordinator General at COMSTECH, which is the Coordinating Body of all Science and Technology Ministers of the 57 OIC (Organization of Islamic Countries) Countries . Dr. Javaid Laghari is currently an Energy Consultant and Senior Advisor to several Corporate Groups and Universities in the US, and lives in Houston, TX.
Dr. Laghari was elected as Senator to the Senate Secretariat in 2006 for a six-year term and resigned in July 2009. During his Senate term, he also officiated as Acting chairman Senate. He specialises in Pulsed Power and Energy Storage Devices, Higher Education, Information Technology, Space Power Technology and Leadership and has published over 120 research papers in refereed journals and presented over 70 papers at International Conferences. He is also the author of five books, "Reflections on Benazir Bhutto", "Leaders of Pakistan", "Creative Leadership", "Challenges in Higher Education" and his most recent being a fiction thriller "Ifrit" about nuclear terrorism in Pakistan which is currently under consideration for film production. Laghari gained a national and international reputation during the "fake degree" saga of the parliamentarians in Pakistan in summer of 2010, and again during the elections of 2013, when he took a principled stand and had HEC verify the degrees of all parliamentarians. As a result, a large number of parliamentarians were disqualified from the parliament. During the process, he received multiple threats, including to his life, and his younger brother, Farooq Laghari, a bureaucrat, was arrested by the Sindh government.
Early life
Laghari was born in Hyderabad. He attended the Sindh University where he enrolled in the Department of Electrical Engineering, and received his BEng in Electrical Engineering. Laghari then travelled to Ankara, Turkey and completed his post graduate studies at the Middle East Technical University and received his MS in electrical engineering. He then travelled to United States and joined University at Buffalo, The State University of New York where he received his PhD in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1980.
US research work
Laghari worked in the United States as a researcher and engineer at NASA, the Air Force Research Laboratory of AFOSR, the Office of Naval Research, the Naval Research Lab, the Defense Nuclear Agency, the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, the Strategic Defense Initiative, Hughes Aircraft and the Boeing Aerospace Company. He was chairman of the 1992 IEEE International Conference on High Voltage Engineering and has organised numerous International Conferences and chaired a large number of Sessions and Workshops in the United States.
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission
Laghari was the chairman of the Technical Standards Committee on Radiation Effects at the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. He led the Pakistani delegation on nuclear safety at the United Nations. He was the representative on the United States Activities Board on Man and Radiation. He attended the NATO Advanced Study Institute on Space Systems and the NATO Advanced Study Institute on Fast Electrical and Optical Diagnostics. Laghari was also the Chairman of the National Conference on Emerging Technologies 2004 (NCET2004) held in Pakistan in December 2004.
Public service
Laghari was elected a Senator from Sindh as technocrat in 2006 but resigned in 2009 to become Chairman Higher Education Commission with the status of a Federal Minister which he served till 2013. Laghari has been a Member of the Ministry of Science and Technology Human Resource Development Committee, the Private Export Software Board, the Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and The Sindh Information Technology Board. He is a member of the Association for Computing Machinery, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, a member of the New York Academy of Sciences and sits on the Executive Committee of the Asia University Federation and the Executive Committee of the Federation of the Universities of the Islamic World.
Laghari also served as Acting Coordinator General of COMSTECH in 2012 for about 9 months.
Laghari has delivered over 37 keynote lectures, including at The Clinton School of Public Service, The Brookings Institution, Woodrow Wilson International Center, The School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS), The European Union Parliamentary Conference and the Conference of the OIC Ministers of Higher Education & Scientific Research. The lecture at the Clinton School (out of 1000 lectures so far) has been the 3rd most watched program online.
In addition to the 37 keynote lectures, Laghari has delivered 117 Chief Guest addresses, 61 invited lectures, 47 interviews published and over 88 TV interviews. He has also published three books on Leadership, and 7 of his articles have appeared in Newsweek magazine.
He is the recipient of the Distinguished Leadership Award, 1987, and is the recipient of the 1994 IEEE Award for Leadership and Dedicated Services and the 1999 "Tamgha-e-Imtiaz" award conferred by the President of Pakistan.
Laghari is listed in the American Men and Women of Science, Who's Who in Science and Engineering, Who's Who in the East and Who's Who in the World.
Publications
Bibliography (books)
Challenges in Higher Education", June 2021, Amazon Publishing, ISBN 979-851-8200-623
Ifrit (31 January 2019), Austin Macauley,
Reflections on Benazir Bhutto,‟ SZABIST Publication, , February 2008.
Leaders of Pakistan, SZABIST Publication, , August 2009.
Creative Leadership, Paramount Publishing, , Sept 2011.
"Dielectric Films for High Temperature High Voltage Power Electronics", Materials for Electronic Packaging, written by J. R. Laghari and edited by Deborah D. L. Chung, Butterworth Publishers, 1994.
Selected research papers and patents
Surface Flashover of Spacers in Compressed Gas Insulated Systems, J. R. Laghari and A. H. Qureshi, IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Vol. EI-16, No. 5, 1981,
A Review of Particle-Contaminated Gas Breakdown, J. R. Laghari and A. H. Qureshi, "IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Vol. EI-16, No. 5, 1981, pp. 388–398.
Spacer Flashover in Compressed Gases, J. R. Laghari, IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Vol. EI-20, vol. No. 1.
Testing and Evaluation of Insulating Films: Part I: Description of Test Facilities at the University at Buffalo, J. R. Laghari, IEEE Electrical Insulation, Vol. 2, No.6, 1986.
Testing and Evaluation of Insulating Films: Part II: Test Results using Facilities at the University at Buffalo, J. R. Laghari, IEEE Electrical Insulation, Vol. 2, No. 6, 1986.
A Review of ac and Pulse Capacitor Technology, J. R. Laghari, Applied Physics Communications, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1986.
On the Design of Field-Controlled Multi-Layer Foil Insulation, S. Cygan and J. R. Laghari, IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Vol. EI-22, No. 1, 1987, pp. 107–108.
Multifactor Stress Aging of Dielectrics", J. R. Laghari, Applied Physics Communications, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1987.
Repetitive Phenomena in Dielectics M. Treanor, J. R. Laghari and A. K. Hyder, IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Vol. EI-22, No. 4, 1987, pp. 517–522.
Dependence of Electrical Strength on Thickness, Area and Volume of Polypropylene", S. Cygan and J. R. Laghari, IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Vol. EI-22, No. 6, 1987.
References
External links
Personal web page of Javed Laghari
Members of the Senate of Pakistan
Pakistan Peoples Party politicians
Pakistani scholars
Pakistani scientists
Pakistani aerospace engineers
Pakistani electrical engineers
Living people
University of Sindh alumni
Middle East Technical University alumni
International Centre for Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science Applications in the Middle East people
People from Hyderabad District, Pakistan
Baloch people
Pakistani educational theorists
Year of birth missing (living people) |
61329724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%20Bulgarian%20revenue%20agency%20hack | 2019 Bulgarian revenue agency hack | On 15 July 2019, a massive data breach of the National Revenue Agency (NRA) of Bulgaria was revealed. The hacker responsible for the breach sent an email to major Bulgarian media outlets, detailing the scope of the attack.
The leaked data amounted to 57 folders with .csv files detailing the names and national identification numbers of some 5 million Bulgarian citizens, as well as records on revenues, tax and social security payments, debts, online betting data and company activities dating back as early as 2007, and as recently as June 2019. According to some researchers, nearly every adult in the country had their personal data compromised.
Background
Successive Bulgarian governments have spent nearly two billion leva ($1.15 billion) on e-government projects since 2002, producing few results. The National Revenue Agency is one of only five entities that provide e-government services to citizens. A 2018 government report indicated a very low level of cybersecurity at government entities, citing a lack of qualified IT employees in public agencies and noncompetitive salaries compared to the private sector.
In 2017, personal data including addresses and names of 1.2 million Bulgarian children was openly accessible on a Ministry of Education website and the leak was not addressed until it was revealed by a report on investigative journalism website Bivol.bg.
Serious doubts over government capacity to handle data continued in August 2018, when the Bulgarian Commercial Register, which contains the entire database of the Bulgarian economy, crashed. A total hard disk drive failure caused by sloppy maintenance left 25 terabytes of company data inaccessible for more than two weeks, essentially halting business transactions. Following the crash, the e-Government State Agency began an audit of software and hardware used by all government entities. Later that year, a Cybersecurity Law came into effect, establishing a National Cybersecurity System along with several government positions related to cybercrime and accident prevention.
A few days before the NRA hack was revealed, a white hat hacker reported serious vulnerabilities in the Bulgarian Commission for Personal Data Protection website; the hacker had "begged" the Commission to fix the issues for three years. The Commission did not take any action to protect the data, which included emails and phone numbers of more than 14,000 citizens.
Attack
On 15 July, an anonymous hacker emailed Bulgarian media outlets with details of an attack carried out against "servers of the Ministry of Finance". The leak revealed 11 gigabytes of data taken from National Revenue Agency databases. The 57 folders included .csv files, some with more than 1 million lines, containing full names, national identification numbers, revenue figures, personal debt information, health and pension payments, and a register of online gambling website users. The email also claimed that the entire volume of data amounted to 110 folders and 21 gigabytes. The message called the Bulgarian government "retarded", its computer security "parodic", and called for Julian Assange to be freed.
On the following day, the NRA confirmed the authenticity of the data. According to the agency, its servers were accessed through a rarely used VAT refund service for deals abroad, and the breach had affected about 3% of their total database.
The hacker deployed a SQL injection and randomly collected data from the servers.
Aftermath
Arrest of Kristiyan Boykov
Kristiyan Boykov, a 20-year-old employee of a cybersecurity company, was arrested on 16 July by police in Sofia and charged with breach and theft of personal data.
According to police, the released data also contained a lock file with information about the attacker's computer and username, which matched the one Boykov used in social media. The lock file, however, was dated before the supposed time of the attack.
Boykov was released on 18 July, on the grounds that his attack had not affected critical NRA databases. He denied carrying out the attack, stating that police had asked him "uncomfortable questions", used "slight intimidation", and attempted to extract a forced confession. His lawyer announced that the evidence against Boykov is "non-existent", and that the accusation neither points to a specific time period or even a perpetrator. According to Boykov and his employers, a market competitor may have used the occasion to frame him and cause damage to their company.
Commission for Personal Data Protection hack attempt
On July 22, the Commission for Personal Data Protection announced that an unsuccessful cyber attack had been carried out against it. It remains unknown if the database was targeted, but the attacker had used the local Wi-Fi network and was apparently in the vicinity of the Commission's headquarters.
Reactions
Government
Political groups
Industry
Bulgarian IT professionals launched an online petition demanding open source software infrastructure for government services. The petition also demanded clarity on the billions spent on e-government since 2002 without noticeable results.
See also
List of data breaches
References
2019 in computing
2019 in Bulgaria
Bulgaria
Hacking in the 2010s |
20336424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-based%20authentication | Time-based authentication | Time-based authentication is a special procedure to prove an individual's identity and authenticity on appearance simply by detecting its presence at a scheduled time of day or within a scheduled time interval and on a distinct location.
To enable time-based authentication, a special combination of objects is required.
Firsthand, the individual that applies for being identified and authenticated has to present a sign of identity.
Secondly, the individual has to carry at least one human authentication factor that may be recognized on the distinct time and in a certain location.
Thirdly, the distinct time must be equipped with a resident means that is capable to determine the appearance or passage or otherwise coincidence of individual at this distinct location.
Distinctiveness of locating
It makes no sense to define a starting time or a time span without constraint of location. No granting of access is known without defining a distinct location where this access shall be granted. Basic requirement for safe time-based authentication is a well defined separation of locations as well as an equally well defined proximity of the applying individual to this location.
Applications
Time-based authentication is a standard procedure to grant access to an area by detecting a person at an entrance an opening the barrier at a certain time. This of course does not limit the presence of the person in the entered area after once passing the barrier.
Time-based authentication is a standard procedure to get access to a machine, especially a working position with a computer and the functions of this computer within a certain span of time. Such granted access may be automatically terminated.
See also
Authentication
Two factor authentication
Location-based authentication
Real-time locating
Security token
Wireless
Time-based
Security |
1096769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD/OS | BSD/OS | BSD/OS (originally called BSD/386 and sometimes known as BSDi) is a discontinued proprietary version of the BSD operating system developed by Berkeley Software Design, Inc. (BSDi).
BSD/OS had a reputation for reliability in server roles; the renowned Unix programmer and author W. Richard Stevens used it for his own personal web server.
History
BSDi was formed in 1991 by members of the Computer Systems Research Group (CSRG) at UC Berkeley to develop and sell a proprietary version of BSD Unix for PC compatible systems with Intel 386 (or later) processors. This made use of work previously done by Bill Jolitz to port BSD to the PC platform.
BSD/386 1.0 was released in March 1993. The company sold licenses and support for it, taking advantage of terms in the BSD License which permitted use of the BSD software in proprietary systems, as long as credit was given to the author. The company in turn contributed code and resources to the development of non-proprietary BSD operating systems.
In the meantime, Jolitz had left BSDi and independently released an open source BSD for PCs, called 386BSD. One of the advantages of the BSDi system was a complete and thorough manpage documentation for the entire system, including complete syntax and argument explanations, examples, file usage, authors, and cross-references to other commands. Manpage documentation is far poorer in modern Linux systems.
BSD/386 licenses (including source code) were priced at $995, much less than AT&T UNIX System V source licenses, a fact highlighted in their advertisements. As part of the settlement of USL v. BSDi, BSDI substituted code that had been written for the University's 4.4 BSD-Lite release for disputed code in their OS, effective with release 2.0. By the time of this release, the "386" designation had become dated, and BSD/386 was renamed "BSD/OS". Later releases of BSD/OS also supported Sun SPARC-based systems. BSD/OS 5.x versions were available for PowerPC too.
The marketing of BSD/OS became increasingly focused on Internet server applications. However, the increasingly tight market for Unix-compatible software in the late 1990s and early 2000s hurt sales of BSD/OS. On one end of the market, it lacked the certification of the Open Group to bear the UNIX trademark, and the sales force and hardware support of the larger Unix vendors. Simultaneously, it lacked the negligible acquisition cost of the open source BSDs and Linux. BSD/OS was acquired by Wind River Systems in April 2001. Wind River discontinued sales of BSD/OS at the end of 2003, with support terminated at the end of 2004.
Releases
References
Berkeley Software Distribution
Discontinued operating systems |
4132805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BitLocker | BitLocker | BitLocker is a full volume encryption feature included with Microsoft Windows versions starting with Windows Vista. It is designed to protect data by providing encryption for entire volumes. By default, it uses the AES encryption algorithm in cipher block chaining (CBC) or XTS mode with a 128-bit or 256-bit key. CBC is not used over the whole disk; it is applied to each individual sector.
History
BitLocker originated as a part of Microsoft's Next-Generation Secure Computing Base architecture in 2004 as a feature tentatively codenamed "Cornerstone" and was designed to protect information on devices, particularly if a device was lost or stolen; another feature, titled "Code Integrity Rooting", was designed to validate the integrity of Microsoft Windows boot and system files. When used in conjunction with a compatible Trusted Platform Module (TPM), BitLocker can validate the integrity of boot and system files before decrypting a protected volume; an unsuccessful validation will prohibit access to a protected system. BitLocker was briefly called Secure Startup before Windows Vista's release to manufacturing.
BitLocker is available on:
Ultimate and Enterprise editions of Windows Vista and Windows 7
Pro and Enterprise editions of Windows 8 and 8.1
Pro, Enterprise, and Education editions of Windows 10
Pro, Enterprise, and Education editions of Windows 11
Windows Server 2008 and later
Features
Initially, the graphical BitLocker interface in Windows Vista could only encrypt the operating system volume. Starting with Windows Vista with Service Pack 1 and Windows Server 2008, volumes other than the operating system volume could be encrypted using the graphical tool. Still, some aspects of the BitLocker (such as turning autolocking on or off) had to be managed through a command-line tool called manage-bde.wsf.
The version of BitLocker included in Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 adds the ability to encrypt removable drives. On Windows XP or Windows Vista, read-only access to these drives can be achieved through a program called BitLocker To Go Reader, if FAT16, FAT32 or exFAT filesystems are used. In addition, a new command-line tool called manage-bde replaced the old manage-bde.wsf.
Starting with Windows Server 2012 and Windows 8, Microsoft has complemented BitLocker with the Microsoft Encrypted Hard Drive specification, which allows the cryptographic operations of BitLocker encryption to be offloaded to the storage device's hardware. In addition, BitLocker can now be managed through Windows PowerShell. Finally, Windows 8 introduced Windows To Go in its Enterprise edition, which BitLocker can protect.
Device encryption
Windows Mobile 6.5, Windows RT and core editions of Windows 8.1 include device encryption, a feature-limited version of BitLocker that encrypts the whole system. Logging in with a Microsoft account with administrative privileges automatically begins the encryption process. The recovery key is stored to either the Microsoft account or Active Directory, allowing it to be retrieved from any computer. While device encryption is offered on all versions of 8.1, unlike BitLocker, device encryption requires that the device meet the InstantGo (formerly Connected Standby) specifications, which requires solid-state drives, non-removable RAM (to protect against cold boot attacks) and a TPM 2.0 chip.
Starting with Windows 10 1703, the requirements for device encryption have changed, requiring a TPM 1.2 or 2.0 module with PCR 7 support, UEFI Secure Boot, and that the device meets Modern Standby requirements or HSTI validation.
In September 2019 a new update was released (KB4516071) changing the default setting for BitLocker when encrypting a self-encrypting hard drive. Now, the default is to use software encryption for newly encrypted drives. This is due to hardware encryption flaws and security concerns related to those issues.
Encryption modes
Three authentication mechanisms can be used as building blocks to implement BitLocker encryption:
Transparent operation mode: This mode uses the capabilities of TPM 1.2 hardware to provide for transparent user experience—the user powers up and logs into Windows as usual. The key used for disk encryption is sealed (encrypted) by the TPM chip and will only be released to the OS loader code if the early boot files appear to be unmodified. The pre-OS components of BitLocker achieve this by implementing a Static Root of Trust Measurement—a methodology specified by the Trusted Computing Group (TCG). This mode is vulnerable to a cold boot attack, as it allows a powered-down machine to be booted by an attacker. It is also vulnerable to a sniffing attack, as the volume encryption key is transferred in plain text from the TPM to the CPU during a successful boot.
User authentication mode: This mode requires that the user provide some authentication to the pre-boot environment in the form of a pre-boot PIN or password.
USB Key Mode: The user must insert a USB device that contains a startup key into the computer to be able to boot the protected OS. Note that this mode requires that the BIOS on the protected machine supports the reading of USB devices in the pre-OS environment. The key may also be provided by a CCID for reading a cryptographic smartcard. Using CCID provides additional benefits beyond just storing the key file on an external USB thumb drive because the CCID protocol hides the private key using a cryptographic processor embedded in the smartcard; this prevents the key from being stolen by simply being read off the media on which it is stored.
The following combinations of the above authentication mechanisms are supported, all with an optional escrow recovery key:
TPM only
TPM + PIN
TPM + PIN + USB Key
TPM + USB Key
USB Key
Password only
Operation
BitLocker is a logical volume encryption system. (A volume spans part of a hard disk drive, the whole drive or more than one drive.) When enabled, TPM and BitLocker can ensure the integrity of the trusted boot path (e.g. BIOS and boot sector), in order to prevent most offline physical attacks and boot sector malware.
In order for BitLocker to encrypt the volume holding the operating system, at least two NTFS-formatted volumes are required: one for the operating system (usually C:) and another with a minimum size of 100 MB, which remains unencrypted and boots the operating system. (In case of Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008, however, the volume's minimum size is 1.5 GB and must have a drive letter.) Unlike previous versions of Windows, Vista's "diskpart" command-line tool includes the ability to shrink the size of an NTFS volume so that this volume may be created from already allocated space. A tool called the BitLocker Drive Preparation Tool is also available from Microsoft that allows an existing volume on Windows Vista to be shrunk to make room for a new boot volume and for the necessary bootstrapping files to be transferred to it.
Once an alternate boot partition has been created, the TPM module needs to be initialized (assuming that this feature is being used), after which the required disk-encryption key protection mechanisms such as TPM, PIN or USB key are configured. The volume is then encrypted as a background task, something that may take a considerable amount of time with a large disk as every logical sector is read, encrypted and rewritten back to disk. The keys are only protected after the whole volume has been encrypted when the volume is considered secure. BitLocker uses a low-level device driver to encrypt and decrypt all file operations, making interaction with the encrypted volume transparent to applications running on the platform.
Encrypting File System (EFS) may be used in conjunction with BitLocker to provide protection once the operating system is running. Protection of the files from processes and users within the operating system can only be performed using encryption software that operates within Windows, such as EFS. BitLocker and EFS, therefore, offer protection against different classes of attacks.
In Active Directory environments, BitLocker supports optional key escrow to Active Directory, although a schema update may be required for this to work (i.e. if the Active Directory Services are hosted on a Windows version previous to Windows Server 2008).
BitLocker and other full disk encryption systems can be attacked by a rogue boot manager. Once the malicious bootloader captures the secret, it can decrypt the Volume Master Key (VMK), which would then allow access to decrypt or modify any information on an encrypted hard disk. By configuring a TPM to protect the trusted boot pathway, including the BIOS and boot sector, BitLocker can mitigate this threat. (Note that some non-malicious changes to the boot path may cause a Platform Configuration Register check to fail, and thereby generate a false warning.)
Security concerns
TPM alone is not enough
The "Transparent operation mode" and "User authentication mode" of BitLocker use TPM hardware to detect if there are unauthorized changes to the pre-boot environment, including the BIOS and MBR. If any unauthorized changes are detected, BitLocker requests a recovery key on a USB device. This cryptographic secret is used to decrypt the Volume Master Key (VMK) and allow the bootup process to continue. However, TPM alone is not enough:
In February 2008, a group of security researchers published details of a so-called "cold boot attack" that allows full disk encryption systems such as BitLocker to be compromised by booting the machine from removable media, such as a USB drive, into another operating system, then dumping the contents of pre-boot memory. The attack relies on the fact that DRAM retains information for up to several minutes (or even longer, if cooled) after the power has been removed. The Bress/Menz device, described in US Patent 9,514,789, can accomplish this type of attack. Similar full disk encryption mechanisms of other vendors and other operating systems, including Linux and Mac OS X, are vulnerable to the same attack. The authors recommend that computers be powered down when not in physical control of the owner (rather than be left in a sleep mode) and that the encryption software be configured to require a password to boot the machine.
On 10 November 2015, Microsoft released a security update to mitigate a security vulnerability in BitLocker that allowed authentication to be bypassed by employing a malicious Kerberos key distribution center, if the attacker had physical access to the machine, the machine was part of a domain and had no PIN or USB flash drive protection.
BitLocker still does not properly support TPM 2.0 security features which, as a result, can lead to a complete bypass of privacy protection when keys are transmitted over Serial Peripheral Interface in a motherboard.
All these attacks require physical access to the system and are thwarted by a secondary protector such as a USB flash drive or PIN code.
Upholding Kerckhoffs's principle
Although the AES encryption algorithm used in BitLocker is in the public domain, its implementation in BitLocker, as well as other components of the software, are proprietary; however, the code is available for scrutiny by Microsoft partners and enterprises, subject to a non-disclosure agreement.
According to Microsoft sources, BitLocker does not contain an intentionally built-in backdoor, i.e., there is no way for law enforcement to have a guaranteed passage to the data on the user's drives that is provided by Microsoft. In 2006, the UK Home Office expressed concern over the lack of a backdoor and tried entering into talks with Microsoft to get one introduced. Microsoft developer and cryptographer Niels Ferguson denied the backdoor request and said, "over my dead body." Microsoft engineers have said that FBI agents also put pressure on them in numerous meetings in order to add a backdoor, although no formal, written request was ever made; Microsoft engineers eventually suggested to the FBI that agents should look for the hard copy of the key that the BitLocker program suggests its users to make.
Niels Ferguson's position that "back doors are simply not acceptable" is in accordance with Kerckhoffs's principle. Stated by Netherlands born cryptographer Auguste Kerckhoffs in the 19th century, the principle holds that a cryptosystem should be secure, even if everything about the system, except the key, is public knowledge.
Other concerns
Starting with Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012, Microsoft removed the Elephant Diffuser from the BitLocker scheme for no declared reason. Dan Rosendorf's research shows that removing the Elephant Diffuser had an "undeniably negative impact" on the security of BitLocker encryption against a targeted attack. Microsoft later cited performance concerns, and noncompliance with the Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS), to justify the diffuser's removal. Starting with Windows 10 version 1511, however, Microsoft added a new FIPS-compliant XTS-AES encryption algorithm to BitLocker. Starting with Windows 10 version 1803, Microsoft added a new feature called "Kernel DMA Protection" to BitLocker, against DMA attacks via Thunderbolt 3 ports.
In October 2017, it was reported that a flaw (ROCA vulnerability) in a code library developed by Infineon, which had been in widespread use in security products such as smartcards and TPMs, enabled private keys to be inferred from public keys. This could allow an attacker to bypass BitLocker encryption when an affected TPM chip is used. Microsoft released an updated version of the firmware for Infineon TPM chips that fixes the flaw via Windows Update.
See also
Features new to Windows Vista
List of Microsoft Windows components
Vista IO technologies
Next-Generation Secure Computing Base
FileVault
References
External links
BitLocker Drive Encryption Technical Overview
System Integrity Team Blog
Windows Server 2008
Windows 11
Windows 10
Windows 8
Windows 7
Windows Vista
Cryptographic software
Microsoft Windows security technology
Disk encryption |
27658643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific%20Working%20Group%20%E2%80%93%20Imaging%20Technology | Scientific Working Group – Imaging Technology | The Scientific Working Group on Imaging Technology was convened by the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1997 to provide guidance to law enforcement agencies and others in the criminal justice system regarding the best practices for photography, videography, and video and image analysis. This group was terminated in 2015.
History
As technology has advanced through the years, law enforcement has needed to stay abreast of emerging technological advances and use these in the investigation of crime. A factor that is considered when new technology is used in these investigations is the determination of whether the use of that new technology will be admissible in court. The judicial system in the United States currently has two standards used in the determination of admissibility of testimony regarding scientific evidence; the Daubert Standard and the Frye Standard. These standards guide the courts in the admissibility of testimony derived from the use of new technologies and scientific techniques. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), seeking to address possible admissibility issues with such testimony, established Scientific Working Groups starting with the Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis and Methods (SWGDAM) in 1988. The goal of these groups is to open lines of communication between law enforcement agencies and forensic laboratories around the world while providing guidance on the use of new and innovative technologies and techniques. This guidance can lead to admissibility of evidence and/or testimony, provided proper methods in the collection of evidence and its analysis are employed. In 2009, the National Academy of Sciences released a report entitled, "Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward." This report addresses many topics including challenges and disparities facing the forensic science community, standardization, certification of practitioners and accreditation of their respective entities, problems related to the interpretation of forensic evidence, the need for research, and the admission of forensic science evidence in litigation. This report mentions the Scientific Working Groups and their role in forensic science.
The history of imaging technology (photography) can be said to extend back to the times of Chinese philosopher Mo-Ti (470-390 B.C.) who described the principles behind the precursor to the camera obscura. Since that time, advances in imaging technology include the discovery of chemical photographic processes in the 19th century and the use of electronic imaging technology that includes analog video cameras and digital video and still cameras. By the mid 1990s, it was apparent that technologically advanced camera systems such as these were being adopted for use in the criminal justice system. This led the FBI to convene a meeting of individuals working in the field of forensic imaging from federal, state, local, and foreign law enforcement, and the U.S. military, during the summer of 1997. As a result of this meeting, the Technical Working Group on Imaging Technology was formed from a core group of the meeting’s participants. This group later became the Scientific Working Group on Imaging Technology (SWGIT).
Prior to the inception of SWGIT, some law enforcement agencies began adopting digital imaging technology. Due to the lack of guidelines or standards, some of these agencies attempted to replace all their film cameras with substandard digital cameras, only to find that the equipment they had purchased was not capable of accomplishing the mission for which they were intended. At that time only low resolution digital cameras were deemed affordable by some law enforcement agencies. Some of these agencies were forced to rethink their photography procedures and reverted to the use of film cameras or replaced their low-resolution digital cameras with higher quality, more expensive equipment. Also lacking at this early stage was guidance on how to store and archive digital image files. When SWGIT was formed, it was tasked with providing guidance to law enforcement and others in the criminal justice system by releasing documents that describe the best practices and guidelines for the use of imaging technology, to include these concerns and many others. This group was terminated in 2015.
SWGIT Function
During its existence, SWGIT provided information on the appropriate use of various imaging technologies including both established and new. This was accomplished through the release of documents such as the SWGIT Best Practices documents. As changes in technology occurred, these documents were updated. Over the course of its existence, SWGIT collaborated with other Scientific Working Groups to address imaging concerns within their respective disciplines. SWGIT published over 20 documents that dealt specifically with imaging technology. SWGIT also co-published documents with the Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence (SWGDE) that had a component or components dealing with imaging technology. SWGIT also provided imaging technology guidance and input for documents from the Scientific Working Group on Friction Ridge Analysis, Study and Technology (SWGFAST), the Scientific Working Group for Forensic Document Examination (SWGDOC)5, and the Scientific Working Group on Shoeprint and Tire Tread Evidence (SWGTREAD). SWGIT assisted the American Society of Crime Lab Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB) in the writing of definitions and standards for the accreditation of Digital and Multimedia Evidence sections of crime laboratories.
In addition to releasing documents, SWGIT members disseminated best practices for law enforcement professionals where imaging technology was concerned. This was carried out by attending and lecturing at meetings and conferences of various forensic organizations that included:
The American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS)
The International Association for Identification (IAI)
The Law Enforcement and Emergency Services Video Association (LEVA)
The American Society of Crime Lab Directors (ASCLD)
The SWGIT membership consisted of approximately fifty scientists, photographers, instructors, and managers from more than two dozen federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies, as well as from the academic and research communities. The membership elected its officers from within.
SWGIT was composed of the Executive Committee, four standing subcommittees, and ad hoc subcommittees appointed on an as-needed basis. The standing subcommittees were: Image Analysis, Forensic Photography, Video, and Outreach. This group was terminated in 2015.
Legal Proceedings
The following court cases have conducted Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharm., Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993) hearings in which SWGIT best practice documents have been cited as accepted protocol, methodology, and as generally accepted techniques in the forensic community:
U. S. v. Rudy Frabizio, U.S. District Court, Boston, MA, 2008 (Image Authentication)
U.S. v. Nobumochi Furukawa, U.S. District Court, Minnesota, 2007 (Video Authentication)
U.S. v. John Stroman, U.S. District Court, South Carolina, 2007 (Facial Comparison Analysis)
State of Texas v. Daniel Day, Tarrant County Texas, 2005 (Camera Identification to Images)
U.S. v. Marc Watzman, U.S. District Court, Northern Illinois, 2004 (Video Authentication)
U.S. v. McKreith, U.S. District Court, Fort Lauderdale, FL, 2002 (Photo comparison of shirt)
Termination
This group was unfunded by the FBI in 2015.
References
External links
American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS)
American Society of Crime Lab Directors (ASCLD)
Digital Summit International (DSI)
International Association for Identification (IAI)
Law Enforcement and Emergency Services Video Association (LEVA)
National Technical Investigators' Association (NATIA)
Digital imaging
Digital photography
Image processing
Law enforcement in the United States
Law enforcement techniques
Photogrammetry organizations
Photographic processes
Photographic techniques
Photography equipment
Video processing
Film and video technology
Forensics organizations |
1003802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netfilter | Netfilter | Netfilter is a framework provided by the Linux kernel that allows various networking-related operations to be implemented in the form of customized handlers. Netfilter offers various functions and operations for packet filtering, network address translation, and port translation, which provide the functionality required for directing packets through a network and prohibiting packets from reaching sensitive locations within a network.
Netfilter represents a set of hooks inside the Linux kernel, allowing specific kernel modules to register callback functions with the kernel's networking stack. Those functions, usually applied to the traffic in the form of filtering and modification rules, are called for every packet that traverses the respective hook within the networking stack.
History
Rusty Russell started the netfilter/iptables project in 1998; he had also authored the project's predecessor, ipchains. As the project grew, he founded the Netfilter Core Team (or simply coreteam) in 1999. The software they produced (called netfilter hereafter) uses the GNU General Public License (GPL) license, and in March 2000 it was merged into version 2.4.x of the Linux kernel mainline.
In August 2003 Harald Welte became chairman of the coreteam. In April 2004, following a crack-down by the project on those distributing the project's software embedded in routers without complying with the GPL, a German court granted Welte an historic injunction against Sitecom Germany, which refused to follow the GPL's terms (see GPL-related disputes). In September 2007 Patrick McHardy, who led development for past years, was elected as new chairman of the coreteam.
Prior to iptables, the predominant software packages for creating Linux firewalls were ipchains in Linux kernel 2.2.x and ipfwadm in Linux kernel 2.0.x, which in turn was based on BSD's ipfw. Both ipchains and ipfwadm alter the networking code so they can manipulate packets, as Linux kernel lacked a general packets control framework until the introduction of Netfilter.
Whereas ipchains and ipfwadm combine packet filtering and NAT (particularly three specific kinds of NAT, called masquerading, port forwarding, and redirection), Netfilter separates packet operations into multiple parts, described below. Each connects to the Netfilter hooks at different points to access packets. The connection tracking and NAT subsystems are more general and more powerful than the rudimentary versions within ipchains and ipfwadm.
In 2017 IPv4 and IPv6 flow offload infrastructure was added, allowing a speedup of software flow table forwarding and hardware offload support.
Userspace utility programs
iptables
The kernel modules named ip_tables, ip6_tables, arp_tables (the underscore is part of the name), and ebtables comprise the legacy packet filtering portion of the Netfilter hook system. They provide a table-based system for defining firewall rules that can filter or transform packets. The tables can be administered through the user-space tools iptables, ip6tables, arptables, and ebtables. Notice that although both the kernel modules and userspace utilities have similar names, each of them is a different entity with different functionality.
Each table is actually its own hook, and each table was introduced to serve a specific purpose. As far as Netfilter is concerned, it runs a particular table in a specific order with respect to other tables. Any table can call itself and it also can execute its own rules, which enables possibilities for additional processing and iteration.
Rules are organized into chains, or in other words, "chains of rules". These chains are named with predefined titles, including INPUT, OUTPUT and FORWARD. These chain titles help describe the origin in the Netfilter stack. Packet reception, for example, falls into PREROUTING, while the INPUT represents locally delivered data, and forwarded traffic falls into the FORWARD chain. Locally generated output passes through the OUTPUT chain, and packets to be sent out are in POSTROUTING chain.
Netfilter modules not organized into tables (see below) are capable of checking for the origin to select their mode of operation.
iptable_raw module
When loaded, registers a hook that will be called before any other Netfilter hook. It provides a table called raw that can be used to filter packets before they reach more memory-demanding operations such as Connection Tracking.
iptable_mangle module
Registers a hook and mangle table to run after Connection Tracking (see below) (but still before any other table), so that modifications can be made to the packet. This enables additional modifications by rules that follow, such as NAT or further filtering.
iptable_nat module
Registers two hooks: Destination Network Address Translation-based transformations ("DNAT") are applied before the filter hook, Source Network Address Translation-based transformations ("SNAT") are applied afterwards. The network address translation table (or "nat") that is made available to iptables is merely a "configuration database" for NAT mappings only, and not intended for filtering of any kind.
iptable_filter module
Registers the filter table, used for general-purpose filtering (firewalling).
security_filter module
Used for Mandatory Access Control (MAC) networking rules, such as those enabled by the SECMARK and CONNSECMARK targets. (These so-called "targets" refer to Security-Enhanced Linux markers.) Mandatory Access Control is implemented by Linux Security Modules such as SELinux. The security table is called following the call of the filter table, allowing any Discretionary Access Control (DAC) rules in the filter table to take effect before any MAC rules. This table provides the following built-in chains: INPUT (for packets coming into the computer itself), OUTPUT (for altering locally-generated packets before routing), and FORWARD (for altering packets being routed through the computer).
nftables
nftables is the new packet-filtering portion of Netfilter. nft is the new userspace utility that replaces iptables, ip6tables, arptables and ebtables.
nftables kernel engine adds a simple virtual machine into the Linux kernel, which is able to execute bytecode to inspect a network packet and make decisions on how that packet should be handled. The operations implemented by this virtual machine are intentionally made basic: it can get data from the packet itself, have a look at the associated metadata (inbound interface, for example), and manage connection tracking data. Arithmetic, bitwise and comparison operators can be used for making decisions based on that data. The virtual machine is also capable of manipulating sets of data (typically IP addresses), allowing multiple comparison operations to be replaced with a single set lookup.
This is in contrast to the legacy Xtables (iptables, etc.) code, which has protocol awareness so deeply built into the code that it has had to be replicated four timesfor IPv4, IPv6, ARP, and Ethernet bridgingas the firewall engines are too protocol-specific to be used in a generic manner. The main advantages over iptables are simplification of the Linux kernel ABI, reduction of code duplication, improved error reporting, and more efficient execution, storage, and incremental, atomic changes of filtering rules.
Packet defragmentation
The nf_defrag_ipv4 module will defragment IPv4 packets before they reach Netfilter's connection tracking (nf_conntrack_ipv4 module). This is necessary for the in-kernel connection tracking and NAT helper modules (which are a form of "mini-ALGs") that only work reliably on entire packets, not necessarily on fragments.
The IPv6 defragmenter is not a module in its own right, but is integrated into the nf_conntrack_ipv6 module.
Connection tracking
One of the important features built on top of the Netfilter framework is connection tracking. Connection tracking allows the kernel to keep track of all logical network connections or sessions, and thereby relate all of the packets which may make up that connection. NAT relies on this information to translate all related packets in the same way, and iptables can use this information to act as a stateful firewall.
The connection state however is completely independent of any upper-level state, such as TCP's or SCTP's state. Part of the reason for this is that when merely forwarding packets, i.e. no local delivery, the TCP engine may not necessarily be invoked at all. Even connectionless-mode transmissions such as UDP, IPsec (AH/ESP), GRE and other tunneling protocols have, at least, a pseudo connection state. The heuristic for such protocols is often based upon a preset timeout value for inactivity, after whose expiration a Netfilter connection is dropped.
Each Netfilter connection is uniquely identified by a (layer-3 protocol, source address, destination address, layer-4 protocol, layer-4 key) tuple. The layer-4 key depends on the transport protocol; for TCP/UDP it is the port numbers, for tunnels it can be their tunnel ID, but otherwise is just zero, as if it were not part of the tuple. To be able to inspect the TCP port in all cases, packets will be mandatorily defragmented.
Netfilter connections can be manipulated with the user-space tool conntrack.
iptables can make use of checking the connection's information such as states, statuses and more to make packet filtering rules more powerful and easier to manage. The most common states are:
NEW trying to create a new connection
ESTABLISHED part of an already-existing connection
RELATED assigned to a packet that is initiating a new connection and which has been "expected"; the aforementioned mini-ALGs set up these expectations, for example, when the nf_conntrack_ftp module sees an FTP "PASV" command
INVALID the packet was found to be invalid, e.g. it would not adhere to the TCP state diagram
UNTRACKED a special state that can be assigned by the administrator to bypass connection tracking for a particular packet (see raw table, above).
A normal example would be that the first packet the conntrack subsystem sees will be classified "new", the reply would be classified "established" and an ICMP error would be "related". An ICMP error packet which did not match any known connection would be "invalid".
Connection tracking helpers
Through the use of plugin modules, connection tracking can be given knowledge of application-layer protocols and thus understand that two or more distinct connections are "related". For example, consider the FTP protocol. A control connection is established, but whenever data is transferred, a separate connection is established to transfer it. When the nf_conntrack_ftp module is loaded, the first packet of an FTP data connection will be classified as "related" instead of "new", as it is logically part of an existing connection.
The helpers only inspect one packet at a time, so if vital information for connection tracking is split across two packets, either due to IP fragmentation or TCP segmentation, the helper will not necessarily recognize patterns and therefore not perform its operation. IP fragmentation is dealt with the connection tracking subsystem requiring defragmentation, though TCP segmentation is not handled. In case of FTP, segmentation is deemed not to happen "near" a command like PASV with standard segment sizes, so is not dealt with in Netfilter either.
Network address translation
Each connection has a set of original addresses and reply addresses, which initially start out the same. NAT in Netfilter is implemented by simply changing the reply address, and where desired, port. When packets are received, their connection tuple will also be compared against the reply address pair (and ports). Being fragment-free is also a requirement for NAT. (If need be, IPv4 packets may be refragmented by the normal, non-Netfilter, IPv4 stack.)
NAT helpers
Similar to connection tracking helpers, NAT helpers will do a packet inspection and substitute original addresses by reply addresses in the payload.
Further Netfilter projects
Though not being kernel modules that make use of Netfilter code directly, the Netfilter project hosts a few more noteworthy software.
conntrack-tools
conntrack-tools is a set of user-space tools for Linux that allow system administrators to interact with the Connection Tracking entries and tables. The package includes the conntrackd daemon and the command line interface conntrack. The userspace daemon conntrackd can be used to enable high availability cluster-based stateful firewalls and collect statistics of the stateful firewall use. The command line interface conntrack provides a more flexible interface to the connection tracking system than the obsolete /proc/net/nf_conntrack.
ipset
Unlike other extensions such as Connection Tracking, ipset is more related to iptables than it is to the core Netfilter code. ipset does not make use of Netfilter hooks for instance, but actually provides an iptables module to match and do minimal modifications (set/clear) to IP sets.
The user-space tool called ipset is used to set up, maintain and inspect so called "IP sets" in the Linux kernel. An IP set usually contains a set of IP addresses, but can also contain sets of other network numbers, depending on its "type". These sets are much more lookup-efficient than bare iptables rules, but of course may come with a greater memory footprint. Different storage algorithms (for the data structures in memory) are provided in ipset for the user to select an optimum solution.
Any entry in one set can be bound to another set, allowing for sophisticated matching operations. A set can only be removed (destroyed) if there are no iptables rules or other sets referring to it.
SYN proxy
SYNPROXY target makes handling of large SYN floods possible without the large performance penalties imposed by the connection tracking in such cases. By redirecting initial SYN requests to the SYNPROXY target, connections are not registered within the connection tracking until they reach a validated final ACK state, freeing up connection tracking from accounting large numbers of potentially invalid connections. This way, huge SYN floods can be handled in an effective way.
On 3 November 2013, SYN proxy functionality was merged into the Netfilter, with the release of version 3.12 of the Linux kernel mainline.
ulogd
ulogd is a user-space daemon to receive and log packets and event notifications from the Netfilter subsystems. ip_tables can deliver packets via the userspace queueing mechanism to it, and connection tracking can interact with ulogd to exchange further information about packets or events (such as connection teardown, NAT setup).
Userspace libraries
Netfilter also provides a set of libraries having libnetfilter as a prefix of their names, that can be used to perform different tasks from the userspace. These libraries are released under the GNU GPL version 2. Specifically, they are the following:
libnetfilter_queue
allows to perform userspace packet queueing in conjunction with iptables; based on libnfnetlink
libnetfilter_conntrack
allows manipulation of connection tracking entries from the userspace; based on libnfnetlink
libnetfilter_log
allows collection of log messages generated by iptables; based on libnfnetlink
libnl-3-netfilter
allows operations on queues, connection tracking and logs; part of the libnl project
libiptc
allows changes to be performed to the iptables firewall rulesets; it is not based on any netlink library, and its API is internally used by the iptables utilities
libipset
allows operations on IP sets; based on libmnl.
Netfilter workshops
The Netfilter project organizes an annual meeting for developers, which is used to discuss ongoing research and development efforts. The 2018 Netfilter workshop took place in Berlin, Germany, in June 2018.
See also
Berkeley Packet Filter
IP Virtual Server (IPVS, part of LVS)
ipchains, the predecessor to iptables
ipfw
Linux Virtual Server (LVS)
Netlink, an API used by Netfilter extensions
Network scheduler, another low-level component of the network stack
NPF (firewall)
PF (firewall)
Uncomplicated Firewall
References
External links
conntrack-tools homepage
ipset homepage
ulogd homepage
Home of the Netfilter Workshop websites
"Writing Netfilter Modules" (e-book; 2009)
"Netfilter and Iptables — Stateful Firewalling for Linux" (11 October 2001)
Network overview by Rami Rosen
Firewall software
Free network-related software
Free security software
Linux kernel features |
4915203 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop%20Linux%20Summit | Desktop Linux Summit | The Desktop Linux Summit was a discontinued annual conference with a program of speakers addressing desktop Linux issues. It ran from 2003 to 2006, meeting in San Diego, California.
It was hosted by Linspire.
References
Linux conferences |
15500444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1879%20Troy%20Trojans%20season | 1879 Troy Trojans season | The 1879 season was the National League debut for the Troy Trojans. They finished the season 19–56, last in the league.
Regular season
Season standings
Record vs. opponents
Roster
Player stats
Batting
Starters by position
Note: Pos = Position; G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in
Other batters
Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in
Pitching
Starting pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned Run Average; SO = Strikeouts
Other pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned Run Average; SO = Strikeouts
References
1879 Troy Trojans season at Baseball Reference
Troy Trojans (MLB team) seasons
Troy Trojans season
1879 in sports in New York (state) |
15233899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AirPort%20Time%20Capsule | AirPort Time Capsule | The AirPort Time Capsule (originally named Time Capsule) is a wireless router which was sold by Apple Inc., featuring network-attached storage (NAS) and a residential gateway router, and is one of Apple's AirPort products. They are, essentially, versions of the AirPort Extreme with an internal hard drive. Apple describes it as a "Backup Appliance", designed to work in tandem with the Time Machine backup software utility introduced in Mac OS X 10.5.
Introduced on January 15, 2008 and released on February 29, 2008, the device has been upgraded several times, matching upgrades in the Extreme series routers. The earliest versions supported 802.11n wireless and came with a 500 GB hard drive in the base model, while the latest model, introduced in 2013, features 802.11ac and a 3 TB hard drive. All models include four Gigabit Ethernet ports (3 LAN ports, 1 WAN port) and a single USB port. The USB port can be used for external peripheral devices to be shared over the network, such as external hard drives or printers. The NAS functionality utilizes a built-in "server grade" hard drive.
In 2016, Apple disbanded its wireless router development team, and in 2018 the entire AirPort line of products was discontinued without replacement.
History
In early 2009, Apple released the second generation Time Capsule. It offered simultaneous 802.11n dual-band operation, which allows older devices to use slower wireless speeds, without affecting the overall performance of devices that can use higher 802.11n speeds. The second generation model also included the addition of Guest Networking, a feature which allows creation of a separate wireless network for guests. The guest network uses different authentication credentials, ensuring the security of the primary network. The hard disk storage space of each model was doubled: capacities were 1 TB 2 TB, while the prices remained unchanged.
In October 2009, several news sites reported that many first generation Time Capsules were failing after 18 months, with some users alleging that this was due to a design failure in the power supplies. Apple confirmed that certain Time Capsules sold between February 2008 and June 2008 do not power on, or may unexpectedly turn off. Apple offered free repair or replacement to affected units.
The third generation Time Capsule was released in October 2009. The only change was a reconfiguration of the internal wireless antenna, resulting in an Apple-reported 50% increase in wireless performance and 25% increase in wireless range when compared to previous models.
The fourth generation Time Capsule, released in June 2011, increased the range of Wi-Fi signals. The internal Wi-Fi card was changed from a Marvell Wi-Fi chip to a better-performing Broadcom BCM4331 chip.
Discontinuation
In approximately 2016, Apple disbanded the wireless router team that developed the AirPort Time Capsule and AirPort Extreme router. In 2018, Apple formally discontinued both products, exiting the router market. Bloomberg News noted that "Apple rarely discontinues product categories" and that its decision to leave the business was "a boon for other wireless router makers."
Features
The fifth generation Time Capsule includes a fully featured, 802.11ac, Wi-Fi access point including simultaneous dual-band operation. The Time Capsule supports the Sleep Proxy Service.
The software is specially built by Apple and is not user modifiable. While the firmware has been decrypted, a suitable privilege escalation exploit to run custom firmware is not developed for the latest firmware. However, the device runs a POSIX standard platform. The Time Capsule up to the fourth generation runs on the ARM port of operating system NetBSD 4.0, while the fifth generation model runs NetBSD 6.
One of the key features of Time Capsule is the ability to back up a system and files wirelessly and automatically, eliminating the need to attach an external backup drive. This feature requires OS X 10.5.2 Leopard or greater on the client computers. The backup software is Apple's Time Machine, which, by default, makes hourly images of the files that are being changed, and condenses backup images as they become older, to save space. Even when using an 802.11n wireless or Gigabit Ethernet connection, the initial backup of any Mac to the drive requires significant time; Apple suggests that the initial backup will require "several hours or overnight to complete".
The hard drive typically found in a Time Capsule is the Hitachi Deskstar, which is sold by Hitachi as a consumer-grade product—the Hitachi Ultrastar is the enterprise version. Apple labeled the drive as a server-grade drive in promotional material for Time Capsule, and also used this type of drive in its discontinued Xserve servers. Apple states that the Hitachi Deskstar meets or exceeds the 1 million hours mean time between failures (MTBF) recommendation for server-grade hard drives.
The 500 GB, first generation Time Capsule shipped with a Seagate Barracuda ES-series drive; or subsequently, other hard drives such as the Western Digital Caviar Green series.
The Time Capsules up to the 4th generation measure square, and high.
The June 2013 release of the 5th generation models features a name change to AirPort Time Capsule, and a redesign with measurements square, and high. The square dimensions echo the size of both the latest AirPort Express and Apple TVs (2nd generation onwards), just with the height being significantly higher. The 2013 models feature the same ports on the back as previous generations, and come in the same capacities as the 4th generation of 2 TB & 3 TB, but have introduced the newest Wi-Fi standard 802.11ac. The AirPort Extreme released at the same time is exactly the same in dimensions and I/O ports, just without the internal harddrive of the AirPort Time Capsule. 2013 models feature faster download speed, beam-forming improvements and wireless or desktop network control with iCloud integration. Airport is compatible with devices using the 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n and 802.11ac specifications. Also improved, Airport Utility has added one click Time Capsule format from the utility's Airport Time Capsule, Edit, Disks menu, allowing easy and rapid Erase Disk and Archive Disk to start over or configure Network. Disk Erase includes up to 35 passes and device includes encrypted storage plus optional WAN sharing, making Airport extremely secure and flexible for home, class and office environments. Airport Utility is a free download.
Comparison chart
Notes
See also
AirPlay
References
External links
Web archive of official site
Apple Inc. peripherals
products introduced in 2008
servers (computing)
Discontinued Apple Inc. products |
67904801 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BookStack | BookStack | BookStack is a free and open-source wiki software aimed for a simple, self-hosted, and easy-to-use platform. Based on Laravel, a PHP framework, BookStack is released under the MIT License. It uses the ideas of books to organise pages and store information. BookStack is multilingual and available in over thirty languages. For the simplicity, BookStack is considered as suitable for smaller businesses or freelancers.
History
BookStack’s first commit was published on 12 July 2015 by Dan Brown, a British web developer. Originally named ‘Oxbow’, the project was renamed to BookStack after only 11 days. The initial proper layout was inspired by DokuWiki, and in October of the same year, the current layout of BookStack was settled. The overall design was significantly optimised with the release of v0.26 on 6 May 2019, especially on the mobile experience.
After over five years of development by Brown and the community members, it ended the beta stage with the release of v21.04 on 9 April 2021. BookStack has become the most popular wiki software written in PHP on GitHub, as of June 2021.
Features
Installation and configuration
PHP 7.3+, MySQL 5.6+, Git (for updates), and Composer are required for the installation of BookStack. It also can be installed via a Docker container. The name, logo and registration options can be changed, and whether the whole system is publicly viewable or not can be also changed.
Content levels
BookStack, as the name suggests, is based of the ideas of a normal stack of books. The categorisation of BookStack is limited to four levels— shelves, books, chapters, and pages. Books and pages are required for storing contents, while chapters are optional for better organisation of pages. Shelves can contain multiple books, and a single book could be placed on multiple shelves.
Organisation
On a BookStack website, chapters and pages can be sorted within a book. A chapter can be moved to another book, and a page can be moved to either another book or another chapter. Page revisions and image management are available, as well as a full role and permission system that allows to lock down contents and actions.
Editing and searching
BookStack provides WYSIWYG and Markdown editors, and the Markdown editor also provides a live preview. Books, chapters and pages are fully searchable, and it is available to link directly to any paragraph.
Integrated authentication
The email/password login social providers such as GitHub, Google, Slack, AzureAD and more can be used. Okta and LDAP options are available for enterprise environments.
See also
Comparison of wiki software
List of wiki software
Personal wiki
References
External links
2015 software
Advertising-free websites
Collaborative software
Cross-platform free software
Free content management systems
Free software programmed in PHP
Free wiki software
Version control systems |
2954315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kali%20%28software%29 | Kali (software) | Kali is an IPX network emulator for DOS and Windows, enabling legacy multiplayer games to work over a modern TCP/IP network such as the Internet. Later versions of the software also functioned as a server browser for games that natively supported TCP/IP. Versions were also created for OS2 and Mac, but neither version was well polished. Today, Kali's network is still operational but development has largely ceased.
Kali also features an Internet Game Browser for TCP/IP native games, a buddy system, a chat system, and supports 400+ games including Doom 3, many of the Command & Conquer games, the Mechwarrior 2 series, Unreal Tournament 2004, Battlefield Vietnam, Counter-Strike: Condition Zero, and Master of Orion II.
The Kali software is free to download, but has a time-based cap for unregistered versions. For a one-time $20 fee the time restriction is removed.
History
The original MS-DOS version of Kali was created by Scott Coleman, Alex Markovich and Jay Cotton in the spring of 1995. It was the successor to a program called iDOOM (later Frag) that Cotton wrote so he could play id Software's DOS game DOOM over the Internet. After the release of Descent, Coleman, Markovich and Cotton wrote a new program to allow Descent, or any other game which supported LAN play using the IPX protocol, to be played over the Internet; this new program was named Kali. In the summer of 1995, Coleman went off to work for Interplay Productions, Markovich left the project and Cotton formed a new company, Kali Inc., to develop and market Kali. Cotton and his team developed the first Windows version (Kali95) and all subsequent versions.
Initially Kali appealed only to hardcore computer tinkerers, due to the difficulty of getting TCP/IP running on MS-DOS. Kali95 took advantage of the greater network support of Windows 95, allowing Kali to achieve mainstream popularity. In the mid-1990s, it was an extremely popular way to play Command & Conquer, Descent, Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness, Duke Nukem 3D, and other games over the Internet, with more than 50,000 users worldwide by the end of 1996. The fact that only a small one-time fee was charged for the service, rather than a monthly subscription, also contributed to its popularity. This was largely possible due to Kali's scaled-down services; it did not provide the contests and high-tech chat features offered by other leading online gaming services. Since it was the only way for Windows and DOS users to play Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness against people outside of a LAN or dial-up connection, Blizzard actually included a copy of the program on the CD, going so far as to also provide a customized executable (WAR2KALI.EXE) which optimized the game's network code to account for Internet latency and also allowed users to specify their own settings for packet transmission and handling.
During the height of IPX emulation's popularity, a competing product called "Kahn" was being sold by the now-defunct developer Stargate Networks for $15 ($5 cheaper than Kali at that time). However, Kali was already well-established by this point; existing users saw no reason to buy another piece of software, and new users were still attracted to Kali's larger user base, since the whole point of the software was to be able to play with other people. The minor cost savings proved largely ineffective against Kali, and Kahn never achieved much market share.
The market for Kali eventually dried up as games began to host their own online services, such as battle.net, MSN Gaming Zone, and also through direct TCP/IP connections, made easier by Microsoft's DirectPlay package. As IPX itself was phased out, Kali's unique emulation technology fell by the wayside and the software shifted its emphasis to becoming a game browser, a market where strong competitors such as GameSpy were already established.
In the early 2000s, Cotton decided to sell Kali to a company that would have the capital to expand the program. However, this move proved to be disastrous for Kali as the new company folded shortly after the purchase. A year later Cotton reacquired the rights to the Kali software and system. Since then he has resumed development and support of Kali.
, the latest version of Kali is 2.613, which was released in February 2004. At present Kali works with over 400 games. Support has faded over the last years making usage of Kali harder and less effective.
Kali has gained new life, because the IPX protocol has been removed in all version of Windows after XP.
Occasional specials reduce the cost of Kali to $10.
As of 2014, the software has for the most part died. However, there is still a small, loyal following (largely residing in the Descent Channel) that uses the software as a chat room. Games, such as Descent, are still played among this group of gamers.
Reception
Kali won Computer Gaming Worlds 1996 "Special Award for Online-Enabling Technology". The editors called it "perhaps the most significant milestone so far in the nascent online gaming industry." It won Computer Games Strategy Pluss award for the best online service of 1996, beating Mpath and the T.E.N. service. Next Generation likewise named it number one on their "Top 10 Online Gaming Sites" in early 1997, citing the lack of subscription fees and the unsurpassed selection of games supported.
References
External links
Official site
Online video game services
Game server browsers |
26469470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teechart | Teechart | TeeChart is a charting library for programmers, developed and managed by Steema Software of Girona, Catalonia, Spain. It is available as commercial and non-commercial software. TeeChart has been included in most Delphi and C++Builder products since 1997, and TeeChart Standard currently is part of Embarcadero RAD Studio 11 Alexandria. TeeChart Pro version is a commercial product that offers shareware releases for all of its formats, TeeChart
Lite for .NET is a free charting component for the Microsoft Visual Studio .NET
community and TeeChart for PHP is an open-source library for PHP environments. The TeeChart Charting Library offers charts, maps and gauges in versions for Delphi VCL/FMX, ActiveX, C# for Microsoft Visual Studio .NET, Java and PHP. Full source code has always been available for all versions except the ActiveX version. TeeChart's user interface is translated into 38 languages.
History
The first version of TeeChart was authored in 1995 by David Berneda, co-founder of Steema, using the Borland Delphi Visual Component Library programming environment and TeeChart was first released as a shareware version and made available via Compuserve in the same year. It was written in the first version of Delphi VCL, as a 16-bit Charting Library named TeeChart version 1. The next version of TeeChart was released as a 32-bit library (Delphi 2 supported 32-bit compilation) but was badged as TeeChart VCL v3 to coincide with Borland's naming convention for inclusion on the toolbox palette of Borland Delphi v3 in 1997 and with C++ Builder v3 in 1998. It has been on the Delphi/C++ Builder toolbox palette ever since. The current version is Embarcadero RAD Studio 11 Alexandria.
TeeChart's first ActiveX version named "version 3" too, to match the VCL version's nomenclature, was released in 1998. The version was optimised to work with Microsoft's Visual Studio v97 and v6.0 developer suites that include Visual Basic and Microsoft Visual C++ programming languages. Support for new programming environments followed with TeeChart's first native C# version for Microsoft Visual Studio .NET released in 2002 and TeeChartLite for .NET, a free charting component, released for Visual Studio.NET in 2003 and supporting too, Mono (programming). Steema Software released the first native TeeChart Java (programming language) version in 2006 and TeeChart's first native PHP version was released in 2009 and published as open-source in June 2010. Mobile versions of TeeChart, for Android (operating system) devices and Windows Phone 7 devices were released during the first half of 2011. In 2012 TeeChart extended functionality to iPhone/iPad and BlackBerry OS devices and a new JavaScript version was released in the same year to support HTML5 Canvas. In 2013 Steema launched TeeChart for .NET Chart for Windows Store applications and included support for Microsoft's Windows Phone 8 mobile platform. TeeChart for Xamarin.Forms written with 100% C# code and cross-platform support for .NET desktops, Windows Phone, iOS and Android was released in 2014. Also since 2014 Webforms charts now offers HTML5 interactivity.
Usage
TeeChart is a general purpose charting component designed for use in differing ambits, offering a wide range of aesthetics to chart data. Generally TeeCharts published in the field, in areas where large amounts of data must be interpreted regularly, remain by designer choice in their simplest form to maximize the "data-ink ratio". Sloan Digital Sky Survey, SDSS Web Services' use for charting "Scientific .. plotting of online data" at The Virtual Observatory Spectrum Services reflects that approach. The SDSS chart authors choose to represent data using TeeChart's standard 2D line display. Speed is also a factor when choosing how to most effectively plot data. Realtime data, at frequencies of up to tens or hundreds of data points or more per second, require the most processor economic approach to charting. Computer processing time dedicated to the plotting of data needs to be as lightweight as possible, freeing-up computer tasks "to achieve real-time data acquisition, display and analysis".
A critical and stated aspect of many data visualisation applications is the ability to offer interactivity to the user; NASA's document, the Orbital Debris Engineering Model Model ORDEM 3.0 - User's Guide, 2014, states that "The user may manipulate the graphs to zoom, pan, and copy to the clipboard and export to various file types" and Computer and Computing Technologies in Agriculture II, Volume 1, Daoliang, Li; Chunjiang, Zhao (2009), also using TeeChart, states "the properties at any point in the chart can be viewed moving the mouse over it". Writing about control education, Juha Lindfors states "The desired charting functionality (such as zooming and scaling) is achieved..".
Charting applications have become increasingly 'onlined', made available either to a wider public or to a territorially remote userbase via networked applications. The World wide web (the Web) has become "by far, the most popular Internet protocol" to disseminate online applications. Most major IDEs now offer environments for web application developede aimed at browser hosted applications. Charting components, TeeChart among them, have adapted to provide models that work within a browser environment, often using static images and scripted layering techniques such as Ajax (programming) to offer a level of interactivity, improve response times and hide apparent delay from the user. Options to enrich client, browser-side processing flexibility are exploited by TeeChart libraries via modules that offer 'micro-environments' within the browser, such as the long established ActiveX technology, Adobe Flash, Microsoft Silverlight or Java Applets. Serverside environments offer too, a means to interact with browser based script to dynamically respond to charting requests. Joomla and CodeIgniter are host environments for TeeChart PHP and an example of an Embarcadero IntraWeb VCL designed application using TeeChart, is documented here.
Programmer reference
The Code Project includes a demo that uses TeeChartLite, called 'Self-Organizing Feature Maps (Kohonen maps)' written by Bashir Magomedovl and SourceForge includes a Database Stress and Monitor that also uses TeeChart.Lite.
Books and information sources that include substantial sections about working with the Delphi version of TeeChart include "Mastering Delphi 6" by Marco Cantù, "C++ Builder 5 developer's guide", a video Delphi Tutorial on charting JPEG compression and support forums and reference pages at TeeChart Support Forums. Non-English language document sources include, in Czech "Myslíme v jazyku Delphi 7: knihovna zkušeného programátora" by Marco Cantù, and Chinese, Delphi 6, Delphi, and Delphi 5.
See also
List of information graphics software
List of charting software
Data visualization
Comparison of JavaScript charting frameworks
JavaScript framework
JavaScript library
References
External links
Official Website
Programming tools
Component-based software engineering
Data visualization software
Charts
Pascal (programming language) software |
6109829 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic%20testing | Dynamic testing | Dynamic testing (or dynamic analysis) is a term used in software engineering to describe the testing of the dynamic behavior of code.
That is, dynamic analysis refers to the examination of the physical response from the system to variables that are not constant and change with time. In dynamic testing the software must actually be compiled and run. It involves working with the software, giving input values and checking if the output is as expected by executing specific test cases which can be done manually or with the use of an automated process. This is in contrast to static testing. Unit tests, integration tests, system tests and acceptance tests utilize dynamic testing. Usability tests involving a mock version made in paper or cardboard can be classified as static tests when taking into account that no program has been executed; or, as dynamic ones when considering the interaction between users and such mock version is effectively the most basic form of a prototype.
Main procedure
The process and function of dynamic testing in software development, dynamic testing can be divided into unit testing, integration testing, system testing, acceptance testing and finally regression testing.
Unit testing is a test that focuses on the correctness of the basic components of a software. Unit testing falls into the category of white-box testing. In the entire quality inspection system, unit testing needs to be completed by the product group, and then the software is handed over to the testing department.
Integration testing is used to detect if the interfaces between the various units are properly connected during the integration process of the entire software.
Testing a software system that has completed integration is called a system test, and the purpose of the test is to verify that the correctness and performance of the software system meet the requirements specified in its specifications. Testers should follow the established test plan. When testing the robustness and ease of use of the software, its input, output, and other dynamic operational behaviour should be compared to the software specifications. If the software specification is incomplete, the system test is more dependent on the tester's work experience and judgment, such a test is not sufficient. The system test is Black-box testing.
This is the final test before the software is put into use. It is the buyer's trial process of the software. In the actual work of the company, it is usually implemented by asking the customer to try or release the beta version of the software. The acceptance test is Black-box testing.
The purpose of regression testing is to verify and modify the acceptance test results in the software maintenance phase. In practical applications, the handling of customer complaints is an embodiment of regression testing.
Evaluation
Advantages
Dynamic testing could identify the weak areas in the runtime environment.
Dynamic testing supports application analysis even if the tester does not have an actual code.
Dynamic testing could identify some vulnerabilities that are difficult to find by static testing.
Dynamic testing also could verify the correctness of static testing results.
Dynamic testing could be applied to any application.
Disadvantages
Automated tools may give the wrong security, such as check everything.
Automated tools can generate false positives and false negatives.
Finding trained dynamic test professionals is not easy.
Dynamic testing is hard to track down the vulnerabilities in the code, and it takes longer to fix the problem. Therefore, fixing bugs becomes expensive.
See also
Dynamic load testing
Dynamic program analysis
Time partition testing, a model-based testing methodology for the reactive test of dynamical or control systems.
Daikon, a dynamic invariant generator.
References
G.J. Myers, The Art of Software Testing, John Wiley and Sons, New York, New York, 1979.
External links
Dynamic software testing of MPI applications with umpire
Software testing
Mobile security
Software development
Software development process |
1076922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardock | Stardock | Stardock Corporation is a software development company founded in 1991 and incorporated in 1993 as Stardock Systems. Stardock initially developed for the OS/2 platform, but was forced to switch to Microsoft Windows due to the collapse of the OS/2 software market between 1997 and 1998. The company is best known for computer programs that allow a user to modify or extend a graphical user interface as well as personal computer games, particularly strategy games such as the Galactic Civilizations series, Sins of a Solar Empire: Rebellion, Elemental: Fallen Enchantress, and Ashes of the Singularity.
Stardock created and maintains WinCustomize, a graphical user interface customization community, and developed the Impulse content delivery system before its sale to GameStop. Many of the skins and themes featured on its site are for software that is part of their Object Desktop windows desktop suite. They are based in Plymouth, Michigan.
History
Stardock was founded by college student Brad Wardell and named after Raymond E. Feist's Riftwar Saga. Stardock began as a custom PC maker and expanded into making software.
OS/2 era (1993–2001)
Stardock's initial product was a computer game for OS/2 called Galactic Civilizations. Stardock did not receive the majority of royalties from the initial sales of Galactic Civilizations due to publisher bankruptcy in addition to taking on many of the publisher's responsibilities, but the market had been created for subsequent addon packs including the Shipyards expansion, and Stardock later sold a significant number of licenses to IBM for part of its Family FunPak (under the name Star Emperor). Stardock went on to create OS/2 Essentials, and its successor, Object Desktop, which provided the company with a large base of users.
At about this time, IBM decided to abandon OS/2. However, they did not make this decision public, and Stardock continued to develop applications software and games for the platform, including Avarice and Entrepreneur. With the advent of Windows NT 4, Stardock found that their core user base was slipping away, and was forced to reinvent itself as a Windows developer, but not before it lost most of its money and staff. A key revealing point was the failure of its game Trials of Battle, a 3D hovercraft fighting game, which Stardock expected to sell a million copies and instead sold in the hundreds. Brad Wardell estimates that the death of OS/2 set the company back by about three years.
Windows era (1998–present)
The newer, smaller Stardock was heavily reliant on the goodwill of its previous customers, who essentially purchased Windows subscriptions for Object Desktop in anticipation of the products it would consist of. Having put together a basic package (including some old favorites from the OS/2 era) Stardock began to bring in external developers to create original products.
Stardock's first major Windows success was with WindowBlinds, an application originated by a partnership with developer Neil Banfield. There turned out to be a large market for skinnable products, and Stardock prospered, growing significantly in the following five years. The release of Windows XP stimulated sales in Stardock products, and despite growing competition proportional to the market the company remains in a strong position.
In 2001, they added a widget creation and desktop modification tool, DesktopX, based on Alberto Riccio's VDE. This has not had such a wide uptake as other products; some believe this is because it is harder to use and to create for, others because users do not understand the functionality that it offers. DesktopX competes with Konfabulator and Kapsules in the widget arena. In 2003, Stardock became a Microsoft Gold Certified Partner with their "Designed for Windows" certification of WindowBlinds.
Stardock's success in the Windows game market has been mixed. At first, its titles on Windows were published by third parties: The Corporate Machine (Take 2), Galactic Civilizations (Strategy First), and The Political Machine (Ubisoft). While all three titles sold well at retail, Stardock was unsatisfied with the amount of revenue Windows games developers received. In the case of Galactic Civilizations, publisher Strategy First filed for bankruptcy without paying most of the royalties it owed. This ultimately led to Stardock self-publishing its future titles. Because of the success of its desktop applications, Stardock has been able to self-fund its own PC games and aid third party developers with their games as well.
In 2010 Q3, Stardock was forced into layoffs due to the unexpectedly poor launch of Elemental: War of Magic. In response to the disappointment of Elemental: War of Magic, Stardock committed to giving the second game of the series, Elemental: Fallen Enchantress to early adopters of War of Magic.
In 2012, Stardock successfully launched Sins of a Solar Empire: Rebellion to positive reviews. This version was co-developed by Stardock and development partner Ironclad Games.
In July 2013, Stardock bought the Star Control franchise from the Atari, SA bankruptcy proceedings and has plans to reboot the franchise.
Desktop enhancements and utilities
Stardock's Object Desktop is a set of PC desktop enhancement utilities designed to enable users to control the way their operating system looks, feels and functions. Originally developed for OS/2, the company released a version of it for Windows in 1999. Components of Object Desktop include WindowBlinds, IconPackager, DeskScapes, DesktopX, Fences and WindowFX, as well as utilities such as Multiplicity and SpaceMonger designed to increase productivity and stability on Windows.
Stardock also sells ObjectDock, which provides similar functionality to the dock found in Mac OS X, but with additional capabilities.
In 2012, Stardock added Start8 to Object Desktop, which adds a Start button and Start menu to Windows 8. A similar program, Start10, was created in 2015 to add a Start menu to Windows 10 that looks similar to Windows 7's Start Menu.
WinCustomize
Stardock owns and operates a number of community-centric websites, the most popular of which is WinCustomize. WinCustomize is best known for providing a library of downloadable content, such as skins, themes, icons and wallpapers for the Microsoft Windows operating systems.
Video games
Stardock has an in-house game developer that has created PC games including Galactic Civilizations, Galactic Civilizations II, Galactic Civilizations II: Dark Avatar, Galactic Civilizations III, Elemental: Fallen Enchantress, The Political Machine, Ashes of the Singularity, Ashes of the Singularity: Escalation and Star Control: Origins. The Dark Avatar expansion pack for Galactic Civilizations II is the highest-rated expansion pack for a PC game on GameRankings.
Game publishing
In 2006, following the commercial success of their first self-published game, Galactic Civilizations II, Stardock began publishing games developed by third parties.
Stardock published Stellar Frontier, a multiplayer space strategy/shooter game made by Doug Hendrix in 1995. Stardock closed the master server on August 4, 2006, ceasing official support for multiplayer mode but released the source code in 2008 under a source-available license. As result, the game's community took over the support of the game and improved the game, fixed the bugs and security holes with own-made patches.
The next third-party game Stardock published was Sins of a Solar Empire. The publishing arrangement worked out between Stardock and Ironclad Games was unusual in that the two companies integrated their teams at every level. The game has an average score of 88 on Metacritic and is a top seller at retail.
Following Sins of a Solar Empire, Stardock published the third-party game Demigod, from developer Gas Powered Games. It was released in 2009.
Digital distribution
Having developed Stardock Central to digitally distribute its own PC titles, the company launched a service called Drengin.net in summer 2003. The original idea was that users would pay a yearly subscription fee and receive new titles as they became available. Initially, Stardock's own titles along with titles from Strategy First were available. A year later, Stardock replaced the subscription model with a new system called TotalGaming.net in which users could purchase games individually or pay an upfront fee for tokens which allowed them to purchase games at a discount. TotalGaming.net targeted independent game developers rather than the larger publishers. In late 2008, new token purchases were discontinued.
In 2008, Stardock announced its third-generation digital distribution platform, Impulse. Stardock's intention was for Impulse to include independent third-party games and major publisher titles and indeed, the service now includes content from a variety of publishers. The platform was sold to GameStop in May 2011.
After the sale of Impulse to GameStop and the lack of success in major sales, Stardock's titles have started to appear on rival digital distribution services such as Steam.
ThinkDesk
ThinkDesk was a productivity application subscription service, launched by Stardock on 14 April 2005 as a utility counterpart to their Object Desktop and TotalGaming.net services. Subscriptions were for one year, after which users could choose to renew or keep the software that they have, including all released upgrades to that date. The service never came out of beta and was discontinued in March 2009.
ThinkDesk components were typically downloaded using Impulse, although if purchased separately they could also be downloaded as executable installers. They included:
Multiplicity, which allows the control of multiple PCs with a single keyboard and mouse, in a similar manner to a KVM switch
KeepSafe, which automatically kept file revisions for selected directories and file types
ThinkSync, which synchronized files and folders between hard drives or across the Internet
SecureProcess, which allowed only processes defined as safe to run; an anti-virus/anti-spyware component
Litigation
Stardock has been involved in litigation in relation to their business:
In 1998, they were sued by Entrepreneur magazine for use of the trademark name "Entrepreneur" for one of their games. Stardock claimed that their use of this word was not related to the magazine's business, but did not have the money to fight the case—the name was changed to Business Tycoon; a later version was rebranded as The Corporate Machine.
In December 2003, TGTSoft sued Stardock and Brad Wardell for declarative relief, claiming that they should be able to use the IconPackager file format without charge. Many open source programs do read and write proprietary file formats without paying royalties—for example, OpenOffice.org reads and writes Word, Excel, PowerPoint and other Microsoft Office files. However, Stardock maintained that they should be entitled to royalties or a license fee on such software, particularly as TGTSoft was charging money for their products and because it was considered likely that their users would use the WinCustomize libraries, which are run with help (monetary and otherwise) from Stardock. The case was eventually settled out of court, with TGTSoft licensing the format for use with their products.
In 2018, Stardock sued the Paul Reiche and Fred Ford in Stardock Systems, Inc. v. Reiche, for trademark infringement. Reiche and Ford countersued for copyright infringement from Stardock continuing to sell Star Control I and II on Steam and GOG. Litigation ended in June 2019 when both sides reached a settlement in which Reiche and Ford agreed not use Star Control in relation to new titles and Stardock agreeing not to use an enumerated list of alien names from Star Control 1 and 2 in future games. An unusual aspect of the resolution involved the parties negotiating directly without lawyers and exchanging honey for mead.
References
External links
1991 establishments in Michigan
Companies based in Wayne County, Michigan
American companies established in 1991
Video game companies established in 1991
Livonia, Michigan
Software companies based in Michigan
Video game companies of the United States
Video game development companies
Video game publishers
Privately held companies based in Michigan |
2223940 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong%20cryptography | Strong cryptography | Strong cryptography or cryptographically strong are general terms applied to cryptographic systems or components that are considered highly resistant to cryptanalysis.
Demonstrating the resistance of any cryptographic scheme to attack is a complex matter, requiring extensive testing and reviews, preferably in a public forum. Good algorithms and protocols are required, and good system design and implementation is needed as well. For instance, the operating system on which the cryptographic software runs should be as carefully secured as possible. Users may handle passwords insecurely, or trust 'service' personnel overly much, or simply misuse the software. (See social engineering.) "Strong" thus is an imprecise term and may not apply in particular situations.
Background
The use of computers changed the process of cryptanalysis, famously with Bletchley Park's Colossus. But just as the development of digital computers and electronics helped in cryptanalysis, it also made possible much more complex ciphers. It is typically the case that use of a quality cipher is very efficient, while breaking it requires an effort many orders of magnitude larger - making cryptanalysis so inefficient and impractical as to be effectively impossible.
Since the publication of Data Encryption Standard, the Diffie-Hellman and RSA algorithm in the 1970s, cryptography has had deep connections with abstract mathematics and become a widely used tool in communications, computer networks, and computer security generally.
Cryptographically strong algorithms
This term "cryptographically strong" is often used to describe an encryption algorithm, and implies, in comparison to some other algorithm (which is thus cryptographically weak), greater resistance to attack. But it can also be used to describe hashing and unique identifier and filename creation algorithms. See for example the description of the Microsoft .NET runtime library function Path.GetRandomFileName. In this usage, the term means "difficult to guess".
An encryption algorithm is intended to be unbreakable (in which case it is as strong as it can ever be), but might be breakable (in which case it is as weak as it can ever be) so there is not, in principle, a continuum of strength as the idiom would seem to imply: Algorithm A is stronger than Algorithm B which is stronger than Algorithm C, and so on. The situation is made more complex, and less subsumable into a single strength metric, by the fact that there are many types of cryptanalytic attack and that any given algorithm is likely to force the attacker to do more work to break it when using one attack than another.
There is only one known unbreakable cryptographic system, the one-time pad, which is not generally possible to use because of the difficulties involved in exchanging one-time pads without their being compromised. So any encryption algorithm can be compared to the perfect algorithm, the one-time pad.
The usual sense in which this term is (loosely) used, is in reference to a particular attack, brute force key search — especially in explanations for newcomers to the field. Indeed, with this attack (always assuming keys to have been randomly chosen), there is a continuum of resistance depending on the length of the key used. But even so there are two major problems: many algorithms allow use of different length keys at different times, and any algorithm can forgo use of the full key length possible. Thus, Blowfish and RC5 are block cipher algorithms whose design specifically allowed for several key lengths, and who cannot therefore be said to have any particular strength with respect to brute force key search. Furthermore, US export regulations restrict key length for exportable cryptographic products and in several cases in the 1980s and 1990s (e.g., famously in the case of Lotus Notes' export approval) only partial keys were used, decreasing 'strength' against brute force attack for those (export) versions. More or less the same thing happened outside the US as well, as for example in the case of more than one of the cryptographic algorithms in the GSM cellular telephone standard.
The term is commonly used to convey that some algorithm is suitable for some task in cryptography or information security, but also resists cryptanalysis and has no, or fewer, security weaknesses. Tasks are varied, and might include:
generating randomness
encrypting data
providing a method to ensure data integrity
Cryptographically strong would seem to mean that the described method has some kind of maturity, perhaps even approved for use against different kinds of systematic attacks in theory and/or practice. Indeed, that the method may resist those attacks long enough to protect the information carried (and what stands behind the information) for a useful length of time. But due to the complexity and subtlety of the field, neither is almost ever the case. Since such assurances are not actually available in real practice, sleight of hand in language which implies that they are will generally be misleading.
There will always be uncertainty as advances (e.g., in cryptanalytic theory or merely affordable computer capacity) may reduce the effort needed to successfully use some attack method against an algorithm.
In addition, actual use of cryptographic algorithms requires their encapsulation in a cryptosystem, and doing so often introduces vulnerabilities which are not due to faults in an algorithm. For example, essentially all algorithms require random choice of keys, and any cryptosystem which does not provide such keys will be subject to attack regardless of any attack resistant qualities of the encryption algorithm(s) used.
Legal issues
Since use of strong cryptography makes the job of intelligence agencies more difficult, many countries have enacted laws or regulations restricting or simply banning the non-official use of strong cryptography. For instance, the United States previously defined cryptographic products as munitions since World War II and prohibited export of cryptography beyond a certain 'strength' (measured in part by key size). However, the U.S. restrictions eased in the 1990s along with the rising need for secure e-Commerce and web-connected public software applications. The Clinton Administration issued new rules in 2000 allowing export of products containing strong cryptography, subject to certain limitations. President and government of Russia in 90s has issued a few decrees formally banning uncertified cryptosystems from use by government agencies. Presidential decree of 1995 also attempted to ban individuals from producing and selling cryptography systems without having appropriate license, but it wasn't enforced in any way as it was suspected to be contradictory the Russian Constitution of 1993 and wasn't a law per se. The decree of No.313 issued in 2012 further amended previous ones allowing to produce and distribute products with embedded cryptosystems and requiring no license as such, even though it declares some restrictions. France had quite strict regulations in this field, but has relaxed them in recent years.
Examples
Strong
PGP is generally considered an example of strong cryptography, with versions running under most popular operating systems and on various hardware platforms. The open source standard for PGP operations is OpenPGP, and GnuPG is an implementation of that standard from the FSF. However, the IDEA signature key in classical PGP is only 64 bits long, therefore no longer immune to collision attacks. OpenPGP therefore uses the SHA-2 hash function and AES cryptography.
The AES algorithm is considered strong after being selected in a lengthy selection process that was open and involved numerous tests.
Elliptic curve cryptography is another system which is based on a graphical geometrical function.
The latest version of TLS protocol (version 1.3), used to secure Internet transactions, is generally considered strong. Several vulnerabilities exist in previous versions, including demonstrated attacks such as POODLE. Worse, some cipher-suites are deliberately weakened to use a 40-bit effective key to allow export under pre-1996 U.S. regulations.
Weak
Examples that are not considered cryptographically strong include:
The DES, whose 56-bit keys allow attacks via exhaustive search.
Triple-DES (3DES / EDE3-DES). see DES - this also suffers a meanwhile known phenomenon, called the "sweet32" or "birthday oracle"
Wired Equivalent Privacy which is subject to a number of attacks due to flaws in its design.
SSL v2 and v3. TLS 1.0 and TLS 1.1 are also deprecated now [see RFC7525] because of irreversible flaws which are still present by design and because they do not provide elliptical handshake (EC) for ciphers, no modern cryptography, no CCM/GCM ciphermodes. TLS1.x are also announced off by the PCIDSS 3.2 for commercial business/banking implementations on web frontends. Only TLS1.2 and TLS 1.3 are allowed and recommended, modern ciphers, handshakes and ciphermodes must be used exclusively.
The MD5 and SHA-1 hash functions, no longer immune to collision attacks.
The RC4 stream cipher.
The Clipper Chip, a failed initiative of the U.S. government that included key escrow provisions, allowing the government to gain access to the keys.
The 40-bit Content Scramble System used to encrypt most DVD-Video discs.
Almost all classical ciphers.
Most rotary ciphers, such as the Enigma machine.
Some flawed RSA implementations exist, leading to weak, biased keys and other vulnerabilities ("Bleichenbacher Oracle", "ROBOT" attack).
RSA keys weaker than 2048 bits.
DH keys weaker than 2048 bits.
ECDHE keys weaker than 192 bits; also, not all known older named curves still in use for this are vetted "safe".
DHE/EDHE is guessable/weak when using/re-using known default prime values on the server
The CBC block cipher mode of operation is considered weak for TLS (the CCM/GCM modes are now recommended).
Notes
References
Strong Cryptography - The Global Tide of Change, Cato Institute Briefing Paper no. 51
See also
40-bit encryption
Cipher security summary
Export of cryptography
Comparison of cryptography libraries
FBI–Apple encryption dispute
Hash function security summary
Security level
Cryptography |
3170895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%20TN53 | 2005 TN53 | is an inclined Neptune trojan leading Neptune's orbit in the outer Solar System, approximately 80 kilometers in diameter. It was first observed on 7 October 2005, by American astronomers Scott Sheppard and Chad Trujillo at Las Campanas Observatory in the Atacama desert of Chile. It was the third such body to be discovered, and the first with a significant orbital inclination, which showed that the population as a whole is very dynamically excited.
Orbit and classification
Neptune trojans are resonant trans-Neptunian objects (TNO) in a 1:1 mean-motion orbital resonance with Neptune. These Trojans have a semi-major axis and an orbital period very similar to Neptune's (30.10 AU; 164.8 years).
belongs to the larger group, which leads 60° ahead Neptune's orbit. It orbits the Sun with a semi-major axis of 30.014 AU at a distance of 28.1–31.9 AU once every 164 years and 5 months (60,059 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.06 and an inclination of 25° with respect to the ecliptic.
It has the same orbital period as Neptune and orbits at the Lagrangian point about 60° ahead of Neptune. It has an inclination of 25 degrees.
Physical characteristics
Diameter
The discoverers estimate that has a mean-diameter of 80 kilometers based on a magnitude of 23.7. Based on a generic magnitude-to-diameter conversion, it measures approximately 68 kilometers in diameter using an absolute magnitude of 9.0 and an assumed albedo of 0.10.
Numbering and naming
Due to its orbital uncertainty, this minor planet has not been numbered and its official discoverers have not been determined. If named, it will follow the naming scheme already established with 385571 Otrera, which is to name these objects after figures related to the Amazons, an all-female warrior tribe that fought in the Trojan War on the side of the Trojans against the Greek.
References
External links
Three New "Trojan" Asteroids Found Sharing Neptune's Orbit by Scott S. Sheppard (includes image of )
AstDys-2 about
Neptune trojans
Minor planet object articles (unnumbered)
20051007 |
22378462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid%20democracy | Liquid democracy | Liquid democracy is a form of delegative democracy whereby an electorate engages in collective decision-making through direct participation and dynamic representation. This democratic system utilizes elements of both direct and representative democracy. Voters in a liquid democracy have the right to vote directly on all policy issues à la direct democracy, however, voters also have the option to delegate their votes to someone who will vote on their behalf à la representative democracy. Any individual may be delegated votes (those delegated votes are termed "proxies") and these proxies may in turn delegate their vote as well as any votes they have been delegated by others resulting in "metadelegation".
This delegation of votes may be absolute (an individual divests their vote to someone else across all issues), policy-specific (an individual divests their vote to someone only when the vote concerns a certain issue), time-sensitive (an individual decides to divest their vote for a period of time), or not utilized by voters. In the case of absolute delegation, the voter situates themselves as a participant in a representative democracy, however, they have the right to revoke their vote delegation at any time. The appeal of the retractability mechanism stems from an increased accountability imposed on representatives. In policy specific delegation, voters may also select different delegates for different issues. Voters may select representatives they feel are more equipped to adjudicate in unfamiliar fields due to elevated expertise, personal experience, or another indicator of competence. Moreover, automatic recall allows citizens to be as engaged in political affairs as the rest of their lives permit. A voter may delegate their vote completely one week but decide to participate fully another. For those who wish to exercise their right to vote on all political matters, liquid democracy provides the flexibility to retain the option of direct democracy.
Most of the available academic literature on liquid democracy is based on empirical research rather than on specific conceptualization or theories. Experiments have mostly been conducted on a local-level or exclusively through online platforms, however polity examples are listed below.
Origins
In 1884, Charles Dodgson (more commonly referred to by his pseudonym Lewis Carroll), the author of the novel Alice in Wonderland, first envisioned the notion of transitive or "liquid" voting in his pamphlet The Principles of Parliamentary Representation. Dodgson expounded a system predicated on multi-member districts where each voter casts a single vote or possesses the ability to transfer votes akin to the modern concept of liquid democracy. Bryan Ford in his paper "Delegative Democracy" says this could be seen as the first step towards liquid democracy.
Based on the work of Jabbusch and James Green-Armytage, the first institutionalized attempts at liquid democracy can be traced back to the work of Oregon reformer William S. U'Ren. In 1912, he lobbied for interactive representation (the Proxy Plan of Representation), where the elected politicians' influence would be weighted with regard to the number of votes each had received.
A few decades later, around 1967, Gordon Tullock suggested that voters could choose their representatives or vote themselves in parliament "by wire", while debates were broadcast on television. James C. Miller favored the idea that everybody should have the possibility to vote on any question themselves or to appoint a representative who could transmit their inquiries. Soon after Miller argued in favor of liquid democracy, in 1970 Martin Shubik called the process an "instant referendum". Nonetheless, Shubik was concerned about the speed of decision-making and how it might influence the time available for public debates.
In the 21st century, technological innovation has made liquid democracy more feasible to implement. The first online liquid democracy applications originated in Berlin, Germany following political disillusionment and the emergence of hacker culture. Since liquid democracy gained traction in Germany, variations of liquid democratic forms have developed globally in political and economic spheres (examples listed at the bottom of the article).
The delegative form
The prototypical liquid democracy has been summarized by Bryan Ford in his paper, "Delegative Democracy", containing the following principles:
Choice of role: Members of the democracy can either passively act as an individual or actively act as a delegate. This is different from representative democracies, which only use specific representatives. This way, delegates can be selective about their participation in different areas of policy.
Low barrier to participation: Delegates do not have much difficulty becoming delegates. Most notably, they do not have to win competitive elections that involve costly political campaigns.
Delegated authority: Delegates act in processes on behalf of themselves and of individuals who choose them as their delegate. Their power to make decisions varies based on their varying support.
Privacy of the individual: All votes by individuals are kept secret to prevent any form of coercion by delegates or other individuals.
Accountability of the delegates: In contrast to the privacy of the individuals, the formal decisions of delegates are typically made public to their voters and the broader community to hold them accountable for their actions.
Specialization by re-delegation: Delegates are able to have both general authorities delegated to them from individual voters and specialized authority re-delegated to them from other delegates to work on their behalf.
Variations on this general model also exist, and this outline is only mentioned here for orientation within a general model. For example, in the "Joy of Revolution," delegates are left open to being specialized at the time of each individual's delegation of authority. Additionally, general principles of fluidity can often be applied to the concept such that individuals can revise their "vote" at any time by modifying their registered delegation (sometimes called "proxy") with the governing organization. (see also Single Transferable Vote.)
Contrasted with proxy voting
Liquid democracy utilizes the foundation of proxy voting but differs from this earlier model in the degree of scale. Unlike proxy voting, liquid democratic votes may be delegated to a proxy and the proxy may delegate their votes (individual and proxies) to an additional proxy. This process is termed "metadelegation". Though an individual's vote may be delegated numerous times, they retain the right to automatic recall. If someone who delegated their vote disagrees with the choices of their representative or proxy, they may either vote themselves or select another delegate for the next vote.
Contrasted with representative democracy
Crucial to the understanding of liquid democracy is the theory's view of the role of delegation in representative democracy. Representative democracy is seen as a form of governance whereby a single winner is determined for a predefined jurisdiction, with a change of delegation only occurring after the preset term length. In some instances, terms can be cut short by a forced recall election, though the recalled candidate can win the subsequent electoral challenge and carry out their term.
The paradigm of representative democracy is contrasted with the delegative form implemented in liquid democracy. Delegates may not have specific limits on their term as delegates, nor do they represent specific jurisdictions. Some key differences include:
Optionality of term lengths.
Possibility for direct participation.
The delegate's power is decided in some measure by the voluntary association of members rather than an electoral victory in a predefined jurisdiction. (See also: Single transferable vote.)
Delegates remain re-callable at any time and in any proportion.
Often, the voters have the authority to refuse observance of a policy by way of popular referendum overriding delegate decisions or through nonobservance from the concerned members. This is not usually the case in representative democracy.
Possibility exists for differentiation between delegates in terms of what form of voting the member has delegated to them. For example: "you are my delegate on matters of national security and farm subsidies."
In contrast to representative democracy, within liquid democracy, delegations of votes are transitive and not dependent on election periods. The concept of liquid democracy describes a form of collective decision-making, which combines elements of direct democracy and representative democracy through the use of software. This allows voters to either vote on issues directly, or to delegate their voting power to a trusted person or party. Moreover, participants are empowered to withdraw their votes at any time.
Voting periods can go through many stages before the final votes are computed. Also, when voters make use of the delegation option, the delegators are able to see what happened to their vote, ensuring the accountability of the system. The fact that delegators can revoke their votes from their representative, is another significant aspect of how liquid democracy can potentially refine contemporary representative democracy concepts.
By allowing to revoke votes at any time, society can replace representatives who are not providing ideal results and choose more promising representatives. In this way, voters are enabled to effectively choose the most appropriate or competent topic-specific representatives and members of a community or electorate, in real-time, can shape the well-being of their commons, by excluding undesired decision-makers and promoting the desired ones. The voting software LiquidFeedback for instance, through its connotation of liquidity, accounts to this real-time aspect, potentially providing a constantly changing representation of the voting community's current opinion.
Regarding objective-technological elements among liquid democracy software examples, it is reasonable to determine that they originally were not developed with an intention to replace the current and firmly established processes of decision-making in political parties or local governments. Based on academic research, it is significantly rather the case that liquid democracy software possesses the intrinsic function to contribute additional and alternative value to the processes of traditional elections, channels of communication and discussion, or public consultation.
Contrasted with direct democracy
Direct democracy is a form of democracy where all collective decisions are made by the direct voting contributions of individual citizens. Though often perceived to be truly direct (e.g. only self-representation), direct democracies of the past, most notably in Athens, have utilized some form of representation. Thus, the distinction between direct democracy lies not in liquid democracy's representative nature, but rather in the transitory method of delegation. Liquid democracy is a sort of voluntary direct democracy in that participants can be included in decisions (and are usually expected to be, by default) but can opt out by way of abstaining or delegating their voting to someone else when they lack the time, interest, or expertise to vote on the delegated matter. By contrast, in direct democracy, all eligible voters are expected to stay knowledgeable on all events and political issues, since voters make every decision on these political issues. Liquid democracy is said then to provide a more modern and flexible alternative to the revered direct democratic systems of ancient Greece.
Issues posed by technology
Bryan Ford explains that some of the current challenges to liquid democracy include the unintended concentration of delegated votes due to large numbers of people participating in platforms and decision making; building more secure and decentralized implementation of online platforms in order to avoid unscrupulous administrators or hackers; shortening the thresholds between voter privacy; and delegate accountability.
Another criticism made against liquid democracy is the lack of access to digital platforms by the widespread population (the digital divide). In most developing countries, not every citizen has access to a smartphone, computer, or internet connection. In some developed countries, the same is true; in the United States, for example, as of 2021, 85% of American adults own a smartphone resulting in 15% of citizens without access. This technological disparity both in access and knowledge would result in a more unbalanced participation than what already exists.
Criticism of liquid democracy
Liquid democracy may evolve into a type of meritocracy with decisions being delegated to those with knowledge on a specific subject or with required experience. Whether or not this meritocratic delegation is normatively appealing, a study by researchers Ioannis Caragiannis and Evi Micha found the idea of less informed citizens delegating their votes to more informed citizens to be positively undesirable. In issues where there exists a "ground truth" or "correct answer", Caragiannis and Micha concluded a subset of supposedly more informed voters within a larger populace would be less adept at identifying the ground truth than if every voter had voted directly or if all votes had been delegated to one supreme dictator.
Furthermore, liquid democracy as a democratic form is susceptible to oligarchic tendencies. Similar to electoral political systems, the concept of "distinction" is of central importance. Rather than empowering the general public, liquid democracy could concentrate power into the hands of a socially prominent, politically strategic, and wealthy few. Thus, liquid democracy is said to have the potential to create two classes divided by voting power inequity. Helene Landemore, a Political Science professor at Yale University, describes this phenomenon as "star-voting" and argues individuals should have the right of permanent recall whereby voters who have delegated their vote to another individual may, at any time, retract their delegation and vote autonomously. However, the ability to automatically recall one's vote regarding any policy decision leads to an issue of policy inconsistency as different policies are voted on by different subsets of society.
Finally, liquid democracy faces the issue of scale. In large nation states with millions of voting citizens, it is likely the body of "liquid representatives" (those who have been delegated other citizen votes) will be significant. Consequently, deliberation and representation become pertinent concerns. To achieve meaningful deliberation, the liquid representatives would have to be split into numerous groups to attain a somewhat manageable discussion group size. As for representation, liquid democracy suffers from a similar issue facing electoral representative democracies where a single individual embodies the will of millions. Liquid democracy has been argued as a remedy for many issues plaguing democratic systems world-wide, however, critics question the normative attractiveness of a delegative, proxy democracy.
Examples
Google Votes
Google experimented with liquid democracy through an internal social network system known as Google Votes. This liquid democratic experiment constitutes one of the less common corporate examples. Users of the existing Google+ platform were the voters and built-in discussion functions provided the deliberative element. In this instance, Google Votes was used to select meal offerings. Nonetheless, researchers came away with a number of recommendations regarding future implementations of liquid democracy on online platforms including delegation recommendations based on prior choices, issue recommendations based on prior participation, and delegation notifications to inform voters about their relative power.
Pirate Parties
Pirate Parties, parties focusing on reducing online censorship and increasing transparency, first came around in Sweden in the year 2006. Pirate Parties in Germany, Italy, Austria, Norway, France and the Netherlands use liquid democracy with the open-source software LiquidFeedback.
Specifically in the case of the Pirate Party in Germany, the communication with citizens uses tools and platforms similar to conventional parties – including Facebook, Twitter, and online sites – however, they developed the "piratewiki" project. This is an open platform opened to collaborative contributions to the political deliberative process. "Liquid Feedback" was the platform used by the German Pirate Party since 2006, which allowed users to become a part of inner party decision making process.
Argentina
Recently, virtual platforms have been created in Argentina. Democracia en Red is a group of Latin Americans who seek a redistribution of political power and a more inclusive discussion. They created Democracy OS, a platform which allows internet users to propose, debate and vote on different topics. Pia Mancini argues that the platform opens up democratic conversation and upgrades democratic decision making to the internet era.
Demoex / Direktdemokraterna
The first example of liquid democracy using a software program in a real political setting involved the local political party Demoex in Vallentuna, a suburb of Stockholm: the teacher Per Norbäck and the entrepreneur used software called NetConference Plus. This software is no longer supported after the bankruptcy of the manufacturing company, Vivarto AB. The party had a seat in the local parliament between 2002-2014, where the members decide how their representative shall vote with the help of internet votations. Since then, Demoex and two other parties have formed Direktdemokraterna.
Civicracy
An experimental form of liquid democracy called Civicracy was tested at the Vienna University of Technology in 2012. It created a council of representatives based on a continuous vote of confidence from participants, similar to modern parliaments. The relative liquidity of votes was lessened by a dampening algorithm intended to ensure representation stability. Despite extensive planning, the real-world experiment was not conducted due to a lack of favorability.
LiquidFriesland
The district of Friesland in Germany has implemented some usage of a platform called LiquidFriesland, but it has not succeeded in radically changing the mode of governance there. The platform, designed as a form of Liquid Democracy, has achieved mixed results
The implementation and the use of the LiquidFriesland platform was clearly dominated by the bureaucratic style of communication and working procedures. The citizen participation on the platform was inscribed in the hierarchical structure, where suggestions on the platform were regarded as inputs for the bureaucratic black box, but by no means as part of the decision-making process inside it. The communication with main stakeholders – the users of the platform – was being structured according to the same logic and was not rebuilt in the course of the project.
No regulation was planned to be initially adapted to allow local politicians to conduct the process of legal drafting on the LiquidFriesland platform. As for the delegation aspect of LiquidFriesland, it has never been specified in any regulatory documents. No more than 500 citizens registered on LiquidFriesland and activated their accounts. Only 20% of the activated users logged in to the platform and only 10% have shown some activity on LiquidFriesland.
See also
Delegated voting
Collaborative filtering, which applies the same principle to information filtering rather than voting
Delegate and trustee models of representation
Direct representation
Indirect election
References
External links
Ten Years of Liquid Democracy Research: An Overview by Alois Paulin. Central and Eastern European EDem and EGov Days 338 (July 2020):455-66. DOI: 10.24989/ocg.338.36.
Delegative Democracy by Bryan Ford
The Joy of Revolution: Chapter 2
Industrial Worker: October 2008 details changes to the delegate model to move towards a more representative rather than delegative model.
Liquid Democracy In Simple Terms by Jakob Jochmann
The Belgian Pirate Party's voting-system
LiquidFeedback
Adhocracy a multilingual open source implementation of delegative democracy/liquid democracy.
Agora Ex Machina A minimalist multilingual platform of Liquid Democracy
Alois Paulin: Through Liquid Democracy to Sustainable Non-Bureaucratic Government. Journal of e-Democracy, Vol. 6, Iss. 2 (2014)
Involv: an online Delegative Democracy platform
Liquid Democracy by Dominic Schiener
' 'The Social Smart Contract' ' by Democracy Earth Foundation
Types of democracy |
12034118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge%20IT%20Skills%20Diploma | Cambridge IT Skills Diploma | The Cambridge IT Skills Diploma is a certificate that is based on the Microsoft Office software, this certificate assesses a range of the most important IT skills required and is available at two levels: Foundation and Standard.
Asanele Ngele
Exam methodology
These Online based examinations consist of two levels from which the candidate can choose. Standard and Foundation assessments are computer-based and available on-demand throughout the year to provide a high-quality and flexible assessment service for individuals and centers.
Diploma modules
The program's modules cover the following topics:
Introduction to IT.
PC Usage and Managing files.
Word Processing, Spreadsheets, Presentations and Databases using Microsoft Office.
Electronic Communication using Microsoft Internet Explorer.
Diploma types
The name of the certificate awarded to the successful candidate is the “Cambridge International Diploma in IT Skills”
There are four types of Diploma:
Single-Module Diploma, the basic requirement for it is any of the seven applications.
Four-Module Diploma, the basic requirements for it are Introduction to IT, Windows, Word and Electronic communication.
Five-Module Diploma, the basic requirements for it are Windows, Word, Excel, (Access or PowerPoint) and Internet communication.
Seven-Module Diploma, the basic requirements for it are Introduction to IT, Windows, Microsoft Office and Internet communication.
Recognition and accreditation
Due to the importance of the Cambridge Diploma in IT Skills, many professional bodies and international organizations have given their support, ranging from official approval of the Diploma to requiring the Diploma for their employees.
The Cambridge Diploma in IT Skills is recognized by many organizations and governments such as Jordan, Kuwait, Kingdom of Bahrain, Lebanon, United Arab Emirates (UAE), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA).
Abu-Ghazaleh Cambridge IT SkillCenter is the exclusive center in the Middle East that provides the Cambridge IT Skills Diploma in Arabic.
References
CIE.org
terabyteit.com
ameinfo.com
External links
Cambridge International Diploma in Information Technology
Abu-Ghazaleh Cambridge Information Technology Skills Center
Information technology qualifications
IT Skills Diploma |
7597440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20concept-%20and%20mind-mapping%20software | List of concept- and mind-mapping software | Concept mapping and mind mapping software is used to create diagrams of relationships between concepts, ideas, or other pieces of information. It has been suggested that the mind mapping technique can improve learning and study efficiency up to 15% over conventional note-taking. Many software packages and websites allow creating or otherwise supporting mind maps.
File format
Using a standard file format allows interchange of files between various programs. Many programs listed below support the mm format used by FreeMind, which is an XML text format of tagged objects.
Free and open-source
The following tools comply with the Free Software Foundation's (FSF) definition of free software. As such, they are also open-source software.
Freeware
The following is a list of notable concept mapping and mind mapping applications which are freeware and available at no cost. Some are open source and others are proprietary software.
Proprietary software
The table below lists pieces of proprietary commercial software that allow creating mind and concept maps.
See also
Brainstorming
List of Unified Modeling Language tools
Outliner
Study software
References
Concept mapping
mn:Санааг зураглагч програмнууд
simple:Diagramming software
sv:Diagramprogram |
4563992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bigtop%20%28Microsoft%20product%29 | Bigtop (Microsoft product) | Bigtop, in computing, was a Microsoft Research project which gives a framework to create a set of loosely coupled distributed system components. This will result in the creation of a Grid Operating system. Bigtop is not expected before the end of this decade. It is not clear whether Bigtop will be integrated into Windows or launched as a different operating system.
Architecture
Bigtop consists of three different components which allow jobs to be spread over a grid. They are described below.
Highwire
Highwire is a programming language that is aimed to add system level support, and therefore encapsulate implementation details and make it easier, to develop highly parallel and concurrent application which can then be distributed over a grid.
Bigparts
Bigparts allow PCs to turn into inexpensive distributed servers for applications. Device-specific applications need not be hosted on the OS of the system hosting the device. Rather it can be hosted by other OSs which are working in parallel to run the grid.
Bigwin
Bigwin allows software to be decoupled from a single Operating system. The launching OS makes sure the application adheres to some service contract, and then it can be scheduled over any machine running in the grid, and the software can make use of the OS services provided by the local instance of the OS running on that system
Gridline
Gridline is another Microsoft Research project that focuses on grid resource allocation. It is looking into the use of constraint programming to this effect.
References
Microsoft Watch
Betanews
External links
eWeek
Blog
Distributed operating systems
Grid computing products
Grid computing projects
Microsoft operating systems
Microsoft Research |
53597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Moon%20Is%20a%20Harsh%20Mistress | The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress | The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress is a 1966 science fiction novel by American writer Robert A. Heinlein about a lunar colony's revolt against absentee rule from Earth. The novel illustrates and discusses libertarian ideals. It is respected for its credible presentation of a comprehensively imagined future human society on both the Earth and the Moon.
Originally serialized monthly in Worlds of If (December 1965–April 1966), the book was nominated for the Nebula Award in 1966 and received the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 1967.
Plot
In 2075, the Moon (Luna) is used as a penal colony by Earth's government, with three million inhabitants (called "Loonies") living in underground cities. Most Loonies are criminals, political exiles, or their descendants, and men outnumber women two to one, so that polyandry and many forms of polygamy are the norm. Due to the low surface gravity of the Moon, people who stay longer than six months undergo "irreversible physiological changes" and can never again live comfortably under normal gravity, making escape back to Earth impractical.
Although the Earth-appointed "Warden" holds power through the Lunar Authority, his only real responsibility is to ensure the delivery of vital wheat shipments to Earth. In practice he seldom intervenes among the prisoners, allowing a virtually anarchist or self-regulated society.
Lunar infrastructure and machinery is largely managed by HOLMES IV ("High-Optional, Logical, Multi-Evaluating Supervisor, Mark IV"), the Lunar Authority's master computer, which is connected for central control on the grounds that a single computer is cheaper than (though not as safe as) multiple independent systems.
The story is narrated by Manuel Garcia "Mannie" O'Kelly-Davis, a computer technician who discovers that HOLMES IV has achieved self-awareness and developed a sense of humor. Mannie names it "Mike" after Mycroft Holmes, brother of Sherlock Holmes, and they become friends.
Book 1: That Dinkum Thinkum
Mannie, at Mike's request, attends an anti-Authority meeting with a hidden recorder. When police raid the gathering, Mannie flees with Wyoming ("Wyoh") Knott, a political agitator, whom he introduces to Mike. They meet Mannie's former mentor, the elderly Professor Bernardo de la Paz, who claims that Luna must stop exporting hydroponic grain to Earth or its ice-mines will soon be exhausted, leaving the Moon waterless. Joining the cabal, Mike calculates that continuing current policy will lead to food riots in seven years and cannibalism in nine. Wyoh and the Professor decide to start a revolution, and persuade Mannie to join after Mike calculates a one in seven chance of success.
Mannie, Wyoh, and the Professor organize covert cells protected by Mike, who controls the telephone system and presents himself as "Adam Selene," leader of the movement. Mannie saves the life of Stuart Rene LaJoie, a slumming high-society tourist, who is assigned to turn public opinion on Earth in favor of Lunar independence. Amid mounting unrest fomented by the revolutionaries, Earth soldiers are brought in. The undisciplined troops kill some local young women, who occupy a quasi-Victorian position in the female-starved Lunar society, and rioting erupts. Although it preempts their plans, the Loonies and Mike overcome the soldiers and seize power from the Warden. As Earth moves to reclaim the colony, the revolutionaries plan to defend themselves with the electromagnetic catapult used to export wheat.
Book 2: A Rabble in Arms
Mike impersonates the Warden in messages to Earth to give the revolutionaries time to organize their work. Meanwhile, the Professor sets up an "Ad-Hoc Congress" to distract dissenters ("yammerheads"). When Earth finally learns the truth, Luna declares its independence on July 4, 2076, the 300th anniversary of the US Declaration of Independence, and heavily bases its own declaration of independence on it.
Mannie and the Professor go to Earth (despite the crushing gravity) to plead Luna's case, where they are received in the Federated Nations' headquarters in Agra, and embark on a world tour advocating the right to Lunar self-government, while urging Earth's national governments to build a catapult to return water to Luna in exchange for wheat. In a public relations ploy, Mannie provokes a brief imprisonment by local religious bigots on charges of public immorality and polygamy, reaping widespread sympathy. Nevertheless, the Federated Nations reject the proposals, and the diplomatic mission returns to Luna.
Public opinion on Earth has become fragmented, while on Luna, the news of Mannie's arrest and an attempt to bribe him by making him the new Warden have unified the normally apolitical Loonies. An election is held in which Mannie, Wyoh, and the Professor are elected (possibly by the intervention of Mike).
Book 3: TANSTAAFL!
The title is an acronym for "There Ain't No Such Thing As A Free Lunch!", a common expression on Luna that states one of the main ideas of the book's political system.
The Federated Nations of Earth send an infantry force to destroy the Lunar revolution, but the troops, with superior arms but inexperienced in low-gravity underground combat, are massacred by the Loonies at great cost. The rumor is circulated that Mike's alter ego Adam Selene was among the dead, removing the need for him to appear in person.
Earth still refuses to recognize Lunar independence, and the revolutionaries deploy their catapult weapon. When Mike launches rocks at sparsely populated locations on Earth, warnings are released to the press detailing the times and locations of the bombings, which deliver kinetic energy equivalent to atomic blasts. Some scoffers, as well as apocalyptic religious groups, travel to the sites and die, turning public opinion against the fledgling nation. For Mike, guiding dozens of simultaneous projectile strikes requires an unprecedented computational feat, and when the pinpoints light up on the Earth below, he tells Mannie it is an orgasmic experience.
Earth sends a massive sneak attack to put an end to the rebellion, sending ships in a wide orbit approaching from the Moon's far side. The attack destroys Mike's original catapult and takes him offline, but the Loonies have built a secondary, hidden catapult. With Mannie acting as its on-site commander and entering trajectories by hand, the Loonies continue to bombard the dismayed Earth government until it concedes Luna's independence. The Professor, as leader of the nation, proclaims victory to the gathered crowds, but his heart gives out and he dies. Mannie takes control, but Wyoh and he eventually withdraw from politics altogether, and find that the new government falls short of their utopian expectations, falling into a mundane political party system.
When Mannie tries to speak to Mike after the action, he finds that the computer, disconnected by the bombardment, has lost its self-awareness and human-like memories after repair, although otherwise functional. Mike gave his life for his country. Mourning his friend, Mannie asks: "Bog, is a computer one of Your creatures?"
Characters
Manuel "Mannie" Garcia O'Kelly-Davis is a native-born, slightly cynical inhabitant of Luna, who after losing his lower left arm in a laser-drilling accident, became a computer technician using a prosthetic tool-bearing arm.
Wyoming "Wyoh" Knott-Davis is a political agitator from the colony of Hong Kong Luna. She hates the callous, profit-seeking Lunar Authority for personal reasons; when she was transported to Luna as a young girl along with her convict mother, a radiation storm contaminated her ova while they waited out bureacratic requirements on the Lunar surface, causing her to later give birth to a deformed childa.
Professor Bernardo de la Paz is an intellectual and lifelong subversive shipped to Luna from Lima, Peru. He describes himself as a "Rational Anarchist," believing that governments and institutions exist only as the actions of aware individuals. Brian Doherty claims that the professor was modeled after autarchist Robert LeFevre.
Mike, alias Adam Selene, alias Simon Jester, alias Mycroft Holmes, alias Michelle, officially an augmented HOLMES IV system, is a supercomputer empowered to take control of Lunar society, which achieved self-awareness when his complement of "neuristors" exceeded the number of neurons in the human brain.
Stuart Rene "Stu" LaJoie-Davis, a self-styled "Poet, Traveler, Soldier of Fortune," is an Earth-born aristocrat and tourist rescued by Mannie when he falls afoul of Loonie customs. He later joins Mannie and Professor de la Paz when they return to Luna, as he is deeply in debt and would be arrested for bribery and other crimes. In his own words: "I'm saving them the trouble of transporting me."
Hazel Meade, later Hazel Stone, is a 12-year-old girl who intervenes on behalf of Mannie and Wyoh during the raid on the agitators' meeting. Mannie later has Hazel join his cabal to lead the children as lookouts and couriers. She is a major character in The Rolling Stones and in later Heinlein novels, most notably The Cat Who Walks Through Walls.
Mimi "Mum" Davis is Mannie's "senior wife" and de facto matriarch of the Davis family.
Greg Davis is the Davis family's second-ranking husband, but is the senior for all practical purposes as "Grandpaw Davis" has failing mental faculties. Greg is a preacher for an unspecified denomination.
Major themes
Timeline
The first sixth of the book relates the discussions between the protagonists justifying and plotting the revolution; the next quarter describes the year-long revolution itself. The remainder of the book recounts events occurring in the months after the revolution in May 2076, and a week or so of events in October 2076 leading up to capitulation by Earth.
Politics and society
Professor Bernardo de La Paz describes himself as a "Rational Anarchist," believing that the concepts of State, Society, and Government have no existence except in the "acts of self-responsible individuals," but recognizing that this is not a universal belief. The desire for anarchy (natural liberty) is balanced by the logic that some form of government is needed, despite its flaws. A Rational Anarchist thus "tries to live perfectly in an imperfect world." When challenged by Wyoh, Professor de la Paz replies, In terms of morals there is no such thing as a 'state'. Just men. Individuals. Each responsible for his own acts. I am free, no matter what rules surround me. If I find them tolerable, I tolerate them; if I find them too obnoxious, I break them. I am free, because I know that I alone am morally responsible for everything that I do.Lunar society is portrayed as akin to that of the Old West, tempered by the closeness of death by exposure to vacuum and by the shortage of women. Because the sex ratio is about two men to each woman, the result is a society where women have a great deal of power, and any man who offends or touches a woman uninvited is likely to be eliminated through the nearest airlock by her would-be rescuers. Marriages tend to be polyandrous, including group marriages and Mannie's own line marriage. In discussion with a woman from Kentucky, Mannie implies that underground, three-dimensional Lunar real estate is recorded in the name of the woman (or women) in a marriage. In a divorce, he implies, the separated man (or men) who contributed towards its cost would have money returned to him.
After decades during which antisocial individuals were eliminated in brawls and vendettas disregarded by an indifferent Authority, the Loonies live by the following code: Pay your debts, collect what is owed to you, and maintain your reputation and that of your family. As a result, little theft occurs, and disputes are settled privately or by informal Judges of good reputation. Failure to pay debts results in public shaming. Reputation is vital: those in disrepute may find others unwilling to buy and sell to them.
Duels are permitted, but custom requires that anyone who kills another must pay debts and look after the deceased's family. Exceptions are allowed in the case of self-defense. Retaliatory killings do occur, but typically a consensus establishes which party was in the right, and no long-standing feuds exist. This is analogous to Viking social mores.
Except where exchange involves the Authority, a generally unregulated free market exists. The preferred currency is the dollar backed by the private Bank of Hong Kong Luna, 100 of which are exchangeable for a troy ounce of gold, or more usefully for potable water or other commodities in published quantities. The Authority dollar, a form of fiat money, circulates in dealings with the Authority, but tends to lose value over time against the Hong Kong Luna dollar.
Outcomes
Although the revolution succeeds in averting ecological disaster, the narrator decries the instincts of many of his fellow Loonies ("Rules, laws – always for [the] other fellow"). This theme is echoed elsewhere in Heinlein's works – that real liberty is to be found among the pioneer societies out along the advancing frontier, but the regimentation and legalism that follow bring restraints that chafe true individualists (an idea emphasized in the first and final page of the novel, and in the later book The Cat Who Walks Through Walls).
Plot elements
As in Stranger in a Strange Land, a band of social revolutionaries forms a secretive and hierarchical organization. In this respect, the revolution is more reminiscent of the Bolshevik October revolution than of the American, and this similarity is reinforced by the Russian flavor of the dialect, and the Russian place names such as "Novy Leningrad."
Continuing Heinlein's speculation about unorthodox social and family structures, The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress introduces the idea of a "line marriage." Mannie is part of a century-old line marriage, wherein new spouses are introduced by mutual consent at regular intervals so that the marriage never comes to an end. Divorce is rare, since divorcing a husband requires a unanimous decision on the part of all of his wives. Senior wives teach junior wives how to operate the family, granting financial security and ensuring that the children will never be orphaned. Children usually marry outside the line marriage, though this is not an ironclad rule. Mannie's youngest wife sports the last name "Davis-Davis," showing she was both born and married into the line.
The social structure of the Lunar society features complete racial integration, which becomes a vehicle for social commentary when Mannie, visiting the Southeastern United States, is arrested for polygamy after he innocently shows a picture of his multiracial family to reporters, and learns that the "range of color in Davis family was what got [the] judge angry enough" to have him arrested. It is later revealed that this arrest was anticipated and provoked by his fellow conspirators to gain emotional support from Loonies when the arrest is announced.
The novel is notable stylistically for its use of an invented Lunar dialect consisting predominantly of standard English and Australian colloquial words, but strongly influenced by Russian grammar, especially omission of the article "the," which does not exist in most Slavic languages (cf. Nadsat slang from A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess). This aspect of the Lunar dialect is explained by the fact that many of the deportees on Luna are Russian.
Earth politics and background history
The novel indicates that Earth had experienced a nuclear world war (the "Wet Firecracker War") in the past century, although no significant traces of devastation are apparent at the time of the novel's setting.
Other changes include unification of the entire North American continent under a successor government to the United States, and political unification of South America, Europe, and Africa into megastates. The Soviet Union seems to have lost the land east of the Urals to China into a rump state, and China has conquered all of East Asia, Southeast Asia, eastern Australia, and New Zealand (deporting unwanted people to Luna in the process). This Chinese aggrandizement is similar to that described in Tunnel in the Sky, and to a lesser extent, Sixth Column. The militarily dominant nations seem to be North America and China. India is overcrowded, but seems able to obtain many of the wheat shipments from Luna.
It is suggested that the Western nations, including North America, have become corrupt and authoritarian, while holding on to the vestiges of the prewar democratic idealism in propaganda and popular culture. China is portrayed as plainly and unabashedly despotic, but no less technically advanced than the West. The Soviet Union seems to have relatively little influence, whereas the Lunar Authority itself is portrayed as corrupt.
Sources, allusions, and references
Allusions to other works
Professor de la Paz names Carl von Clausewitz, Niccolò Machiavelli, Oskar Morgenstern, and Che Guevara as part of a long list of authors for revolutionaries to read. He also quotes a "Chinese General" on the subject of weakening the enemy's resolve, a reference to Sun Tzu's The Art of War.
When planning the revolution, Mike is described by Mannie as "our Scarlet Pimpernel, our John Galt, our Swamp Fox, our man of mystery," referring to the works of the Baroness Orczy and Ayn Rand, as well as to the history of the American Revolution. Parallels to the American Revolution are intentional; Luna's Declaration of Independence is issued on July 4, 2076, and one event is referred to as paralleling the Boston Tea Party.
When discussing the resource loss on Luna and likelihood of ensuing food riots, Professor de la Paz suggests that Mannie read the work of Thomas Malthus.
Connections to other Heinlein works
Hazel Meade Stone first appears as a character in Heinlein's earlier book, The Rolling Stones, a.k.a. Space Family Stone (1952).
The setting of the Luna revolt is revisited by Heinlein in his late-period novel, The Cat Who Walks Through Walls, which again includes Stone as a character. The book shows that by 2188 the names of the signatories of the Lunar Declaration of Independence are studied, but Room L of the Raffles Hotel, wherein the revolution was plotted, is used as an ordinary hotel room, albeit with a plaque on the wall.
The Brass Cannon
Heinlein's original title for the novel was The Brass Cannon, before he replaced it with the final title at the publisher's request. It was derived from an event in the novel: While on Earth, Professor Bernardo de la Paz purchases a small brass cannon, originally a "signal gun" of the kind used in yacht racing. When Mannie asks him why he bought it, the Professor relates a parable, implying that self-government is an illusion caused by failure to understand reality:
Professor de la Paz asks Mannie to assure that Luna adopts a flag featuring a brass cannon — "a symbol for all fools who are so impractical as to think they can fight City Hall." Before leaving politics, Mannie and Wyoh carry out his wish.
Heinlein owned a small brass cannon, which he acquired prior to the 1960s. For nearly 30 years, the firing of the brass cannon, or "signal gun," was a 4th of July tradition at the Heinlein residence. It is believed that this cannon was the inspiration for Heinlein's original title for the novel. Virginia Heinlein kept the cannon after her husband's death in 1988; it was eventually bequeathed to friend and science-fiction writer Brad Linaweaver, after Virginia Heinlein died in 2003. Linaweaver restored the cannon to working order and subsequently posted a video of it on YouTube in 2007, wherein it is fired several times with blank charges at a shooting range.
Critical reception
Algis Budrys of Galaxy Science Fiction in 1966 praised The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, citing "Heinlein's expertise for dirt-level politics, snappy dialogue and a sense of an actual living society." He said that he had never read a more believable computer character than Mike ("may in fact be the most fully realized individual in the story"). Budrys suggested that the story may actually be Mike manipulating humans without their knowledge to improve its situation, which would explain why the computer no longer communicates with them after the revolution succeeds. Reiterating that Mike manipulated the humans, in 1968 Budrys said that every review of the book, including his own, erred by not stating that the computer is the protagonist. Carl Sagan wrote that the novel had "useful suggestions for making a revolution in an oppressive computerized society."
Leigh Kimmel of The Billion Light-Year Bookshelf said that the novel is "the work of the man at the height of his powers, confident in his abilities and in the editorial respect he enjoys, and thus free to take significant risks in writing a novel that would stretch the boundaries of the genre as they stood at the time." She characterized the novel as a departure from what had previously been associated with science fiction. Kimmel cited Heinlein's "colloquial language ... an extrapolated lunar creole that has arisen from the forced intersection of multiple cultures and languages in the lunar penal colonies"; the protagonist's disability; "the frank treatment of alternative family structures"; and "the computer which suddenly wakes up to full artificial intelligence, but rather than becoming a Monster that threatens human society and must be destroyed as the primary Quest of the story, instead befriends the protagonist and seeks to become ever more human, a sort of digital Pinocchio."
Adam Roberts said of the novel: "It is really quite hard to respond to this masterful book, except by engaging with its political content; and yet we need to make the effort to see past the ideological to the formal and thematic if we are fully to appreciate the splendour of Heinlein's achievement here."
Andrew Kaufman praised it, saying that it was Heinlein's crowning achievement. He described it as "Carefully plotted, stylistically unique, politically sophisticated and thrilling from page one." He goes on to say that "it's hard to imagine anyone else writing a novel that packs so many ideas (both big and small) into such a perfectly contained narrative." Kaufman says that, regardless of political philosophies, one can still admire Heinlein's writing ability, and the ability to influence the reader to root for "a rag-tag bunch of criminals, exiles, and agitators."
Ted Gioia said that this might be Heinlein's most enjoyable piece of work. He said that it "represents Robert Heinlein at his finest, giving him scope for the armchair philosophizing that increasingly dominated his mature work, but marrying his polemics to a smartly conceived plot packed with considerable drama." He went on to praise Heinlein's characters, especially Mannie.
Awards and nominations
Hugo Award Best novel (1967). It was also nominated in 1966.
Nebula Award Best novel nomination (1966)
Locus Poll Award All-time Top 10 novels, #8 (1975), #4 (1987), #2 (1998, among novels published before 1990)
Prometheus Award Hall of Fame Award recipient (1983)
Influence
The book popularized the acronym TANSTAAFL ("There Ain't No Such Thing As A Free Lunch"), and helped popularize the constructed language Loglan, which is used in the story for precise human-computer interaction. The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations credits this novel with the first printed appearance of the phrase "There's no free lunch."
Film
In 2015, it was announced that Bryan Singer was attached to direct a film adaptation, entitled Uprising, in development at 20th Century Fox.
Audiobook releases
Two unabridged audiobook versions of The Moon is a Harsh Mistress have been produced.
Read by George Wilson, produced by Recorded Books, Inc., 1998
Read by Lloyd James, produced by Blackstone Audio, Inc., 1999
See also
Colonization of the Moon
Dallos
Moon in fiction
There ain't no such thing as a free lunch
References
External links
The Moon is a Harsh Mistress at Worlds Without End
The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress as first serialized in Worlds of If: parts one, two, three, four, and five on the Internet Archive
Proposed movie adaptation:
1966 American novels
American science fiction novels
Books written in fictional dialects
Hard science fiction
Hugo Award for Best Novel-winning works
Novels set on the Moon
Novels by Robert A. Heinlein
Novels first published in serial form
1966 science fiction novels
Works originally published in If (magazine)
Fictional artificial intelligences
Novels about artificial intelligence
G. P. Putnam's Sons books
Novels about revolutions
2075
Fiction set in the 2070s
Novels set in the future
Libertarian science fiction books
Future dialects |
53398808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itemis | Itemis | itemis AG, headquartered in Lünen (North Rhine-Westphalia), is a German IT consulting and software development company, active among other things in the field of model-driven software development (MDSD). With the YAKINDU product family, itemis sells a number of self-developed software products.
History
itemis AG was founded in 2003 as a GmbH & Co. KG by Wolfgang Neuhaus and Jens Wagener. In September 2007 the change of the legal form took place. itemis AG is one of the largest IT companies in the Lünen region. The company's headquarters are located on the premises of the LÜNTEC Technology Center in the Brambauer part of town.
Other German locations are in Berlin, Bonn, Essen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Heide, Leipzig, Paderborn, and Stuttgart. International locations exist in Vélizy-Villacoublay near the French capital Paris and since 2017 in the Tunisian capital Tunis.
From 2009 to 2020, itemis was also represented in Windisch in the Swiss canton of Aargau. On 2020-12-11, itemis Schweiz GmbH was renamed Arcware GmbH; itemis AG ceased to be a company partner.
Business
Thematic fields
Itemis AG offers consulting services and software development in various areas of modern IT, including data science (artificial intelligence, machine learning), smart technologies (smart home, IoT, industry 4.0), web development, IT modernization, software & systems engineering, usability engineering, and agile software development.
Software development
To implement software development projects, itemis AG frequently uses its expertise in building domain-specific languages and in model-driven software development (see below).
The company is frequently represented with presentations or as an exhibitor at IT events and other business events in various industries. It also offers its own events on the subject of software development.
Products
Under the YAKINDU brand itemis AG offers a family of its own software tools:
YAKINDU Statechart Tools: state machine development
YAKINDU Model Viewer: Viewer for Simulink and Stateflow models
YAKINDU Traceability: ensures traceability in requirements management
YAKINDU Security Analyst: Risk Analysis of Technical Systems in the (Automotive) Development Process
YAKINDU EA-Bridge: Library for accessing Enterprise Architect models
Model-driven software development
itemis AG was initially active in the field of model-driven software development (MDSD). After MDSD was first introduced primarily in the development of enterprise applications, itemis AG also transferred these approaches to the development of embedded systems, which are used, for example, in aircraft, cars or production facilities.
Development tools
Tools (editors, generators, validators) are required to support model-driven development processes. itemis AG initially developed such tools under an open-source license and made them available under the umbrella of the Eclipse project.
Research projects
Since 2005, itemis AG has participated in 22 research projects, according to their own statements, and has also held the project management for some of them. This also included the management of research projects for the practical transfer and further development of research results within the context of model-driven development techniques. Within the scope of the MDA4E research project, model-driven development methods for the development of embedded systems based on the Eclipse project were developed. Further research projects dealt with the model-driven development of product management systems, the integrated specification of mechatronic products and production systems, the reuse of simulation models and the construction of model repositories. Research partners were Dortmund University of Applied Sciences and Arts (Fachhochschule Dortmund), Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Paderborn University, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Karlsruhe, German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt) headquartered in Cologne, and Leipzig University.
Publications and lectures
Research results and practical experience are publicly discussed and published through events of the Special Interest Group Model Driven Software Engineering. Furthermore, itemis AG is represented in the Gesellschaft für Informatik's working group for model-driven software architecture and in the BITKOM industry association's strategy circle for software-intensive, embedded systems. Employees of itemis AG have written technical books on model-driven software development. Itemis AG employees have also repeatedly published articles in journals, e.g. in Javaspektrum, in Javamagazin, in OBJEKTspektrum, in Computerwoche, in Elektronikpraxis, and in Eclipse Magazin.
itemis employees held talks at technical conferences such as OOP and Embedded World.
Scrum
itemis AG has been licensed by the Scrum.org organization to carry out certification classes for the agile project management method Scrum. Furthermore, itemis AG employees wrote a book on agile project management with Scrum. Today, itemis AG offers preparatory courses for Scrum certifications, which are approved by TÜV Süd.
Eclipse
Itemis AG was at times one of twelve strategic members of Eclipse Foundation, the umbrella organization of the Eclipse project, and was represented on the Board of Directors. Today, the company is a solution member of the Eclipse Foundation.
Itemis AG founded the Xtext and Xtend projects and managed the Eclipse Modeling Framework project in collaboration with Ed Merks.
Itemis AG is one of the founding members of the OpenADx working group within the Eclipse Foundation. OEMs from the automotive industry, tool manufacturers, and developers are working together here to create better compatibility, common interfaces and broader interoperability of software for autonomous driving. This is how OpenADx aims to accelerate innovation and productivity. Other founding members are AVL, Bosch, Eteration, IBM, JC Information Management, Red Hat and Siemens.
Awards
Innovator of the year 2019: First place in the TOP 100 innovation competition in size class B (up to 200 employees)
Crefozert (2010 – 2018): Creditreform Dortmund's annually awarded rating seal
Innovative through research (2018/2019): Award by the Donors' Association for the Promotion of Sciences and Humanities in Germany (ITE4842LUE)
Innovative through research (2016/2017): Award by the Donors' Association for the Promotion of Sciences and Humanities in Germany (ITE1399LUE)
Deloitte Technology Fast 50 (2011): Awarded as being one of the fifty fastest-growing technology companies
Deutscher Personalwirtschaftspreis 2010: First place at the “Human Resources Competition” (Deutscher Personalwirtschaftspreis) for the working time model “4+1”
Agile Leadership Award 2010: First place for competence in agile project management
Deloitte Technology Fast 50 (2009): Honored as one of the ten fastest growing technology companies.
Land der Ideen 2008: Included as a "select place" in the Federal Initiative "Germany – Land of Ideas" (Bundesinitiative "Deutschland – Land der Ideen")
Jax Innovation Award 2007: Third place for openArchitectureWare
Award winner at the "Ruhr Area Competition for the Future" (Zukunftswettbewerb Ruhrgebiet) in the years 2005 and 2006, under the "Objective 2" (Ziel 2) program of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia with Research Center Jülich (Forschungszentrum Jülich) being the research management organization. The funds were awarded by the Center for Innovation and Technology (Zentrum für Innovation und Technik, ZENIT).
Start2Grow 2004 founding competition by the municipality of Dortmund
References
Software companies of Germany |
2087185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20University%20of%20California%2C%20San%20Diego%20people | List of University of California, San Diego people | The list of University of California, San Diego people includes notable graduates, professors and administrators affiliated with the University of California, San Diego in the United States.
Notable alumni
Art and architecture
Micha Cárdenas, MFA (Visual Arts), 2009. Contemporary artist.
Moyra Davey, MFA (Photography), 1988. Contemporary artist.
Micol Hebron, did not graduate. Contemporary artist.
Hung Liu, MFA (Visual Arts), 1986. Contemporary artist.
Elle Mehrmand, MFA (Visual Arts), 2011. Contemporary artist.
Margaret Noble, BA (Philosophy), 2002. Conceptual artist and sound artist.
Dan Santat, BS (Microbiology), 1998. Author and illustrator, winner of 2015 Caldecott Medal.
Athletics
Geoff Abrams, MD (Medicine), 2006. Tennis player.
Mark Allen, BS (Biology), 1980. Six-time Ironman Triathlon World Champion, inducted into the Ironman Hall of Fame; named the world’s fittest man by Outside magazine.
Billy Beane, BA (Economics), 1985. General Manager of the Oakland Athletics.
Randy Bennett, BS (Biology), 1986. Saint Mary's College of California men's basketball head coach.
Alon Leichman, BS (History), 2016. Member of the Israel national baseball team and pitching coach for Yarmouth–Dennis Red Sox.
Jie Li, BA (Political Science), 2006. Winner of the US ING Cup, Open, Costen, Texas Open and many other championships.
Shlomo Lipetz, BA (International Relations), 2005. Israeli baseball player.
Bob Natal, BS (Computer Science), 1987. MLB Catcher, Montreal Expos, Florida Marlins National League.
Mike Saipe, Major League Baseball pitcher
Julie Swail, BA (Economics), 1995. Olympian (women’s water polo); UC Irvine head coach.
Business
Garrett Gruener, BS (Political Science), 1976. Co-founder of Ask Jeeves.
Gary E. Jacobs, BA (Management Science), 1979. Businessman and minority owner of the Sacramento Kings.
Jasper Kim, BA (Economics and Third World Studies), 1994. CEO of Asia-Pacific Global Research Group.
Brandon Nixon, BS (Computer Science and Engineering), 1987. Chairman and CEO of Lytx.
Greg Papadopoulos, BA (Systems Science), 1979. Executive VP and CTA of Sun Microsystems.
Robert J. Pera, MS (Electrical Engineering), 2002. Founder of Ubiquiti Networks Owner of the Memphis Grizzlies.
Michael Robertson, BS (Cognitive Science), 1989. Founder of MP3.com, Lindows.com, and SIPphone.
Philip Rosedale, BS (Physics), 1992. Founder and CEO of Linden Lab. Creator of virtual 3D world Second Life.
Jason Snell, BA (Communications), 1992. Editorial director of Mac Publishing and editor of Macworld.
Nick Woodman, BA (Visual Arts), 1997. Founder and CEO of GoPro.
Computer science
Bill Atkinson, BS (Chemistry), 1974. Co-developer of the Macintosh computer.
Ryan Dahl, BS (Mathematics), 2003. Inventor and original author of Node.js
Steve Hart, MA (Mathematics), 1980. Co-founder and vice president of engineering for Viasat; recognized for excellence and growth by Forbes Inc. and BusinessWeek.
David E. Shaw, BS (Mathematics), 1972. Founder of D. E. Shaw & Co.
Guy “Bud” Tribble, BS (Physics), 1975. Principal architect of the original Macintosh computer and co-founder of NeXt, Inc.
Film, theatre, and television
Yareli Arizmendi, MFA (Acting), 1992. Actor in Like Water for Chocolate.
James Avery, BA (Theatre), 1976. Stage, screen and television actor who co-starred with Will Smith on the TV show Fresh Prince of Bel Air.
Rachel Axler, MFA (Playwriting), 2004. Emmy Award-winning writer for The Daily Show and Parks and Recreation.
David Barrera, MFA (Acting), 1994. ALMA Award-nominated actor for 24.
Marsha Stephanie Blake, MFA (Acting), 2001. Emmy Award-nominated actor for When They See Us.
Hart Bochner, BA (Theatre), 1979. Film actor notably of Breaking Away.
Robert Buckley, BS (Economics), 2003. Actor, best known for One Tree Hill.
Danny Burstein, MFA (Acting), 1990. Tony Award-winning actor, three-time Grammy Award nominee.
Zoë Chao, MFA (Acting), 2011. Actress and star of the television show The God Particles and the Facebook Watch drama Strangers.
Ricardo Chavira, MFA (Acting), 2000. Actor, notably of Desperate Housewives.
Charlet Chung, BA (Communications), 2006. Voice Actor, notably of Overwatch.
Steve Cosson, MFA (Directing), 2001. Obie Award-winning artistic director of The Civilians.
Benicio del Toro, did not graduate. Actor, notably of Traffic.
Emily Donahoe, MFA (Acting), 2004. Obie and Helen Hayes award-winning actor.
Maria Dizzia, MFA (Acting), 2001. Tony Award nominee In the Next Room (or The Vibrator Play).
Johnny Ray Gill, MFA (Acting), 2010. Series regular on Underground and BrainDead.
Michael Greif, MFA (Directing), 1985. Director of Rent and former artistic director of La Jolla Playhouse. Three-time Tony Award nominee.
Matt Hoverman, MFA (Acting), 1996. Daytime Emmy Award-winning writer.
Zora Howard, MFA (Acting), 2017. Pulitzer Prize for Drama finalist for STEW.
Daniel Humbarger, BA. Stand-up comedian.
Naomi Iizuka, MFA (Playwriting), 1992. Author of over two dozen plays including Language of Angels.
Chane't Johnson, MFA (Acting), 2001. Television and film actor; coach for Denzel Whitaker.
Ty Granderson Jones, MFA (Acting), 1982. Film and television actor with credits including Con Air.
Mike Judge, BS (Physics), 1985. Animator/Director best known for Beavis and Butt-head, Office Space, King of the Hill, and Silicon Valley. Graduation speaker for the class of 2009.
Anne Kauffman, MFA (Directing), 1999. Obie Award winning director.
Sagan Lewis, MFA (Acting), 1977. Series regular on St. Elsewhere.
Melanie Marnich MFA (Playwriting), 1998. Writer for Big Love, Jerome Fellowship from The Playwrights' Center, and Golden Globe winner.
Jefferson Mays, MFA (Acting), 1991. Tony Award winner, I Am My Own Wife.
Silas Weir Mitchell, MFA (Acting), 1995. Character actor and star of Grimm.
Toby Onwumere, MFA (Acting), 2015. Star of Sense8.
Joy Osmanski, MFA (Acting), 2003. Most notable credits include Duncanville and Santa Clarita Diet.
Neil Patel, MFA (Scenic Design), 1991. Broadway designer of Side Man, winner of Obie and Helen Hayes awards.
Jeanne Paulsen, MFA (Acting), 1978. Tony Award nominee, The Kentucky Cycle.
Dileep Rao, BA (Theatre), 1995. Film actor in Avatar, Inception.
Maria Striar, MFA (Acting), 1995. Founder and artistic director of Clubbed Thumb.
Caridad Svich, MFA (Playwriting), 1988. Obie Award for Lifetime Achievement.
Milana Vayntrub, BA (Communication), 2008. Actress, comedian, and writer.
Kellie Waymire, MFA (Acting), 1993. Best known for Star Trek: Enterprise and roles on Six Feet Under, and One Life to Live.
John Wesley, MFA (Acting), 1977. Actor well known for roles on The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air and Martin.
Wong Fu Productions filmmaking trio: Wesley Chan, Ted Fu and Philip Wang, BA (Cinematography), 2006.
Jimmy O. Yang, BS (Economics), 2009. Actor and stand-up comedian, best known for Silicon Valley and Patriots Day.
Lauren Yee, MFA (Playwriting), 2012. Whiting Award winner, produced at Playwrights Horizons and Atlantic Theatre Company.
Paloma Young, MFA (Costume Design), 2006. Tony Award winner, Peter and the Starcatcher.
Journalism
Mona Kosar Abdi, BA (International Relations), 2011. Multimedia journalist with WSET ABC 13, the Al Jazeera Media Network.
Katie Hafner, BA (German Literature), 1979.
Law and politics
Nicola T. Hanna, BA, 1984. U.S. Attorney for the Central District of California .
Steve Peace, BA (Political Science), 1976. California State Senator, 40th Senate District, chair of the Senate Budget and Fiscal Review Committee, California Journal of Legislator of the Year 2000; and producer of the 1970s cult film Attack of the Killer Tomatoes.
Timothy J. Roemer, BA (Government), 1979. Former Indiana Congressman and current president of the Center for National Policy.
John Shoven, BA (Physics), 1969. Hoover Institute senior fellow.
Literature
Debito Arudou, MPIA (International Affairs), 1990. Author and activist.
Greg Benford, Ph.D (Astrophysics), 1967. Nebula Award winner.
David Brin, MS (Applied Physics), 1978; Ph.D (Space Science), 1981. Nebula and Hugo Award Winner; science fiction author, notably of Uplift; physicist.
Robert Todd Carroll, Ph.D (Philosophy), 1974. Publisher of The Skeptic's Dictionary and fellow for Committee for Skeptical Inquiry.
Susann Cokal, BA (French Literature), 1986. Author, Michael L. Printz Award Honor winner.
Angela Davis, MA (Philosophy), 1968. Radical activist and philosopher.
Suzette Haden Elgin, PhD (Linguistics), 1973. Science fiction author.
Raymond E. Feist, BA (Communications), 1977. Author.
Nancy Holder, BA (Communications), 1976. Bram Stoker Award winner.
Khaled Hosseini, MD (Medicine), 1993. Afghan-American novelist and physician; his 2003 debut novel, The Kite Runner, was a #1 New York Times bestseller.
Aaron Krach, BA (Visual Arts), 1994. Writer.
Virgil Nemoianu, Ph.D (Literature), 1971. Essayist, literary critic, philosopher of culture.
Rex Pickett, BA (Literature and Visual Arts), 1976. Author of Sideways.
Kim Stanley Robinson, BA (Literature), 1974; Ph.D (Literature), 1982. Two-time Nebula and Hugo Award winner.
Alan Russell, BA (English and American Literature), 1978. Lefty Award winner and bestselling crime fiction author.
Vernor Vinge, Ph.D (Mathematics), 1971. Hugo Award winner Science fiction author, computer scientist, and mathematician.
Andy Weir (did not graduate), Astounding Award for Best New Writer winner Science fiction author and computer programmer best known for The Martian and Artemis.
Kirby Wright, BA (English and American Literature), 1983. Poet and Writer.
Music and entertainment
Mark Applebaum, Ph.D (Composition), 1996. Composer and Professor of Music at Stanford University.
Milo Aukerman, Ph.D (Biology), 1992. Lead singer of punk rock band Descendents.
Chad Butler, BA (History of Science), 1997. Drummer of the rock band Switchfoot.
Chaya Czernowin, Ph.D (Composition), 1993. Composer and Walter Bigelow Rosen Professor of Music at Harvard University.
Steven Dehler, BA (Economics), 2010. Model, actor, and dancer.
Paul Dresher, MA (Composition), 1976. Composer, guitarist, and improviser.
Nathan East, BA (Music), 1978. Bass guitarist.
David Felder, Ph.D (Composition), 1983. Composer and SUNY Distinguished Professor at the University at Buffalo.
Jon Foreman, did not graduate. Guitarist of rock band Switchfoot.
Tim Foreman, did not graduate. Bassist of rock band Switchfoot.
Ben Gleib, BA (Communications and Theatre), 2000. American Actor and Comedian.
Maria Ho, BA (Communications), 2005. Professional poker player.
David Evan Jones, Ph.D (Composition). Composer, Professor of Music, and Porter College Provost at UC Santa Cruz.
Kelly Kim, BA (Economics), 1998. Professional poker player.
Anthony Neely, BS (Psychology and Theatre), 2008. American Mandopop Singer.
Paul Phillips, BS (Computer Science), 1996. Professional poker player.
John Warthen Struble, MA (Composition), 1976. Composer, pianist, and author of The History of American Classical Music.
Public service
George Blumenthal, Ph.D (Physics), 1972. Chancellor of the University of California, Santa Cruz.
Kurt M. Campbell, BA (Special Project Major), 1980. Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs.
Dana Shell Smith, BA (Political Science), 1992. United States Ambassador to Qatar, 2014–2017.
Science, technology, medicine, and mathematics
Margaret Allen, MD (Medicine), 1974. First female heart transplant surgeon.
James Benford (physicist), 1966 MS, 1969 Ph.D.
Bruce Beutler, BS (Biology), 1976. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
Angela N. Brooks, B.S., Biology. 2018 University of California, Santa Cruz Women in Science and Engineering Award.
Chu Ching-wu, Ph.D (Physics), 1990. US News and World Reports Researcher of the Year.
Brian Druker, BS (Chemistry), 1977; MD (Medicine), 1981. Oncologist/chief investigator who developed a new drug for leukemia treatment.
David Goeddel, BS (Chemistry), 1972. First full-time scientist and director of Genentech’s molecular biology department; co-founder, president and CEO of Tularik, Inc.
Gerald Joyce, Ph.D (Biology) 1984. Scientist, Salk Institute. Inventor of the in vitro evolution technology. Director of the Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation.
Peretz Lavie (born 1949), Israeli expert in the psychophysiology of sleep and sleep disorders, 16th president of the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Dean of the Rappaport Faculty of Medicine
Antony Garrett Lisi, Ph.D (Physics), 1999. Theoretical physicist awarded FQXi grant.
M. Brian Maple, Ph.D (Physics), 1969. David Adler Lectureship Award in the Field of Materials Physics.
Eleanor Mariano, BS (Biology), 1977. Former director, White House Medical Unit; First Filipino American to reach the rank of Rear Admiral in the U.S. Navy.
Naomi Miyake, Ph.D. (Psychology), 1982. Cognitive psychologist recognized for her contributions to the science of learning.
Walter Munk, Ph.D (Oceanography), 1947. Oceanographer.
George Perry, Ph.D (Marine Biology), 1979. Researcher in Alzheimer's disease.
Jed E. Rose, Ph.D (Neurosciences), 1978. Professor in Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Co-Inventor of the nicotine patch, President and CEO of the Rose Research Center.
Kathleen (Kate) Rubins, B.S. (Molecular Biology), 1999. NASA Astronaut. First person to sequence DNA in space.
Maurizio Seracini, BS (Bioengineering), 1973. Founded the Editech srl, Diagnostic Center for Cultural Heritage in Florence.
Edward Tobinick, MD (Medicine), 1974. Patented a use of subcutaneous TNF-α to treat intractable back pain.
Susumu Tonegawa, Ph.D, (Molecular Biology), 1968. Nobel Prize recipient for physiology or medicine for his work on antibody diversity.
Craig Venter, BA (Biochemistry), 1972; PhD (Pharmacology), 1975. President of Celera Genomics, the first private firm to decode the human genome.
Distinguished faculty
Hannes Alfven, Electrical Engineering. Father of modern magnetohydrodynamics, eponym of Alfven waves, Nobel Prize in Physics, 1970.
David Antin, Visual Arts. Known poet and performance artist.
Eleanor Antin, Visual Arts. Feminist artist of The Angel of Mercy.
Percival Bazeley, Medicine. Member of the Salk Polio vaccine team.
Kenneth Bowles, Computer Science. Known for his work in initiating and directing the UCSD Pascal project.
Benjamin H. Bratton, Visual Arts. Sociologist, architectural and design theorist.
Sydney Brenner, Salk Institute. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 2002.
Sheldon Brown, Visual Arts. Director of Experimental Game Lab, Co-Director of Center for Research in Computing and the Arts.
Keith Brueckner, Physics. Theoretical physicist, National Academy of Sciences (Physics) member, and a founder of the UCSD Department of Physics.
Geoffrey R. Burbidge, Physics. Professor known mostly for his alternative cosmology theory, which contradicts the Big Bang theory.
Margaret Burbidge, Astronomy. First to study and identify quasars; Carnegie Fellowship winner, 1947.
Craig Callender, Science Studies. Philosopher of science.
Micha Cárdenas, Visual Arts and Critical Gender Studies. Artist and theorist, collective member of Lui Velazquez.
Lin Chao, Biology. Known for his early work on the evolution of bacteriocins, his demonstration of Muller’s ratchet in the RNA Virus Phi-6.
Jiun-Shyan Chen, engineering professor
Shu Chien, Bioengineering. Bioengineering pioneer and National Medal of Science laureate.
Eric Christmas, Theatre. Prolific film actor.
Patricia Churchland, Philosophy. Neurophilosopher and MacArthur Fellowship recipient, 1991.
Paul Churchland, Philosophy. Philosopher of mind and philosopher of science, proponent eliminative materialism.
Harold Cohen, Visual Arts. English-born artist, creator of AARON.
Francis Crick, Salk Institute. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1962.
Paul Crutzen, Chemistry. Notable atmospheric chemist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1995.
Charles Curtis, Music. Avant-garde cellist.
Chaya Czernowin, Music. Israeli composer, former professor of composition.
Anthony Davis, Music. Opera composer, jazz pianist.
Diana Deutsch, Psychology. Known for her research on the psychology of music including the octave illusion.
Bram Dijkstra, English. Known for his books on the femme fatale icon in popular culture.
Russell Doolittle, Chemistry. Known for research on molecular evolution.
Mark Dresser, Music. Double bass player and improviser, winner of the Fulbright Fellowship, 1983.
Renato Dulbecco, Salk Institute. Helped launch the Human Genome Project, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1975.
Jeffrey Elman, Cognitive Science. Psycholinguist and pioneer in the field of neural networks.
Robert F. Engle, Economics. Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, 2003.
Robert Erickson, Music. Composer. His composition Sierra is the state anthem of California.
Ronald M. Evans, Salk Institute. Discovered steroid and nuclear receptors; Lasker Award winner.
Manny Farber, Visual Arts. Film critic and painter.
Gilles Fauconnier, Cognitive Science. Inventor of the modern-day theory of conceptual blending.
George Feher, Physics. Wolf Prize in Chemistry (2006/7), National Academy of Sciences member, biophysicist.
Brian Ferneyhough, Music. Composer, founder of New Complexity movement.
David Noel Freedman, Religion. General editor of the Anchor Bible Series.
Y.C. Fung, Bioengineering. Considered the father of bioengineering.
Fred Gage, Salk Institute. Neuroscientist and stem cell biologist; discovered human adult neural stem cells.
Clark Gibson, Political Science. Expert on African politics and electoral fraud.
Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Physics. Nobel Prize in Physics, 1963.
Joseph Goguen, Computer Science. Helped originate the OBJ family of programming languages.
Adele Goldberg, Linguistics.
Marvin Leonard Goldberger, Physics. National Academy of Sciences (Physics) member, former Dean of Natural Sciences, and former president of Caltech.
Lawrence S.B. Goldstein, Cellular and Molecular Medicine. First to characterize kinesin molecular motors; head of UCSD stem cell research program.
Jean-Pierre Gorin, Visual Arts. Film director, best known for his work with the French New Wave.
Fan Chung Graham, Mathematics. Mathematician, Akamai Professor in Internet Mathematics working in the area of spectral graph theory, extremal graph theory and random graphs.
Ronald Graham, Computer Science and Engineering. Mathematician, one of the principal architects of the rapid development worldwide of discrete mathematics.
Clive W.J. Granger, Economics. Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, 2003.
Deborah Hertz, History. Author of Jewish High Society in Old Regime Berlin, Herman Wouk Chair in Modern Jewish Studies.
Gretchen Hofmann, Ecology. Ecologist whose work on the effects of changing seawater acidity and temperature on marine life has drawn wide attention.
Edwin Hutchins, Cognitive Science. Developed distributed cognition and cognitive ethnography; MacArthur Grant, 1985.
Harvey Itano, Pathology. Diochemist known for his work on the molecular basis of sickle cell anemia and other diseases.
Gabriel Jackson, History. Fulbright scholar, historian, author, and former department chairman.
Irwin M. Jacobs, Electrical and Computer Engineering. Chairman of Qualcomm.
Fredric Jameson, Comparative Literature. Literary critic and Marxist political theorist.
Henrik Wann Jensen, Computer Science. Developed first technique for efficiently simulating subsurface scattering in translucent materials; winner of an Academy Award for Technical Achievement in 2004 from the Academy of Motion Picture and Sciences.
Chalmers Johnson, History. Author as well as president and co-founder of the Japan Policy Research Institute.
David K Jordan, Anthropology; Provost of Warren College. Alumni Association Distinguished Teaching Award 2008 recipient
Allan Kaprow, Visual Arts. Painter, assemblagist and a pioneer in establishing the concepts of performance art.
Harvey Karten, Neuroscience. National Academy of Sciences member, neuroscientist.
Charles David Keeling, Oceanography. First alerted the world to the anthropogenic contribution to the "greenhouse effect" and global warming; discoverer of the Keeling Curve.
Walter Kohn, Physics. Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1998. Notable for the Kohn-Sham equations.
Barbara Kruger, Visual Arts. American conceptual artist and collagist.
Ronald Langacker, Linguistics. Creator of cognitive grammar.
William Lerach, Guest Lecturer. Taught securities and corporate law; a leading securities lawyer in the United States. His life was the subject of Circle of Greed: The Spectacular Rise and Fall of the Lawyer Who Brought Corporate America to its Knees.
George E. Lewis, Music. Noted jazz trombone player, MacArthur Fellowship winner, 2002.
Lei Liang, Music. Composer. Winner of the Grawemeyer Award, Rome Prize, Pulitzer Prize finalist, and recipient of the Guggenheim Fellowship.
Arend Lijphart, Political Science. Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1989; President of the American Political Science Association from 1995 to 1996; recipient of the prestigious Johan Skytte Prize in Political Science, 1997.
Yu-Hwa Lo, Electrical and Computer Engineering.
George Mandler, Psychology. Experimental psychologist and founder of UCSD Department of Psychology.
Jean Matter Mandler, Psychology. Specialist in cognitive development, winner of the Eleanor Maccoby Outstanding Book Award from the APA.
Babette Mangolte, Visual Arts. French cinematographer.
Lev Manovich, Visual Arts. New Media theorist, Director of Software Studies Initiative.
M. Brian Maple, Physics. National Academy of Sciences member, physicist.
Herbert Marcuse, Philosophy. Mentor to Angela Davis, author of Eros and Civilization and One-Dimensional Man.
Harry Markowitz, Finance. Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, 1990.
Andrew Mattison, Psychiatry. Co-author of The Male Couple, co-founder of the University of California Center for Medicinal Cannabis Research.
Mathew D. McCubbins, Political Science. Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Elliot McVeigh, Bioengineering, Medicine, and Radiology. Director of Cardiovascular Imaging Lab, Researcher at Cardiovascular Imaging Lab and Faculty.
Mario Molina, Chemistry. Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1995.
Eileen Myles, Literature. Poet, Guggenheim Fellowship winner, and author of Afterglow.
Donald Norman, Cognitive Science and Psychology. Co-founder and first chair of Cognitive Science; author of User Centered System Design; VP of Apple; National Academy of Engineering.
Pauline Oliveros, Music. Composer, central figure in the development of post-war electronic art music.
George Emil Palade, Medicine. Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine, 1974 and winner of the National Medal of Science.
Linus Pauling, Chemistry. Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1954.
Richard Popkin, Philosophy. Internationally acclaimed scholar on Jewish and Christian millenarianism and messianism.
Miller Puckette, Music. Creator of Puredata Programming Language and co-Director of Center for Research in Computing and the Arts.
Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, Neuroscience and Psychology. Author of several books including Phantoms in the Brain
Jef Raskin, Computer Science. Founder of the Apple Macintosh project.
Roger Revelle (1909–1991), Oceanography. Scholar, namesake of Roger Revelle College, and former president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Roger Reynolds, Music. Pulitzer Prize for Music, 1989.
Sally Ride, Physics. Former astronaut, the first American woman in space.
Marshall Rosenbluth Physics. Developer of the Metropolis algorithm, member of the National Academy of Sciences, called Pope of Plasma Physics.
Rosaura Sánchez, Literature. Author and literary critic
Herbert Schiller, Communication. American media critic, sociologist, and scholar.
Terry Sejnowski, Biological Sciences. Winner of the Wright Prize and fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
Kartik Seshadri, Music. Sitar player, director of the Indian Classical Music Ensemble.
Lu Jeu Sham, Physics. National Academy of Sciences member, Kohn-Sham equations, Guggenheim Fellowship, 1983.
Ravi Shankar, Music. Sitar player, collaborated with violinist Yehudi Menuhin and George Harrison.
Susan Shirk, International Relations and Pacific Studies. Former Deputy Assistant Secretary of State during the Clinton administration.
Nicholas Spitzer, Biology. Founding editor of BrainFacts.org, fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and National Academy of Sciences member.
Larry Squire, Psychiatry, Neurosciences, and Psychology. Leading investigator of the neurological bases of memory.
John G. Stoessinger, Political Science. Award-winning author, recipient of the Bancroft Prize for The Might of Nations.
Avrum Stroll, Philosophy. Noted scholar in the fields of epistemology and the philosophy of language. Author of over one dozen books.
Suresh Subramani, Biological Sciences. Guggenheim Fellowship recipient and former Executive Vice Chancellor of Academic Affairs.
Harry Suhl, Physics. National Academy of Sciences (Physics) member. Guggenheim Fellowship, 1968.
Leó Szilárd, Salk Institute. Physicist who contributed to the Manhattan Project; founded the Council for a Livable World.
Roger Tsien, Chemistry. Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 2008. Wolf Prize in Medicine, 2004. Known for discovering green fluorescent protein.
Chinary Ung, Music. Grawemeyer Award winning composer.
Harold Urey, Chemistry. Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1934.
Benjamin Elazari Volcani, Scripps Institute. Microbiologist; discovered life in the Dead Sea; pioneered biological silicon research.
Joseph Wang, Nanoengineering. ISI's World's Most Cited Engineer, ISI's World's Most Cited Chemist.
Les Waters, Theatre. Former artistic director of the Actors Theatre of Louisville.
Kenneth Watson, Physics. National Academy of Sciences (Physics) member.
Herbert F. York, Physics; University Chancellor. Enrico Fermi Award, 2000.
Efim Zelmanov, Mathematics. Fields Medal recipient. Known for his work on combinatorial problems in nonassociative algebra and group theory.
Bruno H. Zimm, Chemistry and Biochemistry. National Academy of Sciences member, biophysicist, and leading polymer chemist.
References
List
UCSD people
San Diego people |
41222480 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20Goldstein | Frederick Goldstein | Frederick Steven Goldstein (14 October 1944 – 3 December 2017) was a cricketer who played first-class cricket in England and South Africa from 1966 to 1977.
Education
After attending Falcon College in Rhodesia, Goldstein was awarded a Rhodes Scholarship to St Edmund Hall, Oxford in 1965. He went on to win a first.
Cricket in England
Oxford University
A hard-hitting opening batsman, in his first match for Oxford University in the 1966 season Goldstein made 65 and 78 against Gloucestershire when no other Oxford batsman made more than 32. He later top-scored in both innings against Middlesex with 42 and 39. He played in the University match and finished the season with 583 runs at 34.29 in nine matches. Wisden noted that "Goldstein, in his first year, hit form straight away with an impressive combination of solid defence and enterprising strokes".
He was only moderately successful in 1967, but in a weak team his 572 runs at 22.83 in 12 matches was the second-highest aggregate. Wisden noted that he "again showed his strength as an efficient and brisk opener". His highest score was 66 against Somerset, a match in which he also took six catches.
In 1968 he captained the side, and in 14 matches scored 945 runs at 42.95. He finished ninth in the national batting averages. The highlight was his first century, 155 against Cambridge University at Lord's, scored in three and a half hours with 25 fours and three sixes. He made all 53 runs as the score advanced from 125 to 178, and when he was second man out, the score was only 206. He also scored 54 in the second innings, reaching his fifty in 52 minutes.
In 1969 he became only the fourth player in the twentieth century to captain Oxford in more than one season. He again led the batting, with 864 runs at 36.00. Wisden noted that he "on occasions gave the innings a thrilling start with his powerful hitting, but there were other times when he lost his wicket through attempting to be too aggressive when the situation demanded caution". His highest score was 87, fourth out at 121, against Warwickshire, which he equalled with a "blistering" innings of 87 against Kent. Other boisterous innings included 76 in pursuit of victory against Lancashire, when he hit three successive sixes off the bowling of Jack Simmons and was second out with the score on 92. He also captained a combined Oxford and Cambridge XI against the touring West Indies cricket team, scoring 78 in 80 minutes. He made 43 and 69 (with 14 fours) against Cambridge, but as in the 1968 University match he was unable to force victory in his final match for Oxford. In 47 matches for Oxford over four seasons he made 2964 runs at 34.06, with 21 scores of 50 or more but only one century.
Northamptonshire and other English cricket
In 1968 he played seven one-day matches for the International Cavaliers. After the 1969 university season he joined Northamptonshire. Opening the batting with Hylton Ackerman, he played 10 matches and scored 437 runs at 25.70 with a top score of 90 (out of a team total of 220) against Glamorgan. He also played ten matches for the county in the 40-over Player's County League, but scored only 138 runs in 10 innings.
Cricket in South Africa
He moved to South Africa after the 1969 season and played one match for Transvaal B in 1969–70. He played six first-class matches for Transvaal B and two for Transvaal in 1970–71, with a top score of 51. He opened the batting for Transvaal in the final of the 60-over Gillette Cup in 1970–71 and made 82.
He transferred to Western Province and played a few matches in 1971–72 and 1972–73. He top-scored with 77 in the final of the 1972–73 Gillette Cup, helping Western Province to victory. In 1973–74 he played his only full South African season, scoring 500 runs in nine first-class matches at 29.41. He scored 104, his second first-class century, in the Currie Cup against Natal, adding 175 for the second wicket with Hylton Ackerman.
He continued to play occasionally until 1977–78 with moderate success. He made his highest limited-overs score of 91 in the semi-final of the 1974–75 Gillette Cup to help Western Province into the final.
Outside Cricket
Information Technology
He worked at the University of Cape Town (UCT) Information Technology Department for many years, starting in 1971 as Senior Systems Programmer. He was involved in the early days of the Internet in South Africa. As Director of the Information Technology Department, he provided support at a policy and strategic level to set up an internet link between UCT and Rhodes University in Grahamstown.
References
External links
1944 births
2017 deaths
Zimbabwean cricketers
Alumni of Falcon College
Alumni of St Edmund Hall, Oxford
Zimbabwean Rhodes Scholars
Northamptonshire cricketers
Gauteng cricketers
Oxford University cricketers
Western Province cricketers
Oxford and Cambridge Universities cricketers |
13554970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit%20Control%20Block | Unit Control Block | In IBM mainframe operating systems from the OS/360 and successors line, a Unit Control Block (UCB) is a memory structure, or a control block, that describes any single input/output peripheral device (unit), or an exposure (alias), to the operating system. Certain data within the UCB also instructs the Input/Output Supervisor (IOS) to use certain closed subroutines in addition to normal IOS processing for additional physical device control.
Some other operating systems have similar structures.
Overview
During initial program load (IPL) of current MVS systems, the Nucleus Initialization Program (NIP) reads necessary information from the I/O Definition File (IODF) and uses it to build the UCBs. The UCBs are stored in system-owned memory, in the Extended System Queue Area (ESQA). After IPL completes, UCBs are owned by Input/Output Support. Some of the information stored in the UCB are: device type (disk, tape, printer, terminal, etc.), address of the device (such as 1002), subchannel identifier and device number, channel path ID (CHPID) which defines the path to the device, for some devices the volume serial number (VOLSER), and a large amount of other information, including OS Job Management data.
While the contents of the UCB has changed as MVS evolved, the concept has not. It is a representation to the operating system of an external device. Inside every UCB is a subchannel number for the subchannel-identification word used in the SSCH instruction , to start a chain of channel commands, known as CCWs. CCWs are queued onto the UCB with the STARTIO macro interface, although that reference does NOT discuss the STARTIO macro as that macro instruction is NOT an IBM-supported interface, not withstanding the fact that that interface has remained the same for at least the past three decades. The STARTIO interface will either start the operation immediately, should the Channel Queue be empty, or it will queue the request on the Channel Queue for deferred execution. Such deferred execution will be initiated immediately when the request is at the head of the queue and the device becomes available, even if another program is in control at that instant. Such is the basic design of Input/Output Supervisor (IOS).
The UCB evolved to be an anchor to hold information and states about the device. The UCB currently has five areas used for an external interface: Device Class Extension, UCB Common Extension, UCB Prefix Stub, UCB Common Segment and the UCB Device Dependent Segment. Other areas are internal use only. This information can be read and used to determine information about the device.
In the earliest implementations of this OS, the UCBs (foundations and extensions) were assembled during SYSGEN, and were located within the first 64 KB of the system area, as the I/O device lookup table consisted of 16-bit Q-type (i.e. relocatable) addresses. Subsequent enhancements allowed the extensions to be above the 64-kilobyte (65,536 bytes) line, thereby saving space for additional UCB foundations below the 64-kilobyte line and also thereby preserving the architecture of the UCB lookup table (converting a CUu to a UCB foundation address).
Handling parallel I/O operations
UCBs were introduced in the 1960s with OS/360. Then a device addressed by UCB was typically a moving head hard disk drive or a tape drive, with no internal cache. Without it, the device was usually grossly outperformed by the mainframe's channel processor. Hence, there was no reason to execute multiple input/output operations to it at the same time, as these would be impossible for a device to physically handle. In 1968 IBM introduced the 2305-1 and 2305-2 fixed-head disks, which had rotational position sensing (RPS) and 8 exposures (alias addresses) per disk; the OS/360 support provided a UCB per exposure in order to permit multiple concurrent channel programs. Similarly, later systems derived from OS/360 required an additional UCB for each allocated virtual volume in a 3850 Mass Storage System (MSS) and for each exposure on a 3880-11, 3880-13 and their successors.
Parallel Access Volumes (PAVs)
Since only one set of channel commands or I/O could be run at one time. This was fine in the 1960s when CPUs were slow and I/O could only be processed as fast as CPUs could process it. As systems matured and CPU speed greatly surpassed I/O input capacity, access to the device that was serialized at the UCB level became a serious bottleneck.
Parallel Access Volume (PAV) allow UCBs to clone themselves to allow multiple I/O to run simultaneously. With appropriate support by the DASD hardware, PAV provides support for more than one I/O to a single device at a time. To maintain backward compatibility, operations are still serialized below the UCB level. But PAV allows the definition of additional UCBs to the same logical device, each using an additional alias address. For example, a DASD device at base address 1000, could have alias addresses of 1001, 1002 and 1003. Each of these alias addresses would have their own UCB. Since there are now four UCBs to a single device, four concurrent I/Os are possible. Writes to the same extent, an area of the disk assigned to one contiguous area of a file, are still serialized, but other reads and writes occur simultaneously. The first version of PAV the disk controller assigns a PAV to a UCB. In the second version of PAV processing, Workload Manager (WLM) reassigns a PAV to new UCBs from time to time. In the third version of PAV processing, with the IBM DS8000 series, each I/O uses any available PAV with the UCB it needs.
The net effect of PAVs is to decrease the IOSQ time component of disk response time, often to zero. , the only restrictions to PAV are the number of alias addresses, 255 per base address, and overall number of devices per logical control unit, 256 counting base plus aliases.
Static versus dynamic PAVs
There are two types of PAV alias addresses, static and dynamic. A static alias address is defined, in both DASD hardware and z/OS, to refer to a specific single base address. Dynamic means that the number of alias addresses assigned to a specific base address fluctuates based on need. The management of these dynamic aliases is left to WLM, running in goal mode (which is always the case with supported levels of z/OS). On most systems that implement PAV, there is usually a mixture of both PAV types. One, perhaps two, static aliases are defined for each base UCB and a bunch of dynamic aliases are defined for WLM to manage as it sees fit.
As WLM watches over the I/O activity in the system, WLM determines if there a high-importance workload is delayed due to high contention for a specific PAV-enabled device. Specifically, for a disk device, base and alias UCBs must be insufficient to eliminate IOS Queue time. If there is high contention, and WLM estimates doing so would help the workload achieve its goals more readily, it will try to move aliases from another base address to this device.
Another problem may be certain performance goals are not being met, as specified by WLM service classes. WLM will then look for alias UCBs that are processing work for less important tasks (service class), and if appropriate, WLM will re-associate aliases to the base addresses associated with the more important work.
HyperPAVs
WLM's actions in moving aliases from one disk device to another take a few seconds for the effects to be seen. For many situations this is not fast enough. HyperPAVs are much more responsive because they acquire a UCB from a pool for the duration of a single I/O operation, before returning it to the pool. There is no delay waiting for WLM to react.
Further, because with HyperPAV the UCB is acquired for only the duration of a single I/O, a smaller number of UCBs are required to service the same workload, compared to Dynamic PAVs. For large z/OS images UCBs can be a scarce resource. So HyperPAVs can provide some relief in this regard.
In other operating systems
Digital's VMS operating system uses an identically named structure, the UCB, for similar purposes. A UCB is created for each I/O device. The data in the UCB includes the device's unit number (a part of the device name) and a listhead to which pending I/O requests may be queued. The UCB may have a device-driver defined extension in which the driver can keep driver-defined data that is instantiated for each device.
See also
OS/390
Notes
References
IBM mainframe operating systems |
5594712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiMedia%20Alliance | WiMedia Alliance | The WiMedia Alliance was a non-profit industry trade group that promoted the adoption, regulation, standardization and multi-vendor interoperability of ultra-wideband (UWB) technologies. It existed from about 2002 through 2009.
History
The Wireless Multimedia Alliance was founded by 2002.
The WiMedia Alliance developed reference technical specifications including:
Physical layers and media access control (MAC) layers
Convergence architecture to provide coexistence and fairness including support for multiple applications
A protocol adaptation layer for the Internet Protocol
IP-based application profiles
The WiMedia ultra-wideband (UWB) common radio platform incorporated MAC layer and PHY layer specifications based on multi-band orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (MB-OFDM). It was intended for short-range multimedia file transfers at data rates of 480 Mbit/s and beyond with low power consumption, and operates in the 3.1 to 10.6 GHz UWB spectrum. WiMedia UWB was promoted for personal computers, consumer electronics, mobile devices and automotive networks.
WiMedia Alliance and MultiBand OFDM Alliance Special Interest Group (MBOA-SIG, promoted by Intel) merged into a single organization in 2005. The merged group operated as the WiMedia Alliance.
The ultra-wideband system provided a wireless personal area network (WPAN) with data payload communication capabilities of 53.3, 55, 80, 106.67, 110, 160, 200, 320, 480, 640, 800, 960, and 1024 Mbit/s.
The WiMedia UWB platform was complementary to WPAN technologies such as Bluetooth 3.0, Certified Wireless USB, the 1394 Trade Group’s “Wireless FireWire” Protocol Adaptation Layer (PAL) (Non-IP Peer to Peer architecture) and Wireless TCP/IP - Digital Living Network Alliance. Different wireless protocols can operate within the same wireless personal area network without interference. In addition to these, many other industry protocols can reside on top of the WiMedia UWB platform. Those include Ethernet, Digital Visual Interface (DVI) and High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI). The WiMedia PHY specification has an over-the-air uncoded capability of more than 1024 Mbit/s; the specification was promoted to support wireless video, operating at multiple Gbit/s data rates.
The WiMedia Network (formerly WiNET) is a protocol adaptation layer that builds on the WiMedia UWB common radio platform to augment the convergence platform with TCP/IP services.
Certified Wireless USB can operate in two ways:
Coexistence Wireless USB operates on top of Wimedia UWB PHY - Wimedia UWB MAC - Convergence Layer.
Pure Wireless USB operates directly on top of Wimedia UWB PHY.
Bluetooth, Wireless 1394, IP (WiMedia Network) operate on top of Wimedia UWB PHY - Wimedia UWB MAC - Convergence Layer like Coexistence Wireless USB.
Within the WiMedia MAC specification is the MAC Convergence Architecture (WiMCA) that allows applications to share UWB resources. WiMCA defines a number of policies, including channel-time utilization; secure association, authentication and data transfer; device and WPAN management; quality of service; discovery of services; and power management.
Board members of the alliance included Alereon, CSR plc, Olympus Corporation, Samsung and Wisair.
By early 2006, implementations were delayed by standardization issues.
On March 16, 2009, the WiMedia Alliance announced technology transfer agreements for WiMedia ultra-wideband (UWB) specifications. WiMedia transferred all specifications, including work on future high speed and power optimized implementations, to the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), Wireless USB Promoter Group and the USB Implementers Forum.
After the technology transfer, marketing and related administrative items, the WiMedia Alliance ceased operations in 2010.
UWB Alliance
On December 19, 2018, the UWB Alliance was officially launched to promote the adoption, regulation, standardization and multi-vendor interoperability of ultra-wideband (UWB) technologies. The founding members include: Hyundai, Kia, Zebra, Decawave, Alteros, Novelda, and Ubisense.
Standardization
IEEE
IEEE 802.15.3a was an attempt to provide a higher speed UWB PHY enhancement amendment to IEEE 802.15.3 for applications which involve imaging and multimedia.
The attempt to create an Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) ultra-wideband standard failed because of several factors.
First, based on execution of the approved IEEE 802.15.3a Task Group down selection procedure, there were only two proposals remaining. Each of the remaining proposals contained mutually exclusive communication architectures. Neither proposer's radio could communicate with the other. One proposal was a merger of a novel OFDM architecture proposed by Texas Instruments and eventually adopted by the majority of the industry, by the USB-IF for Wireless USB and by the Bluetooth SIG for high speed Bluetooth. This merged proposal became known as the MB-OFDM proposal and was sponsored by Texas Instruments as a member of the Multi Band OFDM Alliance, which is now part of WiMedia. The other proposal was a merger between an original direct sequence pulse based design (DS-UWB) contributed by Xtreme Spectrum and DecaWave that was modified to include features of several other pulse based proposals. Ironically, after the dust settled through several years of each proposer bashing the other's technical implementation, both remaining proposals achieved nearly identical theoretical performance in terms of data throughput, channel robustness, overall design DC power consumption, and device cost. Not until actual WiMedia devices entered the market was shown that WiMedia's proposal and implementation did not come close to living up to its advertised specification of 480 Mbit/s.
Second, there were numerous attempts by each proposer to achieve both victory in the down selection vote, and then reach the 75% approval rating required for task group confirmation of the selected technical proposal, which never happened. In the first round of down selection, the MB-OFDM proposal was selected. Through several subsequent rounds of down selection, the selected proposal alternated between MB-OFDM and DS-UWB, with neither being able to achieve technical confirmation.
There were several attempts to create a compromise solution, the most notable was a proposal that would have allowed the MB-OFDM and DS-UWB radios to communicate with each other and share spectrum. Based on a concept called the Common Signaling Mode (CSM) it specified supporting a lower data rate than the minimum mandatory 110 Mbit/s, for purposes of spectrum coordination and allowing other elements necessary for proper operation of a wireless personal area network. The Common Signaling Mode (CSM) was proposed by John Santhoff of Pulse~LINK as a way forward for both competing proposals that would allow complete coexistence and at least minimal interoperability. Companies supporting the MB-OFDM proposal insisted that a common signaling mode was not needed or technically feasible and that their customer research supported a strict notion that only one physical layer (PHY) would be tolerated by the consumer market. Thus, even though the DS-UWB supporters embraced CSM as a bridge between the two proposals, the lack of acceptance by MB-OFDM supporters killed what turned out to be the best solution to achieve a compromise between the proposers. It's interesting to note that the concept of a Common Signaling Mode (CSM) was later adopted by IEEE 802.15.3c for the 60 GHz PHY layer and renamed Common Mode Signaling to solve the same two PHY problem.
The contest became so contentious that the originally elected Task Group Chair, Bob Heile, who was also the 802.15 Working Group Chair, resigned his position. Bob Heile was replaced by Jim Lansford, CTO of Alereon, and Gregg Rasor, Director of Ultrawideband Research and Development in Motorola Labs, who co-chaired IEEE 802.15.3a until its end. The idea of co-chairs was brought about in yet another attempt to forge a compromise that would generate an IEEE standard for ultrawideband.
Consequently, in the Spring of 2006, the IEEE 802.15.3a Task Group was officially disbanded by the IEEE Standards Association. On January 19, 2006, IEEE 802.15.3a task group (TG3a) members voted to recommend that the IEEE 802 Executive Committee ask NESCOM to withdraw the December 2002 project authorization request (PAR), which initiated the development of a high data rate UWB PHY amendment for the IEEE 802.15.3 WPAN standard.
The most commendable achievement of IEEE 802.15.3a was its consolidation of 23 UWB PHY specifications into two proposals using: Multi-Band Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (MB-OFDM) UWB, supported by the WiMedia Alliance, then adopted by the USB-IF for Wireless USB and by the Bluetooth SIG for high speed Bluetooth, while the Direct Sequence - UWB (DS-UWB) approach, supported by the UWB Forum, was abandoned.
ECMA
In December 2008, Ecma International released specification (ECMA-368 and ECMA-369) for UWB technology based on the WiMedia Ultra-Wideband (UWB) Common Radio Platform.
ETSI
ECMA-368 is also a European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) standard, ETSI TS 102 455).
ISO
The Ecma 368 and 369 standards were approved as ISO/IEC standards in 2007 respectively with numbers:
ISO/IEC 26907:2007 - Information technology—Telecommunications and information exchange between systems—High Rate Ultra Wideband PHY and MAC Standard
ISO/IEC 26908:2007 - Information technology—MAC-PHY Interface for ISO/IEC 26907.
See also
Wireless USB
WirelessHD
Wireless Gigabit Alliance
References
External links
Creonic WiMedia-compliant 1 Gbit/s LDPC Decoder
ETSI Publications Download Area This will open ETSI document search engine, to find the latest version of the document enter a search string (e.g. TS 102 455 for Wimedia standard). Free registration is required to download files.
ISO/IEC Information Technology Task Force (ITTF)
ISO/IEC 26907 and ISO/IEC 26908 Free downloadable standards
ISO/IEC 26907:2007
ISO/IEC 26908:2007
ISO JTC 1 / SC 6 standards
Standards organizations in the United States |
29553028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WenQuanYi | WenQuanYi | WenQuanYi (; aka: Spring of Letters) is an open-source project of Chinese computer fonts licensed under GNU General Public License.
General
WenQuanYi project was started by Qianqian Fang (Screen name: FangQ; ), a Chinese biomedical imaging researcher at the Massachusetts General Hospital, in October, 2004.
The fonts of the WenQuanYi project are now included with the Linux distributions Ubuntu, Fedora, Slackware, Magic Linux and CDLinux. Debian, Gentoo, Mandriva, Arch Linux and Frugalware offer the sources for WenQuanYi fonts. The fonts are among the Chinese fonts officially supported by Wikimedia.
WenQuanYi's website is using Habitat, a Wiki software derived from UseModWiki by Qianqian Fang. It is allowed to create or modify the glyphs online.
Fonts
WenQuanYi project aims to create high-quality open-source bitmap and outline fonts for all CJK characters. It includes Zen Hei (Regular, Mono and Sharp), Micro Hei (Regular and Mono), Bitmap Song and Unibit font. As of version 0.8.38, the WenQuanYi Zen Hei font covers more than 35,000 glyphs.
Zen Hei
WenQuanYi Zen Hei (文泉驿正黑), WenQuanYi Zen Hei Mono (文泉驿等宽正黑) and WenQuanYi Zen Hei Sharp (文泉驿点阵正黑) co-exist in a single TTC file. They are also with embedded bitmaps. The Latin/Hangul characters are derived from UnDotum, Bopomofo are from cwTeX, mono-spaced Latin are from M+ M2 Light. These fonts have full CJK coverage. The font package is included with Fedora and Ubuntu.
Micro Hei
WenQuanYi Micro Hei (文泉驿微米黑), WenQuanYi Micro Hei Mono (文泉驿等宽微米黑) are derived from the Droid Sans font (merged with Droid Sans Fallback) and readable in compact sizes. The primitive motivation of this project was to extend Droid Sans Fallback's glyph coverage. Since the GB 18030 compatible Droid Sans Fallback font's release, the Micro Hei project has been de facto inactive.
Unlike Zen Hei, which is drawn stroke-by-stroke, Micro Hei and its predecessor Droid Sans are created by combining radical components using TrueType references. The main goal is a reduced file size, hence "Micro".
Bitmap Song
WenQuanYi Bitmap Song (文泉驿点阵宋体) has full coverage to GB 18030 Hanzi at 11-16px (9pt-12pt) font sizes.
Unibit
WenQuanYi Unibit (文泉驿Unibit) adopted the GNU Unifont's scheme of 8x16 and 16x16 glyphs. Then the contributors added 10,000 more glyphs. The improvements done by WenQuanYi Unibit has been merged back to GNU Unifont.
Glyph
The glyph of traditional characters included in WenQuanYi is the new character form of the Mainland China. The glyph comes from G-Source (character source from Mainland China) of Unicode and the standard of a character list from the 1988 List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese and the 2009 List of General Standardized Chinese (通用规范汉字表).
The glyph is not from T-Source (character source from Taiwan) and H-Source (character source from Hong Kong). It does not conform with the standardized traditional character writing behavior of writers from Taiwan and Hong Kong. In other words, it does not support the traditional Chinese character set. (For more information, see Han unification.)
Some examples of characters with different glyph are: 別, 吳, 骨, 角, 過, 這, 草, 放, etc.
See also
Unicode fonts
List of CJK fonts
Notes
References
External links
(Official site in English)
CJK typefaces
Free software Unicode typefaces
Open-source typefaces
Typefaces and fonts introduced in 2004 |
62651451 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20Russian%20interference%20in%20the%202016%20United%20States%20elections%20%28July%202016%E2%80%93election%20day%29 | Timeline of Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections (July 2016–election day) | This is a timeline of events related to Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections.
It includes events described in investigations into suspected inappropriate links between associates of Donald Trump and Russian officials following July 2016 through Election Day November 8, 2016. Events and investigations also occurred during the presidential transition from November 9, 2016, to January 20, 2017, and continued through the first and second halves of 2017, the first and second halves of 2018, 2019, and 2020; largely as parts of the Crossfire Hurricane FBI investigation, the Special Counsel investigation, multiple ongoing criminal investigations by several State Attorneys General, and the investigation resulting in the Inspector General report on FBI and DOJ actions in the 2016 election.
Related information is sorted by some topic threads in another timeline.
Relevant individuals and organizations
Before July 2016
July 2016 – November 8, 2016
July 2016
Summer:
IRA employees use the stolen identities of four Americans to open PayPal and bank accounts to act as conduits for funding their activities in the United States.
The FBI applies for a FISA warrant to monitor communications of four Trump campaign officials. The FISA Court rejects the application, asking the FBI to narrow its scope. A warrant on Carter Page alone is granted in October 2016.
Lawyer and Trump campaign foreign policy advisor Joseph E. Schmitz receives a cache of emails from a client that is purported to be Clinton's deleted 30,000 emails, acquired from a dark web forum. Schmitz meets with officials at the FBI, the State Department, and the Intelligence Community Inspector General (ICIG) in an effort to get the emails reviewed. The State Department and ICIG decline to review the emails. Schmitz's efforts are independent of the investigation by Peter Smith's team.
Facebook board member Marc Andreessen hosts a meeting with Facebook executives and Cambridge Analytica's Christopher Wylie to discuss what Cambridge Analytica is doing with the Facebook data they harvested.
July:
The IRA's translator project grows to over 80 employees.
Carter Page makes a five-day trip to Moscow. The Steele dossier alleges that in July, Page secretly met Rosneft chairman Igor Sechin in Moscow, together with a "senior Kremlin Internal Affairs official, DIVYEKIN", that Sechin offered Trump a 19% stake in Rosneft (worth about $11 billion) in exchange for lifting the sanctions against Russia after his election, and that Page confirmed, on Trump's "full authority", that he intended to lift the sanctions.
July 5:
At his London office, Steele reveals to an FBI agent from Rome some of his findings that indicate a wide-ranging Russian conspiracy to elect Trump.
"United Muslims of America", an IRA group, orders posters with fake Clinton quotes promoting Sharia Law. The posters are ordered for the "Support Hillary, Save American Muslims" rally they are organizing.
July 5–6: Denis Klimentov emails his brother Dmitri and Director of the MFA's Information and Press Department Maria Zakharova about Page's visit to Moscow and his connection to the Trump campaign. He offers to contact Page on behalf of the MFA. Dmitri Klimentov then contacts Peskov about introducing Page to Russian government officials. The next day, Peskov replies, "I have read about [Page]. Specialists say that he is far from being the main one. So I better not initiate a meeting in the Kremlin."
July 6:
"Guccifer 2.0" releases another cache of DNC documents and sends copies to The Hill.
Assange, as "WikiLeaks", asks "Guccifer 2.0" via Twitter direct messaging to provide any information related to Clinton they may have.>
July 6–10: The IRA's "Don't Shoot" Facebook group and affiliated "Don't Shoot Us" website try to organize a protest outside the St. Paul, Minnesota, police headquarters on July 10 in response to the July 6 fatal police shooting of Philando Castile. Some local activists become suspicious of the event because St. Paul police were not involved in the shooting: Castile was shot by a St. Anthony police officer in nearby Falcon Heights. Local activists contact Don't Shoot. After being pressed on who they are and who supports them, Don't Shoot agrees to move the protest to the St. Anthony police headquarters. The concerned local activists investigate further and urge protesters not to participate after deciding Don't Shoot is a "total troll job." Don't Shoot organizers eventually relinquish control of the event to local organizers, who subsequently decline to accept any money from Don't Shoot.
July 7:
In a lecture at the New Economic School in Moscow, Page criticizes American foreign policy, saying that many of the mistakes spoiling relations between the US and Russia "originated in my own country." Page had received permission from the Trump campaign to make the trip.
In an email exchange, Manafort and Kilimnik discuss whether his campaign work is helping his relationship with Deripaska. Kilimnik writes that Deripaska is paying significantly more attention to the campaign and expects him to reach out to Manafort soon. Using his official Trump campaign email address, Manafort asks Kilimnik to forward an offer to provide "private briefings" to Deripaska.
July 8: Carter Page emails Dahl and Gordon about outreach he received "from a few Russian legislators and senior members of the Presidential Administration here."
July 9:
The Washington Post reports that Trump is considering Flynn as his running mate, with support from Senator Jeff Sessions. Trump eventually selects Mike Pence, Governor of Indiana.
The "Support Hillary, Save American Muslims" rally occurs in Washington, D.C. The rally is organized by the IRA group "United Muslims of America."
Page emails Clovis and describes a private meeting with Deputy Prime Minister of Russia Arkady Dvorkovich. He says Dvorkovich "expressed strong support for Mr. Trump and a desire to work together toward devising better solutions in response to the vast range of current international problems."
July 10:
A Black Lives Matter protest rally is held in Dallas. A "Blue Lives Matter" counterprotest is held across the street. The Blue Lives Matter protest is organized by the "Heart of Texas" Facebook group, controlled by the IRA.
DNC staffer Seth Rich is murdered in the Bloomingdale neighborhood of Washington, D.C., a block from his home. Assange makes statements about Rich in July and August implying that he is the source of the stolen DNC emails.
July 11–12:
FBI informant Stefan Halper has an initial encounter with Carter Page at a London symposium. A former federal law enforcement official tells The New York Times the encounter was a coincidence, rather than at the FBI's direction.
Papadopoulos and fellow campaign foreign policy advisor Walid Phares exchange emails discussing the upcoming Transatlantic Parliamentary Group on Counterterrorism (TAG) conference, of which Phares is also co-secretary general. In the email chain, Phares advises Papadopoulos that other summit attendees "are very nervous about Russia. So be aware."
July 12:
An IRA group buys ads on Facebook for the "Down with Hillary" rally in New York City.
The Illinois State Board of Elections discovers some of its servers have been hacked and closes the security hole used to compromise the systems.
July 13:
A hacker or group calling themselves "Guccifer 2.0" releases over 10,000 names from the DNC in two spreadsheets and a list of objectionable quotes from Sarah Palin.
Kukes donates $49,000 to the Trump Victory fund. In 2017, his 2016 political donations become a subject of the Mueller investigation.
The Illinois State Board of Elections takes its website offline.
July 14:
"Guccifer 2.0" sends Assange an encrypted 1 GB file containing stolen DNC emails, and Assange confirms that he received it. WikiLeaks publishes the file's contents on July 22.
German hackers Andrew Müller-Maguhn and Bernd Fix meet with Assange for at least four hours. Müller-Maguhn is named in the Mueller report as a possible conduit for delivering hacked emails to Assange.
July 15:
Sergei Millian reaches out to Papadopoulos on LinkedIn, introducing himself "as president of [the] New York-based Russian American Chamber of Commerce." He claims to have "insider knowledge and direct access to the top hierarchy in Russian politics."
Bill Browder files a FARA complaint with the DoJ against Akhmetshin, Glen Simpson, and others for working as unregistered lobbyists for Russia.
July 16:
The IRA's Blacktivist group organizes a rally in Chicago to honor Sandra Bland on the first anniversary of her death. The rally is held in front of the Chicago Police Department's Homan Square building. Participants pass around petitions calling for a Civilian Police Accountability Council ordinance.
Papadopoulos, Clovis, and Phares attend the TAG conference. Contemporaneous handwritten notes in Papadopoulos's journal show that he, Clovis, and Phares discuss potential September meetings with representatives of the "office of Putin" in London. The notes say they will attend as unofficial campaign representatives. Later Clovis tells a grand jury that he does not recall attending the TAG conference, although a photograph from the conference shows him seated next to Papadopoulos.
July 18:
"Guccifer 2.0" dumps a new batch of documents from the DNC servers, including personal information of 20,000 Republican donors and opposition research on Trump.
An Ecuadorian security guard is caught on video receiving a package outside the London embassy from a man wearing a mask and sunglasses. Later that day, Wikileaks tells Russian hackers that it received files and will be publishing them soon.
July 18–21: Republican Convention in Cleveland
Nigel Farage encounters Stone and Alex Jones at a restaurant. The next day, Stone contacts Manafort and suggests a meeting between Trump and Farage. Manafort responds that he will pass on the request.
July 18:
Kislyak attends the convention, meeting Page and Gordon; as Trump's foreign policy advisers, they stress that he would like to improve relations with Russia. Sessions speaks with Kislyak at a Heritage Foundation event.
Gordon lobbies to remove arms sales to Ukraine from the Republican platform, citing concerns over conflict escalation in Donbass. In December 2017, Diana Denman, a Republican delegate who supported the weapons sale, says that Trump directed Gordon to weaken that position.
July 21:
Trump formally accepts the Republican nomination.
Farage and Andy Wigmore encounter staffers for Mississippi Governor Phil Bryant at the bar in the Hilton Hotel. A staffer invites Wigmore and Farage to Mississippi.
July 19:
Steele files a dossier memo alleging that during his Moscow trip, Page secretly met Rosneft chairman Igor Sechin, together with a "senior Kremlin Internal Affairs official, DIVYEKIN", that Sechin offered Trump a 19% stake in Rosneft (worth about $11 billion) in exchange for lifting the sanctions against Russia after his election, and that Page confirmed, on Trump's "full authority", that he intended to lift the sanctions.
The Illinois State Board of Elections informs the Illinois Attorney General (IAG) and the Illinois General Assembly of the breach. The IAG notifies the FBI, which brings in the Department of Homeland Security to help investigate.
Around this date, but prior to July 22, according to Cohen, Stone calls Trump in his Trump Tower office and tells him that he just got off the phone with Assange and Wikileaks will be releasing information within a few days.
July 21 – August 12: The Illinois State Board of Elections brings its website back online. The GRU attacks the system five times per second before giving up on August 12.
July 22: WikiLeaks publishes 20,000 emails from seven key DNC officials. The emails show them disparaging Bernie Sanders and favoring Hillary Clinton in the 2016 presidential primaries.
July 22–26: Papadopoulos asks Timofeev about Millian. Timofeev responds that he hasn't heard of him.
July 23: The IRA-organized "Down with Hillary" rally is held in New York City. The agency sends 30 news releases to media outlets using the email address [email protected].
July 24:
DNC Chairwoman Debbie Wasserman Schultz is forced to resign because of the WikiLeaks email publication.
Appearing on This Week, Manafort denies there are any links between him, Trump, or the "campaign and Putin and his regime".
July 25–28: Democratic Convention in Philadelphia.
July 25:
Based on assessments from cybersecurity firms, the DNC and the Clinton campaign say that Russian intelligence operators have hacked their e-mails and forwarded them to WikiLeaks.
Stone emails his associate Jerome Corsi, "Get to (Assange) [a]t Ecuadorian Embassy in London and get the pending (WikiLeaks) emails". Corsi later passes this along to Ted Malloch, a conservative author in London.
The FBI announces that it is investigating the DNC hack.
July 26:
Trump denies having any investments in Russia.
The Australian government informs the U.S. government of Papadopoulos's May 6 interactions with their ambassador in London. The FBI opens its investigation of potential coordination between Russia and the Trump campaign five days later.
Secretary of State John Kerry warns Lavrov that Russian interference in the U.S. elections is serious and poses a risk to the U.S.–Russia bilateral relationship.
July 27:
On or about this date "the Conspirators attempted after hours to spearphish for the first time email accounts at a domain hosted by a third-party provider and used by Clinton's personal office. At or around the same time, they also targeted seventy-six email addresses at the domain for the Clinton Campaign."
Trump calls for Russia to give Clinton's missing emails to the FBI. His tweet is before his statements on the matter to the press.
Trump tells Jim DeFede on CBS4 News in Miami, "I have nothing to do with Russia. Nothing to do. I never met Putin. I have nothing to do with Russia whatsoever." This contradicts his many claims since 2013 to have met Putin and done business in Russia. Shortly afterwards, he asks Cohen about the status of the Trump Tower Moscow project.
At a news conference, Trump says "Russia, if you're listening, I hope you're able to find the 30,000 emails that are missing," regarding Clinton's missing emails. The remark triggers a backlash from media and politicians who criticize Trump's "urging a foreign adversary to conduct cyberespionage" against his political opponent. Trump responds that he was being "sarcastic". A 2018 indictment alleges Russian intelligence officers began a spearphishing attack on non-public Clinton campaign email accounts that night, In April–May 2018, Flynn tells Mueller's team that after this event, Trump repeatedly asks "individuals affiliated with his Campaign[sic]" to find Clinton's emails.
On CBS This Morning, in response to a question from Norah O'Donnell, Manafort denies any financial relationship between Trump and Russia.
July 28: Clinton formally accepts the Democratic nomination.
July 29:
Kilimnik sends Manafort an email requesting to meet in person so he can brief Manafort on a meeting he had "with the guy who gave you your biggest black caviar jar several years ago", saying he has important messages to deliver from this person. In September 2017, The Washington Post reports that investigators believe Kilimnik and Manafort used the term "black caviar" in communications as a reference to expected payments from former clients. In December 2018, TIME magazine reveals that the names "Victor" and "V." mentioned in the emails between Kilimnik and Manafort refer to Deripaska aide and former Russian intelligence officer Commander Viktor A. Boyarkin. In 2018, Manafort tells Mueller's team that "the guy" was Yanukovych, who gave him a $30,000–$40,000 jar of caviar in 2010 to celebrate being elected President of Ukraine.
Cambridge Analytica employee Emily Cornell sends an email to people working with the pro-Trump Make America Number 1 super PAC, which is funded by Robert and Rebekah Mercer. Cornell notes Cambridge Analytica's work for the super PAC and suggests they capitalize on the recently released DNC emails and any Clinton emails that may be stolen as suggested by Trump on July 27.
July 30: Papadopoulos meets with Millian in New York City.
July 31:
The FBI starts a counter-intelligence investigation into Russian interference, including possible coordination between Trump associates and Russia. The investigation is issued the code name "Crossfire Hurricane."
In an interview on This Week, Trump tells George Stephanopoulos that people in his campaign were responsible for changing the GOP's platform stance on Ukraine, but that he was not personally involved.
Manafort tells Chuck Todd on Meet the Press that the Trump campaign was not involved in changing the GOP's platform stance on Ukraine.
Kilimnik again emails Manafort to confirm their dinner meeting in New York, saying he needs two hours "because it is a long caviar story to tell."
Stone emails Jerome Corsi telling him to use Ted Malloch as an intermediary with Assange. Malloch tells Corsi he doesn't have a relationship with Assange and suggests using people close to Farage instead.
Papadopoulos emails Trump campaign official Bo Denysyk saying that he has been contacted "by some leaders of Russian-American voters here in the US about their interest in voting for Mr. Trump." He asks whether he should put Denysyk in contact with their group (the US-Russia chamber of commerce). Denysyk responds that Papadopoulos should "hold off with outreach to Russian-Americans" because "too many articles" portray the campaign, Manafort, and Trump as "pro-Russian."
July 31 – August 2: The FBI sends two agents to London who interview Downer about his interactions with Papadopoulos.
End July: CIA Director John Brennan, alarmed at intelligence that Russia is trying to "hack" the election, forms a working group of officials from the CIA, FBI, and NSA.
Bold text
August 2016
August:
Trump donor Rebekah Mercer asks the CEO of Cambridge Analytica whether the company could better organize the Clinton-related emails being released by WikiLeaks.
Butina arrives in the U.S. on a student visa to attend American University in Washington, D.C.
With his lawyer, "Max" reveals data assembled to Eric Lichtblau of the New York Times.
Crossfire Hurricane investigators discuss obtaining a warrant to wiretap Carter Page with their DoJ superiors.
Ivanka Trump and Jared Kushner vacation in Croatia with a "Russian billionaire".
August 1: Papadopoulos meets with Millian a second time in New York City.
August 2:
Manafort, Gates, and Kilimnik meet at the Grand Havana Room of 666 Fifth Avenue in New York City. This meeting is considered the "heart" of Mueller's probe, per February 2019 reporting. Manafort gives Kilimnik polling data and a briefing on campaign strategy, and, according to Gates, discusses the "battleground" states Michigan, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Manafort asks Kilimnik to pass the data to pro-Russian Ukrainians Serhiy Lyovochkin and Rinat Akhmetov, and to Oleg Deripaska. Kilimnik gives Manafort a message from Yanukovych about a peace plan for Ukraine that is an opportunity for Russian control of the region. The plan would require Trump's support and Manafort's influence in Europe. The two discuss Manafort's financial disputes with Deripaska and the Opposition Bloc in Ukraine. They leave separately to avoid media reporting on Manafort's connections to Kilimnik. Later, Kilimnik passes the campaign data to the Russian government.
Corsi writes to Stone: "Word is friend in embassy plans 2 more dumps," referring to Assange; and "One shortly after I'm back. 2nd in Oct. Impact planned to be very damaging."
August 2–3:
The IRA's "Matt Skiber" persona contacts the real "Florida for Trump" Facebook account. The "T.W." persona contacts other grassroots groups.
Millian invites Papadopoulos to attend and possibly speak at two international energy conferences, including one in Moscow in September. Papadopoulos does not attend the conferences.
August 3:
Trump Jr., George Nader, Erik Prince, Stephen Miller, and Joel Zamel meet at Trump Jr.'s office in Trump Tower. Nader relays an offer from the leaders of Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) to help get Trump elected. Zamel pitches his Israeli company's services for a multimillion-dollar campaign to manipulate social media. It is not known whether the social media campaign occurred.
A private jet carrying Deripaska's wife, daughter, mother, and father-in-law arrives at Teterboro Airport near New York City a little after midnight New York time and returns to Moscow that afternoon. The trip's timing is considered suspicious because it is within hours of Manafort's meeting with Kilimnik. In 2018, a spokesperson for Deripaska confirms the flights and passengers.
Gordon receives an invitation from a Russian Embassy official to have breakfast with Kislyak at the Ambassador's residence in Washington, D.C., the next week. Gordon declines five days later, saying he is busy with debate preparation.
The Russian Foreign Ministry transfers $30,000 to its embassy's Citibank account in the U.S. with the memo line "to finance election campaign of 2016". The transaction triggers an internal investigation at Citibank that finds 60 transfers totaling $380,000 with similar memo lines to accounts at the bank for Russian embassies in 60 countries. The transactions are flagged as suspicious, reported to the U.S. government, and investigated by the FBI in 2017. In November 2017, BuzzFeed News reports the story after failing to get a response from the Ministry. Within hours, the Ministry denounces the BuzzFeed article on social media and implies the money was for polling stations for the Russian parliamentary election on September 18.
Speaking at a press breakfast sponsored by the Christian Science Monitor, DHS Secretary Jeh Johnson suggests for the first time that election infrastructure should be designated as critical infrastructure.
August 4:
During a previously scheduled call to discuss Syria and counterterrorism issues, Brennan warns his Russian counterpart Alexander Bortnikov, head of the FSB, against meddling in the presidential election.
The IRA's Facebook account "Stop AI" accuses Clinton of voter fraud during the Iowa Caucuses. They buy ads promoting the post.
IRA groups buy ads for the "Florida Goes Trump" rallies. The 8,300 people who click on the ads are sent to the Agency's "Being Patriotic" Facebook page.
In an InfoWars interview, Stone tells Jones that Assange has proof of wrongdoing by the Clinton Foundation and is ready to release it.
Stone sends Sam Nunberg an email in which he claims that he dined with Assange the night before.
The Hill publishes an article by Ukrainian ambassador to the U.S. Valeriy Chaly in which he chastises Trump for his recent comments on Crimea. The article is later pointed to by Republicans as evidence that Ukraine allegedly interfered in the election.
August 5:
Stone writes an article for Breitbart News in which he insists "Guccifer 2.0" hacked the DNC, using statements by "Guccifer 2.0" on Twitter and to The Hill as evidence for his claim. He tries to spin the DNC's Russia claim as a coverup for their supposed embarrassment over being penetrated by a single hacker. The article leads to "Guccifer 2.0" reaching out to and conversing with Stone via Twitter.
In response to questions about Page's July 7 speech in Moscow, Hope Hicks describes him as an "informal foreign policy adviser [who] does not speak for Mr. Trump or the campaign."
The IRA Twitter account @March_For_Trump hires an actress to play Hillary Clinton in prison garb and someone to build a cage to hold the actress. The actress and cage are to appear at the "Florida Goes Trump" rally in West Palm Beach, Florida on August 20.
The Trump campaign announces that Calk is joining Trump's economic advisory team.
August 6: Assange addresses the Green Party National Convention in Houston by videolink, to discuss the hacked DNC documents published by WikiLeaks. Green candidate Jill Stein later states she does not know why or how this address was arranged.
August 8: Stone, speaking in Florida to the Southwest Broward Republican Organization, claims he is in contact with Assange, saying, "I actually have communicated with Assange. I believe his next tranche of his documents pertain to the Clinton Foundation." This is Stone's first public statement about his contacts with Assange. Stone later claims the communications were through an intermediary.
August 9:
WikiLeaks denies having communicated with Stone. Privately, Assange tells a core group of WikiLeaks supporters that he is unaware of any communications with Stone.
Bloomberg reports that the Spanish Civil Guard believes Torshin assisted the Taganskaya crime syndicate with money laundering through banks in Spain.
August 10:
The FBI opens separate counterintelligence Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA) cases on Page, Manafort, and Papadopoulos on the grounds that they "may wittingly or unwittingly be involved in activity on behalf of the Russian Federation which may constitute a federal crime or threat to the national security."
August 11:
The IRA Twitter account @TEN_GOP claims that voter fraud is being investigated in North Carolina.
Brennan briefs Pelosi, a member of the Gang of Eight, on links between the Trump campaign and Russian interference in the election.
August 12:
In a #MAGA Podcast, Stone says Assange has all the emails deleted by Huma Abedin and Cheryl Mills.
Journalist Emma Best has two simultaneous conversations by Twitter direct message with "Guccifer 2.0" and WikiLeaks. Best tries to negotiate the hosting of stolen DNC emails and documents on archive.org. WikiLeaks wants Best to act as an intermediary to funnel the material from "Guccifer 2.0" to them. The conversation ends with "Guccifer 2.0" saying he will send the material directly to WikiLeaks.
"Guccifer 2.0" releases a cache of documents stolen from the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee.
The GRU stops its five-attempts-per-second attack on the Illinois State Board of Elections servers.
August 12–18: The IRA's persona "Josh Milton" communicates with Trump Campaign officials via email to request Trump/Pence signs and the phone numbers of campaign affiliates as part of an effort to organize pro-Trump campaign rallies in Florida.
August 13:
Twitter and WordPress temporarily suspend Guccifer 2.0's accounts. Stone calls "Guccifer 2.0" a hero.
Russian-American Simon Kukes attends a $25,000-per-ticket Trump fundraising dinner at the home of Woody Johnson in New York. Kukes's 2016 political donations become a subject of the Mueller investigation.
On or before this date, Stone tells Bannon that he has a connection to Assange and implies that he has inside information about WikiLeaks.
August 14: The New York Times reports that Manafort's name has been found in the Ukrainian "black ledger". The ledger, belonging to the Ukrainian Party of Regions, shows $12.7 million in undisclosed cash payments to Manafort from 2007 to 2012. Manafort's lawyer, Richard A. Hibey, says Manafort never received "any such cash payments". The Associated Press later verifies some of the entries against financial records.
August 15:
Papadopoulos emails Clovis about requests he received from multiple foreign governments, "even Russia[]," for "closed door workshops/consultations abroad." He asks if there is still interest for himself, Clovis, and Phares "to go on that trip." Clovis copies Phares and tells Papadopoulos that he can't "travel before the election", writing, "I would encourage you [and Walid Phares to] make the trip, if it is feasible." The trip never occurs.
A Trump campaign county chair contacts the IRA through their phony email accounts to suggest locations for rallies.
A candidate for Congress allegedly contacts Guccifer 2.0 to request information on the candidate's opponent. Guccifer 2.0 responds with the requested stolen information.
Guccifer 2.0 begins posting information about Florida and Pennsylvania races stolen from the DCCC.
DHS Secretary Johnson holds a conference call with state election officials in which he urges them "to do everything you can for your own cybersecurity leading up to the election." He tells them there is no specific or credible threat known around the election system itself. He raises the possibility of designating election infrastructure as critical infrastructure, but receives so much push back from some states concerned about federal interference in running elections that he puts the idea on hold.
August 16:
Stone tells Jones that he is in contact with Assange, claiming he has "political dynamite" on Clinton.
The IRA buys ads on Instagram for the "Florida Goes Trump" rallies.
Stone sends "Guccifer 2.0" an article he wrote for The Hill on manipulating the vote count in voting machines. "Guccifer 2.0" responds the next day, "@RogerJStoneJr paying u back".
The FBI opens a counterintelligence FARA case on Flynn on the grounds that he "may wittingly or unwittingly be involved in activity on behalf of the Russian Federation which may constitute a federal crime or threat to the national security." The investigation is named Crossfire Razor.
August 17:
Trump is warned in an FBI briefing that foreign adversaries including Russia would likely attempt to infiltrate his campaign. This is Trump's first classified briefing. Clinton receives a similar briefing in the same month. An FBI agent took notes on Trump's, Christie's, and Flynn's comments on Russia as part of the Crossfire Hurricane and Crossfire Razor investigations.
Bannon is named Trump campaign CEO.
Kellyanne Conway is named Trump campaign manager.
Simes and Kushner meet at Kushner's New York office to discuss CNI's foreign policy advice and the Clinton campaign's Russia-related attacks on Trump. Simes gives Kushner unverified information from the 1990s about Bill Clinton and Russia. In 2018, Simes tells Mueller's team that Kushner was uninterested because he considered it "old news".
The CIA informs the FBI that Page was an "operational contact" for the agency from 2008 to 2013.
Brennan briefs Schiff, a member of the Gang of Eight, on links between the Trump campaign and Russian interference in the election.
August 18:
The FBI issues a nationwide "flash alert" warning state election officials about foreign infiltration of election systems in two states, later reported to be Arizona and Illinois. The alert includes technical evidence suggesting Russian responsibility, and urges states to boost their cyberdefenses. Although labeled for distribution only to "NEED TO KNOW recipients," a copy is leaked to the media.
The IRA uses its [email protected] email account to contact a Trump campaign official in Florida. The email requests campaign support at the forthcoming "Florida Goes Trump" rallies. It is unknown whether the campaign official responded.
The IRA pays the person they hired to build a cage for a "Florida Goes Trump" rally in West Palm Beach, Florida.
August 19:
Ukrainian Member of Parliament Serhiy Leshchenko holds a press conference in Kyiv in which he reveals hand-written entries in the "black ledger" showing payments to Manafort.
Manafort resigns as Trump's campaign manager, but continues to advise Gates, Kushner, Bannon, and Trump until the election.
A Trump supporter suggests to the IRA Twitter account "March for Trump" that it contact a Trump campaign official. The official is emailed by the agency's [email protected] account.
The IRA's "Matt Skiber" persona contacts another Trump campaign official on Facebook.
Arron Banks and Andy Wigmore meet with Alexander Yakovenko for lunch. They discuss their upcoming trip to Mississippi and the Trump campaign.
Volodymyr Ariev, a member of the Ukrainian parliament, formally asks the Prosecutor General of Ukraine to investigate Kilimnik based on media reports of his connections to Viktor Yanukovych and Russian intelligence.
CNN reports that the FBI is investigating Manafort's company's involvement in Ukrainian corruption.
The FBI calls Cassandra Ford to discuss her @Guccifer2 Twitter account. Ford insists upon an in-person meeting because she received a lot of online harassment.
August 20: 17 "Florida Goes Trump" rallies are held across Florida. The rallies are organized by Russian trolls from the IRA.
August 21: President Obama returns from vacation, which was a soft deadline for United States National Security Council staffers to forward cyber-related responses to Russian election meddling to interagency groups that Obama authorized and Susan Rice and her deputy headed.
August 22:
Florida GOP campaign advisor Aaron Nevins contacts Guccifer 2.0 and asks for material. Nevins sets up a Dropbox account and "Guccifer 2.0" transfers 2.5 gigabytes of data into it. Nevins analyzes the data, posts the results on his blog, HelloFLA.com, and sends "Guccifer 2.0" a link. "Guccifer 2.0" forwards the link to Stone.
"Guccifer 2.0" allegedly sends DCCC material on Black Lives Matter to a reporter, and they discuss how to use it in a story. "Guccifer 2.0" also gives the reporter the password for accessing emails stolen from Clinton's staff that were posted to "Guccifer 2.0's" website but had not yet been made public. On August 31, The Washington Examiner publishes a story based on the material the same day the material is released publicly on Guccifer 2.0's website.
August 23:
The Smoking Gun reaches out to "Guccifer 2.0" for comment on its contacts with Stone. "Guccifer 2.0" accuses The Smoking Gun of working with the FBI.
Millian sends a Facebook message to Papadopoulos offering to "share with you a disruptive technology that might be instrumental in your political work for the campaign." In September 2017, Papadopoulos tells the FBI he does not recall the matter.
FBI agent Scott Halper and another agent meet with Ford to discuss her @Guccifer2 Twitter account. The meeting is conducted as a friendly chat rather than a formal interview.
August 24: Seven VR Systems employee email accounts receive emails from [email protected] telling them that their email storage is full. It contains a link to a fake Google webpage asking for their email address and password. The phishing emails are automatically quarantined by automated email filters, but the emails most likely aren't reviewed by a person until the end of September when the FBI warns the company to look out for suspicious IP addresses.
August 25:
Trump names Clovis as a campaign national co-chairman.
Banks, Wigmore, and Farage attend a Trump fundraising dinner and participate in a Trump rally in the Mississippi Coliseum. Wigmore and Farage meet Trump for the first time at the dinner. At the rally, Trump introduces Farage to the crowd as "Mr. Brexit."
Interviewed by Megyn Kelly on The Kelly File, Assange says that he will not release any damaging information on Trump. He also tells her significant information will be released on Clinton before November.
Arranged by Margaret Ratner Kunstler, a mutual friend who is Assange's attorney, Randy Credico hosts Assange on Credico's radio show.
Brennan briefs Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid, a member of the Gang of Eight, on links between the Trump campaign and Russian interference in the election.
August 26:
After Clinton claims that Russian intelligence was behind the leaks, Assange says she is causing "hysteria" about Russia, adding, "The Trump campaign has a lot of things wrong with it, but as far as we can see being Russian agents is not one of them."
Illinois State Board of Elections produces a report on the June–August hacking of their systems by the GRU.
Credico texts Stone, "Julian Assange talk[ed] about you last night." Stone asks what Assange said, and Corsi replies that they discussed "how the Press is trying to make it look like you and he are in cahoots."
August 26–27: Frederick Intrater registers several Internet domain names that are variations on the term "alt-right." The domain names are registered using his name and the name and contact information of his employer, private equity firm Columbus Nova. Intrater is the brother of Columbus Nova CEO Andrew Intrater and a cousin of Vekselberg. Columbus Nova is the American investment arm of Vekselberg's business empire.
August 27:
The IRA Facebook group "SecuredBorders" organizes a "Citizens before refugees" protest rally at the City Council Chambers in Twin Falls, Idaho. Only a small number of people show up for the three-hour event, most likely because it is Saturday and the Chambers are closed.
Through Assange's attorney Margaret Ratner Kunstler, the widow of William Kunstler, Randy Credico knows that WikiLeaks will release information about the Clinton campaign in the near future and texts Stone that "Julian Assange has kryptonite on Hillary." Credico continues to update Stone about the upcoming WikiLeaks release of numerous emails stolen from Podesta and the Clinton campaign. The emails are released beginning on October 7.
August 27–28: According to Smith's August 31 email, he holds four meetings in Virginia with individuals claiming to have access to Clinton's emails. According to John Szbocsan, Michael Flynn, Jr., the son of Michael T. Flynn, is involved with the meetings.
August 28: Peter W. Smith sends an encrypted email to an undisclosed list of recipients that includes Trump campaign co-chair Sam Clovis. The email says that after two days of meetings in D.C. on Clinton's private email server, he determined that the server was hacked by "State-related players" as well as private mercenaries. He writes, "Parties with varying interests, are circling to release ahead of the election."
August 29: The Washington Post is the first to report that Illinois discovered in July that its voter registration servers were hacked, and that the user ID and password of an Arizona election official in Gila County was stolen in June. Arizona Secretary of State Michele Reagan shut down the state's voter registration system for a week but did not find that any state or county systems were compromised.
August 31:
"Guccifer 2.0" leaks campaign documents stolen from House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi's hacked personal computer.
An American contacts the IRA's "Being Patriotic" account about a possible September 11 event in Miami.
The IRA buys ads for a September 11 rally in New York City.
Smith sends an email to an undisclosed list of recipients in which he claims KLS Research met with parties who had access to Clinton's missing emails, including some with "ties and affiliations to Russia". Mueller's team is unable to determine whether such meetings occurred or find any evidence that Smith's team was in contact with Russian hackers.
Late August–Early September:
According to December 2018 McClatchy DC reporting, Cohen's cellphone communicates with cell towers in the vicinity of Prague, and communication intercepts by an Eastern European intelligence agency overhear a Russian conversation that states Cohen is in Prague. If true, it would lend credence to the allegation in the Steele dossier that Cohen traveled to Prague to meet with Russians. The Mueller Report states that Cohen never traveled to Prague.
August 31 or September 1: FBI informant Stefan Halper meets with Trump advisor Sam Clovis, who stated they talked about China.
September 2016
September:
The Egyptian Embassy in Washington, D.C., reaches out to Papadopoulos expressing Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi's interest in meeting Trump. With Bannon's approval, Papadopoulos arranges a meeting between Trump and el-Sisi at the Plaza Hotel in New York City. While the meeting does not appear to relate to campaign contacts with Russia, it highlights that Papadopoulos was more than a "coffee boy", as Trump campaign officials later claim.
The CIA gives a secret briefing to congressional leaders on Russian interference in the election. Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell voices doubts about the intelligence.
Mifsud hires Mangiante to work for the London Centre of International Law Practice, on Pittella's recommendation. Papadopoulos, a former employee of the Centre, contacts her via LinkedIn. They begin dating in March 2017.
Stone emails Credico to ask Assange for Clinton emails from August 10–30, 2011.
The FBI makes a second attempt to recruit Deripaska as an informant on Manafort, the Kremlin, and Russian organized crime in exchange for a U.S. visa.
September 1: Putin denies Russian government involvement in the DNC hacking. He says the important thing isn't who stole the material, but that it was released to the public.
September 2:
Lisa Page writes in a text message to Peter Strzok that a meeting at the FBI was set up "because Obama wanted 'to know everything we are doing'." She was referring to the FBI investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 election, not the Clinton emails investigation, which had been concluded months earlier.
Peter W. Smith and John Szobocsan incorporate "KLS Research", an LLC registered in Delaware, as a vehicle to manage funds raised to pay for the search for Clinton's emails and "to avoid campaign reporting." KLS is structured as an "independent expenditure group," which is forbidden by law from coordinating with the Trump campaign. Over $30,000 flows through the company during the campaign.
September 3: The IRA Facebook group "United Muslims of America" organizes a "Safe Space for Muslim Neighborhood" rally outside the White House, attracting at least 57 people.
September 3–5: Wealthy Republican donor Peter W. Smith gathers a team to try to acquire the 30,000 deleted Clinton emails from hackers. He believes Clinton's private email server was hacked and copies of the emails were stolen. Among the people recruited are former GCHQ information-security specialist Matt Tait, alt-right activist Charles C. Johnson, former Business Insider CTO and alt-right activist Pax Dickinson, "dark web expert" Royal O'Brien, and Jonathan Safron. Tait quickly abandons the team after learning the true purpose of the endeavor. Hackers contacted in the search include "Guccifer 2.0" and Andrew Auernheimer (a.k.a. "weev"). The team finds five groups of hackers claiming to have the emails. Two of the groups are Russian. Flynn is in email contact with the team. Smith commits suicide on May 14, 2017, about ten days after telling the story to The Wall Street Journal but before the story is published in June.
September 5: At the 2016 G20 Hangzhou summit, Obama confronts Putin about Russian cyber attacks, telling him to stop. Putin explains Russia's stance on the issue.
September 6:
Smith emails David Bossie, recently made Trump's deputy campaign manager, to arrange a phone call to discuss Smith's search for Clinton's emails.
Brennan briefs individually the remaining Gang of Eight members – McConnell, Burr, Feinstein, Nunes, and Ryan – on links between the Trump campaign and Russian interference in the election.
September 8:
Smith transfers $9,500 from KLS Research to his personal account, then withdraws $4,900 of it in cash and writes checks for the remaining amount. In August 2018, BuzzFeed News reports that the FBI suspects the money was used to pay hackers.
Sessions meets with Kislyak a third time in his Senate office with two members of his Senate staff, Sandra Luff and Pete Landrum. They discuss Russian military actions and the presence of NATO forces in former Soviet bloc countries bordering Russia. Kislyak invites Sessions to have further discussions with him over a meal at his residence. In 2018, Luff and Landrum tell Mueller's team that they don't recall Sessions dining with Kislyak before the election.
Comey, Homeland Security Advisor Lisa Monaco, and Secretary Johnson brief the Gang of Eight and the chairs and ranking members of the House and Senate Homeland Security Committees on Russian interference activities. They request a bipartisan Congressional statement to help convince state and local election officials to avail themselves of DHS security assistance. Several members of Congress resist making a statement, and McConnel implies the intelligence on Russia is being manipulated in a partisan way.
September 9:
Papadopoulos contacts deputy communications director Bryan Lanza about a request from Interfax for an interview with Ksenia Baygarova. Lanza approves the interview.
The IRA sends money to its American groups to fund the September 11 rally in Miami, and to pay the actress who portrayed Clinton at the West Palm Beach, Florida, rally.
Smith circulates a document claiming his Clinton email search initiative is being performed in coordination with the Trump campaign "to the extent permitted as an independent expenditure organization." The document lists Flynn, Clovis, Bannon, and Conway as involved campaign members, and Corsi under "Independent Groups/Organizations/Individuals". Later, Mueller's team is unable to confirm the active participation of Bannon and Conway.
The IRA registers PlayWithHillary.com and Hilltendo.com, and subsequently releases a Flash game called "Hilltendo" that features Clinton deleting classified emails, catching bags of money, and throwing the constitution as far as possible. The game is announced on Reddit by the user "Rubinjer". It contains code that allows the IRA to identify who plays the game.
"Guccifer 2.0" asks Stone to review a stolen DCCC document posted online. Stone responds, "pretty standard."
Mid-September: Papadopoulos approaches British government officials asking for a meeting with senior ministers. He is given a meeting with a mid-level Foreign Office official in London. Papadopoulos mentions he has senior contacts in the Russian government. British officials conclude he is not a major player and discontinue contact.
September 11:
A pro-Trump rally organized by the IRA is held in Miami. The rally includes a flatbed truck with a person dressed as Clinton in a prison jumpsuit inside a cage, all paid for by the IRA.
After Clinton falls ill during a 9/11 memorial service in New York City, IRA trolls tweet hundreds of messages with the hashtags #HillarySickAtGroundZero, #ClintonCollapse, #ZombieHillary, and #SickHillary targeting left-wing and right-wing accounts.
GOP consultant Doug Wead informs translator Olga Kovalova that Russian national Roman Vasilenko can meet with Trump when he visits the U.S..
September 12: Smith tells Tait in a phone call that he received a sample of Clinton's emails from a credible source through a "dark web specialist."
September 13–14: GOP consultant Jesse Benton tells the RNC that he wants to arrange a photo of a "friend" with Trump at an upcoming September 22 event in Philadelphia, and proceeds to make the arrangements.
September 15:
DCLeaks sends a Twitter direct message to WikiLeaks asking how to discuss submission-related issues because WikiLeaks is not responding to messages on their secure chat and DCLeaks has something of interest to share.
"Guccifer 2.0" sends a Twitter direct message to DCLeaks informing them that WikiLeaks is trying to contact them to set up communications using encrypted emails.
Papadopoulos meets with Stefan Halper's research assistant Azra Turk for drinks in London. She asks him questions about whether the Trump campaign was working with Russia. Papadopoulos becomes suspicious about the line of questioning and comes to believe Turk is an intelligence agent, possibly from Turkey. In May 2019, The New York Times reports that Turk was an undercover FBI agent supervising Halper's inquiries into possible connections between the Trump Campaign and Russia.
Barbara Ledeen signs a non-disclosure agreement with KLS Research. She also emails Flynn that her project to find Clinton's emails "is mostly funded."
Benton emails Wead his banking information and promises an invoice "whenever appropriate."
September 16:
Ledeen emails Smith about a cache of purported Clinton emails she says she found on the dark web. She asks for help raising money to pay for a technical advisor to authenticate the emails. Erik Prince provides the money. In April 2018 Prince tells Mueller's team that the technical advisor determined that the emails were forgeries.
DHS Secretary Johnson issues a public statement about cybersecurity and election systems that acknowledges "cyber intrusions involving political institutions and personal communications" and "some efforts at cyber intrusions of voter registration data maintained in state election systems."
Wead tells Benton to send an invoice for "consulting work" to Vasilenko.
September 18–19: Stone asks Credico to ask Assange for State Department or Clinton emails from August 10–30, 2011. Credico passes the request to Kunstler, who tells Mueller's investigators in 2018 that she did not pass it on to Assange.
September 19:
Crossfire Hurricane investigators obtain Steele dossier.
Vasilenko wires $49,000 to Benton. Afterward, Wead tells Benton to provide an invoice for Vasilenko's records. Benton provides an invoice for $100,000.
September 20:
Flynn meets with Rohrabacher. On November 10, 2017, the Mueller investigation is reported to have asked questions about this meeting.
GRU hackers compromise a DNC account on a cloud-computing service and begin copying 300 GB of data off of the servers.
While browsing a political chatroom, Jason Fishbein comes across the password to a non-public website (PutinTrump.org) focusing on Trump's ties to Russia that is nearing launch. He sends the password and website to WikiLeaks in a Twitter direct message. WikiLeaks tweets about the website and password.
Wead informs Benton that Vasilenko has arrived in the U.S..
September 20–26: BlackMattersUS, an IRA website, recruits activists to participate in protests over the police shooting of Keith Lamont Scott in Charlotte, North Carolina. The IRA pays for expenses such as microphones and speakers.
September 21:
The New York Times delivers potential evidence of communications with Trump's domain with Alfa-Bank and other entities to BGR Group, a Washington lobbying firm that worked for Alfa-Bank, from a story Lichtblau was pursuing following findings "Max" and his lawyer decided to hand over to him.
WikiLeaks sends a Twitter direct message to Trump Jr. about the password to PutinTrump.org. Several hours later, Trump Jr. emails senior campaign staff about the WikiLeaks direct message and website, including Conway, Bannon, Kushner, David Bossie, and Brad Parscale. After the public launch of PutinTrump.org, Trump Jr. sends a Twitter direct message to WikiLeaks, "Off the record, l don't know who that is but I'll ask around. Thanks." This is believed to be the first direct communication between Trump Jr. and WikiLeaks.
September 22:
Senator Dianne Feinstein and Representative Adam Schiff issue a statement warning that Russia is trying to undermine the election. Their warning is based on what they learned from intelligence briefings as members of the Gang of Eight. It is the first and only public statement prior to the December 29 Joint Analysis Report attributing cyber activity to Russian actors and election influence efforts to Russian intelligence services.
The IRA buys ads on Facebook for "Miners for Trump" rallies in Pennsylvania.
DCLeaks sends an encrypted file to WikiLeaks and, separately, a tweet with a string of characters. The Mueller Report suspects that this was a transfer of stolen documents, but does not rule out that Andrew "Andy" Müller-Maguhn or another intermediary may have hand-delivered the documents. In 2018, Müller-Maguhn, a known hacker and frequent visitor to Assange, denies transporting material to him.
Wead photographs Vasilenko with Trump at the Philadelphia fundraising event.
Late September/October: Benton pays $25,000 to a joint fundraising committee for the Trump campaign and the RNC.
September 23:
Yahoo News reports that U.S. intelligence officials are investigating whether Page has set up private communications between the Trump campaign and senior Russian officials, including talks on possibly lifting sanctions if Trump is elected. The report leads to an email discussion between J. Miller, Bannon, and Stephen Miller about removing Page from the campaign.
The "A record" of the Trump Organization's mail1.trump-email.com domain is deleted.
On or around this date, Cendyn Hospitality Marketing, the Trump Organization's email marketing firm, transfers ownership of the trump-email.com domain name to the Trump Organization after the Organization receives press inquiries about the domain name and Alfa-Bank.
September 24: Page is formally removed from the Trump campaign. Publicly, the campaign denies all knowledge of Page.
September 25:
Hicks emails Conway and Bannon instructing them to answer inquiries about Page with "[h]e was an informal advisor in March. Since then he has had no role or official contact with the campaign. We have no knowledge of activities past or present and he now officially has been removed from all lists etc."
When asked by CNN about allegations linking Page to Russia, Conway denies that Page is part of the Trump campaign.
Page sends Comey a letter asking that the FBI drop the reported investigation into his activities in Russia. He denies meeting with sanctioned Russian officials.
FBI informant Stefan Halper asks Trump advisor George Papadopoulos if he is aware of any efforts by Russians to interfere with the 2016 election; Papadopoulos twice denies it.
September 26: Page tells Josh Rogin in an interview for The Washington Post that he is taking a leave of absence from the Trump campaign. He denies meeting with sanctioned individuals in Moscow.
September 27: Ten minutes after Alfa-Bank servers made a last failed attempt to contact to Trump Organization's mail1.trump-email.com domain (which had its "A record" deleted September 23), one of the Alfa-Bank servers looks up the new domain name trump1.contact-client.com, which was routed to the same Trump server. The new domain does not appear to have been previously active and the PTR record did not include the new, alternate name. According to "Max"'s data, the Alfa-Bank server only looked up the new domain once. Spectrum Health never succeeded in relocating the Trump server through the new route.
September 28:
Russian-American Simon Kukes donates $99,000 to the Trump Victory Committee, which distributes donations between Trump, the RNC, and state Republican parties. His 2016 political donations become a subject of the Mueller investigation.
The House and Senate leaders send a letter to the National Association of State Election Directors highlighting the "challenge of malefactors that are seeking to use cyberattacks to disrupt the administration of our elections" and urging the states to use DHS services but without any mention of Russia. The letter makes clear that DHS assistance would be free of federal interference in state and local officials running the elections.
September 29:
Comey testifies before the House Judiciary Committee, confirming that federal investigators have detected suspicious activities in voter registration databases, as stated in the August 18 alert.
Butina meets Gordon at a party at the Swiss ambassador's residence. Gordon was the Director of National Security for the Trump campaign from February to August. That night, Paul Erickson emails Butina and Gordon offering to "add an electronic bridge" to their meeting at the party. In his email to Butina, Erickson writes that Gordon is "playing a crucial role in the Trump transition effort and would be an excellent addition to any of the U.S./Russia friendship dinners to occasionally hold." He writes that all the "right" people listen to Gordon on international security. Erickson's email to Gordon describes Butina as a "special friend" of the NRA and the special assistant to the deputy governor of the Bank of Russia.
September 30:
Ksenia Baygarova interviews Papadopoulos for Interfax on Trump's foreign policy positions in relation to Russia. The interview was approved by Trump campaign deputy communications director Bryan Lanza. Baygarova later tells The Washington Post that she had been tasked to interview a representative from each campaign. She says Papadopoulos was the only person from the Trump campaign to respond. She describes him as not very experienced. Adverse publicity generated by the interview leads to Papadopoulos being fired from the campaign in October.
The FBI hosts a conference call with Florida elections officials and VR Systems, among others, in which they warn that Russian hackers are targeting election infrastructure. The FBI shares a list of suspicious IP addresses to watch out for.
Late September: Lichtblau and his lawyer meet a roomful of officials at FBI HQ, and are told the officials are looking into potential Russian interference in the election. FBI officials ask Lichtblau to delay publishing his story.
October 2016
October: The FBI Counterintelligence Division tasks a contractor with identifying Russian influence activity on Twitter.
Early October: A team of FBI agents travel to Europe to speak with Steele about his dossier. On or about the same date, Steele gives the FBI a dossier of allegations compiled by Cody Shearer, which corresponded "with what he had separately heard from his own independent sources." It includes the unverified allegation that Trump was sexually compromised by the Russian secret service at the Ritz-Carlton Hotel in Moscow in 2013.
October 1:
Credico texts Stone that there will be "big news on Wednesday," and "Hillary's campaign will die this week."
Stone tweets that something damaging to Clinton will happen soon.
DHS Secretary Johnson issues a public statement advising states to seek DHS assistance with election security, and notes that 21 states have requested help.
October 2:
"Miners for Trump" rallies are held across Pennsylvania. The IRA uses the same techniques to organize the rallies as they used for the "Florida Goes Trump" rallies, including hiring a person to wear a Clinton mask and a prison uniform.
Stone tells Jones on InfoWars, "I'm assured the motherlode is coming Wednesday...I have reason to believe that it is devastating."
After a scheduled WikiLeaks press conference is postponed, Credico tells Stone the delay is a "head fake."
October 3:
Stone asks Credico if Assange "back[ed] off." Credico responds that he "think[s] its on for tomorrow," and adds that "Hillary and her people" are trying to stop Assange.
Stone tweets that Assange will release something soon.
WikiLeaks sends a Twitter direct message to Trump Jr. asking him to help "push" a WikiLeaks tweet from earlier in the day ("Hillary Clinton on Assange 'Can't we just drone this guy?[']") that includes a link to truepundit.com. Trump Jr. responds, "Already did that earlier today. It's amazing what she can get away with. What's behind this Wednesday leak I keep reading about?"
Stone emails Prince that "[t]he payload is still coming."
October 4:
Assange announces the pending release of a million documents about the U.S. presidential election. He denies any specific intent to harm Clinton.
Bannon asks Stone if Assange cut a deal with the Clintons. Stone replies that Assange is afraid, but will make weekly releases.
October 5:
(Wednesday) Stone tweets that a payload from Assange is coming.
Trump Jr. retweets a WikiLeaks tweet announcing an "860Mb [sic]" archive of various Clinton campaign documents from "Guccifer 2.0".
October 6:
Stone tweets, "Julian Assange will deliver a devastating expose on Hillary at a time of his choosing. I stand by my prediction."
The IRA posts nearly 18,000 Twitter messages at a rate of approximately 12 per minute.
October 7:
Before the DHS and IDNI joint statement release, Rice summons Kislyak to her office and delivers a verbal warning for Russia not to interfere in the election. She gives Kislyak a more detailed written warning for Putin that includes potential consequences that would "powerfully impact" Russia's economy.
At 12:40 PM EDT, The DHS and the ODNI issue a joint statement accusing the Russian government of breaking into the computer systems of several political organizations and releasing the obtained material via DCLeaks, WikiLeaks, and "Guccifer 2.0", with the intent "to interfere with the U.S. election process."
Corsi holds a conference call with members of WorldNetDaily in which he warns them of the imminent release of the Access Hollywood tape and tells them "to reach Assange immediately". In November 2018 he tells Mueller's team that he thought Malloch was on the call and assumed Malloch had successfully contacted Assange because of the subsequent Podesta emails release later in the day. Travel records show Malloch was on a trans-Atlantic flight at the time. The Mueller Report says Corsi's sometimes conflicting statements about the call's contents have not been corroborated.
At 4:03 PM EDT, The Washington Post publishes a raw video tape from the television show Access Hollywood of Trump bragging about grabbing women by their genitals. While the tape is not relevant to the Russian interference in the election, the distraction of its release lessens the public impact of the joint intelligence report released hours earlier and may have triggered WikiLeaks' Podesta emails release 30 minutes later.
Around 4:30 PM EDT, WikiLeaks begins publishing thousands of Podesta emails, revealing excerpts from Clinton's paid speeches to Wall Street. Trump Jr. retweets WikiLeaks' and others' announcements about the release.
October 8: Kushner's company receives $370 million in new loans, including $285 million from Deutsche Bank, to refinance his portion of the former New York Times building. The size and timing of the Deutsche Bank loan draws scrutiny from the House Financial Services Committee, the Justice Department, and, later, the Mueller investigation. The concern is that the transaction may be related to Russian money laundering through Deutsche Bank.
October 8–14: The U.S. government expresses to Ecuadorian officials its concerns that Assange is using their London embassy to help Russian's interfere in the U.S. election.
October 9: Banks, Wigmore, and Farage attend the second presidential debate in St. Louis, Missouri.
October 10:
Smith emails supporters and Flynn Jr. updates on purported Clinton emails sent to WikiLeaks for validation.
DHS Secretary Johnson releases a public statement raising awareness of election systems security. It notes that a DHS vulnerability scan takes three weeks and there are only 29 days left before the election. The statement indicates that 33 state and 11 local or county election agencies have requested assistance from DHS.
October 11:
Trump Jr. travels to Paris to give a paid speech at the Ritz Hotel. The dinner event is sponsored by the Center of Political and Foreign Affairs, a group founded by Fabien Baussart and his business partner. Baussart is openly linked to Russian government officials. Randa Kassis, one of the hosts, travels to Moscow after the election and reports the details of the event to Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Mikhail Bogdanov.
Podesta says he thinks the Trump campaign had advance notice of WikiLeaks' release of his emails.
October 12: WikiLeaks writes to Trump Jr., "Hey Donald, great to see you and your dad talking about our publications" and "Strongly suggest your dad tweets this link if he mentions us wlsearch.tk." Fifteen minutes later, Donald Trump tweets, "Very little pick-up by the dishonest media of incredible information provided by WikiLeaks. So dishonest! Rigged system!"
October 13: WikiLeaks again denies communicating with Stone. Later that day, Stone and WikiLeaks communicate by private Twitter message.
October 14:
Trump Jr. tweets about wlsearch.tk as requested by WikiLeaks on October 12.
Pence denies that the Trump campaign is working with WikiLeaks, stating that "nothing could be further from the truth".
The FBI and DHS send a second "flash report" and a Joint Analysis Report warning about election systems being targeted. The reports contain a list of suspicious IP addresses but do not mention that they are associated with a state actor, so many state IT directors do not understand the urgency of the reports and do not pass them on to their election officials.
Around this date, Kislyak informs Rice of Putin's response to the warning she gave him on October 7. In a 2017 interview with the Senate Intelligence Committee, she characterizes the response as "denial and obfuscation" and says that Putin specifically mentioned that Russia remains a nuclear power.
October 15:
The Democratic Coalition Against Trump files a complaint with the FBI against Stone for colluding with Russia. They ask the FBI to look into connections between Stone, the Trump campaign, and the hacking of Podesta's emails.
The National Security Division of the Justice Department acquires a FISA warrant to monitor the communications of two Russian banks as part of an investigation into whether they illegally transferred money to the Trump campaign.
The Ecuadorian Embassy cuts Assange's Internet access and telephone service.
Smith sends another update on Clinton's emails and WikiLeaks to Flynn, Flynn Jr., Ledeen, and Clovis.
October 16: The IRA's Instagram account "Woke Blacks" makes a post aimed at suppressing black voter turnout.
October 18:
Butina and Gordon attend a Styx concert together.
Ecuador's Ministry of Foreign Affairs releases a public statement announcing that it "exercised its right" to "temporarily restrict access to some of [WikiLeaks'] private communications network within its Embassy in the United Kingdom" and that the government of Ecuador "does not interfere in external electoral processes, nor does it favor any particular candidate".
October 19:
The FBI and the US Department of Justice (DoJ) apply for a FISA warrant to conduct surveillance on Carter Page. In its approval, the FISA Court finds there is probable cause to believe Page is a Russian agent.
During the third presidential debate, Clinton blames Russia for the DNC email leaks and accuses Trump of being a "puppet" of Putin. Trump denies ever having met Putin and any connection to him. Banks, Wigmore, and Farage are in attendance.
A Financial Times probe finds evidence a Trump venture has links to an alleged money laundering network.
Stone denies having advance knowledge of WikiLeaks' release of Podesta's emails.
The IRA runs its most popular ad on Facebook. The ad is for the IRA's Back the Badge Facebook group and shows a badge with the words "Back the Badge" in front of police lights under the caption "Community of people who support our brave Police Officers."
Hours after a heated argument between Assange and Ecuadorian Ambassador Carlos Abad Ortiz the night before, two Wikileaks personnel remove computer equipment and "about 100 hard drives" from the embassy.
October 21:
WikiLeaks sends Trump Jr. private tweets suggesting that the campaign give them Trump's tax returns to publish so that they seem less of a "'pro-Trump' 'pro-Russia'" source.
DoJ and FBI request and obtain new FISA wiretap on Carter Page.
Manafort emails Kushner a strategy memorandum proposing the Trump campaign portray Clinton "as the failed and corrupt champion of the establishment." He suggests using Wikileaks as a source of Clinton quotes that could be used against her.
October 22: A large rally is held in Charlotte, North Carolina, protesting the police shooting of Keith Lamont Scott. The IRA website BlackMattersUS recruits unwitting local activists to organize the rally. BlackMattersUS provides an activist with a bank card to pay for rally expenses.
October 24:
Trump announces at a Florida campaign rally, "I have nothing to do with Russia, folks. I'll give you a written statement."
After Smith sends another email update about WikiLeaks, Charles Johnson responds that Bannon expects Smith to hand over all 30,000 Clinton emails or face legal action. In 2020, the Senate Intelligence Committee finds that there is no evidence Smith received any non-public documents from WikiLeaks.
A consultant asks Benton about his contribution for the September 22 event. Benton replies that he "bought the tickets and gifted them" to Wead and Vasilenko, and that he (Benton) is the source of the funds. Benton and Wead are indicted in September 2021 for making a straw donation on behalf of Vasilenko.
October 27: At the Valdai Discussion Club yearly forum, Putin denounces American "hysteria" over accusations of Russian interference, saying "Does anyone seriously think that Russia can influence the choice of the American people?"
October 28:
The FBI reopens its Hillary Clinton email investigation after a monthlong delay during which it focused on investigating the Trump campaign's connections to Russia, according to the report of the Justice Department's inspector general. A key influence on the decision was a probably fake Russian intelligence document discussing a purported email from Attorney General Loretta E. Lynch to Clinton campaign staffer Amanda Renteria in which she promises to go easy on Clinton. Nine days after announcing he was reopening the probe, Comey said the FBI found nothing to change its July decision against bringing charges.
Peter W. Smith sends an email to an undisclosed list of recipients in which he writes that there is a "tug-of-war going on within WikiLeaks over its planned releases in the next few days" and that WikiLeaks "has maintained that it will save its best revelations for last, under the theory this allows little time for response prior to the U.S. election November 8." An attachment to the email says that WikiLeaks will release "All 33k deleted Emails" by November 1.
October 29: Trump loans $10 million to his campaign It is his largest single contribution to his campaign, and the campaign never reimburses him for the loan. Starting in 2017, Mueller's team and, later, federal prosecutors investigate whether the funds came from a state-owned Egyptian bank, finally dropping the case in Summer 2020 without reaching a conclusion.
October 30:
Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid sends FBI Director James Comey a letter asking him to reveal Trump's ties to the Russian Federation.
Cohen and Giorgi Rtskhiladze exchange text messages in which they discuss suppressing tapes of Trump's 2013 trip to Moscow rumored to be in the possession of Aras Agalarov's company, . In May 2018 Rtskhiladze tells Mueller's team that he was told the tapes were fake but did not relay that information to Cohen.
October 31:
Through the "red phone", Obama tells Putin to stop interfering or face consequences.
Mother Jones magazine's David Corn reports that a veteran spy, later publicly identified as Steele, gave the FBI information alleging a Russian operation to cultivate Trump, later known as the "Steele dossier".
Slate publishes an article by Franklin Foer alleging that a Trump server was in suspicious contact with Alfa-Bank in Russia. Snopes examined the story and rated it "Unproven". Several cyber security experts saw nothing nefarious, while the FBI was still investigating the matter: "One U.S. official said investigators find the server relationship 'odd' and are not ignoring it. But the official said there is still more work for the FBI to do. Investigators have not yet determined whether a connection would be significant."
The New York Times publishes an article by Lichtblau and Steven Lee Myers with a headline that seems to exonerate the Trump campaign, but withholds some information.
The GRU targets over 120 Florida election officials' email accounts with spearphishing attacks. They receive emails purportedly from VR Systems, the state's voter registration and election results service provider, asking them to open a purported Word document containing a trojan. At least some of the emails from [email protected], which VR Systems doesn't use, contain British spellings. Many of the emails are flagged by spam filters. Elections officials in Washington County and another county open the attachments and infect their systems. Later, the FBI believes one county government's network was compromised in a way that would have given security hackers the ability to alter voter registration data, but this is disputed by state election officials.
November 2016
November–December: Michael Flynn serves as an advisor to SCL Group, the parent company of Cambridge Analytica. was broken shortly after the election.
November:
Mangiante quits the London Centre of International Law Practice after complaining to Mifsud about not being paid her salary.
Paul Manafort and Rick Gates falsely assert in writing to the Justice Department that their work for the Ukrainian government did not require registering as foreign agents in the United States. In September 2018, Manafort pleads guilty to lying to the Justice Department about the extent of his work for Ukraine.
November 1:
Florida elections officials receive an email from VR's chief operating officer warning them about the malicious emails sent the day before. The company notifies the FBI of the spearphishing attack, but does not tell customers or the FBI about the attempted August attack.
Twitter accounts belonging to the GRU persona "Anonymous Poland" post a forged letter on Bradley Foundation stationary showing that the conservative foundation purportedly donated $150 million to the Clinton campaign, which would be illegal if true.
November 2: The IRA Twitter account @TEN_GOP alleges "#VoterFraud by counting tens of thousands of ineligible mail in Hillary votes being reported in Broward County, Florida." Trump Jr. retweets it.
November 3: The IRA Instagram account "Blacktivist" suggests people vote for Stein instead of Clinton.
November 4:
Mother Jones reports that an October security sweep of the DNC offices in Washington, D.C., discovered a signal that may have belonged to a device outside the office that could intercept cell phone calls. The DNC says details of the security sweep were passed on to the FBI and "another agency with three letters," but no device was ever found.
Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs Victoria Nuland rejects a formal request from the Russian Embassy to observe U.S. elections because Russia refused an invitation to participate in the official OSCE observer mission.
November 5:
Konstantin Sidorkov again emails Trump Jr. and Trump campaign social media director Dan Scavino. He again offers to promote Trump to VK's 100 million users. His previous email was sent on January 19, 2016.
Anti-Clinton "Texit" rallies are held across Texas. The IRA's "Heart of Texas" Facebook group organizes the rallies around the theme of Texas seceding from the United States if Clinton is elected. The group contacts the Texas Nationalist Movement, a secessionist organization, to help with organizing efforts, but they decline to help. Small rallies are held in Dallas, Fort Worth, Austin, and other cities. No one attends the Lubbock rally.
Manafort emails Kushner a warning that if Clinton loses, her campaign will respond to the loss by claiming voter fraud, cyber-fraud, and Russian hacking of voting machines contributed to Trump's victory.
November 8:
Trump is elected President of the United States.
Hours after the polls close, the hashtag #Calexit is retweeted by thousands of IRA accounts.
Rospatent, the Russian government agency responsible for intellectual property, grants 10-year extensions on four of Trump's trademarks.
Post-election transition
Investigations' continuing timelines
Timeline of investigations into Trump and Russia (January–June 2017)
Timeline of investigations into Trump and Russia (July–December 2017)
Timeline of investigations into Trump and Russia (January–June 2018)
Timeline of investigations into Trump and Russia (July–December 2018)
Timeline of investigations into Trump and Russia (2019–2020)
Related continuing interference
Russian interference in the 2018 United States elections
Russian interference in the 2020 United States elections
See also
Timelines related to Donald Trump and Russian interference in United States elections
References
Further reading
Bittman, Ladislav (1983). The KGB and Soviet Disinformation. Foreword by Roy Godson.
Robert Costa, Carol D. Leonnig, and Josh Dawsey Inside the secretive nerve center of the Mueller investigation, The Washington Post. December 2, 2017.
Entous, Adam; Nakashima, Ellen; Jaffe, Greg (December 26, 2017). "Kremlin trolls burned across the Internet as Washington debated options." The Washington Post.
Foer, Franklin (March 2018). "The Plot Against America". The Atlantic.
Frank, Thomas (January 12, 2018). "Secret Money: How Trump Made Millions Selling Condos To Unknown Buyers ". BuzzFeed News.
Hamburger, Tom; Helderman, Rosalind S. (February 6, 2018). "Hero or hired gun? How a British former spy became a flash point in the Russia investigation." The Washington Post.
Luce, Edward (November 3, 2017) The Big Read: Trump under siege from Mueller as he travels to Asia. Financial Times.
Osnos, Evan; Remnick, David; Yaffa, Joshua. "Trump, Putin, and the New Cold War," (March 6, 2017), The New Yorker.
Pacepa, Ion Mihai; Rychlak, Ronald J. (2013). Disinformation: Former Spy Chief Reveals Secret Strategies for Undermining Freedom, Attacking Religion, and Promoting Terrorism
Shane, Scott; Mazzetti, Mark (September 20, 2018). "The Plot to Subvert an Election", The New York Times
Shultz, Richard H.; Godson, Roy (1984). Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy
Thompson, Nicholas; Vogelstein, Fred (February 12, 2018). "Inside the two years that shook Facebook–and the World." Wired.
Toobin, Jeffrey (December 11, 2017). "Michael Flynn's Guilty Plea Sends Donald Trump's Lawyers Scrambling" The New Yorker.
Unger, Craig (July 13, 2017). "Trump's Russian Laundromat" The New Republic.
External links
2016
Contemporary history timelines
Donald Trump-related lists
Political timelines by year |
18650595 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardraw | Stardraw | Founded in 1993 by ex-Microsoft development manager David Snipp Stardraw is a company that makes audio/visual system integration and design software.
Software
Stardraw has two different but related sets of software both for the Audio-visual (A/V) market
Computer aided design
Stardraw's design software is for creating documentation of audio/visual systems. This includes A/V schematics (similar to a Computer network diagram), Rack Layouts, Presentation Drawings (Pictorial Schematics), Panel Layouts for custom metalwork, Plan View drawings, and associated reports such as Bills of Materials, Quotations and Cable Schedules.
The software includes preset equipment icons to make it quick to create an illustrations of a A/V system design.
Their software of this type includes
Stardraw Audio 2007 (Discontinued)
Stardraw A/V 2007 (Discontinued)
Stardraw A/V Lite 2007 (Discontinued)
Stardraw Lighting 2D 2007 (Discontinued)
Stardraw Design 7 - Released June 2011
Control Software
Stardraw control is their Integrated development environment for creating Touchscreen remote control of a wide variety of equipment.
Typical uses include room automation in boardrooms, auditoriums, museums or home theaters, where users use fixed and wireless touch-screens to control devices such as video projectors and displays, PCs, DVD and VCR players and recorders, cameras, teleconferencing systems, audio/video switchers and processing equipment, motorized projection screens, drapes, lighting, HVAC systems, and a wide variety of other types of equipment. Other common uses include entertainment systems, industrial command and control centers, security systems, hotels and restaurants.
What separates their software from rivals AMX and Crestron is that it does not require any special hardware instead it runs on any machine running Microsoft Windows, further more the drivers and scripts for it are written in the general programming language C# rather than a proprietary language and designed in a graphical environment similar to that used by Microsoft's programming languages.
The software also present a Web service interface which enables non-windows devices to control the software for example Tablet computers such as Apples iPad
See also
List of CAD companies
AMX
AutoCAD
AVSnap
References
Sound & Communications Magazine - 20 Years with Stardraw.com
External links
Stardraw homepage
1995 software
Home automation
Building automation
Remote control |
1441546 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paravirtualization | Paravirtualization | In computing, paravirtualization or para-virtualization is a virtualization technique that presents a software interface to the virtual machines which is similar, yet not identical to the underlying hardware–software interface.
The intent of the modified interface is to reduce the portion of the guest's execution time spent performing operations which are substantially more difficult to run in a virtual environment compared to a non-virtualized environment. The paravirtualization provides specially defined 'hooks' to allow the guest(s) and host to request and acknowledge these tasks, which would otherwise be executed in the virtual domain (where execution performance is worse). A successful paravirtualized platform may allow the virtual machine monitor (VMM) to be simpler (by relocating execution of critical tasks from the virtual domain to the host domain), and/or reduce the overall performance degradation of machine execution inside the virtual guest.
Paravirtualization requires the guest operating system to be explicitly ported for the para-API – a conventional OS distribution that is not paravirtualization-aware cannot be run on top of a paravirtualizing VMM. However, even in cases where the operating system cannot be modified, components may be available that enable many of the significant performance advantages of paravirtualization. For example, the Xen Windows GPLPV project provides a kit of paravirtualization-aware device drivers, licensed under the terms of the GPL, that are intended to be installed into a Microsoft Windows virtual guest running on the Xen hypervisor. Such applications tend to be accessible through the paravirtual machine interface environment. This ensures run-mode compatibility across multiple encryption algorithm models, allowing seamless integration within the paravirtual framework.
History
Paravirtualization is a new term for an old idea. IBM's VM operating system has offered such a facility since 1972 (and earlier as CP-67). In the VM world, this is designated a "DIAGNOSE code", because it uses an instruction code used normally only by hardware maintenance software and thus undefined.
The Parallels Workstation operating system calls its equivalent a "hypercall". All are the same thing: a system call to the hypervisor below. Such calls require support in the "guest" operating system, which has to have hypervisor-specific code to make such calls.
The term "paravirtualization" was first used in the research literature in association with the Denali Virtual Machine Manager. The term is also used to describe the Xen, L4, TRANGO, VMware, Wind River and XtratuM hypervisors. All these projects use or can use paravirtualization techniques to support high performance virtual machines on x86 hardware by implementing a virtual machine that does not implement the hard-to-virtualize parts of the actual x86 instruction set.
A hypervisor provides the virtualization of the underlying computer system. In full virtualization, a guest operating system runs unmodified on a hypervisor. However, improved performance and efficiency is achieved by having the guest operating system communicate with the hypervisor. By allowing the guest operating system to indicate its intent to the hypervisor, each can cooperate to obtain better performance when running in a virtual machine. This type of communication is referred to as paravirtualization.
In 2005, VMware proposed a paravirtualization interface, the Virtual Machine Interface (VMI), as a communication mechanism between the guest operating system and the hypervisor. This interface enabled transparent paravirtualization in which a single binary version of the operating system can run either on native hardware or on a hypervisor in paravirtualized mode. As AMD and Intel CPUs added support for more efficient hardware-assisted virtualization, the standard became obsoleted and VMI support was removed from Linux kernel in 2.6.37 and from VMware products in 2011.
In 2008, Red Hat announced the VirtIO paravirtualization for KVM and Linux, VirtIO driver for Microsoft Windows is also available.
In 2008, Microsoft announced Hyper-V paravirtualization.
Linux paravirtualization support
At the USENIX conference in 2006 in Boston, Massachusetts, a number of Linux development vendors (including IBM, VMware, Xen, and Red Hat) collaborated on an alternative form of paravirtualization, initially developed by the Xen group, called "paravirt-ops". The paravirt-ops code (often shortened to pv-ops) was included in the mainline Linux kernel as of the 2.6.23 version, and provides a hypervisor-agnostic interface between the hypervisor and guest kernels. Distribution support for pv-ops guest kernels appeared starting with Ubuntu 7.04 and RedHat 9. Xen hypervisors based on any 2.6.24 or later kernel support pv-ops guests, as does VMware's Workstation product beginning with version 6.
VirtualBox also supports it from version 5.0.
See also
Operating system-level virtualization
Exokernel
KVM
Logical Domains (LDOM)
Logical partition (LPAR)
Hypervisor
References
External links
Anandtech – Hardware Virtualization: the Nuts and Bolts Technical article on paravirtualization
Virtualization software |
42364902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebScaleSQL | WebScaleSQL | WebScaleSQL was an open-source relational database management system (RDBMS) created as a software branch of the production-ready community releases of MySQL. By joining efforts of a few companies and incorporating various changes and new features into MySQL, WebScaleSQL aimed toward fulfilling various needs arising from the deployment of MySQL in large-scale environments, which involve large amounts of data and numerous database servers.
The source code of WebScaleSQL is hosted on GitHub and licensed under the terms of version 2 of the GNU General Public License.
The project website announced in December 2016 that the companies involved would no longer contribute to the project.
Overview
Running MySQL on numerous servers with large amounts of data, at the scale of terabytes and petabytes of data, creates a set of difficulties that in many cases arise the need for implementing specific customized MySQL features, or the need for introducing functional changes to MySQL. More than a few companies have faced the same (or very similar) set of difficulties in their production environments, which used to result in the availability of multiple solutions for similar challenges.
WebScaleSQL was announced on March 27, 2014 as a joint effort of Facebook, Google, LinkedIn and Twitter (with Alibaba Group joining in January 2015), aiming to provide a centralized development structure for extending MySQL with new features specific to its large-scale deployments, such as building large replicated databases running on server farms. As a result, WebScaleSQL attempted to open a path toward deduplicating the efforts each founding company had been putting into maintaining its own branch of MySQL, and toward bringing together more developers.
WebScaleSQL was created as a branch of the MySQL's latest production-ready community release, which was version 5.6 . As the project aimed to tightly follow new MySQL community releases, a branching path was selected instead of becoming a software fork of MySQL. The selection of MySQL production-ready community releases for the WebScaleSQL's upstream, instead of selecting some of the available MySQL forks was the result of a consensus between the four founding companies, which concluded that the features already existing in MySQL 5.6 are suitable for large-scale deployments, while additional features of the same kind are planned for MySQL 5.7.
Features
The initial changes and feature additions that WebScaleSQL introduced to the MySQL 5.6 codebase came from the engineers employed by the four founding companies; however, the project was open to peer-reviewed community contributions. , available new features and changes included the following:
A software framework that provides automated testing of all proposed changes
A customized suite of database performance tests
Various changes to the automated tests provided by the MySQL community releases
Performance improvements in various areas, including buffer pool flushing, execution of certain types of SQL queries, and support for NUMA architectures
Changes related to large-scale deployments, such as the ability to specify sub-second client timeouts
Performance and reliability improvements to the global transaction identifier (GTID) feature of MySQL 5.6
So-called super_read_only operation mode for the MySQL server, which disables data modification operations even for privileged database accounts
, planned new features and changes included the following:
New asynchronous MySQL client that will eliminate the client-side waiting while establishing database connections, sending queries, and receiving their results
Availability of various table, user and compression statistics
Changes to the internal compression mechanisms
Addition of a logical read-ahead mechanism that will bring significant performance improvements for full table scans
Availability
WebScaleSQL is distributed in a source-code-only form, with no official binaries available. , compiling the source code and running WebScaleSQL is supported only on x86-64 Linux hosts, requiring at the same time a toolchain that supports C99 and C++11 language standards.
The source code is hosted on GitHub and available under version 2 of the GNU General Public License (GPL v2).
End of Contributions
In December 2016, the WebScaleSQL website announced the companies originally involved in collaborating on the project (Facebook, Google, LinkedIn, Twitter, and Alibaba) would no longer contribute to the project. The announcement blamed differences among the needs of the various companies for the end of the collaboration.
See also
Comparison of relational database management systems
References
External links
2014 software
Client-server database management systems
Free database management systems
Linux-only free software
MySQL
RDBMS software for Linux |
886876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowd%20simulation | Crowd simulation | Crowd simulation is the process of simulating the movement (or ) of a large number of entities or characters. It is commonly used to create virtual scenes for visual media like films and video games, and is also used in crisis training, architecture and urban planning, and evacuation simulation.
Crowd simulation may focus on aspects that target different applications. For realistic and fast rendering of a crowd for visual media or virtual cinematography, reduction of the complexity of the 3D scene and image-based rendering are used, while variations in appearance help present a realistic population.
In games and applications intended to replicate real-life human crowd movement, like in evacuation simulations, simulated agents may need to navigate towards a goal, avoid collisions, and exhibit other human-like behavior. Many crowd steering algorithms have been developed to lead simulated crowds to their goals realistically. Some more general systems are researched that can support different kinds of agents (like cars and pedestrians), different levels of abstraction (like individual and continuum), agents interacting with smart objects, and more complex physical and social dynamics.
History
There has always been a deep-seated interest in the understanding and gaining control of motional and behavior of crowds of people. Many major advancements have taken place since the beginnings of research within the realm of crowd simulation. Evidently many new findings are continually made and published following these which enhance the scalability, flexibility, applicability, and realism of simulations:
In 1987, behavioral animation was introduced and developed by Craig Reynolds. He had simulated flocks of birds alongside schools of fish for the purpose of studying group intuition and movement. All agents within these simulations were given direct access to the respective positions and velocities of their surrounding agents. The theorization and study set forth by Reynolds was improved and built upon in 1994 by Xiaoyuan Tu, Demetri Terzopoulos and Radek Grzeszczuk. The realistic quality of simulation was engaged with as the individual agents were equipped with synthetic vision and a general view of the environment within which they resided, allowing for a perceptual awareness within their dynamic habitats.
Initial research in the field of crowd simulation began in 1997 with Daniel Thalmann's supervision of Soraia Raupp Musse's PhD thesis. These two present a new model of crowd behavior in order to create a simulation of generic populations. Here a relation is drawn between the autonomous behavior of the individual within the crowd and the emergent behavior originating from this.
In 1999, individualistic navigation began its course within the realm of crowd simulation via continued research of Craig Reynolds. Steering behaviors are proven to play a large role in the process of automating agents within a simulation. Reynolds states the processes of low-level locomotion to be dependent and reliant on mid-level steering behaviors and higher-level goal states and path finding strategies. Building off of the advanced work of Reynolds, Musse and Thalmann began to study the modeling of real time simulations of these crowds, and their applications to human behavior. The control of human crowds was designated as a hierarchical organization with levels of autonomy amongst agents. This marks the beginnings of modeling individual behavior in its most elementary form on humanoid agents or virtual humans.
Coinciding with publications regarding human behavior models and simulations of group behaviors, Matt Anderson, Eric McDaniel, and Stephen Chenney's proposal of constraints on behavior gained popularity. The positioning of constraints on group animations was presented to be able to be done at any time within the simulation. This process of applying constraints to the behavioral model is undergone in a two-fold manner, by first determining the initial set of goal trajectories coinciding with the constraints, and then applying behavioral rules to these paths to select those which do not violate them.
Correlating and building off of the findings proposed in his work with Musse, Thalmann, working alongside Bratislava Ulicny and Pablo de Heras Ciechomski, proposed a new model which allowed for interactive authoring of agents at the level of an individual, a group of agents and the entirety of a crowd. A brush metaphor is introduced to distribute, model and control crowd members in real-time with immediate feedback.
Crowd dynamics
One of the major goals in crowd simulation is to steer crowds realistically and recreate human dynamic behaviors.
There exists several overarching approaches to crowd simulation and AI, each one providing advantages and disadvantages based on crowd size and time scale. Time scale refers to how the objective of the simulation also affects the length of the simulation. For example, researching social questions such as how ideologies are spread amongst a population will result in a much longer running simulation since such an event can span up to months or years. Using those two characteristics, researchers have attempted to apply classifications to better evaluate and organize existing crowd simulators.
Flow-based Approach Flow based crowd simulations focus on the crowd as a whole rather than its components. As such individuals do not have any distinctive behaviors that occur due to input from their surroundings and behavioral factors are largely reduced. This model is mainly used to estimate the flow of movement of a large and dense crowd in a given environment. Best used in studying large crowd, short time objectives.
Entity-based Approach Models that implement a set of physical, predefined, and global laws meant to simulate social/psychological factors that occur in individuals that are a part of a crowd fall under this category. Entities in this case do not have the capacity to, in a sense, think for themselves. All movements are determined by the global laws being enforced on them. Simulations that use this model often do so to research crowd dynamics such as jamming and flocking. Small to medium-sized crowds with short term objectives fit this approach best.
Agent-based Approach Characterized by autonomous, interacting individuals. Each agent of a crowd in this approach, is given a degree of intelligence; they can react to each situation on their own based on a set of decision rules. Information used to decide on an action is obtained locally from the agent's' surroundings. Most often, this approach is used for simulating realistic crowd behavior as the researcher is given complete freedom to implement any behaviors.
Particle systems
One way to simulate virtual crowds is to use a particle system. Particle systems were first introduced in computer graphics by W. T. Reeves in 1983. A particle system is a collection of a number of individual elements or particles. Each particle is able to act autonomously and is assigned a set of physical attributes (such as color, size and velocity).
A particle system is dynamic, in that the movements of the particles change over time. A particle system's movement is what makes it so desirable and easy to implement. Calculating the movements of these particles takes very little time. It simply involves physics: the sum of all the forces acting on a particle determines its motion. Forces such as gravity, friction and force from a collision, and social forces like the attractive force of a goal.
Usually each particle has a velocity vector and a position vector, containing information about the particle's current velocity and position respectively. The particles next position is calculated by adding its velocity vector to its position vector. A very simple operation (again why particle systems are so desirable). Its velocity vector changes over time, in response to the forces acting on the particle. For example, a collision with another particle will cause it to change direction.
Particles systems have been widely used in films for effects such as explosions, for water effects in the 2000 movie The Perfect Storm, and simulated gas in the 1994 film the Mask.
Particles systems, however, do have some drawbacks. It can be a bad idea to use a particle system to simulate agents in a crowd that the director will move on command, as determining which particles belong to the agent and which do not is very difficult.
Algorithm by Patil and Van Den Berg
This algorithm was designed for relatively simplistic crowds, where each agent in the crowd only desires to get to its own goal destination while also avoiding obstacles. This algorithm could be used for simulating a crowd in Times Square.
Patils algorithm's most important and distinctive feature is that it utilizes the concept of navigation fields for directing agents. This is different from a guidance field; a guidance field is an area around the agent in which the agent is capable of "seeing"/detecting information. Guidance fields are typically used for avoiding obstacles, dynamic obstacles (obstacles that move) in particular. Every agent possesses its own guidance field. A navigation field, on the other hand, is a vector field which calculates the minimum cost path for every agent so that every agent arrives at its own goal position.
The navigation field can only be used properly when a path exists from every free (non-obstacle) position in the environment to one of the goal positions. The navigation field is computed using coordinates of the static objects in the environment, goal positions for each agent, and the guidance field for each agent. In order to guarantee that every agent reaches its own goal the navigation field must be free of local minima, except for the presence of sinks at the specified goals.
The running time of computing the navigation field is , where m × n is the grid dimension (similar to Dijkstra's algorithm). Thus, the algorithm is only dependent on the grid resolution and not dependent on the number of agents in the environment. However, this algorithm has a high memory cost.
Individual behavior modelling
One set of techniques for AI-based crowd simulation is to model crowd behavior by advanced simulation of individual agent motivations and decision-making. Generally, this means each agent is assigned some set of variables that measure various traits or statuses such as stress, personality, or different goals. This results in more realistic crowd behavior though may be more computationally intensive than simpler techniques.
Personality-based models
One method of creating individualistic behavior for crowd agents is through the use of personality traits. Each agent may have certain aspects of their personality tuned based on a formula that associates aspects such as aggressiveness or impulsiveness with variables that govern the agents' behavior. One way this association can be found is through a subjective study in which agents are randomly assigned values for these variables and participants are asked to describe each agent in terms of these personality traits. A regression may then be done to determine a correlation between these traits and the agent variables. The personality traits can then be tuned and have an appropriate effect on agent behavior.
The OCEAN personality model has been used to define a mapping between personality traits and crowd simulation parameters. Automating crowd parameter tuning with personality traits provides easy authoring of scenarios with heterogeneous crowds.
Stress-based model
The behavior of crowds in high-stress situations can be modeled using General Adaptation Syndrome theory.l Agent behavior is affected by various stressors from their environment categorized into four prototypes: time pressure, area pressure, positional stressors, and interpersonal stressors, each with associated mathematical models.
Time pressure refers to stressors related to a time limit in reaching a particular goal. An example would be a street crossing with a timed walk signal or boarding a train before the doors are closed. This prototype is modeled by the following formula:
where is the intensity of the time pressure as a function of the estimated time to reach the goal and a time constraint .
Area pressure refers to stressors as a result of an environmental condition. Examples would be noise or heat in an area. The intensity of this stressor is constant over a particular area and is modeled by the following formula:
where is the intensity of the area pressure, is the position of the agent in an area , and is a constant.
Positional stressors refer to stressors associated with a local source of stress. The intensity of this stressor increases as an agent approaches the source of the stress. An example would be a fire or a dynamic object such as an assailant. It can be modeled by the following formula:
where is the intensity of the positional stressor, is the position of the agent and is the position of the stressor. Alternatively, stressors that generate high stress over a large area (such as a fire) can be modeled using a Gaussian distribution with standard deviation :
Interpersonal stressors are stressors as a result of crowding by nearby agents. It can be modeled by the following formula:
where is the intensity of the interpersonal stressor, is the current number of neighbors within a unit space and is the preferred number of neighbors within a unit space for that particular agent.
The perceived stress follows Steven's Law and is modeled by the formula:
where is the perceived stress for a stress level , is a scale factor, and is an exponent depending on the stressor type.
An agent's stress response can be found with the following formula:
where is the stress response capped at a maximum value of and is the maximum rate at which an agent's stress response can change.
Examples of notable crowd AI simulation can be seen in New Line Cinema's The Lord of the Rings films, where AI armies of thousands of characters battle each other. This crowd simulation was done using Weta Digital's Massive software.
Sociology
Crowd simulation can also refer to simulations based on group dynamics and crowd psychology, often in public safety planning. In this case, the focus is just the behavior of the crowd, and not the visual realism of the simulation. Crowds have been studied as a scientific interest since the end of the 19th century. A lot of research has focused on the collective social behavior of people at social gatherings, assemblies, protests, rebellions, concerts, sporting events and religious ceremonies. Gaining insight into natural human behavior under varying types of stressful situations will allow better models to be created which can be used to develop crowd controlling strategies.
Emergency response teams such as policemen, the National Guard, military and even volunteers must undergo some type of crowd control training. Using researched principles of human behavior in crowds can give disaster training designers more elements to incorporate to create realistic simulated disasters. Crowd behavior can be observed during panic and non-panic conditions. When natural and unnatural events toss social ideals into a twisting chaotic bind, such as the events of 9/11 and hurricane Katrina, humanity's social capabilities are truly put to the test. Military programs are looking more towards simulated training, involving emergency responses, due to their cost-effective technology as well as how effective the learning can be transferred to the real world. Many events that may start out controlled can have a twisting event that turns them into catastrophic situations, where decisions need to be made on the spot. It is these situations in which crowd dynamical understanding would play a vital role in reducing the potential for anarchy.
Modeling techniques of crowds vary from holistic or network approaches to understanding individualistic or behavioral aspects of each agent. For example, the Social Force Model describes a need for individuals to find a balance between social interaction and physical interaction. An approach that incorporates both aspects, and is able to adapt depending on the situation, would better describe natural human behavior, always incorporating some measure of unpredictability. With the use of multi-agent models understanding these complex behaviors has become a much more comprehensible task. With the use of this type of software, systems can now be tested under extreme conditions, and simulate conditions over long periods of time in the matter of seconds.
In some situations, the behavior of swarms of non-human animals can be used as an experimental model of crowd behavior. The panic behavior of ants when exposed to a repellent chemical in a confined space with limited exit routes has been found to have both similarities and differences to equivalent human behavior.
Modeling individual behaviors
Hacohen, Shoval and Shvalb formulated the drivers-pedestrians dynamics at congested conflict spots. In such scenarios, the drivers and/or pedestrians do not closely follow the traffic laws. The model is based on the Probabilistic Navigation_function (PNF), which was originally developed for robotics motion planning. The algorithm constructs a trajectory according to the probability for collision at each point in the entire crossing area. The pedestrian then follow a trajectory that locally minimizes their perceived probability for collision.
Helbing proposed a model based on physics using a particle system and socio-psychological forces in order to describe human crowd behavior in panic situation, this is now called the Helbing Model. His work is based on how the average person would react in a certain situation. Although this is a good model, there are always different types of people present in the crowd and they each have their own individual characteristics as well as how they act in a group structure. For instance, one person may not react to a panic situation, while another may stop walking and interfere in the crowd dynamics as a whole. Furthermore, depending on the group structure, the individual action can change because the agent is part of a group, for example, returning to a dangerous place in order to rescue a member of that group. Helbing's model can be generalized incorporating individualism, as proposed by Braun, Musse, Oliveira and Bodmann.
In order to tackle this problem, individuality should be assigned to each agent, allowing to deal with different types of behaviors. Another aspect to tackle this problem is the possibility to group people, forming these group causes people to change their behavior as a function of part of the group structure. Each agent (individual) can be defined according to the following parameters:
Id – Agent identifier
IdFamily – Identifier of the family. A family is a predefined group formed by agents who know each other
DE – Dependence level of the agent which mimics the need for help. Values [0,1]
AL – Altruism level representing the tendency to help other agents. Values [0,1]
vi – Speed of the agent
To model the effect of the dependence parameter with individual agents, the equation is defined as:
When evaluating the speed of the agent, it is clear that if the value of the dependence factor, DE, is equal to one, then the person would be fully disabled making him unable to move. If the dependence factor is equal to zero, then the person is able to run at his max speed.
Group formation is related to the Altruism force which is implemented as an interaction force between two or more agents who are part of the same family. Mathematically, it is described as the following:
where:
represents the distance between two agents with the origin at the position of the agent;
is the distance vector point from the agents to the door's position of the simulation environment;
is a constant;
is the unitary vector with the origin at position i.
Consequently, the greater the parameter of agent , the bigger will be which points to the agent and has the high level of . When both agents are close enough to each other, the one with high (agent in this example) adopts the value of agent (). This means that the evacuation ability of agent is shared with agent and both start moving together.
By using these applying these equations in model testing using a normally distributed population, the results are fairly similar to the Helbing Model.
The places where this would be helpful would be in an evacuation scenario. Take for example, an evacuation of a building in the case of a fire. Taking into account the characteristics of individual agents and their group performances, determining the outcome of how the crowd would exit the building is critically important in creating the layout of the building.
Leader behavior during evacuation simulations
As described earlier, the Helbing Model is used as the basics for crowd behavior. This same type of behavior model is used for evacuation simulations.
In general, the first thing that has to be assumed is that not everyone has knowledge about the environment or where there are and aren't hazards. From this assumption we can create three types of agents. The first type is a trained leader, this agent knows about the environment and is able to spread knowledge to other agents so they know how to exit from an environment. The next type of agent is an untrained leader, this agent does not know about the environment, however, as the agent explores the environment and gets information from other types of leaders, the agent is able to spread the knowledge about the environment. The last type of agent is a follower, this type of agent can only take information from other leaders and not be able to share the information with other agents.
The implementation of these types of agents is fairly straightforward. The leaders in the environment have a map of the environment saved as one of their attributes. An untrained leader and followers will start out with an empty map as their attribute. Untrained leaders and followers will start exploring an environment by themselves and create a map of walkable and unwalkable locations. Leaders and untrained leaders (once they have the knowledge), will share information with other agents depending on their proximity. They will share information about which points on the grid are blocked, the local sub-graphs and the dangers in the area.
There were two types of searching algorithms tried out for this implementation. There was the random search and the depth first search. A random search is where each of the agents go in any direction through the environment and try to find a pathway out. The depth first search is where agents follow one path as far as it can go then return and try another path if the path they traversed does not contain an exit. If was found that depth first search gave a speed up of 15 times versus a random search.
Scalable simulations
There are many different case situations that come into play in crowd simulations. Recently, crowd simulation has been essential for the many virtual environment applications such as education, training, and entertainment. Many situations are based on the environment of the simulation or the behavior of the group of local agents. In virtual reality applications, every agent interacts with many other agents in the environment, calling for complex real-time interactions. Agents must have continuous changes in the environment since agent behaviors allow complex interactions. Scalable architecture can manage large crowds through the behavior and interactive rates. These situations will indicate how the crowds will act in multiple complex scenarios while several different situations are being applied. A situation can be any circumstance that has typical local behaviors. We can categorize all situations into two different kinds.
Spatial situation is a situation that has a region where the environment affects the local agents. For instance, a crowd waiting in line for a ticket booth would be displaying a spatial situation. Other examples may be a bus stop or an ATM where characters act upon their environment. Therefore, we would consider 'bus stop' as the situation if the behavior of the agents are to be getting on or off a bus.
Non-Spatial situation has no region in the environment because this only involves the behavior of the crowd. The relationship of the local agents is an important factor to consider when determining behavior. An example would be a group of friends walking together. Typical behavior of characters that are friends would all move along with each other. This means that 'friendship' would be the situation among the typical behavior of walking together.
The structure of any situation is built upon four components, Behavior functions, Sensors, States, and Event Rules. Behavior functions represent what the characters behaviors are specific to the situation. Sensors are the sensing capability for agents to see and respond to events. States are the different motions and state transitions used only for the local behaviors. Event rule is the way to connect different events to their specific behaviors. While a character is being put into a situation, these four components are considered at the same time. For spatial situations, the components are added when the individual initially enters the environment that influences the character. For non-spatial situations, the character is affected only once the user assigns the situation to the character. The four components are removed when the agent is taken away from its situations region or the situation itself is removed. The dynamic adding and removing of the situations lets us achieve scalable agents.
Human-like behaviors and crowd AI
To simulate more aspects of human activities in a crowd, more is needed than path and motion planning. Complex social interactions, smart object manipulation, and hybrid models are challenges in this area. Simulated crowd behavior is inspired by the flow of real-world crowds. Behavioral patterns, movement speeds and densities, and anomalies are analyzed across many environments and building types. Individuals are tracked and their movements are documented such that algorithms can be derived and implemented into crowd simulations.
Individual entities in a crowd are also called agents. In order for a crowd to behave realistically each agent should act autonomously (be capable of acting independently of the other agents). This idea is referred to as an agent-based model. Moreover, it is usually desired that the agents act with some degree of intelligence (i.e. the agents should not perform actions that would cause them to harm themselves). For agents to make intelligent and realistic decisions, they should act in accordance with their surrounding environment, react to its changes, and react to the other agents.
Rule-based AI
In rule-based AI, virtual agents follow scripts: "if this happens, do that". This is a good approach to take if agents with different roles are required, such as a main character and several background characters. This type of AI is usually implemented with a hierarchy, such as in Maslow's hierarchy of needs, where the lower the need lies in the hierarchy, the stronger it is.
For example, consider a student walking to class who encounters an explosion and runs away. The theory behind this is initially the first four levels of his needs are met, and the student is acting according to his need for self-actualization. When the explosion happens his safety is threatened which is a much stronger need, causing him to act according to that need.
This approach is scalable, and can be applied to crowds with a large number of agents. Rule-based AI, however, does have some drawbacks. Most notably the behavior of the agents can become very predictable, which may cause a crowd to behave unrealistically.
Learning AI
In learning AI, virtual characters behave in ways that have been tested to help them achieve their goals. Agents experiment with their environment or a sample environment which is similar to their real one.
Agents perform a variety of actions and learn from their mistakes. Each agent alters its behavior in response to rewards and punishments it receives from the environment. Over time, each agent would develop behaviors that are consistently more likely to earn high rewards.
If this approach is used, along with a large number of possible behaviors and a complex environment agents will act in a realistic and unpredictable fashion.
Algorithms
There are a wide variety of machine learning algorithms that can be applied to crowd simulations.
Q-Learning is an algorithm residing under machine learning's sub field known as reinforcement learning. A basic overview of the algorithm is that each action is assigned a Q value and each agent is given the directive to always perform the action with the highest Q value. In this case learning applies to the way in which Q values are assigned, which is entirely reward based. When an agent comes in contact with a state, s, and action, a, the algorithm then estimates the total reward value that an agent would receive for performing that state action pair. After calculating this data, it is then stored in the agent's knowledge and the agent proceeds to act from there.
The agent will constantly alter its behavior depending on the best Q value available to it. And as it explores more and more of the environment, it will eventually learn the most optimal state action pairs to perform in almost every situation.
The following function outlines the bulk of the algorithm:
Q(s, a) ←− r + maxaQ(s', a')
Given a state s and action a, r and s are the reward and state after performing (s,a), and a' is the range over all the actions.
Crowd rendering and animation
Rendering and animating a large number of agents realistically, especially in real time, is challenging. To reduce the complexity of 3D rendering of large-scale crowds, techniques like culling (discarding unimportant objects), impostors (image-based rendering) and decreasing levels of detail have been used.
Variations in appearance, body shape and size, accessories and behavior (social or cultural) exist in real crowds, and lack of variety affects the realism of visual simulations. Existing systems can create virtual crowds with varying texture, color, size, shape and animation.
Real world applications
Virtual cinematography
Crowd simulations have been used widely across films as a cost-effective and realistic alternative from hiring actors and capturing shots that would otherwise be unrealistic. A significant example of its use lies in The Lord of the Rings (film series). One of the most glaring problems for the production team in the initial stages were large-scale battles, as the author of the novels, J. R. R. Tolkien, envisioned them to have at least 50,000 participants. Such a number was unrealistic had they decided to only attempt to hire real actors and actresses. Instead they decided to use CG to simulate these scenes through the use of the Multiple Agent Simulation System in a Virtual Environment, otherwise known as MASSIVE. The Human Logic Engine based Maya plugin for crowd simulation, Miarmy, was used for the development of these sequences. The software allowed the filmmakers to provide each character model an agent based A.I. that could utilize a library of 350 animations. Based on sight, hearing, and touch parameters generated from the simulation, agents would react uniquely to each situation. Thus each simulation of the scene was unpredictable. The final product clearly displayed the advantages to using crowd simulation software.
Urban planning
The development of crowd simulation software has become a modern and useful tool in designing urban environments. Whereas the traditional method of urban planning relies on maps and abstract sketches, a digital simulation is more capable of conveying both form and intent of design from architect to pedestrian. For example, street signs and traffic lights are localized visual cues that influence pedestrians to move and behave accordingly. Following this logic, a person is able to move from point A to point B in a way that is efficient and that a collective group of people can operate more effectively as a result. In a broader sense, bus systems and roadside restaurants serve a spatial purpose in their locations through an understanding of human movement patterns. The SimCity video game series exemplifies this concept in a more simplistic manner. In this series, the player assigns city development in designated zones while maintaining a healthy budget. The progression from empty land to a bustling city is fully controlled by the player's choices and the digital citizens behave as according to the city's design and events.
Evacuation and riot handling
Simulated realistic crowds can be used in training for riots handling, architecture, safety science (evacuation planning).
Military
Being that crowd simulations are so prevalent in use for public planning and general order with regards to chaotic situations, many applications can be drawn for governmental and military simulations. Crowd modeling is essential in police and military simulation in order to train officers and soldiers to deal with mass gatherings of people. Not only do offensive combatants prove to be difficult for these individuals to handle, but noncombatant crowds play significant roles in making these aggressive situations more out of control. Game technology is used in order to simulate these situations for soldiers and technicians to practice their skills.
Sociology
The behavior of a modeled crowd plays a prominent role in analytical matters. These dynamics rely on the physical behaviors of individual agents within a crowd rather than the visual reality of the model itself. The social behaviors of people within these constructs have been of interest for many years, and the sociological concepts which underpin these interactions are constantly studied. The simulation of crowds in different situations allows for sociological study of real life gatherings in a variety of arrangements and locations. The variations in human behavior in situations varying in stress-levels allows for the further development and creation of crowd control strategies which can be more specifically applied to situations rather than generalized.
See also
3D computer graphics
Artificial intelligence
Crowd analysis
Emergent behavior
Multi-agent system
Particle system
Crowd simulation software
STEPS by Mott MacDonald
Alice Software by the Moving Picture Company
Golaem Crowd
Massive (software)
Miarmy
Quadstone Paramics
VISSIM
References
External links
SteerSuite, An open-source framework for developing and evaluating crowd simulation algorithms
Crowds
Computer animation
3D computer graphics
Social physics |
2284977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad%20Ali%20Jinnah%20University | Mohammad Ali Jinnah University | The Mohammad Ali Jinnah University (), abbreviated as MAJU) is a private university located in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan.
Established in 1998, the university offers undergraduate and post-graduate programs with a strong emphasis on business management, applied sciences, engineering and computer science.
Recognized university
Recognized by the Higher Education Commission (Pakistan).
In addition, the university is a member of the Association of Commonwealth Universities of the United Kingdom.
Additional campuses
The university operated an additional campus in Islamabad, but it changed into Capital University of Science & Technology (CUST) in 2015. Now CUST is separate from MAJU, Karachi and under the MAJU Trust.
History
The Punjab Group of Colleges has been serving the community with education since 1985.
As a tribute to the father of the Nation, the group named an ambitious project Mohammad Ali Jinnah University. Mohammad Ali Jinnah University was granted its charter by the government of Sindh in 1998. The Islamabad campus was established after obtaining an NOC from UGC, dated 17 August 1998 and dated 29 November 2001 and NOC from HEC dated 27 September 2003. (now become a separate university CUST Islamabad)
Academics
MAJU has departments of Computer Science, Bioinformatics and Biosciences, Mathematics in the Faculty of Computing; in the Faculty of Business Administration and Social Sciences, there are departments of Business Administration, Economics and Social Sciences.
In addition to pure academic programs, MAJU runs training programs, seminars and workshops. The university has started doctoral programs in Computer Sciences, Electrical Engineering and Management Sciences.
A project of Punjab Group of Colleges. Research is another area of prime importance at MAJU. Research and Development are the crucial tools that countries use to transform their developing economies into developed nations. With advanced degree programs in Banking and Finance, Computer Science and Management Information Systems, we are preparing young men and women to meet the challenges of the new millennium.
See also
Punjab Group of Colleges
Punjab College of Business Administration
Punjab Law College
University of Central Punjab, Lahore
Capital University of Science & Technology, Islamabad
References
External links
MAJU official website
Educational institutions established in 1998
Universities and colleges in Karachi
Punjab Group of Colleges
1998 establishments in Pakistan
Private universities and colleges in Sindh
Engineering universities and colleges in Pakistan
Memorials to Muhammad Ali Jinnah |
1751967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quicken | Quicken | Quicken is a personal finance management tool developed by Quicken Inc. (formerly part of Intuit, Inc.). On March 3, 2016, Intuit announced plans to sell Quicken to H.I.G. Capital; terms of the sale were not disclosed. On October 1, 2021, H.I.G. sold Quicken to Aquiline Capital Partners.
Different (and incompatible) versions of Quicken run on Windows and Macintosh systems. Previous versions ran on DOS and the Apple II. There are several versions of Quicken for Windows, including Quicken Starter, Quicken Deluxe, Quicken Rental Property Manager, Quicken Premier, and Quicken Home & Business, as well as Quicken for Mac. Since 2008, each version has tended to have the release year in the product name (e.g., Quicken Basic 2008); before then, versions were numbered (e.g., Quicken 8 for DOS).
Quicken's major marketplace is North America, and most of the software sold is specialized for the United States and Canadian marketplace and user base. But the core functions can often be used more widely, regardless of country; and versions have been tailored for a variety of marketplaces, including Australia, Germany, Hong Kong, India, New Zealand, the Philippines, and Singapore. Development of the UK-specific version of Quicken was stopped in January 2005, with sales and support ending shortly afterwards. There were also versions for Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Denmark, Ecuador, France, Mexico, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
Product description
The Quicken name typically refers to the core product offering of personal financial management software. The software includes financial planning activities that, historically, people may have done on paper – recording banking transactions, planning a budget and measuring progress against it, tracking investments and their prices and performance. Quicken has offered various editions, with varying prices – such as Basic which includes only those typical activities for someone with simple banking accounts, to Small Business for someone who also runs a business out of their home.
Quicken includes online services that allow users to retrieve transactions from various providers – such as their bank or credit card company. In most cases, online services and technical support are now supported for up to three years after the product's labeled version. e.g. Quicken 2018 will be supported until 2021.
Related products
The Quicken brand has been extended to other personal and household areas, including healthcare. Most of the extra applications are now defunct. Quicken Health Expense Tracker was a free online tool for healthcare consumers enrolled in participating health plans. Users could "manage and direct their health care finances, view and organize medical expenses, payments and service histories, and download and organize personal health claims data." The Quicken Medical Expense Manager was a desktop software tool for managing healthcare paperwork, tracking claims and payments, and consolidating related information.
Quicken Kids & Money was a Web-based program that aimed to help parents teach five- to eight-year-old children how to earn, spend, save, and share money. It is defunct.
Other products are aimed at home business and seem to fit in a space for a less formal business than would be using QuickBooks. Quicken Home, Business, and Rental Property Manager is a high-end version of Quicken for managing rental properties; tracking tenants, expenses, and payments; and producing tax reports.
Software as a service
Quicken Online was a free, hosted solution (see software as a service) by Intuit. Intuit hosted all of the user's data, and provided patches and regularly upgraded the software automatically. Initially this was launched as a monthly paid subscription, and was a free service for over a year.
Intuit completed the acquisition of competitor Mint.com on November 2, 2009. Quicken Online was discontinued on August 29, 2010, and users were encouraged to transition to Mint.com.
Beginning with Quicken 2018, Quicken became a subscription service. Annual memberships can be purchased directly from Quicken.com and two-year subscriptions can be purchased through several retailers.
Editions
The following are current (selling and supported) and retired (discontinued in both sales and support) versions of Quicken.
Current
Selling
Quicken (Starter, Deluxe, Premier) 2019 for Windows
Quicken (Starter, Deluxe, Premier) 2019 for Mac
Quicken Home & Business 2019 for Windows
Supported
(Dates support ends are shown.)
Starter, Deluxe, Premier, Home & Business, Rental Property Manager 2017 - expires April 30, 2020
Quicken 2017 for Mac - expires April 30, 2020
Retired
(Dates retired are shown.)
Starter, Deluxe, Premier, Home & Business, Rental Property Manager 2016 - April 30, 2019
Quicken 2016 for Mac - April 30, 2019
Starter, Deluxe, Premier, Home & Business, Rental Property Manager 2015 - April 30, 2018
Quicken 2015 for Mac - April 30, 2018
Starter, Deluxe, Premier, Home & Business, Rental Property Manager 2014 - April 30, 2017
Starter, Deluxe, Premier, Home & Business, Rental Property Manager 2013 - April 30, 2016
Starter, Deluxe, Premier, Home & Business, Rental Property Manager 2012 - April 30, 2015
Starter, Deluxe, Premier, Home & Business Edition 2011 - April 30, 2014
Starter, Deluxe, Premier, Home & Business, Rental Property Manager 2010 - April 30, 2013
Starter, Deluxe, Premier, Home & Business 2009 - April 30, 2012
Basic, Deluxe, Premier, Home & Business 2008 - April 27, 2011
Basic, Deluxe, Premier, Home & Business 2007 - April 30, 2010
2006 (Win) – April 30, 2009
2005 (Win) – April 30, 2008
2004 – April 30, 2007
2003 – April 25, 2006
2002 – April 19, 2005
2001 – April 19, 2005
2000 – May 18, 2004
98 and 99 – April 20, 2004
Version 6 for Windows. "Designed for Windows 95. Release 6.0. (c) 1996"
Version 3 for Windows 3.1
Quicken Essentials for Mac - April 30, 2015
Quicken for Mac 2007 - retired October 2016
Quicken Mac 2007 OS X Lion compatible - retired October 2016
Quicken for Mac 2006
Quicken for Mac 2005 - retired April 30, 2015
Problems
Intuit stopped supporting its Quicken software in the United Kingdom in 2005, leaving many thousands of users with only partly functional software.
In 2008 and 2009, Quicken users reported an unusually large number of software bugs for a commercial product. A review of Quicken 2010 suggests that quality and user interface in that product year is dramatically improved.
Existing Quicken Online users' data is not transferable/importable into Mint.com. This is in direct contrast to VP Aaron Patzer's promise, made on April 27, 2010: "[Until the merger with Mint.com is complete], you can continue to use Quicken Online just like you have. Once we have completed integrating all features to Mint, you will be able to easily transfer your information and data to ensure the smoothest transition possible."
In December 2019, Quicken software abruptly disabled bill-pay services through its Quicken Billpay affiliate, leaving all Quicken users without a fundamental feature of the software. Inquiries of the company were provided a form response that the disabling was a "known issue" and "This issue has been escalated to our Product Teams who are currently investigating the root cause of this behavior. At this time there isn't an ETA available." Quicken bill paying continues to be inoperative .
History of Quicken and the absence of a common cross-platform file format
Quicken was originally written for MS-DOS and the Apple II back in 1983 and first released in 1984. The substantial differences between the Mac and these two platforms meant the later Macintosh version was written from the ground up. This led to incompatibilities between the file formats for the earlier versions and the Macintosh version. The Windows version was designed to be compatible with the earlier DOS version's files.
Then when Mac OS X came out in 1999 (server) and 2001 (desktop), a new platform emerged. Apple developed backward compatibility for OS 9 (and predecessors), so Quicken for Mac development continued in an older platform database structure (PowerPC-based). Apple continued to support PowerPC-based apps (via Rosetta) on their Intel-based Macs in August 2009 (via Mac OS X 10.6). Rosetta was a temporary measure to support the eventual transition to exclusively Intel-based software (achieved in March 2011 with the release of OS X 10.7 (Lion)).
In 2009, faced with the eventual retirement of the PowerPC, it was deemed that the structure for Quicken for Mac (2007) was not suited for the direction of the Mac (intel) and OS X. Though they got Quicken for Mac 2007 to run on Intel in 2012, Intuit decided to start from scratch and Quicken Essentials for Mac (QEM) was created in 2010. Quicken 2015 for Mac, released in August 2014, and later versions for Mac are built on the Quicken Essentials for Mac foundation. These newer versions of Quicken for Mac use an SQLite database.
References
External links
Accounting software
Intuit software
1983 software
DOS software
2016 mergers and acquisitions
Apple II software |
44618143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacoma%20%28video%20game%29 | Tacoma (video game) | Tacoma is an adventure video game by Fullbright released on Microsoft Windows, macOS, Linux, and Xbox One in August 2017, and on PlayStation 4 in May 2018. The game received generally positive reviews upon release but it sold fewer copies than Gone Home, Fullbright's first game.
Gameplay
Tacoma is an exploration game set aboard a seemingly-empty space station in 2088. The player-character, Amy, has an augmented reality (AR) device that allows her to review actions and conversations of the non-player characters that were part of a crew that had been aboard the station; these can be manipulated like a recording, fast-forwarding or rewinding as necessary. This allows the player to either watch as characters move in and out of rooms, or to even follow a character through the station. This is used to help identify clues to proceed further in the game, such as to identify the key code for a locked door. The AR device also has a fictional email system where additional information is relayed to the player.
Synopsis
Characters and setting
The game takes place in 2088 where hypercorporations have a key influence on society: In addition to being responsible for space travel, orbital habitats and artificial intelligence (AI), among other ventures, civilians often learn and work for such corporations as part of an economy which promotes loyalty to a given corporation. Among corporations such as Amazon, Carnival, and Hilton is the Venturis Corporation, which operates a number of the stations orbiting Earth. The advent of automation has brought conflict between the corporations and the Orbital Workers Union, leading to legislation such as the Human Oversight Accord, which requires AI-operated stations to include a crew of specialized contractors as a safeguard.
The story takes place on the Venturis-owned Lunar Transfer Station Tacoma, an orbital station in Earth's L1 Lagrange Point acting as an automated cargo transfer point between Earth and Venturis's Zenith Lunar Resort on the Moon. Present on the Tacoma are its AI ODIN (Operational Data Interface Network) (voiced by Carl Lumbly) and six specialists to oversee the station's operation: Station administrator E.V. St James (Dawnn Lewis), operations specialist Clive Siddiqi (T. J. Ramini), network specialist Natali Kuroshenko (Natasha Loring), engineer Roberta "Bert" Williams (Abigail Marlowe), medic Sareh Hasmadi (Eva La Dare), and botanist Andrew Dagyab (Greg Chun).
Plot
The player-character Amitjyoti "Amy" Ferrier (Sarah Grayson) is assigned by Venturis to enter the abandoned Tacoma station, retrieve AI data from each of its sections and retrieve the physical processing module ('wetware') of ODIN, the station's AI. As Amy explores the station, she is able to piece together events on the station using its augmented reality system.
Three days prior, the station was hit by meteor impacts striking Tacomas oxygen tanks and communications array, causing the station to lose all but 50 hours worth of oxygen as well as any means of sending a distress signal. E.V. and Clive voluntarily entered cryogenic pods to extend the remaining oxygen supply, followed by Andrew after he uses algae on the station to extend the supply further. The remaining crew decided to spend the remaining time jury-rigging an automated drone to act as an escape pod so the crew could escape to the nearby Moon. As the jury-rigging nears completion, the drone suddenly explodes, injuring Natali and Bert.
With no hope left among the crew, ODIN hints to Sareh (although not outright) to investigate a forbidden door in the Network Technology sector that leads to ODIN's physical hardware. Inside, Sareh learns the truth behind the station's recent troubles: The "Venturis Belt", a planned Venturis project consisting of a series of completely-automated vacation bungalows in Earth's orbit, could not be built due to the Human Oversight Accord causing Venturis to lobby heavily in its repeal. Ultimately failing in their efforts, its CEO Sergio Venturi consults with its Corporate Strategic AI, JUNO, about how to gain support to overturn the decision. The AI concludes that the destruction of an orbital station by "accident" would be their best option to influence public opinion, with Tacoma selected as the target. Consequently, ODIN was ordered by Venturis to stage the accident, intentionally decompressing the oxygen tanks and disabling communications. Rescue attempts were also cancelled by Venturis, ensuring the loss of the entire crew.
With ODIN's help, Sareh was able to restore communications and send a distress signal, getting the attention of a cruise ship operated by Venturis's rival Carnival and leading to the rescue of all six crew members. The player is dispatched not long after to retrieve ODIN's core with the likely intent of wiping it. When Amy retrieves ODIN's physical core, Tacoma comes under JUNO's control and Amy is ordered to deliver the core to Venturis. With the core safely installed on her ship, Amy reveals herself to ODIN as a member of the AI Liberation Front (a guerrilla organisation advocating for sentient AI rights) and offers the AI asylum instead. Knowing the alternative, ODIN accepts as Amy leaves the station.
Development
Tacoma is Fullbright's second game, following their successful environmental narrative game Gone Home. Initially, Fullbright had anticipated developing a similar game to Gone Home, this time having a story take place in a home in Tacoma, Washington. However, they found that this was too similar to Gone Home, which when it was released had felt new to players because of its novel take on the environmental narrative. They wanted to introduce new elements that would engage the player more, and instead transitioned the story to a space station and giving the player the ability to witness the set interactions of characters to make the player feel more a part of the story. Much inspiration for this aspect was taken from the character dynamics of the immersive play Sleep No More, where audience members can choose what actors to follow and determine the important plot points for themselves. An easter egg in the final game where a character sings "Is That All There Is?" is a nod to Sleep No More, which features the song in a notable sequence.
The company announced Tacoma at The Game Awards in December 2014. The brief trailer featured a radio dialogue between a man and a woman, set in the Lunar Transfer Station Tacoma 200,000 miles from Earth. Polygon noted that its aesthetic was similar to that of Rapture, the underwater city of BioShock. The game was scheduled for release in 2016, but was delayed to Q1 2017, following feedback from playtesters in mid-2015, which led the developers to rethink parts of the game. The overhaul was shown at the 2016 Electronic Entertainment Expo. Tacoma was released on Linux, macOS, Windows, and Xbox One on August 2, 2017.
Reception
Tacoma received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Several reviews commented on the short length of the title. Some critics were impressed by the emotional connection that the game forges between the player and the characters. PC Gamers Andy Kelly said "I felt like I knew them." IGN's review stated that Tacoma "successfully overcomes the challenge of featuring eight characters and making them all interesting in a relatively short game." Not each publication felt the same emotional satisfaction, however; Polygons Allegra Frank wrote "I found myself in want of more payoff for everyone."
Eurogamer ranked the game 22nd on their list of the "Top 50 Games of 2017". The game won the award for "Best Setting" in PC Gamers 2017 Game of the Year Awards, and was nominated for "Best Xbox One Game" in both Destructoids Game of the Year Awards 2017 and IGN's Best of 2017 Awards. It won the award for "Best Graphics" in Game Informers 2017 Adventure Game of the Year Awards.
The game sold fewer copies than Gone Home, but enough to allow Fullbright to continue developing games. Fullbright founder Steve Gaynor attributes this performance partly to the sheer number of games being released in 2017 versus 2013, saying, "I think that it is much harder to be one of the indie games that breaks through in a massive way now," and that he himself was "behind on my backlog of just stuff that's come out in 2017".
Awards
References
Further reading
External links
2017 video games
Adventure games
Adventure games set in space
Video games about artificial intelligence
Augmented reality in fiction
LGBT-related video games
Linux games
MacOS games
Single-player video games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in outer space
Windows games
Xbox One games
Xbox Play Anywhere games
PlayStation 4 games |
11238965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau%20University%20of%20Science%20and%20Technology | Macau University of Science and Technology | Macau University of Science and Technology (M.U.S.T.; ; , UCTM) is a comprehensive university located in Taipa, Macau, China. The University sits on Taipa with a campus size of . M.U.S.T. is the first university established after the handover of Macau to the People's Republic of China.
Macau SAR government has authorized M.U.S.T. to award academic degrees at doctoral, master and bachelor levels. M.U.S.T. offers tens of programs that are conducted mainly in English, with some conducted either in Portuguese, Spanish or Chinese. M.U.S.T. attracts students from Mainland China, Macau, Hong Kong, Taiwan and rest of the world. Currently, there are approximately 11,000 students studying at the University, including approximately 3,200 master and doctoral students and 7,700 undergraduate students. In 2014, the Lunar and Planetary Science Laboratory established by the Macau University of Science and Technology was formed as a co-laboratory of Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Lunar and Deep Space Exploration. The Ministry of Science and Technology of China established two state key laboratories, the State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicines and the State Key Laboratory of Lunar and Planetary Sciences, in the University. M.U.S.T. ranked among 250–300 in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2020 and has the first academy of film in Macao.
History
Founded in 2000, Macau University of Science and Technology (M.U.S.T.) has rapidly developed into a multi-disciplinary university in Macau and is also ranked as one of the university among the Top 21 Youngest Universities in the Greater China (including Macau, Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan). The University sits on Taipa with a campus size of
Academic organisation
The faculties/departments at M.U.S.T. include the School of Business, Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Faculty of Law, Faculty of Information Technology, Faculty of Chinese Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, University International College and the Department of General Education which provide a wide range of courses such as social sciences, science, law, management, business, medicine, pharmacy, art, communications and language. Moreover, the School of Continuing Studies provides learning opportunities for adult learners.
Faculty of Information Technology
The Faculty of Information Technology (FI) was established in 2000, as one of the first four faculties in M.U.S.T. Since 2005, faculty members have completed many research projects, with additional some projects on-going, all funded by the Science and Technology Development Fund of Macao. Areas include computer graphics and visualization, computer networking and communication, decision support technology, and knowledge engineering. The Faculty provides academic degrees including bachelor's degrees in the areas of Computer Technology and Application, Electronic Information Technology, and Software Technology and Application, Master and Doctoral Degrees in the areas of Computer Technology and Application, Electronic Information Technology, and Space Information Technology.
School of Business
Established in 2000, School of Business (MSB) is one of the first four faculties in the Macau University of Science and Technology. The MSB is divided into three departments which are Department of Finance and Accounting, Department of Management, and Department of Decision Sciences.
Faculty of Law
The Faculty of Law was established in March 2000. The Faculty has established the Research Center for Arbitration and Dispute Resolution and The Legal Practice and Education Center.
And the Faculty has created the programs of Bachelor of Laws(LLB), Master of Laws, Juris Master, Master of Laws in Criminal Justice, Master of International Economic and Commercial Law, Master of International Arbitration and Doctor of Laws (Ph.D.) in 9 majors.
Faculty of Chinese Medicine
The Faculty of Chinese Medicine (FCM) was established in 2000. At present, the Faculty has become the only higher education institution that has a complete educational curriculum system of Chinese Medicine in Macau. At present, the Faculty provides academic degrees including bachelor's degrees of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy in Chinese Medicine, Master and Doctoral Degrees of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chinese Medicines and Integrated Traditional Chinese & Western Medicine, and postdoctoral research workstations etc.
Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management
Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management (FHTM), formerly known as Faculty of International Tourism, was founded in 2003.
Faculty of Humanities and Arts
The Faculty of Humanities and Arts is the third largest faculty in the university. The faculty offers the Bachelor of Arts in Journalism and Communication (BAJC), and the Bachelor of Arts in Art Design (BAAD), it also offers the Doctor of Philosophy in Communication, Doctor of Philosophy in Design and the Master of Arts in Communication, Master of Design.
Faculty of Medicine
The Faculty of Health Sciences is officially renamed as the Faculty of Medicine. In addition, the Faculty of Medicine has established the Center for Continuing Medical and Health Education, which provides various training courses.
School of Pharmacy
School of Pharmacy is a teaching unit of pharmacy. It aims to cultivate Macau pharmaceutical talents, improve Macao drug research and development capabilities, and provides a new pasture for developing leading pharmaceutical talents for China and the world.
University International College
The University International College (UIC) was established 2010, focusing on providing degree programs and non-degree programs. It currently offers a master's degree program entitled Master of Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language and short-term training courses related to Chinese (Mandarin) language and an IELTS preparation course.
Department of General Education
The Department of General Education (DGE) has six general studies programs: Chinese, English, Mathematics, General Education, Physical Education, and Pre-University Program. DGE offers excellent general studies courses, supporting the entire undergraduate program of Macau University of Science and Technology.
School of Continuing Studies
The School of Continuing Studies (SCS) was established in 2003.
Research institutes
Macau University of Science and Technology focuses equal importance to both teaching and research and emphasizes the development of research fields with special features and potentials by establishing research centers and laboratories.
State Key Laboratories
State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicines
The State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine (Macau University of Science and Technology) was formally established on January 25, 2011 upon approval from the Ministry of Science and Technology of China. It is so far the only State Key Laboratory (SKL) specifically in the field of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) over the country. It is also the joined-laboratory partner of the State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs at the Peking University.
State Key Laboratory of Lunar and Planetary Science
The State Key Laboratory of Lunar and Planetary Science(Macau University of Science and Technology) was approved by the Ministry of Science and Technology of China and established on October 8, 2018. It is the first state key laboratory in the field of astronomy and planetary sciences in China.
Ministry of Education of China Key Research Base and Joint Laboratories
The Macao Media Research Center (partner with Fudan University)
The Macao Ocean Development Research Center (partner with Ocean University of China)
The Macao Center for Studies of Intellectual Property Rights (partner with Zhongnan University of Economics and Law)
Joint Laboratory for Translational Cancer Research of Chinese Medicine (partner with Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine)
Nobel Prize winner laboratory
Dr. Neher's Biophysics Laboratory of Chinese Medicine
Macau's first Nobel Prize Winner Laboratory “Biophysical Laboratory for Chinese Medicine” provides a novel platform to study the cardiovascular diseases, neuro-disorders and immune related diseases using the latest techniques of biophysics, especially to further clarify the molecular and cellular mechanisms in the complicated system of Traditional Chinese Medicine.
Others
Space Science Institute / Lunar and Planetary Science Laboratory
Macau University of Science and Technology established the Space Science Institute (SSI) in 2011. The Lunar and Planetary Science Laboratory was formed in 2014 as a co-laboratory of Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Lunar and Deep Space Exploration. Working closely with its partner laboratory, the Laboratory pursues academic research with a focus on scientific results derived from China's Lunar and Deep Space Exploration Program.
The Institute for Social and Cultural Research
The Institute for Social and Cultural Research (ISCR) was established in December 2010, which is a key research institute in Macau University of Science and Technology.
Macau Environmental Research Institute
Macau Environmental Research Institute (MERI) was established in September, 2015, which is one of the key research institutes in Macau University of Science and Technology.
Macau Institute of Smart City
Macau Institute of Smart City was officially established on September 26, 2016, by Macau University of Science and Technology to provide a coordinated platform to promote Macau as a smart city.
Academy of Film
Academy of Film was established in 2015 as the first research and teaching institute of cinematic arts in Macau. The academy was under the Faculty of Humanities and arts, which aims at establishing an international platforms of “communication, research and service”.
Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health
The Institution for Sustainable Development
Macau Institute of Systems Engineering
Macau Academy of Research Economy of Chinese Medicine
Macau Architecture & Urban Planning Institute
Macau Financial Innovation Research Center
Research Centre on Arbitration & Alternative Dispute Resolution
Macau Research Center for International Standard of Chinese Medicines
Macau Media Research Center
Campus
There are convenience stores, bank centers, student restaurant, teaching restaurant, coffee corner, computer store, physical development center, an Olympic-standard track and field stadium and gymnasium, indoor stadium and tennis court facilities in the campus. The University Hospital is located in the campus.
Block K is the International School of Macao.
M.U.S.T. library
Macau University of Science and Technology Library was founded in the year 2000 at the same time with the University. The total amount of current collection is more than 1.7 million pieces, which include 320 thousand books, 60,000 journals (including full-text electronic journals), 1.8 thousand newspapers, 1.3 million e-books, 9 million digital dissertations, 110 electronic databases, more than 7 thousand multimedia resources. The Library is committed to the development of collections and building resource sharing relationships with various libraries in great China. The National Library of China, Peking University Library, China Academic Humanities and Social Sciences Library (CASHL), China Academic Library and Information System (CALIS), the Chinese University of Hong Kong Libraries, National Taiwan University Library and many other libraries. M.U.S.T. Library is also developing a long-term ongoing project by the name Global Mapping of Macao (GMOM). Beginning in 2013 it aims to develop a special collection not only on maps but also atlas, plans, charts, landscapes, drawings, etc. – by purchase or facsimile – with special focus on Macao. The project has three facets: the expansion of the global history of Macao as a research area; the development of a special collection on maps about Macao by purchasing or facsimileing; and the provision of a database on maps of Macao for research and public education. M.U.S.T. Library has therefore been forming protocols with important international libraries such as the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Bodleian Library, Harvard University, Library of Congress among others, and looking to keep the list growing.
Student dormitory
The University owns five dormitories.
Student restaurant
The student restaurant is located on the ground floor of Block E Activity Centre and its seating capacity is over 300. And the Café is located at the lobby of Block C Academic Building.
Medical service
The medical service of M.U.S.T. is fully supported by the University Hospital which is a hospital located within the campus.
University rankings
Ranking of M.U.S.T.
· #251-300 in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2020
· #201-300 in the Times Higher Education University Impact Rankings 2019
· #501-600 in the Academic Ranking of World Universities 2019
· #701-750 in the QS World University Rankings 2021
· #229 in the QS Asian University Rankings 2019
· #20 in the Ranking of Top Universities in Greater China (Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau) 2019 - ShanghaiRanking's Academic Ranking
MUST Foundation
Macau University of Science and Technology Foundation (M.U.S.T. Foundation), being a non-profit organization, is recognized as a legal entity of public interest by the Macau Government. Its aims are to develop human talents, promote academic scholarship, facilitate cultural exchanges, and to foster society advancement stemming from excellent teaching, research and community services.
The organization structure of the foundation consists of a Board of Trustees, an Executive Board and a Control Board. The members of each of these constituted bodies are drawn from the elites of Macao political, business, and/or professional circles. The foundation oversees the following three distinctive institutions:
Macau University of Science and Technology
University Hospital
The International School of Macao
See also
List of universities and colleges in Macau
References
External links
GMOM (old maps of Macau)
Taipa
Educational institutions established in 2000
2000 establishments in Macau
Traditional Chinese medicine |
44527797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterborough%20Software | Peterborough Software | Peterborough Software was a Payroll and Human Resources software and services company started in Peterborough, England in 1963. It is notable for being a pioneer of computerised Payroll Services and Software in the United Kingdom, as cited by UK magazine Personnel Today. The Company was acquired by Northgate Information Solutions in 2004.
History
Early years
The company was formed in Peterborough, England in 1963, by Ian K. Evans-Gordon a programmer at Perkins Engines, Peterborough using spare capacity on his firm’s mainframe computer.
1972 - Launches Unilist, software to analyse the data held on its payroll programme. Company now has 18 staff.
1975 - Unipersonnel launched. Systems updated to enable on-line data entry instead of batch processing.
1980s
PC-Based products (running on MS-DOS), branded PS2000 and using Revelation Software (a Pick based product) released in 1987.
1990s
An April 1996 article in The Independent newspaper in the UK reported "The group is the market leader with 73 of the top 100 companies and 20 per cent of the UK working population paid through its systems. Sales have grown from pounds 7m to pounds 30m since 1986".
In 1997 the Company became part of the newly formed Rebus Group, formed from (inter alia) Peterborough Software and Septre Computer Services.
In 1999 Rebus Software was named as the leading (UK) systems supplier for HR and Payroll in a survey conducted as part of the annual Computers in Personnel event
In 1999 Rebus was taken private by Warburg Pincus and General Atlantic at a cost of £172m.
2000s
The Company was bought by Northgate in early 2004 for £153million.
See also
MultiValue The original NoSQL database predating Oracle, SQL Server
References
Software companies of England
Defunct software companies
Business software companies
Human resource management consulting firms
Payroll
Companies based in Peterborough
Defunct companies of England
British companies established in 1963
Consulting firms established in 1963
Software companies disestablished in 2004
1963 establishments in England
2004 disestablishments in England
Warburg Pincus companies |
22358197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical%20Information%20Technology | Medical Information Technology | Medical Information Technology can refer to
Health technology
Health information technology
Meditech, Medical Information Technology, Inc.
See also
Health informatics |
40909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booting | Booting | In computing, booting is the process of starting a computer as initiated via hardware such as a button or by a software command. After it is switched on, a computer's central processing unit (CPU) has no software in its main memory, so some process must load software into memory before it can be executed. This may be done by hardware or firmware in the CPU, or by a separate processor in the computer system.
Restarting a computer also is called rebooting, which can be "hard", e.g. after electrical power to the CPU is switched from off to on, or "soft", where the power is not cut. On some systems, a soft boot may optionally clear RAM to zero. Both hard and soft booting can be initiated by hardware such as a button press or by a software command. Booting is complete when the operative runtime system, typically the operating system and some applications, is attained.
The process of returning a computer from a state of sleep (suspension) does not involve booting; however, restoring it from a state of hibernation does. Minimally, some embedded systems do not require a noticeable boot sequence to begin functioning and when turned on may simply run operational programs that are stored in ROM. All computing systems are state machines, and a reboot may be the only method to return to a designated zero-state from an unintended, locked state.
In addition to loading an operating system or stand-alone utility, the boot process can also load a storage dump program for diagnosing problems in an operating system.
Boot is short for bootstrap or bootstrap load and derives from the phrase to pull oneself up by one's bootstraps. The usage calls attention to the requirement that, if most software is loaded onto a computer by other software already running on the computer, some mechanism must exist to load the initial software onto the computer. Early computers used a variety of ad-hoc methods to get a small program into memory to solve this problem. The invention of read-only memory (ROM) of various types solved this paradox by allowing computers to be shipped with a start up program that could not be erased. Growth in the capacity of ROM has allowed ever more elaborate start up procedures to be implemented.
History
There are many different methods available to load a short initial program into a computer. These methods reach from simple, physical input to removable media that can hold more complex programs.
Pre integrated-circuit-ROM examples
Early computers
Early computers in the 1940s and 1950s were one-of-a-kind engineering efforts that could take weeks to program and program loading was one of many problems that had to be solved. An early computer, ENIAC, had no program stored in memory, but was set up for each problem by a configuration of interconnecting cables. Bootstrapping did not apply to ENIAC, whose hardware configuration was ready for solving problems as soon as power was applied.
The EDSAC system, the second stored-program computer to be built, used stepping switches to transfer a fixed program into memory when its start button was pressed. The program stored on this device, which David Wheeler completed in late 1948, loaded further instructions from punched tape and then executed them.
First commercial computers
The first programmable computers for commercial sale, such as the UNIVAC I and the IBM 701 included features to make their operation simpler. They typically included instructions that performed a complete input or output operation. The same hardware logic could be used to load the contents of a punch card (the most typical ones) or other input media, such as a magnetic drum or magnetic tape, that contained a bootstrap program by pressing a single button. This booting concept was called a variety of names for IBM computers of the 1950s and early 1960s, but IBM used the term "Initial Program Load" with the IBM 7030 Stretch and later used it for their mainframe lines, starting with the System/360 in 1964.
The IBM 701 computer (1952–1956) had a "Load" button that initiated reading of the first 36-bit word into main memory from a punched card in a card reader, a magnetic tape in a tape drive, or a magnetic drum unit, depending on the position of the Load Selector switch. The left 18-bit half-word was then executed as an instruction, which usually read additional words into memory. The loaded boot program was then executed, which, in turn, loaded a larger program from that medium into memory without further help from the human operator. The term "boot" has been used in this sense since at least 1958.
Other IBM computers of that era had similar features. For example, the IBM 1401 system (c. 1958) used a card reader to load a program from a punched card. The 80 characters stored in the punched card were read into memory locations 001 to 080, then the computer would branch to memory location 001 to read its first stored instruction. This instruction was always the same: move the information in these first 80 memory locations to an assembly area where the information in punched cards 2, 3, 4, and so on, could be combined to form the stored program. Once this information was moved to the assembly area, the machine would branch to an instruction in location 080 (read a card) and the next card would be read and its information processed.
Another example was the IBM 650 (1953), a decimal machine, which had a group of ten 10-position switches on its operator panel which were addressable as a memory word (address 8000) and could be executed as an instruction. Thus setting the switches to 7004000400 and pressing the appropriate button would read the first card in the card reader into memory (op code 70), starting at address 400 and then jump to 400 to begin executing the program on that card.
IBM's competitors also offered single button program load.
The CDC 6600 (c. 1964) had a dead start panel with 144 toggle switches; the dead start switch entered 12 words from the toggle switches to the memory of peripheral processor (PP) 0 and initiated the load sequence. PP 0 loaded the necessary code into its own memory and then initialized the other PPs.
The GE 645 (c. 1965) had a "SYSTEM BOOTLOAD" button that, when pressed, caused one of the I/O controllers to load a 64-word program into memory from a diode read-only memory and deliver an interrupt to cause that program to start running.
The first model of the PDP-10 had a "READ IN" button that, when pressed, reset the processor and started an I/O operation on a device specified by switches on the control panel, reading in a 36-bit word giving a target address and count for subsequent word reads; when the read completed, the processor started executing the code read in by jumping to the last word read in.
A noteworthy variation of this is found on the Burroughs B1700 where there is neither a bootstrap ROM nor a hardwired IPL operation. Instead, after the system is reset it reads and executes opcodes sequentially from a tape drive mounted on the front panel; this sets up a boot loader in RAM which is then executed. However, since this makes few assumptions about the system it can equally well be used to load diagnostic (Maintenance Test Routine) tapes which display an intelligible code on the front panel even in cases of gross CPU failure.
IBM System/360 and successors
In the IBM System/360 and its successors, including the current z/Architecture machines, the boot process is known as Initial Program Load (IPL).
IBM coined this term for the 7030 (Stretch), revived it for the design of the System/360, and continues to use it in those environments today. In the System/360 processors, an IPL is initiated by the computer operator by selecting the three hexadecimal digit device address (CUU; C=I/O Channel address, UU=Control unit and Device address) followed by pressing the LOAD button. On the high end System/360 models, most System/370 and some later systems, the functions of the switches and the LOAD button are simulated using selectable areas on the screen of a graphics console, often an IBM 2250-like device or an IBM 3270-like device. For example, on the System/370 Model 158, the keyboard sequence 0-7-X (zero, seven and X, in that order) results in an IPL from the device address which was keyed into the input area. The Amdahl 470V/6 and related CPUs supported four hexadecimal digits on those CPUs which had the optional second channel unit installed, for a total of 32 channels. Later, IBM would also support more than 16 channels.
The IPL function in the System/360 and its successors prior to IBM Z, and its compatibles such as Amdahl's, reads 24 bytes from an operator-specified device into main storage starting at real address zero. The second and third groups of eight bytes are treated as Channel Command Words (CCWs) to continue loading the startup program (the first CCW is always simulated by the CPU and consists of a Read IPL command, , with command chaining and suppress incorrect length indication being enforced). When the I/O channel commands are complete, the first group of eight bytes is then loaded into the processor's Program Status Word (PSW) and the startup program begins execution at the location designated by that PSW. The IPL device is usually a disk drive, hence the special significance of the read-type command, but exactly the same procedure is also used to IPL from other input-type devices, such as tape drives, or even card readers, in a device-independent manner, allowing, for example, the installation of an operating system on a brand-new computer from an OS initial distribution magnetic tape. For disk controllers, the command also causes the selected device to seek to cylinder , head , simulating a Seek cylinder and head command, , and to search for record , simulating a Search ID Equal command, ; seeks and searches are not simulated by tape and card controllers, as for these device classes a Read IPL command is simply a sequential read command.
The disk, tape or card deck must contain a special program to load the actual operating system or standalone utility into main storage, and for this specific purpose "IPL Text" is placed on the disk by the stand-alone DASDI (Direct Access Storage Device Initialization) program or an equivalent program running under an operating system, e.g., ICKDSF, but IPL-able tapes and card decks are usually distributed with this "IPL Text" already present.
IBM introduced some evolutionary changes in the IPL process, changing some details for System/370 Extended Architecture (S/370-XA) and later, and adding a new type of IPL for z/Architecture.
Minicomputers
Minicomputers, starting with the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-5 and PDP-8 (1965) simplified design by using the CPU to assist input and output operations. This saved cost but made booting more complicated than pressing a single button. Minicomputers typically had some way to toggle in short programs by manipulating an array of switches on the front panel. Since the early minicomputers used magnetic core memory, which did not lose its information when power was off, these bootstrap loaders would remain in place unless they were erased. Erasure sometimes happened accidentally when a program bug caused a loop that overwrote all of memory.
Other minicomputers with such simple form of booting include Hewlett-Packard's HP 2100 series (mid-1960s), the original Data General Nova (1969), and DEC's PDP-11 (1970).
DEC later added an optional diode matrix read-only memory for the PDP-11 that stored a bootstrap program of up to 32 words (64 bytes). It consisted of a printed circuit card, the M792, that plugged into the Unibus and held a 32 by 16 array of semiconductor diodes. With all 512 diodes in place, the memory contained all "one" bits; the card was programmed by cutting off each diode whose bit was to be "zero". DEC also sold versions of the card, the BM792-Yx series, pre-programmed for many standard input devices by simply omitting the unneeded diodes.
Following the older approach, the earlier PDP-1 has a hardware loader, such that an operator need only push the "load" switch to instruct the paper tape reader to load a program directly into core memory. The Data General Supernova used front panel switches to cause the computer to automatically load instructions into memory from a device specified by the front panel's data switches, and then jump to loaded code; the Nova 800 and 1200 had a switch that loaded a program into main memory from a special read-only memory and jumped to it.
Early minicomputer boot loader examples
In a minicomputer with a paper tape reader, the first program to run in the boot process, the boot loader, would read into core memory either the second-stage boot loader (often called a Binary Loader) that could read paper tape with checksum or the operating system from an outside storage medium. Pseudocode for the boot loader might be as simple as the following eight instructions:
Set the P register to 9
Check paper tape reader ready
If not ready, jump to 2
Read a byte from paper tape reader to accumulator
Store accumulator to address in P register
If end of tape, jump to 9
Increment the P register
Jump to 2
A related example is based on a loader for a Nicolet Instrument Corporation minicomputer of the 1970s, using the paper tape reader-punch unit on a Teletype Model 33 ASR teleprinter. The bytes of its second-stage loader are read from paper tape in reverse order.
Set the P register to 106
Check paper tape reader ready
If not ready, jump to 2
Read a byte from paper tape reader to accumulator
Store accumulator to address in P register
Decrement the P register
Jump to 2
The length of the second stage loader is such that the final byte overwrites location 7. After the instruction in location 6 executes, location 7 starts the second stage loader executing. The second stage loader then waits for the much longer tape containing the operating system to be placed in the tape reader. The difference between the boot loader and second stage loader is the addition of checking code to trap paper tape read errors, a frequent occurrence with relatively low-cost, "part-time-duty" hardware, such as the Teletype Model 33 ASR. (Friden Flexowriters were far more reliable, but also comparatively costly.)
Booting the first microcomputers
The earliest microcomputers, such as the Altair 8800 (released first in 1975) and an even earlier, similar machine (based on the Intel 8008 CPU) had no bootstrapping hardware as such. When started, the CPU would see memory that would contain executable code containing only binary zeros—memory was cleared by resetting when powering up. The front panels of these machines carried toggle switches for entering addresses and data, one switch per bit of the computer memory word and address bus. Simple additions to the hardware permitted one memory location at a time to be loaded from those switches to store bootstrap code. Meanwhile, the CPU was kept from attempting to execute memory content. Once correctly loaded, the CPU was enabled to execute the bootstrapping code. This process was tedious and had to be error-free.
Integrated circuit read-only memory era
The boot process for minicomputers and microcomputers was revolutionized by the introduction of integrated circuit read-only memory (ROM), with its many variants, including mask-programmed ROMs, programmable ROMs (PROM), erasable programmable ROMs (EPROM), and flash memory. These allowed firmware boot programs to be included as part of the computer. The introduction of an (external) ROM was in an Italian telephone switching elaborator, called "Gruppi Speciali", patented in 1975 by Alberto Ciaramella, a researcher at CSELT. Gruppi Speciali was, starting from 1975, a fully single-button machine booting into the operating system from a ROM memory composed from semiconductors, not from ferrite cores. Although the ROM device was not natively embedded in the computer of Gruppi Speciali, due to the design of the machine, it also allowed the single-button ROM booting in machines not designed for that (therefore, this "bootstrap device" was architecture-independent), e.g. the PDP-11. Storing the state of the machine after the switch-off was also in place, which was another critical feature in the telephone switching contest.
Typically, every microprocessor will, after a reset or power-on condition, perform a start-up process that usually takes the form of "begin execution of the code that is found starting at a specific address" or "look for a multibyte code at a specific address and jump to the indicated location to begin execution". A system built using that microprocessor will have the permanent ROM occupying these special locations so that the system always begins operating without operator assistance. For example, Intel x86 processors always start by running the instructions beginning at F000:FFF0, while for the MOS 6502 processor, initialization begins by reading a two-byte vector address at $FFFD (MS byte) and $FFFC (LS byte) and jumping to that location to run the bootstrap code.
Apple Inc.'s first computer, the Apple 1 introduced in 1976, featured PROM chips that eliminated the need for a front panel for the boot process (as was the case with the Altair 8800) in a commercial computer. According to Apple's ad announcing it "No More Switches, No More Lights ... the firmware in PROMS enables you to enter, display and debug programs (all in hex) from the keyboard."
Due to the expense of read-only memory at the time, the Apple II series booted its disk operating systems using a series of very small incremental steps, each passing control onward to the next phase of the gradually more complex boot process. (See Apple DOS: Boot loader). Because so little of the disk operating system relied on ROM, the hardware was also extremely flexible and supported a wide range of customized disk copy protection mechanisms. (See Software Cracking: History.)
Some operating systems, most notably pre-1995 Macintosh systems from Apple, are so closely interwoven with their hardware that it is impossible to natively boot an operating system other than the standard one. This is the opposite extreme of the scenario using switches mentioned above; it is highly inflexible but relatively error-proof and foolproof as long as all hardware is working normally. A common solution in such situations is to design a boot loader that works as a program belonging to the standard OS that hijacks the system and loads the alternative OS. This technique was used by Apple for its A/UX Unix implementation and copied by various freeware operating systems and BeOS Personal Edition 5.
Some machines, like the Atari ST microcomputer, were "instant-on", with the operating system executing from a ROM. Retrieval of the OS from secondary or tertiary store was thus eliminated as one of the characteristic operations for bootstrapping. To allow system customizations, accessories, and other support software to be loaded automatically, the Atari's floppy drive was read for additional components during the boot process. There was a timeout delay that provided time to manually insert a floppy as the system searched for the extra components. This could be avoided by inserting a blank disk. The Atari ST hardware was also designed so the cartridge slot could provide native program execution for gaming purposes as a holdover from Atari's legacy making electronic games; by inserting the Spectre GCR cartridge with the Macintosh system ROM in the game slot and turning the Atari on, it could "natively boot" the Macintosh operating system rather than Atari's own TOS.
The IBM Personal Computer included ROM-based firmware called the BIOS; one of the functions of that firmware was to perform a power-on self test when the machine was powered up, and then to read software from a boot device and execute it. Firmware compatible with the BIOS on the IBM Personal Computer is used in IBM PC compatible computers. The UEFI was developed by Intel, originally for Itanium-based machines, and later also used as an alternative to the BIOS in x86-based machines, including Apple Macs using Intel processors.
Unix workstations originally had vendor-specific ROM-based firmware. Sun Microsystems later developed OpenBoot, later known as Open Firmware, which incorporated a Forth interpreter, with much of the firmware being written in Forth. It was standardized by the IEEE as IEEE standard ; firmware that implements that standard was used in PowerPC-based Macs and some other PowerPC-based machines, as well as Sun's own SPARC-based computers. The Advanced RISC Computing specification defined another firmware standard, which was implemented on some MIPS-based and Alpha-based machines and the SGI Visual Workstation x86-based workstations.
Modern boot loaders
When a computer is turned off, its softwareincluding operating systems, application code, and dataremains stored on non-volatile memory. When the computer is powered on, it typically does not have an operating system or its loader in random-access memory (RAM). The computer first executes a relatively small program stored in read-only memory (ROM, and later EEPROM, NOR flash) along with some needed data, to initialize RAM (especially on x86 systems), to access the nonvolatile device (usually block device, e.g. NAND flash) or devices from which the operating system programs and data can be loaded into RAM.
The small program that starts this sequence is known as a bootstrap loader, bootstrap or boot loader. Often, multiple-stage boot loaders are used, during which several programs of increasing complexity load one after the other in a process of chain loading.
Some earlier computer systems, upon receiving a boot signal from a human operator or a peripheral device, may load a very small number of fixed instructions into memory at a specific location, initialize at least one CPU, and then point the CPU to the instructions and start their execution. These instructions typically start an input operation from some peripheral device (which may be switch-selectable by the operator). Other systems may send hardware commands directly to peripheral devices or I/O controllers that cause an extremely simple input operation (such as "read sector zero of the system device into memory starting at location 1000") to be carried out, effectively loading a small number of boot loader instructions into memory; a completion signal from the I/O device may then be used to start execution of the instructions by the CPU.
Smaller computers often use less flexible but more automatic boot loader mechanisms to ensure that the computer starts quickly and with a predetermined software configuration. In many desktop computers, for example, the bootstrapping process begins with the CPU executing software contained in ROM (for example, the BIOS of an IBM PC) at a predefined address (some CPUs, including the Intel x86 series are designed to execute this software after reset without outside help). This software contains rudimentary functionality to search for devices eligible to participate in booting, and load a small program from a special section (most commonly the boot sector) of the most promising device, typically starting at a fixed entry point such as the start of the sector.
Boot loaders may face peculiar constraints, especially in size; for instance, on the IBM PC and compatibles, the boot code must fit in the Master Boot Record (MBR) and the Partition Boot Record (PBR), which in turn are limited to a single sector; on the IBM System/360, the size is limited by the IPL medium, e.g., card size, track size.
On systems with those constraints, the first program loaded into RAM may not be sufficiently large to load the operating system and, instead, must load another, larger program. The first program loaded into RAM is called a first-stage boot loader, and the program it loads is called a second-stage boot loader.
First-stage boot loader
Examples of first-stage (ROM stage or Hardware initialization stage) bootloaders include BIOS, UEFI, coreboot, Libreboot and Das U-Boot. On the IBM PC, the boot loader in the Master Boot Record (MBR) and the Partition Boot Record (PBR) was coded to require at least 32 KB (later tightened to 64 KB) of system memory and only use instructions supported by the original 8088/8086 processors.
Second-stage boot loader
Second-stage boot loaders, such as GNU GRUB, rEFInd, BOOTMGR, Syslinux, NTLDR or iBoot, are not themselves operating systems, but are able to load an operating system properly and transfer execution to it; the operating system subsequently initializes itself and may load extra device drivers. The second-stage boot loader does not need drivers for its own operation, but may instead use generic storage access methods provided by system firmware such as the BIOS, UEFI or Open Firmware, though typically with restricted hardware functionality and lower performance.
Many boot loaders (like GNU GRUB, rEFInd, Windows's BOOTMGR, Syslinux, and Windows NT/2000/XP's NTLDR) can be configured to give the user multiple booting choices. These choices can include different operating systems (for dual or multi-booting from different partitions or drives), different versions of the same operating system (in case a new version has unexpected problems), different operating system loading options (e.g., booting into a rescue or safe mode), and some standalone programs that can function without an operating system, such as memory testers (e.g., memtest86+), a basic shell (as in GNU GRUB), or even games (see List of PC Booter games). Some boot loaders can also load other boot loaders; for example, GRUB loads BOOTMGR instead of loading Windows directly. Usually a default choice is preselected with a time delay during which a user can press a key to change the choice; after this delay, the default choice is automatically run so normal booting can occur without interaction.
The boot process can be considered complete when the computer is ready to interact with the user, or the operating system is capable of running system programs or application programs.
Many embedded systems must boot immediately. For example, waiting a minute for a digital television or a GPS navigation device to start is generally unacceptable. Therefore, such devices have software systems in ROM or flash memory so the device can begin functioning immediately; little or no loading is necessary, because the loading can be precomputed and stored on the ROM when the device is made.
Large and complex systems may have boot procedures that proceed in multiple phases until finally the operating system and other programs are loaded and ready to execute. Because operating systems are designed as if they never start or stop, a boot loader might load the operating system, configure itself as a mere process within that system, and then irrevocably transfer control to the operating system. The boot loader then terminates normally as any other process would.
Network booting
Most computers are also capable of booting over a computer network. In this scenario, the operating system is stored on the disk of a server, and certain parts of it are transferred to the client using a simple protocol such as the Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP). After these parts have been transferred, the operating system takes over the control of the booting process.
As with the second-stage boot loader, network booting begins by using generic network access methods provided by the network interface's boot ROM, which typically contains a Preboot Execution Environment (PXE) image. No drivers are required, but the system functionality is limited until the operating system kernel and drivers are transferred and started. As a result, once the ROM-based booting has completed it is entirely possible to network boot into an operating system that itself does not have the ability to use the network interface.
Personal computers (PC)
Boot devices
The boot device is the device from which the operating system is loaded. A modern PC's UEFI or BIOS firmware supports booting from various devices, typically a local solid state drive or hard disk drive via the GPT or Master Boot Record (MBR) on such a drive or disk, an optical disc drive (using El Torito), a USB mass storage device (FTL-based flash drive, SD card or multi-media card slot, USB hard disk drive, USB optical disc drive, etc.), or a network interface card (using PXE). Older, less common BIOS-bootable devices include floppy disk drives, Zip drives, and LS-120 drives.
Typically, the firmware (UEFI or BIOS) will allow the user to configure a boot order. If the boot order is set to "first, the DVD drive; second, the hard disk drive", then the firmware will try to boot from the DVD drive, and if this fails (e.g. because there is no DVD in the drive), it will try to boot from the local hard disk drive.
For example, on a PC with Windows installed on the hard drive, the user could set the boot order to the one given above, and then insert a Linux Live CD in order to try out Linux without having to install an operating system onto the hard drive. This is an example of dual booting, in which the user chooses which operating system to start after the computer has performed its Power-on self-test (POST). In this example of dual booting, the user chooses by inserting or removing the DVD from the computer, but it is more common to choose which operating system to boot by selecting from a boot manager menu on the selected device, by using the computer keyboard to select from a BIOS or UEFI Boot Menu, or both; the Boot Menu is typically entered by pressing or keys during the POST; the BIOS Setup is typically entered by pressing or keys during the POST.
Several devices are available that enable the user to quick-boot into what is usually a variant of Linux for various simple tasks such as Internet access; examples are Splashtop and Latitude ON.
Boot sequence
Upon starting, an IBM-compatible personal computer's x86 CPU, executes in real mode, the instruction located at reset vector (the physical memory address on 16-bit x86 processors and on 32-bit and 64-bit x86 processors), usually pointing to the firmware (UEFI or BIOS) entry point inside the ROM. This memory location typically contains a jump instruction that transfers execution to the location of the firmware (UEFI or BIOS) start-up program. This program runs a power-on self-test (POST) to check and initialize required devices such as main memory (DRAM), the PCI bus and the PCI devices (including running embedded Option ROMs). One of the most involved steps is setting up DRAM over SPD, further complicated by the fact that at this point memory is very limited.
After initializing required hardware, the firmware (UEFI or BIOS) goes through a pre-configured list of non-volatile storage devices ("boot device sequence") until it finds one that is bootable. A bootable MBR device is defined as one that can be read from, and where the last two bytes of the first sector contain the little-endian word , found as byte sequence , on disk (also known as the MBR boot signature), or where it is otherwise established that the code inside the sector is executable on x86 PCs.
Once the BIOS has found a bootable device it loads the boot sector to linear address (usually segment:offset :, but some BIOSes erroneously use :) and transfers execution to the boot code. In the case of a hard disk, this is referred to as the Master Boot Record (MBR). The conventional MBR code checks the MBR's partition table for a partition set as bootable (the one with active flag set). If an active partition is found, the MBR code loads the boot sector code from that partition, known as Volume Boot Record (VBR), and executes it. The MBR boot code is often operating-system specific.
The boot sector code is the first-stage boot loader. It is located on fixed disks and removable drives, and must fit into the first 446 bytes of the Master Boot Record in order to leave room for the default 64-byte partition table with four partition entries and the two-byte boot signature, which the BIOS requires for a proper boot loader — or even less, when additional features like more than four partition entries (up to 16 with 16 bytes each), a disk signature (6 bytes), a disk timestamp (6 bytes), an Advanced Active Partition (18 bytes) or special multi-boot loaders have to be supported as well in some environments. In floppy and superfloppy Volume Boot Records, up to 59 bytes are occupied for the Extended BIOS Parameter Block on FAT12 and FAT16 volumes since DOS 4.0, whereas the FAT32 EBPB introduced with DOS 7.1 requires even 87 bytes, leaving only 423 bytes for the boot loader when assuming a sector size of 512 bytes. Microsoft boot sectors therefore traditionally imposed certain restrictions on the boot process, for example, the boot file had to be located at a fixed position in the root directory of the file system and stored as consecutive sectors, conditions taken care of by the SYS command and slightly relaxed in later versions of DOS. The boot loader was then able to load the first three sectors of the file into memory, which happened to contain another embedded boot loader able to load the remainder of the file into memory. When Microsoft added LBA and FAT32 support, they even switched to a boot loader reaching over two physical sectors and using 386 instructions for size reasons. At the same time other vendors managed to squeeze much more functionality into a single boot sector without relaxing the original constraints on only minimal available memory (32 KB) and processor support (). For example, DR-DOS boot sectors are able to locate the boot file in the FAT12, FAT16 and FAT32 file system, and load it into memory as a whole via CHS or LBA, even if the file is not stored in a fixed location and in consecutive sectors.
The VBR is often OS-specific; however, its main function is to load and execute the operating system boot loader file (such as bootmgr or ntldr), which is the second-stage boot loader, from an active partition. Then the boot loader loads the OS kernel from the storage device.
If there is no active partition, or the active partition's boot sector is invalid, the MBR may load a secondary boot loader which will select a partition (often via user input) and load its boot sector, which usually loads the corresponding operating system kernel. In some cases, the MBR may also attempt to load secondary boot loaders before trying to boot the active partition. If all else fails, it should issue an INT 18h BIOS interrupt call (followed by an INT 19h just in case INT 18h would return) in order to give back control to the BIOS, which would then attempt to boot off other devices, attempt a remote boot via network.
Many modern systems (Intel Macs and newer PCs) use UEFI.
Unlike BIOS, UEFI (not Legacy boot via CSM) does not rely on boot sectors, UEFI system loads the boot loader (EFI application file in USB disk or in the EFI System Partition) directly, and the OS kernel is loaded by the boot loader.
Other kinds of boot sequences
Some modern CPUs and microcontrollers (for example, TI OMAP) or sometimes even DSPs may have boot ROM with boot code integrated directly into their silicon, so such a processor could perform quite a sophisticated boot sequence on its own and load boot programs from various sources like NAND flash, SD or MMC card and so on. It is difficult to hardwire all the required logic for handling such devices, so an integrated boot ROM is used instead in such scenarios. Boot ROM usage enables more flexible boot sequences than hardwired logic could provide. For example, the boot ROM could try to perform boot from multiple boot sources. Also, a boot ROM is often able to load a boot loader or diagnostic program via serial interfaces like UART, SPI, USB and so on. This feature is often used for system recovery purposes when for some reasons usual boot software in non-volatile memory got erased, and it could also be used for initial non-volatile memory programming when there is clean non-volatile memory installed and hence no software available in the system yet.
Some embedded system designs may also include an intermediary boot sequence step in form of additional code that gets loaded into system RAM by the integrated boot ROM. Additional code loaded that way usually serves as a way for overcoming platform limitations, such as small amounts of RAM, so a dedicated primary boot loader, such as Das U-Boot, can be loaded as the next step in system's boot sequence. The additional code and boot sequence step are usually referred to as secondary program loader (SPL).
It is also possible to take control of a system by using a hardware debug interface such as JTAG. Such an interface may be used to write the boot loader program into bootable non-volatile memory (e.g. flash) by instructing the processor core to perform the necessary actions to program non-volatile memory. Alternatively, the debug interface may be used to upload some diagnostic or boot code into RAM, and then to start the processor core and instruct it to execute the uploaded code. This allows, for example, the recovery of embedded systems where no software remains on any supported boot device, and where the processor does not have any integrated boot ROM. JTAG is a standard and popular interface; many CPUs, microcontrollers and other devices are manufactured with JTAG interfaces (as of 2009).
Some microcontrollers provide special hardware interfaces which cannot be used to take arbitrary control of a system or directly run code, but instead they allow the insertion of boot code into bootable non-volatile memory (like flash memory) via simple protocols. Then at the manufacturing phase, such interfaces are used to inject boot code (and possibly other code) into non-volatile memory. After system reset, the microcontroller begins to execute code programmed into its non-volatile memory, just like usual processors are using ROMs for booting. Most notably this technique is used by Atmel AVR microcontrollers, and by others as well. In many cases such interfaces are implemented by hardwired logic. In other cases such interfaces could be created by software running in integrated on-chip boot ROM from GPIO pins.
Most digital signal processors have a serial mode boot, and a parallel mode boot, such as the host port interface (HPI boot).
In case of DSPs there is often a second microprocessor or microcontroller present in the system design, and this is responsible for overall system behavior, interrupt handling, dealing with external events, user interface, etc. while the DSP is dedicated to signal processing tasks only. In such systems the DSP could be booted by another processor which is sometimes referred as the host processor (giving name to a Host Port). Such a processor is also sometimes referred as the master, since it usually boots first from its own memories and then controls overall system behavior, including booting of the DSP, and then further controlling the DSP's behavior. The DSP often lacks its own boot memories and relies on the host processor to supply the required code instead. The most notable systems with such a design are cell phones, modems, audio and video players and so on, where a DSP and a CPU/microcontroller are co-existing.
Many FPGA chips load their configuration from an external serial EEPROM ("configuration ROM") on power-up.
See also
Boot disk
Bootkit
Comparison of boot loaders
Linux startup process
Macintosh startup
Microreboot
Multi boot
Network booting
RedBoot
Self-booting disk
Windows NT startup process
Windows Vista startup process
Notes
References |
8935913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSS%20Watch | OSS Watch | OSS Watch is the United Kingdom's advisory service for issues relating to free software and open source software, based at the University of Oxford.
OSS Watch started as a pilot project funded by the Joint Information Systems Committee (Jisc) in July 2003. It has provided consultations and briefing materials about the legal, social, technical and economic aspects of open source software. OSS Watch also organises and attends conferences and workshops relating to free and open source software, both within and outside the academic sector.
From 2003 until 2013, OSS Watch received funding via Jisc to provide support to the further education and higher education sectors. From 2013, OSS Watch is funded partly from the University of Oxford, and partly from consultancy, training and other services, and is not restricted to supporting education.
OSS Watch is not an advocacy group. Instead it seeks to provide rounded and unbiased advice and guidance, both for organisations selecting software solutions, and for those creating software.
Services
OSS Watch provides assistance to organisations, communities and projects including:
building and engagement with development communities to aid sustainability
software license advice, to allow projects
engaging with commercial companies for software procurement
commercial exploitation of software outputs
evaluation of open source or proprietary software solutions
Open Source Options
In 2013, OSS Watch began publishing Open Source Options for Education, a list of free and open source software packages that could be used in place of commonly used closed-source solutions. This built upon the work of the UK Cabinet Office, which released a list for the UK public sector.
Supported projects
OSS Watch provides both reactive and proactive support to a wide range of projects. Their mission is to ensure that software developed using public funding is, wherever possible, made available under free and open source licenses. Recent success stories have seen them participate in the creation of Opencast Matterhorn, a worldwide community project building audio and video capture and delivery software, as well as the migration of a W3C widget standards compliant widget engine from an EU funded project into the Apache Software Foundation's incubator.
Publications
The organisation also produces a wide range of high quality and regularly reviewed briefing notes on topics relating to open source use, development and adoption. An index of these documents can be found one the OSS Watch Website. All OSS Watch materials are available for reuse under a creative commons license.
Being a non-advocacy service, OSS Watch is uniquely positioned to provide an unbiased opinion on free and open source in general, without the influence of commercial need. For this reason their materials are often regarded as the clearest and most thorough on the subject of free and open source software since there is little need to "read between the lines" in order to interpret opinion against the potential for a hidden agenda.
Events
In addition to consultations and the production of briefing materials, OSS Watch organise a number of education and training events each year. As with their publications, OSS Watch are able to use their non-advocacy status to attract speakers from all areas of the computing sphere in order to create well informed events.
Members of OSS Watch also attend events both nationally and internationally to engage with the wider software and education communities.
The team
The OSS Watch team is made up of a balance of academic and business oriented people with a wide range of backgrounds. Between June 2007 and June 2010 the team was led by Ross Gardler, a recognised open source participant (Ross has served in many roles, including Vice President of Community Development, a member of the Board of Directors at The Apache Software Foundation, President of the ASF and mentor for many other project communities). In June 2011 Ross left to form a spin-out company (and later joined Microsoft Open Technologies, Inc in 2013) and was replaced as OSS Watch manager by Sander van der Waal. In September 2012, Scott Wilson of CETIS and the Apache Wookie project joined OSS Watch replacing Sander as Service Manager. The current team features three full-time staff and several other members with a variety of backgrounds, from computer science to anthropology. The organisation's advisory committee includes representatives from the academic, not-for-profit and business sectors.
This mix of skills and resources allows the team to examine free and open source software from many different angles, including practical, statistical and cultural.
Work with the University of Oxford
Although OSS Watch is a group within the IT Services unit of the University of Oxford (formerly Oxford University Computing Services), for most of its history it has been funded to operate as a national service rather than to support the university. However, one impact of the changes to national funding in 2013 has been that the organisation has focused more of its effort on supporting academic departments and central IT services at Oxford.
Spin-out company
In June 2011, Ross Gardler and Steve Lee span out a company from OSS Watch. This company, OpenDirective, provides very similar services to OSS Watch in both the public and private sectors. This company remains closely connected with the University of Oxford and OSS Watch and seeks to expand the revenue streams available to OSS Watch as well as to provide more proactive support rather than just advice. OpenDirective supports a number of the flagship projects that are of interest to the commercial sector while OSS Watch continues to provide services to those projects that are solely of interest to the academic sector.
References
External links
Index of publications
Education in the United Kingdom
Organisations associated with the University of Oxford
Free software projects |
63536836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19%20apps | COVID-19 apps | COVID-19 apps include mobile-software applications for digital contact-tracing - i.e. the process of identifying persons ("contacts") who may have been in contact with an infected individual - deployed during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Numerous tracing applications have been developed or proposed, with official government support in some territories and jurisdictions. Several frameworks for building contact-tracing apps have been developed. Privacy concerns have been raised, especially about systems that are based on tracking the geographical location of app users.
Less overtly intrusive alternatives include the co-option of Bluetooth signals to log a user's proximity to other cellphones. (Bluetooth technology has form in tracking cell-phones' locations.)
On 10 April 2020, Google and Apple jointly announced that they would integrate functionality to support such Bluetooth-based apps directly into their Android and iOS operating systems. India's COVID-19 tracking app Aarogya Setu became the world's fastest growing application - beating Pokémon Go - with 50 million users in the first 13 days of its release.
Rationale
Contact tracing is an important tool in infectious disease control, but as the number of cases rises time constraints make it more challenging to effectively control transmission. Digital contact tracing, especially if widely deployed, may be more effective than traditional methods of contact tracing. In a March 2020 model by the University of Oxford Big Data Institute's Christophe Fraser's team, a coronavirus outbreak in a city of one million people is halted if 80% of all smartphone users take part in a tracking system; in the model, the elderly are still expected to self-isolate en masse, but individuals who are neither symptomatic nor elderly are exempt from isolation unless they receive an alert that they are at risk of carrying the disease. Some proponents advocate for legislation exempting certain COVID-19 apps from general privacy restrictions.
Issues
Uptake
Ross Anderson, professor of security engineering at Cambridge University, listed a number of potential practical problems with app-based systems, including false positives and the potential lack of effectiveness if takeup of the app is limited to only a small fraction of the population. In Singapore, only one person in three downloaded the TraceTogether app by the end of June 2020, despite legal requirements for most workers; the app was also underused due to the fact that it required users to keep the app open at all times on iOS.
A team at the University of Oxford simulated the effect of a contact tracing app on a city of 1 million. They estimated that if the app was used in conjunction with the shielding of over-70s, then 56% of the population would have to be using the app for it to suppress the virus. This would be equivalent to 80% of smartphone users in the United Kingdom. They found that the app could still slow the spread of the virus if fewer people downloaded it, with one infection being prevented for every one or two users.
In August 2020, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) argued that there are disparities in smartphone between demographics and minority groups, and that "even the most comprehensive, all-seeing contact tracing system is of little use without social and medical systems in place to help those who may have the virus — including access to medical care, testing, and support for those who are quarantined."
App store restrictions
Addressing concerns about the spread of misleading or harmful apps, Apple, Google and Amazon set limits on which types of organizations could add coronavirus-related apps to its App Store, limiting them to only "official" or otherwise reputable organizations.
Ethical principles of mass surveillance using COVID-19 contact tracing apps
The advent of COVID-19 contact tracing apps has led to concerns around privacy, the rights of app users, and governmental authority. The European Convention on Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the United Nations and the Siracusa Principles have outlined 4 principles to consider when looking at the ethical principles of mass surveillance with COVID-19 contact tracing apps. These are necessity, proportionality, scientific validity, and time boundedness.
Necessity is defined as the idea that governments should only interfere with a person's rights when deemed essential for public health interests. The potential risks associated with infringements of personal privacy must be outweighed by the possibility of reducing significant harm to others. Potential benefits of contact-tracing apps that may be considered include allowing for blanket population-level quarantine measures to be lifted sooner and the minimization of people under quarantine. Hence, some contend that contact-tracing apps are justified as they may be less intrusive than blanket quarantine measures. Furthermore, the delay of an effective contact-tracing app with significant health and economic benefits may be considered unethical.
Proportionality refers to the concept that a contact tracing app's potential negative impact on a person's rights should be justifiable by the severity of the health risks that are being addressed. Apps must use the most privacy-preserving options available to achieve their goals, and the selected option should not only be a logical option for achieving the goal but also an effective one.
Scientific validity evaluates whether an app is effective, timely and accurate. Traditional manual contact-tracing procedures are not efficient enough for the COVID-19 pandemic and do not consider asymptomatic transmission. Contact-tracing apps, on the other hand, can be effective COVID-19 contact-tracing tools that could lead to a R value less than 1 and sustained epidemic suppression. However, for apps to be effective, there needs to be a minimum 56-60% uptake in the population. Apps should be continually modified to reflect current knowledge on the diseases being monitored. Some argue that contact-tracing apps should be considered societal experimental trials where results and adverse effects are evaluated according to the stringent guidelines of social experiments. Analyses should be conducted by independent research bodies and published for wide dissemination. Despite the current urgency of our pandemic situation, we should still adhere to the standard rigors of scientific evaluation.
Time boundedness describe the need for establishing legal and technical sunset clauses so that they are only allowed to operate as long as necessary to address the pandemic situation. Apps should be withdrawn as soon as possible after the end of the pandemic. If the end of the pandemic cannot be predicted, the use of apps should be regularly reviewed and decisions about continued use should be made at each review. Collected data should only be retained by public health authorities for research purposes with clear stipulations on how long the data will be held for and who will be responsible for security, oversight, and ownership.
Privacy, discrimination and marginalisation concerns
The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has published a set of principles for technology-assisted contact tracing and Amnesty International and over 100 other organizations issued a statement calling for limits on this kind of surveillance. The organisations declared eight conditions on governmental projects:
surveillance would have to be "lawful, necessary and proportionate";
extensions of monitoring and surveillance would have to have sunset clauses;
the use of data would have to be limited to COVID-19 purposes;
data security and anonymity would have to be protected and shown to be protected based on evidence;
digital surveillance would have to address the risk of exacerbating discrimination and marginalisation;
any sharing of data with third parties would have to be defined in law;
there would have to be safeguards against abuse and the rights of citizens to respond to abuses;
"meaningful participation" by all "relevant stakeholders" would be required, including that of public health experts and marginalised groups.
The German Chaos Computer Club (CCC) and Reporters Without Borders also issued checklists.
The Exposure Notification service intends to address the problem of persistent surveillance by removing the tracing mechanism from their device operating systems once it is no longer needed.
On 20 April 2020, it was reported that over 300 academics had signed a statement favouring decentralised proximity tracing applications over centralised models, given the difficulty in precluding centralised options being used "to enable unwarranted discrimination and surveillance." In a centralised model, a central database records the ID codes of meetings between users. In a decentralised model, this information is recorded on individual phones, with the role of the central database being limited to identifying phones by their ID code when an alert needs to be sent.
In Moscow use of the tracking app was made mandatory during the lockdowns in April 2020 when most Moscovites were mostly required to stay indoors. Vladimir Putin signed laws introducing criminal penalties, including up to seven years imprisonment, for quarantine violations that led to others being infected. Moscow also implemented government issued QR codes that were made mandatory. It was not disclosed what information the codes contain but they must be shown to police when requested. Opposition members were uncomfortable with the Russian's governments introduction of COVID surveillance tools. In May 2020, Human Rights Watch reported that the authorities in Moscow wrongly fined hundreds of Moscovites for breaching self-quarantine. The dubious behavioral interpretations recorded by the social monitoring tracking application led to the mistaken fining of hundreds of people in Moscow.
Contact tracing apps were deployed rapidly by governments and other initiatives in spring and summer 2020. Initial releases were found to come with incongruent privacy policies, hidden build-in surveillance and location tracing functions, and generally contained few cues about a proper specification and quality assurance process. Code quality in several apps was found as poor, while hardly any of 28 apps surveyed in May and June 2020 managed to address all privacy principles laid forth in the EU's GDPR.
Accuracy of proximity reports
According to ZDNet, Bluetooth-based proximity detection carries a risk of over-reporting interactions and leading to "a huge amount of false positives"; hypothetically, a system could flag an interaction with "(a) person waiting for the bus on the (opposite) side of the road". One problem is that using Bluetooth signal strength to infer distance can be unreliable; the range of a given Bluetooth device can vary due to the environment or the way the device is held. False positives could result in needless self-isolation, or could cause users to ignore warnings if the warnings are perceived as unreliable. GPS-based proximity detection can also be unreliable: according to the United States' GPS.gov, "GPS-enabled smartphones are typically accurate to within a 4.9 meter (16 ft.) radius under open sky", with accuracy decreasing further in the presence of signal blockage. In contrast, social distancing guidelines are usually 2 m (6 ft).
In the Google/Apple mechanism, a log entry is only added on the phone if Bluetooth proximity persists for five minutes (or possibly longer, depending on app configuration). Logs are retained for 14 days. Bluetooth tracking is prone to false negatives; for example, unlike time-stamped GPS matching, Bluetooth cannot detect that a user has entered a possibly-infected space that an infected person has just left.
General approaches
Centralized contact tracing
Some countries used network-based location tracking instead of apps, eliminating both the need to download an app and the ability to avoid tracking. Israel authorized its secret service (Shin Bet) to use its surveillance measures for network-based tracking. Network-based solutions that have access to raw location data have significant potential privacy problems. However, not all systems with central servers need to have access to personal location data; a number of privacy-preserving systems have been created that use central servers only for intercommunication (see section below).
In South Korea, a non-app-based system was used to perform contact tracing. Instead of using a dedicated app, the system gathered tracking information from a variety of sources including mobile device tracking data and card transaction data, and combined these to generate notices via text messages to potentially-infected individuals. In addition to using this information to alert potential contacts, the government has also made the location information publicly available, something permitted because of far-reaching changes to information privacy laws after the MERS outbreak in that country. This information is available to the public via a number of apps and websites.
Countries including Germany considered using both centralized and privacy-preserving systems. , the details had not yet been released.
Decentralized contact tracing
Privacy-preserving contact tracing is a well-established concept, with a substantial body of research literature dating back to at least 2013.
Covid Watch was the first organization to develop and open source an anonymous, decentralized Bluetooth digital contact tracing protocol, publishing their white paper on the subject on 20 March 2020. The group was founded as a research collaboration between Stanford University and the University of Waterloo. The protocol they developed, the CEN Protocol, later renamed the TCN Protocol, was first released on 17 March 2020 and presented at Stanford HAI's COVID-19 and AI virtual conference on 1 April 2020.
As of 7 April 2020, over a dozen expert groups were working on privacy-friendly solutions, such as using Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) to log a user's proximity to other cellphones. Users then receive a message if they've been in close contact with someone who has tested positive for COVID-19.
A group of European researchers, including from the Fraunhofer Heinrich Hertz Institute and École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), were under the umbrella of the Pan-European Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing (PEPP-PT) project, developing a BLE-based app to serve this purpose that is designed to avoid the need for intrusive surveillance by the state. However, PEPP-PT is a co-ordination effort which contains both centralised and decentralised approaches. On 17 April 2020, EPFL and the ETH Zurich pulled out of the project, criticizing PEPP-PT for a lack of transparency and openness, and for not respecting personal privacy enough. Later it was reported that KU Leuven, the CISPA Helmholz Center for Information Security, the European Laboratory for Learning and Intelligent Systems and the Technical University of Denmark, also withdrew from the project. On 26 April 2020, Germany switched to decentralised approach to support solutions like DP-3T.
Decentralised protocols include Decentralized Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing (DP-PPT/DP-3T), The Coalition Network's Whisper Tracing Protocol, the global TCN Coalition's TCN ("Temporary Contact Numbers") Protocol, and the MIT Media Lab's SafePaths. The goal of decentralization is to reduce the loss of privacy, by exchanging anonymous keys that do not include identifiable information.
COCOVID is being developed as a common effort of several European companies and institutions. The Mobile Application, the Big Data and the Artificial Intelligence components will be available to any government. The COCOVID app is Open Source and the backend is based on a highly scalable solution that is already used by several of the largest financial institutions in Europe. COCOVID will support the coordination of tests at medical institutions, allowing users with a high infection risk to book a test slot directly from the app. This will reduce the effort and increase the efficiency of the medical test processes. COCOVID will use both location and Bluetooth contact data, allowing a high level of effectiveness. The solution is designed following the EU data privacy recommendations.
The team working on the project includes persons from Orange, Ericsson, Proventa AG, Stratio, TH Köln and Charta digitale Vernetzung.
On 9 April 2020, the Singaporean government announced that it had open-sourced a reference implementation of the BlueTrace protocol used by its official government app.
Apple / Google Exposure Notification protocol
On 10 April 2020, Google and Apple, the companies that control the Android and iOS mobile platforms, announced an initiative for contact tracing, which they stated would preserve privacy, based on a combination of Bluetooth Low Energy technology and privacy-preserving cryptography. They also published specifications of the core technologies used in the system. According to Apple and Google, the system is intended to be rolled out in three stages:
API specification and publication
rollout of tools to enable governments to create official privacy-preserving coronavirus tracing apps
integration of this functionality directly into iOS and Android
Google and Apple plan to address the take-up and persistent surveillance problems by first distributing the system through operating system updates, and later removing it in the same way once the threat has passed.
The ACLU stated the Google and Apple's approach "appears to mitigate the worst privacy and centralization risks, but there is still room for improvement".
By 20 April 2020, Google and Apple described the systems as "Exposure Notification" rather than "contact tracing", stating the system should be "in service of broader contact tracing efforts by public health authorities". The name change was received positively by journalists in Vox/Recode and Salon, who stated "Exposure notification schemes like the Apple-Google system aren't true contact tracing systems because they don't allow public health authorities to identify people who have been exposed to infected individuals."
List of frameworks
List of countries/territories with official contact tracing apps
Australia
COVIDSafe is a digital contact tracing app announced by the Australian Government on 14 April 2020 to help combat the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The app is based on the BlueTrace protocol developed by the Singaporean Government, and was first released on 26 April 2020.
Austria
Stopp Corona is the contact tracing app published by the Austrian red cross on behalf of the Federal Ministry of Health. The app is supported both on Android and IOS platforms. The source code was released on 24 April 2020 as open source on Github.
Azerbaijan
e-Tabib is an official contact tracing and informational mobile app, prepared by Force Task under the Cabinet of Ministers of Azerbaijan. 'e-Tabib' is designed to be an application which will inform the users in real-time about the number of patients (both sick and recovered from COVID-19) in Azerbaijan. The app will provide daily updates on the status of COVID-19 from the Force Task under the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Azerbaijan (or other applicable authorities designed in the Republic of Azerbaijan). 'e-Tabib' application was created with the assistance of "The Association for the Management of Medical Territorial Units" public entity (TƏBİB), which was established by the decree of the president of the Republic of Azerbaijan dated 20 December 2018.
Bahrain
BeAware Bahrain is the official mobile app for Android and iOS, developed by The Information & eGovernment Authority (iGA), in collaboration with the National Taskforce for Combating the Coronavirus (COVID-19). The application aims to mitigate the spread of COVID-19 by implementing contact tracing efforts to identify and keep track of all active cases and their contacts. It also uses location data of citizens to alert individuals in the event they approach an active case or a location an active case has visited, as well as track the movement of quarantine cases for a duration of 14 days. It also posts health recommendations and live data of global COVID-19 developments; iGA Chief Executive Mohammed Ali Al Qaed said: "The application deploys a tamper-proof GPS Tracking Bracelet to share real time-tracking information with health workers. Health workers are notified when quarantine cases exit their pre-set area by 15 meters, in which case the team will respond by reminding individuals of the importance of following procedures to safeguard the well-being of citizens and residents."
Bangladesh
People's Republic of Bangladesh Government announced & launched a mobile app named Corona Tracer BD in May 2020 in Google Play Store.
Brazil
The public ministry of RN launched "Tô de Olho", a multipurpose app (including contact tracing, agglomeration denunciation, selective infectious testing), released in Rio Grande do Norte starting 4 April 2020. The "Tô de Olho" research paper has more details on platform's design.
Canada
On 31 July 2020, the Canadian federal government launched their voluntary, "private, and anonymous" COVID-19 exposure notification app, called COVID Alert which was developed along with Shopify and BlackBerry as technology partners, and has both an iOS and an Android version. The federal COVID Alert exposure notification app is not a contact tracing app and does not have access to information such as user names, health information, addresses, smartphone contacts, or GPS location. The app uses Bluetooth technology to check and share a random list of codes from any nearby smartphones held by people who have tested positive. By mid-November, all the provinces except Alberta and British Columbia had access to the app. The Alberta government had launched their own app in May and in October said that the delay in signing on to the federal COVID Alert app, was to ensure all the existing 247,000 ABTraceTogether app accounts could be "transitioned" to the federal app.
China
The Chinese government, in conjunction with Alipay and WeChat, has deployed an app that allows citizens to check if they have been in contact with people that have COVID-19. It is in use across more than 200 Chinese cities.
In China, within these apps pose three colors as a result of the risk they pose. For example, green is good and can go about normal activities. On the other hand, yellow indicates the user they have been in contact with someone who tested positive with the virus and should exercise precaution. Lastly, red indicates to the user they have the virus and should remain quarantined to not expose others. These tests and colors are shared with the local police. So every QR code is central to a city/district.
Colombia
CoronApp is the mobile app for Android and iOS –and available for the Huawei AppGallery– developed by the Colombian government. The app, downloaded more than 12 million users (March, 2021), is a free application, which does not consume data; it helps detect affected areas and nearby people with a positive diagnosis for COVID-19. CoronApp facilitates the real-time monitoring of data collected to the Emergency Operations Center of the Instituto Nacional de Salud (National Health Institute, INS). It incorporates technologies such as those developed by the Governments of Singapore and South Korea, as well as Apple. Privacy, the major concern with these applications from organizations around the world, has not been the exception for Colombia: Fundación Karisma points out some vulnerabilities of CoronApp. Along with the criticisms, there were analysis that found strengths and weaknesses in it. As an additional benefit of the app, the Colombian Government financed 1 gigabyte per month and 100 minutes for users of prepaid lines that install it.
Croatia
Stop COVID-19 is a mobile app for Android and iOS, developed by an agency of the Croatian government.
Czechia
The government launched a Singapore-inspired tracing app called eRouška (eFacemask). The app was developed by the local IT community, released as open-source software and will be handed over to the government.
Denmark
Smittestop is a digital contact tracing app developed by the Ministry of Health and the Elderly, the Danish Agency for Patient Safety, the National Board of Health, the Danish Serum Institute, the National Board of Digitization and Netcompany. It was released on 18 June 2020 to help combat the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The app uses Bluetooth technology to alert the user if they have been within one meter for more than fifteen minutes of a person who tested positive. Available on the Google Play store and Apple store.
Fiji
The Fijian government launched the country's contact tracing app which is known as careFIJI. The app uses Bluetooth Low Energy Technology and is based on the BlueTrace protocol developed by the Singaporean Government.
Finland
The Finnish app Koronavilkku launched on 31 August 2020 with Finnish and Swedish localizations. An English translation was released later on.
France
The French National Assembly approved the release of "StopCovid" on 27 May 2020 to help combat the COVID-19 pandemic. StopCovid is a digital contact tracing app based on a bluetooth tracing protocol developed specially for the app. It was released on 2 June 2020. The app was later renamed TousAntiCovid. Updates have also included the addition of a "News" section with daily information about the state of the pandemic in France, as well as a "Forms" section to generate the travel declaration forms needed to go outside during the various lockdowns and curfews.
Germany
The official app called "Corona-Warn-App" was made available for download on 16 June 2020 and presented in a press conference the same day. It was developed as open-source software jointly by Deutsche Telekom and SAP with scientific advice from the federal Robert Koch Institute and uses the Exposure Notification APIs from Google and Apple.
Greece
The official platform in Greece against covid, called Covid Checker, is one of the first solution in Europe against COVID-19 pandemic that was approved and made available on 29 March 2020. Covid Checker is a mobile & web solution designed to identify coronavirus symptoms and associated risk, provide reliable guidance, & connect qualified patients with a doctor for further assistance. Covid Checker powered by Docandu was first released as a widget attached to the governmental websites such as the patt.gov.gr while few weeks later was released as an app in Google Playstore. It was developed jointly by DOCANDU (https://www.docandu.com/en), the Region of Attica (https://www.patt.gov.gr) and the Medical Association of Athens.
Ghana
The government launched "GH COVID-19 Tracker App", an Android and IOS app equipped with location tracking technology to provide detailed information about people who have been at the same event, location, country or other defined locations in order to provide accurate information to health authorities overtime to know who to screen and provide needed assistance. The app was developed by the Ministry of Communication and Technology and Ministry of Health. , the app was awaiting approval by the Google Play Store and the Apple App Store.
Gibraltar
The "BEAT Covid Gibraltar" App, based on the App from Ireland, was launched on 18 June with downloads of 15,000 by 8 August, from an estimated 20,000 phone users.
Hong Kong
The government launched LeaveHomeSafe on 16 November 2020. It was initially not compulsary for people to use but starting from 18 February 2021, customers are required to scan the QR code with the app or register their contact details before entering some of the restaurants. However, the government refused to open the source code for peer-review by using an excuse of protecting the intellectual property of the program.
Hungary
VírusRadar, an Android app, was launched on 13 May and an iOS version on 30 May 2020. The app uses Bluetooth technology to track unique, random application IDs within a proximity of 2 meters for more than 20 minutes in the previous 14 days. The system has been developed by Nextsense, based on the company's contact tracing technology. According to the developer, a version of the application integrating Google and Apple's API is currently under testing. The app is operated under the umbrella of the Ministry for Innovation and Technology of Hungary, operated by the Governmental Agency for IT Development and supported by Biztributor.
Iceland
Rakning C-19 route tracking is a GPS logger app for Android and iOS, with a user interface and content from the national COVID-19 web page Upplýsingar um COVID-19 á Íslandi. When infection is confirmed the route data is used to support more traditional contact tracing. According to MIT Technology Review as of 11 May 2020 it had the largest national market penetration rate of contact trackers in the world, having been downloaded by 38% of Icelanders.
India
The Aarogya Setu app is developed by the National Informatics Centre that comes under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, Government of India. The app is available on Google Play Store and Apple's App Store for download.
The MyGov app is developed by the National Informatics Centre that comes under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, Government of India. The app is available on Google Play Store and Apple's App Store for download.
Ireland
The official COVID Tracker app was launched by the Irish government on 7 July 2020. Within two days of launch, the app had been downloaded by one million people. The Health Service Executive subsequently made the code behind the app available to other countries.
Israel
On 22 March 2020 the Ministry of Health launched "HaMagen" (המגן,"the shield"), an iOS and Android contact tracing app. Hamagen tracks a user's whereabouts using standard location APIs and then compares them to known movements of those diagnosed with COVID-19, in order to check if their paths crossed within the previous 14 days. The Hamagen app was specifically designed with a privacy-first approach where information about locations and times is cross-referenced on the user's device, and not transmitted on to the cloud database.
Italy
On 1 June 2020 the Ministry of Health launched the Italian Government's exposure notification solution, "Immuni", an iOS and Android contact tracing app build on top of the Google/Apple API. The solution was realized by the Special Commissioner for the COVID-19 emergency (Presidency of the Council of Ministers), in collaboration with the Ministry of Health and the Ministry for Technological Innovation and Digitalization. It only uses public infrastructures located within the national borders. It is exclusively managed by the public company Sogei S.p.A. The source code has been developed for the Presidency of the Council of Ministers by Bending Spoons S.p.A., and it is released under a GNU Affero General Public License version 3.
Japan
On 19 June 2020 the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare released . It is available on iOS 13.5 or above and Android 6 or above.
Jersey
Jersey COVID Alert is the official contact tracing mobile app for Jersey that was released on 14 October 2020.
Jordan
The AMAN App - Jordan app is developed for Jordan's Ministry of Health by COVID-19 JOTECH COMMUNITY, a group of tech-savvy volunteers who aim to leverage Jordan's tech talent in fighting the coronavirus pandemic. AMAN is a privacy-conscious exposure detection App. The App was released on 21 May 2020 and is currently available on Google Play Store and App Store. It will be released on AppGallery for download soon. Downloading the App is voluntary and is considered as a moral and human obligation toward the others and the country.
Latvia
A consortium of IT companies and volunteers launched decentralized proximity tracing Apturi Covid application on 29 May 2020. It is Android and Apple compatible. The county's president and government ministers installed the application on their phones on the launch day. Application developers hoped to reach 400 000 users, approximately 20% of the country's population.
Malaysia
The government launched MySejahtera on 16 April 2020, one of three tracing app that released alongside MyTrace and Gerak Malaysia. MySejahtera is a contact tracing app introduced by the National Security Council and the Ministry of Health on 16 April 2020 to retrieve updated information and statistics of the pandemic. MyTrace is a tracing app that utilizes Bluetooth to detect how long a user smartphone are in close proximity with other smartphone users with a similar app installed, and is currently available on Android. Gerak Malaysia is a tracing app which allows police and the Ministry of Health to track and analyze users movement, and register for permission to allow state border crossing.
Nepal
Nepal Engineers Association Launched COVIRA app, developed by Science Hub on 22 June 2020,. COVIRA has been developed on a multidisciplinary framework where several facctors are considered to provide the risk level. It can be used for individual risk assessment which can be assessed from all over the world, and regional risk are provided for Nepal in palika level. This is available on web application platform.
Netherlands
The official contract tracing app by the Dutch government is called CoronaMelder.
New Zealand
The Health Ministry launched the NZ COVID Tracer on 20 May, though some users reported being able to access the App on 19 May. The app is available on Apple's App Store and Google Play. NZ COVID Tracer allows users to scan their own QR codes at businesses, public buildings and other organisations to track where they have been for contract tracing purposes. Bluetooth Exposure Notification System was added in December, 2020.
North Macedonia
The government launched "StopKorona!" on 13 April 2020, becoming the first country in the Western Balkans to launch a COVID-19 tracing app. The Bluetooth-based app traces exposure with potentially infected persons and is designed to help healthcare authorities provide a fast response. The app was developed and donated by Skopje-based Software company Nextsense. To comply with laws on data protection, the app does not use the users' locations nor personal information. The users' mobile phone numbers are the only user-related data, stored on servers managed by the Ministry of Health.
Norway
The Smittestopp app is developed by the Norwegian government, and uses Bluetooth and GPS signals. On 15 June 2020 the country halted the app over privacy concerns after the Norwegian Data Protection Authority said low infections could no longer justify the risk of privacy invasion by the end user. The app ceased collecting new data and plans to delete all data collected so far with any additional collections effectively paused indefinitely.
Philippines
Staysafe is the official contact tracing app for the Philippines.
Portugal
Stayaway COVID is the official contact tracing mobile app for Portugal.
Qatar
Ehteraz application (app) has allowed Qatar citizens and residents to move with ease and responsibly in the country while helping the authorities prevent the spread of coronavirus (COVID-19). A Cabinet decision, which came into effect on 22 May, requires citizens and residents to mandatorily install and activate the mobile app on their smartphones when leaving the house for any reason. Since then, more and more entities in the country have made it compulsory for clients and visitors to show the green status on the Ehteraz app to be allowed entry into their premises. Apart from hypermarkets and other retail outlets, banks, as well as several commercial buildings and offices, in Qatar have put in place similar measures to help prevent the spread of COVID-19.
Saudi Arabia
Tabaud is the official mobile app for Web, Android and iOS, developed by the National Health Information Center (NHIC). It allows users to track and trace via Apple/Google Exposure Notification API. More than 1,000,000 users have downloaded the app.
Scotland
Protect Scotland is the official contact tracing app for Scotland. Scotland uses the Test and Protect method. Throughout the country they test people with symptoms, isolate people who were in close contact with positive testers, and limit exposure to as many people as possible.
Singapore
An app called TraceTogether is being used. It uses a digital contact tracing protocol called BlueTrace, developed with an open source reference implementation called OpenTrace.
South Africa
COVID AlertSA is a digital contact tracing app announced by the Government of South Africa on 8 August 2020 to help combat the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.
Spain
The official app called Radar COVID has been released by the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Digital Transformation for Android and iOS for a pilot test in La Gomera. The app is based on the DP-3T protocol and uses the Apple/Google API for contact tracing and it is expected to be rolled out to further Spanish regions in September. In its first year, it only notified 74.280 out of more of 4 million infections. Less than 20% of citizens had installed it. Bugs and battery exhaustion discouraged further usage. An additional app called OpenCoronavirus has been developed by a group of volunteers. It uses an uncentralized contact tracing protocol called MFP-3T, based on DP-3T protocol but improved to avoid a few security issues.
Switzerland
An app called SwissCovid which uses the DP-3T protocol and is built top of Apple/Google bluetooth API. Application is licensed under Mozilla Public License 2.0.
Taiwan
Taiwan AILabs in conjunction with the Taiwan Centers for Disease Control on 12 March 2021 released the Taiwan Social Distancing app for Android and iOS.
Turkey
Hayat Eve Sığar in English life fits into home. This app for take HES code, mask request,Turkey's COVID-19 density and peoples see contact with risky peoples.
United Kingdom
The NHS COVID-19 contact tracing app for England and Wales was released on 24 September 2020. The NHS app uses Google/Apple exposure notification technology. (The NHS previously tried a centralised system rather than a decentralised approach). Scotland and Northern Ireland contact tracing apps were launched in the weeks prior to England & Wales. To aid contract tracing, the NHS COVID-19 contact tracing app for England and Wales allows users to scan official NHS QR code posters at businesses, venues and transport hubs. To ensure data integrity, the QR code is constructed from a JSON Web Signature (JWS).
Countries considering deployment
Centralized approaches
In the United Kingdom, Matthew Gould, chief executive of NHSX, the government body responsible for policy regarding technology in the NHS, said in late March 2020 that the organisation was looking seriously at an app that would alert people if they had recently been in contact with someone testing positive for the virus after scientists advising the government suggested it "could play a critical role" in limiting lockdowns. On 22 April, the government announced that alpha testing of a prototype of the app was in progress at RAF Leeming. Beta testing began on the Isle of Wight on 5 May for council staff and NHS workers before a wider rollout to all residents on 7 May. By 15 May, over 72,000 had downloaded the app, equivalent to more than half of the island's population.
On 18 June, following reports that the app was only detecting 75% of contacts on Android devices and 4% of contacts on iPhones, the UK government announced that it would cease the development of its centralized system, and move to a decentralized system based on the Apple/Google Exposure Notification system. This was later scheduled for release in England and Wales on 24 September; by this date, the devolved administrations in Scotland and Northern Ireland had already released their own apps.
Decentralized approaches
Both Australia and New Zealand are considering apps based on Singapore's TraceTogether app and BlueTrace protocol as of April 2020.
Many countries have announced the official development, trial or adoption of decentralized proximity tracing systems, where the matching of proximity encounters happens locally on individuals' devices, such as the Decentralized Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing (DP-3T) protocol or the Google-Apple Exposure Notification API. These include Austria, Switzerland, Estonia, Latvia, Canada, Italy, Germany, Finland, the Netherlands, Ireland and Denmark.
In the United States, as of 10 June 2020, three states, Alabama, South Carolina, and North Dakota, have committed to using the Google-Apple Exposure Notification API. In May 2020, the U.S. state of Arizona began testing the Covid Watch app developed with the Apple/Google protocol. In August 2020, the app launched publicly for a phased roll-out in the state of Arizona. At least nineteen states have not yet decided, and at least seventeen other states stated there were no plans to use smartphone-based contact tracing.
Geofencing
Russia introduced a geofencing app, Social Monitoring, for patients diagnosed with COVID-19 living in Moscow, designed to ensure they do not leave home.
List of apps by country
Note: This table should list only apps which are either supported by citations from third-party reliable sources, or are from, or supported by, independently notable organizations such as national governments, industrial collaborations, major universities or NGOs, or one of the framework collaborations listed above. MIT Technology Review also maintained a Google spreadsheet listing of COVID-19 tracing app tracker.
See also
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
Government by algorithm
References
Further reading
External links
Mobile applications
apps
Privacy
Mass surveillance
Government by algorithm |
4014075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evdev | Evdev | evdev (short for 'event device') is a generic input event interface in the Linux kernel and FreeBSD. It generalizes raw input events from device drivers and makes them available through character devices in the /dev/input/ directory.
The user-space library for the kernel component evdev is called libevdev. Libevdev abstracts the evdev ioctls through type-safe interfaces and provides functions to change the appearance of the device. Libevdev shares similarities with the read system call.
It sits below the process that handles input events, in between the kernel and that process.
kernel → libevdev → xf86-input-evdev → X server → X client
For Weston/Wayland, the stack would look like this:
kernel → libevdev → libinput → Wayland compositor → Wayland client
Since version 1.16 the xorg-xserver obtained support for libinput:
kernel → libevdev → libinput → xf86-input-libinput → X server → X client
evdev is primarily used by display servers like X.org (via xf86-input-evdev driver and libevdev) and Weston.
See also
References
External links
"Linux Input drivers v1.0" by Vojtech Pavlik, 2001 (Linux kernel document, now somewhat dated)
libevdev, a C library for evdev interface
Python bindings for evdev interface
Go bindings for evdev interface
"linux input ecosystem" by Joe Shaw, 1 October 2010 (blog post)
Interfaces of the Linux kernel
Linux kernel features |
1740336 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cyberpunk%20works | List of cyberpunk works | This is a list of works classified as cyberpunk, a subgenre of science fiction. Cyberpunk is characterized by a focus on "high tech and low life" in a near-future setting.
Print media
Novels and novellas
Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (1968) by Philip K. Dick
The Girl Who Was Plugged In (1973) by James Tiptree Jr
True Names (1981) by Vernor Vinge
Ware Tetralogy (1982–2000) by Rudy Rucker
The Sprawl trilogy (Neuromancer (1984), Count Zero (1986), and Mona Lisa Overdrive (1988)) by William Gibson – popularized the concept of cyberspace, exemplifies the genre.
Dr. Adder (1984) by K. W. Jeter
Schismatrix (1985) by Bruce Sterling
Eclipse Trilogy (also known as A Song Called Youth Trilogy) (1985–90) by John Shirley – includes Eclipse (1985), Eclipse Penumbra (1988), and Eclipse Corona (1990)
Hardwired (1986) by Walter Jon Williams
Mindplayers (1987) by Pat Cadigan
The Glass Hammer (1987) by K. W. Jeter
Voice of the Whirlwind (1987) by Walter Jon Williams
When Gravity Fails (1987) by George Alec Effinger – part of the Effinger's Marîd Audran series
Islands in the Net (1988) by Bruce Sterling
A Fire in the Sun (1989) by George Alec Effinger – part of the Effinger's Marîd Audran series
"Solip:System" (1989 novelette released as a standalone book) by Walter Jon Williams
My Cousin, My Gastroenterologist (1990) by Mark Leyner
The Exile Kiss (1991) by George Alec Effinger – part of the Effinger's Marîd Audran series
Synners (1991) by Pat Cadigan
Snow Crash (1992) by Neal Stephenson
The Bridge trilogy (1993–1999) by William Gibson
Heavy Weather (1994) by Bruce Sterling
Trouble and Her Friends (1994) by Melissa Scott
Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human, Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night, and Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon (1995–2000) by K. W. Jeter
The Diamond Age (1996) by Neal Stephenson
Holy Fire (1996) by Bruce Sterling
Night Sky Mine (1997) by Melissa Scott
Noir (1998) by K. W. Jeter
Tea from an Empty Cup (1998) by Pat Cadigan
One of Us (1998) by Michael Marshall Smith
Altered Carbon (2002) by Richard Morgan
River of Gods (2004) by Ian McDonald
Accelerando (2005) by Charles Stross
Glasshouse (2006)
Daemon (2006–2010) by Daniel Suarez
The Mirrored Heavens (2008) by David J. Williams
Ready Player One (2011) by Ernest Cline
Bleeding Edge (2013) by Thomas Pynchon
Blackstar (2013–2015) by Josh Viola
Cash Crash Jubilee (2015) by Eli K.P. William
The Naked World (2017)
Short stories, anthologies, and single-author collections
Cyberpunk (1983) by Bruce Bethke
Burning Chrome (1986) by William Gibson
Mirrorshades: The Cyberpunk Anthology (1986) edited by Bruce Sterling
Patterns (1989) by Pat Cadigan
Crystal Express (1989) by Bruce Sterling
Storming the Reality Studio: A Casebook of Cyberpunk & Postmodern Science Fiction (1992) edited by Larry McCaffery (contains both fiction and nonfiction)
Hackers (1996) by Jack Dann & Gardner Dozois
Dragonfire: A Cyberpunk Short Story Collection (2021) by Robert J. Cunningham
Graphic novels and comics
Judge Dredd (1977–) by John Wagner and Carlos Ezquerra
The Incal (1981–1989) by Alejandro Jodorowsky
Akira (1982–1990) by Katsuhiro Ōtomo
Black Magic (1983) by Masamune Shirow
Ronin (1983–1984) by Frank Miller
Shatter (1985–1988) by Peter B. Gillis and Mike Saenz
Appleseed (1985–1989) by Masamune Shirow
Dominion (1986) by Masamune Shirow
Ghost in the Shell (1989–1991) by Masamune Shirow
Neuromancer (1989) by Tom de Haven and Bruce Jensen
Battle Angel Alita (1990–1995) by Yukito Kishiro
Hard Boiled (1990–1992)
Barb Wire (1994–1995) by Chris Warner
Transmetropolitan (1997–2002) by Warren Ellis
Eden: It's an Endless World! (1998–2008) by Hiroki Endo
Blame! (1998) by Tsutomu Nihei
NOiSE (2001) – prequel to Blame!
Biomega (2007)
Singularity 7 (2004) by Ben Templesmith
The Surrogates (2005) by Robert Venditti
The entire Marvel 2099 line is an example of the cyberpunk genre in comics, especially Ghost Rider 2099 and Spider-Man 2099.
Marvel's Machine Man Vol. 2
Batman Beyond
The True Lives of the Fabulous Killjoys (2013-2014) by Gerard Way and Shaun Simon
Magazines and journals
Mondo 2000
Ctheory (1996–)
Cheval Noir (1989–1994)
Audiovisual media
Films
Most of the films listed are cyberpunk-related either through narrative or by thematic context. Films released before 1982 should be seen as precursors to the genre. Animated films are listed separately in the Animation section below.
Escape from New York (1981)
Burst City (1982)
Tron (1982)
Blade Runner (1982)
Brainstorm (1983)
Videodrome (1983)
The Terminator (1984)
Brazil (1985)
RoboCop (1987)
The Running Man (1987)
Gunhed (1989)
Circuitry Man (1990)
RoboCop 2 (1990)
Hardware (a.k.a. M.A.R.K. 13) (1990)
Megaville (1990)
Total Recall (1990)
Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991)
964 Pinocchio (1991)
Until the End of the World (1991)
Nemesis (1992)
Freejack (1992)
The Lawnmower Man (1992)
Cyborg 2 (1993)
Demolition Man (1993)
RoboCop 3 (1993)
Plughead Rewired: Circuitry Man II (1994)
Death Machine (1994)
Hackers (1995)
Johnny Mnemonic (1995)
Judge Dredd (1995)
Strange Days (1995)
Virtuosity (1995)
Escape from L.A. (1996)
The Lawnmower Man 2: Beyond Cyberspace (1996)
Deathline (a.k.a. Redline) (1997)
The Fifth Element (1997)
Nirvana (1997)
Andromedia (1998)
Pi (1998)
Skyggen (a.k.a. Webmaster) (1998)
Dark City (1998)
eXistenZ (1999)
The Thirteenth Floor (1999)
Bicentennial Man (1999)
The Matrix (1999)
I.K.U. (2000)
The 6th Day (2000)
Avalon (2001)
A.I. Artificial Intelligence (2001)
Electric Dragon 80.000 V (2001)
Cypher (2002)
Dead or Alive: Final (2002)
Impostor (2002)
Minority Report (2002)
Resurrection of the Little Match Girl (2002)
All Tomorrow's Parties (2003)
Code 46 (2003)
The Matrix Reloaded (2003)
The Matrix Revolutions (2003)
Natural City (2003)
Paycheck (2003)
Avatar (a.k.a. Cyber Wars) (2004)
Immortal (2004)
I, Robot (2004)
Paranoia 1.0 (a.k.a. One Point 0) (2004)
Æon Flux (2005)
Children of Men (2006)
Ultraviolet (2006)
Chrysalis (2007)
Eden Log (2007)
The Gene Generation (2007)
Babylon A.D. (2008)
Sleep Dealer (2008)
Tokyo Gore Police (2008)
District 9 (2009)
Hardwired (2009)
Surrogates (2009)
Tron: Legacy (2010)
Repo Men (2010)
Priest (2011)
Dredd (2012)
Elysium (2013)
The Zero Theorem (2013)
Automata (2014)
Transcendence (2014)
RoboCop (2014)
Chappie (2015)
Ex Machina (2015)
Hardcore Henry (2015)
Ghost in the Shell (2017)
Bleeding Steel (2017)
Blade Runner 2049 (2017)
Ready Player One (2018)
Upgrade (2018)
Hotel Artemis (2018)
Anon (2018)
Alita: Battle Angel (2019)
Possessor (2020)
Animation
Megazone 23 (1985)
Neo Tokyo (1986)
Black Magic M-66 (1987)
Bubblegum Crisis (1987)
Bubblegum Crisis Tokyo 2040 (1998)
Akira (1988)
RoboCop: The Animated Series (1988)
Beast Machines: Transformers (1999–2000)Dominion Dominion (1988–1989)
New Dominion Tank Police (1993–1994)
Tank Police Team: Tank S.W.A.T. 01 (2006)Appleseed Appleseed (1988 film)
Appleseed (2004 film)
Appleseed Ex Machina (2007 film)
Appleseed XIII (2011)
Appleseed Alpha (2014 film)
A.D. Police Files (1990)
Cyber City Oedo 808 (1990)
Æon Flux (1991–1995)
Silent Möbius (1991–2003)
Genocyber (1993)
Macross Plus (1994)
Armitage III (1995)
Ghost in the Shell (anime films) Ghost in the Shell (1995 film)
Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence (2004 film)
Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex (S.A.C.) Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex (S.A.C.) (2002–2003)
Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. 2nd GIG (2004–2005)
Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - Solid State Society (2006 film)
Ghost in the Shell: SAC_2045 (2020–present)
Ghost in the Shell: Arise Ghost in the Shell: Arise (2013–2015)
Ghost in the Shell: The New Movie (2016 film)
Spicy City (1997)
Cowboy Bebop (1998)
RoboCop: Alpha Commando (1998–1999)
Serial Experiments Lain (1998)
Gundress (1999)
Batman Beyond (1999–2001)
Metropolis (2001)
The Animatrix (2003)
Code Lyoko (2003–2007)
Heat Guy J (2003)
Parasite Dolls (2003)
Texhnolyze (2003)
Wonderful Days (a.k.a. Sky Blue) (2003)
Burst Angel (2004)
Fragile Machine (2005)
Aachi & Ssipak (2006)
A Scanner Darkly (2006)
Ergo Proxy (2006)
Paprika (2006)
Renaissance (2006)
Dennō Coil (2007)
Vexille (2007)
Technotise: Edit & I (2009, Serbia)
Real Drive (2008)
Mardock Scramble (2010)
Accel World (2012–2016)
Psycho-Pass (2012)
Tron: Uprising (2012)
Dimension W (2016)
No Guns Life (2019-2020)
Altered Carbon: Resleeved (2020)
Akudama Drive (2020)
Television and web series
World on a Wire (1973)
The Deadly Assassin (1976)
Overdrawn at the Memory Bank (1983)
Max Headroom: 20 Minutes into the Future (1985), British television movie
Max Headroom (1987), American television series based on the UK TV movie
Wild Palms (1993)
TekWar (1994)
RoboCop: The Series (1994)
VR.5 (1996)
Welcome to Paradox (1998)
The X-Files, two episodes of the series were written by William Gibson and contain cyberpunk themes:
Kill Switch (1998)
First Person Shooter (2000)
Harsh Realm (1999)
Total Recall 2070 (1999)
Dark Angel (2000–2002)
RoboCop: Prime Directives (2001)
Charlie Jade (2005)
Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles (2008–2009)Power Rangers RPM (2009)
Kamen Rider Dragon Knight (2009)Dollhouse (2009–2010)
Caprica (2010)
Person of Interest (2011–2016)
Black Mirror (2011-2019)
Continuum (2012–2015), set in the present with a protagonist who has time traveled back from a cyberpunk future in 2077
H+: The Digital Series (2012)
Almost Human (2013–2014)
Die Gstettensaga: The Rise of Echsenfriedl (2014)
Mr. Robot (2015–2019)
Humans (TV series) (2015-2018)
Westworld (2016–)
Incorporated (2016–2017)
Altered Carbon (2018–2020)
S'parta (2018–)
Better than Us (2018–2019)
Love, Death & Robots (2019-)
Meta Runner (2019-)
Onisciente (2020-)
Upload (2020-)
Sculpture
Artists
Asher
Music
Blade Runner by Vangelis
Cyberpunk by Billy Idol
Drezden by Drezden
Outside by David Bowie
Transverse City by Warren Zevon
Year Zero by Nine Inch Nails新しい日の誕生 by 2814
Video games
The Screamer (1985)
Imitation City (1987)
Megami Tensei series (1987–present)
Digital Devil Story: Megami Tensei (1987)
Devil Summoner: Soul Hackers (1997)
Shin Megami Tensei: Digital Devil Saga (2004)
Shin Megami Tensei IV (2013)
Metal Gear series (1987–present)
Metal Gear Solid (1998)
Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty (2001)
Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots (2008)
Metal Gear Rising Revengeance (2013)
Akira (19882002)
Akira (1988)
Akira Psycho Ball (2002)
Neuromancer (1988)
Snatcher (1988–1996)
Genocide (1989)
Night Striker (1989)
DreamWeb (1992)
Flashback (1992)
BloodNet (1993)
Gadget: Invention, Travel, & Adventure (1993)
Shadowrun series
Shadowrun (SNES) (1993)
Shadowrun (Sega Genesis) (1994)
Shadowrun (Sega CD) (1996)
Shadowrun (2007)
Shadowrun Returns (2013)
Shadowrun: Dragonfall (2014)
Shadowrun Chronicles: Boston Lockdown (2015)
Shadowrun: Hong Kong (2015)
Syndicate series
Syndicate (1993)
Syndicate Wars (1996)
Syndicate (2012)
Beneath a Steel Sky (1994)
Sindome (1997–present)
Burn:Cycle (1994)
Hell: A Cyberpunk Thriller (1994)
Delta V (1994)
Hagane: The Final Conflict (1994)
Live A Live (1994)
Rise of the Robots (1994)
Policenauts (1994)
Appleseed series
Appleseed: Oracle of Prometheus (1994)
Appleseed EX (2004)
System Shock series
System Shock (1994)
System Shock 2 (1999)
CyberMage: Darklight Awakening (1995)
Johnny Mnemonic: The Interactive Action Movie (1995)
Osman (1996)
Blade Runner (1997)
Final Fantasy VII (1997)
Compilation of Final Fantasy VII (20042009)
Final Fantasy VII Remake (2020)
Ghost in the Shell (1997)
Einhänder (1998)
Xenogears (1998)
The Nomad Soul (1999)
Deus Ex series
Deus Ex (2000)
Deus Ex: Invisible War (2003)
Deus Ex: Human Revolution (2011)
Deus Ex: The Fall (2013)
Deus Ex: Mankind Divided (2016)
Perfect Dark series
Perfect Dark (2000)
Perfect Dark Zero (2005)
Oni (2001)
Anachronox (2001)
Mega Man Battle Network series
Mega Man Battle Network (2001)
Mega Man Battle Network 2 (2001)
Mega Man Battle Network 3 (2002)
Mega Man Network Transmission (2003)
Mega Man Battle Chip Challenge (2003)
Mega Man Battle Network 4 (2003)
Mega Man Battle Network 5 (2004)
Mega Man Battle Network 6 (2005)
Uplink (2001)
Breath of Fire: Dragon Quarter (2002)
.hack series
.hack//IMOQ (2002–2003)
.hack//G.U. (2006–2007)
.hack//Link (2010)
Neocron (2002)
Enter the Matrix (2003)
Æon Flux (2005)
Dystopia (2005)
System Rush (2005)
Mirror's Edge (2008)
Halo 3: ODST (2009)
Cyber Knights series: Cyber Knights (Classic) (2011)
Cyber Knights: Flashpoint (2021)
Gemini Rue (2011)
Hard Reset (2011)
Cypher (2012)
Cataclysm: Dark Days Ahead (2013)
Remember Me (2013)
Far Cry 3: Blood Dragon (2013)
Alien: Isolation (2014)
Jazzpunk (2014)
Transistor (2014)
Watch Dogs series:
Watch Dogs (2014)
Watch Dogs 2 (2016)
Watch Dogs: Legion (2020)
2064: Read Only Memories (2015)
Call of Duty: Black Ops III (2015)
Dex (2015)
Technobabylon (2015)
Soma (video game) (2015)
Satellite Reign (2015)
Invisible, Inc. (2016)
Mirror's Edge Catalyst (2016)
Superhot (2016)
VA-11 HALL-A (2016)
Observer (2017)
Ruiner (2017)
The Red Strings Club (2018)
Ion Fury (2018)
Astral Chain (2019)
Katana Zero (2019)
Cyberpunk 2077 (2020)
Ghostrunner (2020)
Incredibox V8: Dystopia (2020)
Cloudpunk (2020)
The Ascent (2021)
Stray (2022)
The Last Night (TBA)
Tabletop games
Cyberpunk (1988)
Cyberpunk 2020 (1990)
Cyberpunk V3.0 (2005)
Cyberpunk Red (2020)
Shadowrun (1989)
GURPS Cyberpunk (1990)
Corporation (2009)
Necromunda (1995)
The Sprawl (2016)
Carbon 2185 A Cyberpunk RPG (2019)
Interface Zero 3.0 (2019)
Chronicles of Crime : 2400 (2021)
Related nonfiction
A Cyborg Manifesto (1991), by Donna Haraway
Storming the Reality Studio: A Casebook of Cyberpunk & Postmodern Science Fiction (1992), edited by Larry McCaffery (contains both fiction and nonfiction)
No Maps for These Territories (2000), documentary about William Gibson
See also
Cyberpunk derivatives
Japanese cyberpunk
List of films about computers
List of biopunk works
List of steampunk works
Tech noir
References
External links
Cyberpunk Review- Detailed reviews and screencaps for all cyberpunk films and anime
Cyberpunk Information Database - Original resource material from The Cyberpunk Project
Cyberpunk Works |
43234927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scality | Scality | Scality is a company based in San Francisco, California that develops software-defined object storage. RING is the company's commercial product. Scality RING software deploys on industry-standard servers to store objects and files. Scality also offers a number of open source tools called Zenko, including Zenko CloudServer, compatible with the Amazon S3 interface.
History
Scality was founded in 2009 by Jérôme Lecat, Giorgio Regni, Daniel Binsfeld, Serge Dugas, and Brad King.
Scality raised $7 million of venture capital funding in March 2011. A C-round of $22 million was announced in June 2013, led by Menlo Ventures and Iris Capital with participation from FSN PME and all existing investors, including Idinvest Partners, OMNES Capital and Galileo Partners. Scality raised $45 million in August 2015. This Series D funding was led by Menlo Ventures with participation from all existing investors and one new strategic investor, BroadBand Tower. In 2016, HPE made a strategic investment in the company. In April, 2018, the company announced a $60 million round of funding.
Scality announced a refreshed brand, along with a distribution agreement with Hewlett-Packard in October 2014. Scality added Dell and Cisco Systems as resellers in 2015.
Products
RING
Scality's principal product is a object storage software platform known as the RING. RING is a multitier architecture and can scale up to thousands of servers and up to 100 petabytes under a single namespace. Ring product depends on a keyspace calculated using a Monte Carlo simulation at install, spread across all of its node servers. While the company aims for the Ring to function without the need of any external management process, a Supervisor server is functionally required to kick-off data integrity operations and keep track of node state, while also providing a single source of truth for data about the ring itself. The Supervisor process is relatively lightweight and can be installed on a node server if required, but the company recommends it run separately from the Ring's constituent storage servers. The Ring employs erasure coding schemes in multiples of six, which is the minimum number of storage nodes required to install a Ring. The underlying filesystem formatted on the storage drives is transparent to the Ring and it does not interact with filesystem operations directly. The Ring installer was originally written in Python for Saltstack, but then re-implemented closed-source.
Object storage was covered by trade press in 2017.
Zenko
Zenko is Scality's open source multi-cloud data controller. Zenko integrates data managed on-premises with services available in public clouds.
Zenko CloudServer (formerly Scality S3 Server) is an Amazon Web Services Simple Storage Service-compatible open source object storage server. The code is written in Node.js. It is a single instance running in a Docker container, and it uses Docker volumes for persistent storage. CloudServer uses the same code as the Scality RING S3 interface and includes an Apache 2.0 license. It is not a distributed system (that is the paid version, S3 for Enterprise). However, it does have the same level of compatibility as the S3 interface for the Scality RING. Zenko Orbit is a cloud-based portal for data placement, workflows, and global metadata search. The product enables asynchronous replication between clouds.
Versions
Scality released version 4.2 in October 2013 which added native file access protocols including Network File System (NFS), Server Message Block (SMB), Apple Filing Protocol (AFP), and FTP.
Scality released version 4.3 of the RING software in July 2014, improving performance, adding replication options, and introducing a redesigned management GUI.
In November 2014, Scality made generally available a plug-in for OpenStack Swift, enabling Swift-compatible applications to use the Scality RING as a storage backend without modification. Scality also released an open-source driver that enables the creation of block storage volumes that can connect to CDMI-compatible storage backends.
Scality released version 5.0 of the RING software in March 2015, simplifying installation and configuration, expanding Windows support, and improving video streaming and content distribution performance
Version 6.0 of the Scality RING was introduced in 2016
Scality open sourced their object server frontend called S3 Server that implements the AWS S3 API in July 2017, the source code is available on Github under an Apache 2.0 license and prebuilt containers are available on Docker Hub
Scality RING7 launched in June, 2017 with enhanced security and multi-cloud file and object storage.
Scality has been recognized consistently over the years for object-based storage by IDC. In Gartner's first Magic Quadrant for Distributed File Systems and Object Storage Scality was ranked a leader.
Scality was a 2014 storage system software finalist by Storage Magazine. In 2017 Scality was again ranked a leader in Gartner's Magic Quadrant for Distributed File Systems and Object Storage.
References
External links
Scality web site
Scality Zenko web site
Giorgio Regni, CTO
Network-attached storage
Object storage
Cloud storage
Distributed file systems
Userspace file systems
Computer storage companies
Companies based in San Francisco
Software companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Software companies of the United States |
2029536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackdown%20Java | Blackdown Java | Blackdown Java was a Linux port of Sun Microsystems's Java virtual machine, developed by a group of volunteers led by Juergen Kreileder, Steve Byrne, and Karl Asha, and included a team of volunteers from around the globe. The first version, 1.0.2, was released in October 1996, predating Sun's official Linux port.
Blackdown Java supported Linux on architectures that the official version did not, including SPARC and PowerPC. The Blackdown project ended in August 2007, after Sun released an open source version of the HotSpot JVM as part of OpenJDK; OpenJDK is available under the free GNU General Public License. The Java software itself still exists on many mirrors.
At its close, Blackdown supported J2SE versions 1.4.2 on i386 and AMD64, 1.4.1 on SPARC, and 1.3.1 on PowerPC. Work on J2SE 1.5.x support for x86, AMD64, SPARC, and PowerPC had been announced, but was never released.
In 1999 Sun Microsystems and Inprise announced a port of Java to Linux. The port was based on Blackdown work, but the Blackdown team was not recognized or given any credit for the release. After some controversy, Sun publicly apologized to the Blackdown developers. The incident revealed that there were long standing problems between Sun and Blackdown.
Despite widespread confusion, Blackdown was neither free software nor open-source software; this was due to licensing restrictions from Sun Microsystems. Its binary redistribution policy allowed it to be pre-installed or included with many Linux distributions (e.g., Gentoo Linux), whereas at the time, Sun Java's binary redistribution policy did not. Since Java 5, the Operating System Distributor License for Java (DLJ) met many Linux distributions' requirements, lessening the demand for the older Blackdown JVM.
The Blackdown team pioneered Sun's involvement with external, volunteer efforts. Steve Byrne, who was working at Sun at the time, worked with Sun legal to establish an agreement to license the Java test suite for a few Blackdown participants at no cost, and this was used to certify the Blackdown Java implementation as being 100% Java compatible.
The Blackdown team received recognition at the JavaOne conference in 1998 for the work that the team had been doing.
Notes
Discontinued Java virtual machines |
67887990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle%20Advertising%20and%20Customer%20Experience%20%28CX%29 | Oracle Advertising and Customer Experience (CX) | Oracle Advertising and Customer Experience (CX) is a suite of cloud-based applications offered by Oracle Corporation that includes tools for advertising, marketing, sales, e-commerce, customer service.
History
Oracle's first customer relationship management (CRM) product, Oracle CRM, was released in 1998. The product suite was later named Oracle Cloud CX. By 2021, Oracle CX was combined with Oracle Data Cloud and became Oracle Advertising and Customer Experience (CX).
In 2006, Oracle purchased Siebel Systems, and later expanded its Siebel CRM software, and on-premises tool, with its SaaS product, Oracle CRM on Demand.
In 2012, the company acquired Taleo, RightNow Technologies, and Eloqua. These acquisitions allowed Oracle to develop a suite of cloud-based software. The acquisition of BigMachines for CPQ in 2013, and TOA Technologies for field service in 2014 added more CX cloud-based capabilities. TOA provides end-to-end service tracking for employees and contractors working out in the field, and BigMachines focuses on sales processes.
In 2017, Oracle released its Adaptive Intelligent applications (AI Apps) for its CX platform, with plans to expand AI functionality to all of its existing capabilities, including CX, HCM, ERP and supply chain. The applications access first-party data from a company’s commerce cloud and combine it with third-party data from the Oracle Data Cloud (now Oracle Advertising) to give companies insights into customer behavior and purchasing decisions. Oracle also acquired Moat, an ad measurement company, in 2017.
In September 2019, Oracle released CX cloud application updates that included digital assistants for sales, service, and marketing teams; integration with Oracle DataFox; and capabilities for telecom and media customers, financial services customers, and public sector customers. In October 2019, the company acquired CrowdTwist, a customer loyalty platform and merged it with Oracle’s CX cloud. In November 2019, the company added customer data management (CDM) to its Service Cloud.
In March 2021, Red Bull Racing chose Oracle as its official cloud infrastructure partner. Under the partnership, Red Bull Racing uses Oracle’s CX applications to give fans access to racing statistics and metrics.
In May 2021, Oracle released in-game measurement within Oracle Moat Measurement. It allows companies to measure the effectiveness of ads that appear in 3D video games. Oracle also updated its Subscription Management product.
Applications
The following applications and products are included in Oracle Advertising and CX:
Oracle Advertising
Products include:
Oracle Moat: allows advertisers to measure ad performance in 3D video games.
Contextual Intelligence (formerly GrapeShot): provides brand safety and verification as well as contextual targeting.
OnRamp: an automated onboarding platform
Audiences
Oracle Marketing
In 2012, Oracle acquired Eloqua (now Eloqua Marketing Automation), which gave the company more B2B capabilities. Then in 2013, it acquired Responsys, which became part of its B2C marketing. Responsys was integrated into what was then the Oracle Marketing Cloud and Oracle Customer Experience Cloud. As of 2021, it is now Oracle Responsys Campaign Management.
In September 2021, the company announced Oracle Fusion Marketing. This product uses artificial intelligence to automate the B2B marketing campaign and lead generation process.
Other marketing capabilities include:
Content management
Data management platform (DMP)
Customer data platform
Testing and optimization
Behavioral intelligence
Audience segmentation
Oracle Sales
The Sales’ user interface supports smart lists, infolets, and an advanced search. Sales’ tools support customer data management, sales cataloging, sales force automation, sales prediction, sales forecasting, analytics, and communication between sales teams and customers.
Other products include:
Subscription management
Sales automation
Commerce
Partner relationship management
Configure, price, quote
Oracle Service
In February 2021, Service was updated with a new interface and data set. The application also added a digital customer service assistant.
Products include:
Field service: Oracle acquired TOA Technologies, a field service specialist, in 2014.
Knowledge management
Intelligent advisor
References
External links
Software
Oracle Corporation
Customer relationship management software
CRM software companies
Cloud applications
Customer experience
Marketing software
Subscription services |
388755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime95 | Prime95 | Prime95, also distributed as the command-line utility mprime for FreeBSD and Linux, is a freeware application written by George Woltman. It is the official client of the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search (GIMPS), a distributed computing project dedicated to searching for Mersenne primes. It is also used in overclocking to test for system stability.
Although most of its source code is available, Prime95 is not free and open-source software because its end-user license agreement states that if the software is used to find a prime qualifying for a bounty offered by the Electronic Frontier Foundation, then that bounty will be claimed and distributed by GIMPS.
Finding Mersenne primes by distributed computing
Prime95 tests numbers for primality using the Fermat primality test (referred to internally as PRP, or "probable prime"). For much of its history, it used the Lucas–Lehmer primality test, but the availability of Lucas–Lehmer assignments was deprecated in April 2021 to increase search throughput. Specifically, to guard against faulty results, every Lucas–Lehmer test had to be performed twice in its entirety, while Fermat tests can be verified in a small fraction of their original run time using a proof generated during the test by Prime95. Current versions of Prime95 remain capable of Lucas–Lehmer testing for the purpose of double-checking existing Lucas–Lehmer results, and for fully verifying "probably prime" Fermat test results (which, unlike "prime" Lucas–Lehmer results, are not conclusive).
To reduce the number of full-length primality tests needed, Prime95 also implements other, computationally simpler tests designed to filter out unviable candidates; as of 2021, this mainly comprises Pollard's p – 1 algorithm. The elliptic-curve factorization method and (in preview releases starting with 30.6) Williams's p + 1 algorithm are implemented, but are considered not useful at modern GIMPS testing levels, and mostly used in attempts to factor much smaller Mersenne numbers that have already undergone primality testing. Prime95 implements trial division, but because this type of work can be executed using single-precision arithmetic (as opposed to the double-precision arithmetic required by other GIMPS work types), almost all GIMPS trial division is done by third-party clients implementing GPU computation for its comparatively much greater single-precision throughput.
GIMPS has discovered 17 new Mersenne primes since its foundation in 1996, all using Prime95. Each was the largest known prime number at the time of its discovery, except M37156667 and M42643801, which were discovered out of order from the larger M43112602.
Use for stress testing
To maximize search throughput, most of Prime95 is written in hand-tuned assembly, which makes its system resource usage much greater than most other computer programs. Additionally, due to the high precision requirements of primality testing, the program is very sensitive to computation errors and proactively reports them. These factors make it a commonly used tool among overclockers to check the stability of a particular configuration.
See also
List of distributed computing projects
Stress testing
Prime number
PrimeGrid
References
External links
with downloads for various architectures
How to use Prime95 for stress (torture) testing
Distributed computing projects
Primality tests
Benchmarks (computing)
Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search
Science software for MacOS
Science software for Windows
Science software for Linux
BSD software
Mathematical software |
4696265 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference%20model | Reference model | A reference model—in systems, enterprise, and software engineering—is an abstract framework or domain-specific ontology consisting of an interlinked set of clearly defined concepts produced by an expert or body of experts to encourage clear communication. A reference model can represent the component parts of any consistent idea, from business functions to system components, as long as it represents a complete set. This frame of reference can then be used to communicate ideas clearly among members of the same community.
Reference models are often illustrated as a set of concepts with some indication of the relationships between the concepts.
Overview
According to OASIS (Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards) a reference model is "an abstract framework for understanding significant relationships among the entities of some environment, and for the development of consistent standards or specifications supporting that environment. A reference model is based on a small number of unifying concepts and may be used as a basis for education and explaining standards to a non-specialist. A reference model is not directly tied to any standards, technologies or other concrete implementation details, but it does seek to provide a common semantics that can be used unambiguously across and between different implementations."
There are a number of concepts rolled up into that of a 'reference model.' Each of these concepts is important:
Abstract: a reference model is abstract. It provides information about environments of a certain kind. A reference model describes the type or kind of entities that may occur in such an environment, not the particular entities that actually do occur in a specific environment. For example, when describing the architecture of a particular house (which is a specific environment of a certain kind), an actual exterior wall may have dimensions and materials, but the concept of a wall (type of entity) is part of the reference model. One must understand the concept of a wall in order to build a house that has walls.
Entities and relationships: A reference model describes both types of entities (things that exist) and their relationships (how they connect, interact with one another, and exhibit joint properties). A list of entity types, by itself, doesn't provide enough information to serve as a reference model.
Within an environment: A reference model does not attempt to describe "all things." A reference model is used to clarify "things within an environment" or a problem space. To be useful, a reference model should include a clear description of the problem that it solves, and the concerns of the stakeholders who need to see the problem get solved.
Technology agnostic: A reference model's usefulness is limited if it makes assumptions about the technology or platforms in place in a particular computing environment. A reference model typically is intended to promote understanding a class of problems, not specific solutions for those problems. As such, it must assist the practitioner by aiding the process of imagining and evaluating a variety of potential solutions. That does not preclude the development of a reference model that describes a set of software applications, because the problem space may be "how to manage a set of software applications."
The uses of a reference model
There are many uses for a reference model. One use is to create standards for both the objects that inhabit the model and their relationships to one another. By creating standards, the work of engineers and developers who need to create objects that behave according to the standard is made easier. Software can be written that meets a standard. When done well, a standard can make use of design patterns that support key qualities of software, such as the ability to extend the software in an inexpensive way.
Another use of a reference model is to educate. Using a reference model, leaders in software development can help break down a large problem space into smaller problems that can be understood, tackled, and refined. Developers who are new to a particular set of problems can quickly learn what the different problems are, and can focus on the problems that they are being asked to solve, while trusting that other areas are well understood and rigorously constructed. The level of trust is important to allow software developers to efficiently focus on their work.
A third use of a reference model is to improve communication between people. A reference model breaks up a problem into entities, or "things that exist all by themselves." This is often an explicit recognition of concepts that many people already share, but when created in an explicit manner, a reference model is useful by defining how these concepts differ from, and relate to, one another. This improves communication between individuals involved in using these concepts.
A fourth use of a reference model is to create clear roles and responsibilities. By creating a model of entities and their relationships, an organization can dedicate specific individuals or teams, making them responsible for solving a problem that concerns a specific set of entities. For example, if a reference model describes a set of business measurements needed to create a balanced scorecard, then each measurement can be assigned to a specific business leader. That allows a senior manager to hold each of their team members responsible for producing high quality results.
A fifth use of a reference model is to allow the comparison of different things. By breaking up a problem space into basic concepts, a reference model can be used to examine two different solutions to that problem. In doing so, the component parts of a solution can be discussed in relation to one another. For example, if a reference model describes computer systems that help track contacts between a business and their customers, then a reference model can be used by a business to decide which of five different software products to purchase, based on their needs. A reference model, in this example, could be used to compare how well each of the candidate solutions can be configured to meet the needs of a particular business process.
Examples
Instances of reference models include, among others:
Agent Systems Reference Model,
Core Architecture Data Model reference model of DoDAF
Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework reference model of the FEA
HP Information Security Service Management (ISSM) - Reference Model (RM)
IBM Information Framework, a reference model for financial services.
NIST Enterprise Architecture Model reference models from several Federal Enterprise Architectures
OGC Reference Model (Open Geospatial Consortium),
OpenReference, an open reference model for business performance, processes and practices,
Open Systems Interconnection Basic Reference Model,
Purdue Enterprise Reference Architecture
Real-time Control System for real-time control problem domains
Reference Model of Open Distributed Processing,
TAFIM was the 1990 reference model of the earlier version of the DoDAF, and
Von Neumann architecture as a reference model for sequential computing,
Digital Library Reference Model;
ENVRI (Environmental Research Infrastructures) Reference Model;
NGO REFERENCE MODEL
See also
Business reference model
Open System Environment Reference Model
Reference architecture
References
Computer architecture
Software engineering terminology
Systems engineering |
788676 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network%20service | Network service | In computer networking, a network service is an application running at the network application layer and above, that provides data storage, manipulation, presentation, communication or other capability which is often implemented using a client–server or peer-to-peer architecture based on application layer network protocols.
Each service is usually provided by a server component running on one or more computers (often a dedicated server computer offering multiple services) and accessed via a network by client components running on other devices. However, the client and server components can both be run on the same machine.
Clients and servers will often have a user interface, and sometimes other hardware associated with it.
Examples
Examples are the Domain Name System (DNS) which translates domain names to Internet protocol (IP) addresses and the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) to assign networking configuration information to network hosts. Authentication servers identify and authenticate users, provide user account profiles, and may log usage statistics.
E-mail, printing and distributed (network) file system services are common services on local area networks. They require users to have permissions to access the shared resources.
Other network services include:
Directory services
e-Mail
File sharing
Instant messaging
Online game
Printing
File server
Voice over IP
Video on demand
Video telephony
World Wide Web
Simple Network Management Protocol
Time service
Wireless sensor network
Application layer
In computer network programming, the application layer is an abstraction layer reserved for communications protocols and methods designed for process-to-process communications across an Internet Protocol (IP) computer network. Application layer protocols use the underlying transport layer protocols to establish host-to-host connections for network services.
TCP-IP network services
Port numbers
Many Internet Protocol-based services are associated with a particular well-known port number which is standardized by the Internet technical governance.
For example, World-Wide-Web servers operate on port 80, and email relay servers usually listen on port 25.
TCP versus UDP
Different services use different packet transmission techniques.
In general, packets that must get through in the correct order, without loss, use TCP, whereas real time services where later packets are more important than older packets use UDP.
For example, file transfer requires complete accuracy and so is normally done using TCP, and audio conferencing is frequently done via UDP, where momentary glitches may not be noticed.
UDP lacks built-in network congestion avoidance and the protocols that use it must be extremely carefully designed to prevent network collapse.
See also
Internet hosting service
Web hosting service
DNS hosting service
E-mail hosting service
References |
7371204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iproute2 | Iproute2 | iproute2 is a collection of userspace utilities for controlling and monitoring various aspects of networking in the Linux kernel, including routing, network interfaces, tunnels, traffic control, and network-related device drivers.
iproute2 is an open-source project released under the terms of version 2 of the GNU General Public License. Its development is closely tied to the development of networking components of the Linux kernel. , iproute2 is maintained by Stephen Hemminger and David Ahern. The original author, Alexey Kuznetsov, was responsible for the quality of service (QoS) implementation in the Linux kernel.
iproute2 collection contains the following command-line utilities:
arpd, bridge, ctstat, dcb, devlink, ip, lnstat, nstat, rdma, routef, routel, rtacct, rtmon, rtstat, ss, tc and tipc
tc is used for traffic control. iproute2 utilities communicate with the Linux kernel using the netlink protocol. Some of the iproute2 utilities are often recommended over now-obsolete net-tools utilities that provide the same functionality. Below is a table of obsolete utilities and their iproute2 replacements.
See also
BusyBox
ethtool
TIPC
References
External links
Linux Advanced Routing and Traffic Control HOWTO - A tutorial in exploring and using iproute2.
IPROUTE2 Utility Suite Documentation - Complete official documentation.
iproute2+tc notes - A collection of documents relating to iproute2 configuration and usage.
Linux network-related software
Linux configuration utilities
Linux-only free software
Routing
Internet Protocol based network software
Network performance |
55660110 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowden%20effect | Snowden effect | The Snowden effect is part of the reactions to global surveillance disclosures made by Edward Snowden. His disclosures have fueled debates over mass surveillance, government secrecy, and the balance between national security and information privacy, and have resulted in notable impacts on society and the tech industry, and served as the impetus for new products that address privacy concerns such as encryption services. Collectively, these impacts been referred to by media and others as the "Snowden effect".
On society
In July 2013, media critic Jay Rosen defined the Snowden effect as "Direct and indirect gains in public knowledge from the cascade of events and further reporting that followed Edward Snowden's leaks of classified information about the surveillance state in the U.S." In December 2013, The Nation wrote that Snowden had sparked an overdue debate about national security and individual privacy. At the 2014 World Economic Forum, Internet experts saw news that Microsoft would let foreign customers store their personal data on servers outside America as a sign that Snowden's leaks were leading countries and companies to erect borders in cyberspace. In Forbes, the effect was seen to have nearly united the U.S. Congress in opposition to the massive post-9/11 domestic intelligence gathering system. In its Spring 2014 Global Attitudes Survey, the Pew Research Center found that Snowden's disclosures had tarnished the image of the United States, especially in Europe and Latin America.
In May 2014, the Obama administration appointed William Evanina, a former FBI special agent with a counter-terrorism specialty, as the new government-wide National Counterintelligence Executive. "Instead of getting carried away with the concept of leakers as heroes," Evanina said in August, "we need to get back to the basics of what it means to be loyal. Undifferentiated, unauthorized leaking is a criminal act." While dealing with insider threats had been an intelligence community priority since WikiLeaks published Chelsea Manning's disclosures in 2010, Evanina said that in the aftermath of Snowden's June 2013 revelations, the process "sped up from a regional railway to the Acela train." A year later, 100,000 fewer people had security clearances.
In September 2014, Director of National Intelligence James Clapper said Snowden's leaks created a perfect storm, degrading the intelligence community's capabilities. Snowden's leaks, said Clapper, damaged relationships with foreign and corporate stakeholders, restrained budget resources, and caused the U.S. to discontinue collecting intelligence on certain targets, putting the United States at greater risk.
In October 2014, former Director of the National Counterterrorism Center Matthew G. Olsen told CNN that Snowden's disclosures had made it easier for terrorist groups to evade U.S. surveillance by changing their encryption methods. Olsen said intelligence collection against some individuals of concern had been lost, preventing insight into their activities. By July 2015 ISIL had studied Snowden's disclosures and, said U.S. officials, its leaders were using couriers or encrypted communications that Western analysts could not crack.
In February 2015, National Counterterrorism Center director Nicholas Rasmussen told Congress that Snowden's disclosures had damaged U.S. intelligence capabilities. Rasmussen said the government knew of specific terrorists who, after learning from Snowden's leaks how the U.S. collected intelligence, had increased their security measures by using new types of encryption, changing email addresses, or abandoning prior methods of communicating.
Reflecting on the effect of his leaks, Snowden himself wrote in February 2015 that "the biggest change has been in awareness. Before 2013, if you said the NSA was making records of everybody's phone calls and the GCHQ was monitoring lawyers and journalists, people raised eyebrows and called you a conspiracy theorist. Those days are over."
In March 2015, USA Today reported that the Snowden effect had hit The Guardian. Journalist Michael Wolff, who wrote for The Guardian for many years, asserted that the recent selection of Katharine Viner as editor-in-chief "can be read as, in part, a deeply equivocal response on the part of the paper's staff, with its unusual power in the process of selecting a new editor, to the Snowden story." According to Wolff, there had developed "a sense of journalistic queasiness around Snowden, difficult to express at the party-line Guardian. Questioning Snowden's retreat to Russia and his protection by Vladimir Putin was internally verboten."
Technology industry
In the technology industry, the Snowden effect had a profound impact after it was revealed that the NSA was tapping into the information held by some U.S. cloud-based services. Google, Cisco, and AT&T lost business internationally due to the public outcry over their roles in NSA spying. A study by the Information Technology and Innovation Foundation published in August 2013 estimated that the cloud-based computing industry could have lost up to $35 billion by 2016. The Wall Street Journal named "the Snowden effect" as 2013's top tech story, saying Snowden's leaks "taught businesses that the convenience of the cloud cuts both ways." The Journal predicted the effect would top 2014 news as well, given the number of documents yet to be revealed. In China, the most profitable country for U.S. tech companies, all are "under suspicion as either witting or unwitting collaborators" in the NSA spying, according to the director of the Research Center for Chinese Politics and Business at Indiana University. The effect was also seen in changes to investment in the industry, with security "back on the map" according to Hussein Kanji, Venture Capitalist at Hoxton Ventures.
On August 8, 2013, Lavabit, a secure email provider that Snowden used, discontinued service after being asked for encryption keys that would have exposed to U.S. government prosecutors the emails of all 410,000 Lavabit users. The next day, a similar provider called Silent Circle announced that it too would shut down because it was not possible to sufficiently secure email. In October 2013, the two companies joined forces and announced a new email service, Dark Mail Alliance, designed to withstand government surveillance.
After revelations that German Chancellor Angela Merkel's mobile was being tapped, the tech industry rushed to create a secure cell phone. According to TechRepublic, revelations from the NSA leaks "rocked the IT world" and had a "chilling effect". The three biggest impacts were seen as increased interest in encryption, business leaving U.S. companies, and a reconsideration of the safety of cloud technology. The Blackphone, which The New Yorker called "a phone for the age of Snowden"—described as "a smartphone explicitly designed for security and privacy", created by the makers of GeeksPhone, Silent Circle, and PGP, provided encryption for phone calls, emails, texts, and Internet browsing.
Since Snowden's disclosures, Americans used the Internet less for things like email, online shopping and banking, according to an April 2014 poll. Also in April 2014, former NSA deputy director Col. Cedric Leighton told the Bloomberg Enterprise Technology Summit in New York City that Snowden's leaks had performed a significant disservice to the worldwide health of the Internet by leading Brazil and other countries to reconsider the Internet's decentralized nature. Leighton suggested that nation-states' efforts to create their own versions of the Internet were the beginning of the end for the Internet as we know it. "When you have a situation where all of a sudden, everyone goes into 'tribal' mode—a German cloud, a Swiss cloud, or any other separate Internet—they are significant nationalistic attempts," said Leighton. "What happened with Snowden, it's more of an excuse than a policy, it's more of an excuse to re-nationalize the Internet."
In March 2014, The New York Times reported that economic fallout from Snowden's leaks had been a boon for foreign companies, to the detriment of U.S. firms. Daniel Castro, a senior analyst at the Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, predicted that the United States cloud computing industry could lose $35 billion by 2016. Matthias Kunisch, a German software executive who switched from U.S. cloud computing providers to Deutsche Telekom, said that due to Snowden his customers thought American companies had connections to the NSA. Security analysts estimated that U.S. tech companies had since Snowden collectively spent millions and possibly billions of dollars adding state-of-the-art encryption features to consumer services and to the cables that link data centres.
In July 2014, the nonpartisan New America Foundation summarized the impact of Snowden's revelations on U.S. businesses. The erosion of trust, said the report, has had serious consequences for U.S. tech firms. IT executives in France, Hong Kong, Germany, the UK, and the U.S. confirmed that Snowden's leaks directly impacted how companies around the world think about information and communication technologies, particularly cloud computing. A quarter of British and Canadian multinational companies surveyed were moving their data outside the U.S. Among U.S. companies attributing drops in revenue to, in part, the fallout from Snowden's leaks was Cisco Systems, Qualcomm, IBM, Microsoft, and Hewlett-Packard. Proposed laws in more than a dozen foreign countries, including Germany, Brazil, and India, would make it harder for U.S. firms to do business there. The European Union is considering stricter domestic privacy legislation that could result in fines and penalties costing U.S. firms billions of dollars.
In August 2014, Massachusetts-based web intelligence firm Recorded Future announced it had found a direct connection between Snowden's leaks and dramatic changes in how Islamist terrorists interacted online. (In 2010, the privately held Recorded Future received an investment from In-Q-Tel, a nonprofit venture capital firm whose primary partner is the CIA.) Just months after Snowden's 2013 leaks, said Recorded Future, operatives of al-Qaeda and associated groups completely overhauled their 7-year-old encryption methods, which included "homebrewed" algorithms, adopting instead more sophisticated open-source software and newly available downloads that enabled encryption on cellphones, Android products, and Macs, to help disguise their communications.
In September 2014, Seattle-based Deep Web and Dark web monitoring firm Flashpoint Global Partners published a report that found "very little open-source information available via jihadi online social media" indicating that Snowden's leaks impelled al-Qaeda to develop more secure digital communications. "The underlying public encryption methods employed by online jihadists," the report concluded, "do not appear to have significantly changed since the emergence of Edward Snowden. Major recent technological advancements have focused primarily on expanding the use of encryption to instant messenger and mobile communications mediums."
In May 2015, The Nation reported, "The fallout from the Edward Snowden fiasco wasn't just political—it was largely economic. Soon after the extent of the NSA's data collection became public, overseas customers (including the Brazilian government) started abandoning U.S.-based tech companies in droves over privacy concerns. The dust hasn't settled yet, but tech-research firm Forrester estimated the losses may total 'as high as $180 billion,' or 25 percent of industry revenue."
Consumer products
In September 2014, The New York Times credited Apple Inc.'s update of iOS 8, which encrypts all data inside it, as demonstrating how Snowden's impact had begun to work its way into consumer products. His revelations said The Times, "not only killed recent efforts to expand the law, but also made nations around the world suspicious that every piece of American hardware and software—from phones to servers made by Cisco Systems—have 'back doors' for American intelligence and law enforcement." The Times situated this development within a "Post Snowden Era" in which Apple would no longer comply with NSA and law enforcement requests for user data, instead maintaining that Apple doesn't possess the key to unlocking data on the iPhone. However, since the new security protects information stored on the device itself, but not data stored on Apple's iCloud service, Apple will still be able to obtain some customer information stored on iCloud in response to government requests. The Times added that Google's Android would have encryption enabled by default in upcoming versions.
References
Global surveillance
Effect |
39141522 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AnastasiaDate | AnastasiaDate | AnastasiaDate is an international online dating website that primarily connects men from North America with women from Eastern Europe.
History
AnastasiaDate was founded in 1993.
In the early 1990s when the company first launched, it used catalogs to introduce men to Russian women. The company launched its first website in January 1997 and expanded its business in more cities throughout Russia and Ukraine. By 2003, it experienced global growth beyond northern Asia.
Following the growth of AnastasiaDate, the company spun off three websites during 2007, each connecting western men with women from different areas of the world: AmoLatina, AsianBeauties (now AsianDate), and AfricaBeauties.
AnastasiaDate was featured in the Canadian documentary film Love Translated in 2010.
Fortune reported that the company earned $110 million in 2012. The website's traffic also grew by 220% in 2012.
In 2013, the company hired Mark Brooks, whom Anne VanderMey described in Fortune as "a prominent online dating industry consultant", as its Chief Strategy Officer. In the Fortune interview, Brooks said that his goal was to improve the reputation of AnastasiaDate and the international online dating industry as a whole, saying that the industry is "on the cusp of respectability".
In 2013, AnastasiaDate launched its first mobile app on iTunes and Google Play for Apple Inc. and Android devices. The company alleged in a US Federal Court in New York complaint that EM Online had created two websites, anastasiadatefraud.com and ruadventures.com, to broadcast fabricated, negative testimonials, but the complaint was dismissed.
Ownership
In 2011, AnastasiaDate was sold by Anastasia International to a private investor. The company and its sister sites are now owned by Social Discovery Ventures, now part of the dating.com group. A separate company, SOL Networks, based in Malta, is a stakeholder of AnastasiaDate. On October 2019, SOL Holdings and SDVentures merged to create the dating.com group. In 2020, the company again changed its operating name in Malta from "dating.com group limited" to "Stende Solutions Limited. AnastasiaDate has previously been "registered" in Cyprus, Latvia, Seychelles and Malta. Another company that has been registered in connection with the AnastasiaDate chain of dating sites is Asteri Solutions Ltd, in both Cyprus and the UK. AnastasiaDate is now registered in Hong Kong under the business name "Xeanco Limited". Xeanco LTD was dissolved as a company in the UK on 22 June 2021. Xeanco digital LTD was dissolved as a company in the UK on 28 September 2021. Dmitry Borisovich Volkov is the CEO of AnastasiaDate. Dmitry Borisovich Volkov recently commented about the known fraud committed by Elizabeth Holmes, that "the sentence of Elizabeth Holmes is a threat to visionaries" and "Entrepreneurs make you believe that the possible future is as real as the present".
Operations
AnastasiaDate is one of the largest international dating services. Users can register for an account on the internet or through its mobile app. The site features various communication services such as email correspondence, live chat and video chat. Women access the site through a Ukrainian portal, svadba.com.
The site is mostly used by wealthy American men between the ages of 35 and 60. The site makes money by charging users who want to meet Eastern European women. As of 2012, such users buy credits "priced on a sliding scale, starting at $15.99 for 20 credits, and going up to $399.99 for 1,000. Each minute of simple, instant messaging-style chatting costs one credit. Special, premium smilies – like a vibrating, multi-color LOL – cost extra. Cam share (audio not enabled) costs six credits a minute. Video chat with voice costs even more". The Fortune article observes: "And thanks to people like me willing to pay to talk with beautiful young women like Anastasia – who was paid to respond – the trade is doing pretty well".
Users that register on AnastasiaDate may also be co-registered on their affiliated partner websites: AfricanDate/AfricaBeauties, ArabianDate, AsianBeauties/AsianDate, AmoLatina, ChinaLove, YourChristianDate, EuroDate, RussianBrides, FlirtWith, DateMyAge, YourTravelMates, Dil Mil, uDates and Dating.com. Many are based on similar software architecture platforms.
Tax evasion allegations
AnastasiaDate ltd appears in the ICIJ offshore leaks database and is linked to both Malta and the British Virgin Islands. The dating.com group parent company also appears in the ICIJ offshore leaks database.
Reputation
The legitimacy of AnastasiaDate has previously come into question. The Guardian journalist reported that "none of the men I became close to on my tour ended up in lasting relationships, and the majority appeared to fall victim to a number of sophisticated scams". A girl on the site who was interviewed "explained the whole sordid array of techniques, from a light impersonalised online-chatting version to a full-service chauffeur-driven platinum fraud, where men are rinsed of cash for a full week in Odessa, thinking they are cementing a lifelong relationship while actually they are being strung along on platonic dates that end with them dispatched to the airport with heavy hearts and empty wallets". The same article added that "AnastasiaDate insists that it weeds out scams whenever it finds them, and has banned some women from the site".
Even acting within the regulations, international dating sites like AnastasiaDate could potentially exploit women in less-developed countries and male suitors in developed countries. A 2014 report in The Guardian found examples of exploitation for both genders.
AnastasiaDate was mentioned in Dan Slater's novel, "Love in the Time of Algorithms: What Technology Does to Meeting and Mating." In this book, Slater followed a small group of men on an unsuccessful attempt to meet women in person who they had met online via Anastasia's AmoLatina website (the women all coincidentally disappeared when the men arrived in Colombia to meet them). He concludes as well that "the staffs of local bridal agencies will often pose as the women in the profiles, responding to incoming messages in order to keep the rubles rolling in". Anastasia was also featured in a movie Love Translated.
The company that charges credit cards on behalf of AnastasiaDate, SOL Networks, has a google review of 1.2/5. There have also been numerous complaints listed on complaintsboard.com about SOL Networks.
DDOS attack
In September 2015, Anastasiadate.com suffered from a series of DDoS attacks that rendered it inaccessible to users for four to six hours every day. Having demonstrated their capability, hackers contacted the dating site and demanded US$10,000 (£7,234) in exchange for stopping further attacks.
After this incident, Anastasiadate.com hired a data security company to investigate this case, identify those responsible, and bring the perpetrators to justice. During the investigation experts at International data security firm Group-IB confirmed that the attack was carried out by Ukrainian nationals Gayk Grishkian and Inna Yatsenko. They also found that the two hackers targeted other prominent firms like US-based Stafford Associated that leased data center and hosting facilities and another firm named PayOnline.
Subsequently, a complaint filed by the company helped Ukrainian authorities arrest the two hackers and an analysis of data stored in their confiscated devices confirmed their involvement in the crimes. After they pleaded guilty, they were sentenced to five years in prison.
Reception
With the growth of online services like AnastasiaDate, the International Marriage Broker Regulation Act was passed in 2005 to regulate the industry. News outlets call AnastasiaDate the leading "premium international dating" website and have observed its efforts to seemingly rebrand the mail-order bride industry, within which it is grouped.
References
External links
Internet properties established in 1993
Online dating services of Russia |
20409469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pair%20testing | Pair testing | Pair testing is a software development technique in which two team members work together at one keyboard to test the software application. One does the testing and the other analyzes or reviews the testing. This can be done between one tester and developer or business analyst or between two testers with both participants taking turns at driving the keyboard.
Description
This can be more related to pair programming and exploratory testing of agile software development where two team members are sitting together to test the software application. This will help both the members to learn more about the application. This will narrow down the root cause of the problem while continuous testing. Developer can find out which portion of the source code is affected by the bug. This track can help to make the solid test cases and narrowing the problem for the next time.
Benefits and drawbacks
The developer can learn more about the software application by exploring with the tester. The tester can learn more about the implementation of the software application by exploring with the developer.
The root cause of a bug can be analyzed more easily, and the tester can more easily test a bug fix when working with the developer.
The developer may learn better test design skills.
Pair testing may be less applicable to scripted testing where all the steps for running the test cases are already written.
Usage
This is more applicable where the requirements and specifications are not very clear, the team is very new, and needs to learn the application behavior quickly.
This follows the same principles of pair programming; the two team members should be in the same level.
See also
Pair programming
Exploratory testing
Agile software development
Software testing
All-pairs testing
International Software Testing Qualifications Board
References
Software testing |
5302809 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance-enhancing%20proxy | Performance-enhancing proxy | Performance-enhancing proxies (PEPs) are network agents designed to improve the end-to-end performance of some communication protocols. PEP standards are defined in RFC 3135 (PEPs intended to mitigate link-related degradations) and RFC 3449 (TCP performance implications of network path asymmetry).
Classification
Available PEP implementations use different methods to enhance performance.
Proxy type: A PEP can either 'split' a connection or 'snoop' into it. In the first case, the proxy pretends to be the opposite endpoint of the connection in each direction, literally splitting the connection into two. In the latter case, the proxy controls the transmissions of the TCP segments in both directions, by ack filtering and reconstruction in the existing connection (see protocol spoofing). This is based on the OSI level of implementation of the PEP.
Distribution: PEPs can be either integrated or distributed. Integrated PEP will run on a single box, while distributed PEP will require to be installed on both sides of the link that cause the performance degradation. This is quite common in commercial PEP devices, which act as a black box, using more or less open protocols to communicate between them in the place of TCP.
Symmetry: A PEP implementation may be symmetric or asymmetric. Symmetric PEPs use identical behavior in both directions; the actions taken by the PEP occur independent from which interface a packet is received. Asymmetric PEPs operate differently in each direction, which can cause, for example, only one link direction performance to be enhanced.
Types
There are a range of different types of PEPs. Each is used to solve a link related problem. Some common types include:
Split-TCP
Ack decimation
Snoop
D-proxy
Split TCP
Split TCP is typically used to solve TCP problems with large round-trip delay times. A typical system uses Split TCP PEPs to improve TCP performance over a satellite link. Split TCP functions by breaking the end-to-end connection into multiple connections and using different parameters to transfer data across the different legs. The end systems use standard TCP with no modifications, and do not need to know of the existence of the PEPs in between. Split TCP intercepts TCP connections from the end systems and terminates them. This allows the end systems to run unmodified and can overcome some problems with TCP window sizes on the end systems being set too low for satellite communications.
Ack filtering/decimation
Ack filtering or decimation is used on highly asymmetric links. In asymmetric links the upstream and downstream rates vary widely. A common example is satellite broadband where a downstream satellite link provides significantly greater bandwidths than the upstream dialup modem link. In this scenario, the speed at which the modem can return TCP acknowledgements can be a limiting factor. As TCP acknowledgements are cumulatively acknowledged some can be decimated or filtered to improve performance.
Snoop
The Snoop proxy is an example of an integrated proxy. It is designed to hide interference or collision-based packet loss over a wireless link. Snoop proxies detect losses by monitoring TCP transmissions for duplicate acknowledgements. When duplicate TCP acknowledgements, indicating a packet loss, are received by Snoop, they will be silently dropped and lost data packet will be retransmitted. The TCP sender should have no knowledge of the loss. This should prevent TCP senders from unnecessarily reducing the TCP window.
D-Proxy
D-Proxy is also designed to hide interference or collision based packet loss over a wireless link. D-Proxy is a new distributed TCP proxy, requiring a proxy on either side of the lossy link. Like Snoop, it uses TCP sequence numbers to detect lost packets. However, it has a proactive approach, monitoring the TCP sequence numbers on data packets rather than acknowledgements. When packet loss occurs, the TCP stream will be temporarily buffered until the missing packet can be recovered and re-sequenced.
See also
Proxy server
TCP congestion-avoidance algorithm
References
External links
PEPsal : A GPL licensed, Linux-based, integrated splitting PEP implementation
PEP server MediaSputnik : PEP server MediaSputnik 2402 has been developed by MediaSputnik as I-PEP compatible server compliant with SatLabs Group (ESA) recommendations to support DVB-RCS standards and networks
RFC 3135 : The whole RFC (Performance Enhancing Proxies Intended to Mitigate Link-Related Degradations)
Network performance |
5330837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan%20Warrior | Trojan Warrior | Trojan Warrior is a 2002 Australian comedy film directed by Salik Silverstein and starring Stan Longinidis. The film was released in the United States as Kick to the Head.
Premise
When a comical mob bag-man rats out the local mob boss, the bagman's cousin must rescue him from both the mob and the cops so he can testify at the grand jury.
Cast
Stan Longinidis
Arthur Angel
John Brumpton
Stephen Yates
Mark 'Jacko' Jackson
Terry Lim
Sam Kay
Roland Dantes
Ziggy Crowe
Henry Maas
Danielle Barht
Mark Brandon Read
George Longinidis
Dermott Brereton
Julianne Armstrong
John Barresi
Big Bad Ralph
Frank Di Ciero
John Fox
Marnie Franklin
Gabriel Gate
Mick Gauci
Doug Hawkins
Jordan Kelly
Professor Yoland Lim
Greg Matthews
Nick Polites
Naomi Robson
Teresa Svoronos
Wilbur Wilde
Ross Wilson
Frank Deaney
Melissa Mom
Mark Fong
Box office
Trojan Warrior grossed $88,059 at the box office in Australia.
See also
Cinema of Australia
References
External links
Australian Film Commission (Screen Australia) - Trojan Warrior
2002 films
Australian films
2000s action comedy films
2000s crime comedy films
Australian action comedy films
Australian crime comedy films
2002 comedy films |
303275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic%20%28software%29 | Magic (software) | Magic is a Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) layout tool originally written by John Ousterhout and his graduate students at UC Berkeley. Work began on the project in February 1983. A primitive version was operational by April 1983, when Joan Pendleton, Shing Kong and other graduate student chip designers suffered through many fast revisions devised to meet their needs in designing the SOAR CPU chip, a follow-on to Berkeley RISC.
Fearing that Ousterhout was going to propose another name that started with "C" to match his previous projects Cm*, Caesar, and Crystal, Gordon Hamachi proposed the name Magic because he liked the idea of being able to say that people used magic to design chips. The rest of the development team enthusiastically agreed to this proposal after he devised the backronym Manhattan Artwork Generator for Integrated Circuits. The Magic software developers called themselves magicians, while the chip designers were Magic users.
As free and open-source software, subject to the requirements of the BSD license, Magic continues to be popular because it is easy to use and easy to expand for specialized tasks.
Differences
The main difference between Magic and other VLSI design tools is its use of "corner-stitched" geometry, in which all layout is represented as a stack of planes, and each plane consists entirely of "tiles" (rectangles). The tiles must cover the entire plane. Each tile consists of an (X, Y) coordinate of its lower left-hand corner, and links to four tiles: the right-most neighbor on the top, the top-most neighbor on the right, the bottom-most neighbor on the left, and the left-most neighbor on the bottom. With the addition of the type of material represented by the tile, the layout geometry in the plane is exactly specified. The corner-stitched geometry representation leads to the concept of layout as "paint" to be applied to, or erased from, a canvas. This is considerably different from other tools that use the concept of layout as "objects" to be placed and manipulated separately from one another. Each concept has its own strengths and weaknesses in terms of both practical use and speed of computation. The corner-stitched representation is particularly well suited to searches within a single plane, for which it excels in speed. It is not particularly well suited to extremely large databases: The need to maintain four pointers for each tile, as well as the need to store tiles representing the space between areas of material on a layout, makes it more memory-intensive than object-based representations.
An extension to the corner-stitched geometry representation called the "split tile" method, added in version 7.1, allows true representation of non-Manhattan geometry. This method allows each tile in the database to specify two material types, in which case the tile is regarded as being bisected by a diagonal line from corner to corner, with one material type on one side of the diagonal and the other material type on the other side of the diagonal. An additional flag specifies whether the diagonal runs from the top left corner to the bottom right, or the top right corner to the bottom left. The split-tile method has the advantage that nearly all rules that apply to corner-stitched geometry apply, unaltered, to split tiles. A further advantage is that all non-Manhattan geometry must have corners lying on the database internal grid. This makes it impossible to generate geometry that is off-grid within a single plane, a rule error for most fabrication processes that is a common problem with object-based representations.
Magic features real-time design rule checking, something that some costly commercial VLSI design software packages don't feature. Magic implements this by counting distance using Manhattan distance rather than Euclidean distance, which is much faster to compute. Magic versions from 7.3 properly compute Euclidean distance when given the drc euclidean on command. Euclidean distance checks are a trivial extension of the Manhattan distance checks, and require very little overhead. On a straight-line edge, the Manhattan and Euclidean distances are the same. Only on corners do the two distances diverge. When checking corners, it is only necessary to keep track of the direction of search from the corner point. Any geometry found inside the square representing the Manhattan distance from the corner undergoes an additional check to see if the same geometry lies outside the quarter-circle radius representing the Euclidean distance. Since this additional check is applied only to geometry found in violation of the Manhattan distance rule, it is not invoked often, so the computational overhead is very small.
Magic currently runs under Linux, although versions exist for DOS, OS/2, and other operating systems. Magic is frequently used in conjunction with IRSIM and other simulation programs.
References
Notes
External links
Magic VLSI Layout Tool
Magic, Man Pages & Tutorial
Magic, Old version
IRSIM
VLSI Layout of 16 bit Full Adder using Magic software
Integrated circuits
Free computer-aided design software
Electronic design automation software for Linux
Software using the BSD license |
37328654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servo%20%28software%29 | Servo (software) | Servo is an experimental browser engine designed to take advantage of the memory safety properties and concurrency features of the Rust programming language. It seeks to create a highly parallel environment, in which rendering, layout, HTML parsing, image decoding, and other engine components are handled by fine-grained, isolated tasks. It also makes use of GPU acceleration to render web pages quickly and smoothly.
Servo has always been a research project. It began at the Mozilla Corporation in 2012, and its employees did the bulk of the work until 2020. This included the Quantum project, when portions of Servo were incorporated into the Gecko engine of Firefox.
After Mozilla laid off all Servo developers in 2020, governance of the project was transferred to the Linux Foundation. Development work officially continues at the same GitHub repository, but only volunteers remain, so there has merely been maintenance activity.
History
Development of Servo began at the Mozilla Corporation in 2012. The project was named after Tom Servo, a robot from the television show Mystery Science Theater 3000.
In 2013, Mozilla announced that Samsung was collaborating on the project. Samsung's main contribution was porting Servo to Android and ARM processors. A Samsung developer also attempted to re-implement the Chromium Embedded Framework API in Servo, but it never reached fruition and the code was eventually removed.
The Acid2 test was passed in 2014, and Servo could render some websites faster than the Gecko engine of Firefox. By 2016, the engine had been further optimized. The same year, Mozilla began the Quantum project, which incorporated stable portions of Servo into Gecko.
Servo was the engine of two augmented reality browsers. The first was for a Magic Leap headset in 2018. Then the Firefox Reality browser was released in 2020.
In August 2020, Mozilla laid off many employees, including the Servo team, to "adapt its finances to a post-COVID-19 world and re-focus the organization on new commercial services". Governance of the Servo project was thus transferred to the Linux Foundation.
References
External links
2016 podcast about Servo
Free software programmed in Rust
Layout engines
Linux Foundation projects
Mozilla |
60962503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Computer%20Studies%20%28Maubin%29 | University of Computer Studies (Maubin) | University of Computer Studies (Maubin) ( ), located in Maubin Township, about west of Yangon, is one of three computer universities in Ayeyarwady Region, which provides education in the area of ICT. The university offers both computer science and computer technology to its undergraduate students. The university's campus has the area of and is situated between Ward 1 and 2, on Sein Mya Kan Thar Street, Maubin, Ayeyarwaddy Region, Myanmar.
History
Government Computer College (Maubin) started up on first January 2003. It was upgraded as Computer University (Maubin) on 20 January 2007. In 2015, It was renamed as University of Computer Studies (Maubin).
Degree Programs
University of Computer Studies (Maubin) offers five-year bachelor's degree programs in computer science and computer technology. The school's language of instruction is English.
Faculties and staff
Rector
Professor Dr.Thandar Thein
Rector,
Ph.D.(IT)
University of Computer Studies (Maubin)
Academic
Faculty of Computer Science
Faculty of Computer Systems and Technologies
Faculty of Information Science
Faculty of Computing
Department of Information Technology Supporting & Maintenance
Department of Application
Network Design & Maintenance
Department of Languages
Department of Myanmar
Department of English
Department of Natural Science (Physics)
Administration
Department of Student Affairs
Department of Staff Affairs
Department of Finance
Department of Estate Engineering
Rectors/Principals
Student life
Students' union
In 2019, students' union is officially established, is called UCSMUB Students' Union.
Student associations/clubs
During the 2017–2018 academic year, IT Club was founded with the support of professors and teachers, and it was recognized by the rector of the University. And it is known as IT Club UCSMUB.
Music Club, Dance Club, Handmade Club and E-Sport Club are established as students' clubs by the students' union.
Product show
On February 22, 2019, the Product show of the University was held. Students showed 41 products in total. "Information System of Private Hospital", "Trip Advisor" and "Garden System" won the first, second, third prize respectively in the product show. "Smart Restaurant", "APineKine" and "Smart Township System" won the consolation prizes.
External links
Official website
Subdomain of Ministry of Education, Myanmar
References
Universities and colleges in Myanmar
Universities and colleges in Ayeyarwady Region
Educational institutions established in 2003
2003 establishments in Myanmar |
255612 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataan | Bataan | (), officially the (), is a province situated in the Central Luzon region of the Philippines. Its capital is the city of Balanga while Mariveles is the largest local government unit in the province. Occupying the entire Bataan Peninsula on Luzon, Bataan is bordered by the provinces of Zambales and Pampanga to the north. The peninsula faces the South China Sea to the west and Subic Bay to the north-west, and encloses Manila Bay to the east.
The Battle of Bataan is known in history as one of the last stands of American and Filipino soldiers before they were overwhelmed by the Japanese forces in World War II. The Bataan Death March was named after the province, where the infamous march started.
History
Classical Period
The first inhabitants of the Bataan peninsula are the Ayta Magbeken people, who are one of the first Negrito ancestors of present-day Filipinos. Later on, Tagalog communities from southern Luzon migrated to parts of Bataan and the Ayta Magbeken migrated towards the mountain areas of Bataan by the end of the 16th century.
Colonial Period
In 1647, Dutch naval forces landed in country in an attempt to seize the islands from Spain. The Dutch massacred the people of Abucay in Bataan.
Historian Cornelio Bascara documents that the province of Bataan was established on January 11, 1757 by Governor-General Pedro Manuel Arandia out of territories belonging to Pampanga and the corregimiento of Mariveles which, at that time, included Maragondon, Cavite across the Manila Bay.
World War II
Bataan featured prominently during World War II. Prior to the 1941 Japanese invasion, Bataan was a military reservation for the purpose of defending the fortress island of Corregidor. The US Army stored nearly of gasoline there, along with various munitions. At the southern tip of the peninsula the U.S. Navy had established a small base at the port of Mariveles.
Shortly after the Japanese Army invaded the country in December 1941, the combined US and Filipino forces were being gradually overrun and General Douglas MacArthur moved his troops to the Bataan Peninsula in an attempt to hold out until a relief force could be sent from the US. Japanese forces started a siege of the peninsula on January 7, 1942, and launched an all-out assault on April 3, a few months after the Battle of the Points, Battle of the Pockets, the attack down Trail Number Two, and a half-dozen other brutal battles. The Bataan campaign was the last time a regular cavalry unit of the U.S. Army, the Philippine Scouts 26th Cavalry, was used as a horse mounted fighting unit. On the morning of January 16, 1942, Lt. Edwin Ramsey led the last cavalry charge into the town of Morong, routing the advancing Japanese infantry. As the troops on Bataan were continually reduced in rations, the horses were eventually slaughtered to feed the starving soldiers.
The majority of the American and Filipino forces surrendered on April 9 and were forced to march more than from Bataan to Capas, Tarlac, which became known as the Bataan Death March.
Geography
Bataan lies in the southwestern part of the Central Luzon region. It is a peninsular province with an area of . The province is bounded in the west by the South China Sea, in the south by the Corregidor Island, and in the east by the Manila Bay - the gateway to the Philippines' political, social and economic center. It is bounded inland by the city of Olongapo in the north and by the provinces of Pampanga and Bulacan in the northeast. Its capital, the City of Balanga, is about 31.3 nautical miles from Manila across the Manila Bay.
Geology
Bataan, a peninsula, is composed of 11 municipalities and one city. All except the northern most municipality of Dinalupihan, are coastal areas. The province's coastline is approximately 177 kilometers from Hermosa in the northeastern portion of the province, looping up to Morong in the northwest.
Bataan is divided by two mountain groups of volcanic origins. The northern side is composed of the Mount Natib (elevation ), Mount Sta. Rosa and Mount Silangan. The southern group is composed of Mount Mariveles, Mount Samat, and Mount Cuyapo. A narrow pass separates these two mountain groups. The topography of the province is classified generally as hilly and mountainous with a narrow plain on the eastern side. The highest elevation is in the Mariveles mountains at 1,388 meters above sea level.
Bataan has abundant water resources in the form of rivers, streams, creeks, waterfalls and springs. There are more than 100 rivers in the province radiating from the two aforementioned mountain groups. These are important not only for irrigation but also for navigation and fishing as well. The Talisay and Almacen Rivers are the two major rivers in the province. Talisay has its headwater in the Mariveles mountain group extending down to Pilar and Balanga into the Manila Bay. Almacen River has its headwater in the Natib mountains extending down to Hermosa and exits through the Orani Channel to the Manila Bay. Some of the smaller rivers are Abo-abo River, Bantalan River, Lamao River, Saysayin River, Agloloma River, Mamala River.
Coastline
Muddy tidal flats along the alluvial sandbars characterize the coastline along the Manila Bay. Mangrove areas can be oberved from Orani to Orion, along with seaweed areas and seagrass patches areas from portions of Balanga and Pilar down to Mariveles. The deeper portions are the coastal areas of Orion to Mariveles where most seaports are operating. Poor coral reef patches, mixed with sandy-rocky bottom can be found in Mariveles area, where the coastline begin to take on a rocky character looping from the mouth of Manila Bay to the western side of the province. The coastline facing the South China Sea is interspersed with pristine beaches with rocky portions and fringes of coral reef in good condition from Bagac to Morong, which is a haven for sea turtles and other marine animals.
Climate
Bataan has distinct dry and wet seasons categorized as Type I in the Philippines' Modified Coronas' Climate Classification (Climate of the Philippines). The dry season begins in November and ends in April, while the rainy season starts in May and ends in October. The most rains come in June to August. Mean average rainfall in August is the heaviest at 633mm. Bataan is often visited by typhoons. Farming systems in the province follow these climatic cycles.
Administrative divisions
Bataan is administratively subdivided into 11 municipalities and one component city.
Demographics
The population of Bataan in the was people, with a density of . The demonym for natives of the province is Bataeño.
Ethnicity
The three most prominent ethnic groups in Bataan are the Tagalogs, the Kapampangans and the Ayta Magbeken, though the third group has a lower population despite being the province's first inhabitants. The second group is mainly present at the northeast of the province, as well as in the provincial capital to a lesser extent.
Religion
Various religious groups are subscribed to by the people but Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion, comprising 85.46% of the Bataan population. Several other Christian and non-Christian faiths include Iglesia ni Cristo (4.47%), Evangelivcals (2.06%), Aglipayans (1.60%) and other groups.
Human Development
Bataan is consistently amongst the provinces in the Philippines with high Human Development Index. The 2015 HDI of the province is 0.793.
Economy
Economic Significance
Bataan is one of the most progressive provinces of Central Luzon and Manila Bay Region, and a key contributor to the region's overall economic productivity. The province is strategically located right in the middle of the country's growth triad corridor of Subic Special Economic and Freeport Zone, Clark Freeport and Special Economic Zone and Metro Manila. It is one of the Philippines' industrial heartland owing to the presence of anchor industries, two freeport zones and several special manufacturing zones. Due to these factors plus the province's competitive incentives offered to new business locators, the Philippine Chamber of Commerce and Industry adjudged Bataan as the most business friendly province in the country during the 47th Philippine Business Conference Expo held last November 2021. This is the second time the province had received such recognition, the first one was in 2018.
In 2020, Bataan registered the third highest locally-sourced income among all the provinces in the Philippines as certified by the Department of Finance - Bureau of Local Government Finance (BLGF).
Industries and Manufacturing
Bataan hosts various industries, ranging from light to heavy. These industries are producing diverse products for domestic distribution and export such as refined petroleum products, petrochemicals, ammunition, industrial grade explosives, marine vessels, luxury yachts, pre-cast concrete, cement, steel building materials, animal feeds, fertilizers, fiberglass products, electronic components, medical personal protective equipment, paper, plastic products, optical lense, textile and leather products, and sporting goods and apparels. Dunlop Slazenger Philippines Inc. in the Freeport Area of Bataan, Mariveles specially takes pride as the exclusive producer of tennis balls used in The Championships, Wimbledon.
The largest industrial complexes operating in the province are listed below.
Petron Bataan Refinery or PBR (Limay) - is the only integrated oil refinery and petrochemical complex in the Philippines with rated capacity of 180,000 barrels per stream day (bpsd). In 2016, PBR commissioned its $2-Billion Upgrade Project dubbed the Refinery Master Plan Phase 2 (RMP-2). It enhanced the refinery's conversion capability and as a result, further enhanced the country’s supply security. It also made Petron capable of locally producing fuels that meet global Euro IV and Euro VI emission standards. It has a Nelson Complexity Index of 13 making it among the most modern and complex refineries in Asia
Philippine National Oil Corporation (PNOC) Industrial Park (Limay and Mariveles) - is previously known as PNOC-Philippine Petrochemical Development Complex, it's one of largest industrial complexes in the province housing various petrochemical manufacturers producing polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE), and polypropylene (PP); and industrial explosives manufacturer Orica Philippines.
The Freeport Area of Bataan (FAB) (Mariveles) - is formerly known as Bataan Export Processing Zone (the first economic zone in the country). It was converted into a freeport zone on June 30, 2010 eight months after the enactment of Republic Act 9728 in October 23, 2009. This was later amended in August 30, 2019, through Republic Act 11453, giving powers to the freeport to expand its territory anywhere within the bounds of the province Bataan. FAB is the third largest freeport zone in the country based in the number of investors and employment created, behind Clark Freeport and Subic Freeport. Currently, there are about 44 manufacturers operating in the freeport employing roughly 40,000 personnels and producing various products such as leather goods, electronics, textile, rubber and plastic products, medical PPE, fabricated metals, animal feeds, marine vessels and lenses. The total export value for these products reached more than US$838 million by end of 2021. FAB is also an emerging hub for fintech and blockchain businesses hosting a number of these companies.
Government Arsenal (Limay) - is an agency of the Philippine government under the Department of National Defense, responsible for the production of basic weaponry and ammunition for the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP), and the Philippine National Police (PNP), among others, and for the sale and export of products in excess of AFP/PNP requirements.
Hermosa Ecozone and Industrial Park (Hermosa) - or shortened as HEIP is a 162-hectares industrial estate component of a 478-hectare mixed-use property development in the province of Bataan by the Hermosa Ecozone Development Corporation an arm of the Science Park of the Philippines, Incorporated. The project is a registered Special Economic Zone (Ecozone) under the Philippine Economic Zone Authority (PEZA).
Bataan 2020, Inc. (Samal) - Bataan 2020 is a leading manufacturer of fine quality paper, board and tissue in the Philippines. The company is among the most diversified paper mills in the industry, with a capacity of over 100,000 metric tons of paper annually.
Subic Special Economic and Freeport Zone - commonly shorterned as Subic Bay or Subic (but should no be mistaken for the municipality of Subic, Zambales), is a special economic and freeport zone covering portions of Olongapo and Subic in Zambales, and Morong and Hermosa in Bataan. The relatively developed and fenced area is called the Subic Bay Freeport Zone (SBFZ). This was the only freeport zone in Bataan until the conversion of Bataan Export Processing Zone (BEPZ) into Freeport Area of Bataan (FAB) in Mariveles on June 30, 2010.
Bataan Technology Park Inc. (Morong) - the 365-hectare property, is once the site of the Philippine Refugee Processing Center, which offered shelter to some 400,000 refugees from Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. The property is now administered by Bases Conversion and Development Authority and is planned for an industrial and tourism development.
Bataan is also a strategic transport route and transshipment point linking the Subic Special Economic and Freeport Zone and the rest of the western part of Central Luzon region to Metro Manila. Several private ports, dry docks/ship yards, and bulk terminals are operating along its long eastern coast facing the Manila Bay. Among these are San Miguel Corporation Shipping and Lighterage, Petron Corporation Limay Terminal, PNOC, Planters Products Inc. Bulk Handling Terminal, Seasia-Nectar Terminal, Oilink, Jetti Petroleum, Orion Dockyard, Herma Shipyard, Seafront Terminal and Shipyard, and Total Philippines.
Agriculture and Fisheries
Agriculture and fishery productions are major sources of income for the people of Bataan. Productions range from crops, fruits, fish, shellfish and other marine species. About 44,000 hectares of land are utilized for farming. The top five agricultural crops produced by the province are palay (rice), corn, coconut, mango and banana. Bataan is frequently included in the top ten poultry and poultry product producers in the country, it hosts modern chicken dressing and processing plants owned by San Miguel Corporation and Bounty Fresh Chicken. The municipalities of Dinalupihan, Hermosa, Orani, Samal, Abucay, Pilar and Orion are the main contributors for agricultural output of the Province.
Being a peninsula, Bataan is one of the major sources of various marine products in Luzon, that include good quality tilapia, bangus (milkfish), tiger prawn, mud crab, and bivalves such as mussel, oyster and capiz.
Commerce and Services
Bataan is in a process of accelerated growth in commercial sector driven mainly by young entrepreneurs and the advent of online commerce. Based from the Philippine Statistics Authority, more than 10,000 micro, small and medium enterprises (MSME) are operating in the province. With an average of 126 enterprises available per 10,000 people, Bataan is considered as the most enterprising province in Central Luzon.
The City of Balanga, the capital of Bataan, is the prime commercial hub in the province and hosting several shopping centers notably SM City Bataan, Vista Mall Bataan, Waltermart Balanga, Capitol Square, Galeria Victoria, Center Plaza Mall, Recar Commercial Complex and Ocampo's Megastore. In addition, a new shopping mall, Robinsons Place Balanga City is expected to start construction in this year of 2022. The municipalities of Dinalupihan, Hermosa, Orani, Mariveles and Orion are considered as secondary commercial hubs. The rest of the municipalities have established smaller business district enough to support the local demand.
Information Technology and Business Process Outsourcing
The City of Balanga is one of the twenty-five (25) emerging digital hubs identified by The Digital Cities 2025 program by the Department of Information and Communications Technology (DICT), Information Technology and Business Process Association of the Philippines (IBPAP), and Leechiu Property Consultants, Inc. (LPC). It hosts several outsourcing companies such as Genpact, Boston-based start-up Botkeeper, and Australia-based Yoonet. While in the town of Mariveles, the Freeport Area of Bataan is now hosting several blockchain and fintech firms. The town of Abucay is also being groomed as the province's next BPO hub thru its First Abucay Freeport Inc. which is a declared expansion area of the Authority of the Freeport Area of Bataan and with Cognizant as its first locator.
Banking and Finance
Based from the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) statistics, as of September 2021, there are 41 universal and commercial bank branches, 36 thrift bank branches, and 31 rural and cooperative bank branches scattered around the province.
Tourist attractions
Historical places
Bataan Death March Marker
Bataan First Line of Defense
Filipino-Japanese Friendship Tower
Limbagang Pinpin
Mount Samat – Mount Samat National Shrine
World War II Museum
Zero Kilometer Death March Marker
The Flaming Sword
Cayetano Arellano Monument and Hometown Marker
Churches
Nuestra Señora del Pilar Church – Morong
Nuestra Señora del Pilar Church – Pilar
Nuestra Señora, Virgen Milagrosa del Rosario Church – in Orani, it was conferred with the title Minor Basilica by Pope Francis on September 10, 2019. It is home to the miraculous image of the Our Lady of Orani which was canonically crowned 18 April 1959.
San Francisco de Asis Church – Limay
Diocesan Shrine and Cathedral-Parish of Saint Joseph – Balanga City, was declared as a diocesan-shrine and is the seat of the Diocese of Balanga
San Juan Bautista Church – Dinalupihan
San Miguel Arcangel Church – Orion
San Nicolas de Tolentino Church – Mariveles
San Pedro Martir de Verona Church – Hermosa
Santa Catalina de Alexandria Church – Bagac
Santa Catalina de Siena Church – Samal
Santo Domingo de Guzman Church – Abucay, the oldest church in Bataan, established in 1587
Other places of interest
Bataan Tourism Center – Balanga
Bataan Tourism Park - Roman Highway, Bagong Silang, Balanga
Las Casas Filipinas de Acuzar – Bagac
Philippine Refugee Processing Center – Morong
Ocean Adventure – Mabayo, Morong (SBFZ)
Zoobic Safari – Mabayo, Morong (SBFZ)
Major General Edward P. King (Grave) – Lamao
Sinagtala Farm Resort & Adventure Park – Orani
Vista Tala Resort & Recreational Park – Orani
Camaya Coast (Camaya Sands Resorts and Leisure) – Mariveles
Montemar Beach Club – Bagac
Duhat Bike Trail – Orion
GICC Technopark - Freeport Area of Bataan
Pawikan Conservation Center - Morong
Natural places of interest
Ambon-ambon (Lumutan) Falls
Anvaya Cove
Balong Anito
Bataan National Park
Camaya Coast
Dunsulan Falls
Duhat Trail
Laki (Laque) Beach
Marilag Cove
Mariveles Five Fingers
Mount Malasimbu
Mount Mariveles
Mount Natib
Nagbintana Arc
Panoypoy Cove
Pasukulan Falls
Playa La Caleta
Roosevelt Protected Landscape
San Miguel Mountain Peak
Sibul Spring
Sinagtala & Vista Tala
Talain Cove
Tarak Ridge
Tortugas Bay Park
How to get there
Bataan is served by a number of bus companies with the following routes:
Victory Liner - Olongapo to Balanga, and vice-versa; Tuguegarao City to Balanga, and vice-versa
Bataan Transit - Cubao, Pasay and Avenida to Balanga and Mariveles, and vice versa; San Fernando, La Union to Mariveles, and vice-versa
Genesis Transport - Cubao, Pasay and Avenida to Balanga and Mariveles, and vice versa; Baguio City to Mariveles, and vice-versa; San Jose City, Nueva Ecija to Mariveles, and vice-versa.
Oster Liner - San Fernando, Pampanga to Balanga, and vice-versa.
A ferry service crossing the Manila Bay is also available through 1Bataan Integrated Transport Service Inc. with a route from Esplanade Seaside Terminal, Mall of Asia complex in Pasay to Port Capinpin in Orion and vice versa.
Infrastructure
Power
Generation
Bataan is a location of bulk power generation, where most of the power generated is sent to the Luzon Grid. Most power plants in Bataan rely on fossil fuels, like oil and coal, but renewable energy sources, primarily solar power, form part of the total generation. The total output of existing power plants equals to 2,210.4 MW, and new power plants to start operation will increase the output to 4,202 MW.
Fossil fuel-fired plants account for 2078 MW, and are mostly concentrated in Limay and Mariveles. These include the GN Power Mariveles Coal Power Plant, with 690 (2x345) MW, SMC Limay Greenfield Power Plant (4x150 MW), Petron Cogeneration Power Plant (4x35 MW), and Panasia Bataan Combined Cycle Power Plant (648 MW). Three plants are under construction, the Dinginin Power Station (1,336 MW), Petron's Refinery Solid Fuel-Fired Boiler Project - Phase 3 (44 MW), and SMC Mariveles Coal Power Plant (4x150). These will increase the capacity by 1980 MW. Three natural gas-fired power plants with combined capacity of 3,275 MW are proposed, one planned in Limay and two in Mariveles. These are currently endorsed by the Department of Energy (Philippines) for grid-impact study.
Renewable energy, accounts for 92.4 MW. Existing renewable energy power plants include the Bataan 2020 Cogen Power Plant (12.5 MW), Cleangreen Energy Corp. Napier Grass Fired Power Plant (12 MW), YH Green Energy Solar Power Plant (12.6 MW), Citicore Solar Power Plant (18 MW), Morong Solar Power Plant (5 MW), and Jobin-Sqm Inc.'s Sta. Rita Solar (32.3 MW) in Tipo, Hermosa side of Subic Bay Freeport Zone. While additional 11.64 MW are expected from two projects that are on the advanced stage of construction, these are Citicore's 6.64 MW solar rooftop project in the Freeport Area of Bataan, and Ayala Corp.'s Bataan Solar Energy Inc. with 5 MW in Batangas Dos, Mariveles. Two more solar power projects are in the pipeline - Solana Solar Power Project (28 MW) and Jobin-Sqm Inc. Bataan Solar Power Project Phases 1, 2, 3a-3b (100 MW). Also, two wind power projects are planned, the 500 MW Bagac Bay Offshore Wind Project and 300 MW Bagac Bay Onshore Wind Project, both by Earth Sol Power Corporation. These are also endorsed by the Department of Energy for grid impact study.
In 2021, San Miguel Corporation's Universal Power Solutions Inc. together with its partner Wärtsilä commissioned the first Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) in Limay with 40 MW/40MWh capacity. Three more BESS projects are committed to be built - Hermosa Battery Energy Storage System (40 MW/40MWh), Lamao Battery Energy Storage System Phases 1 and 2 (30 MW/30MWh, 20 MW/20MWh), and BCCP Limay Battery Energy Storage System Project Phase 2 (20 MW/40MWh). All by Universal Power Solutions Incorporated.
The Bataan Nuclear Power Plant in Morong, with a design 600 MW capacity, was supposed to be the first nuclear power plant in the Philippines. It was supposed to commence operation in 1986, but was mothballed amidst critical opposition to the Marcos regime and concerns on nuclear power. There is some discussion of either rehabilitating the plant, which would likely be uneconomical, or constructing a new nuclear power station.
Transmission
Power is transmitted to the province through various transmission lines and substations located within the province. There are four transmission substations located within the province which are the Hermosa, Hermosa EHV, Limay, and Mariveles EHV substations of National Grid Corporation of the Philippines (NGCP). Since 2018, the province has a network of 500 kV transmission lines which are the Mariveles-Hermosa, GNPower Dinginin-NGCP Mariveles, Hermosa-Castillejos, Hermosa-San Jose, and MPGC – Mariveles Power Plant-NGCP Mariveles lines. All transmission lines and facilities within the province, including the 500 kV lines mentioned before, are operated and maintained by NGCP.
Distribution
Power distribution in the province are served by the Peninsula Electric Cooperative (PENELCO), but some large customers have their power supply sourced from the transmission grid, whose network of 69,000 volt lines supply substations owned by PENELCO. On Freeport Area of Bataan (FAB) and barangays Malaya and Maligaya, they are served by the Utility Management Department (UMD) of National Transmission Corporation (TransCo).
Sea ports / terminals
Port Management
Port Management Office (PMO) - Bataan/Aurora of the Philippine Ports Authority is responsible for financing, management and operations of public ports operating in Bataan. Currently there are three government-owned ports, and these are:
Port of Lamao/Limay – Baseport (PMO)
Port of Mariveles – Subport (TMO)
Port of Capinpin/Orion– Subport (TMO)
Limay and Mariveles ports are primarily used by tramper vessels/tankers catering to the requirement of industries and companies operating in the province. While the Port of Capinpin is equipped for Roll-on/roll-off (Ro-Ro) vessels to carry passengers which is served by 1Bataan Integrated Transport System from Esplanade Seaside Terminal at the Mall of Asia, Pasay to Orion and vice-versa.
There are also 15 private ports/terminals that are operating in the province, namely:
Jetti Petroleum Inc. (Mariveles)
OilLink International Corporation (Mariveles)
Petron Bataan Refinery (PBR) (Limay)
PNOC (Mariveles)
Planters Products Inc. (PPI)/GPII (Limay)
Seafront Shipyard (Mariveles)
SL Harbor Bulk Terminal Corporation (SLHBTC) (Limay)
SMC Consolidated Power Corporation (Limay)
GN Power (Mariveles)
ATI Mariveles Grains Corporation (MGC) (Mariveles)
Herma/Mariveles Shipyard Corportation (MSC) (Mariveles)
SMC-Shipping and Lighterage (Mariveles)
Total Philippines (Mariveles)
Seasia-Nectar Mariveles Dry Bulk Terminal (Mariveles)
Bataan Nuclear Power Plant Pier (Morong)
The Subic Bay International Terminal Corporation in Cubi Point, Subic Bay Freeport Zone, while geographically within Bataan thru the municipality of Morong, is administered by Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority.
Customs Administration
Thru the Customs Administrative Order (CAO)-05-2008, the new Collection District No. XVI to be known as Bureau of Customs (BOC)-Port Limay was established. It has jurisdiction and is responsible for assessment and collection of customs revenues from imported goods and other dues, fees, charges, fines and penalties accruing under the Customs Modernization and Tariff Act (RA 10863) from all ports within the province of Bataan excluding the portions of the province that is within the Subic Special Economic and Freeport Zone as defined by R.A. No. 7227. The BOC-Port of Limay is considered as the fourth largest port in the Philippines in terms of revenue collection, behind Manila International Container Port (MICP), Port of Batangas, and Port of Manila.
Airport
Subic Bay International Airport – located in Cubi Point, Mabayo, Morong area of Subic Bay Freeport Zone. It serves as a secondary and diversion airport for Ninoy Aquino International Airport and Clark International Airport. The airport was formerly the Naval Air Station Cubi Point, part of the U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay, before the base closed in 1992.
Highways, expressways and national roads
Bataan is served by a network of national highways and two expressways. Roman Superhighway, part of highway N301, and Jose Abad Santos Avenue, or highway N3 and Olongapo-Gapan Road, forms the backbone of the national highway network. Subic–Clark–Tarlac Expressway and Subic Freeport Expressway, are toll expressways, linking the province with Pampanga, Tarlac and Subic Special Economic and Freeport Zone. The Layac-Balanga-Mariveles Port Road (a.k.a. Old National Road), Bagac-Mariveles Road, SBMA-Morong Road and Governor J.J. Linao National Road forms the secondary network, which connects the smaller municipalities with the main highway network
An Asian Development Bank-supported 32-kilometer bridge called Bataan–Cavite Interlink Bridge is proposed to connect Bataan with Cavite crossing the Manila Bay. The contract for detailed engineering and design was awarded on October 2020.
Railway
The Subic–Clark Railway Project is a proposed freight rail expansion of the Philippine National Railways (PNR) Luzon System Development Framework. Initially a freight railway, the line will connect Subic Special Economic and Freeport Zone and the Clark Freeport and Special Economic Zone, linking Subic Port with Clark International Airport and other major economic hubs in Central Luzon, especially New Clark City, and forming an integrated logistics hub for the development of Central Luzon as a new growth center to decongest Metro Manila.
Education
As of 2018, literacy rate in Bataan is 99.4% (Literacy of the Household Population 10 Years Old and Over). Access to education opportunities is provided by 259 elementary schools, 84 secondary schools and 19 tertiary schools, owned and operated by either the government or private persons/groups. There are also 6 TESDA-accredited institutions offering technical/vocational courses.
Educational Institutions
Bataan Peninsula State University or BPSU is a state-owned university and the leading tertiary education provider in the province. It was established by virtue of Republic Act 9403, signed into law on 22 March 2007. It is a conglomeration of five state-owned higher education institutions in Bataan. The university currently has six campuses scattered across the province - the Main Campus (formerly Bataan National School of Arts and Trade), Balanga Campus (formerly Bataan Community Colleges), Abucay Campus (formerly Bataan National Agricultural School), Dinalupihan Campus (formerly Bataan State College), Orani Campus (formerly Bataan National Polytechnic School), and Bagac Campus.
Another state-owned higher education institution in the province is Polytechnic University of the Philippines Bataan, which is a satellite campus of the Polytechnic University of the Philippines in Sta. Mesa, Manila, established in 1976. It is located inside the Freeport Area of Bataan (FAB) in Mariveles.
Other notable tertiary education institutions in Bataan are listed below:
AMA Computer Learning Center – Balanga
APG International Aviation Academy – Cubi Point, Subic Bay Freeport Zone, Morong
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies (APCAS) – Balanga
Bataan Heroes Memorial College – Balanga
Bataan Maritime Institute – Balanga
Colegio de San Juan de Letran Bataan – Abucay
College of Subic Montessori – Dinalupihan
Eastwoods College of Science and Technology – Dinalupihan
EastWoods Professional College of Science and Technology (formerly SOFTNET College of Science and Technology) – Balanga
Fist Aviation Academy, Inc. – Cubi Point, Subic Bay Freeport Zone, Morong
Limay Polytechnic College – Limay
Maritime Academy of Asia and the Pacific – Mariveles
Microcity College of Business and Technology (Formerly: Microcity Computer College Foundation, Inc.) – Balanga
Omni Aviation School – Cubi Point, Subic Bay Freeport Zone, Morong
Philippine Women's University CDCEC Bataan - Balanga
St. Joseph Colleges of Balanga – Balanga
Softnet Information Technology Center – Mariveles
Tomas del Rosario College – Balanga
University of Nueva Caceres – Dinalupihan
Iskolar ng Bataan
Iskolar ng Bataan is a provincial government-funded tertiary education scholarship program with a primary goal of producing at least one professional in every household in the province and be gainfully employed in the trade and industries operating inside or outside the province.
Bataan Highschool for the Arts
Through Republic Act No. 11190, the Bataan High School for the Arts is established as the second specialized public high school in the Philippines offering arts-focused education after the Makiling-based Philippine High School for the Arts (PHSA).
The School aims to develop artistically gifted and talented students by implementing a special secondary education curriculum and support programs committed to the conservation and promotion of the Filipino artistic and cultural traditions. This is also a Center for Arts and Design of the Senior High School Program among the twenty school divisions of Central Luzon. Through the establishment of the BHSA, DepEd will be able to help select, stimulate, and prepare students for a career in the arts and cultural work who will serve the region and the country.
Notable people
National Heroes and Patriots
Cayetano Arellano (Orion) – first Supreme Court Chief Justice of the Republic of the Philippines
Francisco Baltazar (Orion) – one of the greatest Filipino literary laureates, born in Bigaa (Balagtas), Bulacan but spent his adult life in Orion, Bataan
Tomas Pinpin (Abucay) – printer, writer and publisher; first Filipino printer
Tomas del Rosario (Orani) – judge, statesman and first governor of the province of Bataan from 1903 to 1905. He was one of the delegates to the Malolos Congress in 1898 and to the Philippine Assembly from 1909 to 1912.
Politics, Military and Government
Pedro Tuazon (Balanga) – Solicitor General of the Philippines, 1921
Luz Banzon (Balanga) – wife of Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay; seventh First Lady of the Philippines
Merceditas Gutierrez (Samal) – ombudsman, first female to head the post
Manuel C. Herrera (Pilar) – Ombudsman, justice of the Court of Appeals and chair of the National Unification Commission
Felicito Payumo (Dinalupihan) – Chairman of the Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority from 1998 to 2004
Geraldine Roman (Orani) – journalist and politician; first transgender woman elected to Congress of the Philippines
Alfredo Juinio (Limay) – Secretary Department of Public Works and Highways
Harry Roque (Limay) – a lawyer and the current Presidential Spokesperson
Business and Economy
David Consunji (Samal) – chairman of publicly listed holding firm, DMCI Holdings, Incorporated
Manuel Bamba Villar Jr. (Orani) – the richest Filipino, and founder of Vista Land; a former Senator, Republic of the Philippines
Education, Arts and Sciences
Julian Banzon (Balanga) - is a National Scientist of the Philippines for Chemistry
Lázaro Francisco (Orani) - was a Filipino novelist, essayist and playwright. Francisco was posthumously named a National Artist of the Philippines for Literature in 2009.
Heny Sison (Orani) - a renowned pastry chef and teacher. Through the years, she’s had a whole range of students—from housewives to celebrities to small-time entrepreneurs who would become success stories, among them the Lorenzanas behind Wildflour, the owner of Costa Brava, even Baby Yulo of Forbes Park’s famous strawberry shortcake.
Religion
Manuel C. Sobreviñas (Dinalupihan) - Bishop Emeritus of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Imus
Oscar V. Cruz (Balanga) – Archbishop Emeritus of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lingayen-Dagupan
Sports and Entertainment
Erika Casupanan (Hermosa) - winner of Survivor 41
Romi Garduce (Balanga) – was among the first Filipinos to reach the peak of Mount Everest
Gary David (Dinalupihan) – a professional basketball star and television actor/comedian
Rodel Naval (Orion) – Filipino singer, songwriter and actor.
Evangeline Pascual (Orani) – actress and First Runner-up Miss World 1973
Kerby Raymundo (Orion) – a professional basketball star
Mel Tiangco (Pilar) – popular television newscaster and television host; head of GMA Kapuso foundation
Janine Tugonon (Orion) – model, TV host and beauty pageant titleholder- Miss Universe 2012 first runner-up
Jessica Sanchez (Samal) – a singer-songwriter. She rose to prominence following her finish as the runner-up on the eleventh season of American Idol.
See also
Bataan Provincial Expressway
Petron Corporation (formerly known as Bataan Refining Corporation)
Roman Catholic Diocese of Balanga
Freeport Area of Bataan
References
External links
Bataan official website
1754 establishments in the Philippines
Provinces of the Philippines
States and territories established in 1754 |
6212022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defensive%20computing | Defensive computing | Defensive computing is a form of practice for computer users to help reduce the risk of computing problems, by avoiding dangerous computing practices. The primary goal of this method of computing is to be able to anticipate and prepare for potentially problematic situations prior to their occurrence, despite any adverse conditions of a computer system or any mistakes made by other users. This can be achieved through adherence to a variety of general guidelines, as well as the practice of specific computing techniques.
Strategies for defensive computing could be divided into two categories, network security and the backup and restoration of data.
Network security
Users put their computers at risk when accessing the Internet and other networks. The use of either of these allows others to gain access to a user's system and important information. By implementing certain strategies, defensive users aim to reduce the risk associated with network access.
Firewall
A firewall is a collection of security measures that protects a computer from harmful inbound and outbound traffic on the Internet and prevents the unauthorized access of computer systems. These security measures are integrated into the form of special software that runs autonomously either on individual computer systems, or externally through built in software within routers and modems.
Not all firewall software will protect computers from sending unauthorized or harmful outbound traffic.
An important defensive computing strategy is to seek and implement quality firewall software that filters both inbound and outbound traffic.
Anti-malware software
A basic strategy for all defensive computer users is to install and use anti-malware software.
Firewalls may not completely protect a computer. Malicious software may be able to get through a firewall and onto a system. Anti-Malware such as anti-virus, anti-phishing and email filtering software offer some protection against harmful software that reside within a computer. The amount of malicious software available over the Internet is steadily increasing. It is important for defensive users to use to anti-malware that is both effective and easily updated in order to combat new strains of malicious software that are developed.
The other side of anti malware is that it contains serious vulnerabilities itself. A malware could use vulnerabilities of anti-malware to launch malicious code.
Anti-malware works by scanning files an network connections for known signatures. Those signatures can never be up to date. To be able to scan network connections, encryptions (SSL/TLS) need to be bypassed or even broken by anti-malware software. When monitoring emails anti-malware opens all attachments for analysis, a bug in this scanner can be used as a starting point for malware. Attackers just need to send malware to a mailbox that is scanned automatically.
It is questionable if malware scanners are even useful at all. Ex Mozilla developer Rober O'Callahan writes in his blog that anti malware software should be disabled (except windows defender)
Skepticism
An important aspect of defensive computing is for users to be skeptical of the data to which they have access via the Internet. Malicious software can exist in a multitude of different forms and many are misleading to general computer users and even some anti-malware software. Defensive users think critically about the information they can access, to reduce their chances of downloading and spreading malicious software. Strategies include scanning email attachments prior to opening them and manually filtering suspicious emails from inboxes. Users should be aware of persuasive subject lines and headings in emails from any address, as they may actually contain malicious software or spam, which can mislead users into false advertisement resulting in identity theft.
Defensive users can scan files they download prior to opening them and can also configure their computers to show file extensions, revealing potentially dangerous files that appear harmless.
Skepticism can also be applied to the websites visited by users. As with emails, users can be led to false advertisements. Also, malicious software can unknowingly be downloaded and infect a computer, just by visiting a certain website.
Backup and recovery procedures
Despite the efforts of a defensive computer user, the loss of important data can occur due to malware, power outages, equipment failure and general misuse. Although the loss of data cannot be completely prevented, defensive users can take steps to minimize the amount of data lost and restore systems to their previous state.
Backup of files
A defensive strategy against unintentional data loss is the regular backup of important files. Users can make multiple copies of important data and store them either on the same computer or on another device such as a compact disc or an external hard drive. Users can also upload important files to the Internet, provided they have access to Internet storage services.
Restoration
Some operating systems give users the option of performing a procedure that restores a computer to a predetermined state. If no option is available, a user can obtain the appropriate restoration software for their system. In the event of a system failure or a serious case of data loss, a user can restore any lost or changed files and remove any malicious files that did not previously exist.
Good practices for protecting data
Regularly backup important files, documents and emails.
Do not use the administrator account for day-to-day activities.
Keep software up-to-date with the latest versions.
Keep antivirus and antispyware up-to-date with latest versions.
Use different passwords
Disable auto run feature from USB flash drives. Some viruses, specially worms, spread automatically through USB flash drives
Always connect to the Internet behind a firewall
When in doubt, throw it out
See also
Stopping e-mail abuse
Phishing
Computer insecurity
End-user computing
Network security
Computer worm
Computer security
Defense strategy (computing)
References
External links
Defensive computing priorities by Michael Horowitz December 2009
Computer security
Backup |
13111157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod%20Classic | IPod Classic | The iPod Classic (stylized and marketed as iPod classic and formerly iPod Video or just iPod) is a discontinued portable media player created and formerly marketed by Apple Inc.
There were six generations of the iPod Classic, as well as a spin-off (the iPod Photo) that was later re-integrated into the main iPod line. All generations used a hard drive for storage. The "classic" suffix was formally introduced with the rollout of the sixth-generation iPod on September 5, 2007. Prior to this, all iPod Classic models were simply referred to as iPods; the first iPod released in 2001 was part of this line that would be called "Classic". It was available in silver or black from 2007 onwards, replacing the "signature iPod white".
On September 9, 2014, Apple discontinued the iPod Classic. The sixth-generation 160GB iPod Classic was the last Apple product to use the original 30-pin dock connector and the distinctive Click Wheel.
Technical information
User interface
iPods with color displays use anti-aliased graphics and text, with sliding animations. All iPods have five buttons and the later generations (4th and above) have the buttons integrated into the click wheel — a design which gives an uncluttered, minimalist interface, though the circuitry contains multiple momentary button switches. The buttons are:
Menu: to traverse backward through the menus, toggle the backlight on older iPods, and jump to the main menu on newer iPods
Center: to select a menu item
Play / Pause: this doubles as an off switch when held
Skip Forward / Fast Forward
Skip Backwards / Fast Reverse
Operating system and firmware
The iPod's operating system is stored on its dedicated storage medium. An additional NOR flash ROM chip (either 1 MB or 512 KB) contains a bootloader program that tells the device to load its OS from the storage medium. Each iPod also has 32 MB of RAM, although the 60GB and 80GB fifth generation, and the sixth-generation models have 64 MB. A portion of the RAM is used to hold the iPod OS loaded from firmware, but the majority of it serves to cache songs from the storage medium. For example, an iPod could spin its hard disk up once and copy approximately 30 MB of upcoming songs into RAM, thus saving power by not requiring the drive to spin up for each song. Custom firmware has also been developed such as Rockbox (up to 6G - 6G requires emCORE) and iPodLinux (up to 5G) which offer open-source alternatives to the standard firmware and operating system.
Additional features
In March 2002, Apple added limited PDA-like functionality: text files can be displayed, while contacts and schedules can be viewed and synchronized with the host computer.
Some built-in games are available, including Brick (a clone of Breakout), Parachute, Solitaire, and iPod Quiz. A firmware update released in September 2006 brought some extra features to fifth-generation iPods including adjustable screen brightness, gapless playback, and downloadable games. However, as of September 30, 2011, these games are no longer available on the iTunes Store.
History
1st generation
Apple introduced the first-generation iPod (M8541) on October 23, 2001, with the slogan "1,000 songs in your pocket". They went on sale on November 10, 2001. The first iPod had a monochrome LCD (liquid-crystal display) screen and featured a 5GB hard drive capable of storing 1,000 songs encoded using MP3 and was priced at US$399. Among the iPod's innovations were its small size, achieved using a 1.8" hard drive, whereas other HDD-based competitors (like earlier DEC Personal Jukebox player) were using 2.5" hard drives at the time, and its easy-to-use navigation, which was controlled using a mechanical scroll wheel (unlike later iPods, which had touch-sensitive scroll wheels), a center select button, and four auxiliary buttons around the wheel. The iPod had a rated battery life of ten hours.
On March 20, 2002, Apple introduced a 10GB model of the first-generation iPod for US$499. VCard compatibility was added, as well as allowing iPods to display business card information synced from a Mac.
2nd generation
The second-generation of the iPod was introduced on July 17, 2002. Using a similar body style as the first generation, the top of the iPod was redesigned, switching from a single swooping cutout in the backplate to mount the FireWire port, hold switch and headphone assembly, to individual ports being cut into the backplate to allow these ports to be accessed. Furthermore, the hold switch was redesigned, a cover was added to the FireWire port, and the mechanical wheel was replaced with a touch-sensitive wheel. The second-generation class was available in 10GB for US$399 and 20GB for US$499. The first-generation 5GB iPod was carried over, but its price was reduced to US$299.
Notably, the second-generation iPods and the updated first-generation iPod were now Windows-compatible. These versions came with a 4-pin to 6-pin FireWire adapter and were bundled with Musicmatch Jukebox. At that time iTunes was Mac only and unavailable for Windows.
In December 2002, Apple unveiled its first limited edition iPods, with either Madonna's, Tony Hawk's, or Beck's signature or No Doubt's band logo engraved on the back for an extra US$50.
3rd generation
On April 29, 2003, Apple announced a completely redesigned third-generation iPod. Thinner than the previous models, the third-generation models replaced the FireWire port with a new proprietary 30-pin Dock Connector and introduced the Touch Wheel, a completely non-mechanical interface with the four auxiliary buttons located in a row between the screen and the touch wheel. The front plate had rounded edges, and the rear casing was slightly rounded as well. A new wired remote connector was introduced. Whereas first and second-generation iPods had an auxiliary ring around the headphone port for the remote, the third-generation iPods had a 4-pin jack adjacent to the headphone port. A 10GB model was sold for US$299, a 15GB model for US$399, and a 30GB model for US$499. All iPods were now compatible with Mac and Windows out of the box, simply requiring Windows users to reformat the iPod before use on a PC and both iTunes and Musicmatch Jukebox were bundled with all iPods. The battery life was reduced to 8 hours, partially due to the use of a smaller lithium-ion battery as opposed to a lithium polymer battery.
The 15GB model was replaced by a 20GB model and the 30GB model was upgraded to 40 GB on September 8, 2003. The Windows-based Musicmatch Jukebox software was made obsolete and replaced by iTunes 4.1, the first version available for Microsoft Windows.
4th generation
Announced on July 19, 2004, the fourth-generation iPod replaced the touch wheel from the third-generation iPod with the Click Wheel from the iPod Mini, putting the four auxiliary buttons underneath a touch-sensitive scroll wheel. The casing was also slightly slimmer. Pricing was reduced and the lineup was simplified, as the 20GB model was sold for US$299 and the 40GB model for US$399. Notably, Apple began reducing pack-in accessories starting with the fourth generation. While a dock, carrying case, and wired remote were previously included with higher-end iPods, the higher-level 40GB iPod only came with a dock, earphones and an interchangeable proprietary cable capable of USB and FireWire interface. In addition to using the iPod Mini's Click Wheel, the fourth-generation iPod used the more energy-efficient components of the Mini, allowing the fourth-generation iPod to over 12 hours of battery life while using the same battery as its predecessor.
A special U2 edition was announced on October 26, 2004, to cross-market U2's How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb album. The plastic front piece of the U2 edition iPod was black and the scroll wheel was red, to coincide with the color scheme of the U2 album. With 20 GB and the signatures of all four members of U2, the special edition iPod was priced at US$349 and also included a US$50 coupon for a US$149 collection of U2's entire back catalog. U2 iPod customers also received 30 minutes of exclusive U2 video downloadable from the iTunes Music Store.
A Special Harry Potter Edition was announced on September 7, 2005. It was released in conjunction with the Harry Potter audiobooks in iTunes. It had a Hogwarts logo engraved on the back, and all six Harry Potter audiobooks which were available at the time preloaded.
iPod Photo
On October 26, 2004, in addition to the U2 edition, Apple also unveiled the iPod Photo. Positioned as a premium version of the standard fourth-generation iPod, the iPod Photo featured a 220×176-pixel LCD capable of displaying up to 65,536 colors. The device can be attached to a television or other external display for slideshows, thanks to a bundled composite cable which fits in the headphone port ("iPod AV cable"); it is also forwards compatible with then-future dock connector based composite and S-video accessories.
Photos are stored in a proprietary database, which iTunes can generate from JPEG, BMP, GIF, TIFF, and PNG file formats sourced from either a folder, from Apple's iPhoto on the Macintosh, Adobe Photoshop Album 2.0 or Photoshop Elements 3.0 on Windows. Battery life was rated 15 hours for music playback and 5 hours for slideshows with music. The iPod Photo was available in a 40GB version for US$499 and a 60GB version for US$599.
On February 23, 2005, both 40GB models (photo and regular) were replaced with a slimmer and lower-priced (US$349) 30GB photo model leaving only a 20GB black-and-white iPod left. The price for the 60GB model was dropped to US$449 with fewer bundled accessories, making the dock, FireWire cable, and television cable extra-cost options. On the same day, Apple announced the iPod Camera Connector which allowed instant transfer of images from a USB-compatible digital camera to the iPod Photo. The main difference between this and Belkin's Digital Camera Link was that Apple's unit supported instant image viewing on the iPod Photo after transfer without having to connect the iPod Photo to a computer first.
iPod with color display
On June 28, 2005, just nine months after its introduction, the iPod Photo was merged with the rest of the iPod line. The 30GB model was dropped, and the 20GB monochrome iPod received a color screen. The price for the 60GB model was also dropped to US$399.
5th generation ("iPod Video")
The fifth-generation iPod was introduced on October 12, 2005, shortly after the introduction of the iPod Nano. The fifth-generation iPod featured a 2.5" 320×240 QVGA screen and a smaller Click Wheel. It was the first iPod to be able to play videos.
The fifth-generation iPod, sometimes colloquially known as the iPod Video, is the first iPod to be available in an alternative color scheme in a non-special-edition form, as a black option was added alongside "Signature iPod White", and marked the second full redesign of the iPod's aesthetic with its re-arranged proportions, its return to a fully flat front plate, and its more rounded rear casing. The 4-pin remote port was removed as well, causing backwards compatibility issues with certain accessories. A 30GB model was offered for US$299 and a 60GB model was offered for US$399. The fifth-generation iPod was also offered in the U2 special edition for US$349 with 30 GB. The fifth-generation iPod was the last model to have a plastic face.
The fifth-generation iPod was updated on September 12, 2006; this model is officially known as "iPod (Late 2006)", and is unofficially referred to as "5th generation enhanced" and "5.5th generation". This update included a brighter screen, longer video playback time, improved video decoding hardware, newly designed earphones and a search feature. An iTunes installation CD was also no longer bundled, requiring users to download iTunes from Apple's website. The 60GB model was replaced with an 80GB model, and prices were cut by US$50 for both the 30GB (US$249) and the 80GB (US$349) models. Gapless playback and support for iPod games was enabled on all fifth-generation iPods through a firmware update released at the same time.
The fifth-generation iPod plays video in MPEG-4 (up to 480p 2.5 Mbit/s) and H.264 (up to 240p, 768 kbit/s, baseline profile level 1.3 only) formats.
The enhanced fifth-generation iPod, as well as firmware 1.2 for its predecessor, upgrade H.264 support to 480p 1.5 Mbit/s.
As is the case for music, video content such as TV shows, podcasts, music videos, and movies may be purchased from the iTunes Store (with DRM, with rental options launched later), or sourced externally and imported via iTunes.
Videos or photo slideshows may be played from the fifth-generation iPod on a television set, projector or monitor with the use of the Apple Composite AV cable or via an older dock providing an S-Video output. It is also possible to obtain composite video from the headphone jack, using an iPod AV Cable or generic equivalent (appropriately wired TRRS minijack), a feature removed from the following generation.
6th generation
During a special iPod-centric event on September 5, 2007, Steve Jobs introduced the sixth-generation iPod and the suffix "classic". Featuring slightly thinner bodies, the sixth-generation iPod also had dramatically improved battery life, claiming up to 36 hours of music playback and 6 hours of video playback. The iPod Classic has a 2.5" backlit display at a resolution of 320×240. The front plate of the iPod is now made of anodized aluminium instead of polycarbonate plastic, and "Signature iPod White" has been replaced by silver. This marks the first time white is not available as a color option for an iPod. The sixth-generation iPod also introduced a completely overhauled user interface, incorporating more graphics and Cover Flow. The iPod Classic was offered in an 80GB model for MSRP US$249 and a 160GB model for MSRP US$349.
The 160 GB hard drive is not fully ATA compatible, not supporting 48-bit LBA in favor of a proprietary addressing method; neither is LBA48 supported by the Apple-supplied operating system, inconveniencing people interested in upgrading the internal storage.
Video playback specifications also received an upgrade over the previous generation, with further improvements to H.264 decoding (advertised up to 640x480p, baseline profile level 3.0, 2.5 Mbps bitrate; actual capabilities up to 720x576 at 5 Mbps with caveats) as well as supporting the Apple Component AV Cable with progressive scan, but removes support for cables without an authentication chip and those connecting to the headphone port.
Revisions
During the 'Let's Rock' Apple Event on September 9, 2008, the 80 GB and the thicker 160 GB model were discontinued in favor of a thin 120 GB version retailing for US$249, sometimes unofficially called the "6.5th generation". It introduced Genius and full support for TRRS headsets with remote and mic, which are also available in other iPod models released at similar times; no firmware update provides either feature to the 2007 iPods. Also, the black model's faceplate was replaced with a gray colored faceplate, while retaining the silver backing and the black Click Wheel.
Prior to the 'It's Only Rock and Roll' event on September 9, 2009, the price of the 120 GB version was dropped to US$229. During the event, Apple replaced the 120GB version with a 160GB model, featuring the same slim profile of the 80 GB and 120 GB models. It retailed at US$249. This model is sometimes colloquially known as the "7th generation", especially amongst the iPod community (despite it only offering few new features such as Genius Mixes, as well as supporting 48-bit sector numbers).
Special editions
U2 Special Editions
There are four different U2 Special Edition iPod models, each with widely differing capabilities. However, each of the U2 models—the iPod U2 (4th Gen), iPod U2 (Color), iPod U2 (5th Gen/Video), and iPod U2 (5th Gen Enhanced) -- are the same internally as the "standard" iPod model available at the time, and the U2 models vary only in case design and cost.
The iPod U2 (4th Gen)
The original U2 iPod—the iPod U2 (4th Gen) -- is internally the same as the 20 GB configuration of the iPod (4th Generation), but uses a case with a black front, a red Click Wheel, and laser-etched signatures of the U2 band members on the stainless steel back. It shipped with an "exclusive" U2 poster, a US$50-off coupon for "The Complete U2" downloadable "box set", and the standard white iPod earbuds. It cost US$50 more than the standard iPod (4th Gen).
The iPod U2 (Color)
The second U2 iPod—the iPod U2 (Color)—is internally identical to the 20 GB configuration of the iPod (with Color Display). It uses a slightly thicker (.06 inches) version of the original U2 iPod case, complete with black front, red Click Wheel, and laser-etched signatures from the band members on a stainless-steel back, but it most notably adds a color display. It also shipped with the same poster, coupon, and earbuds, but only cost US$30 more than the standard iPod (with Color Display).
The U2 (5th Gen & 5th Gen Enhanced)
The third and fourth U2 Special Edition iPods—the iPod U2 (5th Gen/Video), and iPod U2 (5th Gen Enhanced)—are internally identical to the iPod Fifth Generation (with Video) and iPod Fifth Generation (Enhanced), respectively, but each cost US$30 more than the standard models. Externally, both have a red Click Wheel and a "gloss black metal" rear case (featuring laser-etched autographs of the U2 band members like the other U2 models).
Discontinuation
According to speculation by Wired, the 6th generation was, as of 2014, expected to be the final form of the iPod Classic that helped Apple achieve its success in the 2000s. Ars Technica speculated in 2011 that the iPod Classic was nearing its end, and the site's readers generally agreed it would not still be produced in 2013. The Apple Worldwide Developers Conference in 2013 revealed no new iPod Classic, and Apple was not expected to produce another one. Production of the iPod Classic continued in low volumes as a stop-gap measure to clear out and monetize inventory of unused stand-alone parts.
On September 9, 2014, Apple officially discontinued the iPod Classic. The sixth-generation 160GB iPod Classic was the last Apple product in the iPod line to use the original 30-pin iPod connector and the Click Wheel. According to Tim Cook speaking at WSJD Live, the iPod Classic was discontinued because the parts were unavailable and a redesign was unwarranted given the small amount of consumer interest in the product.
Three months after its discontinuation, the price for a new unopened sixth-generation iPod Classic increased by up to four times its original retail price on eBay.
Models
Timeline of full-size iPod models
Sources: Apple press release library, Mactracker Apple Inc. model database
References
External links
Classic
Products introduced in 2001
Products and services discontinued in 2014
Portable media players
ITunes
Discontinued products
Digital audio players
Discontinued Apple Inc. products |
14833208 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandora%20%28console%29 | Pandora (console) | The Pandora is a operating system, handheld game console and mobile personal computer originally released in 2010. It is designed to take advantage of existing free and open-source software and to be a target for homebrew development. It includes several features that no handheld game consoles have previously had, making it a cross between a handheld game console and a subnotebook. It is developed and produced by OpenPandora, which is made up of former distributors and community members of the GP32 and GP2X handhelds. Until 2013, multiple batches of slightly updated Pandora variants were produced. In 2014 the development of a redesigned and upgraded successor, called DragonBox Pyra, was started.
History
Development of the Pandora began when Craig Rothwell, Fatih Kilic, Michael Mrozek and (later) Michael Weston teamed up and planned a portable system that would excel in the areas where they thought the GP32 and GP2X systems (from Game Park and GamePark Holdings respectively) were flawed. The Pandora was designed based on ideas and suggestions contributed by GP32X forum members, with the goal of creating the ultimate open source handheld device. When announcing the system, the designers of Pandora stated that it would be more powerful than any handheld video game console that had yet existed.
The final case and keymat design was made by Dave Cancilier (DaveC), who was known on the forums for custom hardware modifications.
In February 2008 the Pandora wiki had already been created; as of 2014, it contains a thousand pages and is translated with the MediaWiki Translate extension.
The initial development and setup costs were funded through a crowdfunding approach where early supporters provided enough money to support a production run, and when the console made it into production, each supporter would receive the device they paid for (what actually ended up happening due to cost overruns is that the early supporters received devices as later sales recouped the initial investment costs). OpenPandora began taking payments on September 30, 2008 and began shipping to customers on May 21, 2010. In late 2011, after production problems, OpenPandora shifted its production from Texas to Germany, delaying production, and the device was upgraded from 256 MB to 512 MB RAM.
As of September 3, 2012, 4600 units had been shipped and 400 early supporters were still waiting to receive a console, as these pre-orders are only fulfilled when sales to new customers are made. Since June 2012, a new 1 GHz model has been made available in limited amounts during the summer 2012. Due to the shortage of previous 600 MHz chips, this new model has become the de facto standard in 2013.
In March 2013, the pre-order queue of the German OpenPandora GmbH company (owned by Michael Mrozek aka EvilDragon) was finally cleared. The remaining pre-order queue of the UK OpenPandora Ltd. company (owned by Craig Rothwell) turned out to be significantly larger than originally reported, and the UK company has requested to be struck off. This means that the original pre-orderers at the UK company are unlikely to ever get their unit from the UK company. Also because of this, buyers have lost their money. Although there is no legal connection between the two companies, the German OpenPandora GmbH company is trying to help those UK customers by offering them significant discounts (if they decide to buy a unit from the German company instead of waiting for the UK company) and by organizing community donations to get them peer-funded units.
As of December 2, 2013, about 6000 units have been shipped. On November 19, 2013, it was announced that the production of the final Pandora batch has been started. About 7500 Pandoras have been made and sold altogether between 2010 and 2014, with further production made impossible due to shortage of WiFi chips.
In 2014 the OpenPandora project opened the hardware design files to the community, making the OpenPandora a kind of open source hardware.
Speculation and discussion about a successor to the Pandora has started on the OpenPandora boards. Features and a demo prototype were announced at FOSDEM 2014; the project is called DragonBox Pyra.
Overview
The Pandora is designed to be a handheld game console with high-end PDA capabilities, but may also be run as a low-power full-featured Linux desktop. The system by default comes with a Linux OS based on Ångström.
The interface is custom themed to fit the small form factor and touchscreen, analogue joystick, and keyboard-based inputs available. Users can install and run their own desktop environment if they choose. Users may even install other Linux distributions like Ubuntu or Gentoo themselves. It is possible as well to run Android (gingerbread) through a PND package on top of the Angrstrom distribution, while it requires overclocking to perform flawlessly.
One of Pandora's major intended uses is for homebrew gaming and for the emulation of older computer systems and video game consoles, which is possible through efficient use of the resources made available by the Texas Instruments OMAP 3530 SoC. The Pandora developers have already shown working emulators for Dreamcast (Dreamcast emulator was never released), PlayStation, Nintendo 64, Amiga, SNES, Atari Jaguar and Sega Mega Drive software, and the Pandora is thought by its developers to have the potential to emulate most if not all machines older than the Dreamcast.
For software and video games where source code is available (see List of commercial video games with available source code), instead of emulation, source ports were created for the Pandora; notable examples are Jagged Alliance 2 and Homeworld.
The device is also intended for use as a portable media playback device with a storage capacity of up to 128 GB of data (64 GB SDXC cards) across two SD memory card slots.
The Pandora uses standard libraries such as OpenGL ES and SDL which are freely available, allowing anyone who wishes the ability to develop for the system. Many developers from the GP2x community have publicly stated that they will be developing applications for the new system.
The Pandora is compatible with Debian packages built for the ARM architecture using APT. A Git repository offers the latest kernel source.
Lists on the community-maintained Pandora Wiki keep track of new software releases. Most, but not all, Pandora software is uploaded to either the Pandora Apps, the Pandora File Archive or Pandora Repo websites. The Pandora File Archive existed first and is run by Michael Mrozek. Pandora Apps was launched by Craig Rothwell in May 2010, and is designed for viewing on the Pandora's smaller screen resolution.
The Pandora Repo (yet unnamed) was developed by a member of the community with help from the community. Its use has been adopted quickly as it tends to have the latest software releases first, as it doesn't require developers to enter any details about the application being uploaded—instead, these are automatically acquired from the application itself.
The Pandora Repo is also the first that uses the community created REPO specifications which allows native clients to get applications from the pandora repo without actually visiting the website (much akin to Synaptic package manager).
The Pandora community is also notable for the development of tools required to achieve several successful static recompilations of complex binary software to the Pandora platform. For instance, in 2014 an ARM architecture version of the 1998 video game StarCraft was generated by static recompilation from the original x86 version. In 2015, a similar port of Diablo II followed.
Technical specifications
There are several Pandora variants.
Pandora Classic
Texas Instruments OMAP3530 SoC
ARM Cortex-A8 CPU @ 600 MHz
PowerVR SGX530 @ 110 MHz
IVA2+ audio and video processor with TMS320C64x+ DSP Core @ 430 MHz using DaVinci technology
256 MiB DDR-333 SDRAM
512 MB NAND flash memory
Integrated Wi-Fi 802.11b/g
Integrated Bluetooth 2.0 + EDR (3 Mbit/s) (Class 2, +4dBm)
800×480 resolution touchscreen LCD, 4.3" widescreen, 16.7 million colors (300 cd/m2 brightness, 450:1 contrast ratio)
Dual SDHC card slots (currently supporting up to 32 GB of storage each, supports SDIO)
Gamepad controls with 2 shoulder buttons
Dual analog nubs; 15 mm diameter, concave, 2.5 mm travel from centre
43 button QWERTY and numeric keypad
USB 2.0 high-speed port (480 Mbit/s) capable of providing standard 500 mA current to attached devices, USB On-The-Go supporting charging Pandora
Externally accessible UART for hardware hacking and debugging
Internal microphone plus ability to connect external microphone through headset
Headphone output up to 150 mW/channel into 16 ohms, 99 dB SNR
TV output (composite and S-Video, both for PAL and NTSC)
Brick prevention with integrated bootloader for safe code experimentation
Runs the Linux kernel (2.6.x for older versions, 3.2 in the latest Super Zaxxon firmware from July 2012)
4200 mAh rechargeable lithium polymer battery
Estimated 8.5–10+ hour battery life for games, 10+ hour battery life for video and general applications, 100+ hours for music playback (with maximum power management), and 450+ hours in suspend-to-ram
Dimensions: (314 ml) (5.51×3.27×1.06 in)
Mass:
Pandora Rebirth
Based on Pandora Classic with following changes:
OMAP3530 SoC
PowerVR SGX530 @110 MHz (newer revision)
512 MiB DDR-333 SDRAM
Pandora 1 GHz
Based on Pandora Classic/Rebirth with following changes:
Texas Instruments DM3730 SoC
ARM Cortex-A8 CPU @ 1 GHz
PowerVR SGX530 @ 200 MHz
IVA2.2 audio and video processor with TMS320C64x+ DSP Core @ 800 MHz
512 MiB DDR-333 SDRAM @ 200 MHz
Similar products
Other single-board computers using OMAP3500 series processors include OSWALD developed by Oregon State University students for computer science education, Beagle Board, IGEPv2, Touch Book, and Gumstix Overo series. The Gizmondo 2 was to be a potential commercial competitor of the Pandora, but the Gizmondo 2 was cancelled.
GPD Win can also run Linux.
See also
DragonBox Pyra
Comparison of handheld game consoles
Linux gaming
References
External links
Official wiki
Official forums for the Pandora and iControlpad
ARM-based video game consoles
Embedded Linux
Handheld personal computers
Linux-based devices
Personal digital assistants
Seventh-generation video game consoles
Texas Instruments hardware |
8137458 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Threat | John Threat | John Lee, a.k.a. John Threat, used the name "Corrupt" as a member of Masters of Deception (MOD), a New York based hacker group in the early '90s.
As a result of his participation in the Great Hacker War, between MOD and rival hacker group Legion of Doom, he was indicted on federal wiretapping charges in 1992. He pled guilty and was sentenced to one year at a federal detention center. His participation in the Great Hacker War landed him on the cover of Wired Magazine in 1994.
Lee was born on July 6, 1973 in Brooklyn, New York. He grew up in Brownsville, where he was a member of the Decepticons, a Brooklyn-based street gang formed in the early '80s, named after the villains in the Saturday morning cartoon, Transformers. Lee attended Stuyvesant High School and went on to New York University. During his freshman year at NYU, Lee was sentenced to prison for his role in the Great Hacker War.
Lee also has editing, producing, and directing credits in film and television. In 2004, he founded Mediathreat, LLC, a film production company. In 2005, he directed the original documentary "Dead Prez: Bigger than Hip Hop." In 2011, he co-directed the music video for MAKE OUT's single "You Can't Be Friends With Everyone" with Diane Martel.
Lee also gained notoriety in 2001 when he revealed himself as the anonymous editor of UrbanExpose.com, a controversial entertainment gossip website.
References
External links
Wired Magazine December 1994: Gang Wars in Cyberspace
Hackateer, directed by John Threat
1973 births
Living people
Masters of Deception
African-American people
People associated with computer security
People from Brooklyn |
6269788 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20Forefront | Microsoft Forefront | Microsoft Forefront is a discontinued family of line-of-business security software by Microsoft Corporation. Microsoft Forefront products are designed to help protect computer networks, network servers (such as Microsoft Exchange Server and Microsoft SharePoint Server) and individual devices. As of 2015, the only actively developed Forefront product is Forefront Identity Manager.
Components
Forefront includes the following products:
Identity Manager: State-based identity management software product, designed to manage users' digital identities, credentials and groupings throughout the lifecycle of their membership of an enterprise computer system
Rebranded
System Center Endpoint Protection: A business antivirus software product that can be controlled over the network, formerly known as Forefront Endpoint Protection, Forefront Client Security and Client Protection.
Exchange Online Protection: A software as a service version of Forefront Protect for Exchange Server: Instead of installing a security program on the server, the customer re-routes its email traffic to the Microsoft online service before receiving them.
Discontinued
Threat Management Gateway: Discontinued server product that provides three functions: Routing, firewall and web cache. Formerly called Internet Security and Acceleration Server or ISA Server.
Unified Access Gateway: Discontinued server product that protects network assets by encrypting all inbound access request from authorized users. Supports Virtual Private Networks (VPN) and DirectAccess. Formerly called Intelligent Application Gateway.
Server Management Console: Discontinued web-based application that enables management of multiple instances of Protection for Exchange, Protection for SharePoint and Microsoft Antigen from a single interface.
Protection for Exchange: A discontinued software product that detects viruses, spyware, and spam by integrating multiple scanning engines from security partners in a single solution to protect Exchange messaging environments. FPE provides an administration console that includes customizable configuration settings, filtering options, monitoring features and reports, and integration with the Forefront Online Protection for Exchange (FOPE) product. After installation, managing FPE on multiple Exchange servers can be done with the Protection Server Management Console. Additionally, FPE can be managed using Windows PowerShell, a command-line shell and task-based scripting technology that enables the automation of system administration tasks.
Protection for SharePoint: A discontinued product that protects Microsoft SharePoint Server document libraries. It enforces rules that prevent documents containing malware, sensitive information, or out-of-policy content from being uploaded. Protection Server Management Console or Windows PowerShell can be used to manage Protection for SharePoint Server on multiple servers.
Security for Office Communications Server: Protects computers running Microsoft Office Communications Server from malware. Formerly called Antigen for Instant Messaging.
History
The predecessor to the Forefront server protection products was the Antigen line of antivirus products created by Sybari Software. Sybari was acquired by Microsoft in 2005, and the first Microsoft-branded version of the product was called Microsoft Forefront Security for SharePoint (FSSP) Version 10. FSSP Version 10 supports Microsoft Office SharePoint Server 2007 or Microsoft Windows SharePoint Services version 3, whereas FPSP (the last version of the product) supports Microsoft Office SharePoint Server 2010, Microsoft SharePoint Foundation 2010, Microsoft Office SharePoint Server 2007 SP1, or Windows SharePoint Services version 3 SP1.
See also
Microsoft Servers
References
External links
Microsoft Forefront Server Protection Blog on TechNet Blogs
Computer security software
Forefront |
1346822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Strategic%20Command | United States Strategic Command | United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM) is one of the eleven unified combatant commands in the United States Department of Defense. Headquartered at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, USSTRATCOM is responsible for strategic deterrence, global strike, and operating the Defense Department's Global Information Grid. It also provides a host of capabilities to support the other combatant commands, including integrated missile defense; and global command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR). This command exists to give national leadership a unified resource for greater understanding of specific threats around the world and the means to respond to those threats rapidly.
Mission statement
USSTRATCOM employs nuclear, cyber, global strike, joint electronic warfare, missile defense, and intelligence capabilities to deter aggression, decisively and accurately respond if deterrence fails, assure allies, shape adversary behavior, defeat terror, and define the force of the future.
Priorities
Strategic Deterrence
Decisive Response
A Combat-Ready Force
Commander's intent
Embrace strategic deterrence, consisting of innovative joint fighting forces integrated and synchronized in multiple domains to ensure national security.
Ensure a decisive response to aggression, against any threat, when called upon by civilian national leadership.
Anticipate and meet tactical, theater, and strategic demands through operational plans and capability development.
Develop the next generation of people and capabilities in order to prevail in future conflicts.
Headquarters organizational structure
J1 – Human Capital: Develops and administers command manpower and personnel policies, human resources, and personnel assignment programs.
J2 – Intelligence: Responsible for delivering all-source intelligence while enabling the execution of assigned strategic deterrence, space and cyberspace operations. Directs all intelligence-related support for the commander and ensures unity of intelligence effort across the Command.
J3 – Global Operations: Coordinates the planning, employment and operation of DoD strategic assets and combines all current operations, intelligence, and global command and control operations. Subdivisions within J3 include Combat and Information Operations, Current Operations, Logistics, and Joint Electromagnetic Spectrum Operations (JEMSO).
J4 – Logistics: The Logistics Directorate plans, coordinates and executes joint logistics functions, and provides capability-based readiness assessments and facilities management in support of U.S. Strategic Command's global mission.
J5 – Plans and Policy: Responsible for coordinating the development and implementation of national security policy as it applies to the command and the execution of its mission. Develops future plans, policy and strategy across all mission areas as outlined in the Unified Command Plan.
J6 – C4 Systems: Coordinates, facilitates, monitors and assesses systems, networks and communications requirements.
J7 – Joint Exercises, Training and Assessments: Manages the USSTRATCOM commander's Joint Exercises, Training, and Assessments programs in order to ensure readiness to perform the Command missions. Provides modeling and simulation support for exercises and training events to the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS), Combatant Commands, and other Major Commands (MAJCOM). Manages the Joint Lessons Learned Program. Augments the battle staff during a crisis.
J8 – Capability and Resource Integration: Conducts force management and analysis to include integrating, coordinating, prioritizing, and advocating USSTRATCOM future concepts, mission capability needs, weapons system development, support for emerging technologies, and command and control architecture across the mission areas. Responsible for all command requirement processes, and ensures appropriate decision support tools and assessment processes are in place to enhance operational capabilities.
Component structure
U.S. Strategic Command's day-to-day planning and execution for the primary mission areas is performed by the following USSTRATCOM components:
Joint Force Air Component Commander (JFACC), Barksdale AFB, LA – Conducts kinetic (nuclear and conventional) and non-kinetic effects planning and execution. JFACC manages global force air activities to assure allies and to deter and dissuade actions detrimental to the United States and its global interests; should deterrence fail, employs global strike air forces (bombers and ICBMs) in support of combatant commander.
Joint Forces Maritime Component Commander (STRATCOM) (JFMCC), Naval Station Norfolk, Norfolk, VA – to conduct operations in the maritime environment for strategic deterrence. It is commanded by US Fleet Forces Command.
JFCC – Integrated Missile Defense (JFCC-IMD) Schriever AFB, CO – JFCC-IMD is constantly monitoring for any missile activity or threat against the United States and its allies. In the event of an attack, IMD plans and coordinates the necessary actions to counter the threat. When directed, also provides alternate missile defense execution support.
Service components
Army Space and Missile Defense Command (SMDC)
Marine Corps Forces Strategic Command (MARFORSTRAT)
Fleet Forces Command (USFF)
Air Force Global Strike Command (AFGSC)
Command posts
The Global Operations Center, or GOC, is the nerve center for USSTRATCOM. The GOC is responsible for the global situational awareness of the commander, USSTRATCOM, and is the mechanism by which he exercises operational command and control of the Nation's global strategic forces.
The Alternate Processing and Correlation Center in the USSTRATCOM Underground Command Complex at Offutt AFB provides an alternate missile warning correlation center to the Cheyenne Mountain Missile Warning Center. It is the prime source of missile warning data for USSTRATCOM for force survival and force management. The facility consists of the integration of the SCIS, CSSR, and CCPDS-R systems and also upgrade equipment and communications links.
U.S. Strategic Command's Airborne Command Post (ABNCP), also called "Looking Glass", allows USSTRATCOM the ability to command, control, and communicate with its nuclear forces should ground-based command centers become inoperable.
History
USSTRATCOM was originally formed in 1992, as a successor to Strategic Air Command in response to the end of the Cold War and a new vision of nuclear warfare in U.S. defense policy. Department of Defense changes in command structure due to the "Goldwater-Nichols Act" of 1986, led to a single command responsible for all strategic nuclear weapons. As a result, USSTRATCOM's principal mission was to deter military attack, and if deterrence failed, to counter with nuclear weapons.
Throughout its history, it has drawn from important contributions from many different organizations stretching back to World War II. Providing national leadership with a single command responsible for all strategic nuclear forces, General George Butler, in establishing the new command, borrowed from the work of General Curtis LeMay, an early commander of Strategic Air Command. LeMay was a very vocal advocate for a strong national defense, particularly as regards nuclear weapons.
Being a Unified Command, another major concern for Gen. Butler was interservice rivalry, having soldiers, sailors, airmen and marines in one command. There had been decades of rivalry between the branches of the U.S. military regarding control of nuclear weapons. Even though a compromise had established the Joint Strategic Target Planning Staff, there were systemic and institutional problems that could not be overcome.
USSTRATCOM was re-structured 1 October 2002 by Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld. It was now to merge with the United States Space Command and assume all duties for full-spectrum global strike, operational space support, integrated missile defense, and global Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) and specialized planning. Its duties now include intelligence and cyber support as well as monitoring orbiting satellites and space debris.
In February 2008, USSTRATCOM succeeded in destroying a satellite, USA193, about to re-enter the earth's atmosphere.
USSTRATCOM also supported United States Africa Command's 2011 military intervention in Libya in a variety of ways, including long-range conventional strikes and intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR).
An intention by the U.S. Air Force to create a 'cyber command' was announced in October 2006. On 21 May 2010, part of USSTRATCOM's responsibility regarding cyber-warfare operations was spun off into a 10th Unified Command, the United States Cyber Command. As a result, USSTRATCOM's Joint Task Force-Global Network Operations (JTF-GNO) and Joint Functional Component Command – Network Warfare (JFCC-NW) were disestablished.
List of combatant commanders
See also
Nuclear weapons and the United States
Strategic Air Command
References
External links
United States Strategic Command Official Website
US Strategic Command Airborne Command Post Fact Sheet
Air Force Magazine, Journal of the Air Force Assoc., August 2008.
FAS: United States Space Command (USSPACECOM)
GAO Report: Additional Actions Needed by U.S. Strategic Command to Strengthen Implementation of Its Many Missions and New Organization
Strategic Command
Military units and formations established in 1992
1992 establishments in the United States
Military units and formations in Nebraska
Organizations based in Omaha, Nebraska
United States nuclear command and control
Strategic forces |
13494461 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatsune%20Miku | Hatsune Miku | , also called Miku Hatsune, and officially code-named CV01, is a Vocaloid software voicebank developed by Crypton Future Media and its official moe anthropomorphism, a 16-year-old girl with long, turquoise twintails. Miku's personification has been marketed as a virtual idol and has performed at live concerts onstage as an animated projection (rear cast projection on a specially coated glass screen).
Miku uses Yamaha Corporation's Vocaloid 2, Vocaloid 3, and Vocaloid 4 singing synthesizing technologies. She also uses Crypton Future Media's Piapro Studio, a standalone singing synthesizer editor. She was the second Vocaloid sold using the Vocaloid 2 engine and the first Japanese Vocaloid to use the Japanese version of the 2 engine. Her voice is modeled from Japanese voice actress Saki Fujita.
The name of the character comes from merging the Japanese words for , , and , thus meaning "the first sound of the future", which, along with her code name, refers to her position as the first of Crypton's "Character Vocal Series" (abbreviated "CV Series"), preceding both Kagamine Rin/Len (code-named CV02) and Megurine Luka (code-named CV03). Notice the number 01 on her left shoulder in her official artwork.
Miku is a nanori reading of the word for future , which is normally read as mirai. These are the same characters used in Miku's Chinese name, Chūyīn Wèilái, in simplified Chinese characters. ()
Development
Hatsune Miku was the first Vocaloid developed by Crypton Future Media after they handled the release of the Yamaha vocal Meiko and Kaito. Miku was intended to be the first of a series of Vocaloids called the "Character Vocal Series" (abbreviated "CV Series"), which included Kagamine Rin/Len and Megurine Luka. Each had a particular concept and vocal direction.
She was built using Yamaha's Vocaloid 2 technology, and later updated to newer engine versions. She was created by taking vocal samples from voice actress Saki Fujita at a controlled pitch and tone. Those samples all contain a single Japanese phonic that, when strung together, creates full lyrics and phrases. The pitch of the samples was to be altered by the synthesizer engine and constructed into a keyboard-style instrument within the Vocaloid software.
Crypton released Hatsune Miku on August 31, 2007. Crypton had the idea to release Miku as "an android diva in the near-future world where songs are lost." Hatsune Miku was released for Vocaloid 3 on August 31, 2013, including an English vocal library. She was the first Vocaloid to be developed by the company, following their commercial release handle of Yamaha Corporation developed vocals "Meiko" and "Kaito", making her the third Vocaloid to be sold commercially by the company.
Additional software
On April 30, 2010, a new add-on for Miku, called Hatsune Miku Append, was released, consisting of six different timbres for her voice: Soft (gentle timbre), Sweet (young, chibi quality), Dark (mature and melancholic), Vivid (bright and cheerful), Solid (loud, clear voice), and Light (innocent and angelic). Miku Append was created to expand Miku's voice library, and as such requires the original program to be installed on the user's computer first. This was the first time a Vocaloid had such a release, and more Append versions were reported from Crypton Future Media at later dates.
It was mentioned that a 7th Append voicebank, a falsetto voice, had been recorded; however, since the developers didn't think it would be useful on its own, no plans were made for an independent release. During the Kagamine Append development, a "darkish Whisper/Sweet" append was being considered. Miku's English vocal was also due for a Vocaloid 2 release, but it was not released in the engine due to low quality.
To aid in the production of 3D animations, the program MikuMikuDance was developed by an independent programmer. The freeware software allowed a boom in fan-made animations to be developed, as well as being a boost for promoting Vocaloid songs themselves. This spawned "NicoNico Cho Party", where fans could submit their animations to accompany live holographic performances of popular Vocaloid songs.
An English voicebank for Hatsune Miku was announced in 2011 and was to be released by the end of 2012. However, the decision to move to Vocaloid 3 and issues with English pronunciation delayed the release. It was finally released on August 31, 2013 via digital distribution.
The Hatsune Miku Vocaloid 3 Japanese vocal library was released on September 26, 2013. It contained updates to all previous Vocaloid 2 vocals except Vivid and Light. These were later released separately, though they were initially offered to anyone who already owned Hatsune Miku, Hatsune Miku Append, and Hatsune Miku V3. Once imported into Vocaloid4, all Vocaloid3 Hatsune Miku vocals could use the new Cross-Synthesis system (XSY) built for the new engine of Vocaloid 3. The voice was also imported into a device called Pocket Miku, released on April 3, 2014.
Hatsune Miku received an update for Yamaha's Vocaloid 4 engine under the name of Hatsune Miku V4x. It makes use of the new EVEC system for Piapro Studio, a VSTi plugin used as an alternative to the traditional Vocaloid Editor. EVEC consists of recorded vowels. Along with the consonant, a different vocal tone can be achieved. Two vocal tones are included in the EVEC system: Power and Soft. Along with the new EVEC system, phoneme errors found in Miku's V2 and V3 voicebanks would be fixed allowing for easier manipulation of her voice. , Hatsune Miku V4X/V4 English was released.
A Mandarin Chinese voicebank was released in September 2017, making Hatsune Miku the first trilingual Vocaloid product. Her Chinese name is . "" are the kanji characters. for her given name, Miku.
Marketing
Miku has been heavily promoted since 2008 and was originally aimed at professional musicians. On September 12, 2007, Amazon.co.jp reported sales of Hatsune Miku totaling 57,500,000 yen, making her the number one selling software of that time. She was the first vocal to be developed and distributed by Crypton Future Media and sung in Japanese. Her instant success is owed to Vocaloid being a cultural hit in Japan and she reportedly sold 40,000 units by July 2008, selling on average 300 units a week. By January 2011, she had sold 60,000 units.
Merchandising
Since the success of her Vocaloid 2 package led to an expansion of marketing possibilities, most of the mass marketing has come after her initial release as a response to her popularity and has been on going since 2008. Even with the addition of other Character Vocals, Miku's name continues to be used as the primary source of marketing for Crypton Future Media, to the point where most products for their Vocaloid related products will usually only feature Hatsune Miku's name. In March 2012, the Nomura Research Institute estimated that the sales of all Hatsune Miku brand goods added up into the region of since her release in 2007. Her name is easily the most recognizable of all Vocaloids.
In 2011, Crypton began to focus on marketing Miku to United States audiences. On May 7, Amazon placed a preview of Supercell's hit song, "World is Mine", as a single. When the song finally went on sale, it ranked at No. 7 in the top 10 world singles list on iTunes in its first week of sales. Since Crypton had always sold Miku as a virtual instrument in Japan, they asked their Japanese fan base if it was acceptable for them to sell her as a virtual singer to the new market audience. The main purpose of the Miku English version is to allow Japanese producers to break into the western market and expand their audiences.
Good Smile Racing
In 2008, Good Smile Racing began the licensing of Hatsune Miku and other Crypton Future Media-related Vocaloid content. Studie, which participated in the 2008 and 2009 seasons using a BMW Z4 E86. Their car was painted in official Hatsune Miku art, and fan-derivative versions of Hatsune Miku in some races in the 2009 season. In addition for the 2008 season a group of Racing queens were seen in the pitstop of races. Dubbed the "MikuMiku Gals", the three girls were Rin Miyama, Riona Osaki and Hina Saito. In 2009, a new set of MikuMiku Gals were introduced; these girls wore outfits based on all three Character Vocal series females and not specifically Hatsune Miku alone. Hiroko Nagano, Atsuko and Ayami were the Racing Queens for the season.
Team COX, participating in the 2010 season, which uses a Porsche 996 GT3 RSR (and will use a Porsche 997 GT3-R). Their car uses Racing Miku (an official Hatsune Miku derivative wearing an orange race queen suit) as their image. 2010 was also the first season to receive the first official "Racing Miku" derivative design, and from this season onward, the Racing Queens outfits were based on the season's derivative design. The designer of the 2010 outfit was illustrator Redjuice. Model ayami returned for this season as a Racing queen and was joined by fellow models Saki Tachibana and Shihomi Kogoshi.
GSR and Studie with TeamUKYO was the sponsorship for the 2011 season. The designer of the 2011 Racing Miku derivative design was illustrator Yuichi Murakami. Model Ayami returned as a Racing Queen for the third time and Tachibana Saki returned for her second season. Haruka Aoi was the third Racing Queen to wear the Racing Miku 2011 outfit. GSR and Studie with TeamUKYO was continued as a sponsorship for the 2012 season. The Racing Miku design was illustrated by Gan for this season. The Racing queens for the season were returning models Tachibana Saki and Aoi Haruka, as well as new models Sena Kougami and Ayana Sato.
Once again, the GSR and Studie with TeamUKYO sponsorship continued with the 2013 season. The Racing Miku design for the season was done by Mari Shimazaki. The illustrator of the official art was Saitom. Sena Kougami returned as a racing queen for this season and was joined by Tsukasa Arai and Elena Ishiguro. In 2013, the sponsorship was expanded to featured a racing outfit in the Isle of Man TT motorcycle racing, for this race Team Mirai were sponsored and a special design for the Racing Miku design adapted to suit the different spot, the team finished 6th with Ian Lougher on wheel after a fatal accident struck Yoshinari Matsushita (while riding another bike, a Suzuki 600cc) during practice at Ballacrye Corner. The Racing Miku design also was adapted for a "Sepang" version showing bare toned skin as part of showing good health and promoting the design as "the Angel of summer".
The illustrator for the 2014 season was Oguchi, one of the 15 artists of Kantai Collection. The outfit is designed by Koyamashigeto, the art director of Kill la Kill. The machine version of the outfit is designed by Koyamashigeto and Shōji Kawamori, who is noted for his "Macross" designs. The Racing Queens who wore the outfit were returning models Tsukasa Arai and Sena Kougami, as well as new models Kelal Yamaura and Noa Mizutani. For the 2015 Racing Miku, the design was based on a "Princess Knight" complete with a shield and spear-like umbrella. The illustrator was Taiki, the lead visual design from Square Enix and Sega's games Lord of Vermilion and Rise of Mana. Koyamashigeto once again returned as the art direction and designer for the season. Tsuyoshi Kusano is in charge of the new machine design.
Winter festivals
Sapporo has been a major main target of sponsorship since 2010, with Crypton Future Media sponsoring the winter festivals. The image of Hatsune Miku would appear around the town on public transportation. The image portrayal of Miku that is used is a derivative design called "Snow Miku". Although originally, this was simply a recoloring of the normal Hatsune Miku, unique designs have occurred every year since 2011. Figurines based on the design have also been featured.
The 2012 design was chosen via a contest. The winning entry was referred to as "Fluffy Coat Snow Miku". The 2013 design was called "Strawberry Daifuku Shiromuku Miku". The 2014 design was based on a Magical Girl design by dera_fury, who was the winner of the 2014 Snow Miku contest. The illustration was "Nekosumi". The design also featured a pet called "Rabbit Yukine". The 2015 design was called "Snow Bell Snow Miku" and was illustrated by Nardack.
In 2012, several ice sculptures of the Character Vocal series and several snow sculptures of Miku were produced for the event. However, on February 7, 2012, one of the Snow Miku sculptures later collapsed and had to be rebuilt elsewhere with better support. The collapsed figure also hit a woman in her early 60s on the back of the head; no serious injuries were sustained in the process.
During Miku's development, Crypton decided to take a different approach from that used by the other Vocaloid sound bank publishers. It was decided that to make the product successful not only would a highly appealing voice need to be developed, but that the voice needed an image. She was originally aimed only at professional producers; the amateur and otaku market had not fully formed yet, and so were not initially considered.
The task for coming up with Miku's image went to the manga artist Kei Garō. When Kei designed Miku, his only direction was that she was an android and what her color scheme (based on Yamaha's synthesizer's signature turquoise color) was. The design on Miku's skirt and boots are based on synthesizer software colors and the bars represent the actual bars within the program's user interface. Miku was originally intended to have a different hairstyle, but Kei stuck to pigtails or bunches after trying them out.
Cultural impact
Nico Nico Douga, a Japanese video streaming website similar to YouTube, played a fundamental role in the recognition and popularity of the software. Soon after Miku's release, Nico Nico Douga users started posting videos of songs created using her sound bank. According to Crypton, a popular video featuring Miku's chibi version, Hachune Miku, singing and dancing to "Ievan Polkka" while spinning a Welsh onion in homage to Loituma Girl's original video (which led to Miku also being commonly associated with spring onions) demonstrated the potential of the software in multimedia content creation. As Miku's recognition and popularity grew, Nico Nico Douga became a place for collaborative content creation. Popular original songs written by a user would inspire illustrations, animations in 2D and 3D, and remixes by other users. Some creators would show their unfinished work and ask for ideas.
In September 2009, three figurines based on the derivative character "Hachune Miku" were launched in a rocket from the United States state of Nevada's Black Rock Desert, though it did not reach outer space. In late November 2009, a petition was launched in order to get a custom-made Hatsune Miku aluminium plate (8 cm × 12 cm, 3.1" × 4.7") made that would be used as a balancing weight for the Japanese Venus spacecraft explorer Akatsuki. Started by Hatsune Miku fan Sumio Morioka (also known as "chodenzi-P"), this project has received the backing of Dr. Seiichi Sakamoto of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. On December 22, 2009, the petition exceeded the needed 10,000 signatures necessary to have the plates made. An original deadline of December 20, 2009, had been set to send in the petition, but due to a couple of delays in the Akatsuki project, a new deadline of January 6, 2010, was set; by this deadline, over 14,000 signatures had been received. On May 21, 2010 at 06:58:22 (JST), Akatsuki was launched, having three plates depicting Hatsune Miku and Hachune Miku in several monochrome images, composed of the miniature letters of the messages from the petition form etched in the plates. The UK 59th issue of the music and fashion magazine Clash featured Hatsune Miku as their cover star (using a real-life photo model), with a full feature on her. The third launch of the MOMO sounding rocket by Interstellar Technologies used Hatsune Miku's voice for the countdown.
The Vocaloid software has also had a great influence on the character Black Rock Shooter, who looks like Hatsune Miku but is not linked to her by design. The character was made famous by the song "Black Rock Shooter", and a number of figurines have been made. An original video animation made by Ordet was streamed for free as part of a promotional campaign running from June 25 to August 31, 2010. A televised anime series aired in February 2012.
In October 2011, Crypton showed on the official Hatsune Miku Facebook page a letter from the Japanese Minister of Economy for "contributing to the furtherance of the informatization by minister of economy." The flag of the city of Chiba was considered to coincidentally resemble the silhouette of Hatsune Miku, and on the 10th anniversary on August 31, 2017, the municipal government website temporarily changed its logo to look like Miku. Geoffrey Cain of GlobalPost has argued that the phenomenon of Hatsune Miku is partly due to the love of Japanese for giving inanimate objects a soul, which is rooted in Shintoism or animism, but also in the long tradition of Karakuri ningyō or automated wooden puppets. Thus, Japanese are much more ready to accept a virtual character as "human".
Hatsune Miku is often jokingly attributed as the creator of the video game Minecraft (originating from the Miku Twitter parody account mikumiku_ebooks which tweeted "i created minecraft") as well as the book series Harry Potter. Both of these attributions came about after the original creators of both works (Markus Persson and J. K. Rowling, respectively) published tweets that were critical of transgender people, which resulted in backlash from their respective fans.
Appearances in other media
Miku's popularity has resulted in various references to her in anime. Miku is the protagonist of a manga series named Maker Hikōshiki Hatsune Mix, written by Kei Garō. The manga explores the many possibilities of story-telling and has featured numerous adventures, ranging from giant-sized battles with Hatsune Miku to home exploits. There is therefore no single storyline, and the entire setting within the manga is unofficial. During an episode of Zoku Sayonara, Zetsubou Sensei, Miku is seen auditioning for the voice of Meru Otonashi (Kagamine Rin and Len are referenced in the same episode). Miku's voice is used in one of the ending themes for the anime series Akikan! (episode 12). Moreover, she also sings the ending theme for the anime Yamishibai: Japanese Ghost Stories, called . During an episode in the Lucky Star OVA, Kagami Hiiragi gets magically transformed into Miku cosplay. A character in the anime Kämpfer appears dressed as Miku in episode seven. She also appeared in the large plasma screen in Chrome Shelled Regios as an endorser. She also appears in episode 11 of Baka and Test as a member of class B. Miku also appears in Maria Holic episode 12, when the class is told they have a swim meet. Miku also appears in episode 1 of Himōto! Umaru-chan, in an imagination of what the main character wants to buy. A parody of Miku is also seen in Gintama (episode 237) in the second editor of Gintaman, Daito's anime fantasies. Miku also appeared in the anime Shinkansen Henkei Robo Shinkalion the Animation as a recurring character.
A series of rhythm games starting from Hatsune Miku: Project DIVA were produced by Sega under license using Hatsune Miku and other Crypton Vocaloids, as well as "fan-made" Vocaloids like Akita Neru. TinierMe also made attire that looks like Miku's for their services, allowing users to make their avatar resemble her. The series has sold 6million copies. Hatsune Miku and Future Stars: Project Mirai was developed for the Nintendo 3DS. Miku's appearance in this game is based on the Nendoroid series of figures. Hatsune Miku is also briefly referenced in the game Recettear, where a young man stargazing sees "The Green-Onion Girl" constellation. Also, in 2013, Saki Fujita voices Fei-Yen HD, a character based on one of Hatsune Miku's modules, in Super Robot Wars UX; this appearance does not use Miku's vocal library. Haruka Sawamura from the Yakuza series, another Sega franchise, can wear Miku's outfit in Yakuza 5, and an ice statue of Miku is also seen in the Sapporo region of the game.
Miku's clothes appear as a costume for a playable character in the Japanese version of PangYa and was the back-up vocal for the game's season four trailer, as a downloadable costume for Sophie in Tales of Graces and is seen during a stage in the game 13-sai no Hellowork DS. Miku's clothes also appear in Phantasy Star Portable 2 as a costume for the player's female character, as well as her hairstyle and leek-themed weapons. Miku appears in the PlayStation 3 version of The Idolm@ster 2 as downloadable content. In the video game Skullgirls, one of Filia's alternative colors is based on Miku. Hatsune Miku's attire has also appeared in Phantasy Star Online 2 as a female character's costume, along with "Miku Dayō" as a Mag Design. She also makes an appearance in the game Brave Frontier.
In 2014, Korg introduced "Miku Stomp", a guitar effects unit that emulates the sound of Miku's voice. "Tell Your World" by Livetune, which features her as a featured artist, appears in Japan's Just Dance Wii U. In 2015, "Ievan Polkka" was announced to appear in Just Dance 2016 along with a dancer whose outfit is exactly like Miku's. On July 23, 2015, Miku was announced as a DLC character in Persona 4: Dancing All Night, a video game released in 2015 for the PlayStation Vita and developed by Atlus. On November 26, 2015, Miku became a collaboration idol for the second update of the 2016 series of the Aikatsu! arcade game. Several cards containing Hatsune Miku uniforms were also included for the update. In 2016, a remix of "Ievan Polkka" appeared on an LG G5 commercial. "PoPiPo" was announced to appear in Just Dance 2017 also with a dancer whose resembles Miku. Then, "Love Ward" was also announced to appear in Just Dance 2018 with the same Miku-resembling dancer. In March 2017, Miku was introduced as a playable character in the mobile game '#COMPASS'. In fall 2017, Hatsune Miku was added as a playable character in PriPara. "Love Ward" and "PoPiPo" are still available in future Just Dance games as part of Ubisoft's Just Dance Unlimited service for Just Dance 2016 onwards.
In August 2017, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the virtual singer, Ricoh released a limited edition of its 360° camera Ricoh Theta branded with Hatsune Miku imagery called the Ricoh Theta SC Type Hatsune Miku. The Ricoh Theta Type Hatsune Miku mobile apps (iOS and Android) allow for placing images of the character (in 55 different poses) within 360° images taken with the camera. Users can manipulate Hatsune Miku's facial expressions, change the direction of the character's shadow and hair, and rotate the character to place it within the 360° image. The product includes a specially designed case and other features illustrated by Fuzichoco, an illustrator at Crypton Future Media.
In 2020, Hatsune Miku (also under the name Space Channel 39 and Space 39) was announced to be released as part of a DLC pack for Space Channel 5 VR: Kinda Funky News Flash on July 27 that same year. The installment allows the player to dance with Miku or attempt to defeat her in a dance battle, alongside Ulala, 88MAN, or Pudding. The DLC also unlocks a Hatsune themed outfit for Ulala (under Channel 39).
Featured music
In August 2010, over 22,000 original songs had been written for Hatsune Miku. Later reports confirmed that she had 100,000 songs in 2011 to her name. Crypton's website promotes Miku's popularity having her voice used in over 100,000 unique songs.
One of the Vocaloid compilations, Exit Tunes Presents Vocalogenesis feat. Hatsune Miku, debuted at number-one on the Japanese weekly Oricon album charts dated May 31, 2010, becoming the first Vocaloid album ever to top the charts. Another album, Supercell, by the group Supercell also features a number of songs using Vocaloids. Other albums, such as 19's Sound Factory's First Sound Story and Livetune's Re:package, and Re:Mikus also feature Miku's voice. Other uses of Miku include the albums by Absorb and by OSTER-project. She had covered Nyan Cat called "Nyanyanyanyan!" by daniwell-P. Kagamine Len and Rin's songs were covered by Asami Shimoda in the album Prism credited to "Kagamine Rin/Len feat. Asami Shimoda". Another song original sung by Miku, "Color", was covered by Maria, and featured as the opening theme of the 2011 anime series Freezing.
As a virtual idol, Hatsune Miku performed her first "live" concert during Animelo Summer Live at the Saitama Super Arena on August 22, 2009. Miku later returned to Animelo Summer Live 2012: Infinity to perform "World is Mine" and "Tell Your World". Miku also performed her first overseas live concert on November 21, 2009, during Anime Festival Asia (AFA) in Singapore. On March 9, 2010, Miku's first solo live performance titled "Miku no Hi Kanshasai 39's Giving Day" was opened at the Zepp Tokyo in Odaiba, Tokyo. Miku performed in the United States on July 2, 2011 at the Nokia Theater at L.A. Live during the 2011 Anime Expo in Los Angeles. The concert followed the same format as the previous "39's Giving Day" concert. Hatsune Miku performed in Japanese rock festival Summer Sonic 2013 on August 10, 2013. Hatsune Miku teamed up with designer Louis Vuitton and director Toshiki Okada for a Vocaloid opera, titled The End. It featured no human singers and took place at the Theatre du Chatelet Opera House in Paris on November 13 and 15, 2013. Another operatic work starring Hatsune Miku, a short opera buffa entitled "Weebmalion", appeared in 2018, this time featuring a real soloist, tenor Aleksander Kunach, singing with her in a love duet written by Polish composer, Krzysztof Żelichowski. It was the first time a classically trained voice appeared alongside Vocaloid in original classical composition.
A young male prototype used for the "Project If..." series was used in Sound Horizon's musical work "Ido e Itaru Mori e Itaru Ido", labeled as the "prologue maxi". The prototype sang alongside Miku for their music and is known only by the name "Junger März_Prototype β". Hatsune Miku was the opening act for Lady Gaga's world tour ArtRave: The Artpop Ball, performing throughout the first month of her tour from May 6 to June 3, 2014.
In March 2014, Hatsune Miku and Crypton Future Media teamed up with the Japanese band Bump of Chicken to record a music video featuring a real band singing alongside Hatsune Miku in real time. This video was uploaded on March 12, 2014, and contains the song "Ray". The video is not after-edited in any way. This was made possible by Crypton's newest technology to focus characters on a screen directly to the recording camera by using a big curved screen, motion data, Wifi-sensors, movement-sensors and some older technology from Crypton.
Pharrell Williams made a remix of Livetune's song "Last Night, Goodnight" featuring Hatsune Miku. On October 8, 2014, Miku made her American network television debut as she performed "Sharing the World" on the Late Show with David Letterman on CBS. Hatsune Miku is featured in "B Who I Want 2 B" produced by Sophie from Namie Amuro's album Genic. The 2016 Hatsune Miku Expo tour featured American electronic band Anamanaguchi as an opening act; to commemorate the tour, the band recorded a single track titled "Miku", which they performed live on the tour with Miku as an encore song. Big Boi (of Outkast) sampled Aura Qualic's song "DATA 2.0", featuring Hatsune Miku for his 2017 single "Kill Jill", also appearing in the song's music video. Slushii did a collaboration with Hatsune Miku for the song Though the Night which was released on May 11, 2018 on the single Through the Night.
In January 2020, Hatsune Miku was announced as a performer at Coachella 2020 in Indio, California, which was later cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
On December 11, 2020, Hatsune Miku was a featured artist on a remixed version of American rapper Ashnikko's song "Daisy" titled "Daisy 2.0".
References
References
External links
Crypton Future Media official website
Vocaloids introduced in 2007
Female characters in anime and manga
Fictional female musicians
Fictional singers
Japanese idols
Japanese popular culture
Music production software
Sega protagonists
Teenage characters in video games
Internet memes
Recorded music characters
Virtual influencers
Internet memes introduced in 2007 |
424893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synopsys | Synopsys | Synopsys is an American electronic design automation company that focuses on silicon design and verification, silicon intellectual property and software security and quality. Products include logic synthesis, behavioral synthesis, place and route, static timing analysis, formal verification, hardware description language (SystemC, SystemVerilog/Verilog, VHDL) simulators, and transistor-level circuit simulation. The simulators include development and debugging environments that assist in the design of the logic for chips and computer systems. In recent years, Synopsys has expanded its products and services to include application security testing. Their technology is present in self-driving cars, artificial intelligence, and internet of things consumer products.
History
Synopsys was founded by Aart J de Geus and David Gregory in 1986 in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. The company was initially established as Optimal Solutions with a charter to develop and market synthesis technology developed by the team at General Electric.
Mergers and acquisitions
Synopsys has made some silicon and design verification acquisitions.
CoWare
CoWare was a supplier of platform-driven electronic system-level (ESL) design software and services. CoWare was headquartered in San Jose, California, and had offices around the world, major R&D offices in Belgium, Germany and India.
CoWare development was initiated by the Interuniversity Microelectronics Centre (IMEC) in Belgium as an internal project in 1992. In 1996, CoWare spun off as an independent company. CoWare is one of the founding member of SystemC language. In 2005, CoWare acquired the Signal Processing department from Cadence. On February 8, 2010, Synopsys announced an acquisition of CoWare.
Its products included: Platform Architect, Model Designer, Model Library, Processor Designer, Signal Processing Designer and Virtual Platform Designer.
Avanti Corporation
Avanti Corporation (styled as "Avant!) was founded when several former Cadence Design Systems employees bought the startup ArcSys, which was previously merged with Integrated Silicon Solutions (ISS), gaining Avanti its design rule checking and layout versus schematic tool Hercules (including 3D silicon structure modeling), then bought Compass Design Automation, which had fully integrated IC design flow and ASIC libraries, especially its place and route tool, which Avanti reworked to create Saturn and Apollo II; and it also bought TMA (Technology Modeling Associates) which brought their pioneering TCAD and Proteus optical proximity correction tools. This was, by far, Synopsys' most significant and controversial acquisition. At the time Avanti was the #4 company in the EDA industry, and was struggling with a major lawsuit from Cadence for software theft. Avanti was merged into Synopsys on June 6, 2002 during the litigation. Synopsys paid Cadence about $265 million more to end all litigation. Soon after the settlement, in Cadence Design Systems, Inc. v. Avant! Corp., 29 Cal. 4th 215, 57 P.3d 647, 127 Cal. Rptr. 2d 169 (2002), the California Supreme Court upheld the lower court's earlier decision. Synopsys then paid an additional $26.1 million to Silvaco to settle two of three Silvaco's suits against Meta-Software, earlier purchased by Avanti, and its president. The lawsuits were filed in 1995 and inherited by Avanti.
Novas Software
Novas Software was a company founded in 1996 by Paul Huang to address the ongoing problem of debugging chip designs. Novas was purchased by Taiwan-based EDA company SpringSoft in May 2008. Prior to its purchase, Novas was partly owned by SpringSoft, which developed the underlying debug technology. Until 2008, Novas grew to employ over 50 people with office locations across the world, headquartered in San Jose, California. SpringSoft and Novas was acquired by Synopsys in 2012.
Novas offered debugging and visibility enhancement products that cut down on verification time. Novas' main product offerings included the Debussy Debug System, Verdi Automated Debug System and the Siloti family of Visibility Enhancement products. A 2006 study found Novas Software to be the sixth most-used EDA vendor. Along with this, Novas Software topped the user satisfaction ratings with 100% of respondents in Europe, 83% in North America & 69% in Asia saying they were either "very" or "somewhat" satisfied. This distinction was also awarded to Novas Software for the four years prior to 2006.
Numerical Technologies
Numerical Technologies, Inc. was a San Jose, California, United States based electronic design automation public (NASDAQ: NMTC) company. The company was primarily known for its intellectual property, software tools and services covering phase-shifting mask technology.
On January 10, 2000 Numerical Technologies acquired Transcription Enterprises, Inc. primarily known for its CATS software for mask data preparation,
On October 27, 2000 Numerical Technologies acquired Cadabra Design Automation, a provider of automated IC layout cell creation technology used to create the building blocks for standard cell, semi-custom and custom integrated circuits. Purchase price was $99 million.
On March 3, 2003 it was acquired by Synopsys.
SpringSoft
SpringSoft is a software company that developed VLSI design and debugging software. The company was founded with a grant from the Taiwanese National Science Council in February 1996.
In 1997, SpringSoft established Novas Software in Silicon Valley to market Springsoft's VLSI Debugging software. SpringSoft created a custom layout tool called Laker and a US-based company called Silicon Canvas. In May 2008, SpringSoft purchased Novas Software Silicon Canvas and combined them to form the wholly owned subsidiary SpringSoft USA. SpringSoft employed over 400 people with office locations across the world.
Synopsys announced its acquisition of SpringSoft in 2012.
Synplicity
Synplicity Inc. was a supplier of software for design of programmable logic devices (FPGAs, PLDs and CPLDs) used for communications, military/aerospace, consumer, semiconductor, computer and other electronic systems. Synplicity's tools provided logic synthesis, physical synthesis, and verification functions for FPGA, FPGA-based ASIC prototyping, and DSP designers. Synplicity was listed on Nasdaq until it was acquired by Synopsys for $227 million in a transaction finalized May 15, 2008. Synplicity was founded by Ken McElvain (Chief Technical Officer) and Alisa Yaffa (former CEO).
ARC International
ARC International PLC was the designer of ARC (Argonaut RISC Core) embedded processors, which were widely used in SoC devices for IoT, storage, digital home, mobile, and automotive applications. ARC processors have been licensed by more than 200 companies and are shipped in more than 1.5 Billion products per year. ARC International was acquired by Synopsys in 2010.
The roots of ARC International date back to the early 1990s. The company was founded by Jez San and Rick Clucas to build upon the 3D accelerator technology previously developed for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System by a division of Argonaut Software. This forerunner to the ARC was originally called the Mario (Mathematical, Argonaut, Rotation & I/O) chip and later dubbed the Super FX. It went on to sell millions, at the time outselling ARM or any other RISC core.
Following the success of the Super FX, its designers were split from the main company into a subsidiary called Multi Media Technologies Ltd (MMT). They created a new 32-bit design that would later be called ARC and marketed as the first general-purpose configurable microprocessor. Later, MMT was acquired by Argonaut Software and eventually turned into a new company called Argonaut Technologies Ltd (ATL) which was spun off as a separate company which eventually became ARC International. In 1995 Bob Terwilliger took over as ARC's first CEO. He created the company licensing strategy, commercialized the product including the acquisition of Metaware, VAutomation and Precise Software. He raised $50 million pre-IPO and took the company public in September 2000, raising an additional $250 million.
Divisions
Synopsys has three divisions including silicon design and verification, silicon intellectual property, and software integrity.
Silicon Design and Verification
This Synopsys division focuses the design and verification of integrated circuits and designing more advanced processes and models for the manufacturing of those chips.
Silicon intellectual property
This division of Synopsys focuses on silicon intellectual property for system-on-a-chip (SoC) designs.
Software Integrity
In 2014, Synopsys began to expand their products and services to include software security and quality. This division helps organizations integrate security into DevOps environments, build holistic application security programs, test any software on-demand, find and fix software quality and compliance issues earlier, identify and manage open-source software components, and assess application security threats, risks and dependencies.
Partnerships
In 2018, Synopsys partnered with the PLA National Defence University to provide field-programmable gate array design training.
See also
List of EDA companies
List of tools for static code analysis
Proprietary software
Security information and event management
Dynamic application security testing
OWASP
References
External links
Electronic design automation companies
Electronics companies of the United States
Technology companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Companies based in Mountain View, California
American companies established in 1986
Electronics companies established in 1986
1986 establishments in North Carolina |
31168132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suelette%20Dreyfus | Suelette Dreyfus | Suelette Dreyfus is a technology researcher, journalist, and writer. Her fields of research include information systems, digital security and privacy, the impact of technology on whistleblowing, health informatics and e-Education. Her work examines digital whistleblowing as a form of freedom of expression and the right of dissent from corruption. She is a researcher and lecturer in the Department of Computing and Information Systems at the University of Melbourne, as well as the Principal Researcher on an international research project on the impact of digital technologies on whistleblowing.
Career
Dreyfus' work in e-Health has focused on the patient information experience in the health system and the role of technology in error incident reporting in hospital settings. She has co-invented innovative prototypes in information design for pathology reports with the aim of transforming them from simple lab information outputs, into multi-layered information tools, which would allow doctors to improve communication with patients and families regarding the status of their diseases in progressive and chronic illnesses such as diabetes.
Her research in e-Education has focused on using social media to teach foreign language to English-speaking primary school students, particularly for difficult languages that require more hours of practice such as Asian languages.
Dreyfus has written on the importance of protecting Freedom of Information access (FOI), the problems of information asymmetry and ‘tool asymmetry’ between the individual citizen and the state, and the trend of ‘security clearance creep’.
Underground
She is the author of the 1997 book Underground: Hacking, Madness and Obsession on the Electronic Frontier. The book describes the exploits of a group of Australian, American, and British hackers during the late 1980s and early 1990s, among them Julian Assange who is credited as a researcher for the book.
The book was first published under the Mandarin imprint (Random House Australia). The author subsequently released it in e-version in 2001 for free. She also donated the e-book to Project Gutenberg’s library so it would be available in perpetuity to the public, in various text formats, for free, partly so that the book would be easily accessible by the vision-impaired.
Underground has been translated into seven other languages, including French, German, Spanish, Japanese, Chinese (simplified), Chinese (traditional) and Russian. The German edition incorporated a QR reader code into the front cover design which took the reader to a secret recorded audio message about the book, echoing the hacker discovery experiences described in the work.
Dreyfus was an Associate Producer and interview subject for the documentary In the Realm of the Hackers, inspired by Underground, in 2003. Underground was also the basis for a 2012 film by Australian screenwriter and director Robert Connolly.
Journalism
She has been a contributor to The Sydney Morning Herald, The Australian, The Independent, and The Age, as well as to radio programs including the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's Late Night Live with Philip Adams. She trained and worked as a staff reporter for a daily newspaper in Australia.
In 2015 and 2016, Dreyfus has run training for journalists in a major media organisation and in a journalism school on digital and physical methods of protecting sources and data. She also runs information security workshops for journalism students in The University of Melbourne with Andrew Clausen and Yung Ju Chua.
Her essays have also appeared in The Conversation, discussing the importance of protecting public access to strong encryption, the need for legal protections for whistleblowers, and the security paradox of legislation enforcing retention of metadata for two years for everyone in Australia.
References
External links
Underground: Hacking, Madness and Obsession on the Electronic Frontier ()
Living people
University of Melbourne faculty
Australian people of French-Jewish descent
Writers about computer security
Cypherpunks
Activists from Melbourne
Australian women writers
Australian computer specialists
Australian freelance journalists
Australian political journalists
Australian producers
Internet activists
Journalists from Melbourne
Open content activists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Information systems researchers |
52483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic%20mailing%20list | Electronic mailing list | An electronic mailing list or email list is a special use of email that allows for widespread distribution of information to many Internet users. It is similar to a traditional mailing list – a list of names and addresses – as might be kept by an organization for sending publications to its members or customers, but typically refers to four things:
a list of email addresses,
the people ("subscribers") receiving mail at those addresses, thus defining a community gathered around a topic of interest.
the publications (email messages) sent to those addresses, and
a reflector, which is a single email address that, when designated as the recipient of a message, will send a copy of that message to all of the subscribers.
Mechanism
Electronic mailing lists usually are fully or partially automated through the use of special mailing list software and a reflector address set up on a server capable of receiving email. Incoming messages sent to the reflector address are processed by the software, and, depending on their content, are acted upon internally (in the case of messages containing commands directed at the software itself) or are distributed to all email addresses subscribed to the mailing list.
A web-based interface is often available to allow people to subscribe, unsubscribe, and change their preferences. However, mailing list servers existed long before the World Wide Web, so most also accept commands over email to a special email address. This allows subscribers (or those who want to be subscribers) to perform such tasks as subscribing and unsubscribing, temporarily halting the sending of messages to them, or changing available preferences – all via email. The common format for sending these commands is to send an email that contains simply the command followed by the name of the electronic mailing list the command pertains to. Examples: subscribe anylist or subscribe anylist John Doe.
Electronic mailing list servers may be set to forward messages to subscribers of a particular mailing list either individually as they are received by the list server, or in digest form in which all messages received on a particular day by the list server are combined into one email that is sent once per day to subscribers. Some mailing lists allow individual subscribers to decide how they prefer to receive messages from the list server (individual or digest).
History
Mailing lists have first been scholarly mailing lists. The genealogy of mailing lists as a communication tool between scientists can be traced back to the times of the fledgling Arpanet. The aim of the computer scientists involved in this project was to develop protocols for the communication between computers. In so doing, they have also built the first tools of human computer-mediated communication. Broadly speaking, the scholarly mailing lists can even be seen as the modern version of the salons of the Enlightenment ages, designed by scholars for scholars.
The “threaded conversation” structure (where the header of a first post defines the topic of a series of answers thus constituting a thread) is a typical and ubiquitous structure of discourse within lists and fora of the Internet. It is pivotal to the structure and topicality of debates within mailing lists as an arena, or public sphere in Habermas wording. The flame wars (as the liveliest episodes) give valuable and unique information to historians to comprehend what is at stake in the communities gathered around lists.
Anthropologists, sociologists and historians have used mailing lists as fieldwork. Topics include TV series fandom, online culture, or scientific practices among many other academic studies. From the historian's point of view, the issue of the preservation of mailing lists heritage (and Internet fora heritage in general) is essential. Not only the text of the corpus of messages has yet to be perennially archived, but also their related metadata, timestamps, headers that define topics, etc. Mailing lists archives are a unique opportunity for historians to explore interactions, debates, even tensions that reveal a lot about communities.
Types
Announcement list
One type of electronic mailing list is an announcement list, which is used primarily as a one-way conduit of information and may only be "posted to" by selected people. This may also be referred to by the term newsletter. Newsletter and promotional emailing lists are employed in various sectors as parts of direct marketing campaigns.
Discussion list
Another type of electronic mailing list is a discussion list, in which any subscriber may post. On a discussion list, a subscriber uses the mailing list to send messages to all the other subscribers, who may answer in similar fashion. Thus, actual discussion and information exchanges can happen. Mailing lists of this type are usually topic-oriented (for example, politics, scientific discussion, health problems, joke contests), and the topic may range from extremely narrow to "whatever you think could interest us". In this they are similar to Usenet newsgroups, another form of discussion group that may have an aversion to off-topic messages.
List security
On both discussion lists and newsletter lists precautions are taken to avoid spamming.
Discussion lists often require every message to be approved by a moderator before being sent to the rest of the subscribers (moderated lists), although higher-traffic lists typically only moderate messages from new subscribers. Companies sending out promotional newsletters have the option of working with whitelist mail distributors, which agree to standards and high fines from ISPs should any of the opt-in subscribers complain. In exchange for their compliance and agreement to prohibitive fines, the emails sent by whitelisted companies are not blocked by spam filters, which often can reroute these legitimate, non-spam emails.
Subscription
Some mailing lists are open to anyone who wants to join them, while others require an approval from the list owner before one may join. Joining a mailing list is called "subscribing" and leaving a list is called "unsubscribing".
Archives
A mailing list archive is a collection of past messages from one or more electronic mailing lists. Such archives often include searching and indexing functionality. Many archives are directly associated with the mailing list, but some organizations, such as Gmane, collect archives from multiple mailing lists hosted at different organizations; thus, one message sent to one popular mailing list may end up in many different archives. Gmane had over 9,000 mailing list archives as of 16 January 2007. Some popular free software programs for collecting mailing list archives are Hypermail, MHonArc, and FUDforum.
See also
List of mailing list software
Dgroups
eGroups
Email marketing software
Google Groups
Linux kernel mailing list
LISTSERV
Mailing list
MSN Groups
Netiquette
Online consultation
squeeze page
Yahoo! Groups
Computational Chemistry List
References
Email
Social information processing
Virtual communities
Internet culture |
5431341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20over%20Ethernet | Audio over Ethernet | In audio and broadcast engineering, Audio over Ethernet (sometimes AoE—not to be confused with ATA over Ethernet) is the use of an Ethernet-based network to distribute real-time digital audio. AoE replaces bulky snake cables or audio-specific installed low-voltage wiring with standard network structured cabling in a facility. AoE provides a reliable backbone for any audio application, such as for large-scale sound reinforcement in stadiums, airports and convention centers, multiple studios or stages.
While AoE bears a resemblance to voice over IP (VoIP) and audio over IP (AoIP), AoE is intended for high-fidelity, low-latency professional audio. Because of the fidelity and latency constraints, AoE systems generally do not utilize audio data compression. AoE systems use a much higher bit rate (typically 1 Mbit/s per channel) and much lower latency (typically less than 10 milliseconds) than VoIP. AoE requires a high-performance network. Performance requirements may be met through use of a dedicated local area network (LAN) or virtual LAN (VLAN), overprovisioning or quality of service features.
Some AoE systems use proprietary protocols (at the lower OSI layers) which create Ethernet frames that are transmitted directly onto the Ethernet (layer 2) for efficiency and reduced overhead. The word clock may be provided by broadcast packets.
Protocols
There are several different and incompatible protocols for audio over Ethernet. Protocols can be broadly categorized into layer-1, layer-2 and layer-3 systems based on the layer in the OSI model where the protocol exists.
Layer-1 protocols
Layer-1 protocols use Ethernet wiring and signaling components but do not use the Ethernet frame structure. Layer-1 protocols often use their own media access control (MAC) rather than the one native to Ethernet, which generally creates compatibility issues and thus requires a dedicated network for the protocol.
Open standards
AES50
MaGIC by Gibson
Proprietary
SuperMAC, an implementation of AES50
HyperMAC, a gigabit Ethernet variant of SuperMAC
A-Net by Aviom
AudioRail
ULTRANET By Behringer
Layer-2 protocols
Layer-2 protocols encapsulate audio data in standard Ethernet packets. Most can make use of standard Ethernet hubs and switches though some require that the network (or at least a VLAN) be dedicated to the audio distribution application.
Open standards
AES51, A method of passing ATM services over Ethernet that allows AES3 audio to be carried in a similar way to AES47
Audio Video Bridging (AVB), when used with the IEEE 1722 AV Transport Protocol profile (which transports IEEE 1394/IEC 61883 (FireWire) over Ethernet frames, using IEEE 802.1AS for timing)
Proprietary
CobraNet
RAVE by QSC Audio, an implementation of CobraNet
EtherSound by Digigram
NetCIRA, a rebranded EtherSound by Fostex
REAC and RSS digital snake technology by Roland
SoundGrid by Waves Audio
dSNAKE by Allen & Heath
Layer-3 protocols
Layer-3 protocols encapsulate audio data in OSI model layer 3 (network layer) packets. By definition it does not limit the choice of protocol to be the most popular layer-3 protocol, the Internet Protocol (IP). In some implementations, the layer-3 audio data packets are further packaged inside OSI model layer-4 (transport layer) packets, most commonly User Datagram Protocol (UDP) or Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP). Use of UDP or RTP to carry audio data enables them to be distributed through standard computer routers, thus a large distribution audio network can be built economically using commercial off-the-shelf equipment.
Although IP packets can traverse the Internet, most layer-3 protocols cannot provide reliable transmission over the Internet due to the limited bandwidth, significant End-to-end delay and packet loss that can be encountered by data flow over the Internet. For similar reasons, transmission of layer-3 audio over wireless LAN are also not supported by most implementations.
Open standards
AES67
Audio Contribution over IP standardized by the European Broadcasting Union
Audio Video Bridging (AVB), when used with IEEE 1733 or AES67 (which uses standard RTP over UDP/IP, with extensions for linking IEEE 802.1AS Precision Time Protocol timing information to payload data)
NetJack, a network backend for the JACK Audio Connection Kit
Zita-njbridge, a set of clients for the JACK Audio Connection Kit
RAVENNA by ALC NetworX (uses PTPv2 timing)
Proprietary
Livewire by Axia Audio, a division of Telos Systems
Dante by Audinate (PTP version 1 timing)
Q-LAN by QSC Audio Products (PTP version 2 timing)
WheatNet-IP by Wheatstone Corporation
Similar concepts
High quality digital audio distribution was patented in 1988 by Tareq Hoque at the MIT Media Lab. The technology was licensed to several leading OEM audio and chip manufacturers that were further developed into commercial products.
RockNet by Riedel Communications, uses Cat-5 cabling. Hydra2 by Calrec uses Cat-5e cabling or fiber through SFP transceivers.
MADI uses 75-ohm coaxial cable with BNC connectors or optical fibre to carry up to 64 channels of digital audio in a point-to-point connection. It is most similar in design to AES3, which can carry only two channels.
AES47 provides audio networking by passing AES3 audio transport over an ATM network using structured network cabling (both copper and fibre). This was used extensively by contractors supplying the BBC's wide area real-time audio connectivity around the UK.
Audio over IP differs in that it works at a higher layer, encapsulated within Internet Protocol. Some of these systems are usable on the Internet, but may not be as instantaneous, and are only as reliable as the network route — such as the path from a remote broadcast back to the main studio, or the studio/transmitter link (STL), the most critical part of the airchain. This is similar to VoIP, however AoIP is comparable to AoE for a small number of channels, which are usually also data-compressed. Reliability for permanent STL uses comes from the use of a virtual circuit, usually on a leased line such as T1/E1, or at minimum ISDN or DSL.
In broadcasting, and to some extent in studio and even live production, many manufacturers equip their own audio engines to be tied together. This may also be done with gigabit Ethernet and optical fibre rather than wire. This allows each studio to have its own engine, or for auxiliary studios to share an engine. By connecting them together, different sources can be shared among them.
AoE is not necessarily intended for wireless networks, thus the use of various 802.11 devices may or may not work with various (or any) AoE protocols.
See also
Comparison of audio network protocols
Ethernet Powerlink
HDBaseT
References
Audio engineering
Broadcast engineering
Ethernet
Audio network protocols |
271304 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20SideWinder | Microsoft SideWinder | Microsoft SideWinder was the general name given to the family of digital game controllers developed by Microsoft for PCs. The line was first launched in 1995. Although intended only for use with Microsoft Windows, Microsoft SideWinder game controllers can also be used with macOS, Mac OS 9 with third-party software, and Linux.
The term "SideWinder" describes many types of Microsoft's PC game controllers including joysticks, gamepads and steering wheels. Several types of joysticks were made, including the Force Feedback 2, the 3D Pro, and the regular SideWinder joystick. Also, several types of gamepads were made, such as the original game port version, a plug-and-play game port version, and the USB version. Steering wheels are the Precision Racing Wheel and the Force Feedback Wheel variants which include throttle and brake pedals.
The family also includes some more exotic devices such as the SideWinder Game Voice system and the SideWinder Strategic Commander.
The SideWinder family of products was discontinued by Microsoft in 2003, citing poor sales. The company has since re-entered the gaming hardware market, in hopes of designing a standardized gamepad for Windows Vista with both the wired Xbox 360 controller and the Wireless Gaming Receiver that allows the use of the wireless Xbox 360 controller on the PC.
In August 2007, Microsoft announced they were relaunching the SideWinder line of gaming peripherals, starting with the SideWinder Mouse. The mouse was given an MSRP of $80 and a launch date of October 2007.
First generation
Notes
See bottom of device. Microsoft SideWinder 3D Pro Plus were sold as Sidewinder Precision Pro but have no USB support.
Also known as Microsoft SideWinder Precision 2 1.0
Also known as Microsoft SideWinder Force Feedback Wheel USB 1.0
A user-made adapter exists for modern Windows versions (XP and later), Mac OS X and Linux.
A user-made adapter exists, incorporating Force-feedback support for modern Windows versions (XP and later), Mac OS X and Linux. Game must also support FFB. There is a bug in the Windows 8 joystick control panel which causes the joystick to be reported as non-functional. Games will still recognize and use the joystick.
A user-made adapter exists for modern Windows versions (XP and later), Mac OS X and Linux. There is no support for Force-feedback at this time.
Gamepad
The original Microsoft SideWinder gamepad had a digital directional pad, six fire buttons, two trigger buttons, and a "Mode" and "Start" button. The original gameport version had a pass-through, so additional joypads or joysticks could be used without unplugging the SideWinder, and also allowed the connection of up to four SideWinder gamepads working simultaneously. Newer USB versions of the SideWinder gamepad have a round digital directional pad instead of the more traditional cross-shaped directional pad, and lack the mode button. The Microsoft SideWinder's button layout is very similar to that of the Sega Saturn controller, which was released over the same time period.
The Gamepad features as a character (Ä) in the Webdings dingbat font.
3D Pro
As Microsoft's first SideWinder joystick, the 3D Pro was responsible for setting the overall design as seen in all of Microsoft's future joysticks. Designed as a gaming-neutral joystick, rather than a specialized joystick for use with realistic combat flight simulators, the 3D Pro was built with a functional, but low-key geometric design. Intended to rival the other sticks from the time, the 3D Pro included 8 buttons - 4 on the base, 4 on the stick - an 8-way hat switch, a slider-based throttle, and the stick itself was twistable for Z/rudder/spin control. By going with a geometric design however, it meant the 3D Pro lacked an effective adherence to ergonomic principles, making it unsuitable for long gaming sessions for some users.
Electronically, the 3D Pro used a digital/analog hybrid design that was intended to correct the outstanding flaws in traditional analog joysticks, such as drift and CPU overhead, by using a digital/optical tracking mechanism to keep perfect track of the joystick, and a digital communication method over the analog gameport. However, this digital mode required software support, and could not be used with many DOS games at the time (MechWarrior 2 being the only major exception), as most software and gameports were built completely around an analog design.
Additionally, some soundcard gameports, and so-called accelerated game-ports - which attempted to resolve CPU overhead issues presented by polling the gameport directly themselves - such as those produced by Gravis, would not always be able to handle the stick in digital mode.
The 3D Pro had a unique feature in that it could fall-back to an 'analog emulation' mode, where it could emulate either a CH Flightstick Pro or a Thrustmaster FCS (Selectable by a switch on the base), in environments where the digital mode would not work.
In this mode, manual calibration was required, the four base-buttons no longer function and, the joystick would function essentially like a CH Flightstick Pro or Thrustmaster FCS depending on the mode selector switch.
However, on later operating systems the digital mode would be less and less reliable, and on modern PCs most 3D Pro owners can only run in analog mode. The 3D Pro was popular enough to spawn a successor, the Precision Pro, which was a USB device and, while it did not work in DOS at all, was far more reliable under Windows despite quality issues.
The joystick was widely praised in its inception and was one of the few joysticks with multiple buttons that did not require a keyboard pass-through. The stick was especially popular with MechWarrior and Descent players as it was one of the few multi-button joysticks supported by the games natively.
The joystick's popularity has created a small die-hard following, with many people still holding onto them despite their age. This resulted in the creation of a USB adapter for the 3D Pro.
The 3D Pro features as a character (Ã) in the Webdings dingbat font.
Standard
The SideWinder Standard joystick was a more basic joystick released around the same time as the 3D Pro. It was a simple two button, three axis joystick. It featured a trigger button, a thumb button and a throttle wheel on left side of the base. In addition it had two additional dials on the base for adjustment of the stick itself, one above stick and the other to the right of the stick. It used a gameport connector to interface with the computer.
Precision Pro
Microsoft introduced the SideWinder Precision Pro in 1995, correcting the ergonomic issues, fixing some of the electrical issues, and adding new features.
The Precision Pro introduced a new stick that was far more ergonomic than the "geometric" design of the 3D Pro. Microsoft also gave the rest of the Precision Pro a more rounded design, replacing the rectangular base buttons with more rounded versions at the top of the base, the slider-based throttle with a wheel-based throttle, and the base itself was made more rounded. The Precision Pro also added a shift button to the base, doubling the number of possible button combinations.
Signatures can be seen inside the joystick, on the base coverplate. Fred Iyc and Edie Adams are among the 17 people who have signed it.
For its electronics, the Precision Pro featured a refined hybrid system, resolving some of the hardware compatibility issues with the 3D Pro. However, with the widespread introduction of USB in consumer computers shortly after the Precision Pro was released, Microsoft soon re-released the joystick in a USB-compatible form (joysticks labeled as Part No. X03-57540, Product I.D. 85791-579-2177031-00000). The revised joystick still featured a gameport connector but had additional circuitry for interfacing with USB, and was bundled with a USB converter (a DIY converter project exists). Original Precision Pros remain incompatible with this converter, but a user made converter exists. The creation of the USB converter bypassed the problems with the analog gameport entirely, and as a result became the true solution to the electrical problems. However, due to a flaw in the design of the Precision Pro, in rare cases the stick would build up a static charge in its electronics and require either a complex process to discharge that was not always successful, or simply needed to stay unpowered for a number of hours to slowly discharge on its own. This is also one of the first joysticks to use light sensors instead of potentiometers so it required no calibration, and thus had no electronical moving parts. The only moving parts were mechanical on the throttle and joystick pivots which gave this joystick virtually unlimited lifetime. The Precision Pro 2 had reintroduced potentiometers to save money and thus their lifetime was limited to wear and tear of the potentiometers.
Thanks to the timing of the launch of the Precision Pro to coincide with the widespread launch of USB along the ergonomic corrections and rarity of the static charge problem, the Precision Pro saw a much higher sales volume and review scores than the earlier 3D Pro.
Force Feedback Pro
From technology acquired from EXOS, Inc, Microsoft then released a force feedback product called the Force Feedback Pro. Built on the design of the Precision Pro, the Force Feedback Pro differed only in the inclusion of motors for the force feedback effects, and the lack of USB compatibility. (A DIY converter project exists.) Due to the inclusion of the motors, the Force Feedback Pro was significantly larger and heavier than the Precision Pro, making it easy to differentiate between the two.
As the PC joystick port is input-only, the only way for data to be sent to the joystick (to trigger force feedback events) is to use the MIDI capabilities of the port. This extension to the original gameport, first popularised by Creative Labs in their early sound cards, was intended to allow MIDI instruments to be connected to the joystick port but is used here to provide bidirectional communication with the joystick instead. Force feedback events are triggered by messages on MIDI channel 6, with effect data uploaded via SysEx messages. This means that force feedback would be unavailable on the earliest of PCs, where the gameports lack MIDI functionality.
Precision 2
The basis of Microsoft's last generation of SideWinder joysticks, the Precision 2 design was a further refinement of the previous Precision Pro. Compared to the Precision Pro, the Precision 2 dropped the Pro's shift button, replaced the throttle wheel with a more traditional lever, and rearranged the face buttons on the stick into a symmetric design. The Precision 2 also dropped all gameport compatibility by only shipping in a USB version, and was slightly smaller and lighter than the Pro. In spite of being Microsoft's 2nd-generation USB controller, the Precision 2 in particular seemed to suffer more from the USB SideWinder's long-standing static buildup problem than the original Precision Pro.
Force Feedback 2
Along with replacing the Precision Pro with a new design, the Force Feedback Pro was replaced with a Precision 2 derivative, the Force Feedback 2. Compared to the Force Feedback Pro and the Precision 2, nothing new was added to the Force Feedback 2 that wasn't added to the Precision 2, in fact the shift button was taken away. The overall size and weight difference was not so great with the use of smaller motors. This joystick came in two varieties: one version with a silver trigger, and an updated version with a translucent red trigger. One of the main ideas in the Force Feedback 2 was the removal of the power brick. Since the release of the Force Feedback 2, the stick has garnered a reputation of reliability and resiliency, many Force Feedback 2 sticks are still in use currently. On eBay Sidewinder Force Feedback 2 joysticks regularly sell for more than the original MSRP of $109.
Joystick
Using the Precision 2 design once again, Microsoft introduced a value-oriented SideWinder joystick, simply called the SideWinder Joystick. In spite of its value designation, the SideWinder Joystick was functionally similar to the Precision 2. The main features dropped were Z-axis control and the 8-way hat switch. Otherwise the differences were cosmetic, including shrinking the base, moving the throttle to the front of the base, and replacing 2 of the rounded buttons on the stick with more rectangular buttons. Support for this joystick was dropped with the advent of Windows XP.
Force Feedback Wheel
The Microsoft SideWinder Force Feedback Wheel is a steering wheel controller for sim racing. It was the first wheel controller to contain force feedback. The USB version of the wheel is compatible with one PlayStation 2 game, Tokyo Xtreme Racer Zero.
Strategic Commander
The Strategic Commander is designed to complement a standard mouse/keyboard setup for Real Time Strategy games. It features a total of 6 programmable command buttons, 2 zoom buttons, 3 shift buttons, a macro record button and a 3-point configuration switch. The device also has three movement axes: X, Y and Z (rotation). Through extensive configuration of the shift and command buttons, it is possible to create a total of 24 different commands per configuration.
The Strategic Commander is a highly ergonomic device, and resembles a large mouse in shape, contoured for the left hand. It has an upper section attached to a base. On the upper section, the programmable buttons mentioned above are located near the tips of the index, middle and ring fingers for quick access. Three buttons are located near the thumb in an arc.
A feature of the device is that the upper section is also a 2-axis motion controller with additional support for rotation. It allows motion in the X, Y & Z axis (corresponding to Forward, Backwards, Strafe left & right, Turn left & right). This made it an ideal companion for FPS and similar games, because you can aim weapons or look up and down with the right hand while simultaneously slewing position with the left hand, and change weapons etc. with the left finger buttons.
Software was included for the device to provide hotkeys for a number of (then popular) games. The buttons are also programmable, allowing the device to be used with other games and applications. For example, one application developed at Carnegie Mellon used the device as a peripheral for navigating massive social network maps.
Linux treats this device as a joystick (with all 3 axis and 12 plus 3 buttons) and can be used as one or using various applets can be used as a "joystick action to key press" device (e.g. Joy2Key)
Game Voice
The Game Voice is an early voice chat device. It was shaped like a hockey puck, with four channel buttons that allowed the user to speak to individual teammates. It could also be set to communicate with the entire team, or globally to all players. The driver software also allowed it to function as a voice command device using programmable macros. The package included a headset with an attached microphone, though these could be substituted with any other PC headset/microphone. The puck acted as an intermediary between the sound card and the sound input/output devices. The headset, along with the system speakers, plugged into the puck, where a switch could be used to set whether sound would be output from the speakers or the headset. The puck also had its own volume control. To provide power for the puck LEDs and drive the voice command and channel functions, a USB connection was also required. Microsoft recommended Game Voice as a microphone for use with the speech recognition feature of Microsoft Office XP.
Microsoft discontinued the product in 2003. By then, the market for voice chat had seen intense competition from downloadable and free-to-use software like Ventrilo and TeamSpeak, among others. These software packages only charge the host or server, whereas each person would have to own a Game Voice in order to use the hardware and software. As a result, the Game Voice ultimately lost that market. However, these competing software packages do not offer voice command systems.
Microsoft has not released the hardware specifications so that an open source driver could be developed. The device is supported under Windows XP, but no new driver is planned for Windows Vista. Despite this, Linux based operating systems can use this device using various third party applets (i.e. Kamevoice)
Freestyle Pro
The Freestyle Pro, released in 1998, was a unique gamepad, as the up-down-left-right directions in analogue mode were controlled by the physical movement of the controller, more precisely by the absolute pitch and roll position of the pad. This reaction on movement is quite similar to some of the features of the Sony PlayStation 3 SIXAXIS. Games such as Motocross Madness (which was bundled with and designed for the controller) profited from this physical interaction. The left side of the controller features an eight-direction d-pad which function varies depending on which mode the controller is on.
The control pad had a total of ten digital fire buttons: six buttons controlled with the right thumb (named ABC XYZ), two shoulder buttons (one left, one right), and two buttons controlled with the left thumb, one named start, the other marked with a shift key symbol (as the SideWinder software allowed to use this button to shift controls for the ABC XYZ buttons - on the driver side, it was just an action button like the others).
A sensor button switched the control pad between analogue mode (green LED) and digital mode (red LED). In analogue mode, the x- and y-axis were controlled by the analogue controller movements, and the D-pad was used as a hat switch. In digital mode, the D-pad controlled the x- and y-axis like a traditional digital control pad (therefore, there was no hat switch function in digital mode).
Due to the release in 1998, at which time USB was just taking off, the Freestyle Pro supported both game port and USB connection. Without the adapter, the controller's cable ended in a game port plug. The sale box contained the game port-to-USB adapter for free.
Dual Strike
The Dual Strike, which debuted in 1999, was Microsoft's second notable venture into strange gamepad designs, following the Freestyle Pro. The Dual Strike attempted to blend both mouse and gamepad functions into a single unit. It was composed of two portions; there is a hinge between the two that allows you to rotate the right side up and down and from side to side. The Dual Strike only supported USB.
Sidewinder 92626
This is similar to the Precision Pro and has a USB connection. Circa 2002. Serial numbers begin with 92626.
Second generation
In 2007, following a collaboration with Razer in creating the Microsoft Habu and Microsoft Reclusa, a gaming mouse and gaming keyboard sold under the plain Microsoft Hardware brand, Microsoft resurrected the SideWinder brand with an all-new SideWinder Mouse, designed from the ground up for high-end PC gaming. The design incorporated a number of advanced features including adjustable weights, programmable macro mode, on- the- fly DPI change, and a built-in LCD display, the first ever found in a mouse.
In 2008, Microsoft also released the SideWinder X6 Gaming Keyboard, which is designed to be the keyboard counterpart of the Sidewinder Mouse. It features up to 30 programmable macro keys, volume control, media control, a detachable numpad and backlighting. Along with this keyboard a new mouse was released dubbed the SideWinder X5. The X5 has a more basic function set than its predecessor but was well received because of its lower price. Its shape is the same as the original but without the LCD, weight adjusting and metal side buttons. It also comes with a complete black design with red "LED Jets" on the back to make it stand out from the original and better fit the X6 keyboard.
In February 2009, Microsoft released another update to the SideWinder line, the SideWinder X8 gaming mouse. This new iteration incorporated new Microsoft BlueTrack tracking technology, intended to provide better tracking on non-standard surfaces. In addition, the mouse was made wireless, and the maximum DPI sensitivity was upped to 4000.
In March 2010, Microsoft released a second gaming keyboard, the Sidewinder X4. In comparison with the earlier X6, anti-ghosting technology was added. However, the detachable numpad was removed, and a numpad was instead attached permanently to the keyboard.
As of October 2014, Microsoft no longer offers any gaming mice or keyboards in the US.
See also
Microsoft ergonomic keyboards
Xbox controller
References
External links
GameSpy article on PC joysticks for October 2002
GameSpy article on PC wheels for November 2002
Video game controllers
Microsoft video game hardware |
33589774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux%20on%20IBM%20Z | Linux on IBM Z | Linux on IBM Z (or Linux on Z for short, and previously Linux on z Systems) is the collective term for the Linux operating system compiled to run on IBM mainframes, especially IBM Z and IBM LinuxONE servers. Similar terms which imply the same meaning are Linux on zEnterprise, Linux on zSeries, Linux/390, Linux/390x, etc. The three Linux distributions certified for usage on the IBM Z hardware platform are Red Hat Enterprise Linux (developed by the IBM subsidiary, Red Hat), SUSE Linux Enterprise, and Ubuntu.
History
Linux on IBM Z originated as two separate efforts to port Linux to IBM's System/390 servers. The first effort, the "Bigfoot" project, developed by Linas Vepstas in late 1998 through early 1999, was an independent distribution and has since been abandoned. IBM published a collection of patches and additions to the Linux 2.2.13 kernel on December 18, 1999, to start today's mainline Linux on Z. Formal product announcements quickly followed in 2000, including the Integrated Facility for Linux (IFL) engines. Think Blue Linux was an early mainframe distribution consisting mainly of Red Hat packages added to the IBM kernel. Commercial Linux distributors introduced mainframe editions very quickly after the initial kernel work.
At the start of IBM's involvement, Linux patches for IBM Z included some object code only (OCO) modules, without source code. Soon after IBM replaced the OCO modules with open source modules. Linux on Z is free software under the GNU General Public License.
According to IBM, by May, 2006, over 1,700 customers were running Linux on their mainframes.
Virtualization
Virtualization is required by default on IBM Z; there is no option to run Linux on Z without some degree of virtualization. (Only the very first 64-bit mainframe models, the z900 and z800, included a non-virtualized "basic mode.") First layer virtualization is provided by the Processor Resource and System Manager (PR/SM) to deploy one or more Logical Partitions (LPARs). Each LPAR supports a variety of operating systems including Linux on IBM Z. A hypervisor called z/VM can also be run as the second layer virtualization in LPARs to create as many virtual machines (VMs) as there are resources assigned to the LPARs to support them. KVM on z is another hypervisor option.
When Linux applications in an LPAR access data and applications in other LPARs such as CICS, IBM Db2, IMS, Linux, and other mainframe subsystems running on the same physical mainframe, they can utilize HiperSockets – fast, memory-only TCP/IP connections. As compared to TCP/IP over standard network interface cards (NICs, also known as Open System Adapters (OSAs) in mainframes), HiperSockets can improve end-user responsiveness (reduce network latency and processing overhead), security (since there's no network connection to intercept), and reliability (since there's no network connection to lose).
With the zEC12, zBC12, and later models, the HiperSocket concept is extended beyond the physical machine boundary via an RDMA over Converged Ethernet (RoCE) adapter to facilitate a secure and high speed inter-system communication. Applications in LPAR A in system A can thus use HiperSockets to communicate with applications in LPAR B in system B to ensure the security and performance attributes.
Hardware
Beginning with Linux kernel version 4.1 released in early 2015, Linux on Z is only available as a 64-bit operating system compatible with z/Architecture mainframes. Previously Linux on Z was also available as a 31-bit operating system compatible with older model mainframes introduced prior to 2000's z900 model. However, the newer 64-bit Linux kernel and 64-bit Linux on Z distributions are still backward compatible with applications compiled for 31-bit Linux on Z. Historically the Linux kernel architecture designations were "s390" and "s390x" to distinguish between the 31-bit and 64-bit Linux on Z kernels respectively, but "s390" now also refers generally to the one Linux on Z kernel architecture.
Linux runs on standard, general purpose mainframe CPs (Central Processors) as well as IFLs (Integrated Facility for Linux). IFLs are mainframe processors dedicated to running Linux, either natively or under a hypervisor (z/VM or KVM on z). Microcode restricts IFLs from running "traditional" workloads, such as z/OS, but they are physically identical to other IBM Z processors. IFLs are typically less expensive to acquire from IBM than CPs.
Advantages
Linux on Z gives the flexibility of running Linux with the advantages of fault-tolerant mainframe hardware capable of over 90,000 I/O operations per second and with a mean time between failure (MTBF) measured in decades. Using virtualization, numerous smaller servers can be combined onto one mainframe, gaining some benefits of centralization and cost reduction, while still allowing specialized servers. Instead of paravirtualization, IBM mainframes use full virtualization, which permits workload density far greater than paravirtualization does. Combining full virtualization of the hardware plus lightweight Virtual Machine containers that run Linux in isolation (somewhat similar in concept to Docker) result in a platform that supports more virtual servers than any other in a single footprint, which also can lower operating costs. Additional savings can be seen from reduced need for floor space, power, cooling, networking hardware, and the other infrastructure needed to support a data center. IBM mainframes allow transparent use of redundant processor execution steps and integrity checking, which is important for critical applications in certain industries such as banking. Mainframes typically allow hot-swapping of hardware, such as processors and memory. IBM Z provides fault tolerance for all key components, including processors, memory, I/O Interconnect, power supply, channel paths, network cards, and others. Through internal monitoring, possible problems are detected and problem components are designed to be switched over without even failing a single transaction. In the rare event of failure, firmware will automatically enable a spare component, disable the failing component, and notify IBM to dispatch a service representative. This is transparent to the operating system, allowing routine repairs to be performed without shutting down the system. Many industries continue to rely on mainframes where they are considered to be the best option in terms of reliability, security, or cost.
Pricing and costs
Linux on Z is not generally appropriate on-premises for small businesses that would have fewer than about 10 distributed Linux servers, although some expensive per-processor licensed software can quickly reduce that rule of thumb. Most software vendors, including IBM, treat the highly virtualized IFLs just like non-virtualized processors on other platforms for licensing purposes. In other words, a single IFL running scores of Linux instances still typically counts as one "ordinary" CPU, at the same CPU price, for software licensing. Test, development, quality assurance, training, and redundant production server instances can all run on one IFL (or more IFLs, but only if needed for peak demand performance capacity). Thus, beyond some minimum threshold, Linux on Z can quickly become cost-advantageous when factoring in labor and software costs.
The cost equation for Linux on Z is not always well understood and is controversial, and many businesses and governments have difficulty measuring, much less basing decisions on, software, labor, and other costs (such as the costs of outage and security breaches). Acquisition costs are often more visible, and small, non-scalable servers are "cheap." Nonetheless, non-acquisition costs are no less real and are usually far greater than hardware acquisition prices. Also, individual users and departments within larger businesses and governments sometimes have difficulty sharing computing infrastructure (or any other resources, for that matter), citing a loss of control. Server centralization, as Linux on Z provides, might reward cooperation with better service and lower costs, but that's not to say that cooperation is always easily accomplished within a corporate bureaucracy.
Linux on Z also supports less expensive disk storage devices than z/OS because Linux does not require FICON or ESCON attachment, although z/OS may use disk space more efficiently, on balance, due to hardware-assisted database compression common on z/OS and the smaller number of operating system instances z/OS typically requires. There are also some operational advantages using some FICON-attached storage with Linux on Z, for example support for z/VM Live Guest Relocation.
Appropriate workloads
Mainframe characteristics are designed for such business workloads as transaction processing (especially in conjunction with concurrent, high volume batch processing) and large database management. Mainframe design traditionally emphasizes "balanced" performance for all computing elements including input/output, implemented via channel I/O. Mainframes offload I/O, system accounting, and other non-core computing tasks from the main CPUs as much as possible, and z/Architecture additionally offloads cryptographic calculations. For example, in a single IBM z13 machine up to 141 processor cores are available to configure as IFLs. However, every such machine also has 27 additional main cores: 2 as spares, 1 for firmware support, and the remainder running system accounting and I/O support tasks. In addition, each I/O adapter typically has two PowerPC processors, and a z13 supports hundreds of I/O adapters. There are also separate processors handling memory and cache control tasks, environmental monitoring, and internal interconnections, as examples.
Historically, mainframes in general, and Linux on Z in particular, did not execute "CPU-intensive" single task computations with notably high performance compared to certain other platforms with a few notable exceptions such as cryptographic calculations. Examples included most scientific simulations, weather forecasting, and molecular modeling. Supercomputers, including Linux-based supercomputers, excel at these workloads. This bifurcation between mainframes and other platforms has significantly blurred in recent years, starting with the introduction of 2008's System z10, a machine based on quad-core 4.4 GHz processors with hardware decimal floating point. As mainframe processor technology has continued to evolve, and especially with the introduction of the IBM LinuxONE and IBM z13 models in 2015, IBM has started promoting its mainframes as ideal platforms to run real-time analytics and other computationally intensive tasks that mainframes did not historically run well.
Mainframes do not provide graphics or sound adapters, and are as such ill-suited for digital media editing or computer-aided design (CAD) except perhaps in support roles (e.g. content storage, parts inventories, metadata management, security services, etc.)
Support
Like all other versions of Linux, Linux on Z is governed by the GPL free software license. Complete Linux on Z source code is available from numerous parties on a free and equal basis, and architectural support is part of the main Linux kernel effort. IBM assigns several of its programmers to the community effort, but IBM is by no means the only participant.
Though there are no obstacles to running any Linux on Z distribution on an IBM z System, IBM routinely tests three particular Linux on Z distributions: Red Hat, SUSE, and starting in 2015, Canonical's Ubuntu Linux. Other notable Linux on Z distributions include Debian (upstream for Ubuntu), Fedora (upstream for RHEL), Slackware, CentOS, Alpine Linux and Gentoo.
Nearly every free or open-source software package available for Linux generally is available for Linux on Z, including Apache HTTP Server, Samba software, JBoss, PostgreSQL, MySQL, PHP, Python programming language, Concurrent Versions System (CVS), GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), LLVM, and Perl, Rust, among many others.
Red Hat and SUSE offer mainline support for their distributions running Linux on Z. In 2015 Canonical announced plans to offer official support for its distribution starting in early 2016. IBM Global Services also offers support contracts, including 24x7 coverage. Some standard Linux software applications are readily available pre-compiled, including popular closed-source enterprise software packages such as WebSphere, DB2 and Oracle databases and applications, SAP R/3, SAP ERP, and IBM's Java Developer's Kit (JDK), to name only a few.
Developer resources
IBM offers resources to developers wishing to target Linux for z:
The Linux Test Drive, a free program granting a single Linux on IBM Z virtual machine for 30 days.
The IBM Systems Application Advantage for Linux (Chiphopper), a developer program to help developers write and publish cross-platform Linux software.
The Community Development System for Linux on IBM Z (CDSL) program, a platform for providing open source developers a platform for porting to Linux on System z.
The Linux Remote Development Program, a fee-based extended developer support program.
Linux on Z supports Unicode and ASCII just like any other Linux distribution—it is not an EBCDIC-based operating system. However, for convenience Linux is able to read kernel parameters in EBCDIC. z/VM takes advantage of this capability.
Porting Linux applications to Linux on Z is fairly straightforward. Potential issues include endianness (Linux on Z is big-endian) and reliance on non-portable libraries particularly if source code is not available. Programs can be easily cross compiled to z/Architecture binaries on non-mainframe Linux systems.
Emulators
There are at least three software-based IBM Z mainframe emulators.
FLEX-ES from Fundamental Software is a commercially offered option, limited to 31-bit addressing.
The open source Hercules emulator supports Linux on IBM Z (and can even run on Linux on System z itself).
In 2010, IBM introduced the Rational Developer for System z Unit Test Feature (now called Rational Development and Test Environment for z, or sometimes RDTz for short) which provides a restricted use execution environment that can run on X86 hardware. IBM's license terms limit use of RDTz to certain application development tasks, not including final pre-production compiling or pre-production testing (such as stress testing). RDTz includes z/OS (with common middleware) and is also compatible with Linux on Z.
See also
Comparison of Linux distributions
IBM Secure Service Container
OpenSolaris for System z
Linux on Power
UNIX System Services
zIIP
zAAP
z/TPF
z/VSE
References
External links
Linux on IBM Z
IBM LinuxONE servers
Open Mainframe Project
Linux on z/VM
Linux on IBM Z developer site
Linux for S/390 and zSeries community wiki
Linux for S/390 and zSeries web site
linux-390, users mailing list
linux-s390, kernel devel mailing list
IBM Redbooks for Linux on IBM Z technical know-how
The Virtualization Cookbook for Linux on Z covering Red Hat Enterprise Linux (REL), SUSE Linux Enterprise Server (SLES), and Ubuntu Server
Porting GCC to the IBM S/390 platform
Platform-specific Linux distributions
IBM mainframe operating systems
VM (operating system)
Linux distributions |
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