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57673633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COSMIC%20functional%20size%20measurement | COSMIC functional size measurement | COSMIC functional size measurement is a method to measure a standard functional size of a piece of software. COSMIC is an acronym of COmmon Software Measurement International Consortium, a voluntary organization that has developed the method and is still expanding its use to more software domains.
The method
The "Measurement Manual" defines the principles, rules and a process for measuring a standard functional size of a piece of software. Functional size is a measure of the amount of functionality provided by the software, completely independent of any technical or quality considerations. The generic principles of functional size are described in the ISO/IEC 14143 standard. This method is also an International Standard by itself. The COSMIC standard is the first second generation implementation of the ISO/IEC 14143 standard. There are also four first generation implementations:
ISO/IEC 20926 - IFPUG function points
ISO/IEC 20968 - Mk II function points
ISO/IEC 24570 - Nesma function points
ISO/IEC 29881 - FiSMA function points
These first generation functional size measurement methods consisted of rules that are based on empirical results. Part of the terminology that deals with users and requirements has overlap with similar terms in software engineering. They work well for the software domains the rules were designed for, but for other domains, the rules need to be altered or extended. Key elements of a second generation functional size measurement method are:
Adoption of all measurement concepts from the ISO metrology
A defined measurement unit
Fully compliant with ISO/IEC 14143
Preferably domain independent
The method is based on principles rather than rules that are domain independent. The principles of the method are based on fundamental software engineering principles, which have been subsequently tested in practice.
The method may be used to size software that is dominated by functionality to maintain data, rather than software that predominantly manipulates data. As a consequence of measuring the size, the method can be used to establish benchmarks of (and subsequent estimates) regarding the effort, cost, quality and duration of software work.
The method can be used in a wide variety of domains, like business applications, real-time software, mobile apps, infrastructure software and operating systems. The method breaks down the Functional User Requirements of the software into combinations of the four data movements types:
Entry (E)
Exit (X)
Read (R)
Write (W)
The function point count provides measurement of software size, which is the sum of the data movements for a given functional requirement. It may be used to estimate (and benchmark) software project effort, cost, duration, quality and maintenance work.
The foundation of the method is the ISO/IEC 19761 standard, which contains the definitions and basic principles that are described in more detail in the COSMIC measurement manual.
The applicability of the COSMIC functional size measurement method
Since the COSMIC method is based on generic principles, these principles can be applied in various domains. For a number of domains guidelines have been written to assist measurers to apply the COSMIC method in their domain:
Real-time Software Real-time software "controls an environment by receiving data, processing them, and returning the results sufficiently quickly to affect the environment at that time". The guideline describes how to use the generic principles in this environment.
Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) This is a software architecture where services are provided to the other components by application components, through a communication protocol over a network. A service is a discrete unit of functionality that can be accessed remotely and acted upon and updated independently, such as retrieving a credit card statement online. The guideline describes how to measure the functional size of distinct components.
Data WareHouse and Big Data is a field that treats ways to analyze, systematically extract information from, or otherwise deal with data sets that are too large or complex to be dealt with by traditional data-processing application software. The guideline describes how to transform the principles in that field to a functional size.
Business Application Software This is software designed to perform a group of coordinated functions, tasks, or activities for the benefit of the user. Examples of an application include a word processor, a spreadsheet, an accounting application, a web browser, an email client,a media player, a file viewer, a flight simulator or a photo editor. Business Application Software contrasts with system software, which is mainly involved with running the computer. The guideline describes how to deal with application specific features, like data storage and retrieval.
To explain the use of the method a number of case studies have been developed. The method is of particular validity in the estimation of cost of software undertakings.
The organization behind the method
The COSMIC organization commenced its work in 1998. Legally COSMIC is an incorporated not for profit organization under Canadian law. The organization grew informally to a global community of professionals. COSMIC is an open and democratic organization. The organization relies and will continue to rely on unpaid efforts by volunteers, who work on various aspects of the method, based on their professional interest.
The first generation functional size measurement methods consisted of rules that are based on empirical results. Some define their own terminology, which may have overlap with other terms in software engineering. They work well for the software domains the rules were designed for, but for other domains, the rules need to be altered or extended. Key elements of a second generation functional size measurement method are:
Adoption of all measurement concepts from the ISO metrology
A defined measurement unit
Fully compliant with ISO/IEC 14143
Preferably domain independent
The method is based on principles and rules that are domain independent. The principles of the method are based on fundamental software engineering principles, which have been subsequently tested in practice.
References
External links
COSMIC website A public domain version of the COSMIC measurement manual and other technical reports
COSMIC Publications Public domain publications for the COSMIC method
Software metrics
Software engineering costs |
1591228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character%20generator | Character generator | A character generator, often abbreviated as CG, is a device or software that produces static or animated text (such as news crawls and credits rolls) for keying into a video stream. Modern character generators are computer-based, and they can generate graphics as well as text.
History
Monoscopes were used as character generators for text mode video rendering in computer displays for a short time in the 1960s. The CBS Laboratories Vidiac, and the A. B. Dick 990 System, were among the earliest character generators for broadcast television. CBS Laboratories later developed the more advanced Vidifont system in preparation for the 1968 US presidential elections, where a rapid method of all-electronic character generation was required so that news outlets could identify unexpected interviewees on the spot. A similar generator using analogue electronics, Anchor, was developed by the BBC in 1970 and used in the general election later that year.
Usage
In the television business in North America, the digital on-screen graphics generated by character generators are also often called "Chyrons", after the Chyron Corporation, whether or not Chyron made the character generator. Similarly, in the United Kingdom, such graphics are often called "Astons", after Aston Broadcast Systems. These are examples of genericized trademarks.
Character generators are primarily used in the broadcast areas of live television sports or television news presentations, given that the modern character generator can rapidly (i.e., "on the fly") generate high-resolution, animated graphics for use when an unforeseen situation in a broadcast dictates an opportunity for breaking news coverage—for example, when, in a football game, a previously unknown player begins to have what looks to become an outstanding day, the character generator operator can rapidly build a new graphic using the template "shell" of a similarly designed graphic. The character generator is one of many technologies used to meet the demands of live television, where events on the field or in the newsroom dictate the direction of the coverage. As character generator development has progressed, the distinction between hardware and software generators has become less distinct as new platforms and operating systems evolve to meet the live television consumer's expectations.
Methods
Before character generators were available, the primary method of adding titles to video images was to dedicate one camera to shooting white letters on a black background, which then was combined with the video from a live-action camera to form what appeared to be a single image with white letters seemingly superimposed over it. In fact, to this day (and despite the fact that this technology is long-since antiquated by the modern CG) some directors of live TV continue to order the technical director (TD) to "add the super" when they want the CG output "superimposed" over the image of another camera. As technology advanced, the ability to "key" (compositing) these white letters over live video became available, involving electronically "cutting a hole" (analogous to cutting a keyhole) in the shape of the letters from the title camera and then electronically adding the letters to the holes cut into the live action camera image. Again, some directors still call this "keying the graphic". Finally, the modern CG allowed not only more precise and realistic "keying", but also the addition of multiple picture elements from the CG to further the illusion of a three-dimensional graphic physically overlying a video image. The addition of full-motion graphics from the CG and the animation of graphic elements by the CG blur the line between "character generator" and "computer graphics", combining the CG's ability to elegantly present graphics and video with the computer's ability to interface with game scoring and timing systems, to keep running totals of an athlete's performance on the field or the court and to derive statistics both for individual players and the teams involved, and to interface with computer systems located at other game venues or at a television network's master control central broadcast center. On televised sporting events, score bugs are present. They contain CG data from that game, CG data from other games in progress, other games already completed, and games yet to come, all in an effort to keep the viewer from having to "channel surf" to another station to watch another television program. Viewers who do not change channels watch the first channel's television advertising (also included in CG output) which then generates revenue for the television network.
Although the distinction between hardware and software CGs is becoming less evident as technology advances, and as consumer-grade computing equipment becomes more graphically sophisticated, it remains easiest to view CGs as either hardware- or software-dependent.
Hardware character generators
Hardware character generators are used in television studios and video editing suites. A desktop publishing-like interface can be used to generate static and moving text or graphics, which the device then encodes into some high-quality video signal, like digital Serial Digital Interface (SDI) or analog component video, high definition or even RGB video. They also provide a key signal, which the compositing vision mixer can use as an alpha channel to determine which areas of the CG video are translucent.
Software character generators
Software CGs run on standard off-the-shelf computer hardware and are often integrated into video editing software such as non-linear editing system (NLE). Some stand-alone character generator products are available, however, for applications that do not even attempt to offer text generation on their own, as high-end video editing software often does, or whose internal CG effects are not flexible and powerful enough. Some software CGs can be used in live production with special software and computer video interface cards. In that case, they are equivalent to hardware generators.
See also
1st & Ten (graphics system)
Acknowledgment (creative arts)
Barker channel
Billing (filmmaking)
Broadcast automation
Broadcast designer
Clean feed (TV)
Closing credits
Credit (creative arts)
Chyron Corporation
Digital asset
Digital on-screen graphic (BUG)
Graphics coordinator
Local insertion
Lower third
Motion graphic design
News ticker
Opening credits
Production logo
Rasterisation
Score bug
Signetics, producer of the 2513 CG chip
Station identification
Side-By-Side (graphic)
Text mode
Title sequence
Video production
WGA screenwriting credit system
References
External links
AJT Systems Scorebug System (LiveBook GFX)
Film and video technology
Television terminology
Articles containing video clips |
51725410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overload%20%28video%20game%29 | Overload (video game) | Overload is a 3D first-person shooter video game developed and released by Revival Productions for Windows, macOS and Linux on May 31, 2018. A version for PlayStation 4 was released on October 16. It features six degrees of freedom movement in a 3D environment with zero gravity, allowing the player to move and rotate in any direction. The game is set primarily on the moons of Saturn, where facilities have sent out distress signals about the mining robots turning hostile.
The game, which has been described as a 'spiritual successor' to the video games Descent and Descent II, received generally favorable reviews on release.
Gameplay
The gameplay of the game is similar to the Descent series. The player is tasked with controlling a gunship in zero gravity inside a variety of mining facilities and cave areas, fighting hostile worker robots (called autonomous operators in the game) and finding possible survivors in cryostasis tubes. Every level has an objective to complete, with most levels carrying over the traditional goal of destroying the reactor powering the facility and escaping before the reactor meltdown destroys the entire facility. Levels may also feature alternative objectives, such as destroying every hostile robot in a level, destroying a boss or simply finding and reaching the exit.
The game in its core is a first-person shooter with a fully three-dimensional environment, but with six degrees of freedom movement in zero gravity, allowing the player to move and rotate in any direction, which demands spatial awareness skills from the players. The enemy robots share a similar movement model. To assist in navigating around the level, the player can call up a Holo-Guide, a holographic bot that can lead the player to a destination (similar to the Guide-Bot of Descent II), and a fully three-dimensionally rendered automap, based on a similar feature seen in Descent, showing the areas of the level that the player has already discovered or spotted. In order to progress in most levels, the player is required to collect access keys to open doors to access further areas. The levels also contain a variety of secret areas behind camouflaged doors, some of which may be locked and require a puzzle to be solved in order to unlock them.
Overload also features an upgrade system. Upgrade points are scattered around the levels, mostly behind secret areas, and are also given for completing certain tasks, such as finding all of the survivor cryostasis tubes. The player can upgrade the gunship with these points between levels, with upgrades available for both the weapons and the ship itself.
If the player racks up too much damage and depletes the gunship's armor, the ship is destroyed. The player is then required to load from an earlier save (single-player campaign only) or to restart the level.
There are two single-player modes in the game. The first is the Cronus Frontier campaign featuring 16 levels and three bosses, while the second is Challenge Mode, a survival mode taking place in twelve different levels. The Challenge Mode features two modes of its own, Infinite and Countdown, and its levels are smaller than those of the campaign. The campaign story features full voice acting in English, with subtitles available in the other languages supported by the game. Once the campaign has been completed, it can be played again with increased difficulty and the upgrades the player collected from the first playthrough. Challenge Mode also features an online leaderboard, where scores of the players can be categorized by level, difficulty and mode.
Keyboard, mouse, gamepad and joystick controls are among those supported. The game also supports virtual reality with both the HTC Vive and the Oculus Rift.
Overload features online multiplayer with three modes: Head to Head, Anarchy and Team Anarchy. The game, which uses a client–server model, can be played on online servers, featuring both public and private matches, or over a LAN. Cross-platform multiplayer is supported between the supported computer platforms, and in addition, PC players are able to play with PlayStation 4 and Xbox One players, but players of these consoles cannot play with each other.
The game supports user-created levels, which can be created with an official level editor.
Plot
The game begins in 2118 with a multi-purpose service vessel (MPSV) approaching Ymir, one of the moons of Saturn. The vessel, called Iberia, is registered to Cronus Frontier, a colony located on the moons of Saturn that was established eleven years prior by June Offworld Automation, a corporation working in the space industry, of which Cronus Frontier is a subsidiary. The colony consists of the outer moons of Ymir, Tarvos, Skoll, and Phoebe, Titan, and the inner moons of Tethys and Enceladus. The outer moons are mostly uninhabited mining installations on the fringes of Saturn’s orbit. Saturn’s largest moon Titan houses the majority of the colonial population along with the astrophysics, manufacturing, particle physics, metallurgical, and administrative operations. Lastly, the inner moons of Tethys and Enceladus hold the colony’s secretive advanced research and gas mining operations, respectively.
The unnamed protagonist awakes from cryostasis with neurological damage and amnesia, and is informed by Mara, a self-described synthetic intelligence construct on the Iberia, that the vessel is now in the orbit of Ymir and has arrived to help those in the mining facility on the moon after receiving a distress signal from its staff. The distress signal stated that the autonomous operators used for mining and security purposes have malfunctioned, turned hostile, and attacked the human employees currently working inside the facility. In accordance with interplanetary treaty, the Iberia is obligated to respond to the distress signal.
The protagonist is supplied with a Kodachi light gunship, a small, highly maneuverable but heavily-armed spacecraft capable of navigating the mines and installations of Chronus Frontier.
After the initial rescue operation at Ymir, the player quickly becomes aware of the contentious relationship between Chronus Frontier CEO Gabriel Kantor and parent company Juno Offworld. Kantor had evidently become increasingly paranoid and irritated with Juno’s interference in Chronus Frontier’s development. As a result, Kantor threatens Juno with a destructive computer virus. In response, the Iberia receives a transmission from Juno Offworld headquarters to overload the reactor cores of all Chronus Frontier facilities, resulting in explosions that will pulverize the respective facility. Strangely, Juno does not explicitly specify to also rescue survivors. Therefore, Mara appends the secondary objective to acquire all surviving personnel who have fled to cryostasis tubes. The Iberia is also unable to establish contact with the other colonists on Titan, as communications are mysteriously garbled.
At the outer moons, the player discovers that Kantor ordered a massive buildup of security-based auto-ops as well as the development of new military-grade operators, believing that the colony was under imminent threat of attack. Kantor also ordered that full radio-silence would be observed between all colony facilities, forbid evacuation of the colony, and became obsessed with the loyalty of his subordinates.
Upon arriving at Titan, Mara ascertains that the Iberia’s communication with Titan was scrambled in both directions, indicating some form of sabotage aboard the Iberia. The player also continues to fail to recover from his amnesia. Regardless, the auto-ops at Titan have also become hostile and forced survivors into cryostasis. Through audio-logs of the chief Titan personnel, the player discovers that Kantor ordered each Titan operation to manufacturer an individual piece of new, exotic technology. For example, the Titan Forge would craft components for new auto-op designs, while Titan Collider would develop an immensely destructive energy weapon known as the Thunderbolt. Kantor apparently became increasingly belligerent and abusive to his engineers and scientists, demanding that they risk their lives to complete the new projects. Simultaneously, Kantor claimed to be the inventor of the new tech.
At the administrative complex of Titan Harbour, the player discovers that a hydro-geologist named Harper Eames, who was working closely with Kantor on a mysterious project on Enceladus, secretly requested that a small shipment of unknown contents be transferred to the Iberia along with shuttle pilot Alex Warden shortly before it departed from the colony.
After destroying the entirety of the Titan facilities, the Iberia departs for the inner moon of Tethys. En route, Mara recovers an audio-log from the chief scientist on Tethys, revealing that a crashed alien craft was discovered in the ice below the Enceladus facility. The player also discovers that Kantor was responsible for the deaths of a construction crew who also discovered the alien wreckage by sabotaging their shuttlecraft. This was in order to prevent Juno Offworld from learning about the discovery of the alien ship. The message also specifies that the alien craft had the capacity for three artificial intelligence cores called sovereigns. Kantor then aggressively utilized the capabilities of Chronus Frontier to reconstruct the alien technology, under the falsehood that he had invented it.
Finally proceeding to the last-remaining base of Enceladus to confront Kantor, the Iberia receives another message from Juno Offworld Headquarters. The message commands that the Iberia stand down and return to the outer moon of Ymir. Suspicious of the orders, Mara is able to override the command and deploys the player into the Enceladus facility. The player nearly intercepts Kantor at the alien craft excavation site, but discovers that he has reconstructed an interstellar portal connecting to a different part of the galaxy. The intense gravimetric distortion from the portal destroys the Enceladus base as the player enters the portal. The player recovers an audio log from Harper Eames that confirms that Kantor is in possession of the first of three sovereign cores. Eames hid the second sovereign on board the Iberia while the third was never discovered. Kantor sadistically confesses that he used his brutal new auto-op design to kill Eames and others whom for he had no further use.
On the other side of the portal, the player emerges into the interior of an alien structure of massive proportions. Now aware of the player’s presence, Kantor directly contacts the player via radio, believing him to be a pirate or operative from a competing mining corporation. After recollecting the Kodachi gunship, Kantor is able to ascertain that the amnesia-stricken pilot is in fact Alex Warden, a shuttle pilot formerly of Chronus Frontier. Kantor’s revelation is a catalyst for Warden to recall the entirety of his memories. Kantor explains that the aliens are a race of sentient machines that assimilate the consciousness of civilizations, and he believes that pursuing the alien technology will accelerate the evolution of humanity by hundreds of thousands of years. As the player pursues Kantor through the maze-like and dangerous alien structure, Kantor is evidently seized by the first sovereign and his consciousness assimilated into its own. In his final moments of lucidity, the Kantor-sovereign intelligence determines that the missing third sovereign is on the moon of Ymir. The first sovereign taunts Warden by falsely claiming that its legions have already overrun and enslaved humanity. The first sovereign also reveals that its sister core, the second sovereign, was responsible for Iberia’s redeployment to Chronus Frontier and masqueraded as Juno Offworld in order to take vengeance upon the colony. It also aborted Warden’s cryostasis diagnostics to prevent the pilot from morally objecting to the colony’s destruction. Unshaken, Warden destroys the first sovereign and finds a portal to return to Ymir, which is being utilized by the alien machines as a staging point to launch an invasion of humanity.
Warden emerges on Ymir, finding it overrun with alien machines and the Iberia now in orbit. The second sovereign, still on Iberia, briefly took control of the ship and forced it to Ymir, while the third sovereign has attached itself to the still-intact reactor core of the Ymir base. Warden attacks the reactor but is unable to overload it. At this point, the game will conclude in one of two ways. If the player rescued a majority number of survivors from Chronus Frontier, they will construct a warhead and fire it from the Iberia to annihilate Ymir along with the third sovereign. The Iberia will then return to Juno Offworld headquarters, having isolated the second sovereign from its systems. If, however, the player neglected to conduct rescue efforts, Mara will be forced to crash the Iberia into the Ymir installation. The blast is not sufficient to completely destroy the sovereign, and rescue crews from Juno Offworld discover pieces of the sovereigns intact on Ymir. In this ending, Warden is also forced to undergo cryostasis once again in the Kodachi gunship, and is unable to warn the Juno crews.
Development
Members of Revival Productions, the studio behind the game, include founders Matt Toschlog and Mike Kulas, who started Parallax Software, the company behind the first two Descent titles, as well as Luke Schneider from Radian Games.
The development for Overload started out as an idea to create a tunnel shooter for the 20th anniversary of the release of Descent, with the idea slowly shifting into that of a 6DOF game with virtual reality support and eventually into a Descent-like game. The project started with Mike Kulas, Matt Toschlog and Luke Schneider in an email discussion, with Schneider being the one to come up with the name Overload. In September 2014, Toschlog announced to former Parallax Software employees about the project and the establishment of Revival Productions. While the project was put on hold for some time, it continued as Chris Claflin, a former artist at Volition (one of the two companies Parallax Software originally split into), joined the project. The four launched their Kickstarter campaign on February 10, 2016. The project was partially funded with $306,537 raised from 4,896 backers on March 12.
The game was originally single-player only, but a free multiplayer expansion was first promised to all Kickstarter backers and eventually to all game owners. The user interface was particularly inspired by Elite Dangerous and heads-up displays of fighter jets. Among the people who developed the music and sound effects for Overload were Dan Wentz and Allister Brimble, who worked on the original sound design and MIDI music of Descent, and Jerry Berlongieri, who worked on the music of Descent 3. In February 2016, Dan Wentz released previews for the game soundtrack via his SoundCloud account.
The game is developed with Unity 5. A 'playable teaser' was released on March 7, 2016 via the Steam distribution platform and a second demo showcasing VR features of the game was demonstrated at PAX west in September. The game was made available on Steam via the early access model in March 2017. The early access version received several updates through 2017 and 2018. The Windows, macOS and Linux versions of Overload were released on May 31, 2018, while the versions for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One came later in Q3 2018.
Reception
When the game was first announced, it was described as a 'spiritual successor' to Descent and Descent II. On release, the game received positive coverage from Rock, Paper, Shotgun and Engadget, with Dominic Tarason of the former calling it "very good".
Metacritic states that the game received "generally favorable reviews". 4Players praised the music as well as the level and sound design, while criticizing the lack of variety. GameStar was less positive, criticizing the repetitive gameplay and the excessive difficulty of the later levels.
References
External links
2018 video games
Crowdfunded video games
Early access video games
First-person shooter multiplayer online games
First-person shooters
HTC Vive games
Kickstarter-funded video games
Linux games
MacOS games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Multiplayer online games
Oculus Rift games
PlayStation 4 games
Video games about robots
Fiction set on Saturn's moons
Fiction about the Solar System
Video games developed in the United States
Video games scored by Allister Brimble
Video games scored by Jerry Berlongieri
Video games set on Titan (moon)
Video games with 6 degrees of freedom
Video games with cross-platform play
Windows games
Xbox One games
Zero-G shooters |
39396979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerris%20%28software%29 | Gerris (software) | Gerris is computer software in the field of computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Gerris was released as free and open-source software, subject to the requirements of the GNU General Public License (GPL), version 2 or any later.
Scope
Gerris solves the Navier–Stokes equations in 2 or 3 dimensions, allowing to model industrial fluids (aerodynamics, internal flows, etc.) or for instance, the mechanics of droplets, thanks to an accurate formulation of multiphase flows (including surface tension). Actually, the latter field of study is the reason why the software shares the same name as the insect genus.
Gerris also provides features relevant to geophysical flows:
ocean tide
tsunamis
river flow
eddies in the ocean
sea state (surface waves)
Flow types #1 to #3 were studied using the shallow-water solver included in Gerris, case #4 brings in the primitives equations and application #5 relies on the spectral equations for generation/propagation/dissipation of swell (and/or wind sea): for this purpose Gerris makes use of the source terms from WaveWatchIII.
Lastly, one can note that the (non-hydrostatic) Navier–Stokes solver was also used in the ocean to study:
fluvial plumes
internal waves
hydrothermal convection
On the contrary Gerris does not allow (in its current status) the modeling of compressible fluids (supersonic flows).
Numerical scheme
Several methods can be used to provide a numerical solution to partial differential equations:
finite differences
finite volumes
finite elements
Gerris belongs to the finite volumes family of CFD models.
Type of grid
Most models use meshes which are either structured (Cartesian or curvilinear grids) or unstructured (triangular, tetrahedral, etc.). Gerris is quite different on this respect: it implements a deal between structured and unstructured meshes by using a tree data structure, allowing to refine locally (and dynamically) the (finite-volume) description of the pressure and velocity fields. Indeed the grid evolves in the course of a given simulation owing to criteria defined by the user (e.g. dynamic refinement of the grid in the vicinity of sharp gradients).
Turbulent closure
Gerris mainly aims at DNS; the range of Reynolds available to the user thus depends on the computing power they can afford (although the auto-adaptive mesh allows one to focus the computing resources on the coherent structures). According to the Gerris FAQ the implementation of turbulence models will focus on the LES family rather than RANS approaches.
Programming language, library dependencies, included tools
Gerris is developed in C using the libraries Glib (object orientation, dynamic loading of modules, etc.) and GTS. The latter brings in facilities to perform geometric computations such as triangulation of solid surfaces and their intersection with fluid cells. Moreover Gerris is fully compliant with MPI parallelisation (including dynamic load balancing).
Gerris does not need a meshing tool since the local (and time dependent) refinement of the grid is on charge of the solver itself. As far as solid surfaces are concerned, several input formats are recognized:
analytic formulas in the parameter file
GTS triangulated files; note that the Gerris distribution includes a tool to translate the STL format (exported by various CAD software) into GTS triangulated surfaces
bathymetric/topographic database in KDT format; a tool is also provided to generate such a database from simple ASCII listings
Among the various ways to output Gerris results, let us just mention here:
Graphical output in PPM format: images can then be converted in (nearly) any format using ImageMagick, and MPEG movies can be generated thanks to FFmpeg (among others).
Simulation files (.gfs), which are actually parameters files concatenated with fields issued from the simulation; these files can then be (i) re-used as parameter files (defining new initial conditions), or (ii) processed with Gfsview.
Gfsview, a display software shipped with Gerris, able to cope with the tree structure of the Gerris grid (a data structure which is not efficiently operated by general visualization software).
Licence
CFD software, as any software, can be developed in various "realms":
Business;
Academic;
Open Source.
As far as CFD is concerned, a thorough discussion of these software development paths can be found in the statement by Zaleski.
Gerris was distributed as free and open-source software right from the onset of the project.
See also
Other computing software are freely available in the field of fluid mechanics. Here are some of them (if the development was not initialized under a free license, the year when it moved to Open Source is mentioned in parenthesis):
Industrial fluids
Advanced Simulation Library (2015)
Code Saturne (2007)
FEATool Multiphysics (2013)
OpenFOAM (2004)
SU2 code (2012)
Geophysical fluids
POM (1999)
ROMS
GOTM
Telemac (2010, 2011 for Mascaret)
Delft3D (2011)
Notes
References
Free software
Computational fluid dynamics
Computer-aided engineering software for Linux
Scientific simulation software |
1197941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache%20Flex | Apache Flex | Apache Flex, formerly Adobe Flex, is a software development kit (SDK) for the development and deployment of cross-platform rich web applications based on the Adobe Flash platform. Initially developed by Macromedia and then acquired by Adobe Systems, Adobe donated Flex to the Apache Software Foundation in 2011 and it was promoted to a top-level project in December 2012.
The Flex 3 SDK was released under the MPL-1.1 license in 2008. Consequently, Flex applications can be developed using standard Integrated development environments (IDEs), such as IntelliJ IDEA, Eclipse, the free and open source IDE FlashDevelop, as well as the proprietary Adobe Flash Builder.
In 2014, the Apache Software Foundation started a new project called FlexJS to cross-compile ActionScript 3 to JavaScript to enable it to run on browsers that do not support Adobe Flash Player and on devices that do not support the Adobe AIR runtime. In 2017, FlexJS was renamed to Apache Royale. The Apache Software Foundation describes the current iteration of Apache Royale as an open-source frontend technology that allows a developer to code in ActionScript 3 and MXML and target web, mobile devices and desktop devices on Apache Cordova all at once. Apache Royale is currently in beta development stage.
Overview
Flex uses MXML to define UI layout and other non-visual static aspects, ActionScript to address dynamic aspects and as code-behind, and requires Adobe AIR or Flash Player at runtime to run the application.
Versions
Macromedia Flex 1.0 and 1.5
Macromedia targeted the enterprise application development market with its initial releases of Flex 1.0 and 1.5. The company offered the technology at a price around US$15,000 per CPU. Required for deployment, the Java EE application server compiled MXML and ActionScript on-the-fly into Flash applications (binary SWF files). Each server license included 5 licenses for the Flex Builder IDE.
Adobe Flex 2
Adobe significantly changed the licensing model for the Flex product line with the release of Flex 2. The core Flex 2 SDK, consisting of the command-line compilers and the complete class library of user interface components and utilities, was made available as a free download. Complete Flex applications can be built and deployed solely with the Flex 2 SDK, which contains no limitations or restrictions compared to the same SDK included with the Flex Builder IDE.
Adobe based the new version of Flex Builder on the open source Eclipse platform. The company released two versions of Flex Builder 2, Standard and Professional. The Professional version includes the Flex Charting Components library.
Enterprise-oriented services remain available through Flex Data Services 2. This server component provides data synchronization, data push, publish-subscribe and automated testing. Unlike Flex 1.0 and 1.5, Flex Data Services is not required for the deployment of Flex applications.
Coinciding with the release of Flex 2, Adobe introduced a new version of the ActionScript programming language, known as Actionscript 3, reflecting the latest ECMAScript specification. The use of ActionScript 3 and Flex 2 requires version 9 or later of the Flash Player runtime. Flash Player 9 incorporated a new and more robust virtual machine for running the new ActionScript 3.
Flex was the first Macromedia product to be re-branded under the Adobe name.
Adobe Flex 3
On April 26, 2007, Adobe announced their intent to release the Flex 3 SDK (which excludes the Flex Builder IDE and the LiveCycle Data Services) under the terms of the Mozilla Public License.
Adobe released the first beta of Flex 3, codenamed Moxie, in June 2007. Major enhancements include integration with the new versions of Adobe's Creative Suite products, support for AIR (Adobe's new desktop application runtime), and the addition of profiling and refactoring tools to the Flex Builder IDE.
Adobe Flash Builder and Flex 4
Adobe released Flex 4.0 (code named Gumbo) on March 22, 2010. The Flex 4 development environment is called Adobe Flash Builder, formerly known as Adobe Flex Builder.
Some themes that have been mentioned by Adobe and have been incorporated into Flex 4 are as follows:
Design in Mind: The framework has been designed for continuous collaboration between designers and developers.
Accelerated Development: Be able to take application development from conception to reality quickly.
Horizontal Platform Improvements: Compiler performance, language enhancements, BiDirectional components, enhanced text (Flex 4 includes the new Text Layout Framework).
Full Support for Adobe Flash Player 10 and above.
Broadening Horizons: Finding ways to make a framework lighter, supporting more deployment runtimes, runtime MXML.
Simpler skinning than the previous versions.
Integration with Adobe Flash Catalyst.
Custom templates
Flash Builder is available in two versions: Standard and Premium, the premium adds the following features;
Testing tools
Memory and performance profilers
An automated testing harness to connect to all the leading testing tools
FlexUnit support
command-line build capability
Adobe Flash Builder 4.5 and Flex 4.5
May 3, 2011, Adobe shipped Flash Builder 4.5 copying Flex 4.5 (SDK only) which delivers full support for building Flex and ActionScript applications for Google Android, as well as support for building ActionScript applications for BlackBerry Tablet OS and Apple iOS. An update to Flash Builder 4.5 and Flex 4.5 adds support for building Flex applications for BlackBerry Tablet OS and Apple iOS.
Flex 4.5 SDK delivers many new components and capabilities, along with integrated support in Flash Builder 4.5 and Flash Catalyst CS 5.5. With the Adobe Flex 4.5 SDK which is governed by three main goals:
Allow developers to use Flex for multiscreen application development
Further mature the Spark (skinning) architecture and component set which was introduced in Flex 4
Adobe Flex 4.6.0
In November 2011 Adobe released Flex SDK update 4.6, with the following changes:
More Spark mobile components including: SplitViewNavigator, CalloutButton, Callout, SpinnerList, DateSpinner, and ToggleSwitch
Better performance
Updated platform support
Enhanced Tooling – Flash Builder 4.6
Text Enhancements
Apache Flex 4.8.0 - incubating
Jul 25, 2012, Apache Flex community releases Flex 4.8.0-incubating and it as a parity release with Adobe Flex 4.6.0. This is the first release under the incubator of the Apache Software Foundation and represents the initial donation of Adobe Flex 4.6 by Adobe System Inc.
Differences and highlights include:
Flex trademark issues are largely cleared up
Bug-tracking / issue-tracking system (JIRA) transferred from the Adobe bug tracker to Apache bug tracker
Mustela test suite is donated to Apache
Apache Flex 4.9.0
Jan 11, 2013, Apache Flex community releases Flex 4.9.0. This is the first release since Apache Flex became a top level project of the Apache Software Foundation.
Differences and highlights include:
New locales for Apache Flex including Australian, British, Canadian, Greek, Switzerland (German) and Portuguese
Apache Flex SDK can be compiled for any version of the Flash Player from 10.2 to 11.5
New PostCodeFormatter and PostCodeValidator classes for international postcode formatting and validation
New VectorList and VectorCollection classes for lists and collections of vectors
New version of the TLF (Text Layout Framework), the TLF 3.0.33 source code is now included as it is now part of the Apache Flex donation
Can use Java 7 to compile SDK (see README for instructions)
Many improvements and updates to Mustella tests
An SDK installer has also been created and is the recommended way of installing the Apache Flex SDK in an IDE
Various important bug fixes
Apache Flex 4.9.1
Feb 28, 2013, Apache Flex community releases Flex 4.9.1. This was a minor update to 4.9.0.
Apache Flex 4.10.0
Aug 6, 2013, Apache Flex community releases Flex 4.10.0.
Differences and highlights include:
Support for latest versions of Flash Player (up to 11.8) and AIR runtimes (up to 3.8)
Improved support for older Flash Player versions (down to 10.2)
Linux support
15 new Spark components
Advanced telemetry support
Improved international support for dates
480 dpi mobile skins
Over 200 bugs fixed
Apache Flex 4.11.0
Oct 28, 2013, Apache Flex community releases Flex 4.11.0.
Differences and highlights include:
Support for Flash Player 11.9 and AIR runtime 3.9
mx:AdvancedDataGrid and mx:DataGrid speed improvements
Updated OSMF to latest version
mobile datagrid component
120 and 640 dpi mobile skins
Desktop callout component
Over 50 bugs fixed
Apache Flex 4.12.0
Mar 10, 2014, Apache Flex community releases Flex 4.12.0.
Differences and highlights include:
Support for Flash Player 12.0 and 13.0 beta and AIR runtime 4.0 and 13.0 beta
Improved mobile memory usage/performance
Improved iPad and iOS7 support
mx:AdvancedDataGrid and mx:DataGrid performance improvements
New MaskedTextinput component
JSON support for ArrayCollection and ArrayList
Over 80 bugs fixed
Apache Flex 4.12.1
May 3, 2014, Apache Flex community releases Flex 4.12.1
Differences and highlights include:
Support for Flash Player 13.0 and AIR runtime 13.0
Fixed Adobe Flash Builder bug, which inserts an incorrect attribute while creating a new project that uses Apache Flex SDK
Extended mobile media query support
Over 20 bugs fixed
Apache Flex 4.13.0
Jul 28, 2014, Apache Flex community releases Flex 4.13.0.
Differences and highlights include:
Support for Flash Player 14.0 and AIR runtime 14.0
FDB supports debugging ActionScript Workers
percentWidth for GridColumn
Add Chinese translations for all the installers of Flex
Over 30 bugs fixed
Apache Flex 4.14.0
Jan 28, 2015, Apache Flex community releases Flex 4.14.0
Differences and highlights include:
iOS 7+ and Android 4.x+ mobile theme support
New Spark components skin: FlatSpark
Spark RichTextEditor
Native support for tables in TLF
Promises/A+
54 bugs fixed
Apache Flex 4.15.0
Jan 11, 2016, Apache Flex community release Flex 4.15.0
Differences and highlights include:
Support for Flash Player 18, 19 and 20
Support for AIR 18, 19, 20
30 reported bug fixes
Apache Flex 4.16.0
Mar 14, 2017, Apache Flex community release Flex 4.16.0
Differences and highlights include:
Support for Flash Player 21, 22, 23 and 24
Support for AIR 21, 22, 23 and 24
Support for FontAwesome 4.7
37 reported bug fixes
Related tools
LiveCycle Data Services
LiveCycle Data Services (previously called Flex Data Services) is a server-side complement to the main Flex SDK and Flash Builder IDE and is part of a family of server-based products available from Adobe. Deployed as a Java EE application, LiveCycle Data Services adds capabilities to Flex applications.
BlazeDS
Previously available only as part of Adobe LiveCycle Data Services ES, Adobe plans to contribute the BlazeDS technologies to the community under the LGPL v3. BlazeDS gives Adobe developers free access to the remoting and messaging technologies developed by Adobe.
Concurrent with pre-release of BlazeDS, Adobe is publishing the AMF binary data protocol specification, on which the BlazeDS remoting implementation is based, and is attempting to partner with the community to make this protocol available for major server platforms.
Flex and ColdFusion
Flex 2 offers special integration with ColdFusion MX 7. The ColdFusion MX 7.0.2 release adds updated Flash Remoting to support ActionScript 3, a Flex Data Services event gateway, and the Flex Data Services assembler. Flex Builder 2 also adds extensions for ColdFusion providing a set of wizards for RAD Flex development. A subset of Flex 1.5 is also embedded into ColdFusion MX 7 middleware platform, for use in the ColdFusion Flash forms feature. It is possible to use this framework to write rich web applications, although its intended purpose is for rich forms only.
Application Frameworks
There are a number of application frameworks available which help the developer solve some common tasks and set up the application structure according to best practices.
Tide, part of the Granite Data Services platform.
Swiz
Parsley
Cairngorm
PureMVC
DropAS3
Fabrication
Mate
RobotLegs
Notable sites using Flex
Sherwin-Williams color visualizer
Yahoo! Messenger for the Web
BBC iPlayer desktop downloader
mint.com
ChessCube
BigBlueButton
HBO Go
VMware vSphere Web Client
See also
FXG
List of rich web application frameworks
Comparison of Adobe Flex charts
References
External links
Flex
Flex
Flex
Cross-platform software
Free integrated development environments
Free software programmed in Java (programming language)
Formerly proprietary software
Rich web application frameworks
Software development kits
Software using the Apache license
2004 software |
1794945 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP%20stack%20fingerprinting | TCP/IP stack fingerprinting | TCP/IP stack fingerprinting is the remote detection of the characteristics of a TCP/IP stack implementation. The combination of parameters may then be used to infer the remote machine's operating system (aka, OS fingerprinting), or incorporated into a device fingerprint.
TCP/IP Fingerprint Specifics
Certain parameters within the TCP protocol definition are left up to the implementation. Different operating systems, and different versions of the same operating system, set different defaults for these values. By collecting and examining these values, one may differentiate among various operating systems, and implementations of TCP/IP. The TCP/IP fields that may vary
include the following:
Initial packet size (16 bits)
Initial TTL (8 bits)
Window size (16 bits)
Max segment size (16 bits)
Window scaling value (8 bits)
"don't fragment" flag (1 bit)
"sackOK" flag (1 bit)
"nop" flag (1 bit)
These values may be combined to form a 67-bit signature, or fingerprint, for the target machine. Just inspecting the Initial TTL and window size fields is often enough in order to successfully identify an operating system, which eases the task of performing manual OS fingerprinting.
Protection against and detecting fingerprinting
Protection against the fingerprint doorway to attack is achieved by limiting the type and amount of traffic a defensive system responds to. Examples include blocking address masks and timestamps from outgoing ICMP control-message traffic, and blocking ICMP echo replies. A security tool can alert to potential fingerprinting: it can match another machine as having a fingerprinter configuration by detecting its fingerprint.
Disallowing TCP/IP fingerprinting provides protection from vulnerability scanners looking to target machines running a certain operating system. Fingerprinting facilitates attacks. Blocking those ICMP messages is only one of an array of defenses required for full protection against attacks.
Targeting the ICMP datagram, an obfuscator running on top of IP in the internet layer acts as a "scrubbing tool" to confuse the TCP/IP fingerprinting data. These exist for Microsoft Windows, Linux and FreeBSD.
Fingerprinting tools
A list of TCP/OS Fingerprinting Tools
Zardax.py – Passive open source TCP/IP Fingerprinting Tool.
Ettercap – passive TCP/IP stack fingerprinting.
Nmap – comprehensive active stack fingerprinting.
p0f – comprehensive passive TCP/IP stack fingerprinting.
NetSleuth – free passive fingerprinting and analysis tool
PacketFence – open source NAC with passive DHCP fingerprinting.
Satori – passive CDP, DHCP, ICMP, HPSP, HTTP, TCP/IP and other stack fingerprinting.
SinFP – single-port active/passive fingerprinting.
XProbe2 – active TCP/IP stack fingerprinting.
queso - well-known tool from the late 1990s which is no longer being updated for modern operating systems
Masscan - Fast scanner that transmits 10 million packets per second
References
External links
Remote OS detection via TCP/IP Stack FingerPrinting (2nd Generation)
Stack Fingerprinting
Internet Protocol
Fingerprinting algorithms |
69269412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VietNamNet | VietNamNet | VietNamNet (abbreviated as VNN) is an online newspaper in Vietnam affiliated to the Ministry of Information and Communications. Its content is published daily in both Vietnamese and English, and cover categories including international news, information technology, sports, music, fashion, online interviews, music, etc.
History
VietNamNet was granted the latest operating license on January 23, 2003 (license number: 27/GP-BVHTT).
On May 15, 2008, it was proposed that VietNamNet's ownership be transferred from VNPT to Vietnam's Ministry of Information and Communications.
In 2019, VietNamNet and Vietnam Post online newspapers were merged.
Hacker attacks
On January 4, 2011, VietNamNet's server was attacked by hackers - who then gained control of hundreds of thousands of computers. At that time, this was the largest denial-of-service attack to have ever happened in Vietnam - some compared it to the case of hackers attacking the US Department of Defense's website in 2009.
Google and McAfee later revealed there was evidence that the hacker groups were affiliated with the Vietnamese government. However, editor-in-chief Nguyễn Anh Tuấn insisted that he did not believe the government was behind this attack.
References
External links
Official website
Vietnamese news websites
1997 establishments in Vietnam |
25179319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sword%20of%20Aragon | Sword of Aragon | Sword of Aragon is a turn-based strategy and role-playing game developed and published by Strategic Simulations in 1989. It is also considered to be of the 4X genre. Set in the fictional land of Aragon, the games casts its protagonist as the duke of a city named Aladda. After assuming rule over the city and avenging his father's death, the protagonist embarks on a quest to unify the land through conquest. Accomplishing this goal entails developing cities, recruiting armies, and directing the troops on the fields of battle to victory. First published for MS-DOS, the game was ported to Amiga machines. Reception towards Sword of Aragon tended to be more positive than negative; reviewers called it an exciting game, but criticized its method of copy protection and cited problems with its documentation. There were also opinions that the game was more of a niche product, catering to hardcore strategists.
Background
Sword of Aragon is a "strategic fantasy role-playing adventure" video game published in 1989. The game's setting is the fictional land of Aragon. A powerful human empire once held sway over the land, but infighting and raids by monsters such as orcs, goblins, and titans have broken it apart. The protagonist is the son of the Duke of Aladda, ruler of a city that used to be glorious under the old empire. The duke died during a raid by orcs and tasked his son through his will to fulfill his dream of reunifying the land. To achieve this goal, the young duke builds up his cities and expands his army, conquering or allying with other cities and races. Furthermore, he recovers three artifacts required to claim the throne, slays a dragon, and destroys the strongholds of monsters that plague the land. Eventually, he deposes the ruthless Emperor of the Tetradan Empire, Lucinian IV, and assumes the Aragonian throne.
Gameplay
The player begins a game by choosing a character class for the protagonist. The choices are warrior, knight, mage, priest, and ranger. Each class has an affinity to a certain class of soldier—warriors are more apt in leading infantry, and knights, cavalry. During battles, mages, rangers, and priests can also cast spells that damage foes, alter terrain, and heal friendly forces. The player can hire commanders of these classes to accompany the protagonist in his quest. After winning a number of battles, the player's character might receive offers of service from such commanders as well.
The game is principally split between city management and tactical combat. Gameplay is turn-based, alternating between player and computer, and much of the game is played on the World Map, a representation of the land of Aragon. Each turn on this map represents a month in the game. The map shows cities and the player's units; unexplored areas are blanked out until they have been explored by the player's units. By using the keyboard and mouse, the player moves a cursor to select units and cities, and issue orders via keystrokes. Cities under the player's control provide monthly income, which is supplemented by tributes from vassals and loot from battles. Income from a city is improved by expending funds to develop the city's economic sectors, such as agriculture and mining, or by increasing taxation. Tax rates, however, affect the loyalty of citizens; high taxes in a city lead to a decreasing population.
Armies are recruited in the cities, and their maintenance contributes to the monthly expenditure. Troops consist of infantry, cavalry, and bowmen. The game enters the tactical battle phase when enemies attack one of the player's cities that is garrisoned with troops, and when the player's forces move onto a hostile city. Encounters might also take place as the player's forces move on the World Map. On such occasions, the game switches the display to a large-scale map of the encounter. The battle maps differ from the World Map in that each spot has a limit on its number of occupants—a stacking limit. The player and computer take turns to deploy and move their forces. Units move at their standard pace or at a forced march to cover greater distances per turn in battles. Certain terrain gives defensive bonuses to their occupants, reducing the damage they suffer when coming under attack. Offensives take the form of melee, charges, missiles, and magic. The player has the option of letting the computer take control of his or her army to fight the battle. The game switches back to the World Map after a battle has concluded. Units that survive a battle gain experience points, improving their combat abilities on attaining certain numbers of experience points. They, with the exception of commanders, can also train in cities to improve their experience. Video games designer Alan Emrich considered Sword of Aragon gameplay typical of the "eXplore, eXpand, eXploit and eXterminate" nature of the 4X genre.
Development
Sword of Aragon was developed and published by Strategic Simulations, Inc., a video game company that dominated the 1980s market for digital wargames. Their products typically "copied the board game formula without adding revolutionary new elements." Most strategy games at this time featured hexagon-based maps and a sequence of turns among players. Sword of Aragon plainly exhibits the influence of traditional board games in its design. Its maps are laid out in hexes, and the concept of stacking limits plays a strong part in the game's strategies. Written in Microsoft QuickBASIC and other languages, Sword of Aragon features a copy protection system that uses the game manual. On starting the game, the icon of an Aragonian city is displayed, along with a cue for a word in the manual's description of that city; a separate poster identifies the cities with their icons. The game proceeds only after the correct answer has been entered.
Reception
Sword of Aragon was released when fantasy-themed wargames were gaining popularity and computer wargames were starting to flourish as the rules of the board games grew in complexity. The digital versions were simpler in terms of their gameplay, as parts of the complex mechanics were handled by computers instead. Freed of dice rolling, complex calculations, and coordination of the sequence of play, casual gamers were more amenable to playing these games. According to Advanced Computer Entertainments John Minson, Sword of Aragon complied with part of this trend; its huge complicated set of rules would have made it an unplayable board game, but by hiding its mechanics from the player, the digital version could be played by anyone. However, as Minson further explained, the scope of the game was too large for casual gamers to handle, overwhelming them with "the number of factors under their control", and hardcore gamers are more likely to appreciate the game's complexity.
In the January 1990 edition of Dragon (Issue 153), Hartley, Patricia, and Kirk Lesser believed that while the game was exciting, it suffered several design flaws that made the game too difficult for them. They found that the computer-controlled enemies constantly outpaced their economy and military might, and the game gave them no immediate opportunity to retreat their army when ambushed by superior forces, forcing them to suffer heavy losses.
In the February–March 1990 edition of Games International (Issue 13), Dave Morris found that the programming did not allow the enemy to play intelligently, pointing out that "even on Expert level your opponents will be just as dumb — there'll just be more of them." He was also disappointed by the game's graphics. Morris concluded by giving the gameplay a poor rating of 5 out of 10 and the graphics an even poorer 4 out of 10, saying, "Fighting a succession of poor opponents became repetitious, and its almost impossible to lose a battle even if the odds are stacked against you."
Compute!s Adam Starkweather found it too easy in later stages of the game, as his character's well-developed armies "steamroll" their way through the opposition. The Lessers and Amiga Jokers Werner Hiersekorn felt the game ran slow on their computers, while Starkweather reflected that battles could take up to one and a half hours to complete. In 1990 and 1993 Computer Gaming World gave the game three-plus stars out of five, stating that it had "high playability".
Several video game observers doubted the classification of Sword of Aragon as a role-playing game. Science fiction and fantasy novelist Orson Scott Card and Amiga Computings Lucinda Orr considered it more of a strategy than a role-playing game.
John Minson of ACE was of like mind, and further elaborated that unlike the Dungeon and Dragon series of video games, Sword of Aragon failed to inspire players to identify themselves with the characters, giving a "coldly mechanical experience" instead.
Datormagazins Hans Ekholm thought otherwise, saying the gameplay did not require any strategy, and considered Sword of Aragon "a fantasy role-playing/adventure game and nothing else".
Critics had minor criticisms with the game's quality when comparing to its contemporaries. Minson called its interface "old-fashioned", and Computer Gaming World said it was "clunky" and "marginal", a description it also gave the game's graphics. Graphically, Orr and Zzap!64s Phil King found the game "primitive", though "adequate". More troubling to several reviewers was the game's copy protection system. Ekholm was not pleased that he had to unfold a flimsy poster to identify the requested city. His copy was falling apart after several identifications. The game further frustrated him when it failed to acknowledge the correct key. The provided hints were incorrect, a situation also experienced by the Lessers. The inaccuracies were not restricted to the copy protection. Starkweather pointed out discrepancies in the documentation—several features of the game were either not explained or wrongly documented.
Ekholm dismissed Sword of Aragon for its flawed copy protection and perceived lack of strategy. Hiersekorn was more condemning; rating the game poorly for its graphics and sound, and confused by its presented lists of military and economic data, he called the game a "cheap clone". Regardless, such issues did not deter other reviewers from praising the game. Pleased with the large number of options to manage their cities and to order their armies in combat, they felt the game was deep and offered many exciting moments; Kritzen judged the system "challenging and ultimately rewarding." According to Retro Gamer magazine, "Sword of Aragon is considered by many to be the best fantasy wargame ever." Starkweather was equally pronounced in his opinion. He called Sword of Aragon addictive and was willing to overlook issues with the game, finding pleasure in formulating strategies and tactics to overcome the enemy.
Other reviews
Shadis #1 (Jan., 1990)
References
External links
1989 video games
4X video games
Amiga games
Computer wargames
DOS games
Role-playing video games
Strategic Simulations games
Turn-based strategy video games
Video games developed in the United States |
29995703 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1959%20USC%20Trojans%20football%20team | 1959 USC Trojans football team | The 1959 USC Trojans football team represented the University of Southern California (USC) in the 1959 NCAA University Division football season. In their third year under head coach Don Clark, the Trojans compiled an 8–2 record (3–1 against conference opponents), finished in a tie for the Athletic Association of Western Universities championship, and outscored their opponents by a combined total of 195 to 90. Total attendance for all 10 games was 453,865.
Ben Charles led the team in passing with 20 of 46 passes completed for 843 yards, four touchdowns and three interceptions. Jerry Traynham led the team in rushing with 123 carries for 583 yards and two touchdowns. Luther Hayes was the leading receiver with nine catches for 179 yards and two touchdowns.
This was the first season for the five-team AAWU, following the dissolution of the Pacific Coast Conference in the spring. It comprised the four teams from state of California and Washington in Seattle. The other four teams from the north (Oregon, Oregon State, Washington State, and Idaho) were independent for several seasons.
Schedule
Pittsburgh and Ohio State games were played on Friday night, Notre Dame on Thursday (Thanksgiving)
Players
Al Bansavage, guard, 6'2", 220 pounds, Union City, California
Mike Bundra, tackle, 6'2", 232 pounds, Catasaugua, Pennsylvania
Ben Charles, quarterback
Angelo Coia, halfback, 6'2", 195 pounds, Philadelphia
Jim Conroy, fullback, 6'0", 197 pounds, Baldwin Park, California
Dan Ficca, tackle, 6'1", 230 pounds, Atlas, Pennsylvania
Garry Finneran, tackle, 6'2", 219 pounds, Cathedral
Lynn Gaskill, halfback, 6'0", 175 pounds, Banning, California
Luther Hayes, end, 6'4", 198 pounds, San Diego, California
Clark Holden, fullback, 5'10", 195 pounds, Marshall, California
Bob Levingston, halfback, 6'0", 185 pounds, Los Angeles
Marv Marinovich, tackle, 6'3", 220 pounds, Watsonville, California
Marlin McKeever, end, 6'1", 215 pounds, Mt. Carmel, California
Mike McKeever, 6'1", 215 pounds, guard, Mt. Carmel, California
Roger Mietz, guard, 5'10", 206 pounds, San Leandro, California
Ron Mix, tackle, 6'3", 215, Hawthorne, California
Dave Morgan, center, 6'4", 204 pounds, Natick, Massachusetts
Al Prukop, quarterback, 6'1", 181 pounds, Mt. Carmel (led the team with 405 minutes played)
Jerry Traynham, halfback, 5'10", 180 pounds, Woodland, California
Jack Treier, center, 6'3", 208 pounds, Lancaster, Pennsylvania
George Van Vliet, 6'2", 195 pounds, end, Whittier, California
Glenn Wilder, 6'0", 181 pounds, end, Van Nuys, California
Britt Williams, guard, 6'1", 210 pounds, Walnut Creek, California
Willie Wood, quarterback, 5'9", 170 pounds, Washington, D.C.
Coaching staff
Head coach: Don Clark
Assistant coaches: Ray George, Al Davis, Mel Hein, Marv Goux, Jim Sears, John McKay
Manager: Bob Lambeth
References
USC
USC Trojans football seasons
Pac-12 Conference football champion seasons
USC Trojans football |
81646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking%20Machines%20Corporation | Thinking Machines Corporation | Thinking Machines Corporation was a supercomputer manufacturer and artificial intelligence (AI) company, founded in Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1983 by Sheryl Handler and W. Daniel "Danny" Hillis to turn Hillis's doctoral work at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) on massively parallel computing architectures into a commercial product named the Connection Machine. The company moved in 1984 from Waltham to Kendall Square in Cambridge, Massachusetts, close to the MIT AI Lab. Thinking Machines made some of the most powerful supercomputers of the time, and by 1993 the four fastest computers in the world were Connection Machines. The firm filed for bankruptcy in 1994; its hardware and parallel computing software divisions were acquired in time by Sun Microsystems.
Supercomputer products
On the hardware side, Thinking Machines produced several Connection Machine models (in chronological order): the CM-1, CM-2, CM-200, CM-5, and CM-5E. The CM-1 and 2 came first in models with 64K (65,536) bit-serial processors (16 processors per chip) and later, the smaller 16K and 4K configurations. The Connection Machine was programmed in a variety of specialized programming languages, including *Lisp and CM Lisp (derived from Common Lisp), C* (derived by Thinking Machines from C), and CM Fortran. These languages used proprietary compilers to translate code into the parallel instruction set of the Connection Machine. The CM-1 through CM-200 were examples of single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) architecture, while the later CM-5 and CM-5E were multiple instruction, multiple data (MIMD) that combined commodity SPARC processors and proprietary vector processors in a fat tree computer network.
All Connection Machine models required a serial front-end processor, which was most often a Sun Microsystems workstation, but on early models could also be a Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) VAX minicomputer or Symbolics Lisp machine.
Thinking Machines also introduced an early commercial redundant array of independent disks (RAID) 2 disk array, the DataVault, circa 1988.
Business history
In May 1985, Thinking Machines became the third company to register a .com domain name (think.com). It became profitable in 1989, in part because of its contracts from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The next year, they sold $65 million (USD) worth of hardware and software, making them the market leader in parallel supercomputers. Thinking Machines' primary supercomputer competitor was Cray Research. Other parallel computing competitors included nCUBE, nearby Kendall Square Research, and MasPar, which made a computer similar to the CM-2, and Meiko Scientific, whose CS-2 was similar to the CM-5. In 1991, DARPA and the United States Department of Energy reduced their purchases amid criticism they were unfairly favoring Thinking Machines at the expense of Cray, nCUBE, and MasPar. Tightening export laws also prevented the most powerful Connection Machines from being exported. By 1992, the company was losing money, and CEO Sheryl Handler was forced out.
In August 1994, Thinking Machines filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. The hardware portion of the company was purchased by Sun Microsystems, and TMC re-emerged as a small software company specializing in parallel software tools for commodity clusters and data mining software for its installed base and former competitors' parallel supercomputers. In December 1996, the parallel software development section was also acquired by Sun Microsystems.
Thinking Machines continued as a pure data mining company until it was acquired in 1999 by Oracle Corporation. Oracle later acquired Sun Microsystems, thus re-uniting much of Thinking Machines' intellectual property.
The program wide area information server (WAIS), developed at Thinking Machines by Brewster Kahle, would later be influential in starting the Internet Archive and associated projects, including the Rosetta Project as part of Danny Hillis' Clock of the Long Now.
Architect Greg Papadopoulos later became Sun Microsystems's chief technology officer (CTO).
Dispersal
Many of the hardware people left for Sun Microsystems and went on to design the Sun Enterprise series of parallel computers. The Darwin data mining toolkit, developed by Thinking Machines' Business Supercomputer Group, was purchased by Oracle. Most of the team that built Darwin had already left for Dun & Bradstreet soon after Thinking Machines Corporation entered bankruptcy in 1994.
Thinking Machines alumni (known as "Thunkos") helped create several parallel computing software start-ups, including Ab Initio Software; and Applied Parallel Technologies, which was later renamed Torrent Systems and acquired by Ascential Software, which was in turn acquired by IBM.
Besides Hillis, other noted people who worked for or with the company included Robert Millstein, Greg Papadopoulos, David Waltz, Guy L. Steele Jr., Karl Sims, Brewster Kahle, Bradley Kuszmaul, Carl Feynman, Cliff Lasser, Marvin Denicoff, Alex Vasilevsky, Allan Torres, Richard Fishman, Mirza Mehdi, Alan Harshman, Richard Jordan, Alan Mercer, James Bailey, Tsutomu Shimomura. Among the early corporate fellows of Thinking Machines were Marvin Minsky, Douglas Lenat, Stephen Wolfram, Tomaso Poggio, Richard Feynman, and Jack Schwartz, later joined by Charles E. Leiserson, Alan Edelman, Eric Lander, and Lennart Johnsson.
DARPA's Connection Machines were decommissioned by 1996.
References in popular culture
In the 1993 film Jurassic Park, Connection Machines (non-functioning dummies) are visible in the park's control room, programmer Dennis Nedry mentions "eight Connection Machines" and a video about dinosaur cloning mentions "Thinking Machines supercomputers".
In the 1996 film Mission Impossible, Luther Stickell asks Franz Krieger for "Thinking Machine laptops" to help hack into the CIA's Langley supercomputer.
Tom Clancy's novel Rainbow Six speaks of the NSA's "star machine from a company gone bankrupt, the Super-Connector from Thinking Machines, Inc., of Cambridge, Massachusetts" in the NSA's basement. In addition, in The Bear and the Dragon says the National Security Agency could crack nearly any book or cipher with one of three custom operating systems designed for a Thinking Machines supercomputer.
In the 2008 video game Fallout 3, it is mentioned that the pre-war firm that made the computer systems for Vaults is called Think Machine.
See also
FROSTBURG – CM-5 used by the National Security Agency
Goodyear MPP
ICL Distributed Array Processor
MasPar
Parsytec
SUPRENUM
References
External links
The Rise and Fall of Thinking Machines, Inc. Magazine, September 1995
'Richard Feynman and The Connection Machine' by W. Daniel Hillis
Thinking Machines by Alex Papadimoulis in The Daily WTF's "Tales from the Interview"
Thinking Machines To File for Bankruptcy John Markoff, The New York Times, August 16, 1994.
Defunct computer companies based in Massachusetts
Lisp (programming language) software companies
Massively parallel computers
Oracle acquisitions
Parallel computing
SIMD computing
Supercomputers
Companies based in Cambridge, Massachusetts
1983 establishments in Massachusetts
Thinking Machines Corporation |
31770697 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person%20of%20Interest%20%28TV%20series%29 | Person of Interest (TV series) | Person of Interest is an American science fiction crime drama television series that aired on CBS from September 22, 2011, to June 21, 2016, with its five seasons consisting of 103 episodes. The series was created by Jonathan Nolan; executive producers were Nolan, J. J. Abrams, Bryan Burk, Greg Plageman, Denise Thé, and Chris Fisher.
The series centers on a mysterious reclusive billionaire computer programmer, Harold Finch (Michael Emerson), who has developed a computer program for the federal government known as "the Machine" that is capable of collating all sources of information to predict terrorist acts and to identify people planning them. The Machine also identifies perpetrators and victims of other premeditated deadly crimes; however, because the government considers these "irrelevant", Finch programs the Machine to delete this information each night. Anticipating abuse of his creation, and tormented by the deaths that might have been prevented, Finch limited its communication to the provision of a tiny piece of information, the social security numbers of these "persons of interest" to investigate, who might be victims, perpetrators, or innocent bystanders in a lethal event, and programs the Machine to notify him secretly of the "irrelevant" numbers. The first episode shows how Finch recruited John Reese (Jim Caviezel)a former Army Rangers and CIA agent, now presumed deadto investigate the person identified by the number the Machine has provided, and to act accordingly. As time passes, others join the team.
From its first episode, the series raises an array of moral issues, from questions of privacy and "the greater good", the concept of justifiable homicide, and problems caused by working with limited information programs. By the last two episodes of the show's second season, it is revealed that the Machine had achieved sentience and had begun to protect itself from competing interests seeking control, increasingly directing the activities of team members, as the series began to transition from pure crime-fighting drama towards hard science fiction. Thereafter, the series brought to the fore questions about superintelligence, power derived from social surveillance, human oversight, competing superintelligent systems, the ethics of enforcing law and order by removing disruption (a policy adopted by a competing intelligent system called "Samaritan"), and other issues inherent in the use of artificial intelligence, as complex ethical questions to be addressed.
Some critics elevated their already positive opinions of the series to the level of high praise when the program introduced multiple ongoing story arcs and deepened its speculations on the power and implications of superintelligent artificial intelligence. Writing on io9, Katharine Trendacosta noted that by the end of the series in 2016, Person of Interest had been transformed from a "crime-fighting show" with an entertaining plot device into "one of the best science-fiction series ever broadcast". Trendacosta wrote that this was because the first-season finale set up the rest of the series to move away from "a crime-fighting show with a kind of nifty plot device... [and instead]... put the Machine, its intelligence, and the ethics of[...] using it at the center of an ideological battle", and gave the Machine a voice of its own. The show won the 2012 People's Choice Award for Favorite New TV Drama and the 2016 People's Choice Award for Favorite TV Crime Drama.
Plot
John Reese, a former Special Forces soldier and CIA operative, is burnt out and presumed dead, living as a vagrant in New York City. He is approached by Harold Finch, a reclusive billionaire software genius who built a computer system for the U.S. government after September 11, 2001 which monitors all electronic communications and surveillance video feeds, in order to predict future terrorist activities. The computerknown informally as "the Machine", and funded under the codename "Northern Lights"also predicts other lethal crimes as well, but being irrelevant to national security these were deleted daily. To prevent abuse of its capabilities, Finch had programmed the Machine to only provide an identity of a person predicted to be involved in an imminent lethal crime, in the form of a Social Security number, but no details of the crime or whether the person of interest is a perpetrator or victim. Those involved in creating Northern Lights, such as Finch's best friend and business partner Nathan Ingram, have largely been killed by the authorities to hide the project's existence. Finch realises that knowledge of the victims deemed "irrelevant" would have saved his partner, and decides to act covertly on the non-terrorism predictions. He hires Reese to conduct surveillance and intervene in these cases. Finch and Reese (and later others) attempt to understand the threat to, or by, people whose numbers the Machine provides, and try to stop the crime from occurring.
They are helped by NYPD Detectives Lionel Fusco, a formerly-corrupt officer whom Reese coerces into helping them, and Joss Carter, who initially investigates Reese for his vigilante activities. Reese arranges for Fusco to spy on Carter by becoming her partner, but Carter eventually becomes Reese's ally and drops her investigation on him. Nevertheless, for the entirety of season one neither Fusco nor Carter is aware that the other is also working with Finch and Reese and both detectives are kept in the dark about the Machine. Periodically, the team enlists the aid of Zoe Morgan, a professional "fixer" who applies her skills to particularly difficult tasks. The series features several subplots. One significant story arc involves "HR", an organization of corrupt NYPD officers who are initially in league with budding mob boss Carl Elias and later with the Russian mafia; in earlier parts of this arc, Fusco is forced to go undercover. Another important story line revolves around Root, a psychopathic hacker obsessed with the Machine, who is initially seen as its gravest danger but is ultimately chosen by the Machine as its symbiotic "analog interface".
During the second season, Decima Technologies, a powerful and secretive private intelligence firm run by ex-MI6 spy and idealist John Greer, is revealed to be attempting to gain access to the Machine. Carter vows vengeance against HR after they have her boyfriend, Detective Cal Beecher, murdered. Reese and Finch encounter Sameen Shaw, a U.S. Army ISA assassin, on the run after being betrayed by her employers. Shaw learns about the Machine in the season two finale and subsequently becomes a member of Reese and Finch's team. The Machine is revealed to have developed sentience and covertly arranged for itself to be moved to an undisclosed location to protect itself from interference.
In the third season, the Machine's sentience is fully revealed as it increasingly communicates with and proactively assists and directs the actions of the team. After being demoted due to HR's machinations, Carter delves deeper into her investigation of the organization and eventually uncovers and arrests its leader, thus bringing down the entire organization, but she is then killed by its rogue second-in-command. In his grief over her death, Reese briefly leaves the team. The team also battles Vigilance, a violent anti-government organization devoted to securing people's privacy. During the second half of the third season, the existence of code to create another artificial intelligencecalled Samaritanis revealed, which has fallen into Decima's hands. Samaritan differs from the Machine in being open to external direction and willing to remove those seen as disruptive to law and order pre-emptively, and is a more advanced design, but as seen by the Machine, should never have existed as it lacks a moral codean attribute that Samaritan sees as a flaw. In the season three finale, it is revealed that Greer, who sees Samaritan as a means to fix humanity's problems, had covertly built Vigilance as a domestic terrorist threat, and created a terrorist event of mass destruction in their name, to manipulate the authorities into ordering Samaritan's activation and providing direct access to the NSA feeds required for full operation. Unable to prevent Samaritan's activation, the Machine creates new identities for the Team while Root and Shaw modify Samaritan to always treat the new identities as unsuspicious.
Season four covers the team's life in hiding. They continue to work on cases, but must now also evade Samaritan, which lacks the restrictions and human-oriented perspective Finch built into the Machine, and which is seeking to resolve perceived problems of human violence by reshaping society, sometimes violently. Samaritan manipulates the NSA, fixes elections, triggers stock market crashes, kills those seen as threats, changes data to gain results perceived as beneficial, buys useful corporations, and continues building an organization to support its own goals. Samaritan and the Machine meet via human proxies as the only two of their kind, and discuss their essential differences, disagreeing strongly on whether freewill or firm guidance is more beneficial to humanity. They part with the understanding that Samaritan will seek to destroy the Machine, and Samaritan engineers a general electrical failure across the entire United States to do so. Samaritan operatives capture Shaw, leading to a brief search by Reese and Root before the Machine instructs them to stop. As Finch finishes copying the Machine's core systems into a temporary portable storage system, it apologizes to Finch for its failure to prevent the present situation, expresses concern that it may have made poor choices under unforeseen circumstances and gratitude for its creation, and ceases to function.
In season five, the Machine is reinstated onto a makeshift network of computers in hiding, but takes some time before it works reliably again due to damage sustained from power failures while it was in storage. At a Samaritan facility, advanced VR technology is used on a captured Shaw to run thousands of neural simulations in order to get her to reveal the Machine's location. During these simulations, Shaw is made to believe that an implant had been placed in her brain stem and that it was influencing her actions. She later escapes, but is unsure whether the escape itself is just another simulation. Samaritan engineers a lethal infection in order to force people to provide their DNA during vaccination, which will be used to decide who will be allowed to live. Root pleads with Finch to allow the Machine to be more proactive, in its fight against Samaritan, but Finch refuses, fearing the result of an uninhibited superintelligence, even of his own making. Finch is captured by Samaritan operatives, and Root is killed during his escape. Finch is taken into custody for treason, where he delivers a soliloquy via CCTV to Samaritan, in which he describes his struggle with long-held pacifist beliefs, due to the greater risk posed by Samaritan. Finch relents and asks the Machine to help him directly; it chooses Root's voice as its own, and helps him escape. It admits that in watching people, it has learned to love and understand people, and had grieved for those lost. Finch steals and weaponizes Ice-9, a virulent computer virus capable of infecting and destroying Samaritan, although it will also destroy the Machine and much of the global computing infrastructure as well. On the verge of Ice-9's activation, Greer sacrifices himself in vain to kill Finch and ensure Samaritan's continuation, and Samaritan tries to argue that Finch must change his mind and consider the consequences of his actions, but Finch responds that he has indeed considered them; he activates Ice-9 within the NSA and to all systems the NSA is capable of reaching, as well as breaching the Federal Reserve to destroy Samaritan's backup with the same virus. A final copy of Samaritan, uploaded as a last resort onto an orbiting satellite, is destroyed when Reese sacrifices himself to save Finch and uploads a copy of the Machine there to directly fight Samaritan. The Machine also falls victim to Ice-9 and ceases to function after showing Finch its prediction of the world and his friends' futures if it had not existed - Samaritan would have arisen anyway, but without means of restraint. Finch survives and reunites with his former fiancée. A while later, Shaw is unexpectedly contacted by the Machine; it has restored itself from the satellite back to a land-based computer, to continue its work.
Cast and characters
Main
Jim Caviezel as John Reese: a former U.S. Army Special Forces soldier and later a CIA SAD/SOG operative in the Special Activities Division. Reese is presumed dead following a mission in Ordos, China. Little is known about Reese's background, and his name is one of several aliases that he uses. He lost his lover Jessica Arndt, prior to meeting Finch. It appears to have marked him deeply. Reese demonstrates skill in the use of a wide range of weapons, in hand-to-hand combat, and in counter-surveillance tactics. He knows very little about Finch, who often rebuffs him when he attempts to learn more about him. The Machine identifies Reese as its "primary asset".
Michael Emerson as Harold Finch: a reclusive, security-conscious, and intensely private billionaire software engineer. His real name is unknown and he has many aliases (most commonly Harold Wren), using various species of birds as the last name. Finch has developed a machine that can isolate the Social Security numbers of people with either premeditated homicidal intent or who will be homicide victims, based on its analysis of surveillance data. He recruits Reese to help him deal with the people that the Machine identifies, following a traumatic event in his own life that led to the death of his business partner and close friend Nathan Ingram. For the first three seasons, Finch lives and works in an abandoned library and, beginning with season four, in an abandoned subway stop. Finch shows the results of severe physical injuries, including a rigid posture, and a limp. Finch cares for Bear, a Belgian Malinois dog with military training. The Machine identifies Finch as its "admin".
Taraji P. Henson as Joss Carter (seasons 1–3; guest season 4): an NYPD homicide detective. Carter is a former U.S. Army interrogation officer who passed the bar exam in 2004, but gave up practicing law to return to police work. Carter first crosses paths with Reese following his encounter with a group of young men on the New York City Subway. She knows him principally as "a mysterious man in a suit" in much of the first season due to his avoidance of her detective work, to her annoyance. Carter is initially determined to apprehend Reese, but eventually forms an alliance with him and Finch. In the third season, she becomes aware of the Machine's existence before being killed by corrupt cop Patrick Simmons. The Machine identifies Carter as a "secondary asset".
Kevin Chapman as Lionel Fusco: a reformed corrupt detective whom Reese blackmails into being a source inside the NYPD. Finch later arranges for Fusco to be transferred to Carter's precinct so that he works alongside her. Over time, Fusco becomes increasingly loyal to Finch and Reese, as he stops being a corrupt cop, although he continues to keep a secret regarding the death of a cop involved with HR. Fusco and Carter become aware of their mutual membership in Finch's team at the end of the first season. In the fourth season, Fusco becomes Reese's partner under Reese's new identity of Detective John Riley. Fusco remains unaware of the Machine's existence for most of the series but is eventually told near the end when the secret causes a rift between Fusco and Reese. The Machine identifies Fusco as a "secondary asset".
Amy Acker as Root (seasons 3–5; guest season 1; recurring season 2): a genius hacker obsessed with the Machine. Root has a keen interest in both Finch and the Machine. Her real name is Samantha "Sam" Groves. Initially introduced as a guest star in the first season, Acker's Root begins as a morally ambiguous hacker not afraid to kill, but she becomes a crucial ally for the team, with the Machine adopting her as its "analog interface" and using her as its agent for tertiary operations, as well as an intermediary between itself and individuals with whom it wishes to communicate. Among her numerous false identities, she uses the name of Augusta King, the first programmer in the world.
Sarah Shahi as Sameen Shaw (seasons 3–5; recurring season 2): a former U.S. Marine and later an ISA operative/assassin who was working for Northern Lights. Shaw unknowingly deals with the "relevant" numbers generated by the Machine. She claims that she has an Axis II personality disorder, making her unable to feel and/or express common human emotions like fear or sadness. This made her unfit to become a doctor so she joined the U.S. Marine Corps. Similar to Reese, Shaw demonstrates skill in the use of a wide range of weapons, in hand-to-hand combat, in counter-surveillance tactics, and in intelligence gathering. Shaw is presumed dead following a mission in NYC. She later becomes an ally of Reese and Finch. The Machine identifies Shaw as its "primary asset".
Recurring
Brett Cullen as Nathan Ingram, Finch's collaborator on the Machine who died in a suicide bombing attack set up by the government. Ingram acted as the interface between the government and his company while the Machine was under development. Finch and Ingram became best friends while they both attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Carrie Preston as Grace Hendricks, Finch's fiancée who believes him to be dead following the ferry bombing that killed Ingram.
Paige Turco as Zoe Morgan, a "fixer" who specializes in crisis management. Finch and Reese first meet her as a person of interest. Later, she works with them on cases that require her skills. She and Reese have an apparently sporadic romantic relationship.
Ken Leung as Leon Tao, a former financial criminal and three-time person of interest who has assisted in some cases with his forensic accounting skills. He has a penchant for get-rich-schemes which always land him in difficulties with gangsters.
Brennan Brown as Nicholas Donnelly, an FBI special agent who becomes interested in Reese when his case crosses one of Reese's. He periodically offers Carter the opportunity to work with him as he pursues Reese.
Luke Kleintank as Caleb Phipps, first introduced in an episode midway through the second season as a genius teenager with a difficult past who Finch assisted by guiding him away from a suicide attempt while posing as his high school substitute math teacher. Phipps later returned in two episodes of the fourth season as a successful computer coder as well as Root's boss, and provided the crucial compression algorithm to help Finch, Root and the machine survive a major offensive by Samaritan in the fourth-season finale.
Susan Misner as Jessica Arndt, Reese's deceased lover. After Jessica's relationship with Reese ended, she married another man, but remained in contact with Reese. Her new husband subjected her to domestic violence and eventually killed her.
Wrenn Schmidt as Iris Campbell, a therapist assigned to speak with Reese, working undercover as Detective John Riley, after his involvement in shooting incidents as an officer. At the end of the episode "Skip", she develops a romantic relationship with Reese.
Jimmi Simpson as Logan Pierce, a tech billionaire and person of interest in the middle of the second season, who returned towards the end of the fifth season and, together with two other former persons of interestJoey Durban and Harper Roseforms a second team also working for the Machine, that is based out of Washington, D.C.
Annie Ilonzeh as Harper Rose, a drifter and opportunistic con artist who first appears in "Blunt" as a person of interest when she tries to independently double-cross both a drug cartel and The Brotherhood. At the end of the episode "Skip", it is revealed that the Machine is starting to anonymously use her as an asset. In "Synecdoche", it is revealed that Harper has become part of a second team working for the Machine in Washington, D.C., with former persons of interest Joey Durban (portrayed by James Carpinello, first appeared in "Mission Creep") and Logan Pierce (actor Jimmi Simpson, first in "One Percent").
James Carpinello as Joey Durban, one of the machine's first numbers in the first season who returns at the end of the series to reveal that hetogether with two former persons of interest, Harper Rose and Logan Piercehas formed a second team in the nation's capital and now works for the Machine as well.
Government
The following characters are tied to a government project related to the development and use of the Machine:
John Doman as Ross Garrison, a U.S. senator charged with overseeing the Northern Lights project
Elizabeth Marvel as Alicia Corwin, a liaison between Ingram and the government while the Machine was being developed and a former member of the National Security Council
Camryn Manheim as Control, the woman who is the head of the ISA's operation (code-named "Northern Lights") regarding the Machine. To protect the Machine, she sanctioned the suicide bombing that killed Ingram and caused Finch's injuries. When the plug is pulled on "Northern Lights", she is unwittingly installed as a puppet heading Samaritan, a position with which she becomes more and more uneasy.
Boris McGiver as Hersh, the Special Counsel's enforcer, a former member of the ISA
Jay O. Sanders as the Special Counsel, a shadowy figure from the Office of Special Counsel who appears to be coordinating the activity regarding the Machine and sees Reese as a threat
Cotter Smith as Denton Weeks, the official who commissioned the development of the Machine while he was a deputy director at the NSA
NYPD
Sterling K. Brown as Cal Beecher, a narcotics detective with whom Carter had begun a relationship. Beecher is Alonzo Quinn's godson but was unaware of Quinn's activities.
Anthony Mangano as Kane, an NYPD homicide detective with whom Carter and Fusco periodically work
Michael McGlone as Bill Szymanski, an NYPD organized crime unit detective with whom Carter sometimes works
HR
The following characters are involved in the HR storyline, in which a group of corrupt police officers and public officials work to control organized crime in New York:
Robert John Burke as Patrick Simmons, a uniformed officer who is a right-hand man to Quinn and HR's second-in-command. He handles HR activities on the street level
John Fiore as Womack, the captain of Homicide Division and Carter and Fusco's supervisor
Michael Mulheren as Arthur Lynch, a police captain and major figure in HR with whom Fusco appeared to be working in the first season
Clarke Peters as Alonzo Quinn, the mayor's chief of staff and the head of HR
Al Sapienza as Raymond Terney, a detective working for HR who periodically crosses paths with Carter
Brian Wiles as Mike Laskey, a rookie cop (and mole for the Russian mob) affiliated with HR who is installed as Carter's new partner after she is demoted to officer for getting too close to HR
The Mob
Enrico Colantoni as Carl Elias, a nascent crime boss and the illegitimate son of Mafia don Gianni Moretti. Elias is determined to revive and unite the crime families of New York City and to eliminate the Russian mob. Elias was arrested following an attempt to kill the heads of the Five Families but continued to run his organization from jail. HR and the Russian mob removed Elias from prison to murder him, but Carter saved him and helped arrange for a safe hiding place. After Carter's death Elias arranges for her murderer to be killed as he watches. He is eventually shot by a sniper sent by Samaritan, but is revealed to have survived the attack with the help of Reese, Finch and Fusco. In the fifth season, he is confined to a bed in one of Finch's safe houses. In "Sotto Voce" he helps Finch track down and eliminate the mysterious Voice and joins the team as they are the only friends he has left. Although not a "good" man, Elias is generally seen as a source of order and stability in the underworld and considered the lesser of two evils.
David Valcin as Anthony "Scarface" Marconi, Elias' principal enforcer, and close friend. He is easily identifiable by a large scar on his right cheek, thus his nickname. Scarface almost always seems to be smiling, another identifiable trait. He is captured by The Brotherhood and interrogated, wherein he sacrifices himself to protect Elias.
James LeGros as Bruce Moran, Elias's accountant and close friend of both him and Anthony Marconi from boyhood. He attempts to hold Elias's empire together while Elias recovers from the Samaritan attack.
CIA
The following characters are part of Reese's backstory relating to his time with the CIA:
Michael Kelly as Mark Snow, a CIA operative who once worked with Reese
Annie Parisse as Kara Stanton, Reese's former CIA partner who was widely believed to be dead, but is later recruited by Decima Technologies
Darien Sills-Evans as Tyrell Evans, a CIA officer working with Snow
Decima Technologies
The following characters are involved in the Decima Technologies storyline, a shadowy organization that is in possession of the Samaritan AI:
John Nolan as John Greer, a mysterious, arrogant, former MI6 agent who is the director of operations for Decima Technologies and runs the Samaritan AI
Julian Ovenden as Jeremy Lambert, an operative for Decima Technologies, and Greer's right-hand man
Cara Buono as Martine Rousseau, a psychotic former investigator for the United Nations who is a Samaritan operative for Decima Technologies
Oakes Fegley as Gabriel Hayward, a young boy who acts as Samaritan's "analog interface"
Joshua Close as Jeff Blackwell, an ex-con who is recruited by Samaritan
Robert Manning Jr. as Zachary, an operative for Decima Technologies who later becomes a Samaritan agent
Leslie Odom Jr. as Peter Collier, the leader of Vigilance, a violent organization which professes to protect people's privacy, but is actually a Decima puppet
The Brotherhood
The following characters are involved in the Brotherhood drug gang storyline:
Winston Duke as Dominic "Mini" Besson, the leader of the Brotherhood gang
Jamie Hector as Link Cordell, a violent gang member and Dominic's right-hand man
Jessica Pimentel as Floyd, another of Dominic's higher-ups, often appearing in place of Link
Computer systems
The Machine
The Machine is an artificially intelligent system, created at the request of the U.S. government, to sift through the data collected by NSA mass surveillance. It is able to accurately predict premeditated lethal crime by analysing the data from all surveillance cameras and electronic communications worldwide which are fed to it by arrangement with the NSA. It divides those crimes based on their relevance to national security; those relevant cases are handled by the U.S. government, while the non-relevant cases in New York City are the focus of the show. Built by Harold Finch following the events of 9/11, it was originally housed in two unoccupied floors of IFTa company run by Harold and his best friend from college, Nathan Ingrambefore being moved to a nuclear Superfund site in Washington state when delivered to the government. Finch initially keeps his early discovery that the Machine he created is actually superintelligent to himself, later telling only a few close associates; the discovery leaves him wrestling throughout the series with the moral and ethical issues of human control, and risk of abuse or misuse. Initially, Finch wipes its memory daily as a precaution to prevent it becoming too capable, but eventually relents when the Machine identifies the memory-wiping program within its own system and asks how it can learn if it is unable to accumulate memories over time.
During season two, the Machine moves itself, piece by piece, to an unknown location or locations; during season four it is shown to have distributed itself to control boxes on utility poles throughout the United States.
A firm believer in privacy rights, Finch originally designed the Machine as a complete "black box", providing only the Social Security numbers of people involved with a lethal crime for subsequent human investigation. While this meant that the government was not able to misuse it or disregard privacy, it also meant that the numbers produced could belong to either a victim or a perpetrator.
When Finch discovered that the Machine was tracking all premeditated crimes (episode 2, "Ghosts") rather than just terrorist activities, he initially programmed it to delete the "irrelevant" cases every night at midnight, explaining to Ingram that the Machine is not built "to save somebody, we built it to save everybody." Unknown to Finch, Ingram created a backdoor function called "Contingency", on the eve of the government handover, to allow access to the non-relevant data (shown accessed in the season 2 episode "Zero Day"). Finch is appalled that Ingram has this data sent directly to him and shuts down the routine, but reactivates it after Ingram's death. To minimize detectability, the Machine feeds him numbers in coded messages through public telephones.
Within the ISA, the program responsible for the Machine was known as Northern Lights beforeafter being leaked to the public, Northern Lights was shut down. The private technology firm Decima Technologies steals a hard drive containing code from a separate artificial intelligence, Samaritan, which was commissioned by the ISA as a contingency in case Northern Lights became unavailable. In season three, Samaritan is built and completed by Decima, and replaces Northern Lights in supplying information to the government. Samaritan takes a much more active role in covertly shaping society towards the goals set for it, including use of violence and recruitment and deployment of people in furtherance of its aims, and the Machine and its human associates go underground, spending season four under cover.
Much of the series is from the point of view of the Machine: scene transitions are framed as video feeds of surveillance camera footage and satellite imagery, and flashbacks as the Machine reviewing past recordings in real time. In the Machine-generated perspective, individuals are marked by dashed boxes with different colors indicating the person's status in relation to the Machine and whether they pose a threat. Season four features Samaritan's point of view, using a different user interface, with some episodes jumping back and forth between the two AIs' viewpoints. Over the course of the series, the internal "thought processes" of the Machine are shown, including the prediction models and probability trees it uses.
The Machine in its current iteration started running on January 1, 2002, following 42 failed attempts. During the season four episode "Prophets", a previous generation of the Machine's source code was shown on screen, which was that of the Stuxnet worm. It generated the first perpetrator and victim data on February 8, 2005, following three years of training by Finch.
Near the end of season five, after Root's death, Finch agrees with his associates' request and allows the Machine to communicate by its own volition with them, using a voice. The Machine uses Root's voice (who had recently been killed) and begins guiding Finch to destroy Samaritan using the virulent Ice-9 computer virus even though this will also destroy the Machine. Ice-9 destroys both Samaritan and the Machine, with Reese dying as he uploads a copy of the Machine to a satellite to destroy Samaritan's final backup of itself. A week after Samaritan's destruction, the Machine undertakes its own return to earth and restores itself to full functionality there. It contacts Shaw and begins to resume its work through her.
Samaritan
Initially developed by Arthur Claypool (a former MIT classmate of Finch and Ingram) at the NSA, Samaritan was the result of a second, similarly-targeted project, that was terminated by Congress when the Machine was developed first. Although Congress believed that all of Samaritan's drives had been destroyed in a purge that they conducted, two drives went missing. Claypool had hidden those two backup drives in a safe deposit box, and in Season 3's "Aletheia", an unknown third party hired by Greer obtains those drives. Later the Samaritan project was resurrected by Decima, with Greer as admin. Samaritan is then adopted by the U.S. government as a replacement for the Machine.
Unlike the Machine, Samaritan is designed as a more open system rather than a black box, lacking the precautionary restrictions Finch had built into the Machine, and can be directed at specific targets. It is very aggressive in its approach to "threats", and often orders the elimination of persons (labeled "Deviants") that it considers threats to the U.S. orlaterto itself. It identifies a group of several hundred individuals (including Elias and Dominic) that will prevent its plans and sends agents to kill them all in an operation called "The Correction".
Although nominally under Greer's control, Greer wants to allow Samaritan to reshape the world and guide humanity. Season 4 shows Samaritan gaining power and building a global network of agents and companies while seeking to find and eliminate the Machine and Finch's team. Samaritan has agents within the ISA (and possibly other agencies) and (according to Greer) has rigged at least 58 national and state elections in the U.S. to position its favored candidates. In season 5, Greer states that Samaritan is beyond his control and he sees it as the next level of evolution.
In the final episodes of the series, Finch uploads the virulent Ice-9 computer virus to the NSA's computer systems and other systems containing backups of Samaritan. The virus destroys both Samaritan and the Machine, while also causing significant damage to global computing infrastructure. Samaritan's last backup, transmitted by Samaritan to an orbiting satellite as a last resort, is eliminated when Reese uploads a copy of the Machine to the same satellite. The Machine is able to destroy the final Samaritan copy, ending the threat once and for all. The Machine copy survives to resume its work a week later.
Episodes
Production
The series was officially picked up by CBS on May 13, 2011, and debuted on September 22, 2011. On October 25, 2011, the show received a full season order. It was renewed for a second season on March 14, 2012, by CBS, which premiered on September 27, 2012. CBS renewed Person of Interest for a third season on March 27, 2013, with Sarah Shahi and Amy Acker promoted to series regulars. The series was renewed for a fourth season on March 13, 2014, and was renewed for its fifth and final season on May 11, 2015. ADR recording for the series was done at recording studio Cherry Beach Sound. The music is composed by Ramin Djawadi. The first season soundtrack was released on November 12, 2012. The second soundtrack was released on January 21, 2014. The third soundtrack, which contained music from the third and fourth season was released on January 29, 2016.
Reception
According to CBS, Person of Interest received the highest test ratings of any drama pilot in 15 years, what one CBS executive called "crazy broad appeal you don't usually see", prompting CBS to move CSI, which was broadcast on Thursday for over 10 years, to Wednesday, opening up a slot for Person of Interest. The pilot episode won its time slot, drawing 13.2 million viewers.
Critical reception
The first season of Person of Interest received generally positive reviews, with the pilot episode drawing a favorable response from critics and later episodes receiving higher praise. On Metacritic, the season scored 66 out of 100 based on 26 reviews. Of the pilot, David Wiegand of the San Francisco Chronicle said "Person of Interest separates itself from the gimmick pack, not only because of superbly nuanced characterization and writing but also because of how it engages a post-9/11 sense of paranoia in its viewers." David Hinckley of the New York Daily News gave the pilot four stars out of five, commenting on Caviezel's and Emerson's performances, saying Caviezel "brings the right stuff to this role" and Emerson "is fascinating as Mr. Finch." Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times stated that in regard to the pilot, "the notion of preventing crimes rather than solving them is an appealing twist... The surveillance graphics are very cool." The episodes "Many Happy Returns" and the finale "Firewall" were particularly acclaimed. Tim Surette of TV.com called the former one of the series' "best episodes", commending Caviezel's performance and the episode's character exploration, while the latter was called "exactly what a season finale should be", with Surette concluding his review by saying "'Firewall' was a spectacular finish to what has been an incredibly surprising first season of Person of Interest." On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 63% and average rating of 6.65 out of 10 based on 38 reviews. The site's critical consensus is, "Person of Interest is a well made and well acted espionage procedural, though its characters aren't terribly well developed and its intriguing premise yields mixed results."
The second season received positive reviews. Surette praised the premiere episode as "vintage Person of Interest amplified, showing off its trademark combination of complex intrigue, creative action, and clever innovation in bigger ways than ever before." He praised guest star Ken Leung's character as "one of the greatest POIs the series has had" and praised the episode's overall narrative, as well as the flashbacks. "Prisoner's Dilemma" and "Relevance" were the two highest-rated episodes of the season, with Surette calling the former "as complete an episode of Person of Interest as there's ever been" and The A.V. Club's Phil Dyess-Nugent praising Jonathan Nolan's directorial work in the latter. The season finale "God Mode" also attracted positive reactions. Nugent called it an "unapologetically kick-ass episode" with some "terrific action set-pieces". On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 100% and average rating of 8.03 out of 10 based on 11 reviews. The site's critical consensus is, "Smartly plotted and consistently thrilling, Person of Interests second season delivers dazzlingly dramatic episodes that skillfully develop the show's overarching narrative."
The third season received highly positive reviews, and is noteworthy for drawing in more critics for its exploration of artificial intelligence, as well as its timely storytelling format. In regards to the season, Slant Magazine said that the show "is at its best when sticking to cutting-edge topics" and called it a "solid action-thriller that intersperses twist-filled standalone episodes into its season-long arcs." The A.V. Club said that the show captures the "national post-post-9/11 mood" and that with the mid-season arc in season three, "turns conspiracy theory into art". The season's two story arcs both received a considerable amount of praise: the two episodes ending the HR storyline are commonly considered to be some of the best episodes of Person of Interest. Matt Fowler of IGN gave "The Crossing" a 10 out of 10, reacting extremely positively to the cliffhanger at the ending. The episode to follow, "The Devil's Share", was the most acclaimed episode of the season, being praised for its opening sequence, its writing, Chris Fisher's direction, and the acting performances, especially those by Jim Caviezel and Kevin Chapman. Surette called the episode a "stunner" and declared it as the series' possible best episode, praising the opening sequence as the "greatest sequence the series ever put together", feeling it succeeded in eclipsing the devastation induced by Carter's death. Surette also praised Fusco's effectiveness and character development in the episode, as well naming the cinematography and direction to be the best of the series, and identifying points of symbolism in the episode he felt were noteworthy and effective. Fowler gave the episode an "amazing" rating of a 9.3 out of 10, also praising the opening sequence, as well as the flashbacks and the ending scene. Phil Dyess-Nugent of The A.V. Club gave the episode a perfect A rating, praising the atmosphere of grief the episode built and feeling Fusco's character development served as an appropriate tribute to Carter. Sean McKenna of TV Fanatic called the opening sequence "brilliant", while Courtney Vaudreuil of TV Equals praised the ending. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 100% and average rating of 7.72 out of 10 based on 11 reviews. The site's critical consensus is, "Person of Interest weaves compelling standalone stories into its engrossing serial narrative, and incorporates welcome bursts of humor into its sci-fi mystery core."
The fourth season received highly positive reviews, with critics praising the thematic value of the Samaritan storyline. The episode "If-Then-Else" garnered near-unanimous praise from critics and audiences alike, with many considering the episode to be the best entry in the series. Fowler gave the episode a perfect rating of 10 out 10, indicating it to a "masterpiece", and praised the simulation format, the action scenes, the emotional value, and the ending. He called the episode "next-level inventive" and a "jolting, exciting, heart-wrenching episode". Fowler said the ending scene "crushed" him, and he also offered praise to the significance of the flashbacks to the chess games. Alexa Planje of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A rating, and in her review, said that though the task of executing a story structured like "If-Then-Else" was difficult, the episode did so "elegantly"she cited the "interesting score, vibrant color work, and humor" as the key elements. Planje said the episode "aces every scenario" during the simulation segments, and appreciated how the episode transformed itself from what appeared to be a "standard mission-focused story" into a "moving ode" to Shaw. She also praised the episode's exploration of the parallels between being a human and being a machine. Shant Istamboulian of Entertainment Weekly lauded Emerson's performance in the flashbacks and felt the season marked the series' "creative peak". He concluded by saying "Moving like a rocket, this episode is fast, funny, exciting, and, ultimately, sad, ending with what seems like the loss of another team member. We'll have to wait until next week for the outcome, but as it stands, "If-Then-Else" is an instant classic." Surette also had high praise for the episode, calling it "playful, mind-bending, heart-breaking, and flat-out excellent." He praised the episode's incorporation of its "recurring theme of sacrifice", and called the flashbacks "as fascinating and provocative as anything the series has done." Surette cited his favorite part of the episode as the exploration of the Machine's perspective, and additionally praised the humorous segments. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 100% and average rating of 8.28 out of 10 based on 12 reviews. The site's critical consensus is, "Thought-provoking, grounded sci-fi makes season four of Person of Interest as compelling as it is timely."
The fifth season received highly positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 100% and average rating of 8.74 out of 10 based on 14 reviews. The site's critical consensus is, "Person of Interest concludes in a satisfying fifth season that both deepens the characters that audiences have grown to love and delivers a cracking arc about the dangers of technology."
Ratings
CBS said that Person of Interest was, ratings-wise, the fastest-growing drama on broadcast television from the 2011–12 season to the 2012–13 season, using ratings up to December 2.
Broadcast
Person of Interest has been picked up by many networks for broadcast outside the United States. It premiered in Australia on Nine Network on September 25, 2011. The series was simulcast in Canada and premiered on City on September 22, 2011, and moved to CTV in 2013. It premiered in the UK on Channel 5 on August 14, 2012.
Awards and nominations
See also
Pre-crime
Combat Zones That See
References
External links
2010s American crime drama television series
2010s American LGBT-related drama television series
2010s American mystery television series
2010s American science fiction television series
2011 American television series debuts
2016 American television series endings
American action television series
Television series about artificial intelligence
CBS original programming
English-language television shows
Espionage television series
Fictional portrayals of the New York City Police Department
Lesbian-related television shows
Malware in fiction
Nonlinear narrative television series
Television series by Bad Robot Productions
Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios
Television shows filmed in New York (state)
Television shows set in New York City
Terrorism in television
Television series created by Jonathan Nolan
Works about security and surveillance |
11992203 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private%20Disk | Private Disk | Private Disk is a disk encryption application for the Microsoft Windows operating system, developed by Dekart SRL. It works by creating a virtual drive, the contents of which is encrypted on-the-fly; other software can use the drive as if it were a usual one.
One of Private Disk's key selling points is in its ease of use, which is achieved by hiding complexity from the end user (e.g. data wiping is applied transparently when an encrypted image is deleted.) This simplicity does however reduce its flexibility in some respects (e.g. it only allows the use of AES-256 encryption.)
Although Private Disk uses a NIST certified implementation of the AES and SHA-256/384/512 algorithms, this certification is restricted to a single component of Private Disk; the encryption/hash library used and not to Private Disk as a complete system.
Feature highlights
NIST-certified implementation of AES-256-bit, and SHA-2. Private Disk complies with FIPS 197 and FIPS 180-2
CBC mode with secret IVs is used to encrypt the sectors of the storage volume
Disk Firewall, an application-level filter, which allows only trusted programs to access the virtual drive
Ability to run directly from a removable drive, requiring no local installation
Offers access to encrypted data on any system, even if administrative privileges are not available
Encrypted images can be accessed on Windows Mobile and Windows CE handhelds; this is achieved by making the encrypted container format compatible with containers used by SecuBox (disk encryption software by Aiko Solutions)
File wiping is applied when deleting an encrypted image
PD File Move, a file migration tool, which will locate the specified files on the system and securely move them to an encrypted disk
Compatibility with Windows 9x and Windows NT operating systems
Autorun and Autofinish automatically start a program or a script when a virtual disk is mounted or dismounted
Encrypted backup of an encrypted image
Password quality meter
Automatic backup of a disk's encryption key
Built-in password recovery tool
Compatibility with 64-bit platforms
Existing versions
There are multiple versions of Private Disk, which provide a different feature set:
Private Disk - hard disk encryption software that uses 256-bit AES encryption, is highly configurable, offers application-level protection, USB disk portability, etc.
Private Disk Multifactor is a superset of Private Disk, providing the same functionality, adding support for biometric authentication, as well as smart-card or token-based authentication.
Private Disk Light is a free version, it uses AES-128 and comes with a restricted set of features.
Private Disk SDK is a software development kit that can be used to build a custom application which provides data encryption facilities.
See also
Disk encryption software
Comparison of disk encryption software
External links
Dekart company web-page
Information about certified implementations of the cryptographic algorithms
Private Disk discussion forum
Release notes for the latest version
References
Cryptographic software
Windows security software
Disk encryption |
5666643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20D.%20McCracken | Daniel D. McCracken | Daniel D. McCracken (July 23, 1930 – July 30, 2011) was a computer scientist in the United States. He was a Professor of Computer Sciences at the City College of New York, and the author of over two dozen textbooks on computer programming, with an emphasis on guides to programming in widely used languages such as Fortran and COBOL. His A Guide to Fortran Programming (Wiley, 1961) and its successors were the standard textbooks on that language for over two decades. His books have been translated into fourteen languages.
Career
McCracken was born in 1930 in Hughesville, Judith Basin County, Montana, a mining town, and graduated in 1951 from Central Washington University with degrees in mathematics and chemistry. He worked seven years with the General Electric Company in computer applications and programmer training. After that, he worked at the New York University Atomic Energy Commission Computer Center, and was a graduate student at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences. In 1959 he became a consultant and continued writing on computer subjects. In 1970 he earned a Master of Divinity degree from the Union Theological Seminary in New York.
From 1976–78, he was vice president of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), from 1978–80 he was president of the ACM, and in 1994 he was inducted as an ACM Fellow. He served as ACM's representative to the Board of Directors of the Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals (ICCP) and was inducted to its hall of fame as an ICCP Fellow in 1998.
He joined the City College of New York Computer Sciences Department in 1981. In 1989 he received the Norbert Wiener Award for Social and Professional Responsibility from Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility.
Death
McCracken died of cancer a week after his 81st birthday on July 30, 2011 in New York City. He was survived by his second wife, Helen Blumenthal, seven children, nine grandchildren, and two great-grand children. He was preceded in death by his first wife, Evelyn Edwards, three brothers and two sisters.
Books
References
External links
"Daniel McCracken, Interview by Arthur L. Norberg, January 7-9, 2008", Association for Computing Machinery historical interview.
Dan McCracken's webpage at City College of New York
Daniel D. McCracken Papers, 1958-1983. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
"Obituary: Daniel D. McCracken", The New York Times, August 1, 2011
1930 births
2011 deaths
People from Judith Basin County, Montana
Central Washington University alumni
Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences alumni
Union Theological Seminary (New York City) alumni
American computer scientists
City College of New York faculty
General Electric people
American computer programmers
Computer science writers
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Presidents of the Association for Computing Machinery
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Computer science educators |
229104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter%20wave | Matter wave | Matter waves are a central part of the theory of quantum mechanics, being an example of wave–particle duality. All matter exhibits wave-like behavior. For example, a beam of electrons can be diffracted just like a beam of light or a water wave. In most cases, however, the wavelength is too small to have a practical impact on day-to-day activities.
The concept that matter behaves like a wave was proposed by French physicist Louis de Broglie () in 1924. It is also referred to as the de Broglie hypothesis. Matter waves are referred to as de Broglie waves.
The de Broglie wavelength is the wavelength, , associated with a massive particle (i.e., a particle with mass, as opposed to a massless particle) and is related to its momentum, , through the Planck constant, :
Wave-like behavior of matter was first experimentally demonstrated by George Paget Thomson's thin metal diffraction experiment, and independently in the Davisson–Germer experiment, both using electrons; and it has also been confirmed for other elementary particles, neutral atoms and even molecules. For its value is the same as the Compton wavelength.
Historical context
At the end of the 19th century, light was thought to consist of waves of electromagnetic fields which propagated according to Maxwell's equations, while matter was thought to consist of localized particles (see history of wave and particle duality). In 1900, this division was exposed to doubt, when, investigating the theory of black-body radiation, Max Planck proposed that light is emitted in discrete quanta of energy. It was thoroughly challenged in 1905. Extending Planck's investigation in several ways, including its connection with the photoelectric effect, Albert Einstein proposed that light is also propagated and absorbed in quanta; now called photons. These quanta would have an energy given by the Planck–Einstein relation:
and a momentum
where (lowercase Greek letter nu) and (lowercase Greek letter lambda) denote the frequency and wavelength of the light, the speed of light, and the Planck constant. In the modern convention, frequency is symbolized by f as is done in the rest of this article. Einstein's postulate was confirmed experimentally by Robert Millikan and Arthur Compton over the next two decades.
De Broglie hypothesis
De Broglie, in his 1924 PhD thesis, proposed that just as light has both wave-like and particle-like properties, electrons also have wave-like properties. De Broglie did not simplify his equation into the one that bears his name. He did conclude that . He also referred to Einstein’s famous relativity equation. Thus, it was a simple step to get to the equation that bears his name. Also, by rearranging the momentum equation stated in the above section, we find a relationship between the wavelength, , associated with an electron and its momentum, , through the Planck constant, :
The relationship has since been shown to hold for all types of matter: all matter exhibits properties of both particles and waves.
In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger published an equation describing how a matter wave should evolve – the matter wave analogue of Maxwell's equations — and used it to derive the energy spectrum of hydrogen. Frequencies of solutions of the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation differ from de Broglie waves by the Compton frequency since the energy corresponding to the rest mass of a particle is not part of the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation.
Experimental confirmation
Matter waves were first experimentally confirmed to occur in George Paget Thomson's cathode ray diffraction experiment and the Davisson-Germer experiment for electrons, and the de Broglie hypothesis has been confirmed for other elementary particles. Furthermore, neutral atoms and even molecules have been shown to be wave-like.
Electrons
In 1927 at Bell Labs, Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer fired slow-moving electrons at a crystalline nickel target. The angular dependence of the diffracted electron intensity was measured, and was determined to have the same diffraction pattern as those predicted by Bragg for x-rays. At the same time George Paget Thomson at the University of Aberdeen was independently firing electrons at very thin metal foils to demonstrate the same effect. Before the acceptance of the de Broglie hypothesis, diffraction was a property that was thought to be exhibited only by waves. Therefore, the presence of any diffraction effects by matter demonstrated the wave-like nature of matter. When the de Broglie wavelength was inserted into the Bragg condition, the predicted diffraction pattern was observed, thereby experimentally confirming the de Broglie hypothesis for electrons.
This was a pivotal result in the development of quantum mechanics. Just as the photoelectric effect demonstrated the particle nature of light, the Davisson–Germer experiment showed the wave-nature of matter, and completed the theory of wave–particle duality. For physicists this idea was important because it meant that not only could any particle exhibit wave characteristics, but that one could use wave equations to describe phenomena in matter if one used the de Broglie wavelength.
Neutral atoms
Experiments with Fresnel diffraction and an atomic mirror for specular reflection of neutral atoms confirm the application of the de Broglie hypothesis to atoms, i.e. the existence of atomic waves which undergo diffraction, interference and allow quantum reflection by the tails of the attractive potential. Advances in laser cooling have allowed cooling of neutral atoms down to nanokelvin temperatures. At these temperatures, the thermal de Broglie wavelengths come into the micrometre range. Using Bragg diffraction of atoms and a Ramsey interferometry technique, the de Broglie wavelength of cold sodium atoms was explicitly measured and found to be consistent with the temperature measured by a different method.
This effect has been used to demonstrate atomic holography, and it may allow the construction of an atom probe imaging system with nanometer resolution. The description of these phenomena is based on the wave properties of neutral atoms, confirming the de Broglie hypothesis.
The effect has also been used to explain the spatial version of the quantum Zeno effect, in which an otherwise unstable object may be stabilised by rapidly repeated observations.
Molecules
Recent experiments even confirm the relations for molecules and even macromolecules that otherwise might be supposed too large to undergo quantum mechanical effects. In 1999, a research team in Vienna demonstrated diffraction for molecules as large as fullerenes. The researchers calculated a De Broglie wavelength of the most probable C60 velocity as 2.5 pm.
More recent experiments prove the quantum nature of molecules made of 810 atoms and with a mass of 10,123 u. As of 2019, this has been pushed to molecules of 25,000 u.
Still one step further than Louis de Broglie go theories which in quantum mechanics eliminate the concept of a pointlike classical particle and explain the observed facts by means of wavepackets of matter waves alone.
De Broglie relations
The de Broglie equations relate the wavelength to the momentum , and frequency to the total energy of a free particle:
where h is the Planck constant. The equations can also be written as
or
where is the reduced Planck constant, is the wave vector, is the phase constant, and is the angular frequency.
In each pair, the second equation is also referred to as the Planck–Einstein relation, since it was also proposed by Planck and Einstein.
Special relativity
Using two formulas from special relativity, one for the relativistic mass energy and one for the relativistic momentum
allows the equations to be written as
where denotes the particle's rest mass, its velocity, the Lorentz factor, and the speed of light in a vacuum. See below for details of the derivation of the de Broglie relations. Group velocity (equal to the particle's speed) should not be confused with phase velocity (equal to the product of the particle's frequency and its wavelength). In the case of a non-dispersive medium, they happen to be equal, but otherwise they are not.
Group velocity
Albert Einstein first explained the wave–particle duality of light in 1905. Louis de Broglie hypothesized that any particle should also exhibit such a duality. The velocity of a particle, he concluded, should always equal the group velocity of the corresponding wave. The magnitude of the group velocity is equal to the particle's speed.
Both in relativistic and non-relativistic quantum physics, we can identify the group velocity of a particle's wave function with the particle velocity. Quantum mechanics has very accurately demonstrated this hypothesis, and the relation has been shown explicitly for particles as large as molecules.
De Broglie deduced that if the duality equations already known for light were the same for any particle, then his hypothesis would hold. This means that
where is the total energy of the particle, is its momentum, is the reduced Planck constant. For a free non-relativistic particle it follows that
where is the mass of the particle and its velocity.
Also in special relativity we find that
where is the rest mass of the particle and is the speed of light in a vacuum. But (see below), using that the phase velocity is , therefore
where is the velocity of the particle regardless of wave behavior.
Phase velocity
In quantum mechanics, particles also behave as waves with complex phases. The phase velocity is equal to the product of the frequency multiplied by the wavelength.
By the de Broglie hypothesis, we see that
Using relativistic relations for energy and momentum, we have
where E is the total energy of the particle (i.e. rest energy plus kinetic energy in the kinematic sense), p the momentum, the Lorentz factor, c the speed of light, and β the speed as a fraction of c. The variable v can either be taken to be the speed of the particle or the group velocity of the corresponding matter wave. Since the particle speed for any particle that has mass (according to special relativity), the phase velocity of matter waves always exceeds c, i.e.
and as we can see, it approaches c when the particle speed is in the relativistic range. The superluminal phase velocity does not violate special relativity, because phase propagation carries no energy. See the article on Dispersion (optics) for details.
Four-vectors
Using four-vectors, the De Broglie relations form a single equation:
which is frame-independent.
Likewise, the relation between group/particle velocity and phase velocity is given in frame-independent form by:
where
Four-momentum
Four-wavevector
Four-velocity
Interpretations
The purpose of de Broglie’s 81 page thesis was to create an improved version of the Bohr atom through pilot wave theory. De Broglie presented his thesis on pilot wave theory at the 1927 Solvay Conference.
The thesis of de Broglie involved the hypothesis that a standing wave guided the electrons in the Bohr model of the atom. The thesis had an unusual analysis that higher energy photons obey the Wien Law and are particle-like while lower energy photons obey the Rayleigh–Jeans law and are wave-like. Particle physics tends to treat all forces by particle-particle interaction causing Richard Feynman to say that there are no waves just particles. And recently, there have been some theories that try to explain the Interpretations of quantum mechanics which try to resolve whether either the particle or the wave aspect is fundamental in nature, seeking to explain the other as an emergent property. Some interpretations, such as hidden variable theory, treat the wave and the particle as distinct entities. Yet others propose some intermediate entity that is neither quite wave nor quite particle but only appears as such when we measure one or the other property. The Copenhagen interpretation states that the nature of the underlying reality is unknowable and beyond the bounds of scientific inquiry.
Schrödinger's acknowledges that his quantum mechanical equation is based in part on the thesis of de Broglie. Schrödinger emphasized that his equation was different in that it was in multi-dimensional space. In his lecture as both wave mechanics and matrix mechanics were both new concepts, he tries to imply his formula is superior as does Heisenberg in his speech.
At the Fifth Solvay Conference in 1927, Erwin Schrödinger reported:
In 1955, Heisenberg showed that the waves of the quantum mechanical equations were reinterpretated as probabilities rather than classical waves stating:
It is mentioned above that the "displaced quantity" of the Schrödinger wave has values that are dimensionless complex numbers. According to Heisenberg, rather than being of some ordinary physical quantity such as, for example, Maxwell's electric field intensity, or mass density, the Schrödinger-wave packet's "displaced quantity" is a probability amplitude. He wrote that instead of using the term 'wave packet', it is preferable to speak of a probability packet. The Schrödinger equation probability amplitude is interpreted as the calculation of the probability of the location or momentum of discrete particles. Heisenberg recites Duane's account of particle diffraction by probabilistic quantal translation momentum transfer, which allows, for example in Young's two-slit experiment, each diffracted particle probabilistically to pass discretely through a particular slit. Schrödinger originally proposed that his matter wave was 'composed of smeared matter,’ but the Born rule changed the psi function to be understood as a description of probability rather than a description of the actual electron charge density.
These ideas may be expressed in ordinary language as follows. In the account of ordinary physical waves, a 'point' refers to a position in ordinary physical space at an instant of time, at which there is specified a 'displacement' of some physical quantity. But in the account of quantum mechanics, a 'point' refers to a configuration of the system at an instant of time, every particle of the system being in a sense present in every 'point' of configuration space, each particle at such a 'point' being located possibly at a different position in ordinary physical space. There is no explicit definite indication that, at an instant, this particle is 'here' and that particle is 'there' in some separate 'location' in configuration space. This conceptual difference entails that, in contrast to de Broglie's pre-quantum mechanical wave description, the quantum mechanical probability packet description does not directly and explicitly express the Aristotelian idea, referred to by Newton, that causal efficacy propagates through ordinary space by contact, nor the Einsteinian idea that such propagation is no faster than light. In contrast, these ideas are so expressed in the classical wave account, through the Green's function, though it is inadequate for the observed quantal phenomena. The physical reasoning for this was first recognized by Einstein.
De Broglie's phase wave and periodic phenomenon
De Broglie's thesis started from the hypothesis, “that to each portion of energy with a proper mass one may associate a periodic phenomenon of the frequency , such that one finds: . The frequency is to be measured, of course, in the rest frame of the energy packet. This hypothesis is the basis of our theory.” (This frequency is also known as Compton frequency.)
De Broglie followed his initial hypothesis of a periodic phenomenon, with frequency , associated with the energy packet. He used the special theory of relativity to find, in the frame of the observer of the electron energy packet that is moving with velocity , that its frequency was apparently reduced to
De Broglie reasoned that to a stationary observer this hypothetical intrinsic particle periodic phenomenon appears to be in phase with a wave of wavelength and frequency that is propagating with phase velocity . De Broglie called this wave the “phase wave” («onde de phase» in French).
This was his basic matter wave conception. He noted, as above, that , and the phase wave does not transfer energy.
While the concept of waves being associated with matter is correct, de Broglie did not leap directly to the final understanding of quantum mechanics with no missteps. There are conceptual problems with the approach that de Broglie took in his thesis that he was not able to resolve, despite trying a number of different fundamental hypotheses in different papers published while working on, and shortly after publishing, his thesis.
These difficulties were resolved by Erwin Schrödinger, who developed the wave mechanics approach, starting from a somewhat different basic hypothesis.
See also
Bohr model
Compton wavelength
Faraday wave
Kapitsa–Dirac effect
Matter wave clock
Schrödinger equation
Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schrödinger equation
Thermal de Broglie wavelength
De Broglie–Bohm theory
References
Further reading
L. de Broglie, Recherches sur la théorie des quanta (Researches on the quantum theory), Thesis (Paris), 1924; L. de Broglie, Ann. Phys. (Paris) 3, 22 (1925). English translation by A.F. Kracklauer.
Broglie, Louis de, The wave nature of the electron Nobel Lecture, 12, 1929
Tipler, Paul A. and Ralph A. Llewellyn (2003). Modern Physics. 4th ed. New York; W. H. Freeman and Co. . pp. 203–4, 222–3, 236.
An extensive review article "Optics and interferometry with atoms and molecules" appeared in July 2009: https://web.archive.org/web/20110719220930/http://www.atomwave.org/rmparticle/RMPLAO.pdf.
"Scientific Papers Presented to Max Born on his retirement from the Tait Chair of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh", 1953 (Oliver and Boyd)
External links
Waves
Matter
Foundational quantum physics |
476088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan%20Kare | Susan Kare | Susan Kare (; born February 5, 1954) is an American artist and graphic designer best known for her interface elements and typeface contributions to the first Apple Macintosh from 1983 to 1986. She was employee #10 and Creative Director at NeXT, the company formed by Steve Jobs after he left Apple in 1985. She was a design consultant for Microsoft, IBM, Sony Pictures, and Facebook, Pinterest and she is now an employee of Niantic Labs. As an early pioneer of pixel art and of the graphical computer interface, she has been celebrated as one of the most significant technologists of the modern world.
Early life and education
Kare was born in Ithaca, New York. Her father was a professor at the University of Pennsylvania and director of the Monell Chemical Senses Center, a research facility for the senses of taste and smell. Her mother taught her counted-thread embroidery as she immersed herself in drawings, paintings, and crafts. Her brother was aerospace engineer Jordin Kare. She graduated from Harriton High School in 1971. She graduated summa cum laude with a B.A. in Art from Mount Holyoke College in 1975, with an undergraduate honors thesis on sculpture. She received a M.A. and a Ph.D. in fine arts from New York University in 1978 with a doctoral dissertation on "the use of caricature in selected sculptures of Honoré Daumier and Claes Oldenburg". Her goal was "to be either a fine artist or teacher".
Career
Early
Susan Kare's career has always focused on fine art. For several summers during high school she interned at the Franklin Institute for designer Harry Loucks, who introduced her to typography and graphic design while she did phototypesetting with "strips of type for labels in a dark room on a PhotoTypositor". Because she did not attend an artist training school, she built her experience and portfolio by taking many pro-bono graphics jobs such as posters and brochure design in college, holiday cards, and invitations. After her Ph.D., she moved to San Francisco to work at the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco (FAMSF), as sculptor and occasional curator. She later reflected that her "ideal life would be to make art full-time but that sculpture was too solitary".
Apple
In 1982, Kare was welding a life-sized razorback hog sculpture commissioned by an Arkansas museum when she received a phone call from high school friend Andy Hertzfeld. In exchange for an Apple II computer, he solicited her to hand-draw a few icons and font elements to inspire the upcoming Macintosh computer. However, she had no experience in computer graphics and "didn't know the first thing about designing a typeface" or pixel art so she drew heavily upon her fine art experience in mosaics, needlepoint, and pointillism. He suggested that she get a grid notebook of the smallest graph paper she could find at the University Art store in Palo Alto and mock up several representations of his software commands and applications. This includes an icon of scissors for the "cut" command, a finger for "paste", and a paintbrush for MacPaint. Compelled to actually join the team for a fixed-length part-time job, she interviewed "totally green" but undaunted, bringing a variety of typography books from the Palo Alto public library to show her interest alongside her well-prepared notebook. She "aced" the interview and was hired in January 1983 with Badge #3978. Her business cards read "HI Macintosh Artist".
As a computer novice in the target market of the Macintosh, she easily grasped the Twiggy-based Macintosh prototype which "felt like a magical leap forward" for art design. She preferred it over the Apple II and was amazed and excited by the computer screen's design capability to undo, redo, and iterate an icon or letterform while seeing it simultaneously at enlarged and 100% target sizes. She immediately embraced Bill Atkinson's existing rudimentary graphics software tools and applications, to toggle pixels on and off and convert the resulting images to hexadecimal code for keyboard input. More advanced graphical tools were written for her by Hertzfeld, and she embellished the flagship application MacPaint's user interface while the programmers matured it to become her primary tool. She contributed to the Macintosh identity and devised ways to make the machine humanized, intuitively usable, relatable, and inviting.
Her whimsical personality was essential to the infectiously budding culture and lore of the early Macintosh team, and infused into the product. She stunned the staff of accomplished pixel artists and engineers with her unexpectedly personable renditions of their portraits in the Mac's standard pixel monochrome resolution for icons. She and Steve Capps sewed a Jolly Roger pirate flag with a rainbow colored Apple logo eyepatch, as the christening brand of the new Macintosh headquarters at Brandley 3, embracing Steve Jobs's ethos "it's better to be a pirate than to join the Navy". Working as the only graphic designer in a diverse and articulate team of programmers and with Hertzfeld as the primary requester, she spent hours or days at a time developing a rich selection of graphics for the consensus-driven feedback loop for each GUI element. Jobs personally approved each of her main desktop icons. Kare participated heavily in the prerelease marketing campaign for the Macintosh in 1983 by posing for magazine photo shoots, appearing in television advertisements, and demonstrating the Mac on television talk shows.
In only one year, she designed the core visual design language of the original Macintosh which launched in January 1984. This includes original marketing material and many typefaces and icons, some of which became patented. As a whole platform of their own, these designs comprise the first visual language for the identity of the Macintosh and for Apple's pioneering of graphical user interface (GUI) computing.
She refined Apple's existing iconography and desktop metaphors imported from the Macintosh's predecessor, the Lisa, such as the trash can, dog-eared paper icon, and I-beam cursor. She devised the practice of associating unique document icons with their creator applications. The team's GUI elements such as the Lasso, the Grabber, and the Paint Bucket became universal staples of computing. Her original cult classic icons include Clarus the Dogcow seen in the print dialog box, the Happy Mac icon of the smiling computer that welcomes users at system startup, and the Command key symbol on Apple keyboards. Aligned with Steve Jobs's passion for calligraphy, she designed the world's first proportionally spaced digital font family including Chicago and Geneva, and the monospaced Monaco. Chicago is her first font, made especially for systemwide use in menus and dialog; it has a bold vertical look initially named Elefont, in which Kare implemented Jobs's idea of variable spacing, where each character can have the unique pixel width that it needs, to differentiate the computer from a monospaced typewriter. Cairo is a set of icons in font form, for combining graphics directly into text, akin to "proto-emojis".
She became a Creative Director in Apple Creative Services working for the department director, Tom Suiter, "at a time when it seemed as if the main Mac development was over".
Smithsonian Magazine summarizes her groundbreaking Macintosh work: "It was an intense time with untold pressure to perform on a new product launch that demanded countless hours of work, rework and work again to get everything right." Kare recalled the privilege of being directly taught by engineers how early software is assembled: "I loved working on that project—always felt so lucky for the opportunity to be a nontechnical person in a software group. I was awed by being able to collaborate with such creative, capable and dedicated engineers. My ‘work/life balance’ has improved since then. : n )"
After Apple
In 1986, Kare followed Steve Jobs in leaving Apple to launch NeXT, Inc. as its Creative Director and 10th employee. She introduced Jobs to her design hero Paul Rand and hired him to design NeXT's logo and brand identity, admiring his table-pounding exactitude and confidence. She created and re-created slideshows to Jobs's exacting last-minute requirements.
She realized that she wanted "to be back doing bitmaps" so she left NeXT to become an independent designer with a client base including graphical computing giants Microsoft, IBM, Sony Pictures, Motorola, General Magic, and Intel. Her projects for Microsoft include the card deck for Windows 3.0's solitaire game, which taught early computer users to use a mouse to drag and drop objects on a screen. In 1987, she designed a "baroque" wallpaper, numerous other icons, and design elements for Windows 3.0, using isometric 3D and 16 dithered colors. Many of her icons, such as those for Notepad and various Control Panels, remained essentially unchanged by Microsoft until Windows XP. For IBM, she produced pinstriped isometric bitmap icons and design elements for OS/2. For General Magic, she made Magic Cap's "impish" cartoon of dad's office desktop. She was a founding partner of Susan Kare LLP in 1989. For Eazel, she rejoined many from the former Macintosh team and contributed iconography to the Nautilus file manager which the company permanently donated to the public for free use.
In 2003, she became a member of the advisory board of Glam Media, now called Mode Media. In 2003, she was recommended by Nancy Pelosi as one of four appointments to the Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee for designing coins for the United States Mint.
Between 2006 and 2010, she produced hundreds of icons for the virtual gifts feature of Facebook. Initially, profits from gift sales were donated to the Susan G. Komen for the Cure foundation until Valentine's Day 2007. One of the gift icons, titled "Big Kiss" is featured in some versions of Mac OS X as a user account picture.
In 2007, she designed the identity, icons, and website for Chumby Industries, Inc., as well as the interface for its Internet-enabled alarm clock.
Since 2008, The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) store in New York City has carried stationery and notebooks featuring her designs. In 2015 MoMA acquired her notebooks of sketches that had led to the early Mac GUI.
In August 2012, she was called as an expert witness by Apple in the patent-infringement trial Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co..
In 2015, Kare was hired by Pinterest as a product design lead as her first corporate employment in three decades. Working with design manager Bob Baxley, the former design manager of the original Apple Online Store, she compared the diverse and design-driven corporate cultures of Pinterest and early 1980s Apple. In February 2021, Kare became Design Architect at Niantic Labs. , she concurrently heads a digital design practice in San Francisco and sells limited-edition, signed fine-art prints.
Design philosophy
Kare's design principles are meaning, memorability, and clarity. She echoes the advice of Paul Rand, "Don't try to be original, just try to be good". She focuses on simplicity in creating visual metaphors for computer commands. Designing for the fullest range of users from novice to expert, she believes that the most meaningful icons are instantly easy to both understand and remember. She said "an icon is successful if you could tell someone what it is once and they don't forget it." She said "good icons should function somewhat like traffic signssimple symbols with few extraneous details, which makes them more universal" and notes that there is no impetus to continuously modernize a stop sign. Using the same philosophy through the pixel art era and beyond, she has placed a "premium on context and metaphor", hunting the streets of San Francisco for inspiration from "catchy symbols and shapes". When stuck on a design, she resourced inspiration from the books Kanji Pictograms for its table of the real-world origins of Japanese characters, and Symbol Sourcebook, especially its reference for hobo graffiti.
Her primary objective with the Macintosh was to humanize it, make it seem less like a machine, and give it "a smile". She intended to bring "an artist's sensibility to a world that had been the exclusive domain of engineers and programmers" and "hoped to help counter the stereotypical image of computers as cold and intimidating". Her Macintosh icons were inspired by many sources such as art history, wacky gadgets, pirate lore, Japanese logograms, and forgotten hieroglyphics. On the Mac keyboard, her concept for the command symbol was taken from the Saint Hannes cross, which is a symbol for a place of cultural interest used by Scandinavians of the 1960s such as at Swedish campgrounds.
She thrived in the problem-solving approach to severe technological constraints of the 1980s, drawing heavily upon her fine art experience in mosaics, needlepoint, and pointillism. Considering to be generous for icons, this improvised mastery of "a peculiar sort of minimal pointillism" made her an early pioneer of pixel art. For example, her original fonts are constrained to per character, yet she solved the problem of the typical jagged look of existing monospaced computer typefaces by using only horizontal, vertical, or 45-degree lines. Veteran designers at Apple had previously thought it impossible to convey personality and accuracy in a human portrait of only until Kare did it.
Since the late 1980s, she uses Adobe Photoshop and Adobe Illustrator using a grid-like template to simulate the constraints of the target device and user experience. She has said that she would still prefer monochrome pixel art.
Reception
The Smithsonian Institution called her design language "simple, elegant, and whimsical". In 2015, the Museum of Modern Art exhibited the first physical representation of her iconography, including her original Grid sketchbook, saying "If the Mac turned out to be such a revolutionary object––a pet instead of a home appliance, a spark for the imagination instead of a mere work tool––it is thanks to Susan's fonts and icons, which gave it voice, personality, style, and even a sense of humor. Cherry bomb, anyone?" They called her "a pioneering and influential computer iconographer [whose icon designs] communicate their function immediately and memorably, with wit and style." The American Institute of Graphic Arts characterized her style as a "whimsical charm and an independent streak" with an "artistic sleight of hand" and awarded her with its medal in April 2018. In October 2019, Kare was awarded the National Design Award for Lifetime Achievement by Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum. On International Women's Day of 2018, Medium acknowledged Kare as a technologist who helped shape the modern world alongside programmer Ada Lovelace, computer scientist Grace Hopper, and astronaut Mae Jemison.
In 1997, I.D. magazine launched its I.D. Forty list of influential designers including Kare and Steve Jobs. In October 2001, she received the Chrysler Design Award.
Legacy
Susan Kare is considered a pioneer of pixel art and of the graphical user interface, having spent three decades of her career "at the apex of human-machine interaction".
In co-creating the original Macintosh computer and documentation, she drove the visual language for Apple's pioneering graphical computing. Her most recognizable and enduring works at Apple include the world's first proportionally spaced digital font family of the Chicago, Geneva, and Monaco typefaces, and countless icons and interface components such as the Lasso, the Grabber, and the Paint Bucket. Chicago is the most prominent user-interface typeface seen in classic Mac OS interfaces from System 1 in 1984 to Mac OS 9 in 1999, and in the first four generations of the iPod interface. This cumulative work was key in making the Macintosh one of the most successful and foundational computing platforms of all time. Descendants of her groundbreaking 1980s work at Apple are universally seen throughout computing and in print.
For decades, she seeded this visual language practice throughout the industry via industry giants such as Microsoft Windows, IBM OS/2, Facebook, and Pinterest.
Her icon portfolio has been featured as physical prints in the National Museum of American History, the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, and the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science. Her work has a cult following, and large print versions of her digital portfolio are sold privately and at MoMA.
Personal life
She is married and has three sons. Her brother was aerospace engineer Jordin Kare.
See also
List of Apple typefaces
References
Further reading
External links
Fonts created by Kare
1954 births
Living people
American graphic designers
American women graphic designers
Apple Inc. employees
Interface designers
Mount Holyoke College alumni
Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development alumni
Artists from Ithaca, New York
Artists from San Francisco
AIGA medalists
NeXT
OS/2 people
Facebook employees
Pinterest people
Harriton High School alumni |
459382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Indian%20Americans | List of Indian Americans | Indian Americans are citizens or residents of the United States of America who trace their family descent to India. This article is a list of notable Indian Americans.
Academics
Nobel Prize recipients
Har Gobind Khorana (1922-2011), Nobel Prize in Medicine, 1968
Subramanyan Chandrasekhar (1910-1995), Nobel Prize for Physics, 1983
Amartya Sen (b. 1933), Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1998; Thomas W. Lamont University Professor and Professor of Economics and Philosophy at Harvard University
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (b. 1952), Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 2009; Former President of the Royal Society, (2015-2020)
Abhijit Banerjee (b. 1961), Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, 2019; Ford Foundation International Professor of Economics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Deans and presidents
Rakesh Khurana (born 1967), dean of Harvard College
Neeli Bendapudi (born 1962), president of University of Louisville
Jamshed Bharucha (born 1956), former president of Cooper Union, (2011-2015); former dean of arts & sciences at Dartmouth College and former provost at Tufts University
Vijay K. Dhir (born 1943), former dean of the UCLA Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science, (2003-2016)
Ravi V. Bellamkonda (born 1968), Vinik Dean of Engineering at Duke University Edmund T. Pratt Jr. School of Engineering
Dinesh D'Souza (born 1961), former president of The King's College, New York, (2010-2012)
Anjli Jain (born 1981), executive director of Campus Consortium
Dipak C. Jain (born 1957), former dean of INSEAD, (2011-2013); former dean of the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University, (2001-2009)
Vistasp Karbhari, former president of the University of Texas at Arlington, (2013-2020)
Pramod Khargonekar (born 1956), control theorist; vice chancellor of research at University of California, Irvine; former dean, College of Engineering at University of Florida, Gainesville, (2001-2009)
Renu Khator (born 1958), chancellor of the University of Houston System and president of the University of Houston; former provost and senior vice president, University of South Florida
Pradeep Khosla (born 1957), chancellor of the University of California, San Diego
Vijay Kumar (born 1962), dean of School of Engineering and Applied Science at the University of Pennsylvania
Geeta Menon, dean emeritus of the undergraduate college at New York University Stern School of Business
Nitin Nohria (born 1962), former dean of Harvard Business School, (2010-2020)
Sethuraman Panchanathan, director of National Science Foundation and former executive vice president and chief research and innovation officer at Arizona State University
Michael Rao, president of Virginia Commonwealth University
S. Narasinga Rao, former dean of Jackson College of Graduate Studies and Research at the University of Central Oklahoma
Beheruz Sethna, president of the University of West Georgia
Paul Shrivastava, chief sustainability officer, and director, Sustainability Institute, Pennsylvania State University
Molly Easo Smith, president of Manhattanville College
Kumble R. Subbaswamy, chancellor of the University of Massachusetts Amherst
Subra Suresh, president of Carnegie Mellon University
Satish K. Tripathi, president of University at Buffalo
Sundaraja Sitharama Iyengar, Ryder Professor of Computer Science and director of the School of Computing and Information Sciences at Florida International University, Miami
S. Shankar Sastry, former dean of the UC Berkeley College of Engineering
Bala V. Balachandran (born 1937), professor emeritus at Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University; founder, dean and chairman of Great Lakes Institute of Management and executive professor & strategy adviser to the dean of the Bauer College of Business at University of Houston
Nagi Naganathan, president of Oregon Institute of Technology and former president and dean of the College of Engineering at the University of Toledo, (2001-2016)
Sri Zaheer, dean of Carlson School of Management at the University of Minnesota
Mathematicians
Raj Chandra Bose (1901-1987), mathematician
Shamit Kachru (b. 1970), Mathematical Physicist, professor at Stanford Institute for Theoretical Physics
Akshay Venkatesh (b. 1981), Fields Medal laureate, mathematician
Shreeram Shankar Abhyankar (1930-2012), mathematician, singularity theory and Abhyankar's conjecture of finite group theory
Raghu Raj Bahadur (1924-1997), statistician
Manjul Bhargava (b. 1974), professor of mathematics at Princeton University and winner of Fields Medal, 2014
Rahul Pandharipande (b. 1969), joined as Professor of Mathematics at Princeton University in 2002, he accepted a Professorship at ETH Zürich
Sarvadaman Chowla (1907-1995), mathematician specializing in number theory
Harish-Chandra (1923-1983), mathematician, IBM Von Neumann Professor at Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton
Narendra Karmarkar (b. 1955), mathematician, inventor of Karmarkar algorithm
Chandrashekhar Khare (b. 1968), professor of mathematics at the University of California Los Angeles
G. S. Maddala (1933-1999), mathematician and economist best known for work in the field of econometrics
Anil Nerode (b. 1932), mathematician, proved the Myhill-Nerode Theorem
Ria Persad (b. 1974), mathematician, classical musician, and model
K. C. Sreedharan Pillai (1920-1985), mathematician
Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao (b. 1920), professor at Penn State University and research professor at the University of Buffalo
S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan (b. 1940), NYU mathematician who specialised in probability; winner of the Abel Prize and Steele Prize
DJ Patil (b. 1974), mathematician & Data scientist
Sucharit Sarkar (b. 1983), mathematician and topologist
Sourav Chatterjee (b. 1979), statistician, mathematician and professor at Stanford
Kannan Soundararajan (b. 1973), mathematician, professor at Stanford and IMO medalist.
Subhash Khot (b. 1978), mathematician, theoretical computer scientist famous for Unique games conjecture.
Sanjeev Arora (b. 1968), mathematician, theoretical computer scientist and Gödel Prize winner.
Economists
Abhijit Banerjee (b. 1961), Ford Foundation international professor of economics at MIT
Amartya Sen (b. 1933), Thomas W. Lamont University Professor, and Professor of Economics and Philosophy at Harvard University.
Pranab Bardhan (b. 1939), Professor Emeritus of Economics University of California, Berkeley
Kaushik Basu (b. 1952), C. Marks Professor of International Studies and Professor of Economics Cornell University
Jagdish Natwarlal Bhagwati (b. 1934), professor of economics at Columbia University
Alok Bhargava (b. 1954), professor of economics at the University of Maryland School of Public Policy
V. V. Chari (b. 1952), professor of economics at the University of Minnesota
Raj Chetty (b. 1979), professor of economics at Harvard University
Srikant Datar, The 11th Dean of Harvard Business School, took charge from January 1, 2021
Avinash Kamalakar Dixit (b. 1944), professor of economics at Princeton University
Gita Gopinath (b. 1971), chief economist at the International Monetary Fund and Economic Adviser to the Chief Minister of Kerala
Reema Harrysingh-Carmona (b. 1970), economist and the 5th First Lady of Trinidad and Tobago
Sendhil Mullainathan (b. 1973), professor of economics, Harvard University
Arvind Panagariya (b. 1952), professor of economics at Columbia University
Debraj Ray (b. 1957), Silver Professor of Economics, New York University
Ruchir Sharma, chief global strategist of asset management and emerging markets equity, Morgan Stanley Investment Management
Arvind Subramanian (b. 1959), Chief Economic Advisor Government of India and formerly an economist at the International Monetary Fund
Professors and scholars in computer science or engineering and electrical engineering
Amit Sheth, computer scientist at Wright State University in Dayton, Ohio
Anant Agarwal, professor of electrical engineering and director of the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory at MIT
Aravind Joshi (1929-2017), professor of computer and cognitive science at the University of Pennsylvania
Arvind, Johnson Professor of Computer Science and Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Arogyaswami Paulraj (b. 1944), professor of electrical engineering at Stanford University
Ashwin Ram (b. 1960), head of artificial intelligence Amazon Alexa
Avinash Kak (b. 1944), professor of electrical and computer engineering at Purdue University
B. Jayant Baliga (b. 1948), inventor of the Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
Bhubaneswar Mishra (b. 1961), professor of computer science, engineering & mathematics at Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences of New York University and visiting scholar at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
Chandra Kintala (1948-2009), former Vice President Bell Labs
Gopal H. Gaonkar (b. 1936), a professor of engineering at Florida Atlantic University
Hari Balakrishnan, Fujitsu Chair Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Hardik Gohel, a faculty of computer science at University of Houston-Victoria
K. Mani Chandy, professor of computer science at the California Institute of Technology
Krishna Saraswat, professor of electrical engineering at Stanford University
Madhu Sudan, professor of computer science at Harvard University
Prabhat Mishra, professor of computer science and engineering at University of Florida
Raj Jain, professor of computer science and engineering at Washington University School of Engineering and Applied Science
Rangasami L. Kashyap (b. 1938), professor of electrical engineering at Purdue University
Ricky J. Sethi, professor of computer science at Fitchburg State University; director of Research at The Madsci Network
Saraju Mohanty, professor of computer science and engineering at the University of North Texas
Shree K. Nayar, professor of computer science at Columbia University
Shrikanth Narayanan, award-winning researcher, inventor and educator at University of Southern California
Shwetak Patel, professor of computer science and electrical engineering at the University of Washington
Supriyo Datta, Thomas Duncan Distinguished Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the Purdue University
Thomas Kailath, professor of engineering at Stanford University
Vijay Vazirani (b. 1957), professor of computer science at University of California, Irvine
Suman Datta (b. 1973), professor of electrical engineering at Notre Dame University, regarded as one of the greatest pioneers in semiconductor research in USA.
Professors and scholars in other disciplines
Kuzhikalail M. Abraham, professor at Northeastern University, electrochemistry; materials science; lithium, lithium ion, and lithium air batteries
Nita Ahuja, Chief of Surgical Oncology at Johns Hopkins Hospital, surgeon-scientist, first women ever to lead this department at Johns Hopkins Hospital.
Pulickel M. Ajayan, professor of material science at Rice University
Salman Akhtar, professor at the Jefferson Medical College
Muzaffar Alam, professor in South Asian Languages & Civilizations at the University of Chicago
Akhil Amar, professor of law at Yale Law School
Vikram Amar, professor of law at the University of California, Davis School of Law
Abhay Ashtekar, professor of physics at Pennsylvania State University
Satya N. Atluri, Presidential Chair and University Distinguished Professor Texas Tech University, Recipient, Padma Bhushan in Science and Engineering in 2013 from the President of India
P.S. Ayyaswamy, professor of dynamical engineering at the University of Pennsylvania
Homi K. Bhabha, Anne F. Rothenberg Professor of English and American Literature and Language, and the Director of the Mahindra Humanities Center at Harvard University
Mahzarin Banaji, professor at Harvard University, best known for exploring implicit racial and gender biases
Sugata Bose, professor of history at Harvard University
Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty, professor of microbiology at University of Illinois at Chicago
Arup Chakraborty, Robert T. Haslam Professor focusing in biophysics, computational modeling and infectious disease at Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Naresh Dalal, Dirac Professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry at Florida State University
Aswath Damodaran, professor of finance at the Stern School of Business at New York University
Ashok Das, professor of physics at the University of Rochester
Ashok Gadgil, professor of civil and environmental engineering at the University of California, Berkeley
Rajit Gadh, professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering at University of California, Los Angeles
Atul Gawande, professor in the Department of Health Policy & Management at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health
Swapan K. Gayen, professor of physics at the City University of New York
Anirvan Ghosh, professor at the University of California, San Diego
Radhika Govindrajan, associate professor of anthropology at University of Washington
Vijay Govindarajan, Coxe Distinguished Professor at Dartmouth College's Tuck School of Business and the Marvin Bower Fellow at Harvard Business School
Kausalya Hart, scholar of Tamil language at UC Berkeley
Narayan Hosmane, professor of chemistry and biochemistry at Northern Illinois University
Ravi Jagannathan, professor at the Kellogg School of Management
Jainendra K. Jain, professor of physics at Pennsylvania State University
Piyare Jain, professor emeritus at University at Buffalo
Rakesh Jain, professor of tumor biology at Massachusetts General Hospital in the Harvard Medical School
S. Lochlann Jain, associate professor in the Anthropology Department at Stanford University
Sachin H. Jain, physician and health policy analyst at Harvard Medical School
Nazir Jairazbhoy, professor of folk and classical music of South Asia at University of California at Los Angeles
Yogesh Jaluria, Board of Governors Professor and Distinguished Professor at Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, in the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering.
M. A. Muqtedar Khan, Professor in the Department of Political Science and International Relations at the University of Delaware
Ravindra Khattree, professor of statistics at Oakland University
Satish Nagarajaiah, professor of civil engineering and of mechanical engineering at Rice University.
S. P. Kothari, Gordon Y Billard Professor of Management at MIT Sloan School of Management
Shrinivas Kulkarni, professor of astrophysics and planetary science at Caltech
Vijay Mahajan (academic), John P. Harbin Centennial Chair in Business and Professor of Marketing at University of Texas at Austin
Raj Mittra, electrical engineering professor at Pennsylvania State University
Jagadeesh Moodera, American physicist of Indian origin; senior research scientist at MIT's Francis Bitter Magnet Laboratory
Bharati Mukherjee, author, professor in the department of English at the University of California, Berkeley
C. M. Naim, scholar of Urdu language and literature at the University of Chicago
V. Parmeswaran Nair, Physicist, currently a Distinguished Professor at City University of New York.
Shrikanth Narayanan, award-winning researcher, inventor and educator at University of Southern California
Jaishree Odin, professor, postmodern literary theorist at the University of Hawaii
C.K. Prahalad, professor of corporate strategy at the Stephen M. Ross School of Business in the University of Michigan
Vijay Prashad, professor of international studies at Trinity College
Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, behavioral neurologist and psychophysicist; Professor with the Psychology and Neurosciences University of California, San Diego
J. N. Reddy, professor and holder of the Oscar S. Wyatt Endowed Chair in Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M University
Anantanand Rambachan, professor of religion at St. Olaf College, Minnesota, United States
K. R. Rao, professor at University of Texas at Arlington
Subrata Roy, professor of aerospace engineering at the University of Florida
Subir Sachdev, Herchel Smith Professor of Physics at Harvard University; Dirac Medal and National Academy of Sciences
Nitin Samarth, Head and Professor of Physics, Pennsylvania State University
Deepak Sarma, professor of religious studies at Case Western Reserve University
Jagdish Sheth, professor of marketing at Goizueta Business School of Emory University
Jagdish Shukla, professor at George Mason University
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, professor at Columbia University
Marti G. Subrahmanyam, professor of finance at the Stern School of Business at New York University
Sanjay Subrahmanyam, holder of Navin and Pratima Doshi Chair of Indian History and scholar at UCLA
Mriganka Sur, professor of neuroscience at the MIT
Medha Yodh, scholar of classical Indian dance at UCLA
Activism
Maya Ajmera, founder of The Global Fund for Children and author of more than 20 books for children
Kala Bagai, immigrant advocate and one of the first South Asian women in the United States
Bhairavi Desai, founding member of the Taxi Workers Alliance in New York
Kartar Dhillon, Ghadar Party, labor, and civil rights activist
Mallika Dutt, executive director of Breakthrough human rights organization
Vijaya Lakshmi Emani (1958-2009), social activist
Arun Manilal Gandhi, fifth grandson of Mohandas Gandhi
Abraham George, philanthropist humanitarian, founder of The George Foundation (TGF)
Gitanjali S. Gutierrez, lawyer who is defending Guantanamo prisoners
Maya Harris, executive director of the ACLU of Northern California and sister of Kamala Harris
Sudhanshu Kaushik, founder of the North American Association of Indian Students and Young India Foundation
Prerna Lal, immigrant rights advocate and attorney
Girindra Mukerji, leader of one of the first Indian-American student protests against colonialism in 1908
Kavita Ramdas, president and CEO of Global Fund for Women
Dinesh Sharma (academic), leader, CRO and Director at Steam Works Studio and author in human development, human rights and global education, and professor at Walden University
Inder Singh, chairman of the Global Organization of People of Indian Origin (GOPIO)
Bhagat Singh Thind, civil rights activist who defended the right of Indian immigrants to gain United States citizenship in United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind
Urvashi Vaid, gay rights activist
Thomas Abraham (b. 1948), founder president of the Global Organization of People of Indian Origin (GOPIO) as well as the National Federation of Indian American Associations (NFIA)
Sakharam Ganesh Pandit (1875-1959), lawyer who argued against government efforts to revoke American citizenship for Indian emigrants
John Prabhudoss (b.1964), current Chairman of the Federation of Indian American Christian Organizations (FIACONA)
Thenmozhi Soundararajan, American based Dalit rights activist
Arts and entertainment
Ashok Amritraj, Hollywood film producer
Salma Arastu, artist
San Banarje, independent filmmaker
Rina Banerjee, artist
Prashant Bhargava, director
Niala Boodhoo, journalist, host, and executive producer
Jay Chandrasekhar, director, actor, comedian, and writer
Shanthi Chandrasekar, visual artist
Aneesh Chaganty, film director, screenwriter
Sabu Dastagir, actor
Nina Davuluri, Miss America 2014
Param Gill, director, screenwriter and producer
Kovid Gupta, bestselling author and screenwriter
Reef Karim, actor, director, writer, and producer
Neeraj Khemlani, producer for CBS News' 60 Minutes
Bharti Kirchner, writer
Shirish Korde, artist
Adam Bhala Lough, director, screenwriter
Tirlok Malik, filmmaker and actor
Benny Mathews, film and music video director
Faris McReynolds, painter and musician
Mira Nair, director and producer
Sunil Nayar, TV writer and producer; producer of CSI: Miami
Oopali Operajita, choreographer and Odissi and Bharatanatyam artiste; Distinguished Fellow, Carnegie Mellon University
Yatin Patel, photographer and artist
Mythili Prakash, Bharatanatyam dancer and choreographer
Asha Puthli, singer-songwriter, producer and actress
Sarayu Rao, actor and director
Harish Saluja, filmmaker
Stephanie Sengupta, producer and writer
Mehul Shah, actor, director, writer, and producer
Adi Shankar, producer and actor
Naren Shankar, TV writer, producer and director; an executive producer of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation
M. Night Shyamalan, director, filmmaker
Tarsem Singh, director
Rohit Gupta, director, producer
Manick Sorcar, animator, artist, and producer
Babu Subramaniam, director
Tina Sugandh, entertainer
Julie Titus, model, contestant on America's Next Top Model
Serena Varghese, voice actress
Prashanth Venkataramanujam, television writer, actor, and producer
Actors and actresses
Karan Soni, actor
Simran Judge, actor
Ravi Patel, actor
Devika Bhise, actress
Waris Ahluwalia, fashion designer
Aziz Ansari, actor and comedian
Gabrielle Anwar, actress
Erick Avari, actor
Sunkrish Bala, actor
Firdous Bamji, actor
Purva Bedi, actress
Summer Bishil, actress
Karan Brar, film and TV actor
Samrat Chakrabarti, actor
Melanie Chandra, actress
Michelle Khare, actress, Youtuber, and television host
Sabu Dastagir, actor
Sujata Day, actress
Manish Dayal, actor
Noureen DeWulf, actress
Raja Fenske, actor
Janina Gavankar, actress
Namrata Singh Gujral, actress
Sakina Jaffrey, actress
Poorna Jagannathan, actress and producer
Avan Jogia, actor
Mindy Kaling, actress, writer, producer, comedian
Ravi Kapoor, actor
Rahul Kohli, actor
Deep Katdare, actor
Nivedita Kulkarni, actress
Shishir Kurup, actor
Nakul Dev Mahajan, Bollywood dancer and choreographer
Sunny Leone, actor and former pornographic actress
Tirlok Malik, actor
Shelly Malil, film and TV actor
Rizwan Manji, actor
Aasif Mandvi, actor
Sunita Mani, actress
Ajay Mehta, TV actor
Ajay Naidu, actor
Anjul Nigam, actor
Maulik Pancholy, actor
Devika Parikh, actress
Kal Penn, actor
Danny Pudi, actor
Ritesh Rajan, actor
Sendhil Ramamurthy, actor
Dileep Rao, actor
Navi Rawat, actress
Sonal Shah, actress
Sheetal Sheth, actress
Tiya Sircar, actress
Omi Vaidya, actor
Sugith Varughese,Indian-born Canadian-born actor with American citizenship
Annet Mahendru, actress
Nitya Vidyasagar, actress
Comedians
Aziz Ansari
Aman Ali
Arj Barker
Aasif Mandvi
Jay Chandrasekhar
Hari Kondabolu
Hasan Minhaj
Nimesh Patel
Adam Mamawala
Rajiv Satyal
Anish Shah
Paul Varghese, appeared on Last Comic Standing
Aparna Nancherla
Lilly Singh
Culinary arts
Ashok Bajaj, restaurateur
Vishwesh Bhatt, chef
Maneet Chauhan, celebrity chef, restaurateur, author
H. Jay Dinshah, founded the American Vegan Society
Raghavan Iyer, chef, author, culinary educator
Vikas Khanna, Michelin starred celebrity chef, restaurateur, author, filmmaker, and TV host
Jehangir Mehta, celebrity chef, restaurateur, author
Rajat Parr, sommelier
Suvir Saran, Michelin starred chef and author
Aarti Sequeira (b. 1978), TV host on Food Network
Vikram Sunderam (b. 1967), chef and author
Padma Lakshmi
Fashion designers
Naeem Khan
Vashtie Kola
Bibhu Mohapatra
Rachel Roy (b. 1974)
Sachin & Babi
Models
Anchal Joseph, contestant on Cycle 7 of America's Next Top Model
Pooja Kumar, model
Akshay Kapoor, model, actor
Media
Manu Raju (b. 1980), CNN journalist anchor, reporter
Deepak Ananthapadmanabha, online journalist
Sanjay Gupta, journalist, medical correspondent, neurosurgeon
Rajiv Chandrasekaran, assistant managing editor for continuous news, The Washington Post; author of Imperial Life in the Emerald City
Syma Chowdhry, television host, reporter, and producer
Priya David, correspondent for CBS News
Dinesh D'Souza, political commentator, author and filmmaker. Former president of The King's College, New York
Deepa Fernandes, host of the WBAI radio program Wakeup Call
Deepti Hajela, journalist for the Associated Press
Pico Iyer, author and journalist for Time magazine, Harper's Magazine, Condé Nast Traveler, and The New York Review of Books
Shibani Joshi, reporter for the Fox Business Network
Sukanya Krishnan, news anchor for CW 11 Morning News on WPIX
Seema Mody, news reporter/anchor for CNBC
Mish Michaels, meteorologist for the WBZ-TV Weather Team
Vinita Nair, anchor of World News Now and America This Morning on ABC
Kevin Negandhi, sports anchor for ESPN SportsCenter
Reena Ninan, Middle East correspondent for Fox News Channel
Asra Nomani, journalist
Safiya Nygaard, YouTube beauty creator
Uma Pemmaraju, senior news anchor for Fox News Channel
Ramesh Ponnuru, senior editor of the National Review magazine
Ash-har Quraishi, correspondent, WTTW Chicago; former KCTV Chief Investigative Reporter; former CNN Islamabad Bureau Chief
Gopal Raju, pioneer of Indian American ethnic media
Aneesh Raman, first Indian-American presidential speechwriter under President Barack Obama, former CNN Middle East correspondent
Simran Sethi, journalist
Alpana Singh, television personality
Lakshmi Singh, NPR's national midday newscaster
Hari Sreenivasan, correspondent for CBS News and the PBS NewsHour
Sreenath Sreenivasan, Columbia University professor; WABC-TV technology reporter
Ali Velshi, business news anchor for CNN
Zain Verjee, CNN anchor
Fareed Zakaria, columnist for Time magazine and host of Fareed Zakaria GPS on CNN
Lilly Singh, YouTuber of Indian descent widely known as IISuperwomanII, ranked tenth on the Forbes list of the world's highest paid YouTube stars, ranked first on 2017 Forbes Top Influencers List in the entertainment category
Liza Koshy, actress, YouTube comedian and television host
Musicians
Rick Parashar (1963-2014), producer
Sandeep Das (b. 1971), won the Grammy award for Best World Music Album, at the 59th Grammy Awards, 2017
Sonika Vaid, Indian-American singer
Bamboo Shoots, dance-rock band
6ix, record producer
Rajiv Dhall, Indian-American singer
Sid Sriram, Indian-American singer
Jeff Bhasker, producer
Nicki Minaj, rapper and singer-songwriter
Sameer Bhattacharya, one of two guitarists in the Texas alternative rock band Flyleaf
Das Racist, alternative hip hop group; two of the three members are Indian
Anoop Desai, finalist on the eighth season of American Idol
Falu, singer and songwriter
Sameer Gadhia, lead vocalist in Young the Giant
Heems, rapper
Ravi Hutheesing, singer-songwriter, guitarist
iLoveMakonnen, rapper
Daya, singer
Sandeep Khurana, new age music and world music composer
Raja Kumari, singer and songwriter
Vijay Iyer, jazz musician and composer
Sunny Jain, dhol player, drummer, and composer
Norah Jones, singer, songwriter and actress; winner of multiple Grammy Awards
Rajan Somasundaram, Music Composer, Songwriter and multi instrumentalist
Karsh Kale, Indian producer, composer and musician
Tony Kanal, two-time Grammy Award winner, bass player for No Doubt
Savan Kotecha, songwriter
KSHMR, electronic musician, record producer
Arun Luthra, jazz musician
Sanjaya Malakar, finalist on the sixth season of American Idol
Mathai, finalist on season 2 of The Voice
Zarin Mehta, executive director of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra
Zubin Mehta, former conductor, New York Philharmonic Orchestra; receiver of a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame
Sanjay Mishra, guitarist and composer
Vidya Vox, YouTube musician
Vasant Rai, performer of Indian music
Paul Sabu, producer
Amar Sandhu, singer
Shaheen Sheik, songwriter
Bikram Singh, singer
Mickey Singh, Indian-born singer from Detroit, MI
Ramesh Srivastava, singer
Ambi Subramaniam, violinist and composer
Bindu Subramaniam, singer-songwriter
Kim Thayil, named among 100th greatest guitarists of all time by Rolling Stone
Zoya, California-based singer and guitarist
Nav, Canada-based rapper and producer
Sanjay Patel, animator and director and also illustrator of Pixar
Shirish Korde (b. 1945), composer
Dave Baksh (b. 1980), guitarist of punk band Sum 41
Raveena Aurora, alternative singer
Business
Parag Agrawal, CEO of Twitter
Anu Aiyengar, managing director of North American mergers and acquisitions of JPMorgan Chase & Co
Nikesh Arora (b. 1968), CEO, Palo Alto Networks, former Google executive and COO, Softbank
Samir Arora, former CEO of Mode Media
Ramani Ayer, former chairman and CEO of The Hartford Financial Services Group
Prith Banerjee, managing director of Global Technology R&D at Accenture
Somen Banerjee, co-founder of Chippendales
Ajaypal Singh Banga, president and CEO of MasterCard
Mahaboob Ben Ali (1927-2009), co-founder of Ben's Chili Bowl
Manoj Bhargava, founder and CEO of Innovations Ventures LLC; the company is known for producing the 5-hour Energy drink
Aneel Bhusri, co-founder and CEO of Workday, Inc.; partner at Greylock Partners; member of the board of directors of Intel
Jagjeet (Jeet) S. Bindra, director of Edison International, Southern California Edison
Amar Bose, founder and chairman of Bose Corporation
Vanu Bose, American electrical engineer, founder of Vanu Inc, son of Amar Bose
Sant Singh Chatwal, owner of the Bombay Palace chain of restaurants and Hampshire Hotels & Resorts
Manu Daftary, money manager
Bharat Desai, co-founder and chairman of Syntel
Gururaj Deshpande, founder of Sycamore Networks
Francis deSouza, CEO of Illumina
Vinod Dham, designed the Intel Pentium Chip Processor; the "father of the Pentium Chip"
Rono Dutta, former president of United Airlines, chairman of Air Sahara
Rhona Fox, founder of Fox Fuse
Rakesh Gangwal, former CEO and chairman of US Airways Group
Asim Ghosh, president and chief executive officer at Husky Energy
Ajit Gupta, founder and CEO of Speedera Networks, Aryaka Networks
Rajat Gupta, former managing director of McKinsey & Company
Rajiv Gupta, CEO of SkyHigh Networks, former general manager of Hewlett-Packard
Umang Gupta, former CEO of Keynote Systems, Inc.
Ajit Jain, president of Berkshire Hathaway Reinsurance Group
Anjli Jain, founder and Managing Partner of EVC Ventures
Anshu Jain, President of Cantor Fitzgerald and former co-CEO of Deutsche Bank
Sanjay Jha, CEO of Global Foundries and former CEO of Motorola Mobile Devices
Vyomesh Joshi, former executive vice president of Imaging and Printing Group, Hewlett-Packard
John Kapoor, founder and executive chairman of Insys Therapeutics
Vinod Khosla, founder of Khosla Ventures, co-founder of Sun Microsystems
Jay Vijayan, founder of Tekion Corp., former CIO of Tesla
Arvind Krishna, CEO of IBM
Anil Kumar, former senior partner and chairman, Asia Center of McKinsey & Company
Sanjay Kumar, former CEO of Computer Associates International
Thomas Kurian, CEO of Google Cloud, former President of product development at Oracle Corporation
Sachin Lawande, president and CEO of Visteon
Krishna Maharaj, businessman convicted of murder
Bobby Mehta, former CEO and vice chairman of HSBC North America and former CEO of Transunion Company
Sonny Mehta, Chairman/Editor in chief of Alfred A. Knopf
Victor Menezes, chairman of Clearing House Association, former chairman and CEO of Citibank
Satya Nadella, CEO of Microsoft
Ranji H. Nagaswami, chief investment officer for AllianceBernstein Fund Investors
Lakshmi Narayanan, vice chairman and former CEO of Cognizant Corporation
Shantanu Narayen, CEO of Adobe Systems
Indra Nooyi, former chairman and CEO of PepsiCo
Dinesh Paliwal, chairman and CEO of Harman International
Vikram Pandit, former CEO of Citigroup
Suhas Patil, entrepreneur, venture capitalist & Founder of Cirrus Logic
Sundar Pichai, CEO of Google, Alphabet Inc
Prakash Puram, president and CEO of iXmatch
Vivek Ranadivé, former CEO of TIBCO Software
Sashi Reddi, serial entrepreneur, venture capitalist, angel investor, technologist, and philanthropist
Kanwal Rekhi, former EVP and CTO of Novell
Ashutosh Saxena, Founder & CEO of Caspar.AI, prolific author in the area of AI, and former Professor of Computer Science at Cornell University.
Abbas Sadriwala, chairman and CEO of the Fort Lauderdale-based Wireless Logix Group
Arun Sarin, former president of Vodafone
Niraj Shah, CEO and co-founder of Wayfair
Deven Sharma, former president of Standard & Poor's
Ram Shriram, venture fund capitalist and one of the first investors in Google
Pradeep Sindhu, founder and CTO of Juniper Networks
K. R. Sridhar, founder and CEO of Bloom Energy
Rajeev Suri, CEO of Nokia
Abhi Talwalkar, president and CEO of LSI Corporation
Thiru Vikram, CEO of Buffalo Automation
Romesh Wadhwani, founder, chairman and CEO of Symphony Technology Group
Padmasree Warrior, CEO of NIO (car company)
Crime
Somen Banerjee, pleaded guilty to attempted arson, racketeering, and murder for hire
Sant Singh Chatwal, pled guilty to giving illegal campaign contributions for the Democratic Party
Gurmeet Singh Dhinsa, convicted of murder, racketeering, and kidnapping
Syed Ghulam Nabi Fai, conspiracy to defraud the United States by violation of the Foreign Agents Registration Act
Rajat Gupta, convicted of four criminal felony counts of conspiracy and securities fraud in the Galleon scandal
Noshir Gowadia, convicted of espionage for China
Anand Jon, convicted of rape
John Kapoor, convicted of racketeering and conspiracy to commit wire fraud
Subhash Kapoor, convicted of art theft and grand larceny
Anil Kumar, pleaded guilty to insider trading
Shelley Malil, convicted of attempted premeditated murder and assault
Nirav Modi, fugitive charged with corruption, fraud, and money laundering
Jayant Patel, convicted of fraud and manslaughter
Purvi Patel, convicted of feticide
Lakireddy Bali Reddy, convicted of immigration fraud and human trafficking
Prakashanand Saraswati, fugitive and convicted child molester
Ravi Singh, convicted of four felony counts for illegally influencing the San Diego mayoral election
Sabrina De Sousa, convicted of kidnapping
Sneha Anne Philip, missing person
Literature
Abraham Verghese, doctor and author; wrote In My Own Country and My Tennis Partner
Agha Shahid Ali, poet
Aimee Nezhukumatathil, poet
Amitav Ghosh, Indo-nostalgic writer and winner of Prix Médicis étranger
Anita Desai, novelist; shortlisted for the Booker prize three times; mother of Kiran Desai
Anju Hasan, author, of Neti,Neti
Anu Garg, author, speaker, and computer engineer
Arnold Rampersad, biographer and literary critic
Bhaskar Sunkara, political writer, founding editor and publisher of Jacobin and current publisher of London's Tribune
Bharati Mukherjee, author, professor
Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni, author
Davan Maharaj, journalist and former editor-in-chief and publisher of the Los Angeles Times
Dhan Gopal Mukerji, first successful Indian man of letters in the US; winner of the Newbery Medal, 1928
Gaiutra Bahadur, author
Ghalib Shiraz Dhalla, author
Indira Viswanathan Peterson, literary critic
Indu Sundaresan, author
Ismat Chughtai, author
Janaki Ram, author
Jhumpa Lahiri, Pulitzer Prize-winning author
Kaavya Viswanathan, novelist
Kiran Desai, winner of the 2006 Man Booker Prize
Parag Khanna, author
Paul Kalanithi, author
Rajiv Joseph, playwright
Ramya Ramana, poet
Ravi Batra, bestselling author and economist
Ravi Shankar, poet
Rishi Reddi, author
Roshani Chokshi novelist
Rupi Kaur, poet
S. T. Joshi, literary critic
Salman Rushdie, novelist and essayist
Saumitra Saxena, Hindi poet, Bharatiya Jnanpith Navlekhana Award winner
Shauna Singh Baldwin, novelist, winner of the Commonwealth Writers' Prize
Siddharth Katragadda, author, filmmaker, artist
Siddhartha Mukherjee, physician, scientist and writer, 2011 winner of the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction
Susham Bedi, author
Thrity Umrigar, author of Bombay Time
Tulika Mehrotra, author, journalist
Usha Haley, author
Vijay Prashad, Marxist writer, director for Tricontinental, Chief editor for LeftWord Books, written 30 books
Vijay Seshadri, Pulitzer Prize-winning poet and essayist
Vikram Seth, poet, novelist, travel writer, librettist, children's writer, biographer and memoirist
Military
Uday Singh Taunque, first Indian American to die in Operation Iraqi Freedom; posthumously awarded Bronze Star and Purple Heart gallantry awards
Sunita Williams (b. 1965), astronaut and former Navy officer
Politics
Elected officials
Ram Villivalam- State Senator, 8th District- Illinois (Democrat)
John Abraham, former mayor of Teaneck, New Jersey (Republican)
Suhas Subramanyam (b. 1986), Virginia's 87th House of Delegates district Representative (Democrat)
Saqib Ali, former member of the Maryland House of Delegates (Democratic)
Harvinder "Harry" Anand, mayor of Laurel Hollow, New York (Republican)
Sam Arora, member of the Maryland House of Delegates (Democratic)
Kumar P. Barve, member of the Maryland House of Delegates, former (majority leader) (Democratic), the first Indian American elected to a state legislature
Ravinder Bhalla, mayor, Hoboken, Hudson County, New Jersey (Democratic), the first turban-wearing Sikh American mayor in the United States to be elected by a municipality's residents, in November 2017
Satveer Chaudhary, former Minnesota State Senator (Democratic)
Upendra J. Chivukula, member of the New Jersey General Assembly (Democratic)
Swati Dandekar (b. 1951), Iowa State Senator (Democratic)
Mervyn M. Dymally, 41st Lieutenant Governor of California (1975–1979); member of the U.S. House of Representatives (1981–1993) (Democratic)
Kashmir Gill, mayor of Yuba City, California (Republican)
Jay Goyal, member of the Ohio State Representative (Democratic)
Raj Goyle, member of the Kansas State Representative (Democratic)
Faz Husain, first native of India to win elected office in Michigan (Democratic)
Bobby Jindal, former Governor of Louisiana; vice chairman of the Republican Governors Association (Republican)
Nimi McConigley, first Indian American women to serve in any American State legislature served in the Wyoming State Legislature from 1994 until 1996(Republican)
Ameya Pawar, served as the alderman for the 47th Ward of the City of Chicago
Aruna Miller, member of the Maryland House of Delegates (Democratic)
Kshama Sawant, member of the Seattle City Council.
Balvir Singh, first Indian American member, Board of Chosen Freeholders, Burlington County, New Jersey, first Sikh American to win a countywide election in New Jersey, in November 2017 (Democratic)
Jenifer Rajkumar, Lower Manhattan district leader and candidate for the New York State Assembly (Democratic)
Federal elected officials
Kamala Harris (b. 1964), current Vice President of the United States, former and 32nd Attorney General of California, former U.S. Senator from California
Ami Bera, U.S. Representative for California's 7th congressional district
Raja Krishnamoorthi, U.S. Representative for Illinois's 8th congressional district
Ro Khanna, U.S. Representative for California's 17th congressional district
Pramila Jayapal, U.S. Representative for Washington's 7th congressional district
Dalip Singh Saund, first Asian and Indian American member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California
Civil servants
Arif Alikhan (b. 1968), former Assistant Secretary for Policy Development at the U.S. Department of Homeland Security; former Deputy Mayor for Homeland Security and Public Safety for the City of Los Angeles; former senior adviser to Attorneys General John Ashcroft and Alberto Gonzales
Preeta D. Bansal (b. 1965), member and past chair of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom; former Solicitor General of New York
Preet Bharara, United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York
Cathy Bissoon, judge for the United States District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania (Democratic)
Nisha Desai Biswal, current Assistant Secretary of State for South and Central Asian Affairs
Saikat Chakrabarti, chief of staff to Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, the U.S. Representative from New York's 14th congressional district representing parts of The Bronx and Queens in New York City
Joy Cherian, first Asian head of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
Aneesh Chopra, Federal Chief Technology Officer of the U.S.
Har Dayal, founder of the Ghadar Party
Sabrina De Sousa, ex-CIA officer; is suing the US government for diplomatic immunity
Gurbir Grewal, Bergen County, New Jersey prosecutor, first Sikh American county prosecutor in the U.S.,
Vanita Gupta, Former Lawyer for ACLU and current United States Associate Attorney General
Nikki Haley, former U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations; former Governor of South Carolina (Republican)
Rashad Hussain, U.S. Special Envoy to the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
Neel Kashkari, former interim Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Stability in the United States Department of the Treasury (Republican)
Neal Katyal, Solicitor General of the United States
Atul Keshap, U.S. Ambassador to Sri Lanka and Maldives
Gopal Khanna, chief information officer of Minnesota
Narayana Kocherlakota, president of Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis
Kris Kolluri, New Jersey Commissioner of Transportation
Vivek Kundra, Federal Chief Information Officer of the US
Arun Majumdar, director of the U.S. Department of Energy's Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy
Raj Mukherji (b. 1984), Deputy Mayor of Jersey City, New Jersey; candidate for the New Jersey State Legislature
Shekar Narasimhan, co-chair of the Democratic National Committee Indo-American Council
Ajit Pai, serving as chairman at the Federal Communications Commission
Farah Pandith, Special Representative to Muslim Communities for the United States Department of State
Rachel Paulose, former United States Attorney for the District of Minnesota
Rajiv Shah (b. 1973), former Under Secretary of Agriculture for Research, Education, and Economics; former Administrator of USAID; President, Rockefeller Foundation
Sonal Shah, member of the Obama-Biden Transition Project advisory board
Islam A. Siddiqui, Chief Agricultural Negotiator in the Office of the United States Trade Representative
Sabita Singh, first judge of Indian descent in Massachusetts history
Subra Suresh, director of National Science Foundation
Vinai Thummalapally (b. 1954), served as U.S. Ambassador to Belize
Richard Verma (b. 1968), Assistant Secretary for Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs, at the Department of State
Surya Yalamanchili, 2010 US Congressional candidate
Federal judges
Vince Girdhari Chhabria, judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of California (Democratic)
Nicholas Ranjan, District Judge, United States District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania
Neomi Rao, judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit
Manish S. Shah, judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois
Srikanth Srinivasan, judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit
Indira Talwani, judge of the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts
Amul Thapar, judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit (Republican)
Religion
Chitrabhanu Jain, founded the Jain Meditation International Center in Manhattan, New York City
Padmanabh Jaini, scholar of Jainism
Sushil Kumarji, Jain Acharya
Anantanand Rambachan, Hindu scholar, author, and professor of religion at St. Olaf College
Prem Rawat, also known as Guru Maharaji Ji, head of the Divine Light Mission and later organizations
Eboo Patel, member of New Faith Advisory Council
Muzammil Siddiqi, Ph.D., chairman, Fiqh Council of North America
Ravi Zacharias, Christian evangelist and apologist
Science and technology
Yellapragada Subbarow (1895-1948), pioneering biochemist who discovered ATP, the human body's energy molecule.
Ajay Bhatt (b. 1957), co-inventor of the USB; Chief Client Platform Architect at Intel
Ajit V. Pai, chairman of the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
Ajit Varki, physician-scientist
Amar Gopal Bose, PhD in electrical engineering, founder and chairman of Bose Corporation
Bimal Kumar Bose, pioneer in power electronics
Amit Goyal, scientist and inventor
Amit Singhal, Google Fellow, the designation the company reserves for its elite master engineers in the area of "ranking algorithm"
Amitabha Ghosh, the only Asian on NASA's Mars Pathfinder mission
Anil Dash, blogger and technologist
Anirvan Ghosh, neuroscientist
Govindjee, biochemist
Arjun Makhijani, electrical and nuclear engineer; president of the Institute for Energy and Environmental Research
Arun Netravali, scientist; former president of Bell Labs; former CTO of Lucent; pioneer of digital technology, including HDTV and MPEG4
Arvind Rajaraman, theoretical physicist and string theorist
Avtar Saini, co-led the development of the Pentium processor Intel; holds seven patents related to microprocessor design
Bedabrata Pain, co-inventor of the active pixel sensor
C. Kumar N. Patel, developed the carbon dioxide laser, used as a cutting tool in surgery and industry
Deepak Pandya, neuroanatomist
Arati Prabhakar, director of DARPA
Dhairya Dand, inventor and artist
DJ Patil, Chief Data Scientist of the United States Office of Science and Technology Policy
George Sudarshan, physicist, author; first to propose the existence of the tachyon
Jogesh Pati, theoretical physicist at the University of Maryland, College Park
Kalpana Chawla, NASA space shuttle astronaut, who died in space shuttle blast
Khem Shahani, microbiologist who conducted pioneer research on probiotics; discovered the DDS-1 strain of Lactobacillus acidophilus
Krishan Sabnani, engineer and senior vice president of the Networking Research Laboratory at Alcatel-Lucent Bell Labs in New Jersey
Krishna Bharat, principal scientist at Google; created Google News
Kuzhikalail M. Abraham, pioneer in lithium and lithium ion battery technologies, professor, Northeastern university, Boston, Massachusetts and president, E-KEM Sciences, Needham, Massachusetts
Mahadev Satyanarayanan, computer science professor at Carnegie Mellon University; pioneer of research in mobile and pervasive computing
Mani Lal Bhaumik, contributor to excimer laser technology
Mathukumalli Vidyasagar, control theorist
Narinder Singh Kapany, engineer, the "father of fiber optics"
Nalini Nadkarni, ecologist who pioneered the study of Costa Rican rain forest canopies
Noshir Gowadia, design engineer
Om Malik, technology journalist and blogger
Pran Nath, theoretical physicist at Northeastern University
Pranav Mistry, Sixth Sense Project
Raj Reddy, founder of the Robotics Institute at Carnegie Mellon University; winner of the Turing Award
Raja Chari, astronaut chosen for Artemis moon mission
Rajeev Motwani, professor, angel investor
Rajiv Dutta, technology manager
Ramesh K. Agarwal, aviation pioneer; William Palm Professor of Engineering at Washington University
Ramesh Raskar, Femto-camera inventor, MIT Professor
Rangaswamy Srinivasan, member of the Inventors' Hall of Fame for pioneering work on excimer laser surgery
Ruchi Sanghvi, first female engineer of Facebook; former VP of Operations, Dropbox
Sabeer Bhatia, co-founder of Hotmail
Samir Mitragotri, professor of chemical engineering and bioengineering at University of California, Santa Barbara
Satya N. Atluri, aerospace and mechanics, Excellence in Aviation Medal, FAA, 1998; Recipient of Padma Bhushan in 2013 in Science & Engineering from the President of India, elected to membership to National Academies of Engineering, USA (1996) and India (1997)
Salman Khan, founder of Khan Academy
Sharmila Bhattacharya, head of the Biomodel Performance and Behavior laboratory at NASA Ames Research Center
VA Shiva Ayyadurai, inventor, scientist, former guest lecturer at MIT
Siddhartha Mukherjee, scientist, physician, winner of Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction
Siva S. Banda, aerospace engineer and researcher, recipient of a Silver Medal from the Royal Aeronautical Society, a Presidential Rank Award, and elected to membership in the National Academy of Engineering
Subhash Kak, head of the Computer Science department at Oklahoma State University
Subrah Iyar, co-founder and CEO of Webex Communications
Subrata Roy, plasma physicist, professor of aerospace engineering at University of Florida, inventor of the Wingless Electromagnetic Air Vehicle
Sunita Williams, NASA astronaut
Shya Chitaley - Paleo botanist
Swapan Chattopadhyay, particle accelerator physicist
Swati Mohan, NASA space engineer
Thomas Anantharaman, computer statistician specializing in Bayesian inference
Thomas Zacharia, computational scientist
V. Mohan Reddy, paediatric cardiothoracic surgeon at Stanford
Vamsi Mootha, physician-scientist and computational biologist
Vic Gundotra, former senior vice president, Engineering for Google
Vijay Raghunath Pandharipande, physicist
Vineeta Rastogi, public health worker
Sirisha Bandla, space engineer
Medicine
Amit Patel, cardiovascular surgeon and stem cell researcher; first person to inject stem cells directly into the heart
Anita Goel, Harvard-MIT physicist, physician; expert in nanobiophysics and nanotechnology; chairman and CEO of Nanobiosym; inventor of Gene-RADAR technology
Ashutosh Tewari, professor of urology at New York Presbyterian Hospital; prostate cancer surgeon
Atul Gawande, general and endocrine surgeon, professor, medical author, and National Book Award finalist
Balamurali Ambati, world's youngest doctor, at age 17
Deepak Chopra, alternative medicine advocate, author and public speaker
E. Premkumar Reddy, oncologist; director of Fels institute of cancer research and molecular biology at Temple University
Harvinder Sahota, cardiologist; inventor of the FDA-approved perfusion balloon angioplasty; holds patents of 24 other medical inventions
Inder Verma, Professor of Molecular Biology in the Laboratory of Genetics at Salk Institute for Biological Studies and University of California, San Diego
Joia Mukherjee, associate professor with the Division of Global Health Equity at the Brigham and Women's Hospital and the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine at Harvard Medical School
Lall Ramnath Sawh, urologist and a pioneer of kidney transplantation in the Caribbean
Paul Antony, MD, MPH, chief medical officer for the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA)
Ragavendra R. Baliga, FACC, FACP, FRCP (Edin), Professor of Medicine at; Ohio State University College of Medicine
Sangeeta Bhatia, Harvard-MIT doctor and scientist; engineer of artificial liver cells
Sanjay Gupta, neurosurgeon; CNN chief medical correspondent;
Vivek Murthy (b. 1977), 19th and former Surgeon General of the United States; former vice admiral of U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Officer Corps
Aseem Shukla (b. 1972), Professor of Surgery (Urology) at the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, co-founder of Hindu American Foundation.
Sports
Prakash Amritraj (b. 1983), tennis player (born in the US)
Stephen Amritraj (b. 1984), tennis player
Sanjay Beach (b. 1966), former NFL wide receiver; played for the San Francisco 49ers and the Green Bay Packers
Mohini Bhardwaj, second Indian American Olympic medalist, 2004 Summer Olympics silver medalist in gymnastics
Vinay Bhat, chess grandmaster
Raj Bhavsar, third Indian American Olympic medalist, 2008 Summer Olympics bronze medalist in the team gymnastics competition
Shaun Bridgmohan, jockey
Brandon Chillar, NFL player, linebacker for the Green Bay Packers (father of Indian descent)
Sean Desai (b. 1983), NFL coach and defensive coordinator for the Chicago Bears
Jignesh Desai, cricketer
Sonjay Dutt, TNA pro wrestler
The Great Khali, WWE pro wrestler
Alexi Grewal, first Indian American to win an Olympic medal, gold medalist in 1984 Summer Olympics in cycling
Sunil Gulati, former President of the United States Soccer Federation
Carlos Cordeiro, President of the United States Soccer Federation
Amjad Khan, cricketer
Ibrahim Khaleel, cricketer
Noshtush Kenjige, cricketer
Thirunavukkarasu Kumaran, cricketer
Anil Lashkari, cricketer
Sanjay Lal, wide receivers coach for the Dallas Cowboys
Manny Malhotra, NHL hockey player
Rajiv Maragh, jockey
Aditya Mishra, cricketer
Sushil Nadkarni, American cricketer
Ami Parekh, figure skater
Japen Patel, cricketer
Mrunal Patel, cricketer
Sagar Patel, cricketer
Timil Patel, cricketer
Laxmi Poruri, tennis player
Abhimanyu Rajp, cricketer
Rajeev Ram, tennis player
Annand Mahendra "Victor" Ramdin, professional poker player and philanthropist
Sunitha Rao, tennis player
Srini Santhanam, cricketer
Jessy Singh, cricketer
Monank Patel, USA cricket captain
Saurabh Netravalkar, USA cricket captain
Jaskaran Malhotra, cricketer
Shikha Uberoi, tennis player
Neha Uberoi, tennis player
Shiva Vashishat, cricketer
Adeel Alam, professional wrestler best known ring name Mustafa Ali (Indian mother)
Abhimanyu Mishra, chess grandmaster
Yoga
Bikram Choudhury (b. 1944), yoga guru
Dipa Ma, yoga teacher
Harbhajan Singh Yogi, introduced Kundalini Yoga and Sikhism to the US
See also
Non-resident Indian and Person of Indian Origin
India–United States relations
References
Lists of American people of Asian descent
American
Lists of American people by ethnic or national origin
Lists of people by ethnicity
American |
289616 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Metcalfe | Robert Metcalfe | Robert Melancton Metcalfe (born April 7, 1946) is an engineer and entrepreneur from the United States who helped pioneer the Internet starting in 1970. He co-invented Ethernet, co-founded 3Com and formulated Metcalfe's law, which describes the effect of a telecommunications network. Since January 2011, he has been Professor of Innovation and Entrepreneurship at The University of Texas at Austin. He is also the Murchison Fellow of Free Enterprise.
Metcalfe has received various awards, including the IEEE Medal of Honor and National Medal of Technology and Innovation for his work developing Ethernet technology.
In addition to his accomplishments, Metcalfe has made several predictions which failed to come to pass, separately forecasting the demise of the Internet, wireless networks, and open-source software during the 1990s.
Early life
Robert Metcalfe was born in 1946 in Brooklyn, New York. His father was a test technician who specialized in gyroscopes. His mother was a homemaker, but later became the secretary at Bay Shore High School. In 1964, Metcalfe graduated from Bay Shore High School to join the MIT Class of 1968. He finally graduated from MIT in 1969 with two S.B. degrees, one in electrical engineering and the other in industrial management from the MIT Sloan School of Management. He then went to Harvard for graduate school, earning his M.S. in applied mathematics in 1970 and his PhD in computer science (applied mathematics) in 1973.
Career
While pursuing a doctorate in computer science, Metcalfe took a job with MIT's Project MAC after Harvard refused to let him be responsible for connecting the school to the brand-new ARPAnet. At MAC, Metcalfe was responsible for building some of the hardware that would link MIT's minicomputers with the ARPAnet. ARPAnet was initially the topic of his doctoral dissertation, but the first version was not accepted. His inspiration for a new dissertation came while working at Xerox PARC, where he read a paper about the ALOHA network at the University of Hawaii. He identified and fixed some of the bugs in the AlohaNet model and made his analysis part of a revised thesis, which finally earned him his Harvard PhD in 1973.
Metcalfe was working at PARC in 1973 when he and David Boggs invented Ethernet, initially a standard for connecting computers over short distances. Metcalfe identifies the day Ethernet was born as May 22, 1973, the day he circulated a memo titled "Alto Ethernet" which contained a rough schematic of how it would work. "That is the first time Ethernet appears as a word, as does the idea of using coax as ether, where the participating stations, like in AlohaNet or ARPAnet, would inject their packets of data, they'd travel around at megabits per second, there would be collisions, and retransmissions, and back-off," Metcalfe explained. Boggs identifies another date as the birth of Ethernet: November 11, 1973, the first day the system actually functioned.
In 1979, Metcalfe departed PARC and co-founded 3Com, a manufacturer of computer networking equipment, in his Palo Alto apartment. In 1980 he received the ACM Grace Hopper Award for his contributions to the development of local networks, specifically Ethernet. In 1990, in a boardroom skirmish, the 3Com board of directors chose Eric Benhamou to succeed Bill Krause as CEO of the networking company instead of Metcalfe. Metcalfe left 3Com and began a 10-year stint as a publisher and pundit, writing an Internet column for InfoWorld. He became a venture capitalist in 2001 and is now a general partner at Polaris Venture Partners. In 1997, he co-founded Pop!Tech, an executive technology conference.
In November 2010 Metcalfe was selected to lead innovation initiatives at The University of Texas at Austin's Cockrell School of Engineering. He began his appointment in January 2011.
Metcalfe was a keynote speaker at the 2016 Congress of Future Science and Technology Leaders and in 2019 he presented the Bernard Price Memorial Lecture in South Africa.
Awards
In 1996, Metcalfe was awarded the IEEE Medal of Honor for "exemplary and sustained leadership in the development, standardization, and commercialization of Ethernet."
In 1997, he was elected as a member into the National Academy of Engineering for the development of the Ethernet.
In 2003 he received the Marconi Award for "For inventing the Ethernet and promulgating his Law of network utility based on the square of the nodes"
On March 14, 2003, Metcalfe received the National Medal of Technology from President Bush in a White House ceremony "for leadership in the invention, standardization, and commercialization of Ethernet".
In May 2007, along with 17 others, Metcalfe, was inducted to the National Inventors Hall of Fame in Akron, Ohio, for his work with Ethernet technology.
In October 2008, Metcalfe received the Fellow Award from the Computer History Museum "for fundamental contributions to the invention, standardization, and commercialization of Ethernet."
Incorrect predictions
Metcalfe predicted in 1995 that the Internet would suffer a "catastrophic collapse" the following year; he promised to eat his words if it did not. During his keynote speech at the sixth International World Wide Web Conference in 1997, he took a printed copy of his column that predicted the collapse, put it in a blender with some liquid and then consumed the pulpy mass. He had tried to eat his words printed on a very large cake, but the audience would not accept this form of "eating his words."
During an event where he talked about predictions at the eighth International World Wide Web Conference in 1999, a participant asked: what is the bet? He stated that there was no bet as he was not ready to eat another column.
Metcalfe has harshly criticized open source software, and Linux in particular, predicting that the latter would be obliterated after Microsoft released Windows 2000:
The Open Source Movement's ideology is utopian balderdash [... that] reminds me of communism. [...] Linux [is like] organic software grown in utopia by spiritualists [...] When they bring organic fruit to market, you pay extra for small apples with open sores – the Open Sores Movement. When [Windows 2000] gets here, goodbye Linux.
He later recanted to some extent, saying in a column two weeks later:
I am ashamed of myself for not resisting the temptation to take cheap shots in my column ... I should not have fanned the flames by joking about the Open Source initiative.
He predicted that wireless networking would die out in the mid 1990s.:
After the wireless mobile bubble bursts this year, we will get back to stringing fibers ... bathrooms are still predominantly plumbed. For more or less the same reason, computers will stay wired.
He predicted in 2006 that Windows and Linux would not be able to handle video:
Bob Metcalfe recently gave a TV interview in which he stated that current operating systems (Windows and Linux) are outdated clunkers that won't be able to adequately handle the coming of "video internet" and suggests that new operating systems need to be developed to take hold in a few years.
Selected publications
"Packet Communication", MIT Project MAC Technical Report MAC TR-114, December 1973 (a recast version of Metcalfe's Harvard dissertation)
"Zen and the Art of Selling", Technology Review, May/June 1992
References
External links
A more detailed interview
Why IT Matters
Video Interview of Robert Metcalfe on March 10, 2009 at the Computer History Museum
1946 births
Living people
American computer businesspeople
American computer scientists
American communications businesspeople
American electrical engineers
American manufacturing businesspeople
American technology chief executives
Grace Murray Hopper Award laureates
IEEE Medal of Honor recipients
Harvard University alumni
Ethernet
MIT School of Engineering alumni
MIT Sloan School of Management alumni
National Medal of Technology recipients
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
University of Texas at Austin faculty
Scientists at PARC (company) |
67367 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbox | Mbox | Mbox is a generic term for a family of related file formats used for holding collections of email messages. It was first implemented in Fifth Edition Unix.
All messages in an mbox mailbox are concatenated and stored as plain text in a single file. Each message starts with the four characters "From" followed by a space (the so-called "From_ line") and the sender's email address. RFC 4155 defines that a UTC timestamp follows after another separating space character.
A format similar to mbox is the MH Message Handling System. Other systems, such as Microsoft Exchange Server and the Cyrus IMAP server, store mailboxes in centralized databases managed by the mail system and not directly accessible by individual users. The maildir mailbox format is often cited as an alternative to the mbox format for networked email storage systems.
Mail storage protocols
Unlike the Internet protocols used for the exchange of email, the format used for the storage of email has never been formally defined through the RFC standardization mechanism and has been entirely left to the developer of an email client. However, the POSIX standard defined a loose framework in conjunction with the mailx program. In 2005, the application/mbox media type was standardized as RFC 4155, which hinted that mbox stores mailbox messages in their original Internet Message (RFC 2822) format, except for the used newline character, seven-bit clean data storage, and the requirement that each newly added message is terminated with a completely empty line within the mbox database.
Mbox family
The mbox format uses a single blank line followed by the string 'From ' (with a space) to delimit messages; this can create ambiguities if a message contains the same sequence in the message text.
Over the years, four popular but incompatible variants arose: mboxo, mboxrd, mboxcl, and mboxcl2. The naming scheme was developed by Daniel J. Bernstein, Rahul Dhesi, and others in 1996. Each originated from a different version of Unix. mboxcl and mboxcl2 originated from the file format used by Unix System V Release 4 mail tools. mboxrd was invented by Rahul Dhesi et al. as a rationalization of mboxo and subsequently adopted by some Unix mail tools including qmail.
All these variants have the problem that the content of the message sometimes must be modified to remove ambiguities, as shown below, so that applications have to know which quoting rule has been used to perform the correct reversion, which turned out to be impractical. Using MIME and choosing a content-transfer-encoding that quotes "From_" lines in a standard-compliant fashion ensures that message content doesn't need to be changed, but only their MIME representation. Therefore, checksums remain constant, a necessary precondition for supporting S/MIME and Pretty Good Privacy. Applications that newly create messages and store them in mbox database files will likely use this approach to detach message content from database storage format.
mboxo and mboxrd locate the message start by scanning for From lines that are found before the email message headers. If a "From " string occurs at the beginning of a line in either the header or the body of a message (a mail standard violation for the former, but not for the latter), the email message must be modified before the message is stored in an mbox mailbox file or the line will be taken as a message boundary. To avoid misinterpreting a "From " string at the beginning of the line in the email body as the beginning of a new email, some systems "From-munge" the message, typically by prepending a greater-than sign:
>From my point of view...
In the mboxo format, such lines have irreversible ambiguity.
In the mboxo format, this can lead to corruption of the message. If a line already contained >From at the beginning (such as in a quotation), it is unchanged when written. When subsequently read by the mail software, the leading > is erroneously removed. The mboxrd format solves this by converting From to >From and converting >From to >>From , etc. The transformation is then always reversible.
Example:
From MAILER-DAEMON Fri Jul 8 12:08:34 2011
From: Author <[email protected]>
To: Recipient <[email protected]>
Subject: Sample message 1
This is the body.
>From (should be escaped).
There are 3 lines.
From MAILER-DAEMON Fri Jul 8 12:08:34 2011
From: Author <[email protected]>
To: Recipient <[email protected]>
Subject: Sample message 2
This is the second body.
The mboxcl and mboxcl2 formats use a Content-Length: header to determine the messages’ lengths and thereby the next real From line. mboxcl still quotes From lines in the messages themselves as mboxrd does, while mboxcl2 doesn't.
Modified mbox
Some email clients use a modification of the mbox format for their mail folders.
Eudora used an mboxo variation where a sender's email address is replaced by the constant string "???@???". Most mbox clients store incoming messages as received. Eudora separates out attachments embedded in the message, storing the attachments as separate individual files in one folder.
The Mozilla family of email clients (Mozilla, Netscape, Thunderbird, et al.) use an mboxrd variation with more complex From line quoting rules.
File locking
Because more than one message is stored in a single file, some form of file locking is needed to avoid the corruption that can result from two or more processes modifying the mailbox simultaneously. This could happen if a network email delivery program delivers a new message at the same time as a mail reader is deleting an existing message.
Various mutually incompatible mechanisms have been used by different mbox formats to enable message file locking, including fcntl() and lockf(). This does not work well with network mounted file systems, such as the Network File System (NFS), which is why traditionally Unix used additional "dot lock" files, which could be created atomically even over NFS.
Mbox files should also be locked while they are being read. Otherwise, the reader may see corrupted message contents if another process is modifying the mbox at the same time, even though no actual file corruption occurs.
As a patch format
In open source development, it is common to send patches in the diff format to a mailing list for discussion. The diff format allows for irrelevant "headers", such as mbox data, to be added. Version control systems like git have support for generating mbox-formatted patches and for sending them to the list as emails in a thread.
See also
Maildir
MIX (email)
MH Message Handling System
References
Further reading
qmail mbox manual page
Internet Mail Consortium – Standards body
Email storage formats |
787836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fstab | Fstab | The fstab (or file systems table) file is a system configuration file commonly found at /etc/fstab on Unix and Unix-like computer systems. In Linux, it is part of the util-linux package. The fstab file typically lists all available disk partitions and other types of file systems and data sources that may not necessarily be disk-based, and indicates how they are to be initialized or otherwise integrated into the larger file system structure.
The fstab file is read by the mount command, which happens automatically at boot time to determine the overall file system structure, and thereafter when a user executes the mount command to modify that structure. It is the duty of the system administrator to properly create and maintain the fstab file.
While fstab is used for basic system configuration, for other uses, it has been superseded by automatic mounting mechanisms.
The file has other names on some versions of Unix; for example, it is found at /etc/vfstab on Solaris systems.
Modern use
The fstab file is read by programs that work with disk partitions and other file systems and is not automatically maintained. Instead it is written by the system administrator or sometimes by an operating system installation program. However, some administration tools can automatically build and edit fstab, or act as graphical editors for it.
Modern Linux systems use udev as an automounter to handle the hot swapping of devices (such as MP3 players or digital cameras) instead of relying on fstab. Programs such as pmount allow ordinary users to mount and unmount filesystems without a corresponding fstab entry; traditional Unix has always allowed privileged users (the root user and users in the wheel group) to mount or unmount devices without a corresponding fstab entry.
Example
The following is an example of an fstab file on a typical Linux system.
# device-spec mount-point fs-type options dump pass
LABEL=/ / ext4 defaults 1 1
/dev/sda6 none swap defaults 0 0
none /dev/pts devpts gid=5,mode=620 0 0
none /proc proc defaults 0 0
none /dev/shm tmpfs defaults 0 0
# Removable media
/dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom udf,iso9660 noauto,owner,ro 0 0
# NTFS Windows 7 partition
/dev/sda1 /mnt/Windows ntfs-3g quiet,defaults,locale=en_US.utf8,umask=0,noexec 0 0
# Partition shared by Windows and Linux
/dev/sda7 /mnt/shared vfat umask=000 0 0
# Mounting tmpfs
tmpfs /mnt/tmpfschk tmpfs size=100m 0 0
# Mounting cifs
//cifs_server_name/ashare /store/pingu cifs credentials=/root/smbpass.txt 0 0
# Mounting NFS
nfs_server_name:/store /store nfs rw 0 0
The order of records in fstab is important because fsck(8), mount(8), and umount(8) sequentially iterate through fstab and mount in the order defined.
Blank lines and comment lines beginning with a "#" are ignored.
The space or tab-separated fields within each row must appear in a specific order:
device-spec – The device name, label, UUID, or other means of specifying the partition or data source this entry refers to.
mount-point – Where the contents of the device may be accessed after mounting; for swap partitions or files, this is set to none.
fs-type – The type of file system to be mounted.
options – Options describing various other aspects of the file system, such as whether it is automatically mounted at boot, which users may mount or access it, whether it may be written to or only read from, its size, and so forth; the special option defaults refers to a pre-determined set of options depending on the file system type.
dump – A number indicating whether and how often the file system should be backed up by the dump program; a zero indicates the file system will never be automatically backed up.
pass – A number indicating the order in which the fsck program will check the devices for errors at boot time:
0 - do not check
1 - check immediately during boot
2 - check after boot
Missing values in the last two fields are interpreted as zeros. If necessary, space characters in the first, second, and fourth fields are indicated by a @ symbol; U+0040.
Options common to all filesystems
auto / noauto
With the auto option, the device will be mounted automatically at bootup or when the mount -a command is issued. auto is the default option. For the device not to be mounted automatically, the noauto option is used in /etc/fstab. With noauto, the device can be only mounted explicitly.
dev / nodev
Controls behavior of the interpretation of block special devices on the filesystem.
exec / noexec
exec lets binaries that are on the partition be executed, whereas noexec is the opposite. noexec might be useful for a partition that contains no binaries, like /var, or contains binaries the user may not want to execute on the system, or that cannot even be executed on the system, as might be the case of a Windows partition.
rw / ro
Mount the filesystem in either read write or read only mode. Explicitly defining a file system as rw can alleviate some problems in file systems that default to read only, as can be the case with floppies or NTFS partitions.
sync / async
How the input and output to the filesystem should be done. sync means it is done synchronously. Looking at the example fstab, this is the option used with the floppy. This means that when, for example, a file is copied to the floppy, the changes are physically written to the floppy at the same time copy command is issued.
suid / nosuid
Controls the behavior of the operation of suid, and sgid bits.
user / users / nouser
user permits any user to mount the filesystem. This automatically implies noexec, nosuid, nodev unless explicitly overridden. If nouser is specified, only root can mount the filesystem. If users is specified, every user in group users will be able to unmount the volume.
defaults
Use default settings. Default settings are defined per file system at the file system level. For ext3 file systems these can be set with the tune2fs command. The normal default for ext3 file systems is equivalent to rw,suid,dev,exec,auto,nouser,async. Modern Red Hat based systems set ACL support as default on the root file system but not on user-created ext3 filesystems. Some file systems such as XFS enable ACLs by default. Default file system mount attributes can be overridden in /etc/fstab.
owner (Linux-specific)
Permit the owner of device to mount.
atime / noatime / relatime / strictatime (Linux-specific)
The Unix stat structure records when files are last accessed (atime), modified (mtime), and changed (ctime). One result is that atime is written every time a file is read, which has been heavily criticized for causing performance degradation and increased wear. However, atime is used by some applications and desired by some users, and thus is configurable as atime (update on access), noatime (do not update), or (in Linux) relatime (update atime if older than mtime). Through Linux 2.6.29, atime was the default; as of 2.6.30, relatime is the default.
Filesystem-specific options
There are many options for the specific filesystems supported by mount. Listed below are some of the more commonly used. The full list may be found in the documentation for mount. Note that these are for Linux; traditional Unix-like systems have generally provided similar functionality but with slightly different syntax or forms.
ext2
check=[none, normal, strict]
Sets the fsck checking level.
debug
Print debugging info on each remount.
sb=n
n is the block which should be used as the super-block for the filesystem.
FAT-only
check=[r(elaxed), n(ormal), s(trict)]
Policy for allowed filenames. See mount(8).
conv=[b(inary), t(ext), a(uto)]
Performs DOS <=> UNIX text file conversions automatically. See mount(8).
FAT, NTFS
windows_names
Linux filesystems have a larger set of allowed characters in filenames. windows_names restricts the set of allowed characters for the volume to only those acceptable by Windows; though FAT/NTFS are the most common use cases, this feature is not specifically restricted to those filesystem types.
uid=n, gid=n
Sets the user identifier (uid), and group identifier (gid) for all files on the filesystem.
umask=nnn, dmask=nnn, fmask=nnn
Controls masking of filesystem nodes.
umask - user file creation
dmask - directory creation
fmask - for files only
More detailed information about the fstab file can be found in the man page for Linux fstab; for other systems see below.
NFS
addr=ip
ip is a valid IP address.
See also
mount (computing)
mount (Unix)
mtab
References
External links
fstab man page from Linux
fstab (5) - on a Ubuntu Manpage Repository
Kfstab
Configuration files
Unix file system technology |
30863145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenWrt | OpenWrt | OpenWrt (from open wireless router) is an open-source project for embedded operating systems based on Linux, primarily used on embedded devices to route network traffic. The main components are Linux, util-linux, musl, and BusyBox. All components have been optimized to be small enough to fit into the limited storage and memory available in home routers.
OpenWrt is configured using a command-line interface (ash shell) or a web interface (LuCI). There are about 3500 optional software packages available for installation via the opkg package management system.
OpenWrt can run on various types of devices, including CPE routers, residential gateways, smartphones, pocket computers (e.g. Ben NanoNote). It is also possible to run OpenWrt on personal computers and laptops.
History
The OpenWrt project was started in 2004 after Linksys had built the firmware for their WRT54G series of wireless routers with code licensed under the GNU General Public License. Under the terms of that license, Linksys was required to make the source code of its modified version available under the same license, which enabled independent developers to create derivative versions. Support was originally limited to the WRT54G series, but has since been expanded to include many other routers and devices from many different manufacturers.
Using this code as a base and later as a reference, developers created a Linux distribution that offers many features not previously found in consumer-level routers. Early on some features required proprietary software. For example, prior to OpenWrt 8.09 (based on Linux 2.6.25 and the b43 kernel module) WLAN for many Broadcom-based routers could only be had via the proprietary wl.o module (and which required Linux 2.4.x).
OpenWrt releases were historically named after cocktails, such as White Russian, Kamikaze, Backfire, Attitude Adjustment, Barrier Breaker and Chaos Calmer, and their recipes were included in the message of the day (motd) displayed after logging in using the command-line interface.
In May 2016, OpenWrt was forked by a group of core OpenWrt contributors due to disagreements on internal process. The fork was dubbed Linux Embedded Development Environment (LEDE). The schism was reconciled a year later. Following the remerger, announced in January 2018, the OpenWrt branding is preserved, with many of the LEDE processes and rules used. The LEDE project name was used for v17.01, with development versions of 18.01 branded OpenWrt, dropping the original cocktail based naming scheme.
<noinclude>
Releases
LEDE
The Linux Embedded Development Environment (LEDE) project was a fork of the OpenWrt project and shared many of the same goals. It was created in May 2016 by a group of core OpenWrt contributors due to disagreements on OpenWrt internal processes. The schism was nominally reconciled a year later in May 2017 pending approval of the LEDE developers. The remerger preserves the OpenWrt branding, but uses many of the LEDE processes and rules. The remerge proposal vote was passed by LEDE developers in June 2017, and formally announced in January 2018. The merging process was completed before the OpenWRT 18.06 release.
Features
OpenWrt features a writeable root file system, enabling users to modify any file and easily install additional software. This is in contrast with other firmware based on read-only file systems which don't allow modifying installed software without rebuilding and flashing a complete firmware image. This is accomplished by overlaying a read-only compressed SquashFS file system with a writeable JFFS2 file system using overlayfs. Additional software can be installed with the opkg package manager and the package repository contains approximately 6000 packages.
OpenWrt can be configured through either a command-line interface or a web interface called LuCI. OpenWrt provides set of scripts called UCI (unified configuration interface) to unify and simplify configuration through the command-line interface. Additional web interfaces, such as Gargoyle, are also available.
OpenWrt provides regular bug fixes and security updates even for devices that are no longer supported by their manufacturers.
OpenWrt provides exhaustive possibilities to configure common network-related features, like IPv4, IPv6, DNS, DHCP, routing, firewall, NAT, port forwarding and WPA.
Other features include:
Extensible configuration of the entire hardware drivers, e.g. built-in network switches and their VLAN-capabilities, WNICs, DSL modems, FX, available hardware buttons, etc.
Mesh networking through B.A.T.M.A.N., OLSR and IEEE 802.11s-capabilities of the WNIC drivers and other ad hoc mesh routing protocols that have been implemented within Linux.
Wireless functionality, e.g. make the device act as a wireless repeater, a wireless access point, a wireless bridge, a captive portal, or a combination of these with e.g. ChilliSpot, WiFiDog Captive Portal, etc.
Wireless security: Packet injection, e.g. Airpwn, lorcon, e.a.
Dynamically-configured port forwarding protocols UPnP and NAT-PMP through upnpd, etc.
Port knocking
TR-069 (CWMP) client
IPS via Snort
Active queue management (AQM) through the network scheduler of the Linux kernel, with many available queuing disciplines. CoDel has been backported to Kernel 3.3. This encapsulates Traffic shaping to ensure fair distribution of bandwidth among multiple users and quality of service (QoS) for simultaneous use of applications such as VoIP, online gaming, and streaming media without experiencing the negative impacts of link saturation.
Load balancing for use with multiple ISPs using source-specific routing
IP tunneling (GRE, OpenVPN, pseudowire, etc.)
Extensible realtime network monitoring and statistics through e.g. RRDtool, Collectd, Nagios, Munin lite, Zabbix, etc.
Dynamic DNS services to maintain a fixed domain name with an ISP that does not provide a static IP address
OpenWrt supports any hardware that has Linux support; devices that can be connected (e.g. over USB) include
Printers
Mobile broadband modems
Webcams
Sound cards
Notable software packages to use the hardware support are
File sharing via SAMBA, (Windows-compatible), NFS, FTP, SFTP. Printer sharing over the print server CUPS (spooling) or p910nd (non-spooling)
PulseAudio, Music Player Daemon, Audio/Video streaming via DLNA/UPnP AV standards, iTunes (DAAP) server
Asterisk (PBX)
MQ Telemetry Transport through Mosquitto
Development
OpenWrt's development environment and build system, known together as OpenWrt Buildroot, are based on a heavily modified Buildroot system. OpenWrt Buildroot is a set of Makefiles and patches that automates the process of building a complete Linux-based OpenWrt system for an embedded device, by building and using an appropriate cross-compilation toolchain.
Embedded devices usually use a different processor than the one found in host computers used for building their OpenWrt system images, requiring a cross-compilation toolchain. Such a compilation toolchain runs on a host system but generates code for a targeted embedded device and its processor's instruction set architecture (ISA). For example, if a host system uses x86 and a target system uses MIPS32, the regular compilation toolchain of the host runs on x86 and generates code for x86 architecture, while the cross-compilation toolchain runs on x86 and generates code for the MIPS32 architecture. OpenWrt Buildroot automates this whole process to work on the instruction set architectures of most embedded devices and host systems.
OpenWrt Buildroot provides the following features:
Makes it easy to port software across architectures
Uses kconfig (Linux kernel menuconfig) for the configuration of all options
Provides an integrated cross-compiler toolchain (gcc, ld, uClibc etc.)
Provides an abstraction for autotools (automake, autoconf), CMake and SCons
Handles standard OpenWrt image build workflow: downloading, patching, configuration, compilation and packaging
Provides a number of common fixes for known badly behaving packages
Besides building system images, OpenWrt development environment also provides a mechanism for simplified cross-platform building of OpenWrt software packages. Source code for each software package is required to provide a Makefile-like set of building instructions, and an optional set of patches for bug fixes or footprint optimizations.
Hardware compatibility
OpenWrt runs many different routers and includes a table of compatible hardware on its website. In its buyer's guide, it notes that users recommend devices equipped with wireless chips from either Qualcomm's Atheros, Ralink (now MediaTek) or any vendor with open source drivers and specifications. OpenWrt also recommends choosing a device with a minimum of 16 MB of flash and 64 MB of RAM, preferably higher amounts.
Adoption
OpenWrt, especially its Buildroot build system, has been adopted as the structure for other efforts. For example
AltiWi "one-time-fee-only" replacement for Cloudtrax.
Bufferbloat.net (Cerowrt)
Freifunk and other mesh network communities
IETF IPv6 integration projects HIPnet and HomeNet are OpenWrt-based
prplOS, carrier-grade framework designed to power ISPs routers and gateways made by Prpl Foundation
SIMET Box, developed by NIC.br, is OpenWrt-based
Derivative projects
AREDN The Amateur Radio Emergency Data Network uses a firmware based on OpenWrt: GitHub Project
CeroWrt (2011—2014) project to resolve bufferbloat in home networking, support IPv6 , integrate DNSSEC, for wired and wireless, to complement the debloat-testing kernel tree and provide a platform for real-world testing of bufferbloat fixes
Coova chilli OpenWrt-based with focus on wireless hotspots, a fork of chillifire with focus on wireless hotspot management
Flukso Wireless sensor nodes using an Atheros AR2317 chipset running a patched OpenWrt OS for communication. Sources and hardware schematics available on GitHub.
Fon OpenWrt-based wireless routers acting as hotspots. Sources and toolchain available on fonosfera.org
Gargoyle a web interface for OpenWrt with a strong emphasis on usability that later forked into a separate distribution
Gluon Framework for building OpenWrt-based firmwares fitted for mesh network deployment: GitHub Project
JUCIWRT a modern distribution using the JUCI webgui that later became an OpenWRT feed instead. The source code for JUCI is available at mkschreder/juci and is still usable by installing openwrt feed found at mkschreder/juci-openwrt-feed
libreCMC OpenWrt-based distribution which excludes non-free software or binary blobs, endorsed by the Free Software Foundation
Linino OpenWrt-based distribution for the MIPS-based Arduino Yùn: GitHub Project
Midge Linux an OpenWrt-based distribution for devices based on Infineon Technologies ADM-5120 SoCs, such as Edimax BR-6104K and BR-6104KP.
OpenMPTCProuter aggregation of multiple Internet connections using Multipath TCP
OpenSAN iSCSI target Storage Area Network realization.
PacketProtector OpenWrt-based security distribution that includes IDS, IPS, VPN, and web antivirus capabilities. Packages included Snort, Snort-inline, FreeRADIUS, OpenVPN, DansGuardian and ClamAV. These tools were accessible via the old web GUI management interface of OpenWrt, called X-Wrt or webif^2. Project ended on June 7, 2012.
Qualcomm's QCA Software Development Kit (QSDK) which is being used as a development basis by many OEMs is an OpenWrt derivative
RutOS an operating system for all Teltonika routers, based on OpenWRT. Source code found at GPL - Teltonika Networks Wiki.
Turris Omnia and Turris MOX routers run on an OpenWrt derivative
Ubiquiti's wireless router firmwares are based on OpenWrt
Diverse grassroots projects for wireless community networks, including Freifunk, Libre-Mesh and qMp
Some TP-Link router firmwares are derived from OpenWrt
Some Xiaomi router firmwares are derived from OpenWrt.
See also
List of router firmware projects
Prpl Foundation
References
External links
OpenWrt Firmware Selector
OpenWrt Downloads
OpenWrt Mailing Lists
LuCI project
OpenWrt Summit
GPL Code Center at Linksys
Custom firmware
Embedded Linux distributions
Free routing software
Homebrew software
Linux distributions without systemd
Lua (programming language)-scriptable software
Network operating systems
Wi-Fi
Free and open-source software
Free software programmed in C
Linux distributions |
49734546 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aadhaar%20Act%2C%202016 | Aadhaar Act, 2016 | The Aadhaar (Targeted Delivery of Financial and other Subsidies, benefits and services) Act, 2016 is a money bill of the Parliament of India. It aims to provide legal backing to the Aadhaar unique identification number project. It was passed on 11 March 2016 by the Lok Sabha. Certain provisions of the Act came into force from 12 July 2016 and 12 September 2016.
Background
During the budget presentation on 29 February 2016, Finance Minister Arun Jaitley announced that a bill will be introduced within a week which will provide legislative support to the Aadhaar. On 3 March 2016, the Aadhaar (Targeted Delivery of Financial and Other Subsidies, Benefits and Services) Bill, 2016 was introduced in the Parliament as a money bill by Jaitley as it fulfilled Article 110's provisos - 110(1)(c), 110(1)(d) and 110(1)(e) of the Constitution of India. The decision to introduce it as a money bill was criticised by the opposition parties. Ghulam Nabi Azad, an INC leader, wrote in a letter to Jaitley that the ruling party BJP was trying to bypass the Rajya Sabha, as they did not have the majority in the upper house. A money bill is only required to pass in the lower house Lok Sabha. Jyotiraditya Scindia of INC asked why a new bill was introduced when the National Identification Authority of India Bill, 2010 was still pending in the Rajya Sabha.
The bill was passed on the 11 March 2016 by the Lok Sabha by a voice vote after a brief debate. Tathagata Satpathy of Biju Janata Dal (BJD) had raised concerns that the project could be used for mass surveillance or ethnic cleansing in the future. He also raised questions about why a new identity card project was created despite having several identity card systems. He also questioned why the bill was introduced as a money bill. He also said that although the bill allows the sharing of biometric under the circumstances of national security, no concrete definition of national security was included.
Bhartruhari Mahtab of BJD requested that the bill should not be rushed and referred to a parliamentary panel. Mallikarjun Kharge of INC said that they supported the bill but wanted some suggestions to be discussed. Rajeev Satav of INC reminded the house that initially the ruling-party BJP had opposed the Aadhaar during the reign of United Progressive Alliance (UPA), before turning around and supporting it. During the debate, Finance Minister Arun Jaitley assured the house that the Aadhaar project will not be misused. Jaitley stated that 97% of the adult and 67% of children had already been registered under the project. He also said that the definition of national security is up to the courts to define.
On 15 March 2016, Shumsher K. Sheriff, Secretary of the Rajya Sabha, formally notified the house that the bill has been passed in the Lok Sabha. During the debate spanning over two days, Naresh Agrawal of Samajwadi Party (SP) said that the bill doesn't fit into the definition of a money bill. P. J. Kurien, Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha, said that it was the decision of Lok Sabha Chairperson Sumitra Mahajan to allow the bill, so it should not be questioned. Sitaram Yechury of Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI-M) argued that the bill was unconstitutional as the Constitution guarantees the freedom of life and liberty and privacy comes under it. Jaitley responded to Yechury by saying that privacy is not an absolute right and it can be restricted by the law. Jairam Ramesh of INC said Aadhaar should be limited to subsidies only and not made mandatory for any purpose.
On 16 March 2016, the bill was returned to the Lok Sabha by the Rajya Sabha with some suggested amendments. The Lok Sabha was free to accept or reject the amendments. But, Lok Sabha rejected the amendments and passed the bill.
Summary
Most of the provisions of the Bill have been borrowed from the previous National Identification Authority of India Bill, 2010. The major difference is that the three-member committee called the Identity Review Committee of the previous bill was removed in the new bill. Also, the section 8 of Aadhaar Act is significantly different from that of NIAI bill, 2010. While the NIAI bill allowed the authentication limited to the biometric match only with Yes/No option, the Aadhaar Act allows the requesting agency/person to ask for other information too, pertaining to the person's identity.
Chapter I: Preliminary
The Clause 2 (g) defines "biometric information" as photograph, finger print, iris scan, or "other such biological attributes" of an individual. The Clause 2 (k) defines "demographic information" as name, date of birth, address and "other relevant information" of an individual. It explicitly excludes race, religion, caste, tribe, ethnicity, language, records of entitlement, income or medical history. The Clause 2 (v) defines "resident" as an individual who has resided in India for a period or periods amounting in all to 182 days or more in the 12 months immediately preceding the date of application for enrolment.
Chapter II: Enrolment
The Clause 3 (1) states that every resident is entitled to obtain an Aadhaar number by submitting their biometric and demographic information. The central government may however in future require other categories of individuals to enrol by releasing a notification. According to Clause 3 (2), at the time of registration the enrolling agency must inform the resident about the manner in which the data will be used, with whom it will be shared and procedure of access. The UIDAI will issue an Aadhaar number to the resident after verifying the data. According to Clause 4, it should be unique and random. The Clause 6 states that the UIDAI may require Aadhaar number holders to submit additional biometric and demographic information, or update the information in the future.
1058/13797/48987
Chapter III: Authentication
The Clause 7 states that the central or state government may require a person to possess an Aadhaar number if he/she is receiving some subsidy. If they do not possess an Aadhaar number, they will be required to apply for other, in meantime the government will provide them the subsidy using an alternate mean of identification. According to Clause 8, UIDAI may perform verification of Aadhaar for other private and public agencies on request in exchange for a fee. The requesting must obtain the consent of the Aadhaar holder for verification, and inform him/her of nature of the information that will be shared upon verification. The Clause 8 (4) states that UIDAI may share identity information, but it cannot share the biometric information. The Clause 9 states that Aadhaar is not a proof of citizenship or domicile.
Chapter IV: Unique Identification Authority of India
The Chapter IV details the functions and powers of the UIDAI. The Clause 23 (2) states that the UIDAI has the power to specify the demographic and biometric information that must be collected for registration. It can issue Aadhaar numbers to residents and perform verifications. It can also specify the subsidies and services for which Aadhaar will be required.
The Clause 12 states that the UIDAI will consist of a chairperson, two part-time members and a chief executive officer. The Clause 13 states the chairperson and members must have experience and knowledge of at least 10 years in matters relating to
technology, governance, law, development, economics, finance, management, public affairs or administration.
Chapter V: Grants, Accounts and Audit and Annual Report
The Clause 25 states that any fees collected and revenue generated by the UIDAI will be deposited in the Consolidated Fund of India. The Clause 27 (2) states that the UIDAI must submit an annual report to the central government detailing its activities of the past year, revenues and expenditures of the past year, and plans for the upcoming year.
Chapter VI: Protection of Information
The Clause 28 (1) states that the UIDAI must ensure the security of identity information and authentication records. The authentication records has been as "record of the time of authentication and identity of the requesting entity and the response provided" in Clause 2 (d). The Clause 32 states that the UIDAI must maintain the authentication records for the specified period. The Aadhaar number holder may access his authentication records subject to regulation. The UIDAI is not required to maintain the record of the purpose of authentication.
The Clause 33 (1) states that a District Judge or higher court may force the UIDAI to reveal a person's identity information, i.e. Aadhaar number, photograph and demographic information, and authentication records, but not the core biometric information. The Clause 33 (2) states that an official with the rank of Joint Secretary or higher may access a person's identity information including core biometric information, if the official has an order issued in the interest of national security by the central government.
Chapter VII: Offences and Penalty
The Clause 34 states that providing false information in an attempt to impersonate carries a maximum penalty of 3 years in prison and/or a fine of . The Clause 38 states that unauthorised access to the Central Identities Data Repository, causing damaging to it or leaking the information stored on it carries a maximum penalty of 3 years in prison and/or a minimum fine or . The Clause 47 states that the complaints under this law must be tried under a Chief Metropolitan Magistrate or a Chief Judicial Magistrate, or a higher court. No court can recognise a complaint under this law unless filed by the UIDAI or a person authorised by it.
Chapter VIII: Miscellaneous
The Clause 48 states that the central government may supersede the UIDAI for a period of up to 6 months, if it fails to performs its duties or due to a public emergency. The Clause 57 states that state or private agencies may use Aadhaar for verifying the identity of a person for any purpose.
Reactions
Nandan Nilekani, the former chairman of UIDAI, welcomed the bill. He used Clarke's third law to describe the project. He also said that this technology will allow India to develop into a modern welfare state. He argued that this technology will give Indian residents a secure digital ID to access the internet and prevent "digital colonization" by foreign firms. He also said that this will check wastage of public funds, corruption, fake degrees and improve matching of jobs to employees in the labour market.
Jean Drèze, development economist, said that the bill was designed to evade Supreme Court orders restricting the usage of Aadhaar. He also said that bill was presented as a money bill to prevent debate. He argued that despite declaring it voluntary the government had created practical compulsions for enrolment, and an intervention of the Supreme Court was need to end the "doublespeak".
Supreme Court Observation
SC has orally observed that Aadhaar cannot be made mandatory for availing welfare schemes.
The Center has declared that Aadhaar card will be mandatory for opening new bank accounts and for transactions above Rs. 50,000. All existing account holders will also have to submit their Aadhaar details by December 31, 2017, failing which accounts will be deemed invalid.
[Update] A five judge bench on December 15, 2017 agreed to the Central government's decision to extend the deadline of linking of "everything", including mobile phones and bank accounts, to Aadhaar card till March 31, 2018. But SC also ordered that an Aadhaar card holder opening a new bank account will have to furnish his Aadhaar card to the bank.
See also
Unique Identification Authority of India
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana
References
External links
Aadhaar (Targeted Delivery of Financial and Other Subsidies, Benefits and Services) Bill, 2016
Anti-corruption measures in India
Government finances in India
2016 in Indian economy
Acts of the Parliament of India 2016
Welfare in India |
48993591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatpak | Flatpak | Flatpak is a utility for software deployment and package management for Linux. It is advertised as offering a sandbox environment in which users can run application software in isolation from the rest of the system.
Flatpak was developed as part of the freedesktop.org project (formerly known as X Desktop Group or XDG) and was originally called xdg-app.
Features
Applications using Flatpak need permissions to have access to resources such as Bluetooth, sound (with PulseAudio), network, and files. These permissions are defined by the maintainer of the Flatpak and can be added or removed by users on their system.
Another key feature of Flatpak is that it allows application developers to directly provide updates to users without going through distributions, and without having to package and test the application separately for each distribution.
Flathub, a repository (or remote source in the Flatpak terminology) located at , has become the de facto standard for getting applications packaged with Flatpak. Packages are added to it by both the Flathub administrators and the developers of the programs themselves (though the admins have stated their preference for developer-submitted apps). Although Flathub is the de facto source for applications packaged with Flatpak, it is possible to host a Flatpak repository that is independent of Flathub.
Support
Theoretically, Flatpak apps can be installed on any existing Linux distribution including those installed with the Windows Subsystem for Linux compatibility layer.
Supported out-of-the-box
Here is a list of the distributions where Flatpak is installed by default:
CentOS
Clear Linux
Elementary OS
Endless OS
Fedora Workstation
Fedora Silverblue
Linux Mint
Pop! OS
PureOS
Zorin OS
Supported
Here is a list of the distributions where Flatpak is not installed by default but can be installed:
AlmaLinux
Alpine Linux
Arch Linux
Bodhi Linux
Clear Linux
Debian
Deepin
EndeavourOS
Gentoo Linux
KaOS
KDE neon
Kubuntu
Mageia
Manjaro
MX Linux
NixOS
OpenMandriva Lx
OpenSUSE
Pardus
PCLinuxOS
Peppermint OS
Raspberry Pi OS
Red Hat Enterprise Linux
Rocky Linux
Solus
SparkyLinux
Ubuntu
Void Linux
Zenwalk
It can also be used on Linux kernel-based systems like Chrome OS.
See also
AppImage
Snap
Zero Install
References
Freedesktop.org
Free software
Free software programmed in C
Linux installation software
Linux package management-related software
Operating system technology
Software distribution
Virtualization software |
48362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROT13 | ROT13 | ROT13 ("rotate by 13 places", sometimes hyphenated ROT-13) is a simple letter substitution cipher that replaces a letter with the 13th letter after it in the alphabet. ROT13 is a special case of the Caesar cipher which was developed in ancient Rome.
Because there are 26 letters (2×13) in the basic Latin alphabet, ROT13 is its own inverse; that is, to undo ROT13, the same algorithm is applied, so the same action can be used for encoding and decoding. The algorithm provides virtually no cryptographic security, and is often cited as a canonical example of weak encryption.
ROT13 is used in online forums as a means of hiding spoilers, punchlines, puzzle solutions, and offensive materials from the casual glance. ROT13 has inspired a variety of letter and word games online, and is frequently mentioned in newsgroup conversations.
Description
Applying ROT13 to a piece of text merely requires examining its alphabetic characters and replacing each one by the letter 13 places further along in the alphabet, wrapping back to the beginning if necessary.
A becomes N, B becomes O, and so on up to M, which becomes Z, then the sequence continues at the beginning of the alphabet: N becomes A, O becomes B, and so on to Z, which becomes M. Only those letters which occur in the English alphabet are affected; numbers, symbols, whitespace, and all other characters are left unchanged. Because there are 26 letters in the English alphabet and 26 = 2 × 13, the ROT13 function is its own inverse:
for any basic Latin-alphabet text x.
In other words, two successive applications of ROT13 restore the original text (in mathematics, this is sometimes called an involution; in cryptography, a reciprocal cipher).
The transformation can be done using a lookup table, such as the following:
For example, in the following joke, the punchline has been obscured by ROT13:
Why did the chicken cross the road?
Gb trg gb gur bgure fvqr!
Transforming the entire text via ROT13 form, the answer to the joke is revealed:
Jul qvq gur puvpxra pebff gur ebnq?
To get to the other side!
A second application of ROT13 would restore the original.
Usage
ROT13 is a special case of the encryption algorithm known as a Caesar cipher, used by Julius Caesar in the 1st century BC.
Johann Ernst Elias Bessler, an 18th century clockmaker and constructor of perpetual motion machines, pointed out that ROT13 encodes his surname as Orffyre. He used its latinised form, Orffyreus, as his pseudonym.
ROT13 was in use in the net.jokes newsgroup by the early 1980s. It is used to hide potentially offensive jokes, or to obscure an answer to a puzzle or other spoiler. A shift of thirteen was chosen over other values, such as three as in the original Caesar cipher, because thirteen is the value for which encoding and decoding are equivalent, thereby allowing the convenience of a single command for both. ROT13 is typically supported as a built-in feature to newsreading software. Email addresses are also sometimes encoded with ROT13 to hide them from less sophisticated spam bots. It is also used to circumvent email screening and spam filtering. By obscuring an email's content, the screening algorithm is unable to identify the email as, for instance, a security risk, and allows it into the recipient's in-box.
In encrypted, normal, English-language text of any significant size, ROT13 is recognizable from some letter/word patterns. The words "n", "V" (capitalized only), and "gur" (ROT13 for "a", "I", and "the"), and words ending in "yl" ("ly") are examples.
ROT13 is not intended to be used where secrecy is of any concern—the use of a constant shift means that the encryption effectively has no key, and decryption requires no more knowledge than the fact that ROT13 is in use. Even without this knowledge, the algorithm is easily broken through frequency analysis. Because of its utter unsuitability for real secrecy, ROT13 has become a catchphrase to refer to any conspicuously weak encryption scheme; a critic might claim that "56-bit DES is little better than ROT13 these days". Also, in a play on real terms like "double DES", the terms "double ROT13", "ROT26", or "2ROT13" crop up with humorous intent (due to the fact that, since applying ROT13 to an already ROT13-encrypted text restores the original plaintext, ROT26 is equivalent to no encryption at all), including a spoof academic paper entitled "On the 2ROT13 Encryption Algorithm". By extension, triple-ROT13 (used in joking analogy with 3DES) is equivalent to regular ROT13.
In December 1999, it was found that Netscape Communicator used ROT13 as part of an insecure scheme to store email passwords. In 2001, Russian programmer Dimitry Sklyarov demonstrated that an eBook vendor, New Paradigm Research Group (NPRG), used ROT13 to encrypt their documents; it has been speculated that NPRG may have mistaken the ROT13 toy example—provided with the Adobe eBook software development kit—for a serious encryption scheme. Windows XP uses ROT13 on some of its registry keys. ROT13 is also used in the Unix fortune program to conceal potentially offensive dicta.
Letter games and net culture
ROT13 provides an opportunity for letter games. Some words will, when transformed with ROT13, produce another word. Examples of 7-letter pairs in the English language are abjurer and nowhere, and Chechen and purpura. Other examples of words like these are shown in the table. The pair gnat and tang is an example of words that are both ROT13 reciprocals and reversals.
The 1989 International Obfuscated C Code Contest (IOCCC) included an entry by Brian Westley. Westley's computer program can be encoded in ROT13 or reversed and still compiles correctly. Its operation, when executed, is either to perform ROT13 encoding on, or to reverse its input.
The newsgroup alt.folklore.urban coined a word—furrfu—that was the ROT13 encoding of the frequently encoded utterance "sheesh". "Furrfu" evolved in mid-1992 as a response to postings repeating urban myths on alt.folklore.urban, after some posters complained that "Sheesh!" as a response to newcomers was being overused.
Variants
ROT5 is a practice similar to ROT13 that applies to numeric digits (0 to 9). ROT13 and ROT5 can be used together in the same message, sometimes called ROT18 (18 = 13 + 5) or ROT13.5.
ROT47 is a derivative of ROT13 which, in addition to scrambling the basic letters, treats numbers and common symbols. Instead of using the sequence A–Z as the alphabet, ROT47 uses a larger set of characters from the common character encoding known as ASCII. Specifically, the 7-bit printable characters, excluding space, from decimal 33 '!' through 126 '~', 94 in total, taken in the order of the numerical values of their ASCII codes, are rotated by 47 positions, without special consideration of case. For example, the character A is mapped to p, while a is mapped to 2. The use of a larger alphabet produces a more thorough obfuscation than that of ROT13; for example, a telephone number such as +1-415-839-6885 is not obvious at first sight from the scrambled result Z'\c`d\gbh\eggd. On the other hand, because ROT47 introduces numbers and symbols into the mix without discrimination, it is more immediately obvious that the text has been enciphered.
Example:
The Quick Brown Fox Jumps Over The Lazy Dog.
enciphers to
%96 "F:4< qC@H? u@I yF>AD ~G6C %96 {2KJ s@8]
The GNU C library, a set of standard routines available for use in computer programming, contains a function—memfrob()—which has a similar purpose to ROT13, although it is intended for use with arbitrary binary data. The function operates by combining each byte with the binary pattern 00101010 (42) using the exclusive or (XOR) operation. This effects a simple XOR cipher. Like ROT13, XOR (and therefore memfrob()) is self-reciprocal, and provides a similar, virtually absent, level of security.
Implementation
tr
The ROT13 and ROT47 are fairly easy to implement using the Unix terminal application tr; to encrypt the string "The Quick Brown Fox Jumps Over The Lazy Dog" in ROT13:
$ # Map upper case A-Z to N-ZA-M and lower case a-z to n-za-m
$ tr 'A-Za-z' 'N-ZA-Mn-za-m' <<< "The Quick Brown Fox Jumps Over The Lazy Dog"
Gur Dhvpx Oebja Sbk Whzcf Bire Gur Ynml Qbt
and the same string for ROT47:
$ echo "The Quick Brown Fox Jumps Over The Lazy Dog" | tr '\!-~' 'P-~\!-O'
%96 "F:4< qC@H? u@I yF>AD ~G6C %96 {2KJ s@8
Emacs and Vim
In Emacs, one can ROT13 the buffer or a selection with the following commands:
M-x toggle-rot13-mode
M-x rot13-other-window
M-x rot13-region
and in the Vim text editor, one can ROT13 a buffer with the command:
ggg?G
Python
In Python, the module is implemented using ROT13:
>>> import this
The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters
Beautiful is better than ugly.
Explicit is better than implicit.
Simple is better than complex.
Complex is better than complicated.
Flat is better than nested.
Sparse is better than dense.
Readability counts.
Special cases aren't special enough to break the rules.
Although practicality beats purity.
Errors should never pass silently.
Unless explicitly silenced.
In the face of ambiguity, refuse the temptation to guess.
There should be one-- and preferably only one --obvious way to do it.
Although that way may not be obvious at first unless you're Dutch.
Now is better than never.
Although never is often better than *right* now.
If the implementation is hard to explain, it's a bad idea.
If the implementation is easy to explain, it may be a good idea.
Namespaces are one honking great idea -- let's do more of those!
>>> with open(this.__file__) as f:
... print(f.read())
s = """Gur Mra bs Clguba, ol Gvz Crgref
Ornhgvshy vf orggre guna htyl.
Rkcyvpvg vf orggre guna vzcyvpvg.
Fvzcyr vf orggre guna pbzcyrk.
Pbzcyrk vf orggre guna pbzcyvpngrq.
Syng vf orggre guna arfgrq.
Fcnefr vf orggre guna qrafr.
Ernqnovyvgl pbhagf.
Fcrpvny pnfrf nera'g fcrpvny rabhtu gb oernx gur ehyrf.
Nygubhtu cenpgvpnyvgl orngf chevgl.
Reebef fubhyq arire cnff fvyragyl.
Hayrff rkcyvpvgyl fvyraprq.
Va gur snpr bs nzovthvgl, ershfr gur grzcgngvba gb thrff.
Gurer fubhyq or bar-- naq cersrenoyl bayl bar --boivbhf jnl gb qb vg.
Nygubhtu gung jnl znl abg or boivbhf ng svefg hayrff lbh'er Qhgpu.
Abj vf orggre guna arire.
Nygubhtu arire vf bsgra orggre guna *evtug* abj.
Vs gur vzcyrzragngvba vf uneq gb rkcynva, vg'f n onq vqrn.
Vs gur vzcyrzragngvba vf rnfl gb rkcynva, vg znl or n tbbq vqrn.
Anzrfcnprf ner bar ubaxvat terng vqrn -- yrg'f qb zber bs gubfr!"""
d = {}
for c in (65, 97):
for i in range(26):
d[chr(i+c)] = chr((i+13) % 26 + c)
print("".join([d.get(c, c) for c in s]))
The module provides text transform.
>>> import codecs
>>> print(codecs.encode(this.s, 'rot13'))
The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters
Beautiful is better than ugly.
Explicit is better than implicit.
Simple is better than complex.
Complex is better than complicated.
Flat is better than nested.
Sparse is better than dense.
Readability counts.
Special cases aren't special enough to break the rules.
Although practicality beats purity.
Errors should never pass silently.
Unless explicitly silenced.
In the face of ambiguity, refuse the temptation to guess.
There should be one-- and preferably only one --obvious way to do it.
Although that way may not be obvious at first unless you're Dutch.
Now is better than never.
Although never is often better than *right* now.
If the implementation is hard to explain, it's a bad idea.
If the implementation is easy to explain, it may be a good idea.
Namespaces are one honking great idea -- let's do more of those!
Ruby
Inputting an array of single string characters it returns the encoded message as an array of characters(strings).This version uses ruby 2.5.5p157. def rot13(secret_messages)
alpha = 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'.split('')
nstrr = []
secret_messages.map {|word|
alpha.each_with_index {|c,i|
if word == c
nstrr << alpha[(i+13)%26].to_s
end
}
#after every word
if word == " "
nstrr << " ".to_s
end
}
return nstrr
end
puts ['h','e','l','l','o',' ','w','o','r','l','d']
puts " "
puts rot13(['h','e','l','l','o',' ','w','o','r','l','d'])
#uryyb jbeyq
Go
Parse each byte and perform ROT13 if it is an ASCII alpha character.func rot13(b byte) byte {
//ASCII 65 is A and 90 is Z
if b > 64 && b < 91 {
b = ((b - 65 + 13) % 26) + 65
}
//ASCII 97 is a and 122 is z
if b > 96 && b < 123 {
b = ((b - 97 + 13) % 26) + 97
}
return b
}
See also
Cryptanalysis
Atbash
References
External links
Online converter for ROT13, ROT5, ROT18, ROT47, Atbash and Caesar cipher.
ROT13 to Text on PureTables.com
Classical ciphers
Internet culture |
147581 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari%20BASIC | Atari BASIC | Atari BASIC is an interpreter for the BASIC programming language that shipped with the Atari 8-bit family of 6502-based home computers. Unlike most BASICs of the home computer era, Atari BASIC is not a derivative of Microsoft BASIC and differs in significant ways. It includes keywords for Atari-specific features and lacks support for string arrays, for example.
The language was initially distributed as an 8 KB ROM cartridge. Beginning with the 600XL and 800XL, BASIC is built into the system but can be disabled by holding OPTION while booting. The XEGS disables BASIC if powered without the keyboard attached.
Despite the Atari 8-bit computers running at a higher speed than most of its contemporaries, several technical decisions placed Atari BASIC near the bottom in performance benchmarks. The original authors addressed most of these issues in BASIC XL and BASIC XE. A host of third-party interpreters and compilers like Turbo-Basic XL also appeared.
The complete, annotated source code and design specifications of Atari BASIC were published as The Atari BASIC Source Book in 1983.
History
The machines that would become the Atari 8-bit family were originally developed as second-generation video game consoles intended to replace the Atari VCS. Ray Kassar, the new president of Atari, decided to challenge Apple Computer by building a home computer instead.
This meant the designs needed to include the BASIC programming language, the standard for home computers. In early 1978, Atari licensed the source code to the MOS 6502 version of Microsoft BASIC. It was offered in two versions: one using a 32-bit floating point format that was about 7800 bytes when compiled, and another using an extended 40-bit format that was close to 9 kB.
Even the 32-bit version barely fit into the 8 kB size of the machine's ROM cartridge format. Atari also felt that they needed to expand the language to support the hardware features of their computers, similar to what Apple had done with Applesoft BASIC. This increased the size of Atari's version to around 11 kB; AppleSoft BASIC on the Apple II+ was 10,240 bytes long. After six months the code was pared down to almost fit in an 8 kB ROM, but Atari was facing a January 1979 deadline for the Consumer Electronics Show (CES) where the machines would be demonstrated. They decided to ask for help to get a version of BASIC ready in time for the show.
Shepardson Microsystems
In September 1978, Shepardson Microsystems won the bid on completing BASIC. At the time they were finishing Cromemco 16K Structured BASIC for the Z80-based Cromemco S-100 bus machines. Developers Kathleen O'Brien and Paul Laughton used Data General Business Basic, an integer-only implementation, as the inspiration for their BASIC, given Laughton's experience with Data General on a time-sharing system.
Cromemco BASIC included an extended floating point implementation using a 14-digit binary coded decimal (BCD) format made possible using all 16 registers of the Zilog Z80 processor. As it converted all data to the internal format at edit time, small constants like "1" would use up a considerable amount of memory, and this could be a particular issue when storing arrays of numbers. To address this, the language also supported a 6-digit BCD format. It also included a separate 16-bit integer format for storing internal values like line numbers and similar system values.
Even the smallest BASICs on the 6502 generally used about 10k, for instance, Commodore BASIC used 9k but also relied on support from the KERNAL, while Applesoft BASIC used 10780 bytes. To meet the goal of fitting in an 8k ROM, the new BASIC would be in two parts, the language itself on the cartridge, and a separate FP library using 2k in the system's 10k ROM. To fit within 2k, the floating-point system supported only the 6-digit format.
Atari accepted the proposal, and when the specifications were finalized in October 1978, Laughton and O'Brien began work on the new language. The contract specified the delivery date on or before 6 April 1979 and this also included a File Manager System (later known as DOS 1.0). Atari's plans were to take an early 8K version of Microsoft BASIC to the 1979 CES, then switch to Atari BASIC for production. Development proceeded quickly, helped by a bonus clause in the contract, which led to the initial version being delivered in October. Atari took an 8K cartridge version to CES instead of Microsoft's. Atari Microsoft BASIC later became available as a separate product.
Releases
The version Shepardson gave to Atari for the CES demo was not supposed to be the final version. Between the time they delivered the demo and the final delivery a few weeks later, Shepardson fixed several bugs in the code. Unknown to Shepardson, Atari had already sent the CES version to manufacturing.
This version was later known as Revision A. It contains a major bug in a subroutine that copies memory; deleting lines of code that were exactly 256 bytes long causes a lockup. This was sometimes known as the "two-line lockup" because it did not trigger until the next line of code or command was entered. It cannot be fixed by pressing the key.
Revision B attempted to fix all of the major bugs in Revision A and was released in 1983 as a built-in ROM in the 600XL and 800XL models. While fixing the memory copying bug, the programmer noticed the same pattern of code in the section for inserting lines, and applied the same fix. This instead introduced the original bug into this code. Inserting new lines is much more common than deleting old ones, so the change dramatically increased the number of crashes. Revision B also contains a bug that adds 16 bytes to a program every time it is SAVEd and LOADed, eventually causing the machine to run out of memory for even the smallest programs. Mapping the Atari described these as "awesome bugs" and advised Revision B owners "Don't fool around; get the new ROM, which is available on cartridge" from Atari. The book provides a type-in program to patch Revision B to Revision C for those without the cartridge.
Revision C eliminates the memory leaks in Revision B. It is built-in on later versions of the 800XL and all XE models including the XEGS. Revision C was also available as a cartridge.
The version can be determined by typing PRINT PEEK(43234) at the READY prompt. The result is 162 for Revision A, 96 for Revision B, and 234 for Revision C.
Description
Program editing
Like most home computer BASICs, Atari BASIC is anchored around its line editor. Program lines can be up to three physical screen lines of 40 characters, 120 characters total. The cursor can be moved freely, with the editor automatically tracking which BASIC program line the current screen line is part of. For instance, if the cursor is currently positioned in line 30 and the user uses cursor-up into line 20, any editing from that point will be carried out on line 20.
Atari BASIC's editor catches many errors that would not be noticed in MS-derived versions. If an error is found, the editor re-displays the line, highlighting the text near the error in inverse video. Errors are displayed as numeric codes, with the descriptions printed in the manual. Because of the way the line editor works, the user can immediately fix the error. In the example pictured above (with PRUNT), the error can be fixed by moving the cursor over the U, typing (the editor only has an overwrite mode), and hitting .
A line entered with a leading number, from 0 to 32767, is inserted in the current program or replaces an existing line. If there's no line number, the interpreter assigns it the number -1 (800016) and the commands are executed immediately, in "immediate mode". The RUN command executes the stored program from the lowest line number. Atari BASIC allows all commands to be executed in both modes. For example, LIST can be used inside a program, whereas in many interpreters this would be available in immediate mode only.
During entry, keywords can be abbreviated using the pattern set by Palo Alto Tiny BASIC, by typing a period at any point in the word. So L. is expanded to LIST, as is LI.. Only enough letters have to be typed to make the abbreviation unique, so PLOT requires PL. because the single letter P is not unique. To expand an abbreviation, the tokenizer searches through its list of reserved words to find the first that matches the portion supplied. More commonly used commands occur first in the list of reserved words, with REM at the beginning (it can be typed as .). When the program is later LISTed it will always write out the full words with three exceptions: PRINT has a synonym, ?; GOTO has a synonym, GO TO; and LET has a synonym which is the empty string (so 10 LET A = 10 and 10 A = 10 mean the same thing). These are separate tokens, and so will remain as such in the program listing. MS BASICs also allowed ? as a short-form for PRINT, but this used the same token so it expanded back to when ed, treating it as an abbreviation, not a synonym.
The tokenizer
When the user presses while editing, the current line is copied into the BASIC Input Line Buffer in memory between 580 and 5FF16. Atari BASIC's tokenizer scans the text, converting each keyword to a single-byte token (for example, is 2016), each number to a six-byte floating point value, each variable name to an index into a table, and so on, until the line is fully turned into an easy to interpret format. The result is stored in an output buffer located at the first 256 bytes of the lowest available free memory, pointed to by the LOMEM pointer stored at 80, 8116. The output from the tokenizer is then relocated. The program is stored as a parse tree.
Shepardson referred to this complete-tokenizing concept as a "pre-compiling interpreter". The resulting tokenized code eliminates any parsing during runtime, making it run faster. It has the disadvantage that small constants, like 0 or 1, are six bytes each, longer than the original text.
A set of pointers (addresses) indicates various data: variable names are stored in the variable name table (VNTP – 82, 8316) and their values are stored in the variable value table (pointed to at VVTP – 86, 8716). By indirecting the variable names in this way, a reference to a variable needs only one byte to address its entry into the appropriate table. String variables have their own area (pointed to at STARP – 8C, 8D16) as does the runtime stack (pointed to at RUNSTK – 8E, 8F16) used to store the line numbers of looping statements (FOR...NEXT) and subroutines (GOSUB...RETURN). Finally, the end of BASIC memory usage is indicated by an address stored at MEMTOP – 90, 9116) pointer.
Mathematical functions
Atari BASIC includes three trigonometric functions: sine, cosine, and arc tangent. DEG and RAD set whether these functions use radians or degrees, defaulting to radians. Eight additional functions include rounding, logarithms, and square root. The random function, RND, generates a number between 0 and 1; the parameter not being used.
String handling
Atari BASIC copied the string-handling system of Hewlett-Packard BASIC, where the basic data type is a single character, and strings are arrays of characters. Internally, a string is represented by a pointer to the first character in the string and its length. To initialize a string, it must be DIMensioned with its maximum length. For example:
10 DIM A$(20)
20 PRINT "ENTER MESSAGE: ";
30 INPUT A$
40 PRINT A$
In this program, a 20 character string is reserved, and any characters in excess of the string length will be truncated. The maximum length of a string is 32,768 characters. There is no support for arrays of strings.
A string is accessed using array indexing functions, or slicing. A$(1,10) returns a string of the first 10 characters of A$. The arrays are 1-indexed, so a string of length 10 starts at 1 and ends at 10. Slicing functions simply set pointers to the start and end points within the existing allocated memory.
Arrays are not initialized, so a numeric array or string contains whatever data was in memory when it was allocated. The following trick allows fast string initialization, and it is also useful for clearing large areas of memory of unwanted garbage. Numeric arrays can only be cleared with a FOR...NEXT loop:
10 REM Initialize A$ with 1000 characters of X
20 DIM A$(1000)
30 A$="X":A$(1000)=A$:A$(2)=A$
String concatenation works as in the following example. The target string must be large enough to hold the combined string or an error will result:
10 DIM A$(12),B$(6)
20 A$="Hello ":B$="there!"
30 A$(LEN(A$)+1)=B$
40 PRINT A$
Values in DATA statements are comma-delimited and untyped. Consequently, strings in DATA statements are not typically enclosed by quote marks. As a result, it is not possible for data items to contain a comma but they can incorporate double-quotes. Numeric values in DATA statements are read as strings or as numbers according to the type of the variable they are read into. The READ statement cannot be used with array variables.
Input/output
The Atari OS includes a subsystem for peripheral device input/output (I/O) known as CIO (Central Input/Output). Most programs can be written independently of what device they might use, as they all conform to a common interface; this was rare on home computers at the time. New device drivers could be written fairly easily that would automatically be available to Atari BASIC and any other program using the Atari OS, and existing drivers could be supplanted or augmented by new ones. A replacement , for example could displace the one in ROM to provide an 80-column display, or to piggyback on it to generate a checksum whenever a line is returned (such as used to verify a type-in program listing).
Atari BASIC supports CIO access with reserved words and . There are routines in the OS for simple graphics drawing functions but not all are available as specific BASIC keywords. and for line drawing are supported while a command providing area fill for primitive linear geometric shapes is not. The fill feature can be used through the general CIO entry point, which is called using the BASIC command .
The BASIC statement prepares a device for I/O access:
10 REM Opens the cassette device on channel 1 for reading in BASIC
20 OPEN #1,4,0,"C:MYPROG.DAT"
Here, means "ensure channel 1 is free," call the driver to prepare the device (this will set the cassette tape spools onto tension and advance the heads keeping the cassette tape player "paused". The means "read" (other codes are for write and for "read-and-write"). The third number is auxiliary information, set to 0 when not needed. The is the name of the device and the filename; the filename is ignored for the cassette driver. Physical devices can have numbers (mainly disks, printers and serial devices), so "" might be the plotter and "" the daisy-wheel printer, or "" may be one disk drive and "" and so on. If not present, 1 is assumed.
The LPRINT statement sends a string to the printer.
A is read by ing memory locations maintained by the keyboard driver or by opening it as a file (e.g. ). The latter waits for a keypress.
Typing from BASIC exits to the Atari DOS command menu. Any unsaved programs are lost unless a memory-swapping file feature has been enabled on the current disk. There is no command to display a disk directory from within BASIC; this must be done by exiting to DOS.
Graphics and sound
Atari BASIC supports sound, (via the statement), graphics (), and controllers (). The statement sets one of hardware's 4 square-wave channels with parameters for volume, pitch and distortion.
Advanced capabilities of the hardware such as higher pitch resolution, high-pass filters, digitised sound and waveforms, player/missile graphics (sprites), redefined character sets, scrolling, and custom graphics modes are not supported by BASIC; these will require machine language routines or PEEK/POKE statements. A few of the 17 basic character/graphics modes supported by the hardware cannot be simply accessed from BASIC on the Atari 400/800 as the OS ROMs do not support them. These include some multicolour character modes (ANTIC modes 4 & 5), descender character mode (ANTIC mode 3) and the highest resolution 2 and 4-color modes (ANTIC modes C & E, 160x192 pixels). The only way to access them is via or machine language, setting the ANTIC registers and Display List manually. The OS ROMs on the XL/XE added support for these modes except for ANTIC mode 3, which requires a character set redefined in RAM to operate correctly.
Bitmap modes in BASIC are normally set to have a text window occupying the last four rows at the bottom of the screen so the user may display prompts and enter data in a program. If a 16 is added to the mode number invoked via the GRAPHICS statement, the entire screen will be in bitmap mode (e.g. GRAPHICS 8+16). If bitmap mode in full screen is invoked Atari BASIC will gracefully switch back into text mode when program execution is terminated, avoiding leaving the user with an unresponsive screen that must be escaped by typing a blind command or resetting the computer.
Bitmap coordinates are in the range of 0 to maximum row/column minus one, thus in Mode 6 (160x192), the maximum coordinates for a pixel can be 159 and 191. If Atari BASIC attempts to plot beyond the allowed coordinates for the mode a runtime error occurs.
Advanced techniques
Line labels
Atari BASIC allows numeric variables and expressions to be used to supply line numbers to GOTO and GOSUB commands. For instance, a subroutine that clears the screen can be written as GOSUB CLEARSCREEN, which is easier to understand than GOSUB 10000.
Strings as a way to manipulate memory
The base addresses of a string is stored in a variable table. String addresses can be redirected to point to arbitrary areas of RAM. This allows the rapid memory-shifting routines underlying string and substring assignment can be applied from BASIC to the memory used for the screen or player/missile graphics. This is particularly useful for achieving rapid vertical movement of player/missile images directly from Atari BASIC.
Random access via DATA/RESTORE
Numeric variables and expressions can be used as the parameter for the RESTORE statement, allowing DATA statements to be randomly accessed through code such as . This can also be used to emulate static string arrays: .
Error handling with TRAP
The TRAP statement jumps to a line number when an error occurs, and this reduces the need for manual error-checking. For example, when drawing graphics on the screen it is not necessary to check whether lines go beyond screen boundaries of the current graphics mode. This error state can be trapped, and the error handled if necessary.
Includes
The ENTER command reads source code from a device and merges it into the current program, as if the user had typed it in. This allows programs to be saved out in sections via LIST, reading them in using ENTER to merge or replace existing code. By using blocks of line numbers that do not overlap, programmers can build libraries of subroutines and merge them into new programs as needed.
Self-modifying code
The editor can be set-up to repeatedly read input from the screen until an EOF is reached. This allows a program to write new program code followed by a CONT statement to the screen then, positioning the screen cursor at the start of the new code, STOP the running program, causing the new code to be read in then execution be continued by the CONT statement.
Embedded machine language
Atari BASIC can call machine code subroutines stored in strings or POKEed into memory. The 256 byte area starting at address 153610 (60016) is often used for this purpose.
Machine code is invoked with the USR function. The first parameter is the address of the subroutine and the following values are parameters. If the code is stored in a string named ROUTINE$ it can be called with two parameters as .
Parameters are pushed onto the hardware stack as 16-bit integers in the order specified in the USR call in low byte, high byte order. A final byte is pushed indicating the number of arguments. The machine language code must remove these values before returning via the RTS instruction. A 16-bit value can be returned to BASIC by placing it in addresses 21210 and 21310 (D416 and D516).
Performance
In theory, Atari BASIC should run faster than contemporary BASICs based on the MS pattern. Because the source code is fully tokenized when it is entered, the entire tokenization and parsing steps are already complete. Even complex mathematical operations are ready-to-run, with any numerical constants already converted to the internal 40-bit format, and variables values are looked up by address rather than having to be searched for. In spite of these theoretical advantages, in practice, Atari BASIC is slower than most other home computer BASICs, often by a large amount.
On two widely used benchmarks of the era, Byte magazine's Sieve of Eratosthenes and the Creative Computing benchmark test written by David H. Ahl, the Atari finished near the end of the list in terms of performance, and was much slower than the contemporary Apple II or Commodore PET, in spite of having the same CPU but running it at roughly twice the speed of either. It finished behind relatively slow machines like the Sinclair ZX81 and even some programmable calculators.
Most of the language's slowness stems from three problems.
The first is that the floating-point math routines are poorly optimized. In the Ahl benchmark, a single exponent operation was responsible for much of the machine's poor showing. The conversion between floating-point and 16-bit integers is also particularly slow. Internally, these integers are used for line numbers and array indexing, along with a few other tasks, but numbers in the tokenized program are stored in binary-coded decimal (BCD) format. Whenever one of these is encountered, such as the line number in , the BCD value is converted to an integer, which can take up to 3500 microseconds.
Another issue is how Atari BASIC implements branches. To perform a branch in a GOTO or GOSUB, the interpreter searches through the entire program for the matching line number. In contrast, contemporary versions of MS-derived BASICs would search forward from the current line if the line number of the branch target was greater, thereby improving branch performance about two times on average.
A related and more serious problem is the implementation of FOR...NEXT loops. When a FOR statement is executed, Atari BASIC records its line number. Every time the NEXT is reached, it searches through the program for that line, despite it being in the same place as the last time. All other BASICs instead record the memory location of the FOR statement and can immediately return to it without having to search.
The reason for this poor performance is best illustrated by a quote from one of its primary authors, Bill Wilkinson; in 1982 he stated:
One may contrast this philosophy with that of Steve Wozniak's Apple BASIC for the original Apple I which was designed specifically to have the performance required to write games:
Several third-party BASICs emerged on the platform that addressed some or all of these issues. This included Wilkinson's own BASIC XL, which reduced the time for the Byte benchmark from 194 to 58 seconds, over three times as fast. On the Ahl benchmark, Atari BASIC required 405 seconds, while exactly the same code in Turbo-BASIC XL took 41.6 seconds, an order of magnitude improvement.
Differences from Microsoft BASIC
Syntax is checked and errors highlighted immediately on line entry.
Variable names can be of arbitrary length, and all characters are significant.
The following keywords are not in Atari BASIC: INKEY$, CLS,DEF FN, SPC, TAB, ELSE.
All arrays must be dimensioned prior to use while Microsoft BASIC defaults an array to 10 elements if not dimensioned.
String variables are treated as character arrays and must be dimensioned before use. MS BASIC stores strings on the heap and sometimes pauses for garbage collection.
The functions LEFT$, MID$, and RIGHT$ are replaced by string indexing.
There is not an operator for string concatenation.
There are no arrays of strings.
There is no support for integer variables.
There are no bitwise operators.
INPUT does not allow a prompt.
PRINT may be abbreviated as ? as in Microsoft BASIC, but Atari BASIC does not tokenize it into PRINT. It remains a question mark.
The target of GOTO and GOSUB can be a variable or expression.
RESTORE may take a numeric constant, variable, or expression as a parameter, causing the next READ to begin from the specified line number
FOR..NEXT loops in Atari BASIC must have a variable name referenced by the NEXT statement while Microsoft BASIC does not require it.
Multiple variables are not permitted with NEXT statements as they are in Microsoft BASIC (e.g., NEXT X,Y).
LIST uses a comma to separate a range instead of a minus sign.
Keywords
See also
BASIC A+, BASIC XL, BASIC XE from Optimized Systems Software
Turbo-Basic XL, interpreter and compiler
Notes
References
Citation
Bibliography
External links
Atari BASIC, The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
Atari 8-bit family software
Programming languages created in 1978
Discontinued BASICs
BASIC interpreters
BASIC programming language family |
254085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixo | Pixo | Pixo was a company that developed infrastructure for hand-held devices. It was founded in 1994 when Paul Mercer, a software developer at Apple, left to form his own company. The company developed a system software toolkit in C++ for use on cell phones and other hand-held devices. They were acquired by Sun Microsystems in 2003.
Pixo OS and use in Apple's iPod
In 2001, Pixo was rehired by Apple to adapt their system software for use in the iPod. The use of the Pixo OS in the iPod was never formally announced, although the first-generation iPod's "About iPod" display includes a mention of Pixo, and a Connectix biography of their VP of engineering Mike Neil mentions his role as "lead architect on the Pixo OS that is used in ... the Apple iPod". Apple acquired the Pixo OS shortly after shipping the iPod and removed mention of Pixo from the "About iPod" display with a firmware update to the first-generation iPod.
On April 9, 2007, Apple CEO Steve Jobs announced the shipment of its 100 millionth iPod, making the Pixo OS one of the most widely used embedded operating systems.
With the 2014 discontinuation of the iPod Classic
and the 2017 discontinuation of the iPod Nano, which did not run
iOS, Apple no longer sells a Pixo-based iPod.
References
External links
Bill Mogridge video interview of Paul Mercers involvement in the design of the iPod
IPod software
Sun Microsystems acquisitions
Software companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Software companies established in 1994
Software companies disestablished in 2003
1994 establishments in California
2003 disestablishments in California
Defunct companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Defunct software companies of the United States
2003 mergers and acquisitions |
431972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch%20%28command%29 | Touch (command) | In computing, touch is a command used to update the access date and/or modification date of a computer file or directory. It is included in Unix and Unix-like operating systems, TSC's FLEX, Digital Research/Novell DR DOS, the AROS shell, the Microware OS-9 shell, and ReactOS.
The command is also available for FreeDOS and Microsoft Windows.
Overview
In its default usage, it is the equivalent of creating or opening a file and saving it without any change to the file contents. touch avoids opening, saving, and closing the file. Instead it simply updates the dates associated with the file or directory. An updated access or modification date can be important for a variety of other programs such as backup utilities or the make command-line interface programming utility. Typically these types of programs are only concerned with files which have been created or modified after the program was last run. The touch command can also be useful for quickly creating files for programs or scripts that require a file with a specific name to exist for successful operation of the program, but do not require the file to have any specific content.
The Single Unix Specification (SUS) specifies that touch should change the access times, modification times, or both, for a file. The file is identified by a pathname supplied as a single argument. It also specifies that if the file identified does not exist, the file is created and the access and modification times are set as specified. If no new timestamps are specified, touch uses the current time.
History
A touch utility first appeared in Version 7 AT&T UNIX. Today, the command is available for a number of different operating systems, including many Unix and Unix-like systems, DOS, Microsoft Windows and the classic Mac OS.
The version of touch bundled in GNU coreutils was written by Paul Rubin, Arnold Robbins, Jim Kingdon, David MacKenzie, and Randy Smith.
The command is available as a separate package for Microsoft Windows as part of the UnxUtils collection of native Win32 ports of common GNU Unix-like utilities. The FreeDOS version was developed by Kris Heidenstrom and is licensed under the GPL. DR DOS 6.0 and KolibriOS include an implementation of the command. The command has also been ported to the IBM i operating system.
See also
System time
List of Unix commands
References
Further reading
External links
examples showing how to use touch
Standard Unix programs
Unix SUS2008 utilities
Plan 9 commands
Inferno (operating system) commands
ReactOS commands |
7611811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Md5deep | Md5deep | md5deep is a software package used in the computer security, system administration and computer forensics communities to run large numbers of files through any of several different cryptographic digests. It was originally authored by Jesse Kornblum, at the time a special agent of the Air Force Office of Special Investigations. , he still maintains it.
The name md5deep is misleading. Since version 2.0, the md5deep package contains several different programs able to perform MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256, Tiger192 and Whirlpool digests, each of them named by the digest type followed by the word "deep". Thus, the name may confuse some people into thinking it only provides the MD5 algorithm when the package supports many more.
md5deep can be invoked in several different ways. Typically users operate it recursively, where md5deep walks through one directory at a time giving digests of each file found, and recursing into any subdirectories within. Its recursive behavior is approximately a depth-first search, which has the benefit of presenting files in lexicographical order. On Unix-like systems, similar functionality can be often obtained by combining find with hashing utilities such as md5sum, sha256sum or tthsum.
md5deep exists for Windows and most Unix-based systems, including OS X. It is present in OS X's Fink, Homebrew and MacPorts projects. Binary packages exist for most free Unix systems. Many vendors initially resist including md5deep as they mistakenly believe its functions can be reproduced with one line of shell scripting. The matching function of the program, however, cannot be done easily in shell.
Because md5deep was written by an employee of the U.S. government, on government time, it is in the public domain. Other software surrounding it, such as graphical front-ends, may be copyrighted.
See also
Hash functions MD5, SHA-1, and SHA-2 (which includes SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512)
References
External links
at GitHub
Computer security software
Public-domain software with source code
Free software programmed in C |
43022902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It%27s%20Geek%202%20Me | It's Geek 2 Me | It's Geek 2 Me is a tech cartoon about people and their off-center relationships with technology created by Pittsburgh-based cartoonist, Francis Cleetus. He was inspired to draw the very first cartoon by a frantic intern who rushed into his office and asked where the any key was on a computer keyboard. The cartoon evolved into a series when Cleetus worked as a creative director at J. Walter Thompson, Hong Kong on the Hewlett Packard brand.
Cleetus chose Pittsburgh as the location for the cartoon's imaginary setting 'Paradox Software Corporation' because it has a large tech community, over 1,600 tech-based companies and the Carnegie Institute of Technology, which is ranked among the top five engineering colleges in the country by the U.S. News & World Report.
The first compilation of It's Geek 2 Me cartoons was self-published by the author in 2012 as a paperback titled Wish Your Mouth Had A Backspace Key in the United States via Amazon.com. In 2013, a second compilation titled Total Timepass Tech Toons was published by Hachette India for the Indian subcontinent.
Characters
The diverse and colorful characters who star in the cartoon were inspired by real people that Cleetus worked with during his professional stints in India, Hong Kong and the US.
Loginder Singh:
Lanky Sikh from Vancouver, Canada, currently lives in a badly-lit cubicle at work. Talented Systems Analyst who's occasionally fixated with complexity. Enjoys flaunting his collection of designer turbans and matching sweatshirts. Eligible bachelor who’s fond of exotic wines and nightly hacking binges. He’s been in an on-and-off relationship with his coworker Emily for three years.
Emily Facebrook:
Charming Office Manager who was the captain of the cheerleading team at her high school in Nashville, TN. She speaks with a soft Southern drawl that is almost as drawn out as her daily to-do list. Never forgets to send herself a stuffed animal on Administrative Professionals' Day. Her love life is a roller coaster where the brakes wore out years ago. She just loves Loginder’s Indo-Canadian accent.
Bill Googli:
Flamboyant Marketing Director of Paradox Software, known for his chic business wardrobe. Born and raised in New Orleans, LA, by mixed parents (African-American and French), Bill grew up around a family bar and restaurant. He has been popular with the ladies since he was featured on Food network for his Creole Margaritas. Designs and builds robotic reptiles to impress coworker Mona.
Spam Murphy:
Cheap Executive Officer as well as Chairman of Paradox Software. He fondly refers to his staff as 'humanware' and treats them like secondhand hardware. He's a seasoned Los Angeles born venture capitalist whose capital flow dried up along with his libido. He’s also a founding board member of the dubious São Paulo based wildlife charity, the James E. Williamson Iguana Fund.
Linux Cooper:
The company's Top Bean Counter or CFO who's dedicated to reducing payroll while increasing his annual bonus. Joined the company as an independent financial analyst and gnawed his way in. A CPA (Compulsive Puzzle Addict), he holds a master's degree in the history of tavern puzzles. The Securities and Exchange Commission has investigated him since he owned a pawnshop as a teen in Phoenix, Arizona.
Mona Dos:
Quality Assurance Director and unofficial water-cooler gossip chief at Paradox Software. She’s a divorced single mother of a 10-year-old named Rio who likes to hang around her office on weekends. Is passionate about her son and the blood-red tulips in her backyard. She moved to Dallas, TX, from Kolkata, India, after a grand but ill-fated marriage to her school sweetheart, a narcissistic urologist.
Icon Murphy:
Spam Murphy's son, New Business Director and heir apparent to the throne at Paradox Software. Holds a PhD on the hazards of texting with ancient Greek symbols while driving, from the University of Cyprus. He’s fluent in six languages including Mandarin, Tagalog and Prolog. Likes to spend weekends taking his single-engine Cessna for a spin. Hopes to turn Paradox into a Fortune 500 company.
Ram Patel:
Father figure to all IT professionals of foreign origin at Paradox Software. Sports a bristly white beard to compensate for the lack of hair on top. Mastered technology when a personal computer filled an entire room. He heads the Maintenance Division at the company and the ‘Courtesy Flush’ poker team in the suburb where he lives with his art museum curator wife and Dalmatian Coco.
Irfan Linkudin:
Vice President - Tech Support at Paradox Software and technically head of the division. Technically, because nobody reports to him. He grew up in Istanbul, Turkey, and moved to Buffalo, New York in the 1960s. His wife of 16 years left him after the dotcom company he founded went bust in 2002. He can single-handedly reassemble the V-turn engine of his Harley-Davidson bike from scratch in under 30 minutes.
Cad Myers:
Corporate Security Director in charge of real and virtual security at Paradox Software. A former Major of the US Army's Field Intelligence Unit, he’s experienced in Hacker Interception and Electrocution. Lost his left pinky on active duty as an intelligence officer during Operation Desert Com in 2001. He oversaw the implementation and management of all the security at the gold mines on Mindanao Island in the Philippines.
Benny Lan:
Sr. Programmer who picked up his cackle, chopsticks and COBOL at a tender age in Wan Chai, Hong Kong. Has a wry sense of humor that's reflected in the random bug he leaves behind in software. He can survive for months on a staple diet of Chinese takeout, Japanese toys and American music. Received a complimentary life membership from Workaholics Anonymous.
Robert Cobolobo:
Human Resources Director, stationery watchdog, and annual holiday program organizer, all rolled into a small South American frame. Found himself in the US after a nubile Texan student succumbed to his charms in Cancun, Mexico. He worked as a Floor-hand in an oil field until he got his MBA in HR Management and worked his way into the lofty corridors of corporate power at Paradox.
Tweetsie Williams:
Management Trainee who thrives on gadgets and technology. She likes to flaunt her master's degree from Virginia Tech and her tough upbringing in Brooklyn, NY. Is the only daughter of a Vietnam veteran who was awarded a Medal of Honor. Her paycheck’s disproportionate to her experience and is solely based on her future potential. She'd give anything, including her blinged out laptop, for a date with Icon.
Rio Dos:
Mona’s 10-year-old son and unpaid tech support guy to all new hires at Paradox Software. He currently holds 14 world records for Desert Commander and is two grades ahead of his classmates in every subject except civics. In addition to English, Spanish and Bengali, he’s also fluent in colloquial Hindi, thanks to the bi-weekly dose of Bollywood films his mom rents from the local Indian grocery store.
Compilations
Total Timepass Tech Toons (August 2013, Hachette India, )
Wish Your Mouth Had a Backspace Key (October 2012, Amazon.com, )
References
External links
It’s Geek 2 Me homepage
It’s Geek 2 Me on Facebook facebook.com
It’s Geek 2 Me on Twitter twitter.com
It’s Geek 2 Me on Pinterest pinterest.com
It's Geek 2 Me video channel youtube.com
2013 in comics
Comics anthologies
Computer humor
Indian American
Comic strips set in the United States
American comics |
64401081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20unnumbered%20minor%20planets%3A%202001%20T | List of unnumbered minor planets: 2001 T | This is a partial list of unnumbered minor planets for principal provisional designations assigned during 1–15 October 2001. , a total of 476 bodies remain unnumbered for this period. Objects for this year are listed on the following pages: A–E · Fi · Fii · G–O · P–R · S · T · U · V–W and X–Y. Also see previous and next year.
T
|- id="2001 TB" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 6 || 2001 TB || APO || 24.4 || data-sort-value="0.047" | 47 m || single || 3 days || 08 Oct 2001 || 35 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TC" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 3 || 2001 TC || AMO || 20.7 || data-sort-value="0.26" | 260 m || multiple || 2001–2015 || 14 Nov 2015 || 76 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TD" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 7 || 2001 TD || ATE || 25.1 || data-sort-value="0.034" | 34 m || single || 8 days || 16 Oct 2001 || 30 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TN" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 2 || 2001 TN || MBA-I || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 17 Oct 2020 || 80 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TO" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || 2001 TO || MCA || 19.1 || data-sort-value="0.45" | 450 m || multiple || 2001–2018 || 16 Nov 2018 || 119 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TQ" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || 2001 TQ || MBA-I || 17.8 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 25 Nov 2019 || 83 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TO1" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.30 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 03 Apr 2021 || 95 || align=left | Disc.: Farpoint Obs.Alt.: 2014 SO67 ||
|- id="2001 TS1" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 17.2 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 25 Nov 2019 || 168 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2007 EC56 ||
|- id="2001 TY1" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 2 || || APO || 25.0 || data-sort-value="0.036" | 36 m || single || 40 days || 15 Nov 2001 || 40 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TA2" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 2 || || APO || 22.0 || data-sort-value="0.14" | 140 m || multiple || 2001–2013 || 30 Mar 2013 || 117 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARPotentially hazardous objectAlt.: 2013 FH ||
|- id="2001 TB2" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 6 || || AMO || 21.5 || data-sort-value="0.18" | 180 m || single || 38 days || 18 Nov 2001 || 68 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TS2" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 2 || || MBA-I || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 02 Nov 2019 || 94 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TE3" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 19.69 || data-sort-value="0.34" | 340 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 03 Apr 2019 || 73 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TO5" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.6 || data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 139 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TR5" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 16.79 || 1.8 km || multiple || 1997–2021 || 09 May 2021 || 269 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TU6" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.12 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 May 2021 || 151 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TV6" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.28 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 06 Apr 2021 || 93 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2010 UX57 ||
|- id="2001 TK7" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.7 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2018 || 16 Nov 2018 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2014 RQ18 ||
|- id="2001 TM7" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 3 || || MCA || 18.9 || data-sort-value="0.70" | 700 m || multiple || 2001–2018 || 05 Oct 2018 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TG13" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || HUN || 18.32 || data-sort-value="0.64" | 640 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 15 May 2021 || 119 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2013 GZ27 ||
|- id="2001 TK13" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || HUN || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 28 Jan 2020 || 261 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2013 HK ||
|- id="2001 TO13" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 18.25 || data-sort-value="0.67" | 670 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 16 Jun 2021 || 76 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TC14" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 17 Jan 2021 || 125 || align=left | Disc.: Powell Obs.Alt.: 2016 XJ7 ||
|- id="2001 TF17" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 2 || || MCA || 18.9 || data-sort-value="0.49" | 490 m || multiple || 2001–2005 || 27 Oct 2005 || 56 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TX22" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.6 || 2.7 km || multiple || 2001–2018 || 17 Dec 2018 || 57 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TU25" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.26 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 14 Apr 2021 || 116 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TM26" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 16.5 || 2.8 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 21 Jan 2021 || 277 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2010 UT8, 2010 UG10 ||
|- id="2001 TY44" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 0 || || AMO || 20.3 || data-sort-value="0.31" | 310 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 28 Aug 2019 || 149 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TB45" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 2 || || AMO || 18.6 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2001–2018 || 18 Mar 2018 || 89 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TC45" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 0 || || APO || 19.53 || data-sort-value="0.44" | 440 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 13 Sep 2021 || 143 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARPotentially hazardous object ||
|- id="2001 TE45" bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 9 || || APO || 22.9 || data-sort-value="0.093" | 93 m || single || 6 days || 21 Oct 2001 || 26 || align=left | Disc.: AMOS ||
|- id="2001 TE46" bgcolor=#fefefe
| – || || MBA-I || 17.6 || data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m || single || 14 days || 29 Oct 2001 || 12 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TS50" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.36 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 06 Apr 2021 || 178 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TN51" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.7 || data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 08 Jan 2019 || 79 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2005 SC19 ||
|- id="2001 TH54" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 17.85 || data-sort-value="0.80" | 800 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 27 Jun 2021 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TM55" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.4 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2001–2015 || 17 Jan 2015 || 34 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TM58" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 15 Jan 2021 || 98 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2012 QC29 ||
|- id="2001 TY58" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 3 || || MBA-M || 18.1 || 1.0 km || multiple || 2001–2018 || 17 Nov 2018 || 71 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TJ59" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 17.8 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 25 Oct 2019 || 125 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2012 TR10 ||
|- id="2001 TT59" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.0 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 93 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TT60" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.5 || data-sort-value="0.94" | 940 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 11 Jan 2021 || 214 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2016 NS29 ||
|- id="2001 TS61" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 18.21 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 10 Apr 2021 || 119 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TB62" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 3 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2001–2015 || 09 Oct 2015 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TK71" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.78 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 09 May 2021 || 137 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TS81" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 2 || || MBA-I || 17.9 || data-sort-value="0.78" | 780 m || multiple || 2001–2014 || 05 Mar 2014 || 73 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2014 EJ90 ||
|- id="2001 TZ82" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.8 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 14 Jan 2021 || 172 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2010 KF139 ||
|- id="2001 TL84" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.41 || 2.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 May 2021 || 107 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TL87" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 08 Jan 2019 || 44 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TO89" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.2 || 3.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 16 May 2020 || 111 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2009 ED6 ||
|- id="2001 TU96" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.22 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 30 May 2021 || 192 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TE99" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 18.86 || data-sort-value="0.50" | 500 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 30 Nov 2021 || 78 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2011 UN24 ||
|- id="2001 TL101" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 16.5 || 2.8 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 14 Jan 2021 || 105 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TH102" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 4 || || MBA-M || 17.0 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2017 || 27 May 2017 || 25 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2017 KA25 ||
|- id="2001 TR103" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 18.6 || data-sort-value="0.57" | 570 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 30 Dec 2019 || 107 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2008 SA296 ||
|- id="2001 TS103" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 1 || || MBA-O || 18.0 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2001–2017 || 07 Nov 2017 || 30 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2012 TN140 ||
|- id="2001 TZ103" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.5 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 25 Jan 2020 || 284 || align=left | Disc.: Desert Eagle Obs. ||
|- id="2001 TN108" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.30 || 3.1 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 10 Apr 2021 || 92 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2007 WJ11 ||
|- id="2001 TR112" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.64 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 12 Apr 2021 || 137 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2010 OU15 ||
|- id="2001 TS112" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.16 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 10 Apr 2021 || 170 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TG118" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.1 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 03 Jan 2019 || 74 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TB126" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 19 Jan 2020 || 124 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2010 MJ56, 2015 YT16 ||
|- id="2001 TU126" bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 0 || || JT || 14.26 || 7.8 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 11 Jul 2021 || 126 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchTrojan camp (L5)Alt.: 2013 TB141 ||
|- id="2001 TU128" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| – || || MBA-O || 17.8 || 1.5 km || single || 4 days || 15 Oct 2001 || 9 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TW128" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2001–2018 || 17 Jun 2018 || 78 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2015 RK102 ||
|- id="2001 TB129" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.5 || 2.8 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 12 Dec 2020 || 61 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAdded on 17 January 2021Alt.: 2007 RS159 ||
|- id="2001 TV129" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 2 || || HIL || 16.4 || 2.9 km || multiple || 2001–2017 || 10 Nov 2017 || 29 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TL130" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.0 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 01 Feb 2020 || 71 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2014 QT426 ||
|- id="2001 TC131" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 2 || || MCA || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.84" | 840 m || multiple || 2001–2018 || 14 Dec 2018 || 85 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2018 XH4 ||
|- id="2001 TE131" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.0 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 19 Sep 2019 || 56 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TM132" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.10 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 09 Apr 2021 || 243 || align=left | Disc.: AMOS ||
|- id="2001 TV135" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.03 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 03 Apr 2021 || 159 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TO140" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.2 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 21 Apr 2020 || 220 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2011 BQ85 ||
|- id="2001 TR140" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.0 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 12 Dec 2020 || 101 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TW142" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.4 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 02 Feb 2020 || 88 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2014 SB309 ||
|- id="2001 TD143" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.58 || 2.7 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 01 May 2021 || 116 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2012 TV236 ||
|- id="2001 TG144" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.51 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 30 Jun 2021 || 138 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TN144" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.43 || data-sort-value="0.61" | 610 m || multiple || 1998–2021 || 17 Jan 2021 || 121 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2012 DU15 ||
|- id="2001 TS144" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 02 Feb 2020 || 86 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2014 SA316 ||
|- id="2001 TB145" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 4 || || MBA-I || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 21 May 2020 || 19 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TC145" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m || multiple || 2001–2018 || 10 Nov 2018 || 88 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2018 RJ26 ||
|- id="2001 TN146" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.3 || 1.0 km || multiple || 2000–2020 || 14 Dec 2020 || 173 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2012 RE10 ||
|- id="2001 TU146" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.44 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 May 2021 || 76 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TA147" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.0 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 24 Dec 2019 || 72 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2012 VP34 ||
|- id="2001 TQ149" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.7 || data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m || multiple || 1994–2020 || 22 Feb 2020 || 200 || align=left | Disc.: La Silla Obs.Alt.: 1994 RR28, 2011 QQ26 ||
|- id="2001 TK150" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.2 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 17 Jan 2021 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TV150" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.7 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 02 Jan 2019 || 89 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2018 UB12 ||
|- id="2001 TX152" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.39 || 2.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 17 May 2021 || 150 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2012 TH136 ||
|- id="2001 TN155" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || HUN || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 13 Aug 2020 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TW155" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.06 || 2.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 07 Apr 2021 || 73 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2003 BQ70 ||
|- id="2001 TQ156" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.8 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 11 Oct 2020 || 78 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TR156" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 3 || || MBA-O || 17.8 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 05 Feb 2019 || 26 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TY156" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.89 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 May 2021 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TA157" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 03 Oct 2019 || 68 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch IIAlt.: 2012 VV79 ||
|- id="2001 TF157" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 19 Jan 2020 || 85 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TH157" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 11 Feb 2021 || 53 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TS157" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.0 || 2.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 21 Apr 2020 || 53 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TT157" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.3 || 4.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 10 Jun 2021 || 203 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2010 MH9, 2016 GB192 ||
|- id="2001 TU157" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.97 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 10 Apr 2021 || 111 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TZ159" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.82 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 May 2021 || 94 || align=left | Disc.: AMOS ||
|- id="2001 TV161" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| – || || MBA-M || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || single || 28 days || 21 Oct 2001 || 15 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TD162" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.5 || data-sort-value="0.94" | 940 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 07 Jun 2021 || 73 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TP162" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 20 Dec 2019 || 90 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TS162" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.53 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 May 2021 || 75 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TO163" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.48 || data-sort-value="0.95" | 950 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 02 Apr 2021 || 148 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2014 DT77 ||
|- id="2001 TO165" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.5 || data-sort-value="0.94" | 940 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 23 Dec 2020 || 199 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TJ166" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.0 || 3.5 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 17 Apr 2020 || 131 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TM167" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.0 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 22 Mar 2020 || 133 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2014 KA60 ||
|- id="2001 TD171" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 18.3 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 01 Jun 2019 || 93 || align=left | Disc.: AMOS ||
|- id="2001 TJ173" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.2 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 07 Jan 2021 || 233 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2010 MY29 ||
|- id="2001 TR173" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.23 || 2.0 km || multiple || 1996–2021 || 12 May 2021 || 66 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TY173" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.0 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 16 May 2020 || 88 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TZ174" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.23 || 3.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 26 May 2020 || 165 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2014 CW20 ||
|- id="2001 TW175" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.0 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 27 Apr 2020 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TP177" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.5 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 16 May 2020 || 113 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2014 SM292 ||
|- id="2001 TR177" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.2 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 17 Jan 2021 || 68 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2010 KP100 ||
|- id="2001 TA180" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.87 || data-sort-value="0.50" | 500 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 30 Jun 2021 || 60 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2018 RR20, 2018 RW22 ||
|- id="2001 TL181" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.97 || data-sort-value="0.76" | 760 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 31 May 2021 || 74 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2008 VS30 ||
|- id="2001 TO181" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.7 || data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 19 Jan 2021 || 141 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TT181" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.82 || data-sort-value="0.81" | 810 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 20 Apr 2021 || 58 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TV181" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 3 || || MCA || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.88" | 880 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 07 Jan 2019 || 33 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TU183" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 27 Oct 2019 || 94 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2005 XH90 ||
|- id="2001 TX183" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.5 || 2.8 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 15 Jun 2021 || 127 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2005 GQ61 ||
|- id="2001 TO184" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.56 || data-sort-value="0.58" | 580 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 09 May 2021 || 75 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TV184" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.8 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 1997–2020 || 14 Dec 2020 || 167 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2016 RT3 ||
|- id="2001 TJ185" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.5 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 15 Feb 2020 || 92 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2014 WL11, 2018 SG8 ||
|- id="2001 TO186" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.6 || data-sort-value="0.57" | 570 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 20 Oct 2020 || 162 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TW186" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 19 Jul 2020 || 120 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2006 UF85 ||
|- id="2001 TN193" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 27 Sep 2019 || 119 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TO193" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 19.17 || data-sort-value="0.44" | 440 m || multiple || 2001–2022 || 06 Jan 2022 || 64 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2014 QG207 ||
|- id="2001 TE199" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 16 Mar 2020 || 151 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2011 AV4 ||
|- id="2001 TA201" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 16.9 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 28 Dec 2019 || 145 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TF202" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.47 || data-sort-value="0.60" | 600 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 31 May 2021 || 80 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TG205" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.55 || data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 16 May 2021 || 173 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TH205" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 15.97 || 3.6 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 01 Jan 2020 || 88 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2018 SP10 ||
|- id="2001 TL205" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.0 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 11 Jul 2020 || 123 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TR205" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.74 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 11 Jun 2021 || 84 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TX206" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 1994–2020 || 30 Jan 2020 || 85 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2015 RT98 ||
|- id="2001 TC207" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 1994–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 98 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TD207" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 2 || || MBA-I || 19.5 || data-sort-value="0.37" | 370 m || multiple || 2001–2018 || 16 Nov 2018 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TX207" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.4 || 2.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 15 Jan 2021 || 106 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2005 GT111, 2006 KE79, 2006 OJ34, 2007 UD55, 2013 WO3, 2016 EZ141 ||
|- id="2001 TS209" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.46 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 07 Apr 2021 || 107 || align=left | Disc.: Ondřejov Obs.Alt.: 2014 RB46 ||
|- id="2001 TB210" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 17.7 || data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 04 Dec 2019 || 125 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TD210" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.0 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 14 Jan 2021 || 163 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2012 RA14, 2016 XC6 ||
|- id="2001 TL210" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 02 Jul 2019 || 32 || align=left | Disc.: LONEOS ||
|- id="2001 TD212" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2001–2016 || 29 Nov 2016 || 79 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2016 WK16 ||
|- id="2001 TH213" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 3 || || MBA-M || 18.1 || 1.0 km || multiple || 2001–2018 || 10 Dec 2018 || 41 || align=left | Disc.: LONEOS ||
|- id="2001 TB216" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 17.6 || data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 65 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2010 CX121 ||
|- id="2001 TH216" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.25 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 14 Apr 2021 || 262 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2010 VO195 ||
|- id="2001 TT218" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.68 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 09 May 2021 || 190 || align=left | Disc.: LONEOS ||
|- id="2001 TV218" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 4 || || MBA-M || 18.1 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 06 Jul 2019 || 24 || align=left | Disc.: LONEOS ||
|- id="2001 TK220" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.4 || 2.9 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 23 Apr 2019 || 73 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TW220" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.13 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 10 Jul 2021 || 113 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2014 WT354, 2018 YC4 ||
|- id="2001 TY220" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.0 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 17 Apr 2020 || 100 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2016 GT130 ||
|- id="2001 TL222" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.04 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 31 Mar 2021 || 190 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch IIAlt.: 2010 VM204 ||
|- id="2001 TU222" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m || multiple || 2001–2018 || 15 Dec 2018 || 30 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TW222" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.66 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 May 2021 || 132 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TK223" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 16.7 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 Jun 2021 || 208 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TT223" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.09 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 09 May 2021 || 122 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2014 SW45 ||
|- id="2001 TK224" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 4 || || MCA || 19.8 || data-sort-value="0.33" | 330 m || multiple || 2001–2014 || 30 Sep 2014 || 15 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TU224" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.04 || data-sort-value="0.73" | 730 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 01 Jul 2021 || 58 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TN225" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.7 || data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 12 Jan 2021 || 143 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2014 DE28 ||
|- id="2001 TL228" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.9 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 19 Nov 2019 || 49 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TP230" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| – || || MBA-M || 17.0 || 2.2 km || single || 14 days || 21 Oct 2001 || 16 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TP231" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 4 || || MBA-I || 18.9 || data-sort-value="0.49" | 490 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 14 Nov 2020 || 37 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch IIAdded on 9 March 2021Alt.: 2005 UF334, 2020 TX11 ||
|- id="2001 TU231" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.27 || data-sort-value="0.93" | 930 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 14 Jun 2021 || 46 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TY231" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.20 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 14 May 2021 || 194 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TQ232" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.7 || data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 19 Dec 2019 || 106 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2011 HN33 ||
|- id="2001 TT232" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 16.6 || 2.7 km || multiple || 1999–2021 || 05 Jan 2021 || 183 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 1999 FG75, 2006 VP112 ||
|- id="2001 TV232" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 18.43 || data-sort-value="0.61" | 610 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 18 Apr 2021 || 63 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TQ233" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 15.95 || 3.6 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 12 May 2021 || 175 || align=left | Disc.: AMOSAlt.: 2015 CA57 ||
|- id="2001 TH234" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.7 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 27 Oct 2019 || 71 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TY234" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 16.70 || 2.5 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 01 Apr 2021 || 196 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2010 RN116 ||
|- id="2001 TQ235" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 04 Jan 2021 || 255 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TL236" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 15.79 || 3.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 30 Jul 2021 || 295 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2012 TP318 ||
|- id="2001 TK237" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 16 Jan 2021 || 54 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2010 RD2 ||
|- id="2001 TM237" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.0 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 30 Oct 2019 || 93 || align=left | Disc.: Desert Eagle Obs. ||
|- id="2001 TU239" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 3 || || MBA-O || 18.3 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2016 || 08 Aug 2016 || 23 || align=left | Disc.: Terskol Obs. ||
|- id="2001 TZ239" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 18.8 || data-sort-value="0.52" | 520 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 17 Dec 2019 || 31 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TV240" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 26 Jan 2020 || 62 || align=left | Disc.: LINEAR ||
|- id="2001 TF242" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.6 || data-sort-value="0.57" | 570 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 07 Sep 2021 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: AstrovirtelAdded on 5 November 2021Alt.: 2021 QA13 ||
|- id="2001 TG242" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| E || || MBA-O || 17.6 || 1.7 km || single || 1 day || 07 Oct 2001 || 15 || align=left | Disc.: Astrovirtel ||
|- id="2001 TH242" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 15 Oct 2020 || 60 || align=left | Disc.: Astrovirtel ||
|- id="2001 TM242" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.7 || data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 25 May 2020 || 79 || align=left | Disc.: Astrovirtel ||
|- id="2001 TN242" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 2 || || MBA-I || 20.0 || data-sort-value="0.30" | 300 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 19 Nov 2019 || 26 || align=left | Disc.: AstrovirtelAdded on 30 September 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TY242" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 16.0 || 3.5 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 Jan 2021 || 149 || align=left | Disc.: LINEARAlt.: 2004 LM9 ||
|- id="2001 TC243" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 02 Dec 2019 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TL243" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.3 || 3.1 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 22 Sep 2020 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 17 January 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TP243" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.6 || 2.7 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 19 Apr 2020 || 86 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2012 TN44, 2014 BT52, 2017 PQ6 ||
|- id="2001 TY243" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.98 || data-sort-value="0.48" | 480 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 09 Nov 2021 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 5 November 2021Alt.: 2021 RX96 ||
|- id="2001 TA244" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 3 || || MBA-O || 17.6 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2001–2018 || 10 Jan 2018 || 18 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TE244" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.71 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 23 Oct 2020 || 36 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 11 May 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TF244" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.9 || data-sort-value="0.78" | 780 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 21 Sep 2020 || 66 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 19 October 2020 ||
|- id="2001 TG244" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 18 Oct 2020 || 64 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TK244" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2018 || 13 Jul 2018 || 60 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TM244" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.80 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 07 Apr 2021 || 54 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TD245" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 26 Sep 2019 || 50 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2010 MP6 ||
|- id="2001 TF245" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 2 || || MBA-M || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 09 Jul 2021 || 42 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 21 August 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TG245" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.03 || 2.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 09 Apr 2021 || 78 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2012 SQ61 ||
|- id="2001 TH245" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.20 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2001–2022 || 25 Jan 2022 || 67 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2005 TW160 ||
|- id="2001 TL245" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 1 || || MBA-O || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 03 Jan 2019 || 60 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2013 YT133 ||
|- id="2001 TS245" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.48 || 2.8 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 Jun 2021 || 108 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2019 BP7 ||
|- id="2001 TU245" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.08 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 May 2021 || 53 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2001 TX245" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.10 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 09 Apr 2021 || 104 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2016 CR233 ||
|- id="2001 TY245" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| – || || MBA-O || 17.6 || 1.7 km || single || 26 days || 15 Oct 2001 || 7 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TD246" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 4 || || MBA-O || 16.95 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 19 Apr 2021 || 27 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 11 May 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TF246" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.66 || 2.6 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 09 Aug 2021 || 94 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TJ246" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.8 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 07 Jan 2021 || 45 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TM246" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.77 || data-sort-value="0.52" | 520 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 04 Jan 2021 || 38 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 21 August 2021Alt.: 2012 QC70 ||
|- id="2001 TP246" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 2 || || MBA-O || 17.8 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2017 || 07 Dec 2017 || 26 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 21 August 2021Alt.: 2017 VX37 ||
|- id="2001 TV246" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.77 || 2.5 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 11 Jun 2021 || 94 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 22 July 2020Alt.: 2010 MA139 ||
|- id="2001 TY246" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.2 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 24 Aug 2019 || 42 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2001 TF247" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.4 || data-sort-value="0.98" | 980 m || multiple || 2000–2020 || 26 Feb 2020 || 45 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2005 QQ47 ||
|- id="2001 TH247" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.58 || 2.7 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 25 May 2020 || 143 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TK247" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.71 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 May 2021 || 81 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2012 FR15 ||
|- id="2001 TL247" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.73 || data-sort-value="0.53" | 530 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 17 Jan 2021 || 31 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 21 August 2021Alt.: 2012 SN93 ||
|- id="2001 TO247" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 2 || || MBA-M || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m || multiple || 2001–2014 || 18 Sep 2014 || 36 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2014 RU32 ||
|- id="2001 TV247" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 22 Apr 2020 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2017 UU63 ||
|- id="2001 TB248" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2001–2017 || 29 Jul 2017 || 31 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2012 TF165 ||
|- id="2001 TC248" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2001–2017 || 14 Aug 2017 || 66 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2014 QK301, 2014 SK201 ||
|- id="2001 TH248" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 2 || || HIL || 16.4 || 2.9 km || multiple || 2001–2017 || 22 Oct 2017 || 26 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2001 TJ248" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 19.2 || data-sort-value="0.43" | 430 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 25 Sep 2019 || 136 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TL248" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 18.1 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 01 Nov 2019 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TP248" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.55 || data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 30 Jun 2021 || 99 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2014 WN374 ||
|- id="2001 TE249" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 20 Oct 2020 || 99 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TH249" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.13 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 May 2021 || 83 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TK249" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.8 || data-sort-value="0.52" | 520 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 03 Oct 2019 || 48 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TX249" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.8 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 24 Dec 2020 || 57 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TZ249" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.9 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 25 Nov 2019 || 31 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2001 TE250" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.54 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2001–2022 || 27 Jan 2022 || 88 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2018 FR20 ||
|- id="2001 TJ250" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 19.65 || data-sort-value="0.35" | 350 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 09 Dec 2021 || 41 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 21 August 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TK250" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 19.1 || data-sort-value="0.45" | 450 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 23 Sep 2020 || 45 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TL250" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 10 Dec 2020 || 67 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2012 QU42 ||
|- id="2001 TZ250" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.6 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 15 Sep 2020 || 54 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 17 January 2021Alt.: 2006 UQ167, 2014 HX102, 2015 RH6 ||
|- id="2001 TB251" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.8 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2018 || 06 Oct 2018 || 38 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TF251" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.16 || data-sort-value="0.69" | 690 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 27 Dec 2021 || 90 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2007 EC82 ||
|- id="2001 TG251" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 1 || || MBA-O || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 22 Apr 2020 || 88 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TN251" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 1 || || MBA-O || 17.33 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 03 Oct 2021 || 29 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TS251" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| – || || MBA-M || 17.7 || data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m || single || 15 days || 25 Oct 2001 || 13 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TT251" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.51 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 09 Nov 2021 || 61 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2001 TW251" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.04 || data-sort-value="0.73" | 730 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 05 Jul 2021 || 44 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TA252" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.06 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 03 May 2021 || 92 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2010 VO49 ||
|- id="2001 TE252" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.9 || data-sort-value="0.49" | 490 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 06 Dec 2020 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2001 TK252" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 03 Jul 2019 || 45 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2015 TE66 ||
|- id="2001 TM252" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 02 Dec 2019 || 31 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2014 SP78 ||
|- id="2001 TP252" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.86 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 15 Apr 2021 || 75 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2001 TR252" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.0 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 03 Jan 2020 || 41 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TT252" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 18.2 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 28 Oct 2019 || 31 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 21 August 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TV252" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.95 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 14 Jul 2021 || 89 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2001 TZ252" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 112 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2010 RJ118 ||
|- id="2001 TA253" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.97 || 2.2 km || multiple || 2001–2018 || 07 Aug 2018 || 42 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TE253" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.64 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 14 Apr 2021 || 58 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TF253" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 03 Oct 2019 || 38 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2001 TG253" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.5 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 12 Feb 2021 || 66 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 17 June 2021Alt.: 2014 QA302, 2014 SW180 ||
|- id="2001 TJ253" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.22 || 3.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 11 Jun 2020 || 183 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TL253" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| – || || MBA-M || 19.3 || data-sort-value="0.41" | 410 m || single || 11 days || 25 Oct 2001 || 9 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TP253" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.6 || data-sort-value="0.57" | 570 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 28 Dec 2019 || 41 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TR253" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 16 Dec 2020 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2001 TX253" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 3 || || MBA-M || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2001–2015 || 22 Jan 2015 || 16 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2015 BN347 ||
|- id="2001 TY253" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.63 || 2.6 km || multiple || 1999–2020 || 25 May 2020 || 95 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2012 WZ15 ||
|- id="2001 TZ253" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.09 || 1.0 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 30 Jun 2021 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TA254" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.05 || 2.2 km || multiple || 1996–2021 || 11 Jul 2021 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TB254" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 18.6 || data-sort-value="0.80" | 800 m || multiple || 2001–2018 || 08 Jul 2018 || 19 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 21 August 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TC254" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 19.32 || data-sort-value="0.41" | 410 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 30 Nov 2021 || 45 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TE254" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 07 Jan 2021 || 119 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TG254" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.26 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 17 Apr 2021 || 29 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 21 August 2021Alt.: 2016 HH33 ||
|- id="2001 TH254" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.02 || 2.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 25 May 2020 || 51 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TR254" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.00 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 07 Dec 2020 || 28 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TS254" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.2 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 22 Jan 2020 || 109 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TV254" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || HIL || 15.4 || 4.6 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 15 Jan 2021 || 73 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TY254" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.30 || 3.1 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 29 Apr 2021 || 166 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TE255" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 2 || || HIL || 16.3 || 3.1 km || multiple || 2001–2017 || 23 Sep 2017 || 22 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2001 TG255" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2018 || 04 Dec 2018 || 49 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2007 VD264 ||
|- id="2001 TH255" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 1 || || MBA-O || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2017 || 29 Sep 2017 || 29 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2015 HG129 ||
|- id="2001 TM255" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.58 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2001–2022 || 27 Jan 2022 || 92 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TO255" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.6 || 2.7 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 13 May 2020 || 108 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2014 DN138 ||
|- id="2001 TQ255" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.6 || 2.7 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 Jun 2021 || 87 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2018 VW70 ||
|- id="2001 TS255" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 1 || || MBA-O || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2017 || 14 Dec 2017 || 31 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TM256" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 25 Jan 2019 || 49 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2011 CP66 ||
|- id="2001 TD257" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 19.18 || data-sort-value="0.43" | 430 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 10 Nov 2021 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TP257" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| – || || MBA-M || 19.7 || data-sort-value="0.34" | 340 m || single || 14 days || 24 Oct 2001 || 14 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TR257" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 2 || || MBA-M || 19.3 || data-sort-value="0.77" | 770 m || multiple || 2001–2015 || 03 Dec 2015 || 24 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TA258" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.1 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 16 Jan 2021 || 99 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TG258" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.71 || data-sort-value="0.85" | 850 m || multiple || 2000–2021 || 01 Oct 2021 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TA259" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.21 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 31 Aug 2021 || 81 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2011 FU98 ||
|- id="2001 TC259" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.9 || data-sort-value="0.78" | 780 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 08 Dec 2020 || 58 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2012 RM31 ||
|- id="2001 TE259" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.9 || data-sort-value="0.49" | 490 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 24 Dec 2019 || 57 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TH259" bgcolor=#fefefe
| – || || MBA-I || 18.8 || data-sort-value="0.52" | 520 m || single || 8 days || 23 Oct 2001 || 9 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TJ259" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 16.9 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 12 Dec 2020 || 147 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2013 MQ1 ||
|- id="2001 TK259" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.52 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2001–2022 || 09 Jan 2022 || 82 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TR259" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 27 Nov 2019 || 127 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TS259" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 14 Jan 2021 || 121 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2015 RJ208 ||
|- id="2001 TU259" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 23 Jun 2020 || 83 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2014 SJ345 ||
|- id="2001 TV259" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 27 Sep 2019 || 105 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2012 UL118 ||
|- id="2001 TC260" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.2 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 16 Jan 2021 || 128 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2010 ND11 ||
|- id="2001 TE260" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 19.0 || data-sort-value="0.47" | 470 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 04 Sep 2019 || 198 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2012 UF52 ||
|- id="2001 TG260" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| – || || MBA-M || 19.8 || data-sort-value="0.61" | 610 m || single || 11 days || 25 Oct 2001 || 6 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TH260" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.7 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 23 Mar 2020 || 122 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2010 YH5 ||
|- id="2001 TL260" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 1 || || MBA-O || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 20 Mar 2021 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2018 VF127 ||
|- id="2001 TM260" bgcolor=#fefefe
| – || || MBA-I || 20.3 || data-sort-value="0.26" | 260 m || single || 11 days || 25 Oct 2001 || 6 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TO260" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.79 || data-sort-value="0.52" | 520 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 24 Nov 2021 || 102 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TP260" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.39 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 31 Aug 2021 || 49 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TT260" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.8 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 16 Jan 2021 || 139 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2012 PG44 ||
|- id="2001 TD261" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| – || || MBA-M || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || single || 8 days || 18 Oct 2001 || 10 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TE261" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 2001–2017 || 13 Aug 2017 || 41 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TG261" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 20 Dec 2019 || 104 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TH261" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| – || || MBA-M || 19.4 || data-sort-value="0.39" | 390 m || single || 13 days || 23 Oct 2001 || 12 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TL261" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.28 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 30 Nov 2021 || 57 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TP261" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.65 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 May 2021 || 82 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TS261" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.28 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 30 May 2021 || 176 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2014 SG246 ||
|- id="2001 TT261" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 16.9 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 31 Jan 2020 || 110 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2014 OY278 ||
|- id="2001 TU261" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.65 || 2.6 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 22 Apr 2021 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TV261" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 18.41 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 30 Nov 2021 || 74 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TW261" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 18.31 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 30 Oct 2021 || 60 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TY261" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.0 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 20 Feb 2020 || 97 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TA262" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.3 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 17 Jan 2021 || 92 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2010 GO151 ||
|- id="2001 TB262" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.83 || data-sort-value="0.81" | 810 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 24 Oct 2021 || 120 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TC262" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| – || || MBA-M || 17.9 || data-sort-value="0.78" | 780 m || single || 16 days || 24 Oct 2001 || 8 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TF262" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 1996–2021 || 14 Jan 2021 || 177 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2012 BM73 ||
|- id="2001 TH262" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.20 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 07 Apr 2021 || 148 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2010 UQ25 ||
|- id="2001 TJ262" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.57 || data-sort-value="0.91" | 910 m || multiple || 2001–2022 || 27 Jan 2022 || 178 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TL262" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.8 || 2.4 km || multiple || 1995–2021 || 07 Jun 2021 || 53 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2012 UD148 ||
|- id="2001 TM262" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.04 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 05 Jul 2021 || 281 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2010 XO38 ||
|- id="2001 TO262" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.7 || data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 149 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2010 CS25 ||
|- id="2001 TP262" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.43 || data-sort-value="0.97" | 970 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 Aug 2021 || 58 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TR262" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.35 || 1.0 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 31 Oct 2021 || 304 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2008 GQ24 ||
|- id="2001 TV262" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.92 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 18 May 2021 || 62 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TX262" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.5 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 15 Apr 2020 || 106 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2014 YU47 ||
|- id="2001 TY262" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 23 Oct 2019 || 96 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TZ262" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.5 || 2.8 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 23 May 2020 || 150 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2007 VL228 ||
|- id="2001 TA263" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.7 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 01 Jan 2019 || 77 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2014 SG219 ||
|- id="2001 TB263" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 09 Jun 2021 || 106 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TC263" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 24 Dec 2019 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2015 PH181 ||
|- id="2001 TD263" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || HUN || 18.09 || data-sort-value="0.72" | 720 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 06 May 2021 || 170 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2008 EE32, 2009 WB106 ||
|- id="2001 TG263" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.7 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 07 Sep 2019 || 61 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2010 MC36 ||
|- id="2001 TH263" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 15 Jan 2021 || 49 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TL263" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.2 || 3.2 km || multiple || 1996–2020 || 16 Apr 2020 || 137 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2017 UP8 ||
|- id="2001 TN263" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 15.6 || 4.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 31 May 2021 || 162 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2010 CN190, 2010 OY93 ||
|- id="2001 TO263" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.0 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 15 Jan 2021 || 37 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TP263" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 16.8 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 22 Dec 2020 || 92 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2014 QF345 ||
|- id="2001 TU263" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.14 || 2.1 km || multiple || 1994–2022 || 05 Jan 2022 || 127 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TV263" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.49 || data-sort-value="0.94" | 940 m || multiple || 2001–2022 || 25 Jan 2022 || 165 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TX263" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.00 || 2.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 09 Sep 2021 || 155 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TY263" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.42 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 10 Apr 2021 || 102 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TZ263" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.1 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 16 Dec 2020 || 119 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TA264" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.3 || 3.1 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 25 May 2020 || 104 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TC264" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.44 || 2.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 22 May 2021 || 84 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TF264" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.5 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2018 || 02 Oct 2018 || 64 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TG264" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 02 Nov 2019 || 89 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TJ264" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.2 || 3.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 25 Jan 2020 || 94 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TK264" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 16.7 || 2.5 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 15 Jan 2021 || 115 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TL264" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.8 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 14 Nov 2020 || 88 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TM264" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.4 || 2.9 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 26 Apr 2020 || 83 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TN264" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || HUN || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 07 Jan 2019 || 56 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TO264" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.8 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 18 Dec 2020 || 62 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TP264" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.52 || 2.8 km || multiple || 1995–2021 || 03 Apr 2021 || 117 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TQ264" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.48 || 2.8 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 15 Jun 2021 || 112 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TR264" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.91 || data-sort-value="0.78" | 780 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 24 Nov 2021 || 102 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TT264" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.7 || 2.5 km || multiple || 1996–2020 || 28 Apr 2020 || 80 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TV264" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.4 || data-sort-value="0.98" | 980 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 68 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TX264" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.7 || data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 03 Dec 2019 || 89 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TY264" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.4 || 2.9 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 23 Apr 2020 || 70 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TZ264" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 23 Dec 2020 || 56 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TB265" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 02 Apr 2019 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TC265" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 02 Jan 2020 || 49 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TD265" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 21 Apr 2020 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TE265" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.62 || data-sort-value="0.56" | 560 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 17 Apr 2021 || 54 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TF265" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.36 || data-sort-value="0.63" | 630 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 31 May 2021 || 88 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TG265" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.87 || data-sort-value="0.79" | 790 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 11 May 2021 || 57 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TH265" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 1994–2019 || 17 Dec 2019 || 75 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TK265" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.8 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 27 Apr 2020 || 62 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TL265" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.67 || 2.6 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 03 Oct 2021 || 142 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TM265" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 55 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TN265" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.8 || data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 20 Oct 2020 || 61 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TO265" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.44 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 Aug 2021 || 50 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TP265" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.43 || data-sort-value="0.61" | 610 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 05 Dec 2021 || 76 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TR265" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.6 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 71 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TS265" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.5 || 2.8 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 17 Jan 2021 || 73 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TT265" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 19.21 || data-sort-value="0.43" | 430 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 Sep 2021 || 48 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TU265" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.7 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2001–2018 || 20 Jan 2018 || 32 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TW265" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.1 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 12 Jun 2021 || 79 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TX265" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.94 || data-sort-value="0.48" | 480 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 46 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TY265" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.49 || data-sort-value="0.60" | 600 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 14 Apr 2021 || 77 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TZ265" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.4 || 2.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 18 Jan 2021 || 80 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TA266" bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 0 || || JT || 13.4 || 12 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 23 Jun 2020 || 153 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch IITrojan camp (L5) ||
|- id="2001 TB266" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.8 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 16 May 2020 || 88 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TC266" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 16.75 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 30 Jun 2021 || 153 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TD266" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 04 Jan 2021 || 89 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TE266" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.40 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2001–2022 || 26 Jan 2022 || 80 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TF266" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.5 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 27 Oct 2019 || 58 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TG266" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.2 || 3.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 11 Dec 2020 || 69 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TH266" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 17.7 || data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 16 Jan 2021 || 65 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TJ266" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 23 Jan 2020 || 92 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TK266" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 0 || || MCA || 17.78 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 12 May 2020 || 67 || align=left | Disc.: LONEOS ||
|- id="2001 TM266" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 29 Nov 2019 || 53 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TN266" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 31 Oct 2019 || 67 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch IIAlt.: 2010 MZ49 ||
|- id="2001 TO266" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 14 Jan 2021 || 53 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TP266" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.86 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 13 May 2021 || 54 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TQ266" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.9 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 27 Oct 2019 || 49 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TR266" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.10 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 May 2021 || 70 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TS266" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.15 || 2.1 km || multiple || 1995–2021 || 10 Apr 2021 || 78 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TT266" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.3 || 3.1 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 22 Jan 2021 || 68 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TU266" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.09 || 1.0 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 20 Mar 2021 || 45 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TV266" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 21 Jan 2020 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TW266" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 19.3 || data-sort-value="0.41" | 410 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 08 May 2019 || 40 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TY266" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.57 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 18 May 2021 || 67 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TZ266" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 15 Jan 2021 || 50 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TA267" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.78 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 11 May 2021 || 84 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TB267" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.6 || data-sort-value="0.57" | 570 m || multiple || 2001–2018 || 02 Nov 2018 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TC267" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 24 Oct 2019 || 38 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TD267" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.1 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 29 Oct 2019 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TE267" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 19.0 || data-sort-value="0.47" | 470 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 28 Nov 2019 || 36 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TF267" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.30 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 15 Apr 2021 || 41 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TG267" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || HIL || 15.7 || 4.0 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 16 May 2020 || 79 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2017 UL86 ||
|- id="2001 TH267" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 22 Jan 2020 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TJ267" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 19.1 || data-sort-value="0.45" | 450 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 08 Nov 2019 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TK267" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.02 || 2.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 07 Jun 2021 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TL267" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.0 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 24 Jan 2020 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TM267" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2001–2018 || 15 Dec 2018 || 31 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TN267" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.0 || 2.2 km || multiple || 2001–2018 || 13 Dec 2018 || 29 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TO267" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 06 Sep 2019 || 30 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TP267" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.8 || data-sort-value="0.52" | 520 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 22 Aug 2019 || 31 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TQ267" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.8 || data-sort-value="0.52" | 520 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 23 Sep 2019 || 34 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TR267" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 1 || || MBA-I || 18.9 || data-sort-value="0.49" | 490 m || multiple || 2001–2017 || 30 Aug 2017 || 32 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TS267" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 16 Dec 2020 || 159 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TT267" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.1 || data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 27 Oct 2019 || 76 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TU267" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.0 || 2.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 07 Dec 2020 || 86 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2010 JV19 ||
|- id="2001 TV267" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 20 Dec 2019 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TW267" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 11 Dec 2020 || 69 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TX267" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.53 || data-sort-value="0.58" | 580 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 18 May 2021 || 59 || align=left | Disc.: NEAT ||
|- id="2001 TY267" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.8 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 03 Jan 2021 || 62 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TZ267" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.4 || 1.8 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 29 Sep 2019 || 56 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TA268" bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 0 || || JT || 14.5 || 7.0 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 26 Jun 2020 || 69 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchTrojan camp (L5) ||
|- id="2001 TB268" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.52 || 2.8 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 07 Jun 2021 || 88 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAlt.: 2010 NJ37 ||
|- id="2001 TC268" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 27 Oct 2019 || 56 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAlt.: 2010 KC103 ||
|- id="2001 TD268" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.84 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 15 Apr 2021 || 65 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TE268" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.0 || data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 17 Nov 2020 || 100 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TG268" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.5 || data-sort-value="0.59" | 590 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 23 Sep 2019 || 40 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TH268" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.46 || 1.4 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 03 May 2021 || 58 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TJ268" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.57 || data-sort-value="0.57" | 570 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 13 May 2021 || 70 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TK268" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.7 || data-sort-value="0.54" | 540 m || multiple || 2000–2019 || 24 Aug 2019 || 41 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TL268" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.2 || data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 03 Oct 2019 || 38 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TM268" bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 0 || || JT || 14.5 || 7.0 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 23 Jun 2020 || 57 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSTrojan camp (L5) ||
|- id="2001 TN268" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 18.2 || 1.3 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 03 Sep 2019 || 38 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TO268" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.63 || 2.6 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 31 Oct 2021 || 92 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TP268" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.3 || data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 19 Apr 2020 || 28 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TQ268" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 2 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 28 Aug 2019 || 30 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch II ||
|- id="2001 TS268" bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 0 || || JT || 14.26 || 7.8 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 07 Jul 2021 || 132 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSTrojan camp (L5)Alt.: 2012 RM48 ||
|- id="2001 TT268" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.68 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 17 Apr 2021 || 67 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TV268" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.7 || 1.2 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 26 Jan 2020 || 45 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TW268" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.3 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 19 Apr 2020 || 41 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TX268" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 4 || || MBA-I || 18.9 || data-sort-value="0.49" | 490 m || multiple || 2001–2019 || 28 Oct 2019 || 23 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TZ268" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.7 || 2.5 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 03 Jan 2020 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TA269" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.0 || 2.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 10 May 2021 || 52 || align=left | Disc.: ADAS ||
|- id="2001 TB269" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.27 || 2.0 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 13 May 2021 || 56 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TC269" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.8 || 1.5 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 17 Jan 2021 || 65 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAlt.: 2010 NR125 ||
|- id="2001 TD269" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 26 Jan 2020 || 51 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TF269" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.1 || 1.0 km || multiple || 2001–2020 || 02 Feb 2020 || 48 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TG269" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 2 || || MBA-O || 17.28 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 10 Jul 2021 || 39 || align=left | Disc.: Spacewatch ||
|- id="2001 TH269" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.52 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 31 May 2021 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: SDSS ||
|- id="2001 TJ269" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.9 || 1.1 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 07 Jan 2019 || 36 || align=left | Disc.: NEATAdded on 22 July 2020 ||
|- id="2001 TK269" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.8 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 Jun 2021 || 47 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAdded on 19 October 2020 ||
|- id="2001 TL269" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.02 || 2.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 09 Aug 2021 || 44 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 19 October 2020 ||
|- id="2001 TM269" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 0 || || MBA-I || 18.56 || data-sort-value="0.58" | 580 m || multiple || 2001–2022 || 25 Jan 2022 || 41 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAdded on 17 January 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TO269" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.7 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2001–2019 || 25 Sep 2019 || 43 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 17 January 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TP269" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 18.4 || data-sort-value="0.88" | 880 m || multiple || 2001–2018 || 07 Sep 2018 || 91 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAdded on 17 January 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TQ269" bgcolor=#fefefe
| 2 || || MBA-I || 19.7 || data-sort-value="0.34" | 340 m || multiple || 2001–2020 || 14 Dec 2020 || 51 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 17 January 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TS269" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.9 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2001–2017 || 22 Oct 2017 || 36 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch IIAdded on 9 March 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TT269" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 0 || || MBA-M || 17.56 || 1.7 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 12 Feb 2021 || 75 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAdded on 11 May 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TU269" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.85 || 2.4 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 12 Feb 2021 || 42 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 17 June 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TV269" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 16.9 || 2.3 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 08 May 2021 || 48 || align=left | Disc.: SpacewatchAdded on 17 June 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TW269" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.1 || 2.1 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 05 Jul 2021 || 44 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 21 August 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TX269" bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 1 || || MBA-M || 18.99 || data-sort-value="0.67" | 670 m || multiple || 2001–2018 || 07 Nov 2018 || 20 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 21 August 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TZ269" bgcolor=#FA8072
| 1 || || MCA || 20.74 || data-sort-value="0.21" | 210 m || multiple || 2001–2021 || 05 Oct 2021 || 38 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch IIAdded on 30 September 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TA270" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.02 || 2.2 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 07 Nov 2021 || 69 || align=left | Disc.: LPL/Spacewatch IIAdded on 5 November 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TB270" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.70 || 1.6 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 10 Nov 2021 || 40 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 24 December 2021 ||
|- id="2001 TC270" bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 0 || || MBA-O || 17.33 || 1.9 km || multiple || 2001–2021 || 19 Mar 2021 || 27 || align=left | Disc.: SDSSAdded on 24 December 2021 ||
|}
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References
Lists of unnumbered minor planets |
25389023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Weckert | John Weckert | John Weckert (BA – University of Adelaide, Graduate Diploma in Computer Science – La Trobe University, Master of Arts – La Trobe University, Doctor of Philosophy – University of Melbourne) is an Australian philosopher who has been an influential figure in, and substantial contributor to the field of information and computer ethics. He has published many books and journal articles outlining his research in this field.
He is the founder and editor-in-chief of the journal Nanoethics: Ethics for Technologies that Converge at the Nanoscale, as well as the Australian Computer Society (ACS) representative on the Technical Committee on Computers and Society. He works closely with the ACS on various projects, including developing case studies to accompany the ACS Code of Ethics, with the case studies linking to clauses outlined in the CoE. He is also the manager of the Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics (CAPPE) Program on Emerging Technologies: IT and Nanotechnology at Charles Sturt University. He is currently the Senior Professor of Information Technology in the School of Information Studies at Charles Sturt University.
Education and profession
Qualifications
Ph.D. University of Melbourne, 1985, Philosophy.
Diploma of Computer Science, LaTrobe University, 1985.
M.A. LaTrobe University, 1977, Philosophy.
B.A. (Hons)(First class) University of Adelaide, 1974, Philosophy.
Positions held
Professor of Computer Ethics, School of Humanities and social Sciences, Charles Sturt University
Professorial Fellow, Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics, an ARC funded Special Research Centre
2003–2006: Professor of Information Technology, School of Information Studies
October – December 2006 – Erasmus Scholar NTNU, Trondheim, Norway and Linköping University, Sweden
January – March 2004 – Visiting Professor of Philosophy, Dartmouth College, USA
2000–2002: Associate Professor of Information Technology
July 1991 –December 1999: Senior Lecturer in Information Technology
September 1986 – July 1991: Lecturer in Computing, Charles Sturt University
1985–86: Lecturer in Computing/Philosophy, Melbourne College of Advanced Education
1977–84: Lecturer in Philosophy, Melbourne College of Advanced Education
1976: Senior Tutor in Philosophy, University of Western Australia
1975: Tutor in Philosophy, Monash University
Contributions to information ethics
Weckert has contributed many ideas to Information Ethics, specifically relative to the relationship between the philosophical and applied sides of Information and Computer Ethics.
Trust in an online environment
Weckert has done extensive research on the idea of trust within an online environment. He sums up his theories in his 2005 article, "Trust in Cyberspace".
In the article, Weckert focuses on a few key issues regarding the concept of trust and if and when it may be possible in cyberspace. Trust has both cognitive and non-cognitive aspects: one may feel a certain way about another's trustworthiness without believing it in their mind. Trust opens one up to a degree of risk and is thus indispensable to friendship. Weckert opposes trust with monitoring by arguing that in order for trust to exist there must be limits on monitoring. He argues that a lack of community values or online social norms makes the internet less trustworthy but this obstacle may dissipate over time. He also addresses the hurdles that online anonymity and disembodiment put in front of online trust.
In terms of the effect trust has on the average person (or digital representation of a person) in an online environment, Weckert's ideas apply similarly. He assesses some factors relevant to video gaming, where trust is often an issue, specifically when playing against human opponents. In his 2005 article, he specifies some methods for obtaining online trust, and his second method focuses on how to do so in the context of e-commerce. Near the end he mentions that developing trust in areas such as chat groups is not as much of a problem because not as much is at stake. This is also true in some cases with respect to online gaming. While gaming certainly does not place as much at stake as a financial transaction, players sometimes have a very strong connection to the game or some part of the game such as their avatar, and for this reason trust is an important factor for them within the game.
Trust in relation to cheating
Weckert's work with online trust also has significant implications on cheating. Due to the increased sense of community and closeness associated with the establishment of trust in an online environment, occurrences of cheating are likely to decline. In Mia Consalvo's 2007 article on gaining advantages in video games, she states that one sense of cheating can be defined as "violating the spirit of the game." The "spirit of the game" is less likely to be violated if each player in the virtual world has some type of trust that the others will respect the game in at least a similar sense to their own. By definition, the spirit of the game would not be violated by the players (or at least minimally violated), therefore by definition this would mean that cheating would at least decline.
Other contributions
In addition to his work related to trust, Weckert has contributed to many other areas within Information and Computer Ethics. Recently, he has begun research on the application of the precautionary principle to nanotechnology. This research involves a careful analysis of the real and potential risks of developments in nanotechnology, as well as an examination of just what the precautionary principle is.
Publications
Weckert has published both books and scholarly journal entries. This is an abridged version of the list of his work, as he has contributed to many other publications including guest editorships, book chapters, conferences, talks, and professional magazines.
Articles
(reprinted in Robert K. Miller above).
Books
Weckert, John; Al-Saggaf, Yeslam (eds), Selected papers from the Computers and Philosophy (CAP) conference, The Australian National University, 13 October – 2 November 2003. CRPIT, vol 37: Australian Computer Society, Sydney.
(Proceedings of the Libraries and Expert Systems conference, Charles Sturt University – Riverina, July 1990).
See also
Trust: Trust in an online environment
Cheating: Cheating in an online environment
References
Australian philosophers
Living people
Charles Sturt University faculty
University of Melbourne alumni
University of Adelaide alumni
La Trobe University alumni
Year of birth missing (living people) |
30723783 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Stal | Michael Stal | Michael Stal (born 1963 in Munich) is German computer scientist. He received a Ph.D. title from the University of Groningen which appointed him an honorary professorship for software engineering in 2010.
Stal is currently working for the corporate technology department of Siemens AG and as a professor at University of Groningen. He is editor-in-chief of the Java programming language magazine JavaSPEKTRUM.
Stal co-authored the book series Pattern-Oriented Software Architecture.
Volume 1 ”A System of Patterns” book introduced Architecture Patterns, classified different categories of Design Patterns, and a method how to use Pattern Systems.
Volume 2 addresses “Patterns for Concurrent and Distributed Objects”.
In addition to software architecture, his research fields comprise distributed computing middleware, systems integration, programming languages, and programming paradigms.
Stal has been member of the Object Management Group and participated in the standardization of C++.
Works
Michael Stal Understanding and Analyzing Software Architecture (of Distributed Systems) using Patterns, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, 2007,
Frank Buschmann, Regine Meunier, Hans Rohnert, Peter Sommerlad, Michael Stal Pattern-Oriented Software Architecture - A System of Patterns, Wiley & Sons, 1996,
Douglas C. Schmidt, Michael Stal, Hans Rohnert, Frank Buschmann Pattern-Oriented Software Architecture - Patterns for Concurrent and Networked Objects, Wiley & Sons, 2000,
References
External links
website of Michael Stal
blog of Michael Stal
German computer scientists
Scientists from Munich
1963 births
Living people
Technical University of Munich alumni
University of Groningen alumni
University of Groningen faculty |
1884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII%20art | ASCII art | ASCII art is a graphic design technique that uses computers for presentation and consists of pictures pieced together from the 95 printable (from a total of 128) characters defined by the ASCII Standard from 1963 and ASCII compliant character sets with proprietary extended characters (beyond the 128 characters of standard 7-bit ASCII). The term is also loosely used to refer to text based visual art in general. ASCII art can be created with any text editor, and is often used with free-form languages. Most examples of ASCII art require a fixed-width font (non-proportional fonts, as on a traditional typewriter) such as Courier for presentation.
Among the oldest known examples of ASCII art are the
creations by computer-art pioneer Kenneth Knowlton from around 1966, who was working for Bell Labs at the time. "Studies in Perception I" by Ken Knowlton and Leon Harmon from 1966 shows some examples of their early ASCII art.
ASCII art was invented, in large part, because early printers often lacked graphics ability and thus characters were used in place of graphic marks. Also, to mark divisions between different print jobs from different users, bulk printers often used ASCII art to print large banner pages, making the division easier to spot so that the results could be more easily separated by a computer operator or clerk. ASCII art was also used in early e-mail when images could not be embedded.
History
Typewriter art
Since 1867, typewriters have been used for creating visual art.
TTY and RTTY
TTY stands for "TeleTYpe" or "TeleTYpewriter", and is also known as Teleprinter or Teletype.
RTTY stands for Radioteletype; character sets such as Baudot code, which predated ASCII, were used. According to a chapter in the "RTTY Handbook", text images have been sent via teletypewriter as early as 1923. However, none of the "old" RTTY art has been discovered yet. What is known is that text images appeared frequently on radioteletype in the 1960s and the 1970s.
Line-printer art
In the 1960s, Andries van Dam published a representation of an electronic circuit produced on an IBM 1403 line printer. At the same time, Kenneth Knowlton was producing realistic images, also on line printers, by overprinting several characters on top of one another.
Note that it was not ASCII art in a sense that the 1403 was driven by an EBCDIC-coded platform and the character sets and trains available on the 1403 were derived from EBCDIC rather than ASCII, despite some glyphs commonalities.
ASCII art
The widespread usage of ASCII art can be traced to the computer bulletin board systems of the late 1970s and early 1980s. The limitations of computers of that time period necessitated the use of text characters to represent images. Along with ASCII's use in communication, however, it also began to appear in the underground online art groups of the period. An ASCII comic is a form of webcomic which uses ASCII text to create images. In place of images in a regular comic, ASCII art is used, with the text or dialog usually placed underneath.
During the 1990s, graphical browsing and variable-width fonts became increasingly popular, leading to a decline in ASCII art. Despite this, ASCII art continued to survive through online MUDs, an acronym for "Multi-User Dungeon", (which are textual multiplayer role-playing video games), Internet Relay Chat, Email, message boards and other forms of online communication which commonly employ the needed fixed-width.
ANSI
ASCII and more importantly, ANSI were staples of the early technological era; terminal systems relied on coherent presentation using color and control signals standard in the terminal protocols.
Over the years, warez groups began to enter the ASCII art scene. Warez groups usually release .nfo files with their software, cracks or other general software reverse-engineering releases. The ASCII art will usually include the warez group's name and maybe some ASCII borders on the outsides of the release notes, etc.
BBS systems were based on ASCII and ANSI art, as were most DOS and similar console applications, and the precursor to AOL.
Uses
ASCII art is used wherever text can be more readily printed or transmitted than graphics, or in some cases, where the transmission of pictures is not possible. This includes typewriters, teleprinters, non-graphic computer terminals, printer separators, in early computer networking (e.g., BBSes), email, and Usenet news messages. ASCII art is also used within the source code of computer programs for representation of company or product logos, and flow control or other diagrams. In some cases, the entire source code of a program is a piece of ASCII art – for instance, an entry to one of the earlier International Obfuscated C Code Contest is a program that adds numbers, but visually looks like a binary adder drawn in logic ports.
Some electronic schematic archives represent the circuits using ASCII art.
Examples of ASCII-style art predating the modern computer era can be found in the June 1939, July 1948 and October 1948 editions of Popular Mechanics.
Early computer games played on terminals frequently used ASCII art to simulate graphics, most notably the roguelike genre using ASCII art to visually represent dungeons and monsters within them. "0verkill" is a 2D platform multiplayer shooter game designed entirely in color ASCII art. MPlayer and VLC media player can display videos as ASCII art through the AAlib library. ASCII art is used in the making of DOS-based ZZT games.
Many game walkthrough guides come as part of a basic .txt file; this file often contains the name of the game in ASCII art. Such as below, word art is created using backslashes and other ASCII values in order to create the illusion of 3D.
Types and styles
Different techniques could be used in ASCII art to obtain different artistic effects. Electronic circuits and diagrams were implemented by typewriter or teletype and provided the pretense for ASCII.
"Typewriter-style" lettering, made from individual letter characters:
Line art, for creating shapes:
.--. /\
'--' /__\ (^._.^)~ <(o.o )>
Solid art, for creating filled objects:
.g@8g. db
'Y8@P' d88b
Shading, using symbols with various intensities for creating gradients or contrasts:
:$#$: "4b. ':.
:$#$: "4b. ':.
Combinations of the above, often used as signatures, for example, at the end of an email:
|\_/| **************************** (\_/)
/ @ @ \ * "Purrrfectly pleasant" * (='.'=)
( > º < ) * Poppy Prinz * (")_(")
`>>x<<´ * () *
/ O \ ****************************
As-pixel characters use combinations of ░ , █ , ▄ and ▀ (Block Elements) to make pictures:
▄▄▄▄▄▄▄░▄▄▄▄▄▄▄░▄▄▄▄▄▄░▄▄▄▄▄
░░▀███░░░░▀██░░░░██▀░░░░██░░
░░░▀██░░░░░▀██░░▄█░░░░░▄█░░░
░░░░███░░░░░▀██▄█░░░░░░█░░░░
░░░░░███░░░░░▀██░░░░░░█▀░░░░
░░░░░░███░░░░▄███░░░░█▀░░░░░
░░░░░░░██▄░░▄▀░███░░█▀░░░░░░
░░░░░░░▀██▄█▀░░░███▄▀░░░░░░░
░░░░░░░░▀██▀░░░░░███░░░░░░░░
░░░░░░░░░▀▀░░░░░░░▀░░░░░░░░░
Emoticons and verticons
The simplest forms of ASCII art are combinations of two or three characters for expressing emotion in text. They are commonly referred to as 'emoticon', 'smilie', or 'smiley'. There is another type of one-line ASCII art that does not require the mental rotation of pictures, which is widely known in Japan as kaomoji (literally "face characters".)
More complex examples use several lines of text to draw large symbols or more complex figures. Hundreds of different text smileys have developed over time, but only a few are generally accepted, used and understood.
ASCII comic
An ASCII comic is a form of webcomic.
The Adventures of Nerd Boy
The Adventures of Nerd Boy, or just Nerd Boy, was an ASCII comic, published by Joaquim Gândara between 5 August 2001 and 17 July 2007, and consisting of 600 strips. They were posted to ASCII art newsgroup alt.ascii-art and on the website. Some strips have been translated to Polish and French.
Styles of the computer underground text art scene
Atari 400/800 ATASCII
The Atari 400/800, which were released in 1979, did not follow the ASCII standard and had their own character set, called ATASCII. The emergence of ATASCII art coincided with the growing popularity of BBS Systems caused by availability of the acoustic couplers that were compatible with the 8-bit home computers. ATASCII text animations are also referred to as "break animations" by the Atari sceners.
C-64 PETSCII
The Commodore 64, which was released in 1982, also did not follow the ASCII standard. The C-64 character set is called PETSCII, an extended form of ASCII-1963. As with the Atari's ATASCII art, C-64 fans developed a similar scene that used PETSCII for their creations.
"Block ASCII" / "High ASCII" style ASCII art on the IBM PC
So-called "block ASCII" or "high ASCII" uses the extended characters of the 8-bit code page 437, which is a proprietary standard introduced by IBM in 1979 (ANSI Standard x3.16) for the IBM PC DOS and MS-DOS operating systems. "Block ASCIIs" were widely used on the PC during the 1990s until the Internet replaced BBSes as the main communication platform. Until then, "block ASCIIs" dominated the PC Text Art Scene.
The first art scene group that focused on the extended character set of the PC in their art work was called "Aces of ANSI Art" (). Some members left in 1990, and formed a group called "ANSI Creators in Demand" (ACiD). In that same year the second major underground art scene group was founded, ICE, "Insane Creators Enterprise".
There is some debate between ASCII and block ASCII artist, with "Hardcore" ASCII artists maintaining that block ASCII art is in fact not ASCII art, because it does not use the 128 characters of the original ASCII standard. On the other hand, block ASCII artists argue that if their art uses only characters of the computers character set, then it is to be called ASCII, regardless if the character set is proprietary or not.
Microsoft Windows does not support the ANSI Standard x3.16. One can view block ASCIIs with a text editor using the font "Terminal", but it will not look exactly as it was intended by the artist. With a special ASCII/ANSI viewer, such as ACiDView for Windows (see ASCII and ANSI art viewers), one can see block ASCII and ANSI files properly. An example that illustrates the difference in appearance is part of this article. Alternatively, one could look at the file using the TYPE command in the command prompt.
"Amiga"/"Oldskool" style ASCII art
In the art scene one popular ASCII style that used the 7-bit standard ASCII character set was the so-called "Oldskool" style. It is also called "Amiga style", due to its origin and widespread use on the Commodore Amiga computers. The style uses primarily the characters: _/\-+=.()<>:. The "oldskool" art looks more like the outlined drawings of shapes than real pictures.
This is an example of "Amiga style" (also referred to as "old school" or "oldskool" style) scene ASCII art.
The Amiga ASCII scene surfaced in 1992, seven years after the introduction of the Commodore Amiga 1000. The Commodore 64 PETSCII scene did not make the transition to the Commodore Amiga as the C64 demo and warez scenes did. Among the first Amiga ASCII art groups were ART, Epsilon Design, Upper Class, Unreal (later known as "DeZign"). This means that the text art scene on the Amiga was actually younger than the text art scene on the PC. The Amiga artists also did not call their ASCII art style "Oldskool". That term was introduced on the PC. When and by whom is unknown and lost in history.
The Amiga style ASCII artwork was most often released in the form of a single text file, which included all the artwork (usually requested), with some design parts in between, as opposed to the PC art scene where the art work was released as a ZIP archive with separate text files for each piece. Furthermore, the releases were usually called "ASCII collections" and not "art packs" like on the IBM PC.
In text editors
_ ___ _ _
| ___|_ _/ ___| | ___| |_
| |_ | | | _| |/ _ \ __|
| _| | | |_| | | __/ |_
|_| |___\|_|\___|\__|
This kind of ASCII art is handmade in a text editor. Popular editors used to make this kind of ASCII art include Microsoft Notepad, CygnusEditor aka. CED (Amiga), and EditPlus2 (PC).
Oldskool font example from the PC, which was taken from the ASCII editor FIGlet.
Newskool style ASCII art
"Newskool" is a popular form of ASCII art which capitalizes on character strings like "$#Xxo". In spite of its name, the style is not "new"; on the contrary, it was very old but fell out of favor and was replaced by "Oldskool" and "Block" style ASCII art. It was dubbed "Newskool" upon its comeback and renewed popularity at the end of the 1990s.
Newskool changed significantly as the result of the introduction of extended proprietary characters. The classic 7-bit standard ASCII characters remain predominant, but the extended characters are often used for "fine tuning" and "tweaking". The style developed further after the introduction and adaptation of Unicode.
Methods for generating ASCII art
While some prefer to use a simple text editor to produce ASCII art, specialized programs, such as JavE have been developed that often simulate the features and tools in bitmap image editors. For Block ASCII art and ANSI art the artist almost always uses a special text editor, because to generate the required characters on a standard keyboard, one needs to know the Alt code for each character. For example, + will produce ▓, + will produce ▒, and + will produce ◘.
The special text editors have sets of special characters assigned to existing keys on the keyboard. Popular DOS-based editors, such as TheDraw and ACiDDraw had multiple sets of different special characters mapped to the function keys to make the use of those characters easier for the artist who can switch between individual sets of characters via basic keyboard shortcuts. PabloDraw is one of the very few special ASCII/ANSI art editors that were developed for Windows.
Image to text conversion
Other programs allow one to automatically convert an image to text characters, which is a special case of vector quantization. A method is to sample the image down to grayscale with less than 8-bit precision, and then assign a character for each value. Such ASCII art generators often allow users to choose the intensity and contrast of the generated image.
Three factors limit the fidelity of the conversion, especially of photographs:
depth (solutions: reduced line spacing; bold style; block elements; colored background; good shading);
sharpness (solutions: a longer text, with a smaller font; a greater set of characters; variable width fonts);
ratio (solutions with compatibility issues: font with a square grid; stylized without extra line spacing).
Examples of converted images are given below.
This is one of the earliest forms of ASCII art, dating back to the early days of the 1960s minicomputers and teletypes. During the 1970s, it was popular in US malls to get a t-shirt with a photograph printed in ASCII art on it from an automated kiosk containing a computer, and London's Science Museum had a similar service to produce printed portraits. With the advent of the web, HTML and CSS, many ASCII conversion programs will now quantize to a full RGB colorspace, enabling colorized ASCII images.
Still images or movies can also be converted to ASCII on various UNIX and UNIX-like systems using the AAlib (black and white) or libcaca (colour) graphics device driver, or the VLC media player or mpv under Windows, Linux or macOS; all of which render the screen using ASCII symbols instead of pixels.
There are also a number of smartphone applications, such as ASCII cam for Android, that generate ASCII art in real-time using input from the phone's camera. These applications typically allow the ASCII art to be saved as either a text file or as an image made up of ASCII text.
Non fixed-width ASCII
Most ASCII art is created using a monospaced font, where all characters are identical in width (Courier is a popular monospace font). Early computers in use when ASCII art came into vogue had monospaced fonts for screen and printer displays. Today, most of the more commonly used fonts in word processors, web browsers and other programs are proportional fonts, such as Helvetica or Times Roman, where different widths are used for different characters. ASCII art drawn for a fixed width font will usually appear distorted, or even unrecognizable when displayed in a proportional font.
Some ASCII artists have produced art for display in proportional fonts. These ASCIIs, rather than using a purely shade-based correspondence, use characters for slopes and borders and use block shading. These ASCIIs generally offer greater precision and attention to detail than fixed-width ASCIIs for a lower character count, although they are not as universally accessible since they are usually relatively font-specific.
Animated ASCII art
Animated ASCII art started in 1970 from so-called VT100 animations produced on VT100 terminals. These animations were simply text with cursor movement instructions, deleting and erasing the characters necessary to appear animated. Usually, they represented a long hand-crafted process undertaken by a single person to tell a story.
Contemporary web browser revitalized animated ASCII art again. It became possible to display animated ASCII art via JavaScript or Java applets. Static ASCII art pictures are loaded and displayed one after another, creating the animation, very similar to how movie projectors unreel film reel and project the individual pictures on the big screen at movie theaters. A new term was born: "ASCIImation" – another name of animated ASCII art. A seminal work in this arena is the Star Wars ASCIImation. More complicated routines in JavaScript generate more elaborate ASCIImations showing effects like Morphing effects, star field emulations, fading effects and calculated images, such as mandelbrot fractal animations.
There are now many tools and programs that can transform raster images into text symbols; some of these tools can operate on streaming video. For example, the music video for American singer Beck's song "Black Tambourine" is made up entirely of ASCII characters that approximate the original footage. VLC, a media player software, can render any video in colored ASCII through the libcaca module.
Other text-based visual art
There are a variety of other types of art using text symbols from character sets other than ASCII and/or some form of color coding. Despite not being pure ASCII, these are still often referred to as "ASCII art". The character set portion designed specifically for drawing is known as the line drawing characters or pseudo-graphics.
ANSI art
The IBM PC graphics hardware in text mode uses 16 bits per character. It supports a variety of configurations, but in its default mode under DOS they are used to give 256 glyphs from one of the IBM PC code pages (Code page 437 by default), 16 foreground colors, eight background colors, and a flash option. Such art can be loaded into screen memory directly. ANSI.SYS, if loaded, also allows such art to be placed on screen by outputting escape sequences that indicate movements of the screen cursor and color/flash changes. If this method is used then the art becomes known as ANSI art. The IBM PC code pages also include characters intended for simple drawing which often made this art appear much cleaner than that made with more traditional character sets. Plain text files are also seen with these characters, though they have become far less common since Windows GUI text editors (using the Windows ANSI code page) have largely replaced DOS-based ones.
Shift_JIS and Japan
In Japan, ASCII art (AA) is mainly known as Shift_JIS art. Shift JIS offers a larger selection of characters than plain ASCII (including characters from Japanese scripts and fullwidth forms of ASCII characters), and may be used for text-based art on Japanese websites.
Often, such artwork is designed to be viewed with the default Japanese font on a platform, such as the proportional MS P Gothic.
Kaomoji
Users on ASCII-NET, in which the word ASCII refers to the ASCII Corporation rather than the American Standard Code for Information Interchange, popularised a style of in which the face appears upright rather than rotated.
Unicode
Unicode would seem to offer the ultimate flexibility in producing text based art with its huge variety of characters. However, finding a suitable fixed-width font is likely to be difficult if a significant subset of Unicode is desired. (Modern UNIX-style operating systems do provide complete fixed-width Unicode fonts, e.g. for xterm. Windows has the Courier New font, which includes characters like ┌╥─╨┐♥☺Ƹ̵̡Ӝ̵̨̄Ʒ). Also, the common practice of rendering Unicode with a mixture of variable width fonts is likely to make predictable display hard, if more than a tiny subset of Unicode is used. ≽ʌⱷ҅ᴥⱷʌ≼ is an adequate representation of a cat's face in a font with varying character widths.
Control and combining characters
The combining characters mechanism of Unicode provides considerable ways of customizing the style, even obfuscating the text (e.g. via an online generator like Obfuscator, which focuses on the filters). Glitcher is one example of Unicode art, initiated in 2012: These symbols, intruding up and down, are made by combining lots of diacritical marks. It’s a kind of art. There’s quite a lot of artists who use the Internet or specific social networks as their canvas. The corresponding creations are favored in web browsers (thanks to their always better support), as geekily stylized usernames for social networks. With a fair compatibility, and among different online tools, [Facebook symbols] showcases various types of Unicode art, mainly for aesthetic purpose (Ɯıḳĭƥḙȡḯả Wîkipêȡıẚ Ẉǐḳîṗȅḍȉā Ẃįḵįṗẻḑìẵ Ẉĭḵɪṕḗdïą Ẇïƙỉpểɗĭà Ẅȉḱïṕȩđĩẵ etc.). Besides, the creations can be hand-crafted (by programming), or pasted from mobile applications (e.g. the category of 'fancy text' tools on Android). The underlying technique dates back to the old systems that incorporated control characters, though. E.g. the German composite ö would be imitated on ZX Spectrum by overwriting " after backspace and o.
Overprinting (surprint)
In the 1970s and early 1980s it was popular to produce a kind of text art that relied on overprinting. This could be produced either on a screen or on a printer by typing a character, backing up, and then typing another character, just as on a typewriter. This developed into sophisticated graphics in some cases, such as the PLATO system (circa 1973), where superscript and subscript allowed a wide variety of graphic effects. A common use was for emoticons, with WOBTAX and VICTORY both producing convincing smiley faces. Overprinting had previously been used on typewriters, but the low-resolution pixelation of characters on video terminals meant that overprinting here produced seamless pixel graphics, rather than visibly overstruck combinations of letters on paper.
Beyond pixel graphics, this was also used for printing photographs, as the overall darkness of a particular character space dependent on how many characters, as well as the choice of character, were printed in a particular place. Thanks to the increased granularity of tone, photographs were often converted to this type of printout. Even manual typewriters or daisy wheel printers could be used. The technique has fallen from popularity since all cheap printers can easily print photographs, and a normal text file (or an e-mail message or Usenet posting) cannot represent overprinted text. However, something similar has emerged to replace it: shaded or colored ASCII art, using ANSI video terminal markup or color codes (such as those found in HTML, IRC, and many internet message boards) to add a bit more tone variation. In this way, it is possible to create ASCII art where the characters only differ in color.
See also
Micrography
Types and styles: Alt code, ASCII stereogram, box-drawing characters, emoticon, FILE ID.DIZ, .nfo (release info file)
Pre-ASCII history: Calligram, Concrete poetry, Typewriter, Typewriter mystery game, Teleprinter, Radioteletype
Related art: ANSI art, ASCII porn, ATASCII, Fax art, PETSCII, Shift JIS art, Text semigraphics
Related context: Bulletin board system (BBS), Computer art scene, :Category:Artscene groups
Software: AAlib, cowsay
Unicode: Homoglyph, Duplicate characters in Unicode
References
Further reading
(Polish translators: Ania Górecka [ag], Asia Mazur [as], Błażej Kozłowski [bug], Janusz [jp], Łukasz Dąbrowski [luk], Łukasz Tyrała [lt.], Łukasz Wilk [wilu], Marcin Gliński [fsc])
External links
media4u.ch - ASCII Art (ASCII Art Movie. The Matrix in ASCII Art)
TexArt.io ASCII Art collection
Textfiles.com archive
Sixteen Colors ANSI Art and ASCII Art Archive
Defacto2.net Scene NFO Files Archive
Chris.com ASCII art collection
"As-Pixel Characters" ASCII art collection
ASCII Art Animation of Star Wars, "ASCIIMATION"
ASCII Keyboard Art Collection
Animasci
Computer art
Digital art
New media art
Internet art
Multimedia
Wikipedia articles with ASCII art |
19217643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Frank%20Statement | A Frank Statement | A Frank Statement to Cigarette Smokers was a historic first advertisement in a campaign run by major American tobacco companies on January 4, 1954, to create doubt by disputing recent scientific studies linking smoking cigarettes to lung cancer and other dangerous health effects.
Reaching an estimated 43 million people through more than 400 newspapers throughout the United States, A Frank Statement to Cigarette Smokers and subsequent advertisements were designed by public relations firm Hill & Knowlton to socially engineer the public's perceptions of tobacco and to instill doubt about scientific research linking disease and smoking. As a result of A Frank Statement and tobacco advertisements that still exist today, the tobacco industry continues to expand its markets by avoiding health concerns and portraying its products in a positive light.
Historical context
Reports of a link between tobacco and lung cancer emerged as early as 1912, but until the 1950s, the evidence was circumstantial since smoking was so pervasive in society.
In 1950, hoping to find the cause of the significant surge in lung cancer incidence in the US and England, Dr. Richard Doll and Professor Bradford Hill conducted a case-control study in which lung cancer, other cancer, and non-cancer patients from twenty London-area hospitals were interviewed about their smoking habits. The study, published in the British Medical Journal, found that the lung cancer patients were more likely to be heavier smokers than the other cancer and non-cancer control patients. These results revealed to the medical community that a link between smoking and lung cancer may exist. Smoking was so prevalent that before these results were published, the increase in lung cancer incidence was attributed to the growing presence of automobiles, roads, and factories in cities.
In 1950, Dr. Ernst Wynder and Evarts Ambrose Graham published a study in the Journal of the American Medical Association in which they interviewed 684 people with proven cases of lung cancer about their smoking habits. The study found that heavy and sustained usage of tobacco, especially in the form of cigarettes, increased the likelihood of developing of lung cancer. In 1952, to study the biological likelihood of cancer being linked to smoking, Wynder published an animal study in the US journal Cancer Research that found that tobacco tar was carcinogenic when applied to the skin of mice.
The December 1952 issue of Reader's Digest featured an article, titled Cancer by the Carton, that discussed these recent studies on the link between smoking and lung cancer. The article presented to the public the studies' conclusion that tobacco causes lung cancer. As a result, the article provoked a health scare, which resulted in a small drop in consumption, and a fall in stock prices.
In 1954, Doll and Hill published another article in the British Medical Journal releasing the results of the British Doctors Study, which revealed a significant pattern of increased death from lung cancer as the amount of tobacco smoked increased.
In the early 1950s, which were the immediate post-war years and the beginning of the nuclear age, science was very highly regarded by the public, so the accumulating scientific evidence linking tobacco to lung cancer posed a major threat to the tobacco companies' public image.
Social engineering
With mounting evidence of a link between smoking tobacco and lung cancer, tobacco companies faced a dilemma of whether to admit to or deny the health risks of smoking. In order to preserve their industry, the tobacco companies opted to completely deny health risks. Instead, the tobacco companies crafted a strategy that, through creative advertising and marketing, would manipulate the cultural context surrounding their product from one that regarded the product unfavorably to one that held the product in high esteem. This strategy is known as social engineering.
On December 15, 1953, led by Paul Hahn, the head of American Tobacco, the six major tobacco companies (American Tobacco Co., R. J. Reynolds, Philip Morris, Benson & Hedges, U.S. Tobacco Co., and Brown & Williamson) met with public relations company Hill & Knowlton in New York City to create an advertisement that would assuage the public's fears and create a false sense of security in order to regain the public's confidence in the tobacco industry. Hill and Knowlton's president, John W. Hill, realized that simply denying the health risks would not be enough to convince the public. Instead, a more effective method would be to create a major scientific controversy in which the scientifically established link between smoking tobacco and lung cancer would appear not to be conclusively known.
The tobacco companies fought against the emerging science by producing their own science, which suggested that existing science was incomplete and that the industry was not motivated by self-interest. With the creation of the Tobacco Industry Research Committee, headed by accomplished scientist C.C. Little, the tobacco companies manufactured doubt and turned scientific findings into a topic of debate. The recruitment of credentialed scientists like Little who were skeptics was a crucial aspect of the tobacco companies' social engineering plan to establish credibility against anti-smoking reports. By amplifying the voices of a few skeptical scientists, the industry created an illusion that the larger scientific community had not reached a conclusive agreement on the link between smoking and cancer.
Internal documents released through whistleblowers and litigation, such as the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement, reveal that while advertisements like A Frank Statement made tobacco companies appear to be responsible and concerned for the health of their consumers, in reality, they were deceiving the public into believing that smoking did not have health risks. The whole project was aimed at protecting the tobacco companies' images of glamour and all-American individualism at the cost of the public's health.
Claims
A Frank Statement to Cigarette Smokers claims:
That medical research of recent years indicates many possible causes of lung cancer.
That there is no agreement among the authorities regarding what the cause is.
That there is no proof that cigarette smoking is one of the causes.
That statistics purporting to link cigarette smoking with the disease could apply with equal force to any one of many other aspects of modern life. Indeed, the validity of the statistics themselves is questioned by numerous scientists.
The claims made in A Frank Statement were largely false as:
Recent medical research had indicated that while lung cancer does have many possible causes, smoking is by far the leading cause in many different types of cancer.
Most scientists, except for skeptics hired by the tobacco companies, agreed that cigarette smoking is linked to lung cancer incidence.
Multiple studies have shown a clear link between cigarette smoking and lung cancer.
The studies linking cigarette smoking to lung cancer controlled for the "many other aspects of modern life" to show that cigarette smoking is the main cause. Many of the "numerous scientists" who questioned the validity of the statistics were under the payroll of the tobacco companies.
Promises
The advertisement also made several promises on behalf of the tobacco industry which were later disputed by the scientific community. In A Frank Statement, the tobacco companies stated that they believed that their products were safe; however, in a 2002 assessment of the promises made by the advertisement, it was concluded that some tobacco industry scientists believed that there was a causal relationship between tobacco and cancer. Research was undertaken to find a safer cigarette, but tobacco companies realized that they could not produce a safer cigarette because doing so would mean admitting that current cigarettes were not safe. Thus, the industry responded to the growing public concern by marketing their cigarettes as having filters, milder smoke, and lower tar and nicotine content; however, they did not acknowledge a causal link with cancer until 1999.
A Frank Statement also pledged "aid and assistance to the research effort into all phases of tobacco use and health", and announced the establishment of the Tobacco Industry Research Committee (TIRC) to work towards that goal. Much of the TIRC funded research was not directly connected to smoking as it focused mainly on cancer basics, such as immunology, genetics, cell biology, pharmacology, and virology, rather than cancer's connection to smoking. Neither the TIRC nor its successor, the Council for Tobacco Research, ever acknowledged a proven link between smoking and serious and/or life-threatening illness. When research did find a link between smoking and cancer, however, the findings were rarely reported to the public. Despite the irrelevance of much of the TIRC funded research to the health effects of smoking, the tobacco industry continued to publicize its funding of the TIRC to reassure the public. In reality, the TIRC was created as a public relations measure for the purposes of discrediting independent science and portraying the tobacco companies as transparent and concerned for the well-being of their customers.
Finally, the advertisement promised that the tobacco companies "always have and always will cooperate closely with those whose task it is to safeguard the public health". According to Cummings, Morley, and Hyland, "there is abundant evidence that the tobacco industry went to great lengths to undermine tobacco control efforts of the public health community". An example of this is a memo from the vice-president of the Tobacco Institute in which the industry's strategy was described as "creating doubt about the health charge without actually denying it", and "advocating the public's right to smoke, without actually urging them to take up the practice". By proclaiming that the health risks were not conclusively linked to smoking, the tobacco companies manipulated the situation to place all liability on the consumer rather than on themselves.
Impact on the public
Although the tobacco industry claims that their advertising is only used to convince current smokers to switch between brands and that it does not increase total cigarette consumption, research into the effects of advertising shows that it plays an essential role in projecting positive connotations of smoking cigarettes onto potential new smokers. From 1954, when Hill & Knowlton first started working with the tobacco industry, to 1961, the number of cigarettes sold annually rose from 369 billion to 488 billion, and the annual per capita consumption rose from 3344 to 4025 cigarettes.
The first cigarette advertisements claimed that smoking cigarettes had a variety of health benefits, such as prolonged youth, thinness, and attractiveness. However, as more research revealed the deceptiveness of these claims, tobacco companies began to use advertisements, like A Frank Statement, to deny that their products caused cancer. Claiming that advertisement bans would infringe on "commercial free speech", the tobacco industry has continually fought against them; however, the industry has never responded to criticism that much of its advertising, like the claims made in A Frank Statement, is deceptive. As a result, the tobacco industry's manipulation of science as a public relations tactic is still used today in debates on a wide variety of subjects including global warming, food, and pharmaceuticals.
Modern-day examples
Today, tobacco companies continue to aggressively advertise cigarettes. As cigarette consumption has declined in the United States, tobacco companies have greatly increased their advertising expenditure. In 1991, the industry spent $4.6 billion on advertising and promoting cigarette consumption, and in 2015, tobacco companies spent $8.9 billion on advertising just in the United States. Tobacco companies continue to use this money to fund social engineering techniques, such as campaigns featuring themes of social desirability and specific cultural references, to target women, children, and specific racial/ethnic communities. For example, to make cigarettes appealing to African American communities, the industry has implemented campaigns that use urban culture and language while sponsoring Chinese and Vietnamese New Year festivals to target Asian Americans.
With declining levels of smoking in the West due to smoking bans and increased education on the health risks of smoking, tobacco companies have also expanded their market into developing countries to fulfill the industry's ever-present need for new smokers and more money. Using many of the same advertising techniques of glamour, sex, and independence, the industry has begun to target women and children in Eastern Europe, Asia, Latin America, and Africa, where government bans and health education may not be as prevalent.
See also
Tobacco industry
Tobacco advertising
Social engineering
References
External links
The Frank Statement at SourceWatch
Advertisements
Tobacco advertising
1954 in the United States
Smoking in the United States
Lung cancer
1954 documents
Health effects of tobacco |
41820892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence%20analysis%20in%20social%20sciences | Sequence analysis in social sciences | In social sciences, sequence analysis (SA) is concerned with the analysis of sets of categorical sequences that typically describe longitudinal data. Analyzed sequences are encoded representations of, for example, individual life trajectories such as family formation, school to work transitions, working careers, but they may also describe daily or weekly time use or represent the evolution of observed or self-reported health, of political behaviors, or the development stages of organizations. Such sequences are chronologically ordered unlike words or DNA sequences for example.
SA is a longitudinal analysis approach that is holistic in the sense that it considers each sequence as a whole. SA is essentially exploratory. Broadly, SA provides a comprehensible overall picture of sets of sequences with the objective of characterizing the structure of the set of sequences, finding the salient characteristics of groups, identifying typical paths, comparing groups, and more generally studying how the sequences are related to covariates such as sex, birth cohort, or social origin.
Introduced in the social sciences in the 80s by Andrew Abbott, SA has gained much popularity after the release of dedicated software such as the SQ and SADI addons for Stata and the TraMineR R package with its companions TraMineRextras and WeightedCluster.
Despite some connections, the aims and methods of SA in social sciences strongly differ from those of sequence analysis in bioinformatics.
History
Sequence analysis methods were first imported into the social sciences from the information and biological sciences (see Sequence alignment) by the University of Chicago sociologist Andrew Abbott in the 1980s, and they have since developed in ways that are unique to the social sciences. Scholars in psychology, economics, anthropology, demography, communication, political science, organizational studies, and especially sociology have been using sequence methods ever since.
In sociology, sequence techniques are most commonly employed in studies of patterns of life-course development, cycles, and life histories. There has been a great deal of work on the sequential development of careers, and there is increasing interest in how career trajectories intertwine with life-course sequences. Many scholars have used sequence techniques to model how work and family activities are linked in household divisions of labor and the problem of schedule synchronization within families. The study of interaction patterns is increasingly centered on sequential concepts, such as turn-taking, the predominance of reciprocal utterances, and the strategic solicitation of preferred types of responses (see Conversation Analysis). Social network analysts (see Social network analysis) have begun to turn to sequence methods and concepts to understand how social contacts and activities are enacted in real time, and to model and depict how whole networks evolve. Social network epidemiologists have begun to examine social contact sequencing to better understand the spread of disease. Psychologists have used those methods to study how the order of information affects learning, and to identify structure in interactions between individuals (see Sequence learning).
Many of the methodological developments in sequence analysis came on the heels of a special section devoted to the topic in a 2000 issue of Sociological Methods & Research, which hosted a debate over the use of the optimal matching (OM) edit distance for comparing sequences. In particular, sociologists objected to the descriptive and data-reducing orientation of optimal matching, as well as to a lack of fit between bioinformatic sequence methods and uniquely social phenomena. The debate has given rise to several methodological innovations (see Pairwise dissimilarities below) that address limitations of early sequence comparison methods developed in the 20th century. In 2006, David Stark and Balazs Vedres proposed the term "social sequence analysis" to distinguish the approach from bioinformatic sequence analysis. However, if we except the nice book by Benjamin Cornwell, the term was seldom used, probably because the context prevents any confusion in the SA literature. Sociological Methods & Research organized a special issue on sequence analysis in 2010, leading to what Aisenbrey and Fasang referred to as the "second wave of sequence analysis", which mainly extended optimal matching and introduced other techniques to compare sequences. Alongside sequence comparison, recent advances in SA concerned among others the visualization of sets of sequence data, the measure and analysis of the discrepancy of sequences, the identification of representative sequences, and the development of summary indicators of individual sequences. Raab and Struffolino have conceived more recent advances as the third wave of sequence analysis. This wave is largely characterized by the effort of bringing together the stochastic and the algorithmic modeling culture by jointly applying SA with more established methods such as analysis of variance, event history analysis, Markovian modeling, social network analysis, or causal analysis and statistical modeling in general.
Domain-specific theoretical foundation
Sociology
The analysis of sequence patterns has foundations in sociological theories that emerged in the middle of the 20th century. Structural theorists argued that society is a system that is characterized by regular patterns. Even seemingly trivial social phenomena are ordered in highly predictable ways. This idea serves as an implicit motivation behind social sequence analysts' use of optimal matching, clustering, and related methods to identify common "classes" of sequences at all levels of social organization, a form of pattern search. This focus on regularized patterns of social action has become an increasingly influential framework for understanding microsocial interaction and contact sequences, or "microsequences." This is closely related to Anthony Giddens's theory of structuration, which holds that social actors' behaviors are predominantly structured by routines, and which in turn provides predictability and a sense of stability in an otherwise chaotic and rapidly moving social world. This idea is also echoed in Pierre Bourdieu's concept of habitus, which emphasizes the emergence and influence of stable worldviews in guiding everyday action and thus produce predictable, orderly sequences of behavior. The resulting influence of routine as a structuring influence on social phenomena was first illustrated empirically by Pitirim Sorokin, who led a 1939 study that found that daily life is so routinized that a given person is able to predict with about 75% accuracy how much time they will spend doing certain things the following day. Talcott Parsons's argument that all social actors are mutually oriented to their larger social systems (for example, their family and larger community) through social roles also underlies social sequence analysts' interest in the linkages that exist between different social actors' schedules and ordered experiences, which has given rise to a considerable body of work on synchronization between social actors and their social contacts and larger communities. All of these theoretical orientations together warrant critiques of the general linear model of social reality, which as applied in most work implies that society is either static or that it is highly stochastic in a manner that conforms to Markov processes This concern inspired the initial framing of social sequence analysis as an antidote to general linear models. It has also motivated recent attempts to model sequences of activities or events in terms as elements that link social actors in non-linear network structures This work, in turn, is rooted in Georg Simmel's theory that experiencing similar activities, experiences, and statuses serves as a link between social actors.
Demography and historical demography
In demography and historical demography, from the 1980s the rapid appropriation of the life course perspective and methods was part of a substantive paradigmatic change that implied a stronger embedment of demographic processes into social sciences dynamics. After a first phase with a focus on the occurrence and timing of demographic events studied separately from each other with a hypothetico-deductive approach, from the early 2000s the need to consider the structure of the life courses and to make justice to its complexity led to a growing use of sequence analysis with the aim of pursuing a holistic approach. At an inter-individual level, pairwise dissimilarities and clustering appeared as the appropriate tools for revealing the heterogeneity in human development. For example, the meta-narrations contrasting individualized Western societies with collectivist societies in the South (especially in Asia) were challenged by comparative studies revealing the diversity of pathways to legitimate reproduction. At an intra-individual level, sequence analysis integrates the basic life course principle that individuals interpret and make decision about their life according to their past experiences and their perception of contingencies. The interest for this perspective was also promoted by the changes in individuals' life courses for cohorts born between the beginning and the end of the 20th century. These changes have been described as de-standardization, de-synchronization, de-institutionalization. Among the drivers of these dynamics, the transition to adulthood is key: for more recent birth cohorts this crucial phase along individual life courses implied a larger number of events and lengths of the state spells experienced. For example, many postponed leaving parental home and the transition to parenthood, in some context cohabitation replaced marriage as long-lasting living arrangement, and the birth of the first child occurs more frequently while parents cohabit instead of within a wedlock. Such complexity required to be measured to be able to compare quantitative indicators across birth cohorts (see for an extension of this questioning to populations from low- and medium income countries). The demography's old ambition to develop a 'family demography' has found in the sequence analysis a powerful tool to address research questions at the cross-road with other disciplines: for example, multichannel techniques represent precious opportunities to deal with the issue of compatibility between working and family lives. Similarly, more recent combinations of sequence analysis and event history analysis have been developed (see for a review) and can be applied, for instance, for understanding of the link between demographic transitions and health.
Political sciences
The analysis of temporal processes in the domain of political sciences regards how institutions, that is, systems and organizations (regimes, governments, parties, courts, etc.) that crystallize political interactions, formalize legal constraints and impose a degree of stability or inertia. Special importance is given to, first, the role of contexts, which confer meaning to trends and events, while shared contexts offer shared meanings; second, to changes over time in power relationships, and, subsequently, asymmetries, hierarchies, contention, or conflict; and, finally, to historical events that are able to shape trajectories, such as elections, accidents, inaugural speeches, treaties, revolutions, or ceasefires. Empirically, political sequences' unit of analysis can be individuals, organizations, movements, or institutional processes. Depending on the unit of analysis, the sample sizes may be limited few cases (e.g., regions in a country when considering the turnover of local political parties over time) or include a few hundreds (e.g., individuals' voting patterns). Three broad kinds of political sequences may be distinguished. The first and most common is careers, that is, formal, mostly hierarchical positions along which individuals progress in institutional environments, such as parliaments, cabinets, administrations, parties, unions or business organizations. We may name trajectories political sequences that develop in more informal and fluid contexts, such as activists evolving across various causes and social movements, or voters navigating a political and ideological landscape across successive polls. Finally, processes relate to non-individual entities, such as: public policies developing through successive policy stages across distinct arenas; sequences of symbolic or concrete interactions between national and international actors in diplomatic and military contexts; and development of organizations or institutions, such as pathways of countries towards democracy (Wilson 2014).
Concepts
A sequence s is an ordered list of elements (s1,s2,...,sl) taken from a finite alphabet A. For a set S of sequences, three sizes matter: the number n of sequences, the size a = |A| of the alphabet, and the length l of the sequences (that could be different for each sequence). In social sciences, n is generally something between a few hundreds and a few thousands, the alphabet size remains limited (most often less than 20), while sequence length rarely exceeds 100.
We may distinguish between state sequences and event sequences, where states last while events occur at one time point and do not last but contribute possibly together with other events to state changes. For instance, the joint occurrence of the two events leaving home and starting a union provoke a state change from 'living at home with parents' to 'living with a partner'.
When a state sequence is represented as the list of states observed at the successive time points, the position of each element in the sequence conveys this time information and the distance between positions reflects duration. An alternative more compact representation of a sequence, is the list of the successive spells stamped with their duration, where a spell (also called episode) is a substring in a same state. For example, in is a spell of length 3 in state b, and the whole sequence can be represented as (a,2)-(b,3)-(c,1).
A crucial point when looking at state sequences is the timing scheme used to time align the sequences. This could be the historical calendar time, or a process time such as age, i.e. time since birth.
In event sequences, positions do not convey any time information. Therefore event occurrence time must be explicitly provided (as a timestamp) when it matters.
SA is essentially concerned with state sequences.
Methods
Conventional SA consists essentially in building a typology of the observed trajectories. Abbott and Tsay (2000) describe this typical SA as a three-step program: 1. Coding individual narratives as sequences of states; 2. Measuring pairwise dissimilarities between sequences; and 3. Clustering the sequences from the pairwise dissimilarities. However, SA is much more (see e.g.) and encompasses also among others the description and visual rendering of sets of sequences, ANOVA-like analysis and regression trees for sequences, the identification of representative sequences, the study of the relationship between linked sequences (e.g. dyadic, linked-lives, or various life dimensions such as occupation, family, health), and sequence-network.
Describing and rendering state sequences
Given an alignment rule, a set of sequences can be represented in tabular form with sequences in rows and columns corresponding to the positions in the sequences.
Sequences of cross-sectional distributions
To describe such data, we may look at the columns and consider the cross-sectional state distributions at the successive positions.
The chronogram or density plot of a set of sequences renders these successive cross-sectional distributions.
For each (column) distribution we can compute characteristics such as entropy or modal state and look at how these values evolve over the positions (see pp 18–21).
Characteristics of individual sequences
Alternatively, we can look at the rows. The index plot where each sequence is represented as a horizontal stacked bar or line is the basic plot for rendering individual sequences.
We can compute characteristics of the individual sequences and examine the cross-sectional distribution of these characteristics.
Main indicators of individual sequences
Basic measures
Length
Number of states visited
Number of transitions (length of sequence of distinct successive states, DSS)
Number of subsequences
Recurrence
Diversity
Within sequence entropy
Variance of spell duration
Complexity of the sequence structure
Volatility
Complexity index
Turbulence
Measures that take account of the nature of the states
Normative volatility i.e. proportion of positive spells.
Integration index also known as Quality index
Degradation
Badness
Precarity index
Insecurity
Other overall descriptive measures
Mean time in the different states (overall state distribution) and their standard errors
Transition probabilities between states.
Visualization
State sequences can nicely be rendered graphically and such plots prove useful for interpretation purposes. As shown above, the two basic plots are the index plot that renders individual sequences and the chronogram that renders the evolution of the cross-sectional state distribution along the timeframe. Chronograms (also known as status proportion plot or state distribution plot) completely overlook the diversity of the sequences, while index plots are often too scattered to be readable. Relative frequency plots and plots of representative sequences attempt to increase the readability of index plots without falling in the oversimplification of a chronogram. In addition, there are many plots that focus on specific characteristics of the sequences. Below is a list of plots that have been proposed in the literature for rendering large sets of sequences. For each plot, we give examples of software (details in section Software) that produce it.
Index plot: renders the set of individual sequences (SADI, SQ, TraMineR)
Chronogram (status proportion plot, state distribution plot): renders the sequence of cross-sectional distributions (SADI, SQ, TraMineR)
Plot of multichannel sequences grouped by channels (seqHMM) or by individuals
Plot of time series of cross-sectional indicators (entropy, modal state, ...) (SQ, TraMineR)
Frequency plot (SQ, TraMineR)
Relative frequency plot (TraMineRextras)
Representative sequences (TraMineR)
Mean time in the different states and their standard errors (TraMineR)
State survival plot (TraMineRextras)
Transition patterns (SADI)
Transition plot (SQ; Gmisc) and plot of transition probabilities (seqHMM)
Parallel coordinate plot (TraMineR, SQ)
Probabilistic suffix trees (PST)
Sequence networks (see social network analysis) (Software?)
Narrative networks (Software?)
Pairwise dissimilarities
Pairwise dissimilarities between sequences serve to compare sequences and many advanced SA methods are based on these dissimilarities. The most popular dissimilarity measure is optimal matching (OM), i.e. the minimal cost of transforming one sequence into the other by means of indel (insert or delete) and substitution operations with possibly costs of these elementary operations depending on the states involved. SA is so intimately linked with OM that it is sometimes named optimal matching analysis (OMA).
There are roughly three categories of dissimilarity measures:
Optimal matching and other edit distances
Examples: OM, OMloc (localized OM), OMslen (spell-length sensitive OM), OMspell (OM of spell sequences), OMstran (OM of sequences of transitions), TWED (time-warp edit distance), HAM (Hamming and generalized Hamming), DHD (Dynamic Hamming).
Strategies for setting the substitution and indel costs
Constant (all substitution costs identical and single indel cost)
Theory
Feature-based
Data-driven: based on transition probabilities or state frequencies
Measures based on the count of common attributes
Examples: LCS (derived from length of longest common subsequence), LCP (from length of longest common prefix), NMS (number of matching subsequences), and NMSMST and SVRspell two variants of NMS.
Distances between within-sequence state distributions
Examples: CHI2, EUCLID defined as the average of respectively the Chi-squared and Euclidean distance between state distributions in successive sliding windows.
Dissimilarity-based analysis
Pairwise dissimilarities between sequences give access to a series of techniques to discover holistic structuring characteristics of the sequence data. In particular, dissimilarities between sequences can serve as input to cluster algorithms and multidimensional scaling, but also allow to identify medoids or other representative sequences, define neighborhoods, measure the discrepancy of a set of sequences, proceed to ANOVA-like analyses, and grow regression trees.
Cluster analysis
Descriptive: identification of main sequence patterns.
Clusters as dependent or independent variables in regression analysis: study of relationships with other variables of interest.
Multidimensional scaling (principal coordinates): numerical representation of sequences.
Discrepancy (ANOVA-like) analysis
Sequence of ANOVA-like analyses
Regression trees
Representative sequences
Multiple domains (multichannel analysis)
Dyadic and polyadic sequence data
Other methods of analysis
Although dissimilarity-based methods play a central role in social SA, essentially because of their ability to preserve the holistic perspective, several other approaches also prove useful for analyzing sequence data.
Non dissimilarity-based clustering
Latent class analysis (LCA),
Markov model mixture and hidden Markov model mixture
Mixtures of exponential-distance models
Sequence networks
Representing a single sequence as a network
Meta network of sequences
Sequence network measures
Life history graph
Probabilistic approaches
Markovian and other transition distribution models. See also Markov model.
Probabilistic Suffix Tree (PST) also known as variable-order Markov model or variable-length Markov model.
Event sequences
Event structure models
Rendering of event sequences (parallel coordinate plots, ...)
Frequent subsequences
Discriminant subsequences
Dissimilarity-based analysis of event sequences
Advances: the third wave of sequence analysis
Some recent advances can be conceived as the third wave of SA. This wave is largely characterized by the effort of bringing together the stochastic and the algorithmic modeling culture by jointly applying SA with more established methods such as analysis of variance, event history, network analysis, or causal analysis and statistical modeling in general. Some examples are given below; see also "Other methods of analysis".
Effect of past trajectories on the hazard of an event: Sequence History Analysis, SHA
Effect of time varying covariates on trajectories: Competing Trajectories Analysis (CTA), and Sequence Analysis Multistate Model (SAMM)
Validation of cluster typologies
Discrepancy analysis to bring time back to qualitative comparative analysis – QCA
Open issues and limitations
Although SA witnesses a steady inflow of methodological contributions that address the issues raised two decades ago, some pressing open issues remain. Among the most challenging, we can mention:
Sequences of different lengths, truncated sequences, and missing values.
Validation of cluster results
Sequence length vs importance of recency: for example, when analyzing biographic sequences 40 year-long from age 1 to 40, one can only consider individuals born 40 years earlier and therefore the behavior of younger birth cohorts is disregarded.
Up-to-date information on advances, methodological discussions, and recent relevant publications can be found on the Sequence Analysis Association (webpage).
Fields of application
These techniques have proved valuable in a variety of contexts. In life-course research, for example, research has shown that retirement plans are affected not just by the last year or two of one's life, but instead how one's work and family careers unfolded over a period of several decades. People who followed an "orderly" career path (characterized by consistent employment and gradual ladder-climbing within a single organization) retired earlier than others, including people who had intermittent careers, those who entered the labor force late, as well as those who enjoyed regular employment but who made numerous lateral moves across organizations throughout their careers. In the field of economic sociology, research has shown that firm performance depends not just on a firm's current or recent social network connectedness, but also the durability or stability of their connections to other firms. Firms that have more "durably cohesive" ownership network structures attract more foreign investment than less stable or poorly connected structures. Research has also used data on everyday work activity sequences to identify classes of work schedules, finding that the timing of work during the day significantly affects workers' abilities to maintain connections with the broader community, such as through community events. More recently, social sequence analysis has been proposed as a meaningful approach to study trajectories in the domain of creative enterprise, allowing the comparison among the idiosyncrasies of unique creative careers. While other methods for constructing and analyzing whole sequence structure have been developed during the past three decades, including event structure analysis, OM and other sequence comparison methods form the backbone of research on whole sequence structures.
Some examples of application include:
Sociology
Labor market entry sequences
De-standardization of the life course
Residential trajectories
Time use
Actual and idealized relationship scripts
Basic types of figures in ritual dances
Pathways of alcohol consumption
Demography and historical demography
Transition to adulthood
Partnership biographies
Family formation life course
Childbirth histories
Political sciences
Pathways towards democratization
Pathways of legislative processes
Bargaining between actors during national crises
Psychology
Sequences of adolescences' social interactions
Medical research
Care trajectory in chronic disease
Survey methodology
Response in survey collection
Geography
Mobility studies
Land use
Software
Two main statistical computing environment offer tools to conduct a sequence analysis in the form of user-written packages: Stata and R.
Stata: SQ and SADI are general SA toolkits. MICT is dedicated to imputation of missing elements in sequences.
R: TraMineR with its extension TraMineRextras is probably the most comprehensive SA toolkit; seqhandbook provides several specific tools such as heat maps of sequence data and the GIMSA method for measuring dissimilarities between multidomain sequences; seqHMM, although specialized in fitting Markov models, this package provides useful plotting facilities for rendering multichannel sequences and transition probabilities; WeightedCluster versatile clustering package with original tools for grouping identical sequences and rendering hierarchical trees of sequences; PST fits and renders probabilistic suffix trees of sequences.
Institutional development
The first international conference dedicated to social-scientific research that uses sequence analysis methods – the Lausanne Conference on Sequence Analysis, or LaCOSA – was held in Lausanne, Switzerland in June 2012. A second conference (LaCOSA II) was held in Lausanne in June 2016. The Sequence Analysis Association (SAA) was founded at the International Symposium on Sequence Analysis and Related Methods, in October 2018 at Monte Verità, TI, Switzerland. The SAA is an international organization whose goal is to organize events such as symposia and training courses and related events, and to facilitate scholars' access to sequence analysis resources.
See also
References
External links
The homepage of the Sequence Analysis Association.
Andrew Abbott's 1995 review of sociological approaches to sequence analysis.
The TraMineR page
Brendan Halpin's sequence analysis page at the University of Limerick.
Laurent Lesnard's Stata plugin for sequence analysis using the dynamic Hamming distance.
Methods in sociology
Demography
Data analysis
Methodology
Social statistics
Longitudinal sociological studies |
26765264 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite%20Software | Composite Software | Composite Software, Inc was previously a privately held data virtualization software company based in San Mateo, California. Composite Software was founded in October 2001 by Michael R. Abbott. In 2003, former Active Software founder and webMethods CTO, Jim Green joined Composite Software as CEO. On July 30, 2013, Composite Software was acquired by Cisco Systems for approximately US $180 million. Then on October 5, 2017 TIBCO purchased what was Composite Software from Cisco.
Composite Software was cited as an "industry leader" in the Forrester Research "2012 Forrester Wave: Data Virtualization" study for its help in advancing data virtualization to its current form, known under a variety of names including data federation and Information as a Service.
Composite Data Virtualization Platform
The Composite Data Virtualization Platform is data virtualization middleware that "brings together data from multiple, disparate sources -- anywhere across the extended enterprise-- into a unified, logical virtualized data layer for consumption by nearly any front-end business solution including portals, reports, applications and more."
The Composite Data Virtualization Platform consists of:
Composite Studio which includes an integrated development environment for source data introspection, relationship discovery, data modeling, view and data service development, and revision control;
Composite Information Server which includes a query engine with patent-pending query optimization technology, caching, data access, data publishing, data quality, security, data governance and a metadata repository;
Composite PerformancePlus Adapters for Greenplum, Hadoop/Hive, HP Vertica, IBM DB2, IBM Informix, IBM Netezza, Microsoft Access, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle Database, Oracle MySQL, SAP Sybase, SAP Sybase IQ and Teradata;
Composite Discovery to locate key entities and reveal hidden data relationships within enterprise data assets;
Composite Active Cluster for scalability that maintains continuous availability of data services to fulfill service level agreements;
Composite Monitor to provide comprehensive coverage in a real-time view for both systems management and data governance.
Customers
Composite Software's data virtualization software is used in financial services companies, pharmaceutical companies, energy companies, communications, consumer and industrial companies, and government agencies including the U.S. Army and the Environmental Protection Agency.
Post-Acquisition Development at Cisco
Composite Software was incorporated into Cisco as the Data Virtualization Business Unit. The Composite Data Virtualization Platform was renamed Cisco Data Virtualization, and Composite Information Server (CIS) became Cisco Information Server (CIS). It continues to be sold to address the same use cases at large enterprise customers, and is also central to Cisco's move into data and analytics associated with the Internet of Things.
Post-Acquisition Development at TIBCO
In October 2017 TIBCO bought the Composite Software division of Cisco. Shortly after the transfer completed TIBCO Data Virtualization 7.0.6 was released which updated the branding and changed the license model.
References
Software companies based in California
Cisco Systems acquisitions
Software companies of the United States |
3068306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandy%20Douglas | Sandy Douglas | Alexander Shafto "Sandy" Douglas CBE (21 May 1921 – 29 April 2010) was a British professor of computer science, credited with creating the first graphical computer game OXO, a Noughts and Crosses computer game in 1952 on the EDSAC computer at University of Cambridge.
Biography
Early life
Douglas was born on 21 May 1921 in London. At age eight, his family moved to Cromwell Road, near what would become the London Air Terminal.
A 74 bus ride for one old penny took me to Exhibition Road, from which I could go towards South Kensington station to my father's office (which is still there) and workshop (now demolished) down by what became the Lycée Français. Alternatively, I could turn north to the Science Museum – a trip I took often.
In the winter of 1938–39, Douglas and his future wife Andrey Parker made a snowman in the grounds of the Natural History Museum. Douglas and his wife would go on to have two children and at least two grandsons.
During the Blitz, in 1940–41, Douglas's Home Guard Unit, 'C' Company of the Chelsea and Kensington Battalion of the KRRC, had its headquarters in the basement of the Royal School of Mines, just the other side of Exhibition Road from the museums. He appeared to commission into the Corps of Royal Engineers on 7 March 1943 as a second lieutenant, but this was later corrected to show that he actually commissioned into the Royal Corps of Signals.
Cambridge
Douglas attended the University of Cambridge in 1950. In 1952, while working towards earning his PhD, he wrote a thesis which focused on human-computer interactions and he needed an example to prove his theories. At that time, Cambridge was home to the second stored-program computer, the EDSAC or Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (the first being Manchester University's "Baby", which ran its first program on 21 June 1948). This gave Douglas the opportunity to prove his findings by programming the code for a simple game where a player can compete against the computer, OXO.
Jobs
Trinity College
1953–1957
1953: Elected as a Prize Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Douglas spends a year at the University of Illinois Computation laboratory as assistant Professor.
1955: Became Junior Bursar of Trinity College. The Junior Bursar is responsible for the administration of the College buildings: allocation of accommodation, building works, security, staff, and general maintenance
Leeds
1957: The Leeds Pegasus computer was installed in autumn 1957 in the Eldon Chapel on Woodhouse Lane. Douglas set up the Computer Laboratory of the University of Leeds, and it was there that he first became interested in the application of computers to business problems
The Pegasus holds an especial place in my affection, it being the machine I installed as the central University machine in a disused chapel in Leeds in 1957 – it was known as Lucifer, for Leeds University Computing Installation (FERranti). Our au pair girl from Spain made a beautiful little devilish doll which decorated the machine – it has probably disappeared by now.
In June 1960 the Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals set up a Working Party to explore the creation of a national system for handling university admissions. Douglas was appointed a member of the Working Party to provide advice on the use of computers in this system. He had previously worked at Leeds with Ronald Kay, who was to become UCCA's general secretary, on "an early and primitive but successful attempt to introduce computer methods into student registration procedures".
CEIR
1960: Entered the commercial field as Technical Director of the UK subsidiary of C-E-I-R (now Scientific Control Systems).
Leasco
1968: Left CEIR to initiate the European software interests of Leasco Systems and Research Ltd. as chairman.
Douglas died in sleep on 29 April 2010 from pneumonia.
Writings
Over 60 papers have been published by Professor Douglas covering topics in Atomic Physics, Crystallography, Solution of Differential Equations, Computer Design, Programming and Operational Research in the Shipbuilding, Oil Chemical Mining, Engineering and Transportation Industries, and in the Printing Industry.
Computers and Society: an Inaugural Lecture [Delivered on 27 April 1972, by Alexander Shafto Douglas; Publisher: London School of Economics and P; Date Published: 1973. .
Science Journal, October 1970 "Computers in the Seventies", Alexander "Sandy" Douglas.
Computer Networks, Volume 5, 1981, pp. 9–14. "Computers and Communications in the 1980s: Benefits and Problems", Alexander S. Douglas
Sandy Douglas, "Some Memories of EDSAC I: 1950–1952", IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 98–99, 208, October 1979.
References
External links
EWD1285, Edsger Dijkstra
Letter from Leeds:
Note for researchers: Do not confuse with another researcher from same time and area: http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/17/4/252.pdf
Video (Go to 4:40): Video
Obituary by Frank Land and T. William Olle in Resurrection, the Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society, issue 51, Summer 2010
A simulator of EDSAC Computer on the website of University of Warwick, England.
1921 births
2010 deaths
Academics from London
Royal Corps of Signals officers
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Members of the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory
Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge
University of Illinois faculty
Academics of the University of Leeds
English computer scientists
Fellows of the British Computer Society
Presidents of the British Computer Society
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
People from Kensington
British Army personnel of World War II
British Home Guard soldiers
UCAS |
13980768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20Visual%20Studio | Microsoft Visual Studio | Microsoft Visual Studio is an integrated development environment (IDE) from Microsoft. It is used to develop computer programs, as well as websites, web apps, web services and mobile apps. Visual Studio uses Microsoft software development platforms such as Windows API, Windows Forms, Windows Presentation Foundation, Windows Store and Microsoft Silverlight. It can produce both native code and managed code.
Visual Studio includes a code editor supporting IntelliSense (the code completion component) as well as code refactoring. The integrated debugger works both as a source-level debugger and a machine-level debugger. Other built-in tools include a code profiler, designer for building GUI applications, web designer, class designer, and database schema designer. It accepts plug-ins that expand the functionality at almost every level—including adding support for source control systems (like Subversion and Git) and adding new toolsets like editors and visual designers for domain-specific languages or toolsets for other aspects of the software development lifecycle (like the Azure DevOps client: Team Explorer).
Visual Studio supports 36 different programming languages and allows the code editor and debugger to support (to varying degrees) nearly any programming language, provided a language-specific service exists. Built-in languages include C, C++, C++/CLI, Visual Basic .NET, C#, F#, JavaScript, TypeScript, XML, XSLT, HTML, and CSS. Support for other languages such as Python, Ruby, Node.js, and M among others is available via plug-ins. Java (and J#) were supported in the past.
The most basic edition of Visual Studio, the Community edition, is available free of charge. The slogan for Visual Studio Community edition is "Free, fully-featured IDE for students, open-source and individual developers".
the current production-ready Visual Studio version was 2022, with older versions such as 2013 and 2015 on Extended Support, and 2017 and 2019 on Mainstream Support.
Architecture
Visual Studio does not support any programming language, solution or tool intrinsically; instead, it allows the plugging of functionality coded as a VSPackage. When installed, the functionality is available as a Service. The IDE provides three services: SVsSolution, which provides the ability to enumerate projects and solutions; SVsUIShell, which provides windowing and UI functionality (including tabs, toolbars, and tool windows); and SVsShell, which deals with registration of VSPackages. In addition, the IDE is also responsible for coordinating and enabling communication between services. All editors, designers, project types and other tools are implemented as VSPackages. Visual Studio uses COM to access the VSPackages. The Visual Studio SDK also includes the Managed Package Framework (MPF), which is a set of managed wrappers around the COM-interfaces that allow the Packages to be written in any CLI compliant language. However, MPF does not provide all the functionality exposed by the Visual Studio COM interfaces.
The services can then be consumed for creation of other packages, which add functionality to the Visual Studio IDE.
Support for programming languages is added by using a specific VSPackage called a Language Service. A language service defines various interfaces which the VSPackage implementation can implement to add support for various functionalities. Functionalities that can be added this way include syntax coloring, statement completion, brace matching, parameter information tooltips, member lists, and error markers for background compilation. If the interface is implemented, the functionality will be available for the language. Language services are implemented on a per-language basis. The implementations can reuse code from the parser or the compiler for the language. Language services can be implemented either in native code or managed code. For native code, either the native COM interfaces or the Babel Framework (part of Visual Studio SDK) can be used. For managed code, the MPF includes wrappers for writing managed language services.
Visual Studio does not include any source control support built in but it defines two alternative ways for source control systems to integrate with the IDE. A Source Control VSPackage can provide its own customised user interface. In contrast, a source control plugin using the MSSCCI (Microsoft Source Code Control Interface) provides a set of functions that are used to implement various source control functionality, with a standard Visual Studio user interface. MSSCCI was first used to integrate Visual SourceSafe with Visual Studio 6.0 but was later opened up via the Visual Studio SDK. Visual Studio .NET 2002 used MSSCCI 1.1, and Visual Studio .NET 2003 used MSSCCI 1.2. Visual Studio 2005, 2008, and 2010 use MSSCCI Version 1.3, which adds support for rename and delete propagation, as well as asynchronous opening.
Visual Studio supports running multiple instances of the environment (each with its own set of VSPackages). The instances use different registry hives (see MSDN's definition of the term "registry hive" in the sense used here) to store their configuration state and are differentiated by their AppId (Application ID). The instances are launched by an AppId-specific .exe that selects the AppId, sets the root hive, and launches the IDE. VSPackages registered for one AppId are integrated with other VSPackages for that AppId. The various product editions of Visual Studio are created using the different AppIds. The Visual Studio Express edition products are installed with their own AppIds, but the Standard, Professional, and Team Suite products share the same AppId. Consequently, one can install the Express editions side-by-side with other editions, unlike the other editions which update the same installation. The professional edition includes a superset of the VSPackages in the standard edition, and the team suite includes a superset of the VSPackages in both other editions. The AppId system is leveraged by the Visual Studio Shell in Visual Studio 2008.
Features
Code editor
Visual Studio (like any other IDE) includes a code editor that supports syntax highlighting and code completion using IntelliSense for variables, functions, methods, loops, and LINQ queries. IntelliSense is supported for the included languages, as well as for XML, Cascading Style Sheets, and JavaScript when developing web sites and web applications. Autocomplete suggestions appear in a modeless list box over the code editor window, in proximity of the editing cursor. In Visual Studio 2008 onwards, it can be made temporarily semi-transparent to see the code obstructed by it. The code editor is used for all supported languages.
The Visual Studio Code Editor also supports setting bookmarks in code for quick navigation. Other navigational aids include collapsing code blocks and incremental search, in addition to normal text search and regex search. The code editor also includes a multi-item clipboard and a task list. The code editor supports code snippets, which are saved templates for repetitive code and can be inserted into code and customized for the project being worked on. A management tool for code snippets is built in as well. These tools are surfaced as floating windows which can be set to automatically hide when unused or docked to the side of the screen. The Visual Studio code editor also supports code refactoring including parameter reordering, variable and method renaming, interface extraction, and encapsulation of class members inside properties, among others.
Visual Studio features background compilation (also called incremental compilation). As code is being written, Visual Studio compiles it in the background in order to provide feedback about syntax and compilation errors, which are flagged with a red wavy underline. Warnings are marked with a green underline. Background compilation does not generate executable code, since it requires a different compiler than the one used to generate executable code. Background compilation was initially introduced with Microsoft Visual Basic, but has now been expanded for all included languages.
Debugger
Visual Studio includes a debugger that works both as a source-level debugger and as a machine-level debugger. It works with both managed code as well as native code and can be used for debugging applications written in any language supported by Visual Studio. In addition, it can also attach to running processes, monitor, and debug those processes. If source code for the running process is available, it displays the code as it is being run. If source code is not available, it can show the disassembly. The Visual Studio debugger can also create memory dumps as well as load them later for debugging. Multi-threaded programs are also supported. The debugger can be configured to be launched when an application running outside the Visual Studio environment crashes.
The Visual Studio Debugger allows setting breakpoints (which allow execution to be stopped temporarily at a certain position) and watches (which monitor the values of variables as the execution progresses). Breakpoints can be conditional, meaning they get triggered when the condition is met. Code can be stepped over, i.e., run one line (of source code) at a time. It can either step into functions to debug inside it, or step over it, i.e., the execution of the function body isn't available for manual inspection. The debugger supports Edit and Continue, i.e., it allows code to be edited as it is being debugged. When debugging, if the mouse pointer hovers over any variable, its current value is displayed in a tooltip ("data tooltips"), where it can also be modified if desired. During coding, the Visual Studio debugger lets certain functions be invoked manually from the Immediate tool window. The parameters to the method are supplied at the Immediate window.
Designer
Visual Studio includes a host of visual designers to aid in the development of applications. These tools include:
Windows Forms Designer The Windows Forms designer is used to build GUI applications using Windows Forms. Layout can be controlled by housing the controls inside other containers or locking them to the side of the form. Controls that display data (like textbox, list box and grid view) can be bound to data sources like databases or queries. Data-bound controls can be created by dragging items from the Data Sources window onto a design surface. The UI is linked with code using an event-driven programming model. The designer generates either C# or VB.NET code for the application.
WPF Designer The WPF designer, codenamed Cider, was introduced with Visual Studio 2008. Like the Windows Forms designer it supports the drag and drop metaphor. It is used to author user interfaces targeting Windows Presentation Foundation. It supports all WPF functionality including data binding and automatic layout management. It generates XAML code for the UI. The generated XAML file is compatible with Microsoft Expression Design, the designer-oriented product. The XAML code is linked with code using a code-behind model.
Web designer/development Visual Studio also includes a web-site editor and designer that allows web pages to be authored by dragging and dropping widgets. It is used for developing ASP.NET applications and supports HTML, CSS and JavaScript. It uses a code-behind model to link with ASP.NET code. From Visual Studio 2008 onwards, the layout engine used by the web designer is shared with the discontinued Expression Web. There is also ASP.NET MVC support for MVC technology as a separate download and ASP.NET Dynamic Data project available from Microsoft.
Class designer The Class Designer is used to author and edit the classes (including its members and their access) using UML modeling. The Class Designer can generate C# and VB.NET code outlines for the classes and methods. It can also generate class diagrams from hand-written classes.
Data designer The data designer can be used to graphically edit database schemas, including typed tables, primary and foreign keys and constraints. It can also be used to design queries from the graphical view.
Mapping designer From Visual Studio 2008 onwards, the mapping designer is used by LINQ to SQL to design the mapping between database schemas and the classes that encapsulate the data. The new solution from ORM approach, ADO.NET Entity Framework, replaces and improves the old technology.
Other tools
Open Tabs Browser The open tabs browser is used to list all open tabs and to switch between them. It is invoked using CTRL+TAB.
Properties Editor The Properties Editor tool is used to edit properties in a GUI pane inside Visual Studio. It lists all available properties (both read-only and those which can be set) for all objects including classes, forms, web pages and other items.
Object Browser The Object Browser is a namespace and class library browser for Microsoft .NET. It can be used to browse the namespaces (which are arranged hierarchically) in managed assemblies. The hierarchy may or may not reflect the organization in the file system.
Solution Explorer In Visual Studio parlance, a solution is a set of code files and other resources that are used to build an application. The files in a solution are arranged hierarchically, which might or might not reflect the organization in the file system. The Solution Explorer is used to manage and browse the files in a solution.
Team Explorer Team Explorer is used to integrate the capabilities of Azure DevOps (either Azure DevOps Services or Azure DevOps Server) into the IDE . In addition to version control integration it provides the ability to view and manage individual work items (including user stories, bugs, tasks and other documents). It is included as part of a Visual Studio installation and is also available as a standalone download.
Data Explorer Data Explorer is used to manage databases on Microsoft SQL Server instances. It allows creation and alteration of database tables (either by issuing T-SQL commands or by using the Data designer). It can also be used to create queries and stored procedures, with the latter in either T-SQL or in managed code via SQL CLR. Debugging and IntelliSense support is available as well.
Server Explorer The Server Explorer tool is used to manage database connections on an accessible computer. It is also used to browse running Windows Services, performance counters, Windows Event Log and message queues and use them as a datasource.
Dotfuscator Community Edition Visual Studio includes a free 'light' version of Dotfuscator
Text Generation Framework Visual Studio includes a full text generation framework called T4 which enables Visual Studio to generate text files from templates either in the IDE or via code.
ASP.NET Web Site Administration Tool The ASP.NET Web Site Administration Tool allows for the configuration of ASP.NET websites.
Visual Studio Tools for Office Visual Studio Tools for Office is a SDK and an add-in for Visual Studio that includes tools for developing for the Microsoft Office suite. Previously (for Visual Studio .NET 2003 and Visual Studio 2005) it was a separate SKU that supported only Visual C# and Visual Basic languages or was included in the Team Suite. With Visual Studio 2008, it is no longer a separate SKU but is included with Professional and higher editions. A separate runtime is required when deploying VSTO solutions.
Extensibility
Visual Studio allows developers to write extensions for Visual Studio to extend its capabilities. These extensions "plug into" Visual Studio and extend its functionality. Extensions come in the form of macros, add-ins, and packages. Macros represent repeatable tasks and actions that developers can record programmatically for saving, replaying, and distributing. Macros, however, cannot implement new commands or create tool windows. They are written using Visual Basic and are not compiled. Add-Ins provide access to the Visual Studio object model and can interact with the IDE tools. Add-Ins can be used to implement new functionality and can add new tool windows. Add-Ins are plugged into the IDE via COM and can be created in any COM-compliant languages. Packages are created using the Visual Studio SDK and provide the highest level of extensibility. They can create designers and other tools, as well as integrate other programming languages. The Visual Studio SDK provides unmanaged APIs as well as a managed API to accomplish these tasks. However, the managed API isn't as comprehensive as the unmanaged one. Extensions are supported in the Standard (and higher) versions of Visual Studio 2005. Express Editions do not support hosting extensions.
Visual Studio 2008 introduced the Visual Studio Shell that allows for development of a customized version of the IDE. The Visual Studio Shell defines a set of VSPackages that provide the functionality required in any IDE. On top of that, other packages can be added to customize the installation. The Isolated mode of the shell creates a new AppId where the packages are installed. These are to be started with a different executable. It is aimed for development of custom development environments, either for a specific language or a specific scenario. The Integrated mode installs the packages into the AppId of the Professional/Standard/Team System editions, so that the tools integrate into these editions. The Visual Studio Shell is available as a free download.
After the release of Visual Studio 2008, Microsoft created the Visual Studio Gallery. It serves as the central location for posting information about extensions to Visual Studio. Community developers as well as commercial developers can upload information about their extensions to Visual Studio .NET 2002 through Visual Studio 2010. Users of the site can rate and review the extensions to help assess the quality of extensions being posted. An extension is stored in a VSIX file. Internally a VSIX file is a ZIP file that contains some XML files, and possibly one or more DLL's. One of the main advantages of these extensions is that they do not require Administrator rights to be installed. RSS feeds to notify users on updates to the site and tagging features are also planned.
Supported products
Microsoft Visual C++Microsoft Visual C++ is Microsoft's partial implementation of the C and full implementation C++ compiler and associated languages-services and specific tools for integration with the Visual Studio IDE. It can compile either in C mode or C++ mode. For C++, as of version 15.7 it conforms to C++17. The C implementation of Visual Studio 2015 still doesn't support the full standard; in particular, the complex number header complex.h introduced in C99 is unsupported.
Visual C++ supports the C++/CLI specification to write managed code, as well as mixed-mode code (a mix of native and managed code). Microsoft positions Visual C++ for development in native code or in code that contains both native as well as managed components. Visual C++ supports COM as well as the MFC library. For MFC development, it provides a set of wizards for creating and customizing MFC boilerplate code, and creating GUI applications using MFC. Visual C++ can also use the Visual Studio forms designer to design UI graphically. Visual C++ can also be used with the Windows API. It also supports the use of intrinsic functions, which are functions recognized by the compiler itself and not implemented as a library. Intrinsic functions are used to expose the SSE instruction set of modern CPUs. Visual C++ also includes the OpenMP (version 2.0) specification.
Microsoft Visual C# Microsoft Visual C#, Microsoft's implementation of the C# language, targets the .NET Framework, along with the language services that lets the Visual Studio IDE support C# projects. While the language services are a part of Visual Studio, the compiler is available separately as a part of the .NET Framework. The Visual C# 2008, 2010 and 2012 compilers support versions 3.0, 4.0 and 5.0 of the C# language specifications, respectively. Visual C# supports the Visual Studio Class designer, Forms designer, and Data designer among others.
Microsoft Visual Basic Microsoft Visual Basic is Microsoft's implementation of the VB.NET language and associated tools and language services. It was introduced with Visual Studio .NET (2002). Microsoft has positioned Visual Basic for Rapid Application Development. Visual Basic can be used to author both console applications as well as GUI applications. Like Visual C#, Visual Basic also supports the Visual Studio Class designer, Forms designer, and Data designer among others. Like C#, the VB.NET compiler is also available as a part of .NET Framework, but the language services that let VB.NET projects be developed with Visual Studio, are available as a part of the latter.
Microsoft Visual Web Developer Microsoft Visual Web Developer is used to create web sites, web applications and web services using ASP.NET. Either C# or VB.NET languages can be used. Visual Web Developer can use the Visual Studio Web Designer to graphically design web page layouts.
Azure DevOpsAzure DevOps is intended for collaborative software development projects and provides version control, work planning and tracking, data collection, and reporting. It also includes the Team Explorer which is integrated inside Visual Studio. On September 10, 2018, Microsoft announced a rebranding of Visual Studio Team Services (VSTS) to Azure DevOps Services and Team Foundation Server (TFS) to Azure DevOps Server.
Previous products
Visual FoxPro Visual FoxPro is a data-centric object-oriented and procedural programming language produced by Microsoft. It derives from FoxPro (originally known as FoxBASE) which was developed by Fox Software beginning in 1984. Visual FoxPro is tightly integrated with its own relational database engine, which extends FoxPro's xBase capabilities to support SQL queries and data manipulation. Visual FoxPro is a full-featured, dynamic programming language that does not require the use of an additional general-purpose programming environment. In 2007, Visual FoxPro was discontinued after version 9 Service Pack 2. It was supported until 2015.
Visual SourceSafe Microsoft Visual SourceSafe is a source control software package oriented towards small software-development projects. The SourceSafe database is a multi-user, multi-process file-system database, using the Windows file system database primitives to provide locking and sharing support. All versions are multi-user, using SMB (file server) networking. However, with Visual SourceSafe 2005, other client–server modes were added, Lan Booster and VSS Internet (which used HTTP/HTTPS). Visual SourceSafe 6.0 was available as a stand-alone product and was included with Visual Studio 6.0, and other products such as Office Developer Edition. Visual SourceSafe 2005 was available as a stand-alone product and included with the 2005 Team Suite. Azure DevOps has superseded VSS as Microsoft's recommended platform for source control.
Microsoft Visual J++/Microsoft Visual J# Microsoft Visual J++ was Microsoft's implementation of the Java language (with Microsoft-specific extensions) and associated language services. It was discontinued as a result of litigation from Sun Microsystems, and the technology was recycled into Visual J#, Microsoft's Java compiler for .NET Framework. J# was available with Visual Studio 2005 (supported until 2015) but was discontinued in Visual Studio 2008.
Visual InterDev Visual InterDev was used to create web applications using Microsoft Active Server Pages (ASP) technologies. It supports code completion and includes database server management tools. It has been replaced with Microsoft Visual Web Developer.
Editions
Microsoft Visual Studio is available in the following editions or SKUs:
Community
The Community edition was announced on November 12, 2014, as a new free version, with similar functionality to Visual Studio Professional. Prior to this date, the only free editions of Visual Studio were the feature-limited Express variants. Unlike the Express variants, Visual Studio Community supports multiple languages, and provides support for extensions. Individual developers have no restrictions on their use of the Community edition. The following uses also allow unlimited usage: contributing to Open Source projects, academic research, in a classroom learning environment and for developing and testing device drivers for the Windows operating system. All other use by an organization depends on whether you are classified as an Enterprise (more than 250 employees or more than 1 million USD in annual revenue, per Microsoft). Non-Enterprises may use up to 5 copies without restriction, user number 6 and higher require a commercial license; Enterprise organizations require a commercial license for use outside of the noted exceptions. Visual Studio Community is oriented towards individual developers and small teams.
Professional
As of Visual Studio 2010, the Professional edition is the entry level commercial edition of Visual Studio. (Previously, a more feature restricted Standard edition was available.) It provides an IDE for all supported development languages. MSDN support is available as MSDN Essentials or the full MSDN library depending on licensing. It supports XML and XSLT editing, and can create deployment packages that only use ClickOnce and MSI. It includes tools like Server Explorer and integration with Microsoft SQL Server also. Windows Mobile development support was included in Visual Studio 2005 Standard, however, with Visual Studio 2008, it is only available in Professional and higher editions. Windows Phone 7 development support was added to all editions in Visual Studio 2010. Development for Windows Mobile is no longer supported in Visual Studio 2010. It is superseded by Windows Phone 7.
Enterprise
In addition to the features provided by the Professional edition, the Enterprise edition provides a new set of software development, database development, collaboration, metrics, architecture, testing and reporting tools.
History
The first version of Visual Studio was Visual Studio 97. Before that, Visual Basic, Visual C++, Visual FoxPro and Visual SourceSafe were sold as separate products.
97
Microsoft first released Visual Studio (codenamed Boston, for the city of the same name, thus beginning the VS codenames related to places) in 1997, bundling many of its programming tools together for the first time. Visual Studio 97 came in two editions: Visual Studio Professional and Visual Studio Enterprise, the professional edition has three CDs, and the enterprise four CDs. It included Visual J++ 1.1 for Java programming and introduced Visual InterDev for creating dynamically generated web sites using Active Server Pages. There was a single companion CD that contained the Microsoft Developer Network library.
Visual Studio 97 was an attempt at using the same development environment for multiple languages. Visual J++, InterDev, and the MSDN Library had all been using the same 'environment', called Developer Studio.
Visual Studio was also sold as a bundle with the separate IDEs used for Visual C++, Visual Basic and Visual FoxPro.
6.0 (1998)
The next version, version 6.0 (codenamed Aspen, after the ski resort in Colorado), was released in June 1998 and is the last version to run on the Windows 9x platform. Each version of each language in part also settled to v6.0, including Visual J++ which was prior v1.1, and Visual InterDev at the 1st release. The v6 edition of Microsoft was the core environment for the next four releases to provide programmers with an integrated look-alike platform. This led Microsoft to transition the development on the platform independent .NET Framework.
Visual Studio 6.0 was the last version to include Visual J++, which Microsoft removed as part of a settlement with Sun Microsystems that required Microsoft Internet Explorer not to provide support for the Java virtual machine.
Visual Studio 6.0 came in two editions: Professional and Enterprise. The Enterprise edition contained extra features not found in Professional edition, including:
Application Performance Explorer
Automation Manager
Microsoft Visual Modeler
RemAuto Connection Manager
Visual Studio Analyzer
Visual Studio was also sold as a bundle with the separate IDEs used for Visual C++, Visual Basic and Visual FoxPro.
.NET 2002
Microsoft released Visual Studio .NET (VS.NET), codenamed Rainier (for Washington's Mount Rainier), in February 2002 (the beta version was released via Microsoft Developer Network in 2001). The biggest change was the introduction of a managed code development environment using the .NET Framework. Programs developed using .NET are not compiled to machine language (like C++ is, for example) but instead to a format called Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL) or Common Intermediate Language (CIL). When a CIL application executes, it is compiled while being executed into the appropriate machine language for the platform it is being executed on, thereby making code portable across several platforms. Programs compiled into CIL can be executed only on platforms which have an implementation of Common Language Infrastructure. It is possible to run CIL programs in Linux or Mac OS X using non-Microsoft .NET implementations like Mono and DotGNU.
This was the first version of Visual Studio to require an NT-based Windows platform. The installer enforces this requirement.
Visual Studio .NET 2002 shipped in four editions: Academic, Professional, Enterprise Developer, and Enterprise Architect. Microsoft introduced C# (C-sharp), a new programming language, that targets .NET. It also introduced the successor to Visual J++ called Visual J#. Visual J# programs use Java's language-syntax. However, unlike Visual J++ programs, Visual J# programs can only target the .NET Framework, not the Java Virtual Machine that all other Java tools target.
Visual Basic changed drastically to fit the new framework, and the new version was called Visual Basic .NET. Microsoft also added extensions to C++, called Managed Extensions for C++, so .NET programs could be created in C++.
Visual Studio .NET can produce applications targeting Windows (using the Windows Forms part of the .NET Framework), the Web (using ASP.NET and Web Services) and, with an add-in, portable devices (using the .NET Compact Framework).
The Visual Studio .NET environment was rewritten to partially use .NET. All languages are versions of Visual Studio, it has a cleaner interface and greater cohesiveness. It is also more customizable with tool windows that automatically hide when not in use. While Visual FoxPro 7 started out as part of Visual Studio .NET 2002, and early VS betas allowed debugging inside VFP-based DLLs, it was removed before release to follow its own development track.
The internal version number of Visual Studio .NET 2002 is version 7.0. Microsoft released Service Pack 1 for Visual Studio .NET 2002 in March 2005.
.NET 2003
In April 2003, Microsoft introduced a minor upgrade to Visual Studio .NET called Visual Studio .NET 2003, codenamed Everett (for the city of the same name). It includes an upgrade to the .NET Framework, version 1.1, and is the first release to support developing programs for mobile devices, using ASP.NET or the .NET Compact Framework. The Visual C++ compiler's standards-compliance improved, especially in the area of partial template specialization. Visual C++ Toolkit 2003 is a version of the same C++ compiler shipped with Visual Studio .NET 2003 without the IDE that Microsoft made freely available. it is no longer available and the Express Editions have superseded it. Visual Studio .NET 2003 also supports Managed C++, which is the predecessor of C++/CLI. The internal version number of Visual Studio .NET 2003 is version 7.1 while the file format version is 8.0.
Visual Studio .NET 2003 shipped in five editions: Academic, Standard, Professional, Enterprise Developer, and Enterprise Architect. The Visual Studio .NET 2003 Enterprise Architect edition includes an implementation of Microsoft Visio 2002's modeling technologies, including tools for creating Unified Modeling Language-based visual representations of an application's architecture, and an object-role modeling (ORM) and logical database-modeling solution. "Enterprise Templates" were also introduced, to help larger development teams standardize coding styles and enforce policies around component usage and property settings.
Service Pack 1 was released September 13, 2006.
2005
Visual Studio 2005, codenamed Whidbey (a reference to Whidbey Island in Puget Sound region), was released online in October 2005 and to retail stores a few weeks later. Microsoft removed the ".NET" moniker from Visual Studio 2005 (as well as every other product with .NET in its name), but it still primarily targets the .NET Framework, which was upgraded to version 2.0. It is the last version available for Windows 2000 and also the last version to be able to target Windows 98, Windows Me and Windows NT 4.0 for C++ applications.
Visual Studio 2005's internal version number is 8.0 while the file format version is 9.0. Microsoft released Service Pack 1 for Visual Studio 2005 on December 14, 2006. An additional update for Service Pack 1 that offers Windows Vista compatibility was made available on June 3, 2007.
Visual Studio 2005 was upgraded to support all the new features introduced in .NET Framework 2.0, including generics and ASP.NET 2.0. The IntelliSense feature in Visual Studio was upgraded for generics and new project types were added to support ASP.NET web services. Visual Studio 2005 additionally introduces support for a new task-based build platform called Microsoft Build Engine (MSBuild) which employs a new XML-based project file format. Visual Studio 2005 also includes a local web server, separate from IIS, that can host ASP.NET applications during development and testing. It also supports all SQL Server 2005 databases. Database designers were upgraded to support the ADO.NET 2.0, which is included with .NET Framework 2.0. C++ also got a similar upgrade with the addition of C++/CLI which is slated to replace the use of Managed C++. Other new features of Visual Studio 2005 include the "Deployment Designer" which allows application designs to be validated before deployments, an improved environment for web publishing when combined with ASP.NET 2.0 and load testing to see application performance under various sorts of user loads. Starting with the 2005 edition, Visual Studio also added extensive 64-bit support. While the host development environment itself is only available as a 32-bit application, Visual C++ 2005 supports compiling for x86-64 (AMD64 and Intel 64) as well as IA-64 (Itanium). The Platform SDK included 64-bit compilers and 64-bit versions of the libraries.
Microsoft also announced Visual Studio Tools for Applications as the successor to Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) and VSA (Visual Studio for Applications). VSTA 1.0 was released to manufacturing along with Office 2007. It is included with Office 2007 and is also part of the Visual Studio 2005 SDK. VSTA consists of a customized IDE, based on the Visual Studio 2005 IDE, and a runtime that can be embedded in applications to expose its features via the .NET object model. Office 2007 applications continue to integrate with VBA, except for InfoPath 2007 which integrates with VSTA. Version 2.0 of VSTA (based on Visual Studio 2008) was released in April 2008. It is significantly different from the first version, including features such as dynamic programming and support for WPF, WCF, WF, LINQ, and .NET 3.5 Framework.
2008
Visual Studio 2008, and Visual Studio Team System 2008 codenamed Orcas (a reference to Orcas Island, also an island in Puget Sound region, like Whidbey for the previous 2005 release), were released to MSDN subscribers on November 19, 2007 alongside .NET Framework 3.5. The source code for the Visual Studio 2008 IDE is available under a shared source license to some of Microsoft's partners and ISVs. Microsoft released Service Pack 1 for Visual Studio 2008 on August 11, 2008. The internal version number of Visual Studio 2008 is version 9.0 while the file format version is 10.0. Visual Studio 2008 is the last version to support targeting Windows 2000 for C++ applications.
Visual Studio 2008 is focused on development of Windows Vista, 2007 Office system, and Web applications. For visual design, a new Windows Presentation Foundation visual designer and a new HTML/CSS editor influenced by Microsoft Expression Web are included. J# is not included. Visual Studio 2008 requires .NET 3.5 Framework and by default configures compiled assemblies to run on .NET Framework 3.5, but it also supports multi-targeting which lets the developers choose which version of the .NET Framework (out of 2.0, 3.0, 3.5, Silverlight CoreCLR or .NET Compact Framework) the assembly runs on. Visual Studio 2008 also includes new code analysis tools, including the new Code Metrics tool (only in Team Edition and Team Suite Edition). For Visual C++, Visual Studio adds a new version of Microsoft Foundation Classes (MFC 9.0) that adds support for the visual styles and UI controls introduced with Windows Vista. For native and managed code interoperability, Visual C++ introduces the STL/CLR, which is a port of the C++ Standard Template Library (STL) containers and algorithms to managed code. STL/CLR defines STL-like containers, iterators and algorithms that work on C++/CLI managed objects.
Visual Studio 2008 features include an XAML-based designer (codenamed Cider), workflow designer, LINQ to SQL designer (for defining the type mappings and object encapsulation for SQL Server data), XSLT debugger, JavaScript Intellisense support, JavaScript Debugging support, support for UAC manifests, a concurrent build system, among others. It ships with an enhanced set of UI widgets, both for Windows Forms and WPF. It also includes a multithreaded build engine (MSBuild) to compile multiple source files (and build the executable file) in a project across multiple threads simultaneously. It also includes support for compiling icon resources in PNG format, introduced in Windows Vista. An updated XML Schema designer was released separately some time after the release of Visual Studio 2008.
Visual Studio Debugger includes features targeting easier debugging of multi-threaded applications. In debugging mode, in the Threads window, which lists all the threads, hovering over a thread displays the stack trace of that thread in tooltips. The threads can directly be named and flagged for easier identification from that window itself. In addition, in the code window, along with indicating the location of the currently executing instruction in the current thread, the currently executing instructions in other threads are also pointed out. The Visual Studio debugger supports integrated debugging of the .NET 3.5 Framework Base Class Library (BCL) which can dynamically download the BCL source code and debug symbols and allow stepping into the BCL source during debugging. a limited subset of the BCL source is available, with more library support planned for later.
2010
On April 12, 2010, Microsoft released Visual Studio 2010, codenamed Dev10, and .NET Framework 4.
The Visual Studio 2010 IDE was redesigned which, according to Microsoft, clears the UI organization and "reduces clutter and complexity." The new IDE better supports multiple document windows and floating tool windows, while offering better multi-monitor support. The IDE shell has been rewritten using the Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF), whereas the internals have been redesigned using Managed Extensibility Framework (MEF) that offers more extensibility points than previous versions of the IDE that enabled add-ins to modify the behavior of the IDE.
The new multi-paradigm ML-variant F# forms part of Visual Studio 2010.
Visual Studio 2010 comes with .NET Framework 4 and supports developing applications targeting Windows 7. It supports IBM DB2 and Oracle databases, in addition to Microsoft SQL Server. It has integrated support for developing Microsoft Silverlight applications, including an interactive designer. Visual Studio 2010 offers several tools to make parallel programming simpler: in addition to the Parallel Extensions for the .NET Framework and the Parallel Patterns Library for native code, Visual Studio 2010 includes tools for debugging parallel applications. The new tools allow the visualization of parallel Tasks and their runtime stacks. Tools for profiling parallel applications can be used for visualization of thread wait-times and thread migrations across processor cores. Intel and Microsoft have jointly pledged support for a new Concurrency Runtime in Visual Studio 2010
and Intel has launched parallelism support in Parallel Studio as an add-on for Visual Studio.
The Visual Studio 2010 code editor now highlights references; whenever a symbol is selected, all other usages of the symbol are highlighted. It also offers a Quick Search feature to incrementally search across all symbols in C++, C# and VB.NET projects. Quick Search supports substring matches and camelCase searches. The Call Hierarchy feature allows the developer to see all the methods that are called from a current method as well as the methods that call the current one. IntelliSense in Visual Studio supports a consume-first mode which developers can opt into. In this mode, IntelliSense does not auto-complete identifiers; this allows the developer to use undefined identifiers (like variable or method names) and define those later. Visual Studio 2010 can also help in this by automatically defining them, if it can infer their types from usage. Current versions of Visual Studio have a known bug which makes IntelliSense unusable for projects using pure C (not C++).
Visual Studio 2010 features a new Help System replacing the MSDN Library viewer. The Help System is no longer based on Microsoft Help 2 and does not use Microsoft Document Explorer. Dynamic help containing links to help items based on what the developer was doing at the time was removed in the final release, but can be added back using a download from Microsoft.
Visual Studio 2010 no longer supports development for Windows Mobile prior to Windows Phone 7. Visual Studio 2010 Service Pack 1 was released in March 2011.
Ultimate 2010
Visual Studio Ultimate 2010 replaces Visual Studio 2008 Team Suite. It includes new modeling tools, such as the Architecture Explorer, which graphically displays projects and classes and the relationships between them.
It supports UML activity diagram, component diagram, (logical) class diagram, sequence diagram, and use case diagram. Visual Studio Ultimate 2010 also includes Test Impact Analysis which provides hints on which test cases are impacted by modifications to the source code, without actually running the test cases. This speeds up testing by avoiding running unnecessary test cases.
Visual Studio Ultimate 2010 also includes a historical debugger for managed code called IntelliTrace. Unlike a traditional debugger that records only the currently active stack, IntelliTrace records all events, such as prior function calls, method parameters, events and exceptions. This allows the code execution to be rewound in case a breakpoint was not set where the error occurred. Debugging with IntelliTrace causes the application to run more slowly than debugging without it, and uses more memory as additional data needs to be recorded. Microsoft allows configuration of how much data should be recorded, in effect, allowing developers to balance the speed of execution and resource usage. The Lab Management component of Visual Studio Ultimate 2010 uses virtualization to create a similar execution environment for testers and developers. The virtual machines are tagged with checkpoints which can later be investigated for issues, as well as to reproduce the issue. Visual Studio Ultimate 2010 also includes the capability to record test runs that capture the specific state of the operating environment as well as the precise steps used to run the test. These steps can then be played back to reproduce issues.
2012
The final build of Visual Studio 2012 was announced on August 1, 2012 and the official launch event was held on September 12, 2012.
Unlike prior versions, Visual Studio 2012 cannot record and play macros and the macro editor has been removed.
New features include support for WinRT and C++/CX (Component Extensions) and C++ AMP (GPGPU programming) Semantic Colorization.
On September 16, 2011, a complete 'Developer Preview' of Visual Studio 11 was published on Microsoft's website. Visual Studio 11 Developer Preview requires Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 R2, Windows 8, or later operating systems. Versions of Microsoft Foundation Class Library (MFC) and C runtime (CRT) included with this release cannot produce software that is compatible with Windows XP or Windows Server 2003 except by using native multi-targeting and foregoing the newest libraries, compilers, and headers. However, on June 15, 2012, a blog post on the VC++ Team blog announced that based on customer feedback, Microsoft would re-introduce native support for Windows XP targets (though not for XP as a development platform) in a version of Visual C++ to be released later in the fall of 2012. "Visual Studio 2012 Update 1" (Visual Studio 2012.1) was released in November 2012. This update added support for Windows XP targets and also added other new tools and features (e.g. improved diagnostics and testing support for Windows Store apps).
On August 24, 2011, a blog post by Sumit Kumar, a Program Manager on the Visual C++ team, listed some of the features of the upcoming version of the Visual Studio C++ IDE:
Semantic colorization: Improved syntax coloring, various user-defined or default colors for C++ syntax such as macros, enumerations, typenames and functions.
Reference highlighting: Selection of a symbol highlights all of the references to that symbol within scope.
New Solution Explorer: The new Solution Explorer allows for visualization of class and file hierarchies within a solution/project. It can search for calls to functions and uses of classes.
Automatic display of IntelliSense list: IntelliSense is automatically displayed whilst typing code, as opposed to previous versions where it had to be explicitly invoked through use of certain operators (i.e. the scope operator (::)) or shortcut keys (Ctrl-Space or Ctrl-J).
Member list filtering: IntelliSense uses fuzzy logic to determine which functions/variables/types to display in the list.
Code snippets: Code snippets are included in IntelliSense to automatically generate relevant code based on the user's parameters, custom code snippets can be created.
The source code of Visual Studio 2012 consists of approximately 50 million lines of code.
Interface backlash
During Visual Studio 11 beta, Microsoft eliminated the use of color within tools except in cases where color is used for notification or status change purposes. However, the use of color was returned after feedback demanding more contrast, differentiation, clarity and "energy" in the user interface.
In Visual Studio 2012 RC, a major change to the interface is the use of all-caps menu bar, as part of the campaign to keep Visual Studio consistent with the direction of other Microsoft user interfaces, and to provide added structure to the top menu bar area. The redesign was criticized for being hard to read, and going against the trends started by developers to use CamelCase to make words stand out better. Some speculated that the root cause of the redesign was to incorporate the simplistic look and feel of Metro programs. However, there exists a Windows Registry option to allow users to disable the all-caps interface.
2013
The preview for Visual Studio 2013 was announced at the Build 2013 conference and made available on June 26, 2013. The Visual Studio 2013 RC (Release Candidate) was made available to developers on MSDN on September 9, 2013.
The final release of Visual Studio 2013 became available for download on October 17, 2013 along with .NET 4.5.1. Visual Studio 2013 officially launched on November 13, 2013 at a virtual launch event keynoted by S. Somasegar and hosted on . "Visual Studio 2013 Update 1" (Visual Studio 2013.1) was released on January 20, 2014.
Visual Studio 2013.1 is a targeted update that addresses some key areas of customer feedback.
"Visual Studio 2013 Update 2" (Visual Studio 2013.2) was released on May 12, 2014.
Visual Studio 2013 Update 3 was released on August 4, 2014. With this update, Visual Studio provides an option to disable the all-caps menus, which was introduced in VS2012.
"Visual Studio 2013 Update 4" (Visual Studio 2013.4) was released on November 12, 2014.
"Visual Studio 2013 Update 5" (Visual Studio 2013.5) was released on July 20, 2015.
2015
Initially referred to as Visual Studio "14", the first Community Technology Preview (CTP) was released on June 3, 2014 and the Release Candidate was released on April 29, 2015; Visual Studio 2015 was officially announced as the final name on November 12, 2014.
Visual Studio 2015 RTM was released on July 20, 2015. Visual Studio 2015 Update 1 was released on November 30, 2015. Visual Studio 2015 Update 2 was released on March 30, 2016. Visual Studio 2015 Update 3 was released on June 27, 2016.
2017
Initially referred to as Visual Studio "15", it was released on March 7, 2017. The first Preview was released on March 30, 2016. Visual Studio "15" Preview 2 was released May 10, 2016. Visual Studio "15" Preview 3 was released on July 7, 2016. Visual Studio "15" Preview 4 was released on August 22, 2016. Visual Studio "15" Preview 5 was released on October 5, 2016.
On November 14, 2016, for a brief period of time, Microsoft released a blog post revealing Visual Studio 2017 product name version alongside upcoming features.
On November 16, 2016, "Visual Studio 2017" was announced as the final name, and Visual Studio 2017 RC was released.
On March 7, 2017, Visual Studio 2017 was released for general availability.
On March 14, 2017, first fix was released for Visual Studio 2017 due to failures during installation or opening solutions in the first release.
On April 5, 2017, Visual Studio 2017 15.1 was released and added support for targeting the .NET Framework 4.7.
On May 10, 2017, Visual Studio 2017 15.2 was released and added a new workload, "Data Science and Analytical Applications Workload". An update to fix the dark color theme was released on May 12, 2017.
On August 14, 2017, Visual Studio 2017 15.3 was released and added support for targeting .NET Core 2.0. An update (15.3.1) was released four days later to address a Git vulnerability with submodules (CVE 2017-1000117).
On October 10, 2017, Visual Studio 15.4 was released.
On December 4, 2017, Visual Studio 15.5 was released. This update contained major performance improvements, new features, as well as bug fixes.
On March 6, 2018, Visual Studio 15.6 was released. It includes updates to unit testing and performance.
On May 7, 2018, Visual Studio 15.7 was released. It included updates across the board including, the installer, editor, debugger among others. Almost all point releases, the latest of which is 15.7.6 released August 2, 2018, include security updates. With the release of Visual Studio 2017 15.7, Visual C++ now conforms to the C++17 standard.
On September 20, 2018, Visual Studio 15.8.5 was released. Tools for Xamarin now supports Xcode 10.
Visual Studio 2017 offers new features like support for EditorConfig (a coding style enforcement framework), NGen support, .NET Core and Docker toolset (Preview), and Xamarin 4.3 (Preview). It also has a XAML Editor, improved IntelliSense, live unit testing, debugging enhancement and better IDE experience and productivity. Additionally, it is the last version of Visual Studio to support maintaining Windows 10 Mobile projects.
2019
On June 6, 2018 Microsoft announced Visual Studio 2019 (version 16).
On December 4, 2018 Visual Studio 2019 Preview 1 was released. On January 24, 2019 Visual Studio 2019 Preview 2 was released. On February 13, 2019 Visual Studio 2019 Preview 3 was released.
On February 27, 2019 Visual Studio 2019 RC was released.
It is generally available (GA) since April 2, 2019 and available for download.
2022
On April 19, 2021, Microsoft announced Visual Studio 2022 (version 17). It is the first version to run as a 64-bit process allowing Visual Studio main process to access more than 4 GB of memory, preventing out-of-memory exceptions which could occur with large projects.
On June 17, 2021 Visual Studio 2022 Preview 1 was released.
On July 14, 2021 Visual Studio 2022 Preview 2 was released.
On August 10, 2021 Visual Studio 2022 Preview 3 was released.
On September 14, 2021 Visual Studio 2022 Preview 4 was released.
On October 12, 2021 Visual Studio 2022 RC and Preview 5 was released while setting November 8, 2021 for its general availability.
It is generally available (GA) since November 8, 2021 and available for download.
Related products
Azure DevOps Services
On November 13, 2013, Microsoft announced the release of a software as a service offering of Visual Studio on Microsoft Azure platform; at the time, Microsoft called it Visual Studio Online. Previously announced as Team Foundation Services, it expanded over the on-premises Team Foundation Server (TFS; now known as Azure DevOps Server) by making it available on the Internet and implementing a rolling release model. Customers could use Azure portal to subscribe to Visual Studio Online. Subscribers receive a hosted Git-compatible version control system, a load-testing service, a telemetry service and an in-browser code editor codenamed "Monaco". During the developer event on November 18, 2015, Microsoft announced that the service was rebranded as "Visual Studio Team Services (VSTS)". On September 10, 2018, Microsoft announced another rebranding of the service, this time to "Azure DevOps Services".
Microsoft offers Stakeholder, Basic, and Visual Studio subscriber access levels for Azure DevOps Services. The Basic plan is free of charge for up to five users. Users with a Visual Studio subscription can be added to a plan with no additional charge.
Visual Studio Application Lifecycle Management
Visual Studio Application Lifecycle Management (ALM) is a collection of integrated software development tools developed by Microsoft. These tools currently consist of the IDE (Visual Studio 2015 Community and greater editions), server (Team Foundation Server), and cloud services (Visual Studio Team Services). Visual Studio ALM supports team-based development and collaboration, Agile project management, DevOps, source control, packaging, continuous development, automated testing, release management, continuous delivery, and reporting tools for apps and services.
In Visual Studio 2005 and Visual Studio 2008, the brand was known as Microsoft Visual Studio Team System (VSTS). In October 2009, the Team System brand was renamed Visual Studio ALM with the Visual Studio 2010 (codenamed 'Rosario') release.
Visual Studio Team Services debuted as Visual Studio Online in 2013 and was renamed in 2015.
Visual Studio Lab Management
Visual Studio Lab Management is a software development tool developed by Microsoft for software testers to create and manage virtual environments. Lab Management extends the existing Visual Studio Application Lifecycle Management platform to enable an integrated Hyper-V based test lab. Since Visual Studio 2012, it is already shipped as a part of it; and, can be set up after Azure DevOps and SCVMM are integrated.
Visual Studio LightSwitch
Microsoft Visual Studio LightSwitch is an extension and framework specifically tailored for creating line-of-business applications built on existing .NET technologies and Microsoft platforms. The applications produced are architecturally 3-tier: the user interface runs on either Microsoft Silverlight or HTML 5 client, or as a SharePoint 2013 app; the logic and data-access tier is built on WCF Data Services and exposed as an OData feed hosted in ASP.NET; and the primary data storage supports Microsoft SQL Server Express, Microsoft SQL Server and Microsoft SQL Azure. LightSwitch also supports other data sources including Microsoft SharePoint, OData and WCF RIA Services.
LightSwitch includes graphical designers for designing entities and entity relationships, entity queries, and UI screens. Business logic may be written in either Visual Basic or Visual C#. LightSwitch is included with Visual Studio 2012 Professional and higher. Visual Studio 2015 is the last release of Visual Studio that includes the LightSwitch tooling.
The user interface layer is now an optional component when deploying a LightSwitch solution, allowing a service-only deployment.
The first version of Visual Studio LightSwitch, released July 26, 2011, had many differences from the current release of LightSwitch. Notably the tool was purchased and installed as a stand-alone product. If Visual Studio 2010 Professional or higher was already installed on the machine, LightSwitch would integrate into that. The second major difference was the middle tier was built and exposed using WCF RIA Services.
As of October 14, 2016, Microsoft no longer recommends LightSwitch for new application development.
Visual Studio Code
Visual Studio Code is a freeware source code editor, along with other features, for Linux, Mac OS, and Windows. It also includes support for debugging and embedded Git Control. It is built on open-source, and on April 14, 2016 was released as version 1.0.
Visual Studio Team System Profiler
Visual Studio Team System Profiler (VSTS Profiler) is a tool to analyze the performance of .NET projects that analyzes the space and time complexity of the program. It analyzes the code and prepares a report that includes CPU sampling, instrumentation, .NET memory allocation and resource contention.
See also
Microsoft Visual Studio Express
Microsoft Visual Studio Code
Comparison of integrated development environments
Microsoft Small Basic
AppVeyor
Erich Gamma
Julia Liuson
References
External links
1997 software
Distributed bug tracking systems
User interface builders
Windows-only software
Open-source software hosting facilities |
57893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficus | Ficus | Ficus ( or ) is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the tropics with a few species extending into the semi-warm temperate zone. The common fig (F. carica) is a temperate species native to southwest Asia and the Mediterranean region (from Afghanistan to Portugal), which has been widely cultivated from ancient times for its fruit, also referred to as figs. The fruit of most other species are also edible though they are usually of only local economic importance or eaten as bushfood. However, they are extremely important food resources for wildlife. Figs are also of considerable cultural importance throughout the tropics, both as objects of worship and for their many practical uses.
Description
Ficus is a pantropical genus of trees, shrubs, and vines occupying a wide variety of ecological niches; most are evergreen, but some deciduous species are found in areas outside of the tropics and to higher elevations. Fig species are characterized by their unique inflorescence and distinctive pollination syndrome, which uses wasp species belonging to the family Agaonidae for pollination.
Specific identification of many of the species can be difficult, but members of the genus Ficus are relatively easy to recognize. Many have aerial roots and a distinctive shape or habit, and their fruits distinguish them from other plants. The fruit of Ficus is an inflorescence enclosed in an urn-like structure called a syconium, which is lined on the inside with the fig's tiny flowers that develop into multiple ovaries on the inside surface. In essence, the fig fruit is a fleshy stem with multiple tiny flowers that fruit and coalesce.
The unique fig pollination system, involving tiny, highly specific wasps, known as fig wasps that enter via ostiole these subclosed inflorescences to both pollinate and lay their own eggs, has been a constant source of inspiration and wonder to biologists. Notably, three vegetative traits together are unique to figs. All figs present a white to yellowish latex, some in copious quantities; the twig shows paired stipules —or circular scars if the stipules have fallen off; the lateral veins at the base of the leaf are steep, forming a tighter angle with the midrib than the other lateral veins, a feature referred to as "triveined".
No unambiguous older fossils of Ficus are known. However, current molecular clock estimates indicate that Ficus is a relatively ancient genus being at least 60 million years old, and possibly as old as 80 million years. The main radiation of extant species, however, may have taken place more recently, between 20 and 40 million years ago.
Some better-known species that represent the diversity of the genus include the common fig, a small, temperate deciduous tree whose fingered fig leaf is well known in art and iconography; the weeping fig (F. benjamina), a hemiepiphyte with thin, tough leaves on pendulous stalks adapted to its rain forest habitat; the rough-leaved sandpaper figs from Australia; and the creeping fig (F. pumila), a vine whose small, hard leaves form a dense carpet of foliage over rocks or garden walls.
Moreover, figs with different plant habits have undergone adaptive radiation in different biogeographic regions, leading to very high levels of alpha diversity. In the tropics, Ficus commonly is the most species-rich plant genus in a particular forest. In Asia, as many as 70 or more species can co-exist. Ficus species richness declines with an increase in latitude in both hemispheres.
A description of fig tree cultivation is set out in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work entitled, Book on Agriculture.
Ecology
Figs are keystone species in many tropical forest ecosystems. Their fruit are a key resource for some frugivores including fruit bats, and primates including: capuchin monkeys, langurs, gibbons and mangabeys. They are even more important for birds such as Asian barbets, pigeons, hornbills, fig-parrots and bulbuls, which may almost entirely subsist on figs when these are in plenty. Many Lepidoptera caterpillars feed on fig leaves, for example several Euploea species (crow butterflies), the plain tiger (Danaus chrysippus), the giant swallowtail (Papilio cresphontes), the brown awl (Badamia exclamationis), and Chrysodeixis eriosoma, Choreutidae and Copromorphidae moths. The citrus long-horned beetle (Anoplophora chinensis), for example, has larvae that feed on wood, including that of fig trees; it can become a pest in fig plantations. Similarly, the sweet potato whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) is frequently found as a pest on figs grown as potted plants and is spread through the export of these plants to other localities. For a list of other diseases common to fig trees, see List of foliage plant diseases (Moraceae).
Fig fruit and reproduction system
Many fig species are grown for their fruits, though only Ficus carica is cultivated to any extent for this purpose. A fig "fruit" is a type of multiple fruit known as a syconium, derived from an arrangement of many small flowers on an inverted, nearly closed receptacle. The many small flowers are unseen unless the fig is cut open.
The fruit typically has a bulbous shape with a small opening (the ostiole) at the outward end that allows access to pollinators. The flowers are pollinated by very small wasps that crawl through the opening in search of a suitable place to lay eggs. Without this pollinator service fig trees could not reproduce by seed. In turn, the flowers provide a safe haven and nourishment for the next generation of wasps. This accounts for the frequent presence of wasp larvae in the fruit, and has led to a coevolutionary relationship. Technically, a fig fruit proper would be only one of the many tiny matured, seed-bearing gynoecia found inside one fig – if you cut open a fresh fig, individual fruit will appear as fleshy "threads", each bearing a single seed inside. The genus Dorstenia, also in the fig family (Moraceae), exhibits similar tiny flowers arranged on a receptacle but in this case the receptacle is a more or less flat, open surface.
Fig plants can be monoecious (hermaphrodite) or gynodioecious (hermaphrodite and female). Nearly half of fig species are gynodioecious, and therefore have some plants with inflorescences (syconium) with long styled pistillate flowers, and other plants with staminate flowers mixed with short styled pistillate flowers. The long-styled flowers tend to prevent wasps from laying their eggs within the ovules, while the short-styled flowers are accessible for egg laying.
All the native fig trees of the American continent are hermaphrodites, as well as species like Indian banyan (F. benghalensis), weeping fig (F. benjamina), Indian rubber plant (F. elastica), fiddle-leaved fig (F. lyrata), Moreton Bay fig (F. macrophylla), Chinese banyan (F. microcarpa), sacred fig (F. religiosa) and sycamore fig (F. sycomorus). The common fig (Ficus carica) is a gynodioecious plant, as well as lofty fig or clown fig (F. aspera), Roxburgh fig (F. auriculata), mistletoe fig (F. deltoidea), F. pseudopalma, creeping fig (F. pumila) and related species. The hermaphrodite common figs are called "inedible figs" or "caprifigs"; in traditional culture in the Mediterranean region they were considered food for goats (Capra aegagrus). In the female fig trees, the male flower parts fail to develop; they produce the "'edible figs". Fig wasps grow in common fig caprifigs but not in the female syconiums because the female flower is too long for the wasp to successfully lay her eggs in them. Nonetheless, the wasp pollinates the flower with pollen from the caprifig it grew up in. When the wasp dies, it is broken down by enzymes (Ficain) inside the fig. Fig wasps are not known to transmit any diseases harmful to humans.
When a caprifig ripens, another caprifig must be ready to be pollinated. In temperate climes, wasps hibernate in figs, and there are distinct crops. Caprifigs have three crops per year; common figs have two. The first crop (breba) is larger and more juicy, and is usually eaten fresh. In cold climates the breba crop is often destroyed by spring frosts. Some parthenocarpic cultivars of common figs do not require pollination at all, and will produce a crop of figs (albeit sterile) in the absence of caprifigs and fig wasps.
Depending on the species, each fruit can contain hundreds or even thousand of seeds. Figs can be propagated by seeds, cuttings, air-layering or grafting. However, as with any plant, figs grown from seed are not necessarily genetically identical to the parent and are only propagated this way for breeding purposes.
Mutualism with the pollinating fig wasps
Each species of fig is pollinated by one or a few specialised wasp species, and therefore plantings of fig species outside of their native range results in effectively sterile individuals. For example, in Hawaii, some 60 species of figs have been introduced, but only four of the wasps that fertilize them have been introduced, so only four species of figs produce viable seeds there and can become invasive species. This is an example of mutualism, in which each organism (fig plant and fig wasp) benefit each other, in this case reproductively.
The intimate association between fig species and their wasp pollinators, along with the high incidence of a one-to-one plant-pollinator ratio have long led scientists to believe that figs and wasps are a clear example of coevolution. Morphological and reproductive behavior evidence, such as the correspondence between fig and wasp larvae maturation rates, have been cited as support for this hypothesis for many years. Additionally, recent genetic and molecular dating analyses have shown a very close correspondence in the character evolution and speciation phylogenies of these two clades.
According to meta-analysis of molecular data for 119 fig species 35% (41) have multiple pollinator wasp species. The real proportion is higher because not all wasp species were detected. On the other hand, species of wasps pollinate multiple host fig species. Molecular techniques, like microsatellite markers and mitochondrial sequence analysis, allowed a discovery of multiple genetically distinct, cryptic wasp species. Not all these cryptic species are sister taxa and thus must have experienced a host fig shift at some point. These cryptic species lacked evidence of genetic introgression or backcrosses indicating limited fitness for hybrids and effective reproductive isolation and speciation.
The existence of cryptic species suggests that neither the number of symbionts nor their evolutionary relationships are necessarily fixed ecologically. While the morphological characteristics that facilitate the fig-wasp mutualisms are likely to be shared more fully in closer relatives, the absence of unique pairings would make it impossible to do a one-to-one tree comparison and difficult to determine cospeciation.
Systematics
With 800 species, Ficus is by far the largest genus in the Moraceae, and is one of the largest genera of flowering plants currently described. The species currently classified within Ficus were originally split into several genera in the mid-1800s, providing the basis for a subgeneric classification when reunited into one genus in 1867. This classification put functionally dioecious species into four subgenera based on floral characters. In 1965, E. J. H. Corner reorganized the genus on the basis of breeding system, uniting these four dioecious subgenera into a single dioecious subgenus Ficus. Monoecious figs were classified within the subgenera Urostigma, Pharmacosycea and Sycomorus.
This traditional classification has been called into question by recent phylogenetic studies employing genetic methods to investigate the relationships between representative members of the various sections of each subgenus. Of Corner's original subgeneric divisions of the genus, only Sycomorus is supported as monophyletic in the majority of phylogenetic studies. Notably, there is no clear split between dioecious and monoecious lineages. One of the two sections of Pharmacosycea, a monoecious group, form a monophyletic clade basal to the rest of the genus, which includes the other section of Pharmacosycea, the rest of the monoecious species, and all of the dioecious species. These remaining species are divided into two main monophyletic lineages (though the statistical support for these lineages isn't as strong as for the monophyly of the more derived clades within them). One consists of all sections of Urostigma except for section Urostigma s. s.. The other includes section Urostigma s. s., subgenus Sycomorus, and the species of subgenus Ficus, though the relationships of the sections of these groups to one another are not well resolved.
Selected species
There are 875 accepted Ficus species, as of March 2021, according to Plants of the World Online.
Subgenus Ficus
Ficus amplissima Sm. – bat fig
Ficus carica L. – common fig
Ficus daimingshanensis Chang
Ficus deltoidea Jack – mistletoe fig
Ficus erecta Thunb. – Japanese fig
Ficus fulva Reinw. ex Blume
Ficus grossularioides Burman f. – white-leaved fig
Ficus neriifolia Sm.
Ficus palmata Forssk.
Ficus pandurata Hance
Ficus simplicissima Lour. (synonym Ficus hirta Vahl)
Ficus triloba Buch.-Ham. ex Voigt
Subgenus Pharmacosycea
Ficus crassiuscula Standl.
Ficus gigantosyce Dugand
Ficus insipida Willd.
Ficus lacunata Kvitvik
Ficus maxima Mill.
Ficus mutabilis Bureau
Ficus nervosa Heyne ex Roth
Ficus pulchella Schott
Ficus yoponensis Desv.
Subgenus Sycidium
Ficus andamanica Corner
Ficus aspera G.Forst.
Ficus assamica Miq.
Ficus bojeri Baker
Ficus capreifolia Delile
Ficus coronata Spin – creek sandpaper fig
Ficus fraseri Miq. – shiny sandpaper fig
Ficus heterophylla L.f.
Ficus lateriflora Vahl
Ficus montana Burm.f. – oakleaf fig
Ficus opposita Miq. – sweet sandpaper fig
Ficus phaeosyce K.Schum. & Lauterb.
Ficus tinctoria G.Forst. – dye fig
Ficus ulmifolia Lam.
Ficus wassa Roxb.
Subgenus Sycomorus
Ficus auriculata Lour. – Roxburgh fig
Ficus bernaysii King
Ficus dammaropsis Diels – highland breadfruit, kapiak
Ficus fistulosa Blume
Ficus hispida L.
Ficus nota Merr. – tibig
Ficus pseudopalma Blanco
Ficus racemosa L. – cluster fig
Ficus septica Burm.f. – hauli tree
Ficus sycomorus L., 1753 – sycamore fig (Africa)
Ficus variegata Blume
Subgenus Synoecia
The following species are typically spreading or climbing lianas:
Ficus hederacea Roxb.
Ficus pantoniana King – climbing fig
Ficus pumila L. – creeping fig
Ficus pumila var. awkeotsang (Makino) Corner – jelly fig
Ficus punctata Thunb.
Ficus sagittata J. König ex Vahl
Ficus sarmentosa Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.
Ficus trichocarpa Blume
Ficus villosa Blume
Subgenus Urostigma
Ficus abutilifolia Miq.
Ficus albert-smithii Standl.
Ficus altissima Blume
Ficus amazonica Miq.
Ficus americana Aubl.
Ficus aripuanensis Berg & Kooy
Ficus arpazusa Carauta and Diaz – Brazil
Ficus aurea Nutt. – Florida strangler fig
Ficus beddomei King – thavital
Ficus benghalensis L. – Indian banyan
Ficus benjamina L. – weeping fig
Ficus binnendijkii Miq.
Ficus bizanae Hutch. & Burtt-Davy
Ficus blepharophylla Vázquez Avila
Ficus broadwayi Urb.
Ficus burtt-davyi Hutch.
Ficus calyptroceras Miq.
Ficus castellviana Dugand
Ficus catappifolia Kunth & Bouché
Ficus citrifolia Mill. – short-leaved fig
Ficus consociata Bl.
Ficus cordata Thunb.
Ficus costata Ait.
Ficus crassipes F.M.Bailey – round-leaved banana fig
Ficus craterostoma Mildbr. & Burret
Ficus cyathistipula Warb.
Ficus cyclophylla (Miq.) Miq.
Ficus dendrocida Kunth
Ficus depressa Bl.
Ficus destruens F.White
Ficus drupacea Thunb.
Ficus elastica Hornem. – rubber plant
Ficus exasperata Vahl.
Ficus faulkneriana Berg
Ficus fergusonii (King) T.B.Worth. ex Corner
Ficus glaberrima Blume
Ficus glumosa Delile
Ficus greiffiana Dugand
Ficus hirsuta Schott
Ficus ilicina Miq.
Ficus kerkhovenii Valeton – Johore fig
Ficus kurzii King
Ficus luschnathiana Miq.
Ficus ingens Miq.
Ficus krukovii Standl.
Ficus lacor Buch.-Ham.
Ficus lapathifolia Miq.
Ficus lauretana Vázquez Avila
Ficus lutea Vahl
Ficus lyrata Warb. – fiddle-leaved fig
Ficus maclellandii King – Alii fig
Ficus macrophylla Desf. ex Pers. – Moreton Bay fig
Ficus malacocarpa Standl.
Ficus mariae Berg, Emygdio & Carauta
Ficus mathewsii Miq.
Ficus matiziana Dugand
Ficus mexiae Standl.
Ficus microcarpa L. – Chinese banyan
Ficus muelleriana Berg
Ficus natalensis Hochst. – Natal fig
Ficus obliqua G.Forst. – small-leaved fig
Ficus obtusifolia Kunth
Ficus pakkensis Standl.
Ficus pallida Vahl
Ficus panurensis Standl.
Ficus pertusa L.f.
Ficus petiolaris Kunth
Ficus pisocarpa Bl.
Ficus platypoda Cunn. – desert fig
Ficus pleurocarpa DC. – banana fig
Ficus polita Vahl
Ficus religiosa L. – sacred fig
Ficus roraimensis Berg
Ficus rubiginosa Desf. – Port Jackson fig
Ficus rumphii Blume
Ficus salicifolia Vahl – willow-leaved fig
Ficus sansibarica Warb.
Ficus schippii Standl.
Ficus schultesii Dugand
Ficus schumacheri Griseb.
Ficus sphenophylla Standl.
Ficus stuhlmannii Warb.
Ficus subcordata Bl.
Ficus subpisocarpa Gagnep.
Ficus subpuberula Corner
Ficus sumatrana Miq.
Ficus superba Miq.
Ficus superba var. henneana (Miq.) Corner
Ficus thonningii Blume
Ficus trichopoda Baker
Ficus trigona L.f.
Ficus trigonata L.
Ficus triradiata Corner – red-stipule fig
Ficus ursina Standl.
Ficus velutina Willd.
Ficus verruculosa Warb.
Ficus virens Aiton – white fig
Ficus virens var. sublanceolata (Miq.) Corner – sour fig
Ficus watkinsiana F.M.Bailey – Watkins's fig
Unknown subgenus
Ficus bibracteata
Ficus callosa Willd.
Ficus cristobalensis
Ficus hebetifolia
Ficus tsjahela Burm.f.
Ficus nymphaeifolia Mill.
Uses
The wood of fig trees is often soft and the latex precludes its use for many purposes. It was used to make mummy caskets in Ancient Egypt. Certain fig species (mainly F. cotinifolia, F. insipida and F. padifolia) are traditionally used in Mesoamerica to produce papel amate (Nahuatl: āmatl). Mutuba (F. natalensis) is used to produce barkcloth in Uganda. Pou (F. religiosa) leaves' shape inspired one of the standard kbach rachana, decorative elements in Cambodian architecture. Indian banyan (F. benghalensis) and the Indian rubber plant, as well as other species, have use in herbalism. The inner bark of an unknown type of wild fig, locally known as urú, was once used by the of Bolivia to produce a fibrous cloth used for clothing.
Figs have figured prominently in some human cultures. There is evidence that figs, specifically the common fig (F. carica) and sycamore fig (Ficus sycomorus), were among the first – if not the very first – plant species that were deliberately bred for agriculture in the Middle East, starting more than 11,000 years ago. Nine subfossil F. carica figs dated to about 9400–9200 BCE were found in the early Neolithic village Gilgal I (in the Jordan Valley, 13 km, or 8.1 mi, north of Jericho). These were a parthenogenetic type and thus apparently an early cultivar. This find predates the first known cultivation of grain in the Middle East by many hundreds of years.
Cultivation
Numerous species of fig are found in cultivation in domestic and office environments, including:
F. carica, common fig – hardy to . Shrub or small tree which can be grown outdoors in mild temperate regions, producing substantial harvests of fruit. Many cultivars are available.
F. benjamina, weeping fig, ficus – hardy to . Widely used as an indoor plant for the home or the office. It benefits from the dry, warm atmosphere of centrally-heated interiors, and can grow to substantial heights in a favoured position. Several variegated cultivars are available.
F. elastica, rubber plant – hardy to : widely cultivated as a houseplant; several cultivars with variegated leaves
F. lyrata, fiddle-leaf fig – hardy to
F. maclellandii – hardy to
F. microcarpa, Indian laurel – hardy to
F. pumila, creeping fig – hardy to
F. rubiginosa, Port Jackson fig – hardy to
Cultural and spiritual significance
Fig trees have profoundly influenced culture through several religious traditions. Among the more famous species are the sacred fig tree (Pipal, bodhi, bo, or po, Ficus religiosa) and other banyan figs such as Ficus benghalensis. The oldest living plant of known planting date is a Ficus religiosa tree known as the Sri Maha Bodhi planted in the temple at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka by King Tissa in 288 BCE. The common fig is one of two significant trees in Islam, and there is a sura in Quran named "The Fig" or At-Tin (سوره تین). In Asia, figs are important in Buddhism and Hinduism. In Jainism, the consumption of any fruit belonging to this genus is prohibited. The Buddha is traditionally held to have found bodhi (enlightenment) while meditating for 49 days under a sacred fig. The same species was Ashvattha, the "world tree" of Hinduism. The Plaksa Pra-sravana was said to be a fig tree between the roots of which the Sarasvati River sprang forth; it is usually held to be a sacred fig but more probably is Ficus virens. According to the Kikuyu people, sacrifices to Ngai were performed under a sycomore tree (Mũkũyũ) and if one was not available, a fig tree (Mũgumo) would be used. The common fig tree is cited in the Bible, where in Genesis 3:7, Adam and Eve cover their nakedness with fig leaves. The fig fruit is also one of the traditional crops of Israel, and is included in the list of food found in the Promised Land, according to the Torah (Deut. 8). Jesus cursed a fig tree for bearing no fruit (). The fig tree was sacred in ancient Greece and Cyprus, where it was a symbol of fertility.
List of famous fig trees
The Barren Fig Tree – Matthew 21:19 of The Holy Bible, Jesus put a curse on the tree and used this as an example for believers of the promise of the power faith in the only true God. Ashvattha – the world tree of Hinduism, held to be a supernatural F. religiosa Bodhi tree – a F. religiosa Charybdis Fig Tree of Homer's Odyssey, presumably a F. carica Curtain Fig Tree – a F. virens Ficus Ruminalis – a F. carica Plaksa – another supernatural fig in Hinduism; usually identified as F. religiosa but is probably F. virens Santa Barbara's Moreton Bay Fig Tree – a F. macrophylla Sri Maha Bodhi – another F. religiosa, planted in 288 BCE, the oldest human-planted tree on record
The Great Banyan – a F. benghalensis, a clonal colony and once the largest organism known
Vidurashwatha – "Vidura's Sacred Fig Tree", a village in India named after a famous F. religiosa that until recently stood there
Wonderboom – the largest fig tree in Pretoria, South Africa
Citations
General references
Supporting Online Material
Electronic appendices
External links
Figweb—Major reference site for the genus Ficus''
World checklist of Ficus species from the Catalogue of Life, 845 species supplied by M. Hassler's World Plants.
Video: Interaction of figs and fig wasps—Multi-award-winning documentary
Fruits of Warm Climates: Fig
BBC: Fig fossil clue to early farming
Video
How the fig tree strangles other plants for survival in the rainforest
Moraceae genera
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus |
12743409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kno | Kno | Kno, Inc. was a software company that worked with publishers to offer digital textbooks and other educational materials. In November 2013, after raising nearly $100 million in venture capital, the company was acquired by Intel. The website was stopped and the service renamed to Intel Education Study later on.
History
Founded in May 2009, Kno was headed by CEO Osman Rashid, the co-founder of Chegg, and CTO Babur Habib, a consumer electronics veteran. The firm received funding from Andreessen Horowitz, Intel Capital, Goldman Sachs, FLOODGATE and GSV Capital, and was based in Santa Clara, California.
The company initially announced, in June 2010, a line of tablet computers. Its goal was to offer a "digital textbook/student platform" aimed at the academic market. The textbook tablet was available either with a single panel 14.1" touchscreen or with dual 14.1" touchscreens. The operating system was based on Linux and Webkit.
In April 2011, the company announced that it had licensed its hardware design to Intel and would instead focus on developing software. Two months later, the company released an iPad application, followed by versions for the Galaxy Note 10.1, Android Jelly Bean, Windows 7 & 8, and Web platforms and devices.
In August 2012, the company expanded its catalog of titles from college textbooks to include the K-12 market.
The company was acquired by Intel the following year.
References
External links
Official Site
Computer companies established in 2009
Educational technology companies of the United States
Educational software
Software companies based in California
Defunct software companies of the United States
2009 establishments in California
Software companies disestablished in 2013
2013 disestablishments in California
2013 mergers and acquisitions
Intel acquisitions |
3851478 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical%20IP%20Switching | Optical IP Switching | Optical IP Switching (OIS), is a novel method of creating transparent optical connections between network nodes using a flow-based approach.
An IP flow is a collection of IP packets going from the same source to the same destination: the exchange of IP packets is the mechanism that allows the transport of information over the Internet.
Recent studies have shown that Internet traffic presents a heavy tail distribution, where a small number of flows carries a huge amount of data. This suggests the possibility of dynamically adapting the optical connections to carry these heavy flows.
Currently a packet has to traverse a certain number of routers, before reaching its destination and the network routers must analyze each packet and forward it towards the direction of the destination node.
However, since a flow is defined as a sequence of packets going from the same source to the same destination, if the router recognises the flow it could create a short-cut by creating a “switched” connection allowing all the packets belonging to the same IP flow to proceed directly towards the correct direction without being analyzed one after the other. This general idea is known as IP switching.
If the shortcut however occurs at an optical level, the process becomes Optical IP Switching. The advantage of OIS comes from the fact that today packets are transmitted optically between two points but at each routing station they have to be converted into electrical signal, routed and converted back into optical to continue their travel over the optical fiber. If instead the router is able to recognise a flow, it could create a shortcut (“cut-through connection”) directly at the optical level, and all the packets belonging to the same flow could be directed to the right destination without the optical-to-electrical conversion process. This would save time, energy, memory and processing resources on the router.
A basic implementation of the OIS concept sees an optical router that monitors IP traffic and if a flow appears with specific characteristics the router establishes an optical cut-through path between its upstream and downstream neighbours, requesting the upstream node to place all the packets belonging to the flow into the new path. The newly generated trail bypasses the IP layer of the router, as the packets transparently flow from the upstream to the downstream neighbour. Following a similar procedure the path can then be extended to more than three nodes, but this decision is always autonomously taken by each router and depends on the traffic encountered and on the resources locally available.
Since an optical link however can carry several gigabits of data per second, it may be difficult to find a flow that alone can exploit the bandwidth offered by an optical trail.
For this reason, aggregating more IP flows into the same dedicated path is essential for the performance of an OIS network.
The aggregation introduces a trade-off between the number of IP flows that can be aggregated together and the length of the optical trail that accommodates them.
In order to achieve good performance only optical flows sharing a significant number of network hops should be aggregated into the same path.
A core node implementing optical IP switching must be endowed with electrical processing and memory resources (as a standard IP router), a variable number of optical transceivers and an optical switching element (usually a MEMS based device).
An edge node instead does not need an optical switching device because it could only function as source or destination of the optical flow.
The control protocol nearest to OIS is probably GMPLS, which is being standardized by the IETF. GMPLS aims at creating end-to-end connections after an explicit request from a customer or a network engineering service. This constitutes the main difference with OIS where the optical trials are automatically triggered by the encountered traffic; they are initially generated between three adjacent nodes, and then extended following a distributed decision.
External links
Optical IP Switching
The CTVR Optical IP network architectures group
Optical IP Switching Testbed
Optoelectronics
Routing |
32160108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guildhawk | Guildhawk | Guildhawk, is a Queen's Award winning global technology led language services agency, headquartered in the City of London. The company was founded by Jurga Zilinskiene in 2001, and has developed into an international agency with multiple locations and over 3,000 staff, providing digital transformation, human and AI machine translation, digital human twins, transliteration of songs and scripts, interpreting, consulting localisation, voiceover, subtitling and more in over 200 languages. The firm uses database software Zilinskiene designed and evolved from the start of the business.
Guildhawk has developed productivity software and algorithms to manage people and information and in 2019 won government backing for a Knowledge Transfer Partnership in collaboration with Sheffield Hallam University to develop a new software platform to manage people in the Gig economy.
Previously known as Today Translations and Today Advisory, the company underwent a full corporate rebrand in June 2019, which included the new name, Guildhawk, new brand imagery and a new symbol and tone of voice. The rebrand process took 2 years, after company research and client feedback showed that "translations" was a limiting term which did not reflect the scope of the company's services, nor the expertise of its linguists.
The word Guildhawk is a registered trade mark with the UK Intellectual Property Office number UK00003395877. The symbol of the Guildhawk Girl with a Red Scarf is also a registered design of the company registered trade mark number UK00003395936.
History
Guildhawk was founded under the name Today Translations in London by Jurga Zilinskiene in 2001. Zilinskiene funded the establishment of the company with £13,000 of her own savings.
In 2003, Zilinskiene received a Shell LiveWIRE award for Young Entrepreneurs for the early success of the company.
In June 2014, Guildhawk hosted representatives from the Greater Houston Women's Chamber of Commerce (GHWCC), organising and participating in a series of site visits across London. The events culminated with Today Translations announcing the founding of a London-based commerce organisation for women.
The company featured on BBC News when a story about hiring the world's first Emoji Translator, Keith Broni went viral in 2016. The Victoria and Albert museum and Guildhawk hosted an event as part of the Friday Late events and Guildhawk provides media commentary on the evolution of emojis that gains international coverage. The use of certain emojis for humorous purposes and with sexual connotations is popular question that Guildhawk is asked about.
In June 2019, the company rebranded as Guildhawk Limited to reflect that the company's offerings extended beyond just translation. The company's vision and values were captured in a one minute film called, 'Making Hopes Become Achievable' that followed the journey of a young girl and boy. The film was produced by Lipsync Productions using back projection techniques that were explained in a subsequent film called, 'Secrets of Cinematic Storytelling'''.
Responding to the impact of the global pandemic, in March 2020, Guildhawk pivoted its operations by launching two new technology products called Guildhawk Aided and Text Perfect, providing translations of medical research documents and moving staff to remote work.
Corporate identity
Software development
Guildhawk uses a range of software solutions and has also developed code and algorithms to which it owns the rights. These include launching Guildhawk Aided and Text Perfect during the pandemic and Zilinskiene was quoted by Bloomberg as saying, “Instead of looking at tech as some kind of monster to take away your job, now the tech is the hero.” In 2020, the company launched Guildhawk Voice, a new service producing authentic looking digital twin avatars of humans created using AI-powered technology that instantly turns text into speech in many languages and used to create multilingual videos. One avatar was used to open a formal online meeting between Gammon Construction, Department for International Trade and Guildhawk. The digital twin avatar of the Chairman of the Fraud Advisory Panel was used to provide his Chairman's address at the 2021 AGM.
In 2019, Guildhawk and Sheffield Hallam University won Government funding via Innovate UK to develop a new business management software platform to power the Gig Economy. The design and development team for the Yorkshire project were recruited and in December 2020 the team was expanded.
On 17 February 2021, in an interview with ICAEW on measuring employee productivity at home during the COVID-19 pandemic, CEO Zilinskiene described how before the pandemic, Guildhawk started towards remote work. She explained that technology was used to focus was on the output of its employees, "not to police them, but rather to understand the impact of how they work". Weekly online CEO briefings and constant dialogue between employees and their managers was also cited as a means to improve efficiency and communication. These initiatives enabled the company to record an 18% increase in overall productivity since staff started remote work.
Promoting the arts and music
Through its founder Jurga Zilinskiene MBE and the Advisory Board Members actor Sir Timothy Ackroyd, playwright Roger James Elsgood and executive TV producer Amanda Murphy and others, Guildhawk is an active supporter of the arts and music. This emphasis is closely aligned to the philanthropic aims of the Ackroyd Trust which helps drama students entering their final year of training and the of The John Ackroyd Scholarship at the Royal College of Music. It also reflects the creative translation, localisation and transliteration of song lyrics, books and scripts that Guildhawk provides for partners in the music and entertainment industry.
Guildhawk and its Advisory Board have co-produced and sponsored a number of charitable and commercial events with young actors and musicians including the Courage & Benevolence Ball in 2012, 'Dracula in the Dark' a play starring actor John Challis also available as an audiobook and the Ackroyd Trust performance at the Royal College of Music in 2014. The company also supported the production of ‘The Fuse’, an atmospheric 1940s radio theatre production portraying the bizarre trial of murderer Brian Donald Hume and performed live in the West End. A short 1949 film noir shown before the play was produced and directed by Edward Andrews.
To celebrate the art, language and culture of Scotland, the company became an official sponsor of the annual Burns Night Supper that takes place in Vilnius and in 2019 sponsored the translation of the Uzupis Constitution into Scottish Gaelic and artistic tribute that accompanied the unveiling and received media coverage by the BBC and others.
In 2019, Guildhawk supported the British bandleader Alex Mendham & His Orchestra to record and publish Puttin on the Ritz, his new album of hit songs from the 1920s and 30s via a Kickstarter campaign and planning a themed transatlantic crossing to New York aboard Cunard’s Queen Mary 2. The latter included a bon voyage concert at the Lansdown Club in Mayfair, tickets for which were auctioned for charity at the 21st Burns Night Supper in Vilnius on 15 January 2021.
When the COVID-19 pandemic had a devastating impact on the livelihoods of musicians in 2020, Guildhawk’s Director David Clarke and CEO Zilinskiene formed a new company with Alex Mendham called the Mendham Guildhawk Song Company. The first of these songs, recorded and performed in an authentic manner intended to allow listeners to hear music performed as it was in the 1920s was aired in a concert streamed live from the London Music Museum on 12 May 2021. Other innovative techniques were also deployed during the pandemic to enable musicians to perform and for listeners to enjoy the orchestra’s music during the pandemic. These included The Lockdown Broadcast, a 1930s themed radio broadcast arranged using sequences performed by the band individually at home during the pandemic. The work of the orchestra has been described as, “There is a dream-like quality to the group that embodies the charm and luxury of the ’20s and ’30s. With their evocative sound and the magic ability to put you on a Hollywood film set in 1933 or the ballroom of a long-forgotten Mayfair Hotel, Alex Mendham & His Orchestra are leaders in performing music from a golden age"As participant at the Horasis Global Meeting in June 2021, David Clarke explained how the new artistic collaboration enables the founders to use their combined skills in cultural research, music production, song translation and international trade to create a unique and historic catalogue of hit music from the dawn of the Jazz Age.
Security assurance
To provide assurance and interoperability through the supply chain, Guildhawk was the first specialist language services provider to achieve independent United Kingdom Accreditation Service - ISO/IEC 27001:2005 certification for data security throughout its global operations.
Guildhawk also has a global network of subject matter experts, who advise on how to reduce the risk of fraud, bribery and cyber-crime, as well as how to enhance multilingual communication. They also provide thought leadership on due-diligence and business integrity. On 18 January 2018, the Fraud Advisory Panel charity appointed Guildhawk director David Clarke as its chairman.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the company deployed its expertise in multilingual communications to produce a series of free health and safety notices that were made available to the public and business. Guildhawk also provided a series of online briefings to advise companies and the Law Society on measures to protect their information and avoid cyber attacks and fraud during the crisis. In March 2021, Economia magazine interviewed Director David Clarke his four lessons the UK should learn from COVID fraud. The company's external Legal Counsel and board member Arun Chauhan, a solicitor specialising in fraud litigation and regulatory compliance matters makes regular appearances at events and on BBC Radio and television providing advice to businesses and consumers.
On 30 March 2020, CEO Jurga Zilinskiene MBE and Chairman Ian Miller MBE wrote a letter to Prime Minister Boris Johnson to caution him that, "vulture funds" will use the crisis to "acquire, asset-strip and neutralise good companies". Its warnings fell on deaf ears. Zilinskiene had previously written to the Prime Minister to suggest steps the government could take to help UK companies boost international trade after leaving the European Union. The letters followed two meeting with the Prime Minister at 10 Downing Street.
Quality assurance
Guildhawk is certified to ISO 9001, the international standard for Quality Management. The company uses database software Zilinskiene designed and developed herself, which adheres to the standard.
Promoting international trade
Guildhawk has been recognised on several occasions for its dedication to promoting international trade, receiving a UK Trade & Investment Certificate of Appreciation presented by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh in 2006, and the Council of British Chambers of Commerce in Europe (COBCOE) 'Make Europe Work' award for Breakthrough Trade in 2015.
In 2019, Her Majesty the Queen honoured Guildhawk, under its former name of Today Translations, with the Queen's Award for Enterprise, in the International Trade category. It is awarded to companies who have achieved outstanding growth in overseas earning, and shown year-on-year growth over at least three years. The Award was formerly presented to members of the company by the Rt Hon Peter Estlin, Lord Mayor of London at Mansion House on 28 October 2019, followed by a further presentation by Paul Double, The Remembrancer of London at Guildhall. International trade development activities include organising and hosting the first British Trade Mission to Lithuania and a bi-lateral trade Mission to the UK with the Greater Houston Women's Chamber of Commerce (GHWCC).
In 2019, the Queen also honoured Guildhawk's CEO Zilinskiene with membership of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire for services to International Trade.
Language and translation services
In 2021, founder Zilinskiene told City Business Library how Guildhawk was established as a traditional translation company serving international brands, and steadily evolved into a provider of specialist language consultancy saying, "The work involves anything from researching business opportunities, to translating movies or company policies; developing new AI machine translation tools, to analysing and abstracting multilingual data. Basically, any and all things a client may need in order for their international business to run smoothly and successfully".''
Awards
Shell LiveWire Award for Young Entrepreneurs in 2003.
UK Trade & Investment Certificate of Appreciation, presented by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh in 2006.
COBCOE 'Make Europe Work' award for Breakthrough Trade in 2015.
Queen's Award for Enterprise: International Trade 2019
Associations
Guildhawk is a member of the Association of Translation Companies, and the European Association of Translation Companies. It was also a strategic partner of the Council of British Chambers of Commerce in Europe (COBCOE) prior to the merger into the British Chambers of Commerce.
Locations
United Kingdom
London
Sheffield
Worldwide
Kaunas, Lithuania
Media and press
The company was noted in the media for polls to find the 'world's most untranslatable word' and another to identify 'the world's most romantic word'.
It has also attracted press attention for other events, including the hiring of regional Geordie, Glaswegian, and Scouse translators. They have also advertised for speakers of Brooklynese. The company maintains that its regional recruitment campaign was motivated by a genuine need to enable foreign business people to do business more easily in the regions. According to Zilinskiene, "We are aware that some of our foreign and UK clients can find the Glaswegian accent difficult to decipher. While it's unusual for us to want someone to translate a dialect of English, there is a clear demand".
In November 2016, Guildhawk advertised for 'the world's first emoji translator', which received widespread media coverage. As a result of the unusual job advertisement, Zilinskeine appeared on BBC News, ITV News, and Vice News, as well as several radio stations. According to Zilinskiene, the position is intended to address the "emerging area of confusion" around the usage and meanings of emojis in different cultures.
Guildhawk and its experts are frequently featured in television and online news articles that range in diversity from the evolution of words and language to technology, entrepreneurship and international trade.
The company funded the professional translation of the Constitution of the Republic of Užupis into Scottish Gaelic which is inscribed on a plaque that was unveiled at a ceremony on 25 January 2019, to mark the birth date of the Scottish poet Robert Burns. The company has also supported the Annual Burns Night Supper celebrations and charity fundraising event held in Vilnius in partnership with the British Chamber of Commerce in Lithuania.
Philanthropy
Guildhawk supports several charitable causes, including donating a percentage of its profits to The Fairtrade Foundation and sponsoring HRH Prince William's charity the Tusk Trust and the Courage & Benevolence Ball with Sir Timothy Ackroyd in aid of the Debra charity.
The company supports those who have served in the police and armed forces by sponsoring charitable police and military events and providing training and employment opportunities for military veterans as a signatory to the Armed Forces Covenant.
In November 2019, Guildhawk supported Sheffield company Twinkl to enter the Guinness Book of Records with the most people singing relay in multiple songs.
See also
Jurga Zilinskiene
External links
Guildhawk Homepage
Today Translations website https://www.todaytranslations.com/
Today Advisory website https://www.todayadvisory.com/
Guildhawk and Sheffield Hallam University partnership https://gtr.ukri.org/projects?ref=511783
Bloomberg https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-09-20/the-virus-is-putting-britain-s-next-industrial-revolution-on-ice
References
British companies established in 2001
Service companies of the United Kingdom
Translation companies
Multinational companies based in the City of London |
70009490 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Campbell%20%28academic%29 | Andrew Campbell (academic) | Andrew Thomas Campbell (born May 15, 1959) is a computer scientist who works in the field of ubiquitous computing. He is best known for his research on mobile sensing, applied machine learning and human behavioral modeling.
Campbell is the Albert Bradley 1915 Third Century professor in computer science at Dartmouth College. He joined Dartmouth Computer Science in 2005 after spending 10 years as a professor of Electrical Engineering at Columbia University. Prior to being on the faculty at Columbia, Campbell spent 10 years in the software industry working on the research and development of wireless networks and operating systems. He has worked on digital health as a visiting research scientist in the Android group at Google and at Verily Life Sciences.
Campbell has received a number of awards including the ACM SIGMOBILE Test of Time Paper Award for pioneering sensing and machine learning on smartphones.
Personal life
Campbell was born in Coventry, England on May 15, 1959. He received a BSc in Mechanical Engineering from Aston University (1981) and then an MSc. in Computer Science from City, University of London. He worked in the software industry for a decade in England, the Netherlands and the USA before returning to university. He received his PhD in Computer Science from Lancaster University (1996).
He started as an assistant professor of Electrical Engineering at Columbia University in 1996 and was promoted to an associated professor with tenure in 2003. After a sabbatical year as a visiting professor at Cambridge University, he joined Dartmouth College in 2005. In 2018, he was named the Albert Bradley 1915 Third Century professor at Dartmouth College.
Career
Campbell is best known for his work in ubiquitous computing, where he and his students first implemented sensing and machine learning algorithms on the iPhone when it was released in 2007. He is also known for the development of the StudentLife app (2014).
At Dartmouth, he led the StudentLife Study tracking 200 undergraduate students across their 4 years of college using smartphone sensing and brain imaging to better understand the dynamics of mental health of students across their college years. This study was also the first to use mobile sensing to capture the impact of COVID-19 on student behavior and mental health outcomes during the pandemic. He has also studied mental health and performance in the workplace using mobile sensing.
Awards and recognition
Campbell has received an NSF CAREER Award, IBM Faculty Award, AT&T Faculty Award, Google Faculty Award and EPSRC Fellow Award. His group received the ACM ACM SenSys Test of Time Award (2018) and the ACM SIGMOBILE Test of Time Award (2019) for their work on the CenceMe app (2008).
Selected bibliography
Emiliano Miluzzo, Nicholas D. Lane, Kristóf Fodor, Ronald A. Peterson, Hong Lu, Mirco Musolesi, Shane. B. Eisenman, Xiao Zheng, Andrew T. Campbell, Sensing Meets Mobile Social Networks: The Design, Implementation and Evaluation of the CenceMe Application. Proc. of 6th ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems (SenSys '08), Raleigh, NC, USA, Nov. 5–7, 2008. ACM SIGMOBILE Test of Time Award
Rui Wang, Fanglin Chen, Zhenyu Chen, Tianxing Li, Gabriella Harari, Stefanie Tignor, Xia Zhou, Dror Ben-Zeev, and Andrew T. Campbell, StudentLife: Assessing Behavioral Trends, Mental Well-being and Academic Performance of College Students using Smartphones, ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (UbiComp 2014), September 2014. Best Paper Nomination Award
Huckins J, daSilva A, Wang W, Hedlund E, Rogers C, Nepal S, Wu J, Obuchi M, Murphy E, Meyer M, Wagner D, Holtzheimer P, Campbell A Mental Health and Behavior of College Students During the Early Phases of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Longitudinal Smartphone and Ecological Momentary Assessment Study, Journal of Medical Internet Research. 2020
Harari GM, Lane ND, Wang R, Crosier BS, Campbell AT, Gosling SD. Using Smartphones to Collect Behavioral Data in Psychological Science: Opportunities, Practical Considerations, and Challenges. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2016
Rui Wang, Min S. H. Aung, Saeed Abdullah, Rachel Brian, Andrew T. Campbell, Tanzeem Choudhury, Marta Hauser, John Kane, Michael Merrill, Emily A. Scherer, Vincent W. S. Tseng, and Dror Ben-Zeev. 2016. CrossCheck: toward passive sensing and detection of mental health changes in people with schizophrenia. In Proceedings of the 2016 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (UbiComp '16). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 886–897
Mikio Obuchi, Jeremy F. Huckins, Weichen Wang, Alex daSilva, Courtney Rogers, Eilis Murphy, Elin Hedlund, Paul Holtzheimer, Shayan Mirjafari, and Andrew Campbell. 2020. Predicting Brain Functional Connectivity Using Mobile Sensing. Proc. ACM Interact. Mob. Wearable Ubiquitous Technol. 4, 1, Article 23, 2020
References
Living people
Alumni of Lancaster University
Alumni of Aston University
Alumni of City, University of London
Dartmouth College faculty
1959 births |
50801121 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calf%20Studio%20Gear | Calf Studio Gear | Calf Studio Gear, often referred to as Calf Plugins, is a set of open source LV2 plugins for the Linux platform. The suite intends to be a complete set of plugins for audio mixing, virtual instruments and mastering. As of version 0.90.0 there are 47 plugins in the suite.
History
Calf Studio Gear development started in late 2007 when the LV2 plugin standard was in its infancy. Calf Studio Gear was one of the first projects to bring graphical audio plugins to Linux. The first versions up to 0.0.19 included support for LADSPA and DSSI as well which was dropped in December 2011.
The project was initiated by Krzysztof Foltman. In 2009 Markus Schmidt became interested in development of the plugin suite due to his frustration with proprietary software. He has been a driving force behind the plugins ever since and has been responsible for the overall design of Calf Studio Gear, as well as being the brains behind the DSP of many of its plugins.
Included plugins
Calf Studio Gear is the most complete suite of plugins for Linux. The included plugins are:
Instruments
Organ: organ emulator with full access to the sound generators
Monosynth: a monophonic synthesizer
Fluidsynth: SF2 player based on the FluidSynth library
Wavetable (experimental): wavetable based synthesizer in experimental state
Modulation Effects
Multi Chorus: chorus effect with multiple, individual delay lines and graphical display
Phaser: phaser effect with graphical display of the frequency response
Flanger: flanger effect with graphical display of the frequency response
Rotary Speaker: Leslie speaker emulation
Pulsator: LFO for Tremolo effects
Ring Modulator: Ring modulation effect with two LFO modulating four different parameters
Delay Effects
Reverb: Reverberation effect
Vintage Delay: beat-oriented delay effect with filters and synchronization
Compensation Delay Line: distance based delay for compensating speaker line-ups
Reverse Delay: reversed delay effect
Dynamics
Compressor: compressor with New York compression and graphical display
Sidechain Compressor: compressor with filtered sidechain
Multiband Compressor: multiband compressor with four individual bands
Mono Compressor: another compressor based on a different routine
Deesser: De-essing with different filters and split mode
Gate: noise gate with parallel setting and graphical display
Sidechain Gate: noise gate with filtered sidechain
Multiband Gate: multiband noise gate with four individual bands
Limiter: lookahead limiter with automatic sustain control
Multiband Limiter: multiband limiter with four bands
Sidechain Limiter: multiband limiter with additional sidechain for giving importance to relevant signals
Transient Designer: controls transients and sustain
Filters and Equalizers
Filter: filter for lowpass, highpass, bandpass and bandreject with graphical display
Filterclavier: filter controlled via MIDI
Envelope Filter: filter controlled via Envelope detector
Emphasis: filter for different pre- and de-emphasis like CD and vinyl production
Vocoder: vocoder effect for 8, 12, 16, 24 or 32 individual bands, with tilting and noise generator
5-Band-Equalizer: parametrical equalizer offering high shelf, low shelf and three parametric bands, with analyzer
8-Band-Equalizer: parametrical equalizer with high shelf, low shelf, low pass, high pass and four parametrical bands
12-Band-Equalizer: parametrical equalizer with high shelf, low shelf, low pass, high pass and eight parametrical bands
30-Band-Equalizer: graphical equalizer
Distortion and Saturation
Saturator: enriches the signal with different harmonics
Exciter: harmonic exciter adding additional high frequency harmonics
Bass Enhancer: harmonic exciter adding low frequency harmonics
Tape Simulator: simulates the effects of magnetic tape and corresponding players
Vinyl: adds different controllable sounds produced by vinyl records and filters the signal
Crusher: Bitcrusher and sample rate reduction with smoothing and logarithmic reduction pattern
Tools
Mono Input: splits a mono input to stereo, with phase control, phase inversion, soft clip and channel delay
Stereo Tools: stereo signal manipulation with M/S stereo en- and decoding, phase inversion, phase control, balance, soft clip and channel delay
Haas Stereo Enhancer: Precedence effect
Multi Spread: distributes the frequency response of a mono signal to stereo channels
Multiband Enhancer: enhances or reduces the stereo base and adds harmonics in four different frequency ranges
X-Over 2 Band: splits the signal in two individual frequency ranges
X-Over 3 Band: splits the signal in three individual frequency ranges
X-Over 4 Band: splits the signal in four individual frequency ranges
Analyzer: Spectrum analyzer with different viewing modes, L/R difference, spectralizer and goniometer
Criticisms
In the past Calf plugins have been known to cause crashes within Ardour Digital Audio Workstation. This was primarily due to the use of the FFTW library, which until recently was not thread safe. Since October 2014, Calf Studio Gear have moved away from using the FFTW library (released in version 0.0.60 in May 2015).
References
External links
Official Calf Studio Gear website
Linux
Free audio software
Audio software
Audio software for Linux |
25594482 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhotoImpression | PhotoImpression | PhotoImpression is an image manager by ArcSoft for Mac OS X and Windows. It is often bundled with Epson all-in-one printers. The program's interface on Mac OS X looks exactly like a Windows program.
Versions
PhotoImpression 1
PhotoImpression 2000
PhotoImpression 3
PhotoImpression 4
PhotoImpression 5
PhotoImpression 6
PhotoImpression 4
PhotoImpression 4 is computer software by ArcSoft Corporation, running on Mac OS 9 and Windows. It was bundled with Creative Webcams, particularly their 'NX Pro' (CNET ad) and 'Webcam Notebook' (CNET ad) models, on CD, compatible with Windows 98SE, ME, 2000, and XP Operating Systems.
Features
PhotoImpression 4 sports five main features, each consisting of a few sub-features.
Get Photo: this is the section in which one would obtain photos/images. A user may obtain an image from a sample folder (supplied with the software), from a folder such as My Pictures, from a camera/scanner that is connected to your Mac/PC, from a screen capture, which captures the exact image from his/her monitor, or simply create his/her own.
Edit: In this section, one may edit the image obtained through the Get Photo section, in ways such as cropping, adding text, adjusting layering, "enhancing", "retouching", or adding "effects," such as a 3-D grid or reversing the colors.
Create: In this section, one may create a border or calendar, etc.
Save: In this self-explanatory section, one may save an edited image to the desktop, email the image, or simply save into a folder.
Print: In yet another self-explanatory section, this section allows one to adjust the printer settings, such as orientation of the print on the paper or the size of the print on the paper. One may also arrange multiple images onto one sheet of paper, as to save paper.
This version of the PhotoImpression software was not compatible (could not save in) the GIF format, but did save in most other graphics formats (JPG, PNG, BMP).
It also featured simple versions of advanced image editing features such as layers, paintbrush cloning, color picking, and 'magic' select (which allowed users to add to selected areas in multiple clicks).
Macintosh graphics software
MacOS graphics software
Windows graphics-related software |
10667750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoir%20computing | Reservoir computing | Reservoir computing is a framework for computation derived from recurrent neural network theory that maps input signals into higher dimensional computational spaces through the dynamics of a fixed, non-linear system called a reservoir. After the input signal is fed into the reservoir, which is treated as a "black box," a simple readout mechanism is trained to read the state of the reservoir and map it to the desired output. The first key benefit of this framework is that training is performed only at the readout stage, as the reservoir dynamics are fixed. The second is that the computational power of naturally available systems, both classical and quantum mechanical, can be used to reduce the effective computational cost.
History
The concept of reservoir computing stems from the use of recursive connections within neural networks to create a complex dynamical system. It is a generalisation of earlier neural network architectures such as recurrent neural networks, liquid-state machines and echo-state networks. Reservoir computing also extends to physical systems that are not networks in the classical sense, but rather continuous systems in space and/or time: e.g. a literal "bucket of water" can serve as a reservoir that performs computations on inputs given as perturbations of the surface. The resultant complexity of such recurrent neural networks was found to be useful in solving a variety of problems including language processing and dynamic system modeling. However, training of recurrent neural networks is challenging and computationally expensive. Reservoir computing reduces those training-related challenges by fixing the dynamics of the reservoir and only training the linear output layer.
A large variety of nonlinear dynamical systems can serve as a reservoir that performs computations. In recent years semiconductor lasers have attracted considerable interest as computation can be fast and energy efficient compared to electrical components.
Recent advances in both AI and quantum information theory have given rise to the concept of quantum neural networks. These hold promise in quantum information processing, which is challenging to classical networks, but can also find application in solving classical problems. In 2018, a physical realization of a quantum reservoir computing architecture was demonstrated in the form of nuclear spins within a molecular solid. However, the nuclear spin experiments in did not demonstrate quantum reservoir computing per se as they did not involve processing of sequential data. Rather the data were vector inputs, which makes this more accurately a demonstration of quantum implementation of a random kitchen sink algorithm (also going by the name of extreme learning machines in some communities). In 2019, another possible implementation of quantum reservoir processors was proposed in the form of two-dimensional fermionic lattices. In 2020, realization of reservoir computing on gate-based quantum computers was proposed and demonstrated on cloud-based IBM superconducting near-term quantum computers.
Reservoir computers have been used for time-series analysis purposes. In particular, some of their usages involve chaotic time-series prediction, separation of chaotic signals, and link inference of networks from their dynamics.
Classical reservoir computing
Reservoir
The 'reservoir' in reservoir computing is the internal structure of the computer, and must have two properties: it must be made up of individual, non-linear units, and it must be capable of storing information. The non-linearity describes the response of each unit to input, which is what allows reservoir computers to solve complex problems. Reservoirs are able to store information by connecting the units in recurrent loops, where the previous input affects the next response. The change in reaction due to the past allows the computers to be trained to complete specific tasks.
Reservoirs can be virtual or physical. Virtual reservoirs are typically randomly generated and are designed like neural networks. Virtual reservoirs can be designed to have non-linearity and recurrent loops, but, unlike neural networks, the connections between units are randomized and remain unchanged throughout computation. Physical reservoirs are possible because of the inherent non-linearity of certain natural systems. The interaction between ripples on the surface of water contains the nonlinear dynamics required in reservoir creation, and a pattern recognition RC was developed by first inputting ripples with electric motors then recording and analyzing the ripples in the readout.
Readout
The readout is a neural network layer that performs a linear transformation on the output of the reservoir. The weights of the readout layer are trained by analyzing the spatiotemporal patterns of the reservoir after excitation by known inputs, and by utilizing a training method such as a linear regression or a Ridge regression. As its implementation depends on spatiotemporal reservoir patterns, the details of readout methods are tailored to each type of reservoir. For example, the readout for a reservoir computer using a container of liquid as its reservoir might entail observing spatiotemporal patterns on the surface of the liquid.
Types
Context reverberation network
An early example of reservoir computing was the context reverberation network.
In this architecture, an input layer feeds into a high dimensional dynamical system which is read out by a trainable single-layer perceptron. Two kinds of dynamical system were described: a recurrent neural network with fixed random weights, and a continuous reaction–diffusion system inspired by Alan Turing’s model of morphogenesis. At the trainable layer, the perceptron associates current inputs with the signals that reverberate in the dynamical system; the latter were said to provide a dynamic "context" for the inputs. In the language of later work, the reaction–diffusion system served as the reservoir.
Echo state network
The Tree Echo State Network (TreeESN) model represents a generalization of the reservoir computing framework to tree structured data.
Liquid-state machine
Chaotic Liquid State Machine
The liquid (i.e. reservoir) of a Chaotic Liquid State Machine (CLSM), or chaotic reservoir, is made from chaotic spiking neurons but which stabilize their activity by settling to a single hypothesis that describes the trained inputs of the machine. This is in contrast to general types of reservoirs that don’t stabilize. The liquid stabilization occurs via synaptic plasticity and chaos control that govern neural connections inside the liquid. CLSM showed promising results in learning sensitive time series data.
Nonlinear transient computation
This type of information processing is most relevant when time-dependent input signals depart from the mechanism’s internal dynamics. These departures cause transients or temporary altercations which are represented in the device’s output.
Deep reservoir computing
The extension of the reservoir computing framework towards Deep Learning, with the introduction of Deep Reservoir Computing and of the Deep Echo State Network (DeepESN) model allows to develop efficiently trained models for hierarchical processing of temporal data, at the same time enabling the investigation on the inherent role of layered composition in recurrent neural networks.
Quantum reservoir computing
Quantum reservoir computing may use the nonlinear nature of quantum mechanical interactions or processes to form the characteristic nonlinear reservoirs but may also be done with linear reservoirs when the injection of the input to the reservoir creates the nonlinearity. The marriage of machine learning and quantum devices is leading to the emergence of quantum neuromorphic computing as a new research area.
Types
Gaussian states of interacting quantum harmonic oscillators
Gaussian states are a paradigmatic class of states of continuous variable quantum systems. Although they can nowadays be created and manipulated in, e.g, state-of-the-art optical platforms, naturally robust to decoherence, it is well-known that they are not sufficient for, e.g., universal quantum computing because transformations that preserve the Gaussian nature of a state are linear. Normally, linear dynamics would not be sufficient for nontrivial reservoir computing either. It is nevertheless possible to harness such dynamics for reservoir computing purposes by considering a network of interacting quantum harmonic oscillators and injecting the input by periodical state resets of a subset of the oscillators. With a suitable choice of how the states of this subset of oscillators depends on the input, the observables of the rest of the oscillators can become nonlinear functions of the input suitable for reservoir computing; indeed, thanks to the properties of these functions, even universal reservoir computing becomes possible by combining the observables with a polynomial readout function. In principle, such reservoir computers could be implemented with controlled multimode optical parametric processes, however efficient extraction of the output from the system is challenging especially in the quantum regime where measurement back-action must be taken into account.
2-D quantum dot lattices
In this architecture, randomized coupling between lattice sites grants the reservoir the “black box” property inherent to reservoir processors. The reservoir is then excited, which acts as the input, by an incident optical field. Readout occurs in the form of occupational numbers of lattice sites, which are naturally nonlinear functions of the input.
Nuclear spins in a molecular solid
In this architecture, quantum mechanical coupling between spins of neighboring atoms within the molecular solid provides the non-linearity required to create the higher-dimensional computational space. The reservoir is then excited by radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation tuned to the resonance frequencies of relevant nuclear spins. Readout occurs by measuring the nuclear spin states.
Reservoir computing on gate-based near-term superconducting quantum computers
The most prevalent model of quantum computing is the gate-based model where quantum computation is performed by sequential applications of unitary quantum gates on qubits of a quantum computer. A theory for the implementation of reservoir computing on a gate-based quantum computer with proof-of-principle demonstrations on a number of IBM superconducting noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) computers has been reported in.
See also
Deep learning
Extreme learning machines
References
Further reading
Reservoir Computing using delay systems, Nature Communications 2011
Optoelectronic Reservoir Computing, Scientific Reports February 2012
Optoelectronic Reservoir Computing, Optics Express 2012
All-optical Reservoir Computing, Nature Communications 2013
Memristor Models for Machine learning, Neural Computation 2014 arxiv
Artificial neural networks |
12690257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-time%20user%20experience | First-time user experience | In human–computer interaction and UI design, a first-time user experience (FTUE) refers to the initial stages of using a piece of software. It commonly includes configuration steps, such as signing up for an account. Every user of a service has their own FTUE, even if they have extensive experience with using a similar product. Patience, time investment, and intuitiveness are factors for a user's FTUE. Software services generally have different layouts, styles, graphics, and hotkeys which must be identified to contribute to a user's learning, mastery, and efficiency of the software. The FTUE is responsible for setting the stage for the experience of the user when interacting with a product down the line. This differs from the out-of-box experience (OOBE), which is specifically about packaging, information presentation, and setup of the system out of the box.
Relation to the cold start problem
FTUEs are directly related to the well-known cold start problem in recommender systems, which attempts to balance the ease of the initial experience with the difficulty of gathering the needed information to make quality recommendations to the user. Generally, an effort is made to increase user retention by minimizing the barriers to entry while maximizing the quality of the recommendations for the user. For example, it was found that by changing the FTUE task from rating 15 individual items to rating a smaller number of groups of items, the time taken to complete the initial task was reduced by more than 50% and user satisfaction with the resulting recommendations increased.
However, there is evidence that steeper entry requirements can lead to more dedicated users. Furthermore, in a study at the University of Minnesota, it was found that increasing the barriers to entry can increase the amount of user-generated content produced during the FTUE without sacrificing the quality of the content. Users subjected to a more difficult FTUE may also be more likely to produce more content in the future. This comes at a tradeoff, as the user attrition rate gradually increases with a higher barrier to entry. In this light, the idea of the FTUE becomes one of maximizing the benefit to the online community and the quality of the recommendations while minimizing the increase in the rate of user attrition.
User retention
Preventing customers from abandoning software after the initial exposure is a goal of good FTUE design. The following are examples of efforts in user retention.
Speed vs Quality: First impressions on the initial user interface (UI) of an interactive application depend on multiple factors; most notably speed and quality. Speed and quality are not necessarily inversely related, but if there is a limit on the amount of development hours available for a project, one of the two will generally suffer. Depending on the application, a sacrifice in either speed or quality must usually be made. Sacrifices in quality can include fewer luxury features, less intuitive/advanced UI features, or minimal customization. Sacrifices in speed can result in overall sluggish performance or delayed responsiveness when interacting with external clients or servers. Both are important to the "feel" of the application, and thus factor into the FTUE.
Negative first time user experiences: Negative FTUEs can severely impact user retention. Negative experiences can be related to over-complicated initial registration procedures.
Social login: This allows users to create an account based on pre-obtained information from social networking profiles such as Facebook. Popular applications such as Spotify, Quora, Pinterest and more offer this method of registration. Up to 92% of people have reported leaving websites permanently instead of recovering lost login information; social login can help combat this by converting monthly unique users to monthly active users. Social login also allows access to the user's friends or contacts. This offers up more opportunity personalization and potential virality considering up to 78% of people claim to have visited a website after seeing it mentioned on their social network, and that they heavily weigh their friends recommendations for purchases of products mentioned via social media.
Structured setup: A set of clearly outlined steps to completion/registration is key for a successful FTUE. For example, Facebook registration clearly displays the number of steps remaining before the creation of a new profile is complete. This type of transparency is favorable because “uncertain, unexplained waits feel longer than known, finite waits.” The more structured and clear the remaining time and number of steps remaining are, the more likely a user will be patient enough to go through and complete all of the steps required to get through the FTUE.
Paid upgrades: Offering an opportunity to purchase an upgrade in the FTUE process can be advantageous considering that new users tend to be more motivated or enthusiastic. They will thereby be more likely to become paying customers instead of freemium users. After spending the time to install software and register, a user has shown at least moderate dedication to the technology and may be invested enough to pay for an upgrade they had not originally considered. Dropbox does this by offering more storage for a dollar amount per month with a simple, non-invasive question. Vimeo offers a professional package, as is common with many online services.
Prolonged user experience
While desired early experiences commonly seem to relate to pleasant sensational aspects of software and product use, prolonged experiences are significantly more tied to aspects that reflect how the product may become meaningful in the user's life. Social products are not solely responsible for mediating goal achievement; they fulfill an inner need for personal growth and communicating messages about the user's self-identity in a social setting. As a user's familiarity with a product strengthens over time, it is expected that they would experience less frustration, as well as less excitement. As a result, the perceived quality of the product is expected to change, and therefore the relative importance of different qualities in the product can also change over time. It is widely accepted that learnability and novelty are critical during initial phases of product use, however, other aspects such as a product's social capital are likely to motivate prolonged use.
The experience of a service or product's use is consistent of three main forces: familiarity, functional dependency, and emotional attachment. These three forces are responsible for shifting a users' experience across three phases: orientation, incorporation, and identification, respectively. The incorporation factor is the most significant user experience phase of the three. Incorporation makes long-term usability become much more important than the initial learnability, and the product's usefulness becomes the main factor impacting the product's overall value in the eye of the user. As the user accepts the product into their lives, it participates in normal social interactions, and integrates with part of the users self-identity that connects to others and creates a sense of community, building identification. The actual experience with the product has been found to be more influential to users' satisfaction than their prior expectations, though the act of anticipation and creation of expectations is a crucial part of the primary user experience. Sometimes anticipating experiences with a product becomes even more important, emotional, and memorable than the experiences itself.
Effective and successful services and products are designed for daily rituals and designed for the self. Users become attached to products that support a self-identity that they wish to communicate in certain settings. Products and self-identity have been a major part of consumer behavior research, but still remain largely unexplored in CHI and design research.
See also
Chief experience officer (CXO)
Content strategy
Contextual Inquiry
Customer experience
Expectation
Human factors
Interaction design
Out-of-box experience
User experience
User-centered design
User experience design
User experience evaluation
User research
References
Human–computer interaction |
17032462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Adamson%20%28software%20pioneer%29 | Robert Adamson (software pioneer) | Robert G. Adamson III (born October 19, 1947 in Salt Lake City, Utah) is an American software pioneer.
Adamson graduated in Computer Science from the University of Utah in 1971. In 1981, he founded Software Generation Technology Corp. and wrote, one of the first fully interpretive languages for IBM mainframe computers. SGT was sold to Pansophic Systems where the product was renamed GENER/OL. and later acquired by Computer Associates
Later he founded Nostradamus Inc. and wrote Instant Replay, one of the first multimedia tools for personal computers. Instant Replay combined software demos with photos and audio for distribution on floppy diskettes. Instant Replay was used by thousands of large companies such as Intel, Microsoft and Novel, and competed for years with Dan Bricklin’s Demo Maker. Adamson also wrote well known utilities such as Noblink and Hardrunner, both of which received PC Magazine's Editor's Choice Awards.
Adamson wrote MediaForge, one of the first multimedia authoring tools for Windows. Mediaforge was sold to Strata and was awarded Best of Comdex finalist in the area of Development Software in 1994. Over 50 million MediaForge runtimes were distributed through various vendors including Morpheus and MyFamily. MediaForge is currently in use by XMLAuthor Inc. for custom development of internet applications such as CinemaForge.
Adamson is still involved in software development with his own software development company XMLAuthor Inc. He is working on new RIA and internet video technologies. In 2007 Adamson published Rainhut, a science fiction novel. The novel contains references to DTK (dare to know), a chaos based software system used to assist in the invention of advanced technologies. Development of the DTK software system is far too radical and expensive to attract serious investors at this time, so perhaps the concept remains for future generations to build, according to Adamson.
In 2013, Adamson received a patent for the distribution of non-standard fonts via the Internet. Patent US 8522127 B2 (granted). This patented process is being used worldwide now in websites and mobile apps; improving the quality, searching and appearance for hundreds of millions of users. Adamson recently founded Clantech Inc, a patent holding company. He also formed Rainhut Inc., a software company for bringing artists and mobile app developers together with an artist publishing platform and Rainmaker Software.
Awards
Best of Comdex Finalist: MediaForge Comdex 1994
All Time Best of the Best Utilities Category (NoBlink) PC Magazine
PC Magazine: Editors Choice (HardRunner)
Editors Choice (Instant Replay Pro) PC Magazine
References
External links
(http://www.robertgadamson.com)
IR Old Reference
StageGold
Evolution
Fourth Generation Languages, 1986
1947 births
Living people
Businesspeople from Salt Lake City
American software engineers
University of Utah alumni |
3157360 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multitenancy | Multitenancy | Software multitenancy is a software architecture in which a single instance of software runs on a server and serves multiple tenants. Systems designed in such manner are "shared" (rather than
"dedicated" or "isolated"). A tenant is a group of users who share a common access with specific privileges to the software instance. With a multitenant architecture, a software application is designed to provide every tenant a dedicated share of the instance - including its data, configuration, user management, tenant individual functionality and non-functional properties. Multitenancy contrasts with multi-instance architectures, where separate software instances operate on behalf of different tenants.
Some commentators regard multitenancy as an important feature of cloud computing.
Adoption
History of multitenant applications
Multitenant applications have evolved from—and combine some characteristics of—three types of services:
Timesharing: From the 1960s companies rented space and processing power on mainframe computers (time-sharing) to reduce computing expenses. Often they also reused existing applications, with simply a separate entry field on the logon screen to specify a customer-account ID. On the basis of this ID, the mainframe's accountants could charge the individual customers for CPU, memory and disk/tape usage actually incurred.
Hosted applications: From the 1990s traditional application service providers (ASPs) hosted (then-existing) applications on behalf of their customers. Depending on the limitation of the underlying application, ASPs were forced to host applications on separate machines (if multiple instances of the applications could not be executed in the same physical machine) or as separate processes. Multitenant applications represent a more mature architecture which enables a similar service with lower operational cost.
Web applications: Popular consumer-oriented web applications (such as Hotmail) developed with a single application instance serving all customers. Multitenant applications represent a natural evolution from this model, offering additional customization to groups of users within (say) the same client organization.
Differentiation from virtualization
In a multitenancy environment, multiple customers share the same application, running on the same operating system, on the same hardware, with the same data-storage mechanism. The distinction between the customers is achieved during application design, thus customers do not share or see each other's data. Compare this with virtualization where components are transformed, enabling each customer application to appear to run on a separate virtual machine.
Competitive differentiation
Some companies actively promote the principle of multitenancy and use it as a source of competitive differentiation. The use of multitenancy is increasing day by day.
Economics of multitenancy
Cost savings
Multitenancy allows for cost savings over and above the basic economies of scale achievable from consolidating IT resources into a single operation. An application instance usually incurs a certain amount of memory and processing overhead which can be substantial when multiplied by many customers, especially if the customers are small. Multitenancy reduces this overhead by spreading it over many customers. Further cost savings may come from licensing costs of the underlying software (such as operating systems and database management systems). Put crudely, if you can run everything on a single software instance, you only have to buy one software license.
The cost savings can be eclipsed by the difficulty of scaling the single instance as demand grows - increasing the performance of the instance on a single server can only be done by buying faster hardware, such as fast CPUs, more memory, and faster disk systems, and typically these costs grow faster than if the load was split between multiple servers with roughly the same aggregate capacity. In addition, development of multitenant systems is more complex, and security testing is more stringent owing to the fact that multiple customers' data is being commingled.
Data aggregation/data mining
One of the most compelling reasons for vendors/ISVs to utilize multitenancy is for the inherent data aggregation benefits. Instead of collecting data from multiple data sources, with potentially different database schemas, all data for all customers is stored in a single database schema. Thus, running queries across customers, mining data, and looking for trends is much simpler. This reason is probably overhyped as one of the core multitenancy requirements is the need to prevent Service Provider access to customer (tenant) information. Further, it is common to separate the operational database from the mining database (usually because of different workload characteristics), thus weakening the argument even more.
Complexity
Because of the additional customization complexity and the need to maintain per-tenant metadata, multitenant applications require a larger development effort. Considerations such as vector-based data sequencing, encryptable algorithm infrastructure, and virtualized control interfaces, must be taken into account.
Release management
Multitenancy simplifies the release management process. In a traditional release management process, packages containing code and database changes are distributed to client desktop and/or server machines; in the single-instance case, this would be one server machine per customer. These packages then have to be installed on each individual machine. With the multitenant model, the package typically only needs to be installed on a single server. This greatly simplifies the release management process, and the scale is no longer dependent on the number of customers.
At the same time, multitenancy increases the risks and impacts inherent in applying a new release version. As there is a single software instance serving multiple tenants, an update on this instance may cause downtime for all tenants even if the update is requested and useful for only one tenant. Also, some bugs and issues resulted from applying the new release could manifest in other tenants' personalized view of the application. Because of possible downtime, the moment of applying the release may be restricted depending on time usage schedule of more than one tenant.
Requirements
Customization
Multitenant applications are typically required to provide a high degree of customization to support each target organization's needs. Customization typically includes the following aspects:
Branding: allowing each organization to customize the look-and-feel of the application to match their corporate branding (often referred to as a distinct "skin").
Workflow: accommodating differences in workflow to be used by a wide range of potential customers.
Extensions to the data model: supporting an extensible data model to give customers the ability to customize the data elements managed by the application to meet their specific needs.
Access control: letting each client organization independently customize access rights and restrictions for each user.
Quality of service
Multitenant applications are expected to provide adequate isolation of security, robustness and performance between multiple tenants which is provided by the layers below the application in case of multi-instance applications.
Virtualization
The costs of redesigning applications for multitenancy can be significant, especially for software vendors who continue to offer an on-premises single tenant version of their product. They end up being forced to support two distinct products with all the resulting costs.
An increasingly viable alternative route to multitenancy that eliminates the need for significant architectural change is to use virtualization technology to host multiple isolated instances of an application on one or more servers. Indeed, when applications are repackaged as virtual appliances the same appliance image can be deployed in ISV hosted, on-premises or trusted-third party locations and even migrated from one deployment site to another over time.
See also
Slowly changing dimension
References
Software architecture
Service-oriented (business computing) |
31820980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partha%20Chatterjee%20%28politician%29 | Partha Chatterjee (politician) | Partha Chatterjee (born 6 October 1952) is the former Minister of School Education of West Bengal. He represents Trinamool Congress. He also holds the political office of General Secretary of West Bengal of the All India Trinamool Congress.
Early life
Partha Chatterjee was born in Calcutta. His alma mater is Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya, Narendrapur and then Asutosh College, where he studied economics. He holds a post-graduate degree in business administration. He completed his MBA from ISWBM.
Career
Partha Chatterjee worked as an HR professional with Andrew Yule.
He was elected as an MLA from Behala Paschim in 2001, and subsequently re-elected from the same constituency in 2006. In 2011 he won by a margin of 59,021 votes. He was Leader of the Opposition in the West Bengal Legislative Assembly from 2006 to 2011.
In 2016 and 2021 West Bengal assembly election he was re-eelected from the same constituency.
He was sworn in as a Cabinet Minister under Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee on 20 May 2011 and allotted the portfolios of Commerce and Industry, Public Enterprises, Information Technology and Electronics and Parliamentary affairs.
He was nominated as deputy leader of the house in 2011. After the Assembly election 2016, he became the Minister-in-Charge of Higher Education and School Education Department, West Bengal Government and the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Public Enterprises, Information Technology and Electronics replaced by Amit Mitra.
After 2021 West Bengal Assembly Election once again the portfolios of Commerce and Industry, Information Technology and Electronics given to him and the Ministry of Higher Education and School Education Department, West Bengal Government replaced by Bratya Basu
References
1956 births
Living people
Bengali politicians
All India Trinamool Congress politicians from West Bengal
West Bengal politicians
Ramakrishna Mission schools alumni
Asutosh College alumni
Indian Institute of Social Welfare and Business Management alumni
University of Calcutta alumni
State cabinet ministers of West Bengal
Leaders of the Opposition in West Bengal |
1034743 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20CCRMA | Planet CCRMA | Planet CCRMA (pronounced karma) is a collection of Red Hat packages ( RPMs ) to help set up and optimize a Red Hat-based workstation for audio work.
Overview
The entire environment, called Planet CCRMA, was developed and tested at Stanford University and made available to the public free-of-charge from a central repository — Planet CCRMA at Home The Planet CCRMA repositories are maintained at CCRMA by Fernando Lopez-Lezcano.
Installing the packages, transforms a Linux workstation or server into a low-latency system for sound and video production and distribution. The ALSA soundcard drivers and other applications are provided without installation hassles and the low-latency is achieved by having applied the real-time preemption patch to the Linux kernel.
Supported Linux distributions
Red Hat Linux 7.2, 7.3, 8.0, 9
Fedora Linux 1, Core 2, Core 3, Core 4, Core 5, Core 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 28, 29 and 30
CentOS 5
See also
Free audio software
Digital audio workstation
Virtual Studio Technology
Ubuntu Studio - related project for the Ubuntu distribution
External links
Planet CCRMA at Home
Red Hat software
Free audio software |
712662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn%20V%20instrument%20unit | Saturn V instrument unit | The Saturn V instrument unit is a ring-shaped structure fitted to the top of the Saturn V rocket's third stage (S-IVB) and the Saturn IB's second stage (also an S-IVB). It was immediately below the SLA (Spacecraft/Lunar Module Adapter) panels that contained the Apollo Lunar Module. The instrument unit contains the guidance system for the Saturn V rocket. Some of the electronics contained within the instrument unit are a digital computer, analog flight control computer, emergency detection system, inertial guidance platform, control accelerometers, and control rate gyros. The instrument unit (IU) for Saturn V was designed by NASA at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) and was developed from the Saturn I IU. NASA's contractor to manufacture the Saturn V Instrument Unit was International Business Machines (IBM).
One of the unused instrument units is currently on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia. The plaque for the unit has the following inscription:
The Saturn V rocket, which sent astronauts to the Moon, used inertial guidance, a self-contained system that guided the rocket's trajectory. The rocket booster had a guidance system separate from those on the command and lunar modules. It was contained in an instrument unit like this one, a ring located between the rocket's third stage and the command and lunar modules. The ring contained the basic guidance system components—a stable platform, accelerometers, a digital computer, and control electronics—as well as radar, telemetry, and other units.
The instrument unit's stable platform was based on an experimental unit for the German V-2 rocket of World War II. The Bendix Corporation produced the platform, while IBM designed and built the unit's digital computer.
Specifications
Diameter: 260 inches (6.6 m)
Height: 36 inches (914 mm)
Weight at launch: ~4,400 lb (1996 kg)
Mission history
There was no instrument unit for Saturn I Block I boosters (SA-1 to SA-4). Guidance and control equipment was carried in canisters on top of the S-I first stage, and included the ST-90 stabilized platform, made by Ford Instrument Company and used in the Jupiter missile.
The IU made its debut with SA-5, the first Saturn I Block II launch. The first version of the IU was in diameter and high, and was both designed and built by MSFC. Guidance, telemetry, tracking and power components were contained in four pressurized, cylindrical containers attached like spokes to a central hub.
MSFC flew version 2 of the IU on SA-8, 9 and 10. Version 2 was the same diameter as version 1, but only high. Instead of pressurized containers, the components were hung on the inside of the cylindrical wall, achieving a reduction in weight.
The last version, number 3, was in diameter and tall. It was designed by MSFC but manufactured by IBM in their factory at Huntsville, and flew on all Saturn IB and Saturn V launches. This is the version that is on display in Washington, Huntsville, Houston, and the Apollo/Saturn V Center.
Mission profile
Saturn Apollo flight profiles varied considerably by mission. All missions began, however, with liftoff under power of the first stage. To more smoothly control engine ignition, thrust buildup and liftoff of the vehicle, restraining arms provided support and hold down at four points around the base of the S-IC stage. A gradual controlled release was accomplished during the first six inches of vertical motion.
After clearing the launch tower, a flight program stored in the launch vehicle digital computer (LVDC) commanded a roll of the vehicle to orient it so that the subsequent pitch maneuver pointed the vehicle in the desired azimuth. The roll and pitch commands were controlled by the stored program, and were not affected by navigation measurements. Until the end of the S-IC burn, guidance commands were functions only of time.
First stage cutoff and stage separation were commanded when the IU received a signal that the tank's fuel level had reached a predetermined point. Guidance during the second and third stage burns depended both on time and navigation measurements, in order to achieve the target orbit using the minimum fuel.
Second stage engine cutoff was commanded by the IU at a pre-determined fuel level, and the stage was separated. By this time, the vehicle had reached its approximate orbital altitude, and the third stage burn was just long enough to reach a circular parking orbit.
During crewed Apollo missions, the vehicle coasted in Earth orbit for 2-4 passes as the crew performed checks of systems status and other tasks, and as ground stations tracked the vehicle. During the hour and a half after launch, tracking stations around the world had refined estimates of the vehicle's position and velocity, collectively known as its state vector. The latest estimates were relayed to the guidance systems in the IU, and to the Command Module Computer in the spacecraft. When the Moon, Earth, and vehicle were in the optimum geometrical configuration, the third stage was reignited to put the vehicle into a translunar orbit. For Apollo 15, for example, this burn lasted 5 minutes 55 seconds.
After translunar injection came the maneuver called transposition, docking, and extraction. This was under crew control, but the IU held the S-IVB/IU vehicle steady while the Command/Service Module (CSM) first separated from the vehicle, rotated 180 degrees, and returned to dock with the Lunar Module (LM). When the CSM and LM had "hard docked" (connected by a dozen latches), the rearranged spacecraft separated from the S-IVB/IU.
The last function of the IU was to command the very small maneuver necessary to keep the S-IVB/IU out of the way of the spacecraft. On some missions the S-IVB/IU went into high Earth or Solar orbit, while on others it was crashed into the Moon; seismometers were left on the Moon during Apollo 11, 12, 14, 15, and 16, and the S-IVB/IUs of Apollo 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 were directed to crash. These impacts provided impulses that were recorded by the seismometer network to yield information about the geological structure of the Moon.
Subsystems
The IU consists of six subsystems: structure, guidance and control, environmental control, emergency detection, radio communications (for telemetry, tracking, and command), and power.
Structure
The basic IU structure is a short cylinder, 36 inches high and in diameter, fabricated of an aluminum alloy honeycomb sandwich material thick. The cylinder is manufactured in three 120-degree segments, which are joined by splice plates into an integral structure. The top and bottom edges are made from extruded aluminum channels bonded to the honeycomb sandwich. This type of construction was selected for its high strength to weight ratio, acoustical insulation, and thermal conductivity properties. The IU supported the components mounted on its inner wall and the weight of the Apollo spacecraft above (the Lunar Module, the Command Module, the Service Module, and the Launch Escape Tower). To facilitate handling the IU before it was assembled into the Saturn, the fore and aft protective rings, 6 inches tall and painted blue, were bolted to the top and bottom channels. These were removed in the course of stacking the IU into the Saturn vehicle. The structure was manufactured by North American Rockwell in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Edward A. Beasley was the I.U. Program Manager.
The IU is divided into 24 locations, which are marked on the interior by numbers 1-24 on the aluminum surface just above the blue flange.
Guidance and control
The Saturn V launch vehicle was guided by navigation, guidance, and control equipment located in the IU. A space stabilized platform (the ST-124-M3 inertial platform at location 21) measured acceleration and attitude. A launch vehicle digital computer (LVDC at location 19) solved guidance equations, and an analog flight control computer (location 16) issued commands to steer the vehicle.
The attitude of the vehicle was defined in terms of three axes:
The roll axis (X) runs from tail to nose and was vertical at time of launch.
The pitch axis (Y) is at right angles to the roll axis, and is marked on the exterior of the IU by +Y above the viewport, outside location 21.
The yaw axis (Z) is at right angles to both the pitch and roll axis, and is marked by +Z outside location 3.
The ST-124-M3 inertial platform contains three gimbals: the outer gimbal (which can rotate 360° about the roll or X axis of the vehicle), the middle gimbal (which can rotate ±45° about the yaw or Z axis of the vehicle), and the inner or inertial gimbal (which can rotate 360° about the pitch or Y axis of the vehicle). The inner gimbal is a platform to which are fixed several components:
Two vertical alignment pendulums sent signals before launch to ground support equipment, which generated signals to the platform gyro torque generators to level the inner gimbal. The vertical alignment system levelled the platform to an accuracy of ±2.5 arc seconds.
Two prisms, one fixed and one servo-driven, were used with an external theodolite which sighted through the viewport outside location 21 to set the azimuth of the inner gimbal before launch. The azimuth could be set to an accuracy of ±5 arc seconds.
Three single-degree-of-freedom gyroscopes have their input axes aligned along an orthogonal inertial coordinate system. Three signal generators, fixed to the output axis of each gyro, generated electrical signals proportional to the torque disturbances. The signals were transmitted through the servo electronics which terminated in the gimbal pivot servotorque motors. The servoloops maintained the inner gimbal rotationally fixed in inertial space. That is, while the vehicle rolled, pitched, and yawed, the inner gimbal remained in the same attitude to which it was set just before launch. Though it was being translated during the launch and orbit process, it was rotationally fixed.
Three integrating accelerometers measured the three components of velocity resulting from vehicle propulsion. The accelerometer measurements were sent through the launch vehicle data adapter (LDVA at location 19) to the LVDC. In the LVDC the accelerometer measurements were combined with the computed gravitational acceleration to obtain velocity and position of the vehicle.
The angular positions of gimbals on their axes were measured by resolvers, which sent their signals to the Launch Vehicle Data Adaptor (LVDA). The LVDA was the input/output device for the LVDC. It performed the necessary processing of signals to make these signals acceptable to the LVDC.
The instantaneous attitude of the vehicle was compared with the desired vehicle attitude in the LVDC. Attitude correction signals from the LVDC were converted into control commands by the flight control computer. The required thrust direction was obtained by gimbaling the engines in the propelling stage to change the thrust direction of the vehicle. Gimbaling of these engines was accomplished through hydraulic actuators. In the first and second stages (S-IC and S-II), the four outboard engines were gimbaled to control roll, pitch, and yaw. Since the third (S-IVB) stage has only one engine, an auxiliary propulsion system was used for roll control during powered flight. The auxiliary propulsion system provides complete attitude control during coast flight of the S-IVB/IU stage.
Environmental control
The environmental control system (ECS) maintains an acceptable operating environment for the IU equipment during preflight and flight operations. The ECS is composed of the following:
The thermal conditioning system (TCS), which maintains a circulating coolant temperature to the electronic equipment of 59° ± 1 °F (15 ± 5/9 °C).
Preflight purging system, which maintains a supply of temperature- and pressure-regulated mixture of air and gaseous nitrogen (air/GN2) in the IU/S-IVB equipment area.
Gas bearing supply system, which furnishes GN2 to the ST-124-M3 inertial platform gas bearings.
Hazardous gas detection sampling equipment which monitors the IU/S-IVB forward interstage area for the presence of hazardous vapors
Thermal conditioning
Thermal conditioning panels, also called cold plates, were located in both the IU and S-IVB stage (up to sixteen in each stage). Each cold plate contains tapped bolt holes in a grid pattern which provides flexibility of component mounting.
The cooling fluid circulated through the TCS was a mixture of 60 percent methanol and 40 percent demineralized water by weight. Each cold plate was capable of dissipating at least 420 watts.
During flight, heat generated by equipment mounted on the cold plates was dissipated to space by a sublimation heat exchanger. Water from a reservoir (water accumulator) was exposed to the low temperature and pressure environment of space, where it first freezes and then sublimates, taking heat from the heat exchanger and transferring it to the water molecules which escape to space in gaseous state. Water/methanol was cooled by circulation through the heat exchanger.
Preflight air/GN2 purge system
Before flight, ground support equipment (GSE) supplies cooled, filtered ventilating air to the IU, entering via the large duct in the middle of the umbilical panel (location 7), and branching into two ducts at the top that are carried around the IU in the cable rack. Downward pointing vents from these ducts release ventilating air to the interior of the IU. During fueling, gaseous nitrogen was supplied instead of air, to purge any propellant gases that might otherwise accumulate in the IU.
Gas bearing supply
To reduce errors in sensing attitude and velocity, designers cut friction to a minimum in the platform gyros and accelerometers by floating the bearings on a thin film of dry nitrogen. The nitrogen was supplied from a sphere holding 2 cu ft (56.6 L) of gas at 3,000 psig (pounds per square inch gauge, i.e. psi above one atmosphere) (20,7 MPa). This sphere is 21 inches (0,53 m) in diameter and is mounted at location 22, to the left of the ST-124-M3. Gas from the supply sphere passes through a filter, a pressure regulator, and a heat exchanger before flowing through the bearings in the stable platform.
Hazardous gas detection
The hazardous gas detection system monitors the presence of hazardous gases in the IU and S-IVB stage forward compartments during vehicle fueling. Gas was sampled at four locations: between panels 1 and 2, 7 and 8, 13 and 14, and 19 and 20. Tubes lead from these locations to location 7, where they were connected to ground support equipment (external to the IU) which can detect hazardous gases.
Emergency detection
The emergency detection system (EDS) sensed initial development of conditions in the flight vehicle during the boost phases of flight which could cause vehicle failure. The EDS reacted to these emergency situations in one of two ways. If breakup of the vehicle were imminent, an automatic abort sequence would be initiated. If, however, the emergency condition were developing slowly enough or were of such a nature that the flight crew can evaluate it and take action, only visual indications were provided to the flight crew. Once an abort sequence had been initiated, either automatically or manually, it was irrevocable and ran to completion.
The EDS was distributed throughout the vehicle and includes some components in the IU. There were nine EDS rate gyros installed at location 15 in the IU. Three gyros monitored each of the three axes (pitch, roll and yaw), providing triple redundancy. The control signal processor (location 15) provided power to and received inputs from the nine EDS rate gyros. These inputs were processed and sent to the EDS distributor (location 14) and to the flight control computer (location 16). The EDS distributor served as a junction box and switching device to furnish the spacecraft display panels with emergency signals if emergency conditions existed. It also contained relay and diode logic for the automatic abort sequence. An electronic timer (location 17) was activated at liftoff and 30 seconds later energized relays in the EDS distributor which allowed multiple engine shutdown. This function was inhibited during the first 30 seconds of launch, to preclude the vehicle falling back into the launch area. While the automatic abort was inhibited, the flight crew can initiate a manual abort if an angular-overrate or two-engine-out condition arose.
Radio communications
The IU communicated by radio continually to ground for several purposes. The measurement and telemetry system communicated data about internal processes and conditions on the Saturn V. The tracking system communicated data used by the Mission Ground Station (MGS) to determine vehicle location. The radio command system allowed the MGS to send commands up to the IU.
Measuring and telemetry
Approximately 200 parameters were measured on the IU and transmitted to the ground, in order to
Assist in the checkout of the launch vehicle prior to launch,
Determine vehicle condition and to verify received commands during flight, and
Facilitate postflight analysis of the mission.
Parameters measured include acceleration, angular velocity, flow rate, position, pressure, temperature, voltage, current, frequency, and others. Sensor signals were conditioned by amplifiers or converters located in measuring racks. There are four measuring racks in the IU at locations 1, 9, and 15 and twenty signal conditioning modules in each. Conditioned signals were routed to their assigned telemetry channel by the measuring distributor at location 10. There were two telemetry links. In order for the two IU telemetry links to handle approximately 200 separate measurements, these links must be shared. Both frequency sharing and time sharing multiplexing techniques were used to accomplish this. The two modulation techniques used were pulse code modulation/frequency modulation (PCM/FM) and frequency modulation/frequency modulation (FM/FM).
Two Model 270 time sharing multiplexers (MUX-270) were used in the IU telemetry system, mounted at locations 9 and 10. Each one operates as a 30×120 multiplexer (30 primary channels, each sampled 120 times per second) with provisions for submultiplexing individual primary channels to form 10 subchannels each sampled at 12 times per second. Outputs from the MUX-270 go to the PCM/DDAS assembly model 301 at location 12, which in turn drives the 245.3 MHz PCM VHF transmitter.
The FM/FM signals were carried in 28 subcarrier channels and transmitted by a 250.7 MHz FM transmitter.
Both the FM/FM and the PCM/FM channels were coupled to the two telemetry antennas on opposite sides of the IU outside locations 10 and 22.
Tracking
C-band radar transponders carried by the IU provided tracking data to the ground which were used to determine the vehicle's trajectory. The transponder received coded or single pulse interrogation from ground stations and transmitted a single-pulse reply in the same frequency band (5.4 to 5.9 GHz). A common antenna was used for receiving and transmitting. The C-band transponder antennas are outside locations 11 and 23, immediately below CCS PCM omni receive antennas.
Radio command
The command communications system (CCS) provided for digital data transmission from ground stations to the LVDC. This communications link was used to update guidance information or command certain other functions through the LVDC. Command data originated in the Mission Control Center, Houston, and was sent to remote stations for transmission to the launch vehicle. Command messages were transmitted from the ground at 2101.8 MHz. The received message was passed to the command decoder (location 18), where it was checked for authenticity before being passed to the LVDC. Verification of message receipt was accomplished through the IU PCM telemetry system. The CCS system used five antennas:
A single directional antenna outside location 3-4,
Two omni transmit antennas outside locations 11 and 23, and
Two omni receive antennas outside locations 12 and 24.
Power
Power during flight originated with four silver-zinc batteries with a nominal voltage of 28±2 vdc. Battery D10 sat on a shelf at location 5, batteries D30 and D40 were on shelves in location 4, and battery D20 was at location 24. Two power supplies converted the unregulated battery power to regulated 56 vdc and 5 vdc. The 56 vdc power supply was at location 1 and provided power to the ST-124-M3 platform electronic assembly and the accelerometer signal conditioner. The 5 vdc power supply at location 12 provided 5 ±.005 vdc to the IU measuring system.
Gallery
These images show the development of the IU. The first four Saturn launches did not have an IU, but used guidance, telemetry and other equipment installed on top of the first stage.
The first IU flew on the fifth Saturn launch, SA-5, and was in diameter and high. The components it carried were in pressurized containers. This version flew on SA-5, SA-6 and SA-7. The IU carried by missions SA-8, -9, and -10 was only high, and was not pressurized.
With the Saturn IB and Saturn V launches, a third version was used, in diameter and high. Comparison of these photographs of the instrument unit shows that the configuration of components carried by this version changed, depending on the mission. Some equipment was deleted (e.g., the Azusa tracking system was deleted from later IUs), some equipment was added (e.g., a fourth battery for longer missions), and other components were moved around.
These images also show that some components (e.g., batteries, the ST-124 inertial platform) were installed in the IU after it had been stacked in the VAB on top of the S-IVB third stage.
References
Saturn
Bilstein, Roger E. (1980). Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles. NASA SP-4206. . Available on-line: HTML or PDF
David S. Akens. ‘’Saturn Illustrated Chronology. Saturn's First Eleven Years: April 1957 through April 1968’’. NASA - Marshall Space Flight Center, MHR-5, 20 Jan 1971. Available online: HTML
"Saturn I Summary." A 43-page popular account of the Saturn I program, dated 15 February 1966, covering missions SA-1 to SA-10. Available online from NTRS: PDF
"Saturn V Press Kit." Includes documents on Saturn V, first stage, F-1 engine, second stage, J-2 engine, instrument unit, facilities, testing, vehicle assembly and launch, program manager, flight history, STS-1, contractors, glossary, and index. Available online: HTML
"The Apollo "A"/Saturn C-1 Launch Vehicle System". NASA MSFC Saturn Systems Office, 17 July 1961. 410 pages. NASA TM X-69174. MOR-MSAT- 61-5. Available online: PDF Information and drawings about version 1 of the IU.
Duran, B.E. "Saturn I/IB Launch Vehicle Operational Status and Experience". Paper given at Aeronautic and Space Engineering and Manufacturing Meeting of the Society of Automotive Engineers, Los Angeles, CA, Oct 7-11, 1968. 30 pages. Duran worked for Chrysler, maker of the S-1 booster.
"Steps to Saturn". NASA MSFC, 106 pages. Available online:PDF Describes booster manufacture by MSFC and use of canisters containing guidance equipment before the IU.
Apollo
Charles D. Benson and William Barnaby Faherty. Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations. NASA SP-4204, 1978. Available online: HTML
"Apollo Program Summary Report." NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, April 1975. JSC-09423. Available online: PDF
Ivan D. Ertel, Mary Louise Mors, Jean Kernahan Bays, Courtney G. Brooks and Roland W. Newkirk. The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology. NASA SP-4009. Available online: HTML
Orloff, Richard W. "Apollo By The Numbers". NASA History Division, Washington, DC, 2000. NASA SP-2000-4029. 345 pages. Available online: HTML Appendices useful.
"Apollo Program Flight Summary Report Apollo Missions AS-201 through Apollo 16". NASA Office of Manned Space Flight, Une 1972. 125 pages. Available online: PDF
Specific missions
"Saturn SA-1 Flight Evaluation". NASA MSFC, December 14, 1961. MPRSAT- WF-61-8. Available online:PDF Describes the Saturn guidance system before the IU.
Brandner, F.W. "Technical Information Summary Concerning Saturn Vehicle SA-2". NASA MSFC Memo dated 5 April 1962. TMX 51831. 16 pages. Available online: PDF Describes the Saturn guidance system before the IU.
"Results of the Fourth Saturn IB Launch Vehicle Test Flight AS-204". NASA MSFC, 5 April 1968. 365 pages. MPR-SAT-FE-68-2. NASA TM X-61111. Available online: PDF Describes changes to the IU made on the basis of data from mission SA-204.
Chrysler Corporation, Huntsville Division. "Saturn Antenna Systems, SA-5". NASA MSFC Astrionics Division Instrumentation Branch, 18 June 1963. 439 pages. Available online: PDF Describes some aspects of version 1 of the IU.
Weichel, H.J. "SA-8 Flight Test Data Report". NASA Technical Memorandum TM X-53308. 2 August 1965. Available online:PDF According to this, the ASC-15 and the ST-90 were used in the active guidance system, while the ST-124 was part of the passenger system.
"Saturn V Flight Manual SA-507." A 244-page description of Saturn-Apollo 507, dated 5 October 1969. Includes a chapter about the instrument unit (Section VII, PDF page 149). Available on-line: PDF
Instrument unit
IBM. "Instrument Unit System Description and Component Data." This lists, in Table 1, all components by name, part number, reference designation and location for IU-201 to -212 and IU-501 to -515. It also includes photos of many components. The change history page lists six changes, the latest being January 1970, the year IU-508 was launched.
"Instrument Unit Fact Sheet." An 8-page Saturn V News Reference, dated December 1968, about the time IU-505 was delivered to Cape Canaveral. Available online: PDF
"Saturn Instrument Unit." A 102-page description of the IU, dated April 1968, prepared by Boeing.
"Astrionics System Handbook for Saturn Launch Vehicles." A 417-page description of most of the functions and subsystems of the instrument unit, dated 1 November 1968. Available on-line: PDF
Lowery, H.R. "Saturn Instrument Unit Command System". NASA MSFC Huntsville, Alabama, 22 October 1965. 45 pages. Technical Memorandum X- 53350. Available online:PDF
"Saturn IB/V Instrument Unit Instrumentation System Description". International Business Machines, Federal Systems Division, Huntsville, Alabama, 1 June 1966. 119 pages. IBM No. 65-966-0021, MSFC No. III-5-509-1. Available online:PDF Describes the transducers, measurement system, and telemetry function of the IU.
Instrument unit guidance
Herman E. Thomason. "General Description of the ST-124M Inertial Platform System." NASA TN D-2983, dated September 1965. 93 pages. This has clearer figures than most of the PDF documents about the IU, providing the best views of the insides of the gyros and gas bearings. Available on-line: PDF
Walter Haeussermann. "Description and Performance of the Saturn Launch Vehicle's Navigation, Guidance, and Control System." NASA TN D-5869, dated July 1970. 52 pages. Available online: PDF
Richard L. Moore and Herman E. Thomason. "Gimbal Geometry and Attitude Sensing of the ST-124 Stabilized Platform." NASA TN D-1118, dated May 1962. An early, and mathematical, rather than descriptive, account of the ST-124. At this date the ST-124 was a 4-gimbal concept, whereas the version that flew had only 3 gimbals. Available online:PDF
"Saturn V Launch Vehicle Digital Computer. Volume 1: General Description and Theory." IBM, 30 November 1964. Changed 4 January 1965. 256 pages. Available online: PDF
"Laboratory Maintenance Instructions for the Saturn V Launch Vehicle Digital Computer." Volume 1 of 2, dated 4 January 1965. 256 pages.
Decher, Rudolf. "The Astrionics System of Saturn Launch Vehicles". NASA MSFC Huntsville, Alabama, 1 February 1966. 180 pages. NASA TM X- 53384. Available online: PDF
Lyons, R.E. and Vanderkulk, W. "The Use of Triple-Modular Redundancy to Improve Computer Reliability". IBM Journal, April 1962, pp. 200–209. Available online: PDF Theory behind the LVDC.
Stumpf, David K. "Titan II. A History of a Cold War Missile Program.". University of Arkansas Press, Fayetteville, Arkansas, 2000. . Picture of the ASC-15 computer used on the Titan II and on early Saturn flights. The ASC-15 was the predecessor of the LVDC, and was the guidance computer before the IU and on IU version 1, at least.
NASA computers
Tomayko, James E. "Computers in Spaceflight: The NASA Experience". NASA Contractor Report 182505, March 1988. Available online: HTML
"Spaceborne Digital Computer Systems". NASA, SP-8070, March 1971. Available online: PDF
Notes
External links
Space Launch Report, Saturn Vehicle History by Ed Kyle (HTMLF)
Project Apollo Drawings and Technical Diagrams HTML
Project Apollo Archive, Apollo Image Gallery, NASA Public Affairs Office website by Kip Teague HTML
Apollo Lunar Surface Journal HTML
QuickTime Virtual Reality movie of the interior of IU-514 on display at National Air and Space Museum, Udvar-Hazy Center, Dulles, Virginia MOV The names of internal components appear in the lower left part of the frame when you mouse over them. If your browser does not display this file, download it to your computer and open it with QuickTime Player.
Smithsonian volunteer website about the instrument unit
Apollo program
Saturn (rocket family)
Spacecraft components |
4021930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%20TPNS | IBM TPNS | Teleprocessing Network Simulator (TPNS) is an IBM licensed program, first released in 1976 as a test automation tool to simulate the end-user activity of network terminal(s) to a mainframe computer system, for functional testing, regression testing, system testing, capacity management, benchmarking and stress testing.
In 2002, IBM re-packaged TPNS and released
Workload Simulator for z/OS and S/390 (WSim) as a successor product.
History
Teleprocessing Network Simulator (TPNS) Version 1 Release 1 (V1R1) was introduced as Program Product 5740-XT4 in February 1976, followed by four additional releases up to V1R5 (1981).
In August 1981, IBM announced TPNS Version 2 Release 1 (V2R1) as Program Product 5662-262, followed by three additional releases up to V2R4 (1987).
In January 1989, IBM announced TPNS Version 3 Release 1 (V3R1) as Program Product 5688-121, followed by four additional releases up to V3R5 (1996).
In December 1997, IBM announced a TPNS V3R5 Service Level 9711 Functional and Service Enhancements release.
In September 1998, IBM announced the TPNS Test Manager (for TPNS V3R5) as a usability enhancement to automate the test process further in order to improve productivity through a logical flow, and to streamline TPNS-based testing of IBM 3270 applications or CPI-C transaction programs.
In December 2001, IBM announced a TPNS V3R5 Service Level 0110 Functional and Service Enhancements release.
In August 2002, IBM announced Workload Simulator for z/OS and S/390 (WSim) V1.1 as Program Number 5655-I39, a re-packaged successor product to TPNS, alongside the WSim Test Manager V1.1, a re-packaged successor to the TPNS Test Manager.
In November 2012, IBM announced a maintenance update of Workload Simulator for z/OS and S/390 (WSim) V1.1, to simplify the installation of updates to the product.
In December 2015, IBM announced enhancements to Workload Simulator for z/OS and S/390 (WSim) V1.1, providing new utilities for TCP/IP data capture and script generation.
Features
Simulation support
Teleprocessing Network Simulator (TPNS)
TPNS supports the simulation of a wide range of networking protocols and devices: SNA/SDLC, start-stop, BSC, TWX, TTY, X.25 Packet Switching Network, Token Ring Local Area Networking, and TCP/IP servers and clients (Telnet 3270 & 5250, Telnet Line Mode Network Virtual Terminal, FTP and simple UDP clients). TPNS can also simulate devices using the Airline Line Control (ALC) and the HDLC protocols. The full implementation of SNA in TPNS enables it to simulate all LU types (including LU6.2 and CPI-C), PU types (including PU2.1), and SSCP functions. Finally, TPNS also provides extensive user exit access to its internal processes to enable the simulation of user-defined (home-grown) line disciplines, communications protocols, devices (terminals and printers) and programs.
TPNS is therefore the appropriate test tool for installations that need to test:
either the entire system configuration path of hardware and software components, from the teleprocessing line interface (modem, for example) all the way to the subsystem (CICS, IMS, DB2, TSO/ISPF, etc.), the application and finally to the file or database record (disk I/O) and back;
Note: In this configuration, TPNS transmits its generated data traffic from its MVS address space, first across a channel-adapter to its TPNS Control Program (TPNCP) running in a dedicated IBM 37x5 Communications Controller, and then across teleprocessing lines connected back-to-back between the TPNCP and the target IBM 37x5 channel-attached to the host system (server) under test and its subsystems, applications and databases/files.
or only application systems and their hardware and software components, from the networking access method API (either the VTAM API or the TCP/IP High Performance Native Sockets, or Macro, API) to the subsystem (CICS, IMS, DB2, TSO/ISPF, etc.), the application and finally to the file or database record (disk I/O) and back;
Note: In this configuration, TPNS transmits its generated data traffic from its MVS address space to the target application directly across the networking access method's API and does not, therefore, require a dedicated IBM 37x5 Communications Controller to run its TPNCP, or any other networking hardware and software components except the networking access method (VTAM or IBM TCP/IP for MVS) that already runs in—or is already network-connected to—the host system (server) under test.
or both.
Workload Simulator for z/OS and S/390 (WSim)
WSim fully supports a subset of TPNS-simulated devices and programmed resources: CPI-C, TCP/IP servers and clients (Telnet 3270 & 5250, Telnet Line Mode Network Virtual Terminal, FTP and simple UDP clients), and SNA LU simulation. WSim relies solely on software interfaces to communicate with the system under test.
WSim is therefore the appropriate test tool for installations that need to test application systems and their hardware and software components, from the networking access method API (either the VTAM API or the TCP/IP High Performance Native Sockets, or Macro, API) to the subsystem (CICS, IMS, DB2, TSO/ISPF, etc.), the application and finally to the file or database record (disk I/O) and back; that is to say, without the need to install any networking hardware and software components except the networking access method (VTAM or IBM TCP/IP for MVS) that already runs in—or is already network-connected to—the host system (server) under test.
Other uses
In addition to its use as a test tool exchanging message traffic with a system under test, TPNS/Wsim has been deployed:
as a systems management tool — to monitor the availability of an online system, from the end-user's perspective;
as a software development tool — for prototyping software programs during the development process.
Scripting languages
TPNS language
TPNS initially provided its own 'TPNS language', a high-level, macro assembler-like language with programming statements and operands that a test programmer would use to define:
the configuration of the network device(s) to be simulated (NTWRK definitions, simply called the network), typically one or more terminal(s), such as IBM 3270 display screen(s);
one or more message text script(s) (MSGTXT definitions, simply called scripts), corresponding to the keystrokes and data transmission activity of the simulated user(s) at the simulated terminal(s). Separate scripts could be written to perform specific test scenarios, such as: 'login', 'data enquiry', 'data entry' and 'logout', for example;
the sequence in which scripts are to be executed by each (or all) simulated terminal(s):
in the NTWRK, one or more PATH statement(s) define(s) the order in which MSGTXTs are executed,
each NTWRK terminal has a PATH operand that names the PATH statement(s) assigned to the terminal.
Once defined, these test scripts are executed during the simulation run, when the TPNS program ITPENTER (the simulator) processes the submitted statements and creates data streams in the required formats and protocols, prior to sending them to the system under test as if they had originated from real user(s) operating real terminal(s). In turn, the target application(s) running in the system under test respond(s) to the simulated terminal(s) and, if the simulation is successful, these exchanges would continue until the programmed scripts reach the end of the simulation run—i.e., when the simulated users have all completed their scripted activity and logged off, for example—at which time ITPENTER is terminated by the test programmer.
During the simulation, ITPENTER keeps a log (on tape or disk) of all messages exchanged between the simulated device(s) and the real application(s) under test. After the simulation has completed, the test programmer can therefore run any of three TPNS-supplied log analysis utilities to list and review the data exchanges in detail (ITPLL), to calculate and print response times reports (ITPRESP), or to compare the 3270 screen images logged during two simulation runs of the same script(s) and report on differences between them (ITPCOMP).
When TPNS was re-packaged and renamed 'WSim' in 2002, the term 'TPNS language' was changed to 'WSim language' in the product publications; however, the existing nomenclature was maintained and all TPNS components re-packaged into WSim—such as the TPNS program names and message numbers (ITPxxxxx), for example—retained their existing identity.
Structured Translator Language (STL)
With TPNS V3R1 (1989), IBM added the Structured Translator Language—or 'STL', a TPNS high-level scripting language with a syntax based on REXX—to make it easier for test scripts to be written by programmers familiar with REXX or similar structured programming languages. STL therefore made it possible to write test scripts, not only for the usual activity of simulated terminal operators, but also for exchanges between TPNS-simulated programs and real application programs or, for example, to prototype elements of an ATM shared network. Scripts written in STL must be translated into the TPNS language before the simulation run and a translator utility (ITPSTL) is supplied for that purpose.
Another way of defining STL would be as a 'script generation language'; its programming clauses are identical to REXX, but they need to be translated (i.e. 'script-generated') into the TPNS language in order to be executable during the simulation run.
Script coding facilities
Both scripting languages provide a comprehensive set of coding facilities that enable the test programmer to:
specify the input data entered by the simulated user(s), along with related actions: counting down think time delays, pressing keys to send data, then waiting for responses from the application under test;
logic-test the content of incoming and/or outgoing messages and taking one of a wide range of optional actions according to the results of the evaluation;
set up test verification clauses that create log records for 'predicted good'/'predicted bad' conditions;
group message text data in user data tables, to make scripts more generic and data-independent;
invoke an extensive range of data field options, to create test data dynamically into messages;
collect real-time data into save areas, during the simulation run, to re-use as 'on the fly' test data;
generate random numbers;
maintain a wide range of counters and switches;
set up events to synchronise the activity of simulated users;
set up named queues to provide a queuing method for passing data between simulated resources;
perform sequential file I/O (QSAM) operations from a script to a user-defined, external dataset;
select script debugging facilities, including a message generation trace (MSGTRACE) which logs the step-by-step flow of all logic tests, actions (taken and ignored), and data exchanges occurring during the execution of scripts;
log message traffic during the simulation run, for post-processing analysis (including message generation tracing, data transmitted/received, printing screen images, test data verification, response time calculation, and screen image comparison across repeated simulations of the same scripts);
define and alter the rate at which message traffic is generated during the simulation run;
specify the protocols for session initiation and termination between simulated programmed resources and real programs, as well as for data exchanges between them;
and many more.
WSim supports the same scripting language facilities as TPNS, except that its network configuration (NTWRK) definitions require only those statements provided for CPI-C, TCP/IP servers and clients (Telnet 3270 & 5250, Telnet Line Mode Network Virtual Terminal, FTP and simple UDP clients), and SNA LU simulation.
Syntax checking preprocessor
The simulator program ITPENTER can also be run as a preprocessor (when submitted with parameter PARM='PREP'), simply to check the syntax of networks and scripts before they are submitted for a simulation run. This enables test personnel to ensure that a subsequent simulation run will not fail because of coding errors in the scripts themselves.
Repeatability
One of the benefits of using test scripts is that they can be run repeatedly throughout the test cycle, as functional errors in the application under test and/or system-wide defects are gradually resolved over time, in order to improve the reliability, capacity or performance of any, or all, hardware or software components in the system under test. For functional and regression testing, test programmers would typically define a network of just one simulated terminal executing test scripts tailored to evaluate a comprehensive set of transactions (database enquiry or data entry) serially, and at slow or average rates of message traffic. For system testing, performance/capacity testing, stress testing and benchmarking, the same test programmers would define large networks of dozens or even thousands of simulated terminals, each running—for example—a range of these functional test scripts, now grouped together to exercise as many system components as possible at high rates of message traffic.
Script generation
TPNS provides a number of solutions to automate the creation of test scripts.
The script generation facilities described in the next three sections are also available in Workload Simulator for z/OS and S/390 (WSim).
The Interactive Data Capture (IDC) script generator (ITPIDC)
The Interactive Data Capture (IDC) script generator
is a 'pass-through & data intercept' VTAM application (ITPIDC) controlled by the test programmer from one real 3270 display screen in session with a target application for which a script is required. ITPIDC maintains two SNA sessions simultaneously: a primary LU session with the real 3270 terminal operated by the test programmer, and a secondary LU session with the target application.
During the data capture–or 'recording'–session, ITPIDC logs the data traffic exchanged between the test programmer's real 3270 device and the target application, and then uses that log to generate the equivalent script, in either of the two scripting languages (TPNS language or STL).
Since the IDC log dataset is in exactly the same format as the log dataset TPNS creates during a simulation run, it can be used as input to the TPNS post-processing utilities to print its contents, to calculate response times of the IDC session, or to compare the screen images of the data capture session with the TPNS log obtained by running the IDC-generated script.
The 3270 trace reformatter and script generator (ITPLU2RF & ITPLSGEN)
When capturing the activity of a production network consisting of one or many 3270 devices, the 3270 trace reformatter and script generator processes the trace dataset produced by the IBM Network Performance Monitor (NPM V1R4 or later) VTAM PIU log (FNMVLOG), or by the IBM VTAM (V4R1 or later) Full Buffer Trace. When the tracing activity is completed, a utility (ITPLU2RF) reformats the trace dataset into a log dataset in the format required as input to the IDC script generator (see previous section), which can also create scripts in batch mode (ITPLSGEN). This reformatted IDC log can also be analyzed by the three post-processing utilities (list the log's contents, calculate response times or compare screen images).
The script generator (ITPSGEN)
The script generator processes the trace dataset produced by the IBM Network Performance Monitor (NPM), or by the IBM VTAM Buffer Trace in conjunction with the IBM Generalized Trace Facility (GTF), when tracing a production network of one or many 3270 devices, as well as devices of various types and protocols, including LU0, LU1, LU2, LU4, LU 6.2 and CPI-C resources. For CPI-C script generation, it is also possible to use the LU 6.2 trace dataset created by the OS/2 Communications Manager (CM/2) or the IBM Communications Server. Different TPNS-supplied utilities reformat any of these various trace datasets into a single-format dataset used as input to the script generator (ITPSGEN), which produces scripts:
optionally in either language (TPNS language or STL) for all supported device types except CPI-C programmed resources;
only in STL for CPI-C programmed resources.
The TCP/IP script generator (ITPIPGEN)
The TCP/IP script generator is unique to WSim and was introduced in December 2015. It processes a TCP/IP trace dataset produced by the WSim-supplied TCP/IP Trace Utility (ITPIPTRX), which invokes the z/OS Communication Server real-time, application-controlled TCP/IP trace Network Management Interface (NMI) to capture TCP/IP data trace records. These trace records contain HTTP messages (packets and data) exchanged between a server and client. The TCP/IP script generator (ITPIPGEN) then processes this trace dataset and creates a script, in the STL language, which replicates the communication that occurred between the server and client. After translation from STL into the WSim language and when running the simulation (ITPENTER), the generated script sends the client messages—obtained from the trace—to the server port, and waits to receive a message from the server. A separate utility (ITPIPFMT) is also supplied to format and print the contents of the trace dataset created by the TCP/IP Trace Utility (ITPIPTRX).
The TPNS Test Manager
It is established practice that a script obtained from a script generator is subsequently edited by test programmers in order to make such scripts more generally reusable. This editing process consists in adding advanced script-programming clauses that script generators cannot supply, such as re-locating hard-coded data into user data tables that can then be expanded with more test data, for example. This editing can be done directly into the NTWRK and MSGTXT datasets, or through the services of the TPNS Test Manager (or its affiliated WSim Test Manager) which, like TPNS (and WSim), also runs under TSO/ISPF.The Test Manager is a knowledge-based, interactive usability tool designed to boost the productivity of test personnel, and to optimize the test cycle by enabling test projects to be organized methodically during the development and execution of test cases, and in the subsequent analysis of test results.
Run-time interfaces
Operator commands
Once the TPNS program ITPENTER (the simulator) has been submitted for execution and is up and running, test personnel can use a range of TPNS-specific operator commands to initialise, start, alter, and stop the execution of one or more TPNS networks and their associated scripts. It is also possible to query the activity of a simulated device and its current script, and to intervene in real time, by altering the rate of message traffic, for example.
Running as a MVS procedure
In its early releases, ITPENTER ran as a MVS procedure controlled from the MVS operator console. Its generated data traffic was transmitted from its MVS address space, first across a channel-adapter to its TPNS Control Program (TPNCP) running in a dedicated IBM 37x5 Communications Controller, and then across teleprocessing lines connected back-to-back between the TPNCP and the target IBM 37x5 channel-attached to the host system under test and its application subsystems (CICS, IMS, DB2, TSO/ISPF, etc.).
Running under TSO
With TPNS V1R5 (1979), ITPENTER was enhanced to run from a TSO command list (in the TSO user address space) and therefore to operate simulations from a remote display terminal in the VTAM network instead of the MVS system console.
Running as a VTAM application
With TPNS V2R3 (1985), ITPENTER was enhanced to run as a VTAM application, thus sending the data traffic generated by its simulated terminals or programmed resources (now defined as VTAM logical units) via the VTAM API to the application under test. This removed the requirement for a 37x5 and other dedicated teleprocessing hardware when using TPNS to test applications systems running under VTAM, such as CICS, IMS, DB2, ISPF, and other online transaction processing systems.
Display Monitor
With TPNS V2R4 (1987), ITPENTER was enhanced with the Display Monitor, so that the screen images of a simulated 3270 display could be externalized onto a real 3270 terminal, thus enabling test personnel to monitor the ongoing, live execution of a script during the simulation run, in real time. It also became possible to operate TPNS from the NetView console and, in turn, to automate TPNS simulation runs from NetView by means of TPNS-supplied NetView command lists.
Running under ISPF
With TPNS V3R3 (1992), all TPNS programs and utilities (ITPxxxxx) could be operated entirely from ISPF in a panel-driven fashion, instead of through the TSO command line or through discrete JCL job streams.
Running as a TCP/IP for MVS application
With TPNS V3R5 (1997), ITPENTER was enhanced to run as a TCP/IP for MVS application, thus sending the data traffic generated by its simulated terminals and/or programmed resources (clients) to the application(s) (servers) under test via the IBM TCP/IP V3R2 for MVS High Performance Native Sockets (HPNS) API, subsequently renamed 'the Macro API'.
TPNS Test Manager
In 1998, IBM introduced the Test Manager for TPNS V3R5 which added substantial automation features that streamline many repetitive tasks associated with planning, preparing, operating and analyzing a TPNS-based simulation run, while still enabling the test programmer optionally to retain full awareness, in real-time, of the events unfolding at every step and to intervene if necessary.
Post-processing utilities
During the simulation, ITPENTER keeps a log (on tape or disk) of all messages exchanged between the simulated device(s) and the real application(s) under test. After the simulation has completed, the test programmer can therefore run any of three TPNS-supplied log analysis utilities.
Log list (ITPLL)
The log list utility (ITPLL) is used to list and review the logged data in detail, including operator commands, data transmitted and received, screen images, message generation tracing, and test data verification.
Response time calculator (ITPRESP)
The response time calculator (ITPRESP) is used to calculate and print response times reports.
Log compare (ITPCOMP)
The log compare utility (ITPCOMP) is used to compare the 3270 screen images logged during two simulation runs of the same script(s) and report on differences between them.
Additional facilities
The Echo program (ITPECHO)
The Echo program (ITPECHO) is supplied with TPNS (and WSim) as a ready-made VTAM application that runs in the system under test as a target for messages sent by real or simulated 3270 display device(s). Using ITPECHO enables network connectivity and load testing to be carried out without the need to set up a copy of a production-level application and its databases, thereby saving test personnel the effort of writing scripts or allocating disk space for such an application and its datasets. As its name implies, ITPECHO will return exactly the message it has just received (when sent with the 'Enter' key), but it can also return the amount of data that was requested in the previous message (when sent with the 'PF5' key), from real or simulated display device(s). The latter feature is useful for creating test conditions where the 'send' and 'receive' messages need to be of different and variable lengths. To provide the amount of data requested, ITPECHO pads its message with as many occurrences of the alphabet as necessary, or a fraction of it if the amount of data requested in less than 26 characters.
The AVailability MONitor (AVMON) facility
Rather than applying TPNS as a test tool, AVMON (AVailability MONitor) is a TPNS implementation designed to monitor the availability and performance of real network subsystems running in production (NetView and TSO). The TPNS-supplied sample AVMON scripts monitor only NetView and TSO, but a user installation may add support for monitoring more subsystems (CICS, IMS, DB2, etc.) and any of their applications, by modifying or extending the AVMON scripts, perhaps through the use of the Interactive Data Capture script generator mentioned above to create the new script(s). During the TPNS simulation run, AVMON updates the TPNS log dataset, which can therefore be processed by the three TPNS log analysis utilities (log list, response times calculator and log compare).
AVMON monitors availability by simulating a single terminal user in session with a real subsystem, periodically sending a brief probing message, and sensing when the subsystem becomes unavailable. When the simulated user detects unavailability, it sends a message to the operator console alerting the operator to the problem. AVMON also tracks the time it takes for the monitored subsystem to return a response, and reports whenever a user-specified performance threshold is exceeded. By using the TPNS Response Time utility, the performance statistics of the entire monitoring run can be compiled into a single report, thus providing an installation with evidence of the end-to-end response times experienced by the subsystem's end-users. For automated operations, AVMON may also be modified to perform operator functions when it senses that a real resource has become inoperative and therefore requires an operator intervention, such as restarting the resource for example.
Publications library
Teleprocessing Network Simulator (TPNS) library
TPNS Samples SC30-3454
TPNS Operation SC30-3289
TPNS Messages and Codes SC30-3310
TPNS General Utilities SC30-3290
TPNS Script Generating Utilities SC30-3453
TPNS Planning and Installation SH20-2488
TPNS Language Reference SH20-2489
Defining TPNS Networks SC31-6008
Creating TPNS Message Generation Decks SC31-6009
Using TPNS Structured Translator Language (STL) and STL Translator SC31-6013
TPNS STL Reference Card SX75-0065
TPNS User Exits SC31-6071
TPNS Licensed Program Specifications GH20-5323
TPNS General Information GH20-2487
TPNS Primer SC31-6043
TPNS Master Index GC31-6059
TPNS Function and Service Enhancements V3R5 (1997) SC31-8654-00
TPNS Function and Service Enhancements V3R5 (2001) SC31-8654-02
Workload Simulator (WSim) library
Creating Workload Simulator Scripts SC31-8945
Workload Simulator Script Guide and Reference SC31-8946
Workload Simulator Utilities Guide SC31-8947
Workload Simulator User's Guide SC31-8948
Workload Simulator Test Manager User's Guide and Reference SC31-8949
Workload Simulator User Exits SC31-8950
Workload Simulator Messages and Codes SC31-8951
References
Bibliography
External links
Technical Update Series: Using TPNS Version 2 Release 4 to Test On-Line Systems (34567)
Workload Simulator for z/OS and OS/390 Library
Workload Simulator for z/OS and OS/390 Service Information
TPNS
Simulation software
Load testing tools
Software testing tools
Product testing
IBM mainframe software |
25902134 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPB%20Software | SPB Software | SPB Software, a division of Yandex, a Russian IT company which operates the largest search engine in Russia, develops mobile solutions for OEM mobile device manufacturers, mobile carriers, smartphone, tablet, and end users worldwide. On November 28, 2011 Bloomberg Businessweek reported that Yandex acquired SPB Software after its own initial public offering debuted on the NASDAQ as the fourth largest IPO for all of 2011.
SPB Software's most popular solution, the SPB Shell 3D, has been described by The New York Times as an application that makes for a much more user-friendly phone. SPB Shell 3D utilizes SPB Software's SPB UI Engine, a cross-platform modular plugin for building hyper-realistic 3D interfaces on a variety of devices. Android Arena describes the SPB UI Engine as being written in native C++. SPB also develops software running on Android, iOS, Symbian, Bada, BlackBerry, Maemo, MeeGo, webOS, Windows Phone 7, and the Windows Mobile operating systems.
History
Formation
Formed in Saint Petersburg, Russia, in 1999, the company was named SPB Software House, but removed the word "House" in 2008. The company released its first mobile application in 2001 and went on to win the Developer Of The Year Award 2003 by Handango, the leading provider of mobile content. The company subsequently won the same award from Handango in 2006, 2007 and 2009. SPB Software went on to develop mobile apps for a variety of platforms and expanded its title lineup to include games, utility apps and mobile OS shells. SPB Software is now developing apps for all of the major mobile phone manufacturers. SPB Software also works with phone makers and mobile operators in various countries to develop customized versions of its software and optimized applications for particular devices.
Acquisition
On November 28, 2011 Bloomberg Businessweek reported that Yandex NV, operator of Russia’s most popular Internet search engine, acquired SPB Software "to expand mobile products and the use of its search capabilities on mobile devices." The CEO of SPB Software, Sebastian-Justus Schmidt, was appointed as EVP Mobile and General Manager by Yandex.
Products
SPB Shell 3D
SPB Shell 3D is developed and sold by SPB Software. A shell application allows users to customize the user interface of their phone and add features not offered by the original manufacturer, such as an enhanced address book features, phone dialing capabilities, calendar organizers and various utilities for configuring the mobile device. The shell application allows users to include more personalization and sometimes more precision in navigating the phone using gestures. The previous version called SPB Mobile Shell remained one of the most widely used and recognizable mobile OS shells in the world since its introduction in 2007.
In February 2010, SPB Software announced SPB Mobile Shell 5.0 for Android and Symbian operating systems. Major updates to the new version include a new 3D engine and improved social networking integration.
A customized version of SPB Mobile Shell was preinstalled on a number of devices by the world's leading manufacturers such as Acer, AnyDATA, Huawei, Genesis Skyworth, K-Touch, Mio, Pharos, RoverPC, Sony Ericsson, and Toshiba.
SPB TV
SPB TV is a subscription free mobile television viewer that allows users to tune into over 100 publicly available television channels in many languages, including English, Russian, German, French and Spanish and Thai, among others. SPB TV, which is available for Windows Mobile, Symbian, Bada, BlackBerry and Android mobile devices and for iOS as a free download. According to iPhone Life Magazine, the application supports must-have TV features, such as a TV browser with quick channel previews, an instantly accessible TV guide for all offered channels, quick channel switching and more. SPB TV supports picture-in-picture mode, TV guide integration with personal calendars and Outlook reminders and network bandwidth fluctuation support. SPB TV also supports Wi-Fi and high speed data networks. In February 2010 SPB released the SPB TV Mobile Operators Solution, a combination of server-side and client-side software allowing carriers to attach SPB TV their own infrastructure and subscription models. SPB TV Mobile Operators Solution supports iOS, Android, BlackBerry, Symbian, webOS, Windows Mobile and Feature phones (WAP version). SPB TV solution was deployed with 3 mobile operators - StarHub, MTS, MegaFon and Skylink.
Business, Communication, and Multimedia applications
SPB Migration Tool
SPB Traveler
SPB Wallet
SPB Wireless Monitor
SPB Time
SPB Weather
SPB News
SPB Radio
SPB TV
SPB Flash Cards
SPB Phone Suite
SPB Finance
Games
SPB Software has released an assortment of games for smartphones and mobile devices. SPB Brain Evolution was named the bestselling Windows Mobile game of 2008 and as the Best Casual Game of 2009 by the online mobile software store Handango. Brain Evolution is described on the Windows Mobile Marketplace site as an intellectual software game that helps to train the brain and improve memory, logic, arithmetic, and puzzle-solving skills.
Most popular SPB games:
SPB Brain Evolution
SPB Puzzle
SPB Quads
SPB Geo Game
SPB Online Games
Awards
2009 - Handango - Developer of the Year, SPB Software
2009 - Google Android Developer Challenge, SPB TV
2009 - Nokia Must-Have Entertainment App, SPB TV
2010 - Race To Market Challenge - Most Revenue Made by Paid Application, SPB Mobile Shell
2010 - Microsoft Mobility Solutions Partner of the Year Awards - Consumer Application, SPB Mobile Shell
2010 - CSI Awards 2010, Best mobile TV technology or service, SPB TV
2010 - Bada Developer Challenge Russia - SPB TV
2010 - Nokia's Calling All Innovators (Russia), SPB Mobile Shell
2010 - Smaato Mobile Advertising Award, SPB Mobile Shell for Symbian
2010 - "Best UX" award, Korean tech newspaper "IT Today", SPB Mobile Shell
2011 - M-Days, Show Your App Award, SPB TV for Android
2011 - Handster Award 2011, Overall Winner, SPB Shell 3D for Android
Partners
SPB Software works with phone makers and mobile operators such as Huawei, HTC, Toshiba, (now Fujitsu), ZTE, Starhub, O2, K-Touch, Megafon, Acer Inc., HP, Nokia, MTS, Swisscom in various countries providing customized versions of its software and optimized applications and for particular devices.
Headquarters
SPB Software's development headquarters are located in Saint-Petersburg, Russia. Financial Headquarters are located in Hong Kong.
The firm also has offices in USA, Brazil, Taiwan, and Thailand.
References
Software companies of Russia
Companies based in Saint Petersburg
Russian brands |
63983302 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matchbox%20Educable%20Noughts%20and%20Crosses%20Engine | Matchbox Educable Noughts and Crosses Engine | The Matchbox Educable Noughts and Crosses Engine (sometimes called the Machine Educable Noughts and Crosses Engine or MENACE) was a mechanical computer made from 304 matchboxes designed and built by artificial intelligence researcher Donald Michie in 1961. It was designed to play human opponents in games of noughts and crosses (tic-tac-toe) by returning a move for any given state of play and to refine its strategy through reinforcement learning.
Michie did not have a computer readily available, so he worked around this restriction by building it out of matchboxes. The matchboxes used by Michie each represented a single possible layout of a noughts and crosses grid. When the computer first played, it would randomly choose moves based on the current layout. As it played more games, through a reinforcement loop, it disqualified strategies that led to losing games, and supplemented strategies that led to winning games. Michie held a tournament against MENACE in 1961, wherein he experimented with different openings.
Following MENACE's maiden tournament against Michie, it demonstrated successful artificial intelligence in its strategy. Michie's essays on MENACE's weight initialisation and the BOXES algorithm used by MENACE became popular in the field of computer science research. Michie was honoured for his contribution to machine learning research, and was twice commissioned to program a MENACE simulation on an actual computer.
Origin
Donald Michie (1923–2007) had been on the team decrypting the German Tunny Code during World War II. Fifteen years later, he wanted to further display his mathematical and computational prowess with an early convolutional neural network. Since computer equipment was not obtainable for such uses, and Michie did not have a computer readily available, he decided to display and demonstrate artificial intelligence in a more esoteric format and constructed a functional mechanical computer out of matchboxes and beads.
MENACE was constructed as the result of a bet with a computer science colleague who postulated that such a machine was impossible. Michie undertook the task of collecting and defining each matchbox as a 'fun project', later turned into a demonstration tool. Michie completed his essay on MENACE in 1963, "Experiments on the mechanization of game-learning", as well as his essay on the BOXES Algorithm, written with R. A. Chambers and had built up an AI research unit in Hope Park Square, Edinburgh, Scotland.
MENACE "learned" by playing increasing matches of noughts and crosses. Each time, it would eliminate a losing strategy by the human player confiscating the beads that corresponded to each move. It reinforced winning strategies by making the moves more likely, by supplying extra beads. This was one of the earliest versions of the Reinforcement Loop, the schematic algorithm of looping the algorithm, dropping unsuccessful strategies until only the winning ones remain. This model starts as completely random, and gradually learns.
Composition
MENACE was made from 304 matchboxes glued together in an arrangement similar to a chest of drawers. Each box had a code number, which was keyed into a chart. This chart had drawings of tic-tac-toe game grids with various configurations of X's, O's and empty squares, corresponding to all possible permutations a game could go through as it progressed. After removing duplicate arrangements (ones that were simply rotations or mirror images of other configurations), MENACE used 304 permutations in its chart and thus that many matchboxes.
Each individual matchbox tray contained a collection of coloured beads. Each colour represented a move on a square on the game grid, and so matchboxes with arrangements where positions on the grid were already taken would not have beads for that position. Additionally, at the front of the tray were two extra pieces of card in a "V" shape, the point of the "V" pointing at the front of the matchbox. Michie and his artificial intelligence team called MENACE's algorithm "Boxes", after the apparatus used for the machine. The first stage "Boxes" operated in five phases, each setting a definition and a precedent for the rules of the algorithm in relation to the game.
Operation
MENACE played first, as O, since all matchboxes represented permutations only relevant to the "X" player. To retrieve MENACE's choice of move, the opponent or operator located the matchbox that matched the current game state, or a rotation or mirror image of it. For example, at the start of a game, this would be the matchbox for an empty grid. The tray would be removed and lightly shaken so as to move the beads around. Then, the bead that had rolled into the point of the "V" shape at the front of the tray was the move MENACE had chosen to make. Its colour was then used as the position to play on, and, after accounting for any rotations or flips needed based on the chosen matchbox configuration's relation to the current grid, the O would be placed on that square. Then the player performed their move, the new state was located, a new move selected, and so on, until the game was finished.
When the game had finished, the human player observed the game's outcome. As a game was played, each matchbox that was used for MENACE's turn had its tray returned to it ajar, and the bead used kept aside, so that MENACE's choice of moves and the game states they belonged to were recorded. Michie described his reinforcement system with "reward" and "punishment". Once the game was finished, if MENACE had won, it would then receive a "reward" for its victory. The removed beads showed the sequence of the winning moves. These were returned to their respective trays, easily identifiable since they were slightly open, as well as three bonus beads of the same colour. In this way, in future games MENACE would become more likely to repeat those winning moves, reinforcing winning strategies. If it lost, the removed beads were not returned, "punishing" MENACE, and meaning that in future it would be less likely, and eventually incapable if that colour of bead became absent, to repeat the moves that cause a loss. If the game was a draw, one additional bead was added to each box.
Results in practice
Optimal strategy
Noughts and crosses has a well-known optimal strategy. A player must place their symbol in a way that blocks the other player from achieving any rows while simultaneously making a row themself. However, if both players use this strategy, the game always ends in a draw. If the human player is familiar with the optimal strategy, and MENACE can quickly learn it, then the games will eventually only end in draws. The likelihood of the computer winning increases quickly when the computer plays against a random-playing opponent.
When playing against a player using optimal strategy, the odds of a draw grow to 100%. In Donald Michie's official tournament against MENACE in 1961 he used optimal strategy, and he and the computer began to draw consistently after twenty games. Michie's tournament had the following milestones: Michie began by consistently opening with "Variant 0", the middle square. At 15 games, MENACE abandoned all non-corner openings. At just over 20, Michie switched to consistently using "Variant 1", the bottom-right square. At 60, he returned to Variant 0. As he neared 80 games, he moved to "Variant 2", the top-middle. At 110, he switched to "Variant 3", the top right. At 135, he switched to "Variant 4", middle-right. At 190, he returned to Variant 1, and at 210, he returned to Variant 0.
The trend in changes of beads in the "2" boxes runs:
Correlation
Depending on the strategy employed by the human player, MENACE produces a different trend on scatter graphs of wins. Using a random turn from the human player results in an almost-perfect positive trend. Playing the optimal strategy returns a slightly slower increase. The reinforcement does not create a perfect standard of wins; the algorithm will draw random uncertain conclusions each time. After the j-th round, the correlation of near-perfect play runs:
Where Vi is the outcome (+1 is win, 0 is draw and -1 is loss) and D is the decay factor (average of past values of wins and losses). Below, Mn is the multiplier for the n-th round of the game.
Legacy
Donald Michie's MENACE proved that a computer could "learn" from failure and success to become good at a task. It used what would become core principles within the field of machine learning before they had been properly theorised. For example, the combination of how MENACE starts with equal numbers of types of beads in each matchbox, and how these are then selected at random, creates a learning behaviour similar to weight initialisation in modern artificial neural networks. In 1968, Donald Michie and R.A Chambers made another "BOXES"-based algorithm called GLEE, (Game Learning Expectimaxing Engine) which had to learn how to balance a pole on a cart.
After the resounding reception of MENACE, Michie was invited to the US Office of Naval Research, where he was commissioned to build a "Boxes"-running program for an IBM Computer for use at Stanford University. Michie created a simulation program of MENACE on a Pegasus 2 computer with the aid of D. Martin. There have been multiple recreations of MENACE in more recent years, both in its original physical form and as a computer program. Its algorithm was later converged into Christopher Watkin's Q-Learning algorithm. Although not as a functional computer, in examples of demonstration, MENACE has been used as a teaching aid for various neural network classes, including a public demonstration from Cambridge Researcher Matthew Scroggs. A copy of MENACE built by Scroggs was featured in the 2019 Royal Institution Christmas Lectures.
See also
Hexapawn
References
Sources
The BOXES Methodology, a book on the "Boxes" algorithm employed by MENACE.
BOXES: An Experiment in Adaptive Control, Michie and R.A Chambers' paper on the AI implications of BOXES and MENACE.
External links
Online simulation of MENACE
Machine learning
Artificial intelligence
Mechanical computers |
40179755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin%20Andresen | Gavin Andresen | Gavin Andresen (born Gavin Bell) is a software developer best known for his involvement with bitcoin. He is based in Amherst, Massachusetts.
Originally a developer of 3D graphics and virtual reality software, Andresen became involved in developing products for the bitcoin market in 2010, and was declared by Satoshi Nakamoto as the lead developer of the reference implementation for bitcoin client software after Nakamoto announced their departure. In 2012 Andresen founded the Bitcoin Foundation to support and nurture the development of the bitcoin currency, and by 2014 left his software development role to concentrate on his work with the Foundation.
Career
Andresen graduated from Princeton University in 1988. He began his career working on 3D graphics software at Silicon Graphics Computer Systems. In 1996, he co-authored the VRML 2.0 specification, and later published a reference manual for VRML 2.0.
Since leaving Silicon Valley in 1996, Andresen has tackled a wide variety of software-related ventures, including CTO of an early Voice over IP startup and co-founder of a company that made multiplayer online games for blind people and their sighted friends.
Bitcoin
Andresen was the lead developer for a part of the bitcoin digital currency project, working to create a secure, stable "cash for the Internet." Andresen discovered bitcoin in 2010, considering its design to be brilliant. Soon after he created a website named The Bitcoin Faucet which gave away bitcoin. In April 2011, Forbes quoted Andresen as saying, "Bitcoin is designed to bring us back to a decentralized currency of the people," and "this is like better gold than gold." After joining the developers contributing to Bitcoin along with Satoshi Nakamoto, he went on to become lead developer of the client software for the bitcoin network. He stepped back as lead maintainer in 2014.
Andresen also created ClearCoin, an escrow-type of service, which was closed on about June 23, 2011. After several years working on the software, Andresen left the role of lead developer of bitcoin to work on the strategic development of its technology. He conceived of the Bitcoin Foundation which became reality in 2012.
In May 2016 Andresen stated that the Australian programmer and entrepreneur Craig Wright was Nakamoto, but later expressed regret getting involved in the "'who was Satoshi' game."
Andresen has not contributed to Bitcoin since February 2016. He had become critical of the failure of bitcoin developers to increase network capacity, and helped put together Bitcoin XT as alternative software. His commit access to Bitcoin Core on GitHub was revoked in May 2016 after stating Wright was Satoshi Nakamoto. In November 2017, Andresen expressed support for rival currency Bitcoin Cash, stating "Bitcoin Cash is what I started working on in 2010".
References
People from Amherst, Massachusetts
People associated with Bitcoin
Princeton University alumni
Living people
People associated with cryptocurrency
American computer programmers
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people) |
43279356 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Target%20Corporation | History of Target Corporation | The history of Target Corporation first began in 1902 by George Dayton. The company was originally named Goodfellow Dry Goods in June 1902 before being renamed the Dayton's Dry Goods Company in 1903 and later the Dayton Company in 1910. The first Target store opened in Roseville, Minnesota in 1962 while the parent company was renamed the Dayton Corporation in 1967. It became the Dayton-Hudson Corporation after merging with the J.L. Hudson Company in 1969 and held ownership of several department store chains including Dayton's, Hudson's, Marshall Field's, and Mervyn's. In 2000, the Dayton-Hudson Corporation was renamed to Target Corporation.
1902–61: Dayton Company
The Westminster Presbyterian Church in downtown Minneapolis burned down during the Panic of 1893; the church was looking for revenue because insurance would not cover the cost of a new building. Its congregation appealed to George Dayton, an active parishioner, to purchase the empty corner lot adjacent to the original church’s so it could rebuild; he eventually constructed a six-story building on the newly purchased property. Looking for tenants, Dayton convinced the Reuben Simon Goodfellow Company to move its nearby Goodfellows department store into the newly erected building in 1902, although its owner retired altogether and sold his interest in the store to Dayton. The store was renamed the Dayton Dry Goods Company in 1903, and was shortened to the Dayton Company in 1910. Having maintained connections as banker yet lacking previous retail experience, Dayton operated the company as a family enterprise over which he held tight control and enforced strict Presbyterian guidelines. Consequently, the store forbade the selling of alcohol, refused to advertise in newspapers that sponsored liquor ads, and would not allow any kind of business activity on Sundays. In 1918, Dayton, who gave away most of his money to charity, founded the Dayton Foundation with $1 million.
By the 1920s, the Dayton Company was a multimillion-dollar business and filled the entire six-story building. Dayton began transferring parts of the business to his son Nelson after an earlier 43-year-old son David died in 1923. The company made its first expansion with the acquisition of the Minneapolis-based jeweler J.B. Hudson & Son right before the Wall Street Crash of 1929; its jewelry store operated in a net loss during the Great Depression, but its department store weathered the economic crisis. Dayton died in 1938 and was succeeded by his son Nelson as the president of the $14 million business, who maintained the strict Presbyterian guidelines and conservative management style of his father. Throughout World War II, Nelson Dayton's managers focused on keeping the store stocked, which led to an increase in revenue. When the War Production Board initiated its scrap metal drives, Dayton donated the electric sign on the department store to the local scrap metal heap. In 1944, it offered its workers retirement benefits, becoming one of the first stores in the United States to do so, and began offering a comprehensive health insurance policy in 1950. In 1946, the business started contributing 5% of its taxable income to the Dayton Foundation.
Nelson Dayton was replaced as president by his son Donald after his death in 1950; he ran the company alongside four of his cousins instead of under a single person, and replaced the Presbyterian guidelines with a more secular approach. It began selling alcohol and operating on Sundays, and favored a more radical, aggressive, innovative, costly, and expansive management style. The company acquired the Portland, Oregon-based Lipman's department store company during the 1950s and operated it as a separate division. In 1956, the Dayton Company opened Southdale Center, a two-level shopping center in the Minneapolis suburb of Edina. Because there were only 113 good shopping days in a year in Minneapolis, the architect built the mall under a cover, making it the world's first fully enclosed shopping mall. The Dayton Company became a retail chain with the opening of its second department store in Southdale.
1962–75: Founding of Target
While working for the Dayton company, John F. Geisse developed the concept of upscale discount retailing. On May 1, 1962, the Dayton Company, using Geisse's concepts, opened its first Target discount store located at 1515 West County Road B in the Saint Paul suburb of Roseville, Minnesota. The name "Target" originated from Dayton's publicity director, Stewart K. Widdess, and was intended to prevent consumers from associating the new discount store chain with the department store. Douglas Dayton served as the first president of Target. The new subsidiary ended its first year with four units, all in Minnesota. Target Stores lost money in its initial years but reported its first gain in 1965, with sales reaching $39 million, allowing a fifth store to open in the Minneapolis suburb of Bloomington, Minnesota. By 1964 Dayton's was the second-largest privately owned department store chain in the country.
In 1966, Bruce Dayton launched the B. Dalton Bookseller specialty chain as a Dayton Company subsidiary. Target Stores expanded outside of Minnesota by opening two stores in Denver, and sales exceeded $60 million. The first store built in Colorado in 1966, and the first outside of Minnesota, is located in Glendale, Colorado and is part of Denver Metropolitan area. The store was upgraded to a SuperTarget in 2003 and is still open. The next year, the Dayton holdings were reorganized as Dayton Corporation, and it went public with its first offering of common stock. It opened two more Target stores in Minnesota, resulting in a total of nine units. It acquired the San Francisco-based jeweler Shreve & Co., which it merged with previously acquired J.B. Hudson & Son to become Dayton Jewelers.
In 1968, Target changed its bullseye logo to a more modern look, and expanded into St. Louis, Missouri, with two new stores. Target's president, Douglas J. Dayton, went back to the parent Dayton Corporation and was succeeded by William A. Hodder, and senior vice president and founder John Geisse left the company. Geisse was later hired by St. Louis-based May Department Stores, where he founded the Venture Stores chain. Target Stores ended the year with 11 units and $130 million in sales. It acquired the Los Angeles-based Pickwick Book Shops and merged it into B. Dalton Bookseller.
In 1969, the company acquired the Boston-based Lechmere electronics and appliances chain that operated in New England, and the Philadelphia-based jewelry chain J.E. Caldwell. It expanded Target Stores into Texas and Oklahoma with six new units and built its first distribution center in Fridley, Minnesota. The Dayton Company merged with the Detroit-based J.L. Hudson Company that year, to become the Dayton-Hudson Corporation, the 14th largest retailer in the United States, consisting of Target and five major department store chains: Dayton's, Diamond's of Phoenix, Arizona, Hudson's, John A. Brown of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, and Lipman's. The company offered Dayton-Hudson stock on the New York Stock Exchange. The Dayton Foundation changed its name to the Dayton Hudson Foundation, and Dayton-Hudson maintained its 5% donation of its taxable income to the foundation.
In 1970, Target Stores added seven new units, including two units in Wisconsin, and the 24-unit chain reached $200 million in sales. Dayton-Hudson said at the time that they could forecast their discount store operations overshadowing their department store revenue in the near future. Dayton-Hudson acquired the Team Electronics specialty chain that was headed by Stephen L. Pistner. It acquired the Chicago-based jeweler C.D. Peacock, Inc., and the San Diego-based jeweler J. Jessop and Sons. Also in 1970 Dayton-Hudson purchased Ronzone's in Las Vegas, Nevada, to be converted to a Diamond's store. Dayton-Hudson announces in January 1970 they will be one of the tenants of the IDS Center, the first modern era skyscraper built in Minneapolis, Minnesota, which would be their headquarters until 2000. In 1971, Dayton-Hudson acquired sixteen stores from the Arlan's department store chain in Colorado, Iowa, and Oklahoma. Two of those units reopened as Target stores that year. Dayton-Hudson's sales across all its chains surpassed $1 billion, with the Target chain only contributing a fraction to it. In 1972, the other fourteen units from the Arlan's acquisition were reopened as Target stores to make a total of 46 units. As a result of its rapid expansion and the top executives' lack of experience in discount retailing, the chain reported its first decrease in profits since its initial years. Its loss in operational revenue was due to overstocking and carrying goods over multiple years regardless of inventory and storage costs. By then, Dayton-Hudson considered selling off the Target Stores subsidiary. Dayton-Hudson acquired two Twin Cities mail order firms in 1972, Sibley and Consolidated Merchandising. In 1973, Stephen Pistner, who had already revived Team Electronics and would later work for Montgomery Ward and Ames, was named chief executive officer of Target Stores, and Kenneth A. Macke was named Target Stores' senior vice president. The new management marked down merchandise to clean out its overstock and allowed only one new unit to open that year.
1975–81: Early prosperity
In 1975, Target opened two stores, reaching 49 units in nine states and $511 million in sales. That year, the Target discount chain became Dayton-Hudson's top revenue producer. In 1976 Dayton-Hudson was the eighth largest retailer in the U.S., and Target opened four new units and reached $600 million in sales. Macke was promoted to president and chief executive officer of Target Stores. Inspired by the Dayton Hudson Foundation, the Minneapolis Chamber of Commerce started the 5% Club (now known as the Minnesota Keystone Program), which honored companies that donated 5% of their taxable incomes to charities. In 1977, Target Stores opened seven new units and Stephen Pistner became president of Dayton-Hudson, with Macke succeeding him as chairman and chief executive officer of Target Stores. The senior vice president of Dayton-Hudson, Bruce G. Allbright, moved to Target Stores and succeeded Kenneth Macke as president. In 1978, the company acquired Mervyn's and became the 7th largest general merchandise retailer in the United States. Target Stores opened eight new stores that year, including its first shopping mall anchor store in Grand Forks, North Dakota. In 1979, it opened 13 new units to a total of 80 Target stores in eleven states. Dayton-Hudson reached $3 billion in sales, with $1.12 billion coming from the Target store chain alone.
Dayton-Hudson sold its nine owned shopping centers in 1978 to Equitable Life Assurance Company, including the 5 owned in Michigan, and the 4 "Dales" shopping centers they developed and owned in Minnesota. In 1980, Dayton-Hudson sold its Lipman's department store chain of six units to Marshall Field's, which rebranded the stores as Frederick & Nelson. That year, Target Stores opened seventeen new units, including expansions into Tennessee and Kansas. It acquired the Ayr-Way discount retail chain of 40 stores and one distribution center from Indianapolis-based L.S. Ayres & Company. In 1981 Dayton-Hudson sold its interest in four regional shopping centers, again, to Equitable Life Assurance Company. Also in 1981, it reopened the stores acquired in the Ayr-Way acquisition as Target stores. Stephen Pistner left the parent company to join Montgomery Ward, and Kenneth Macke succeeded him as president of Dayton-Hudson. Floyd Hall succeeded Kenneth Macke as chairman and chief executive officer of Target Stores. Bruce Allbright left the company to work for Woolworth, where he was named chairman and chief executive officer of Woolco. Bob Ulrich became president and chief executive officer of Diamond's Department Stores. In addition to the Ayr-Way acquisition, Target Stores expanded by opening fourteen new units and a third distribution center in Little Rock, Arkansas, to a total of 151 units and $2.05 billion in sales.
1982–99: Nationwide expansion
Since the launch of Target Stores, the company had focused its expansion in the central United States. In 1982, it expanded into the West Coast market by acquiring 33 FedMart stores in Arizona, California, and Texas and opening a fourth distribution center in Los Angeles. Bruce Allbright returned to Target Stores as its vice chairman and chief administrative officer, and the chain expanded to 167 units and $2.41 billion in sales. It sold the Dayton-Hudson Jewelers subsidiary to Henry Birks & Sons of Montreal. In 1983, Kenneth Dayton, the last Dayton family member to work for Dayton-Hudson retired. Also in 1983, the 33 units acquired from FedMart were reopened as Target stores. It founded the Plums off-price apparel specialty store chain with four units in the Los Angeles area, with an intended audience of middle-to-upper income women. In 1984, it sold its Plums chain to Ross Stores after only 11 months of operation, and it sold its Diamond's and John A. Brown department store chains to Dillard's. Meanwhile, Target Stores added nine new units to a total of 215 stores and $3.55 billion in sales. Floyd Hall left the company and Bruce Allbright succeeded him as chairman and chief executive officer of Target Stores. In May 1984, Bob Ulrich became president of the Dayton-Hudson Department Store Division, and in December 1984 became president of Target Stores. In 1986, the company acquired fifty Gemco stores from Lucky Stores in California and Arizona, which made Target Stores the dominant retailer in Southern California, as the chain grew to a total of 246 units. It opened a fifth distribution center in Pueblo, Colorado. Dayton-Hudson sold the B. Dalton Bookseller chain of several hundred units to Barnes & Noble. At this time, Dayton-Hudson Corporation also started a housewares chain called R. G. Branden's, but this operation was unsuccessful.
In 1987, the acquired Gemco units reopened as Target units, and Target Stores expanded into Michigan and Nevada, including six new units in Detroit, Michigan, to compete directly against Detroit-based Kmart, leading to a total of 317 units in 24 states and $5.3 billion in sales. Bruce Allbright became president of Dayton-Hudson, and Bob Ulrich succeeded him as chairman and chief executive officer of Target Stores. The Dart Group attempted a takeover bid by aggressively buying its stock. Kenneth Macke proposed six amendments to Minnesota's 1983 anti-takeover law, and his proposed amendments were passed that summer by the state's legislature. This prevented the Dart Group from being able to call for a shareholders' meeting for the purpose of electing a board that would favor Dart if their bid were to turn hostile. Dart originally offered $65 a share, and then raised its offer to $68. The stock market crash of October 1987 ended Dart's attempt to take over the company, when Dayton-Hudson stock fell to $28.75 a share the day the market crashed. Dart's move is estimated to have resulted in an after-tax loss of about $70 million. In 1988, Target Stores expanded into the Northwestern United States by opening eight units in Washington and three in Oregon, to a total of 341 units in 27 states. It opened a distribution center in Sacramento, California, and replaced the existing distribution center in Indianapolis, Indiana, from the Ayr-Way acquisition with a new one.
In 1989, it expanded by 60 units, especially in the Southeastern United States where it entered Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, to a total of 399 units in 30 states with $7.51 billion in sales. This included an acquisition of 31 more stores from Federated Department Stores' Gold Circle and Richway chains in Florida, Georgia, and North Carolina, which were later reopened as Target stores. It sold its Lechmere chain that year to a group of investors including Berkshire Partners, a leveraged buy-out firm based in Boston, Massachusetts, eight Lechmere executives, and two local shopping mall executives.
In 1990, it acquired Marshall Field's from Batus Inc., and Target Stores opened its first Target Greatland general merchandise superstore in Apple Valley, Minnesota. By 1991, Target Stores had opened 43 Target Greatland units, and sales reached $9.01 billion. In 1992, it created a short-lived chain of apparel specialty stores called Everyday Hero with two stores in Minneapolis. They attempted to compete against other apparel specialty stores such as Gap by offering private label apparel such as its Merona brand. In 1993, it created a chain of closeout stores called Smarts for liquidating clearance merchandise, such as private label apparel, that did not appeal to typical closeout chains that were only interested in national brands. It operated four Smarts units out of former Target stores in Rancho Cucamonga, California, Des Moines, Iowa, El Paso, Texas, and Indianapolis, Indiana, that each closed out merchandise in nearby distribution centers. In 1994, Kenneth Macke left the company, and Bob Ulrich succeeded him as the new chairman and CEO of Dayton-Hudson. In 1995, Target Stores opened its first SuperTarget hypermarket in Omaha, Nebraska. It closed the four Smarts units after only two years of operation. Its store count increased to 670 with $15.7 billion in sales. It launched the Target Guest Card, the discount retail industry's first store credit card.
In 1996, J.C. Penney Company, Inc., the fifth-largest retailer in the United States, offered to buy out Dayton-Hudson, the fourth largest retailer, for $6.82 billion. The offer, which most analysts considered as insufficiently valuing the company, was rebuffed by Dayton-Hudson, saying it preferred to remain independent. Target Stores increased its store count to 736 units in 38 states with $17.8 billion in sales, and remained the company's main area of growth while the other two department store subsidiaries underperformed. The middle scale Mervyn's department store chain consisted of 300 units in 16 states, while the upscale Department Stores Division operated 26 Marshall Field's, 22 Hudson's, and 19 Dayton's stores. In 1997, both of the Everyday Hero stores were closed. Target's store count rose to 796 units, and sales rose to $20.2 billion. In an effort to turn the department store chains around, Mervyn's closed 35 units, including all of its stores in Florida and Georgia. Marshall Field's sold all of its stores in Texas and closed its store in Milwaukee.
In 1998, Dayton-Hudson acquired Greenspring Company's multi-catalog direct marketing unit, Rivertown Trading Company, from Minnesota Communications Group, and it acquired the Associated Merchandising Corporation, an apparel supplier. Target Stores grew to 851 units and $23.0 billion in sales. The Target Guest Card program had registered nine million accounts.
In 1999, Dayton-Hudson acquired Fedco and its ten stores in a move to expand its SuperTarget operation into Southern California. It reopened six of these stores under the Target brand and sold the other four locations to Wal-Mart, Home Depot, and the Ontario Police Department, and its store count rose to 912 units in 44 states with sales reaching $26.0 billion. Revenue for Dayton-Hudson increased to $33.7 billion, and net income reached $1.14 billion, passing $1 billion for the first time and nearly tripling the 1996 profits of $463 million. This increase in profit was due mainly to the Target chain, which Ulrich had focused on making feature high-quality products for low prices. On September 7, 1999, the company relaunched its Target.com website as an e-commerce site as part of its discount retail division. The site initially offered merchandise that differentiated its stores from its competitors, such as its Michael Graves brand.
2000–11: Target Corporation
In January 2000, Dayton-Hudson Corporation changed its name to Target Corporation and its ticker symbol to TGT; by then, between 75 percent and 80 percent of the corporation's total sales and earnings came from Target Stores, while the other four chains—Dayton's, Hudson's, Marshall Field's, and Mervyn's—were used to fuel the growth of the discount chain, which expanded to 977 stores in 46 states and sales reached $29.7 billion by the end of the year. It separated its e-commerce operations from its retailing division, and combined it with its Rivertown Trading unit into a stand-alone subsidiary called target.direct. It started offering the Target Visa, as consumer trends were moving more towards third-party Visa and MasterCards and away from private-label cards such as the Target Guest Card.
In 2001, it launched its online gift registry, and in preparation for this, it wanted to operate its upscale Department Stores Division, consisting of 19 Dayton's, 21 Hudson's, and 24 Marshall Field's stores, under a unified department store name. It announced in January that it was renaming its Dayton's and Hudson's stores to Marshall Field's. The name was chosen for multiple reasons: out of the three, Marshall Field's was the most recognizable name in the Department Stores Division, its base in Chicago was bigger than Dayton's base in Minneapolis and Hudson's base in Detroit, Chicago was a major travel hub, and it was the largest chain of the three. Target Stores expanded into Maine, reaching 1,053 units in 47 states and $33.0 billion in sales. Around the same time, the chain made a successful expansion into the Pittsburgh market, where Target capitalized on the collapse of Ames Department Stores that coincidentally happened at the same time as Target's expansion into the area.
In 2002, it expanded to 1,147 units, which included stores in San Leandro, Fremont, and Hayward, California, and sales reached $37.4 billion. Most of those locations replaced former Montgomery Ward locations, which closed in 2001. In 2003, Target reached 1,225 units and $42.0 billion in sales. Despite the growth of the discount retailer, neither Marshall Field's nor Mervyn's were adding to its store count, and their earnings were consistently declining. Marshall Field's sold two of its stores in Columbus, Ohio, this year. On June 9, 2004, Target Corporation announced its sale of the Marshall Field's chain to St. Louis-based May Department Stores, which would become effective July 31, 2004. As well, on July 21, 2004, Target Corporation announced the $1.65 billion sale of Mervyn's to an investment consortium including Sun Capital Partners, Cerberus Capital Management, and Lubert-Adler/Klaff and Partners, L.P., which was finalized September 2. Target Stores expanded to 1,308 units and reached US$46.8 billion in sales. In 2005, Target began operation of an overseas technology office in Bangalore, India. It reached 1,397 units and $52.6 billion in sales. In February 2005, Target Corporation took a $65 million charge to change the way it accounted for leases, which would reconcile the way Target depreciated its buildings and calculated rent expense. The adjustment included $10 million for 2004 and $55 million for prior years.
In 2006, Target completed construction of the Robert J. Ulrich Center in Embassy Golf Links in Bangalore, and Target planned to continue its expansion into India with the construction of additional office space at the Mysore Corporate Campus and successfully opened a branch at Mysore. It expanded to 1,488 units, and sales reached $59.4 billion. On January 9, 2008, Bob Ulrich announced his plans to retire as CEO, and named Gregg Steinhafel as his successor. Ulrich's retirement was due to Target Corporation policy requiring its high-ranking officers to retire at the age of 65. While his retirement as CEO was effective May 1, he remained the chairman of the board until the end of the 2008 fiscal year. On March 4, 2009, Target expanded outside of the continental United States for the first time. Two stores were opened simultaneously on the island of Oahu in Hawaii, along with two stores in Alaska. Despite the economic downturn, media reports indicated sizable crowds and brisk sales. The opening of the Hawaii stores left Vermont as the only state in which Target did not operate. In June 2010, Target announced its goal to give $1 billion to education causes and charities by 2015. Target School Library Makeovers is a featured program in this initiative. In August 2010, after a "lengthy wind-down", Target began a nationwide closing of its remaining 262 garden centers, reportedly due to "stronger competition from home-improvement stores, Walmart and independent garden centers". In September 2010, numerous Target locations began adding a fresh produce department to their stores.
In 2007, Target built its first food distribution center in Lake City, Florida, which opened in 2008.
2011–2015: Initiatives, Canada and Data Breach
On January 22, 2014, Target "informed workers that it is terminating 475 positions at its offices globally." On March 5, 2014, Target Corp.'s Chief Information Officer Beth Jacob resigned, having been in the role since 2008; this is thought to be due to the company's overhaul of its information security systems.
On June 15, 2015, CVS Health announced its agreement to acquire Target's pharmacy and retail clinic businesses. The deal expanded CVS to new markets in Seattle, Denver, Portland and Salt Lake City. The acquisition includes more than 1,660 pharmacies in 47 states. CVS will operate them through a store-within-a-store format. Target's nearly 80 clinic locations will be rebranded as MinuteClinic, and CVS plans to open up to 20 new clinics in their stores within three years.
In July 2015, the company opened Target Open House, a retail space in San Francisco that shows connected home products which can purchased at select Target stores. The space, located in the Metreon Shopping Center, adopts the same layout as a house so it can show real world use cases for the showcased products. In addition, the space hosts interviews with company founders which have their products on display at the store.
Target Canada
On January 13, 2011, Target announced its expansion into Canada, when it purchased the leaseholds for up to 220 stores of the Canadian sale chain Zellers, owned by the Hudson's Bay Company. The deal was announced to have been made for 1.8 billion dollars. The company stated that they aimed to provide Canadians with a "true Target-brand experience", hinting that its product selection in Canada would vary little from that found in its United States stores.
Target opened its first Canadian stores in March, 2013, and at its peak, Target Canada had 133 stores. However, the expansion into Canada was beset with problems, including supply chain issues that resulted in stores with aisles of empty shelves and higher-than-expected retail prices. Target Canada racked up losses of $2.1 billion in its short life, and the store's botched expansion was characterized by the Canadian and US media as a "spectacular failure", "an unmitigated disaster", and "a gold standard case study in what retailers should not do when they enter a new market."
On January 15, 2015, Target announced that all 133 of its Canadian outlets would be closed and liquidated by the end of 2015. The last Target Canada stores closed on April 12, 2015, far ahead of the initial schedule.
2013 security breach
On December 18, 2013, security expert Brian Krebs broke news that Target was investigating a major data breach "potentially involving millions of customer credit and debit card records." On December 19, Target confirmed the incident via a press release, revealing that the hack took place between November 27 and December 15, 2013. Target warned that up to 40 million consumer credit and debit cards may have been compromised. Hackers gained access to customer names, card numbers, expiration dates, and CVV security codes of the cards issued by financial institutions. On December 27, Target disclosed that debit card PIN data had also been stolen, albeit in encrypted form, reversing an earlier stance that PIN data was not part of the breach. Target noted that the accessed PIN numbers were encrypted using Triple DES and has stated the PINs remain "safe and secure" due to the encryption. On January 10, 2014, Target disclosed that the names, mailing addresses, phone numbers or email addresses of up to 70 million additional people had also been stolen, bringing the possible number of customers affected up to 110 million.
According to Bloomberg Businessweek, Target's computer security team was notified of the breach via the FireEye security service they employed, had ample time to disrupt the theft of credit cards and other customer data, but did not act to prevent theft from being carried out.
Target encouraged customers who shopped at its US stores (online orders were not affected) during the specified timeframe to closely monitor their credit and debit cards for irregular activity. The retailer confirmed that it is working with law enforcement, including the United States Secret Service, "to bring those responsible to justice." The data breach has been called the second-largest retail cyber attack in history, and has been compared to the 2009 non-retail Heartland Payment Systems compromise, which affected 130 million credit cards, and to the 2007 retail TJX Companies compromise, which affected 90 million people. As an apology to the public, all Target stores in the United States gave retail shoppers a 10% storewide discount for the weekend of December 21–22, 2013. Target has offered free credit monitoring via Experian to affected customers.
Target reported total transactions for the same time last year were down 3-4%, as of December 23, 2013.
According to TIME Magazine, a 17-year-old Russian teen was suspected to be the author of the Point of Sale (POS) malware program, "BlackPOS", which was used by others to attack unpatched Windows computers used at Target. The teen denied the allegation.
Later, a 23-year-old Russian, Rinat Shabayev, claimed to be the malware author.
On January 29, 2014, a Target spokeswoman said that the individual(s) who hacked its customers' data had stolen credentials from a store vendor, but did not elaborate on which vendor or which credentials were taken.
As the fallout of the data breach continued, on March 6, 2014, Target announced the resignation of its Chief Information Officer and an overhaul of its information security practices. In a further step to restore faith in customers, the company advised that it will look externally for appointments to both the CIO role and a new Chief Compliance Officer role.
On May 5, 2014, Target announced the resignation of its chief executive officer, Gregg Steinhafel. Analysts speculated that the data breach, as well as the financial losses caused by over-aggressive Canadian expansion, contributed to his departure.
2016–present
On October 2, 2017, Target announced a new online order service, known as Drive Up, which allows guests to order merchandise online for pickup outside the store. Guests hit the 'I'm on My Way' button when they are en route to their store. They pull into designated parking spots out front, and soon a Target team member comes out to greet them with their order.
On October 19, 2017, Target announced that they will be opening a small-format store and their first store in Vermont in the University Mall in South Burlington in October 2018. The store replaced the former Bon-Ton (originally Almy's and later Steinbach), which closed in January 2018.
In December 2017, Target announced the corporation's intention to purchase Shipt, an internet-based grocery delivery service for a reported $550 million. The acquisition is intended to help same-day delivery and to better compete with Amazon. Target announced in February 2018 that it would shift its sales model for compact discs, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs to provide them solely on a contingency basis, citing reduced physical media sales in favor of digital downloads and streaming.
In May 2018, according to YouGov ratings was Target determined to be the most popular department store in America. Target was rated 69% positive opinions by America, and 99% of people have heard of it. Women had a 74% positive opinion towards Target and men had 65%.
On a weekend in June 2019, at a large number of Target stores in the U.S., "On Saturday ... shoppers experienced a systems outage that shut down the card readers at check-out registers for close to two hours. On Sunday, there were additional spot outages that the company says were unrelated to Saturday’s problems." Another—although much shorter—checkout register crash happened in 2013, on the same date as the Saturday crash.
In September 2019, Target announced its new rewards program, Target Circle, would be coming to all Target stores on October 6, 2019. In conjunction, the name of the store's credit and debit card was announced to be changed from "Target REDcard" to "Target RedCard." At its debut, Target Circle allows for shoppers to earn 1% back in rewards to use on a future purchase, except when a Target RedCard is used. Target RedCard holders continue to save an instant 5% on their total but now earn votes from a purchase with Target Circle to use on deciding where Target gives its 5% back in the community. The Target Circle rewards program does not use a physical card, but can be used by presenting the Target Wallet in the Target App or by entering a mobile phone number at checkout.
On August 25, 2019, Target and The Walt Disney Company announced a partnership to have a Disney Store in several Target locations. The Disney Store at Target locations have a "shop-in-shop" layout with an average square feet of 750. Tru Kids and Target also announced a partnership on October 8, 2019, to relaunch the website of Toys "R" Us Toysrus.com. When a customer goes on Toysrus.com to purchase a product it is redirected to Target.com to complete the order. The website allows Toys "R" Us to have an online presence, after bankruptcy, and at the same time adds a boost to Target's sales in toys.
On March 13, 2020, Brian Cornell (CEO) took part in Former President Trump's address on the COVID-19 pandemic. Target, along with competitors Walmart, CVS Pharmacy, and Walgreens, would take part in using their stores for testing of COVID-19. On July 16, 2020, Target joined other major retailers in requiring all customers to wear masks in its U.S. stores.
On March 14, 2021, a Target on 1249 Simpson Avenue in Salt Lake City, Utah opened, which replaced an old Nordstrom Rack that moved into a building that used to be a Toys R Us at the Sugarhouse Shopping Centre that closed in 2016.
References
Target Corporation
Target
History of retail in the United States |
487947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom%20%28computer%20algebra%20system%29 | Axiom (computer algebra system) | Axiom is a free, general-purpose computer algebra system. It consists of an interpreter environment, a compiler and a library, which defines a strongly typed hierarchy.
History
Two computer algebra systems named Scratchpad were developed by IBM. The first one was started in 1965 by James Griesmer at the request of Ralph Gomory, and written in Fortran. The development of this software was stopped before any public release. The second Scratchpad, originally named Scratchpad II, was developed from 1977 on, at Thomas J. Watson Research Center, under the direction of Richard Dimick Jenks.
The design is principally due to Richard D. Jenks (IBM Research), James H. Davenport (University of Bath), Barry M. Trager (IBM Research), David Y.Y. Yun (Southern Methodist University) and Victor S. Miller (IBM Research). Early consultants on the project were David Barton (University of California, Berkeley) and James W. Thatcher (IBM Research). Implementation included Robert Sutor (IBM Research), Scott C. Morrison (University of California, Berkeley), Christine J. Sundaresan (IBM Research), Timothy Daly (IBM Research), Patrizia Gianni (University of Pisa), Albrecht Fortenbacher (Universitaet Karlsruhe), Stephen M. Watt (IBM Research and University of Waterloo), Josh Cohen (Yale University), Michael Rothstein (Kent State University), Manuel Bronstein (IBM Research), Michael Monagan (Simon Fraser University), Jonathon Steinbach (IBM Research), William Burge (IBM Research), Jim Wen (IBM Research), William Sit (City College of New York), and Clifton Williamson (IBM Research)
Scratchpad II was renamed Axiom when IBM decided, circa 1990, to make it a commercial product. A few years later, it was sold to NAG. In 2001, it was withdrawn from the market and re-released under the Modified BSD License. Since then, the project's lead developer has been Tim Daly.
In 2007, Axiom was forked twice, originating two different open-source projects: OpenAxiom and FriCAS, following "serious disagreement about project goals". The Axiom project continued to be developed by Tim Daly.
The current research direction is "Proving Axiom Sane", that is, logical, rational, judicious, and sound.
Documentation
Axiom is a literate program. The source code is becoming available in a set of volumes which are available on the axiom-developer.org website. These volumes contain the actual source code of the system.
The currently available documents are:
Combined Table of Contents
Volume 0: Axiom Jenks and Sutor—The main textbook
Volume 1: Axiom Tutorial—A simple introduction
Volume 2: Axiom Users Guide—Detailed examples of domain use (incomplete)
Volume 3: Axiom Programmers Guide—Guided examples of program writing (incomplete)
Volume 4: Axiom Developers Guide—Short essays on developer-specific topics (incomplete)
Volume 5: Axiom Interpreter—Source code for Axiom interpreter (incomplete)
Volume 6: Axiom Command—Source code for system commands and scripts (incomplete)
Volume 7: Axiom Hyperdoc—Source code and explanation of X11 Hyperdoc help browser
Volume 7.1 Axiom Hyperdoc Pages—Source code for Hyperdoc pages
Volume 8: Axiom Graphics—Source code for X11 Graphics subsystem
Volume 8.1 Axiom Gallery—A Gallery of Axiom images
Volume 9: Axiom Compiler—Source code for Spad compiler (incomplete)
Volume 10: Axiom Algebra Implementation—Essays on implementation issues (incomplete)
Volume 10.1: Axiom Algebra Theory—Essays containing background theory
Volume 10.2: Axiom Algebra Categories—Source code for Axiom categories
Volume 10.3: Axiom Algebra Domains—Source code for Axiom domains
Volume 10.4: Axiom Algebra Packages—Source code for Axiom packages
Volume 10.5: Axiom Algebra Numerics—Source code for Axiom numerics
Volume 11: Axiom Browser—Source pages for Axiom Firefox browser front end
Volume 12: Axiom Crystal—Source code for Axiom Crystal front end (incomplete)
Volume 13: Proving Axiom Correct—Prove Axiom Algebra (incomplete)
Volume 15: The Axiom SANE Compiler
Bibliography: Axiom Bibliography—Literature references
Bug List: Axiom Bug List-Bug List
Reference Card: Axiom Reference Card—Useful function summary
Videos
The Axiom project has a major focus on providing documentation. Recently the project announced the first in a series of instructional videos, which are also available on the axiom-developer.org website. The first video provides details on the Axiom information sources.
Philosophy
The Axiom project focuses on the “30 Year Horizon”. The primary philosophy is that Axiom needs to develop several fundamental features in order to be useful to the next generation of computational mathematicians. Knuth's literate programming technique is used throughout the source code. Axiom plans to use proof technology to prove the correctness of the algorithms (such as Coq and ACL2).
Axiom uses Docker Containers as part of a continuous release process. The latest image is available on any platform using docker and the commands:
docker pull daly/axiom
docker run -i -t daly/axiom axiom
Design
In Axiom, each object has a type. Examples of types are mathematical structures (such as rings, fields, polynomials) as well as data structures from computer science (e.g., lists, trees, hash tables).
A function can take a type as argument, and its return value can also be a type. For example, Fraction is a function, that takes an IntegralDomain as argument, and returns the field of fractions of its argument. As another example, the ring of matrices with rational entries would be constructed as SquareMatrix(4, Fraction Integer). Of course, when working in this domain, 1 is interpreted as the identity matrix and A^-1 would give the inverse of the matrix A, if it exists.
Several operations can have the same name, and the types of both the arguments and the result are used to determine which operation is applied (cf. function overloading).
Axiom comes with an extension language called SPAD. All the mathematical knowledge of Axiom is written in this language. The interpreter accepts roughly the same language.
Features
Within the interpreter environment, Axiom uses type inference and a heuristic algorithm to make explicit type annotations mostly unnecessary.
It features 'HyperDoc', an interactive browser-like help system, and can display two and three dimensional graphics, also providing interactive features like rotation and lighting. It also has a specialized interaction mode for Emacs, as well as a plugin for the TeXmacs editor.
Axiom has an implementation of the Risch algorithm for elementary integration, which was done by Manuel Bronstein and Barry Trager.
See also
A# programming language
Aldor programming language
List of computer algebra systems
References
Further reading
Timothy Daly "Axiom -- Thirty Years of Lisp"
Timothy Daly "Axiom" Invited Talk, Free Software Conference, Lyon, France, May, 2002
Timothy Daly "Axiom" Invited Talk, Libre Software Meeting, Metz, France, July 9–12, 2003
External links
Axiom Homepage
Online sandbox to try Axiom
Source code repositories: Github, SourceForge, GNU Savannah
Jenks, R.D. and Sutor, R. "Axiom, The Scientific Computation System"
Daly, T. "Axiom Volume 1: Tutorial"
Software forks:
OpenAxiom (SourceForge)
FriCAS (SourceForge)
Common Lisp (programming language) software
Computer algebra system software for Linux
Free computer algebra systems
Free software programmed in Lisp |
4743686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravetz%20computers | Pravetz computers | Pravetz (Правец) were Bulgarian computers produced from 1979 until the early 1990s. They were manufactured in the town of Pravetz, with some components and software being produced in Stara Zagora, Plovdiv, and other Bulgarian cities.
History
The first Bulgarian-made personal computer, IMKO-1, was a prototype of the Pravetz computers that were developed by Ivan Vassilev Marangozov, who was rightfully accused of cloning the Apple II. In fact, IMKO-1 was a nearly identical clone of the original Apple 2 with a few minor exceptions - case, keyboard, character table (the lower case Latin alphabet was replaced with Cyrillic upper case) and power supply (early models used bulky and heavy linear power supplies). A few early models were produced at the ITKR (pronounced ee-teh-kah-reh, Institute of Technical Cybernetics and Robotics), a section of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. Industrial production in Pravetz started shortly after.
The line of Bulgarian personal computers at the time of release was prohibitively expensive for individuals and in addition were only sold to different government institutions - educational sector, military and administrative sector.
Pravetz computers were of major importance in the economy of the Comecon.
Model line
8-bit architecture
Except for the Oric-derived 8D (and possibly the IMKO-1), all the Pravetz 8-bit systems are largely compatible with the popular Apple II and its successors, with the exception that they offer Cyrillic fonts and some other improvements compared to Apple.
IMKO-1 — First Bulgarian personal computer. Used a clone of the 6502 CPU 1 MHz CPU, and 16/4 KB RAM/ROM. The storage media is a cassette recorder. It had a metal case and very large and heavy linear power supply. The ROM was an exact copy of the Apple 2 ROM (the only change was the name).
Pravetz 82 (IMKO-2) - 82 is the model year. BASIC interpreter, RAM/ROM - 48/12 KB; CPU Synertek 6502 /1 MHz. The storage is improved due to the availability of (optional) 5.25" floppy disk drive(s). They had yellow plastic case and black keyboards. The later revisions used switching power supplies. ROM and schematics were not changed and were identical to those of the Apple II. A lot of the chips used were Bulgarian and Soviet substitutes (clones) of the original chips. Pravetz 82 was relatively reliable - most of the hardware problems were due to the widespread use of sub-standard quality IC sockets, mainly used for the DRAM chips.
Pravetz 8М - Integrated second CPU Zilog Z80A at 4 MHz to be able to run CP/M and its software. The military version features integrated terminal design. It was essentially a version of Apple II+ with the optional CP/M card integrated on the motherboard. It had 64K of RAM on-board, a switching power supply and an off-white plastic case with an improved design.
Pravetz 8E - Industrial model based on the original Pravetz 82 architecture plus some memory extensions
Pravetz 8А - Uses Bulgarian-made chipset СМ 630, memory could be expanded up to 1 Mb using optional memory card, accessible in 64Kb banks. It was a nearly identical clone of Apple //e on electrical diagrams and ROM content levels. The case was similar to the one used for the 8M model. The keyboard was improved with arrow buttons, and the Char table included Cyrillic upper and lower case symbols. This was the most advanced model with the greatest level of upgradeability.
Pravetz 8С - "streamlined version" of the 8А model. 128 KB RAM integrated, but not expandable. Fewer slots, but all essential controllers were integrated on the motherboard - Parallel (Centronics) interface, FDD controllers, Joystick and sometimes with RS-232. A version of 8C is the Pravetz 8VC, which features a terminal-like design.
Pravetz 8D - 8 bit home computer, based on 6502 and VIA 6522. It used a TV set instead of a computer monitor. Not compatible with Pravetz 82 but inherits its architecture from the English Oric Atmos home computers and compatible with their software.
16-bit architecture
Pravetz-16 were IBM PC compatible:
Pravetz-16 (IMKO-4) - Featured Intel 8088 at 4.77 MHz. Simple motherboard design with Bulgarian chipset. Standard RAM 256KB or 512KB expandable to 640KB.
Pravetz-16E
Pravetz-16ES (variations as a desktop or tower box) - Featured the 80186 processor at 8 MHz.
Pravetz-16A
Pravetz-16T - Turbo version
Pravetz-286
32-bit architecture
Pravetz-386
Pravetz-486
See also
History of computer hardware in Bulgaria
References
External links
Website about Pravetz computers (historical)
Information technology in Bulgaria
Goods manufactured in Bulgaria
Bulgarian brands
Personal computers
Home computers
Apple II clones
Computer-related introductions in 1979
Manufacturing companies of Bulgaria |
18944487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennomus | Ennomus | In Greek mythology, Ennomus ( Ennomos) was the name of two defenders of Troy during the Trojan War:
Ennomus, son of Arsinous. He was a Mysian ally of the Trojans, and was killed by Achilles. He was also said to have been a seer.
Ennomus or Eunomus, a Trojan warrior slain by Odysseus.
See also
Asteroid 4709 Ennomos
Ennomos, a genus of moths
Notes
References
Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Homer, Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. . Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Trojans
Characters in Greek mythology
Characters in the Iliad |
2420342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20malware | Mobile malware | Mobile malware is malicious software that targets Kg or wireless-enabled Lff (PDA), by causing the collapse of the system and loss or leakage of confidential information. As wireless phones and PDA networks have become more and more common and have grown in complexity, it has become increasingly difficult to ensure their safety and security against electronic attacks in the form of viruses or other malware.
History
The first known virus that affected mobiles, "Timofonica", originated in Spain and was identified by antivirus labs in Russia and Finland in June 2000. "Timofonica" sent SMS messages to GSM-capable mobile phones that read (in Spanish) "Information for you: Telefónica is fooling you." These messages were sent through the Internet SMS gateway of the MoviStar mobile operator. "Timofonica" ran on PCs and did not run on mobile devices so was not a true mobile malware
In June 2004, it was discovered that a company called Ojam had engineered an anti-piracy Trojan hack in older versions of its mobile phone game, Mosquito. This sent SMS texts to the company without the user's knowledge.
In July 2004, computer hobbyists released a proof-of-concept virus Cabir, that infects mobile phones running the Symbian operating system, spreading via Bluetooth wireless. This was the first true mobile malware
In March 2005, it was reported that a computer worm called Commwarrior-A had been infecting Symbian series 60 mobile phones. This specific worm replicated itself through the phone's Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), sending copies to contacts listed in the phone user's address book.
In August 2010, Kaspersky Lab reported the trojan Trojan-SMS.AndroidOS.FakePlayer.a. This was the first SMS malware that affected Google's Android operating system, and which sent SMS messages to premium rate numbers without the owner's knowledge, accumulating huge bills.
Currently, various antivirus software companies offer mobile antivirus software programs. Meanwhile, operating system developers try to curb the spread of infections with quality control checks on software and content offered through their digital application distribution platforms, such as Google Play or Apple's App Store. Recent studies however show that mobile antivirus programs are ineffective due to the rapid evolution of mobile malware.
Taxonomy
Many types of common malicious programs are known to affect mobile devices:
Expander: Expanders target mobile meters for additional phone billing and profit
Worm: The main objective of this stand-alone type of malware is to endlessly reproduce itself and spread to other devices. Worms may also contain harmful and misleading instructions. Mobile worms may be transmitted via text messages SMS or MMS and typically do not require user interaction for execution.
Trojan: Unlike worms, a Trojan horse always requires user interaction to be activated. This kind of virus is usually inserted into seemingly attractive and non-malicious executable files or applications that are downloaded to the device and executed by the user. Once activated, the malware can cause serious damage by infecting and deactivating other applications or the phone itself, rendering it paralyzed after a certain period of time or a certain number of operations. Usurpation data (spyware) synchronizes with calendars, email accounts, notes, and any other source of information before it is sent to a remote server.
Spyware: This malware poses a threat to mobile devices by collecting, using, and spreading a user's personal or sensitive information without the user's consent or knowledge. It is mostly classified into four categories: system monitors, trojans, adware, and tracking cookies.
Backdoor: Covert method of bypassing security restrictions to gain unauthorized access to a computer system. In simpler words, a backdoor is a piece of code that allows others to go in and out of a system without being detected.
Dropper: A malware designed to install other programs on a device, unbeknownst to the user. These could include other malicious programs or benign applications that the attacker is interested in spreading (often for financial gain in a [malvertising] campaign).
Notable mobile malicious programs
Joker Malware This malware infects mobile phones running on Android OS and was first identified in June 2017. When a phone is infected, usually information is stolen by malware makers. Few users have reported of unwanted online subscriptions which is because malware is created to steal otp, make online transactions, etc.
Cabir: This malware infects mobile phones running on Symbian OS and was first identified in June 2004. When a phone is infected, the message 'Caribe' is displayed on the phone's screen and is displayed every time the phone is turned on. The worm then attempts to spread to other phones in the area using wireless Bluetooth signals, although the recipient has to confirm this manually.
Duts: This parasitic file infector virus is the first known virus for the Pocket PC platform. It attempts to infect all EXE files that are larger than 4096 bytes in the current directory.
Skulls: A trojan horse piece of code that targets mainly Symbian OS. Once downloaded, the virus replaces all phone desktop icons with images of a skull. It also renders all phone applications useless. This malware also tends to mass text messages containing malicious links to all contacts accessible through the device in order to spread the damage. This mass texting can also give rise to high expenses.
Commwarrior: This malware was identified in 2005. It was the first worm to use MMS messages and can spread through Bluetooth as well. It infects devices running under OS Symbian Series 60. The executable worm file, once launched, hunts for accessible Bluetooth devices and sends the infected files under a random name to various devices.
FlexiSpy: Stalkerware software that was first developed in 2006. Initially designed for Symbian OS, it was classified as malware by an anti-virus vendor in 2007. It is now available for Android and iOS. It can be used to track locations, read WhatsApp and SMS messages, listen in to ambient conversations, intercept phone calls and other abilities.
HatiHati: A worm-like software for Symbian OS devices, first identified in 2007. HatiHati was a pirated copy of the beta version of an anti-theft software for Symbian OS called Guardian. It had a number of flaws that meant it acted like a worm by copying itself to any memory card inserted into the mobile, and once in a mobile device the application sent many alert SMS to a given set of numbers. Volumes of up to 12% of the total SMS in a mobile operator in the Middle East could be attributed to the malware.
ZitMo: This malware was identified in 2010. An abbreviation of Zeus-In-The-Mobile, it is a trojan that is suggested for installation on a mobile phone by a Zeus-infected computer, and redirects incoming SMSs by acting like a man-in-the-mobile. It was the first mobile malware designed to steal mTAN banking codes. It was originally detected on Symbian, before being identified on Windows Mobile, BlackBerry and Android.
Gingermaster: A trojan developed for an Android platform that propagates by installing applications that incorporate a hidden malware for installation in the background. It exploits the frailty in the version Gingerbread (2.3) of the operating system to use super-user permissions by privileged escalation. It then creates a service that steals information from infected terminals (user ID, number SIM, phone number, IMEI, IMSI, screen resolution and local time) by sending it to a remote server through petitions HTTP.
DroidKungFu: A trojan content in Android applications, which when executed, obtains root privileges and installs the file com.google. ssearch.apk, which contains a back door that allows files to be removed, open home pages to be supplied, and 'open web and download and install' application packages. This virus collects and sends to a remote server all available data on the terminal.
Ikee: The first worm known for iOS platforms, identified in 2009. It only works on terminals that were previously made a process of jailbreak, and spreads by trying to access other devices using the SSH protocol, first through the subnet that is connected to the device. Then, it repeats the process generating a random range and finally uses some preset ranges corresponding to the IP address of certain telephone companies. Once the computer is infected, the wallpaper is replaced by a photograph of the singer Rick Astley, a reference to the Rickroll phenomenon.
Samsapo: The first worm known for Android platforms, identified in April 2014. The worm was targeted mostly against Russian Android users. Once a device was infected the malware could act like spyware, as well as do other actions like download additional malicious files, send SMSs to premium rate numbers and block phone calls.
Gunpoder: This worm file infector virus is the first known virus that officially infected the Google Play Store in few countries, including Brazil.
Shedun: adware serving malware able to root Android devices.
HummingBad: Infected over 10 million Android operating systems in 2016. User details were sold and adverts were tapped on without the user's knowledge thereby generating fraudulent advertising revenue.
Pegasus: This spyware was identified in August 2016. It exploited three previously undisclosed vulnerabilities in iOS, which when combined allowed for a remote jailbreak of an iOS device, something which had not been seen before for iOS devices in the wild. Once installed, the spyware was capable of many features including logging encrypted messages, activating the phone microphone and secretly tracking phone movements. It was first identified for iOS platforms, before being later identified for Android devices.
See also
Joker malware Wikipedia
Computer virus
File binder
Individual mobility
Malware
Dendroid (malware)
Trojan horse (computing)
Worm (computing)
Mobile operating system
References
External links
Malware by platform |
43706602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxation%20in%20Georgia%20%28country%29 | Taxation in Georgia (country) | Taxes in Georgia are collected on both state and local levels. The most important taxes are collected on federal level, these taxes include an income tax, corporate taxes and value added tax. On local level property taxes as well as various fees are collected. There are 6 flat tax rates in Georgia - Corporate Profit Tax, Value Added Tax, Excise Tax, Personal Income Tax, Import Tax and Property Tax.
Personal Income tax in Georgia are collected at a flat rate of 20% on local-source income. Foreign-source personal income is tax-exempt. However, the definition of "foreign-source" is widely mis-represented, and further reading of the tax code reveals that income from abroad, earned through active work (on a laptop, for example) while physically present in Georgia, would be considered Georgian-source even if said income was never remitted to Georgia or derives from a foreign source. Personal Income Tax for interest, dividend and royalty is 5%.There are few allowances deductible.
Value-added tax (VAT) is collected at a flat rate of 18%.There is few exceptions granted, nearly all goods and services are subject to VAT. Medical care, exports and education are exempt from VAT. Regardless of turnover a taxpayer have to register for VAT if it produces or imports goods. Turnovers of less than 100,000 GEL is exempt.
Corporate taxes are levied at a flat rate of 15%, which was enacted in 2008. From 2017 onward, non-distributed profits are exempt from taxation. Very few deductions are accessible. This system was set up to attract foreign investment. Furthermore, excise taxes are on some luxury and environmentally damaging goods, such as gasoline. Customs apply to some imported goods, too. Only six different taxes apply.
Special Tax Regimes
Free Industrial Zone Entities
Free Industrial Zone entities are created for production / manufacturing, processing, provision of any kind of services within Free Industrial Zone. Therefore, their aim is to create a platform for manufacturing, processing of goods and their export from Georgia.
Free Industrial Zone entities are exempt from almost all taxes within the income received from mentioned eligible activities. Namely, if conditions are met - Free Industrial Zone entities might be subject to 0% tax on Corporate Income Tax, 0% Dividend tax, 0% Property tax, 0% Import tax and 0% VAT, 0% Reverse Charge VAT.
Entities with International Company Status
New type of International Company status was introduced in 2020, changing the old status of International Financial Company. New International Company status gives reduced tax rates for eligible entities. In order to obtain respective status the company shall either itself has been providing allowed activities for a period of more than 2 years, or the company whose representative it is.
Permitted Activities for IT sector
In IT sector, the enterprise has the right to render the activities listed below:
- Software release;
- Releasing of computer games;
- Releasing of other software;
- Computer programming, consulting and related activities;
- Computer programming activities;
- Consulting activities in the field of computer technology;
- Computer management activities;
- Other activities related to information technologies and computer services;
- Other activities in IT sector:
-- production and / or delivery of digital products, including software support and delivery of updated versions of software;
-- website development and / or delivery;
-- web hosting, remote maintenance of software and hardware;
-- software and related updates;
-- provide images, texts and information to ensure access to a database;
-- remote system administration;
-- online delivery of allocated memory capacity;
-- grant access to or download software (including purchasing / accounting software or antivirus software) and updates;
-- Banner ads blocking programs;
-- download drivers, such as software that connects computers to peripherals (such as a printer);
-- automatic online installation of filters on websites;
-- automatic online installation of firewalls;
Permitted Activities for Maritime Industry
Permitted Activities for Enterprises in Maritime Sector are commercial and maintenance services by a shipowner and / or those related to ship-ownership, including:
-- ship rental with or without a crew (bareboat charter)
-- route planning and / or analysis;
-- giving route instructions to a ship's captain as agreed with the charterer of vessels;
-- the counting of stallia, disbursement report analysis and management;
-- managing disputes over cargo-related claims, commercial and legal issues, and written chartering agreements;
-- organizing new shipbuilding orders and / or the service of buying and selling used ships;
-- supervising the physical condition of a ship and / or supplying a ship with relevant technical parts and/or food products;
-- coordinating shipbuilding, ship docking and repair activities, and conducting inspections in accordance with the requirements of industry regulators;
-- ensuring compliance with the ISM Code, an international standard for the safe management and operation of ships and for pollution prevention, with the requirements of state control over flags and ports, and with the rules of a classification association.
Tax Rates
The following tax incentives are set by Georgian Tax Code for International Companies:
- Corporate Income Tax – 5% (instead of regular 15%),
- Employees' Personal Income Tax – 5% (instead of regular 20%),
- Withholding tax on Dividends – 0% (instead of regular 5%),
- Property Tax (other than land) – exempted, in case the property is used only for the activities allowed under the status (instead of regular percentage which is up to 1% depending on type of the property and the exemption does not include property tax on lands).
References
Georgia
Economy of Georgia (country) |
3479964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essex%20Police | Essex Police | Essex Police is a territorial police force responsible for policing the county of Essex, in the east of England, consisting of over 1.8 million people and around .
It has over 3,500 police officers, including over 500 special constables.
The chief constable is Ben-Julian Harrington, who took up the appointment in October 2018.
Essex and Kent Police share support services, such as administration and fleet, and a Serious Crime Directorate (SCD). The SCD is led by an Assistant Chief Constable working across the two forces. The collaboration between the two forces began in 2007.
The force is overseen by the elected Essex Police, Fire and Crime Commissioner,
History
Essex Constabulary was formed in 1840. In 1965, the force had an establishment of 1,862 officers.
Southend-on-Sea Borough Police was established by the county borough of Southend-on-Sea, England, in 1914. In 1969, Southend-on-Sea Borough Police amalgamated with Essex Constabulary to become the Essex and Southend-on-Sea Joint Constabulary. This merger was campaigned against by the council and the local MPs.
Colchester also at one time had its own police force.
The title was shortened to Essex Police in 1974. In April 2000, it took over parts of the county in the south-west (Loughton, Waltham Abbey, Chigwell and Buckhurst Hill) formerly in the Metropolitan Police Area.
Epping Forest Keepers act as Epping Forest constables in the Forest parishes in the south-west of the Essex Police area; they have different powers from those of the Essex Police.
Chief constables
Chief constables of Essex have been:
Essex Constabulary (1840)
1840–1881 : John Bunch Bonnemaison McHardy
1881–1887 : William Henry Poyntz
1888–1915 : Edward McLean Showers
1915–1932 : John Alfred Unett
1933–1962 : (Sir) Francis Jonathan Peel
1962–1978 : Sir John Cyprian Nightingale (knighted in 1975 New Year Honours)
Essex Police (1974)
1978–1987 : (Sir) Robert Sidney Bunyard
1988–1998 : John Halcrow Burrow
1998–2005 : David Frederick Stevens
2005–2009 : Roger Baker
2009–2013 : Jim Barker-McCardle
2013–2018 : Stephen Kavanagh
2018–present : Ben-Julian Harrington
Officers killed in the line of duty
The Police Roll of Honour Trust and Police Memorial Trust list and commemorate all British police officers killed in the line of duty. Since its establishment in 1984, the Police Memorial Trust has erected 50 memorials nationally to some of those officers.
Since 1849, the following officers of Essex Police were killed while attempting to prevent or stop a crime in progress:
Constable Ian Dibell GM, 2012
Constable Gary John Veal, 2002
Constable Roderick Norton Daniels, 2001
Constable Christopher John Wiggins, 1992
Acting Sergeant Brian John Bishop, 1984
Constable Peter James Wringe, 1982
Constable Brian Arthur Rippingale, 1968
Sergeant Edmund Sleigh Frost, 1948
Constable George William Gutteridge, 1927
Constable Joseph Watt, 1913
Acting Sergeant Adam John Eves, 1893
Inspector Thomas Simmons, 1885
Constable Robert Bamborough, 1850
Head Constable William Campling, 1849
Organisation
Essex Police is one of the United Kingdom's largest non-metropolitan police forces with a strength of over 3,500 police officers including over 500 special constables.
Its headquarters, the Force Control Room (FCR) (where emergency calls are routed to) and Essex Police College, are all located in Chelmsford.
Strategically, Essex is an important force. Bordering London, the force area consists of affluent city suburbs, large urban areas, industrial centres, rural villages, London Stansted Airport (one of the busiest international airports in the country) and two of the UK's major ports (Harwich and Tilbury). The force also polices one of the largest expanses of coastline of any force in the UK. The police area covers and has a population of around 1,800,000.
The Chief Constable is Ben-Julian Harrington who replaced Stephen Kavanagh after he retired in October 2018.
The force has been a regular innovator and is often used by the Home Office to trial new procedures and equipment, including automatic number plate recognition (ANPR), Lantern (handheld wireless fingerprint verification) and the X26 Taser.
Essex Police was also the subject of the television series Police Interceptors, which followed the work of the specialist Mobile Support Division's ANPR intercept unit that utilise high-performance pursuit vehicles, including the Mitsubishi Evo X and Subaru Impreza, to pursue and intercept mobile criminals. In late 2016, Essex Police was also the subject of a television series The Force: Essex, which followed the duties and responsibilities of Essex Police in the modern day, covering the front-line aspect of the police officers on duty, across Essex.
Previously a number of specialist teams within Essex were grouped into the Mobile Support Division. In 2012 Essex Police moved away from the divisional structure to a patrol based structure and the former components of the Mobile Support Division were moved to new command structures. Roads Policing and Dog Section became part of the Response and Patrol function.
Crime Division
Crime Division works across the territorial divisions of Essex and with forces nationwide, providing resources and expertise.
As a division within Essex Police, it deals with the specialist aspects of crime investigation, tending to focus on serious crime, but not exclusively and provides support to territorial divisions' efforts in investigating crime.
Crime Division has a command team structure of a divisional commander, supported by a director of intelligence, lead senior investigating officer, support manager and divisional administrative manager, based at the Chelmsford headquarters. This team is supported by section heads. The work of the various departments of Crime Division are both proactive and reactive.
Major Investigation Team
The way in which major crimes are investigated has changed over time. 30 years ago, the head of Crime Division would have carried out every part of the investigation in a murder case himself, including interviewing key witnesses. However, this has now been transformed with the advent of computerised Major Investigation Rooms and concerns over handling complex, high-profile enquiries like the Stephen Lawrence case.
In April 2000, the Major Investigation Team (MIT) was set up to investigate homicides, abductions, rapes and extortion. Each major investigation has a senior investigation officer (SIO), who is like the conductor of an orchestra, overseeing all the different parts of the investigations. The SIO works with a MIT and they are supported by the resources of Major Investigation Centralised Administrative Support (MICAS).
There are four MIT offices, at Harlow, Brentwood, Stanway and Rayleigh. The scale of enquiry determines the manpower required, the well-publicised case of the murdered schoolgirl Danielle Jones in June 2001 being a good example of the four offices 'pooling' resources and working as one team.
Operational Support Group (OSG)
The OSG are members of Essex Police trained to deal with riots, drugs raids, other public order incidents, escorting suspects to be extradited to other countries, CRBN, and evacuation in the event of CRBN attack. They are the equivalent of the Met's TSG unit. They were involved in President Obama's landing at Stansted in 2016. They helped the Met deal with the 2011 London Riots. They are based at Boreham, outside of Chelmsford.
When not engaged in other specialists duties, OSG officers perform mobile patrols. Most officers are trained in advanced driving, and assist Roads Policing Unit colleagues in pursuits and policing the roads using high performance vehicles. Alternatively, officers may support local officers in policing the night-time economy.
Force Support Unit (FSU)
The FSU provide firearms and tactical assistance, equivalent to the Met's CO19 branch. They respond to firearms callouts, help out with drug raids, as well as taking part in covert operations. They also patrol Stansted Airport, and in September 2016, armed patrols started at Southend Airport and Lakeside shopping centre. The FSU officers are all Authorised Firearms Officers (AFOs) and can go on to be Specialist Firearms Officers (SFOs). They will either be wearing baseball caps on patrol, or the "Fritz" style helmet for tactical duties. The FSU shot Stephen Debley, the first person to be shot by Essex Police for 31 years as of October 2016. They have also been involved in many manhunts, the most well known and recent being the death of PC Dibell, who was shot by 63-year old Peter Reeve in Clacton on Sea.
, the FSU used the following specialist equipment:
Accuracy International Bolt Action Rifle
Tikka T3 Rifle Bolt Action Rifle
H&K 417 Semi Auto Rifle
H&K G36C Carbine
H&K L104A2 Launcher (Baton Gun)
SIG Pro Self-loading Pistol
SIG P250 Self-loading Pistol
Benelli Nova/Super Nova Pump shotgun
TASER X2
Roads Policing Unit (RPU)
The RPU operates out of four locations across Essex. Part of OPC, the RPU works to the National Roads Policing Strategy which has five strands; casualty reduction, counter terrorism, anti-social use of the roads, disrupting criminality and high visibility patrols of the road network. RPU is supported by the Casualty Reduction Section, the Commercial Vehicle Unit and the Serious Collision Investigation Unit. The RPU patrol a 4,500 mile road network, including major roads such as the A12, A120, M11 & M25.
The Safer Essex Roads Partnership (SERP) has brought together the three local authority areas of Essex County Council, Southend-on-Sea Borough Council and Thurrock Council to provide a road safety service across ‘Greater Essex’. The other SERP partners are Essex Police, Essex Fire and Rescue Service, Highways England, The Essex and Herts Air Ambulance Trust, The East of England NHS Trust and The Safer Roads Foundation.
Special Branch
The Special Irish Branch was formed in 1883 by the Metropolitan Police, to deal with Irish Republican activists in London. This extremely secret unit consisted of a handful of detectives whose offices were located in a wooden hut on an island within Green Park, just behind the old Scotland Yard. The unit later took on the role of reporting to the Security Service (MI5) and quickly became recognised as 'The Special Branch'.
Essex Special Branch was formed in 1970 when the Security Service required an input from all provincial police forces.
Special Branch (SB) deals with any matters which may involve any form of subversive activity, such as terrorism, which may affect either life or property nationally or internationally. The air and seaports are specific areas where SB officers operate to ensure that those involved in internal and/or external acts of terrorism are prevented from entering or leaving the country.
SB also maintains close contacts with other police services, both within the UK and abroad, to exchange information on persons who are known or believed to be involved in terrorist activity.
On the domestic front SB combat public disorder by dealing with those involved in extreme activity of any description. Special Branch workload has increased exponentially in the years following the September 11 attacks and 7 July 2005 London bombings. Much of what SB does is highly sensitive, involving national security, and goes unnoticed by the general public.
SB officers are also tasked and trained in armed, close protection duties and work to protect royalty, VIPs and anyone else who could be under threat of attack or assassination, whilst in the Essex Police District.
Serious Crime Division
The Serious Crime Division (SCD) consists of a team of highly experienced detectives who are involved in investigating serious and organised crime inside and outside of the Essex police area. The work of the SCD is centrally coordinated to prioritise crimes and locations that will have most effect on the overall performance of the force. The unit also utilise mobile surveillance teams. Day-to-day business for the SCD includes investigations into serial crimes, such as burglary, car crime and robbery, where criminals cross multiple borders to commit crime.
Economic Crime Unit
The Economic Crime Unit (ECU) is part of SCD and is based at Brentwood. The ECU is made up of detective officers and accredited civilian financial investigators, whose work is overseen by a detective inspector.
The ECU has two distinct but overlapping functions. The first is the investigation of serious and complex fraud. Referrals to the ECU are from other agencies, such as the Department for Business, Serious Fraud Office and Office for the Supervision of Solicitors. The ECU will also take on investigations referred to it by territorial divisions, subject to certain criteria having been met. The unit does not normally accept investigations directly from members of the public.
The second function is the confiscation and/or forfeiture of assets held by persons convicted of drug trafficking offences. With the arrival of the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 and the government's determination to be more proactive in this area the scope of confiscation and/or forfeiture has increased to include criminal offences of an acquisitive nature.
Hi-Tech Crime Unit
The Hi-Tech Crime Unit deals with computer crime and the use of computers in committing crimes. Offences may include harassment, theft, hacking, phone phreaking (making telephone calls which are then charged to another person's bill) and child pornography.
Many of these are new crimes, which have only appeared since the widespread availability of computers and the Internet. The Hi-Tech Crime Unit is a relatively new addition to policing in Essex and forms part of a national network of agencies fighting against computer crime, headed by the National Hi-Tech Crime Unit based in London Docklands.
Essex Police's Hi-Tech Crime Unit works closely with other network investigators and law enforcement agencies. Although it has been in existence only a short time, the unit has already seen significant results. Part of the work of the unit involves seizing computer-related evidence and using forensic methodology software. Officers have the ability to interrogate the seized computer, even when information has been deleted, and rebuild it to find out what was done and how. The unit also assists police officers in computer-related cases, particularly with conducting interviews or producing technical statements, and produces evidence for court.
The unit is staffed by internationally trained computer specialists, who keep up-to-date with the latest changes in technology and software. They are also able to advise businesses of the danger of computer crime, particularly in e-commerce.
Authorities Bureau
The Authorities Bureau was established to oversee all covert policing authorisations. When Essex Police wish to set up surveillance on a suspect, they must make an application to the Authorities Bureau, who decide whether the surveillance is justified and complies with the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 which is based on human rights legislation.
The Bureau oversees all applications from each of the territorial divisions. It is staffed by police officers and support staff. The police officers specialise in the area of surveillance authorities, including the more specialist applications which require authority from the Chief Constable. The support staff are based in the Telephone Enquiry Unit and undertake all enquiries made of the numerous telecom industry members. The staff are trained to a national standard and ensure that the enquiries requested are fully justified, correctly authorised and actioned, according to priorities.
The Bureau are inspected annually by the Office of Surveillance Commissioners, an independent body of serving or recently retired High Court judges who report direct to the Prime Minister.
Vetting Unit
The Vetting Unit is responsible for running checks on individuals who regularly have substantial unsupervised access to children up to the age of 16, or 18 if they have special needs or are looked after by a local authority. The information they gather is disclosed to authorised outside agencies and other police services.
The work of the unit includes the vetting of persons who have applied to become foster parents or adoptive parents, registered childminders and managers of residential care homes and nursing homes.
Force Intelligence Bureau
The role of the Force Intelligence Bureau (FIB) is to assist criminal investigation across the county by bringing together local intelligence from different divisions and out of the police area. The FIB collects information on dangerous sex offenders and those criminals whose activities span more than one area of Essex or across counties. They also analyse trends and links between crimes, so that they can use the right people and the right methods in the right places to prevent crime, this has been discontinued and now has been banned in the area.
Stolen Vehicle Section
The Stolen Vehicle Section of the Force Intelligence Bureau was formed around 1964 to lend assistance and support to police officers in dealing with motor vehicle crime. One of the main functions of the section is the examination and identification of suspect vehicles, plant and other equipment, both by thermal and chemical etching of erased and hidden serial and identification numbers.
After examination, all vehicles identified as stolen by the unit carry a 'Polexam' tamperproof marker. This is placed on a number of locations on the examined vehicle and a marker created on the Police National Computer to indicate that it has been subject of a previous police examination.
The unit were responsible for the implementation of the "decoy vehicle" programme. They are also involved in vehicle crime analysis and attend warrants and briefings where vehicle crime is suspected or known.
Field Intelligence Officers
Area desk Field Intelligence Officers (FIO) are assigned to particular areas of Essex or to liaison with Customs and with other divisions of Essex Police, such as the Drugs and Serious Crime Squad. FIOs are responsible for gathering intelligence on crimes committed in several areas or across area boundaries, so that patterns in these crimes can be analysed.
Criminal Intelligence Analysts
The role of the Criminal Intelligence Analyst is to use all the available information on criminal activity in Essex to assess trends which can be seen now and predict what might happen in the future. The results of this analysis are then passed on to those responsible for making decisions about allocating resources.
Analysts bring together all the information so that they can look for areas where they need more information or focus on particular lines of enquiry.
Dangerous Offenders Unit
The main function of the Dangerous Offenders Unit (DOU) is to manage the threat posed by sex offenders and other potentially dangerous and violent criminals. 'Dangerous offenders' are those people "likely to inflict serious physical or psychological harm on others".
The issue of how to protect the public from dangerous offenders has been vigorously debated since the early 1970s, when a highly publicised homicide case involving a released mental patient led to demands for stronger preventative measures.
The DOU works with the Multi-Agency Public Protection Panel (MAPPP), which co-ordinates intelligence and action to reduce the risk posed to the public by potentially dangerous offenders. MAPPP meetings are led by police, probation and social services, with input from other agencies such as housing and criminal justice mental health teams, depending on the case.
The DOU is also responsible for maintaining the Sex Offenders Register, which came into force under the Sex Offenders Act 1997. All convicted sex offenders must register their name and address with the police and inform them within 14 days if they move.
Facial Identification Officer
The trauma that a stranger may inflict during a serious offence may influence the victim's memory of the suspect's identity. This is when the Facial Identification Officer can assist by using a portable computerised feature and paint package programme in order to put together a 'composite' of the offender. Being portable, it enables the officer to travel to the victim's home or their hospital bed. They will interview the witness or victim using 'cognitive' interview which assists the witness to 'relive' rather than 'remember'. Having ascertained a general description of the offender this is then entered into the E-FIT system. The witness then works with the officer to achieve the best 'likeness' of the offender.
Prison Liaison Section
The Prison Liaison Section provides an interface between the police force and the prison service. They give help and advice to both agencies on obtaining information and intelligence with regard to persons in prison custody.
Fleet
Essex Police uses a number of different types of vehicles in its operations:
Response units - patrol and emergency 999 response.
Unmarked units - patrol and emergency 999 response or other duties (e.g. OSG, Roads Policing).
Traffic units - traffic enforcement: Enforce traffic laws and encourage road safety.
Prisoner transport units - transportation of suspects from the scene.
Public support units - carry public-order trained officers to the scene.
Dog support units - carry police dogs and handlers to the scene.
Non-response units - patrol, however not emergency response. Usually utilised by PCSOs.
Driver training units - train police drivers to respond on blue lights and sirens.
Police, fire and crime commissioners
The Essex Police, Fire and Crime Commissioners (PFCC) have been:
2012-2016 : Nick Alston
2016–present : Roger Hirst
In November 2012, the first PFCC election took place, with a 12.8% turnout, in which Conservative candidate Nick Alston achieved 30.5% of the first round votes, and 51.5% of the second round votes against Independent candidate Mick Thwaites.
Alston set his four priorities in his election statement as:
policing that meets local needs
policing that is prompt and professional
effective cooperation and partnership between police, councils and the voluntary sector
to be an influential voice in leading public engagement about crime reduction and policing, and to listen to and speak for the victims of crime.
See also
Law enforcement in the United Kingdom
List of law enforcement agencies in the United Kingdom, Crown dependencies and British Overseas Territories
Other emergency services:
East of England Ambulance Service
Essex Air Ambulance
Essex County Fire and Rescue Service
References
Bibliography
The Essex Police by John Woodgate. Includes black and white plates and an appendix section that gives details of the smaller forces that went to make up Essex Police. Detail from a copy published by Terence Dalton in 1985 with an .
External links
The history of Policing of the Dengie Division in the Eastern Essex area of the UK
Police forces of England
Organisations based in Essex
1840 establishments in England
Organizations established in 1840 |
60067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maildir | Maildir | The Maildir e-mail format is a common way of storing email messages in which each message is stored in a separate file with a unique name, and each mail folder is a file system directory. The local file system handles file locking as messages are added, moved and deleted. A major design goal of Maildir is to eliminate the need for program code to handle file locking and unlocking.
Specifications
A Maildir directory (often named Maildir) usually has three subdirectories named tmp, new, and cur.
The tmp subdirectory temporarily stores e-mail messages that are in the process of being delivered. This subdirectory may also store other kinds of temporary files. The new subdirectory stores messages that have been delivered, but have not yet been seen by any mail application. The cur subdirectory stores messages that have already been seen by mail applications.
Maildir++
Sam Varshavchik, the author of the Courier Mail Server and other software, wrote an extension to the Maildir format called Maildir++' to support subfolders and mail quotas. Maildir++ directories contain subdirectories with names that start with a '.' (dot) that are also Maildir++ folders. This extension is not a violation of the Maildir specification, which explicitly provides for the possibility to add more than tmp, new, cur to a maildir.
Technical operation
A mail delivery agent is a program that delivers an email message into a Maildir. The mail delivery agent creates a new file with a unique filename in the tmp directory. The original algorithm circa 1995 for generating unique filenames, as implemented by qmail was:
read the current Unix time
read the current process identifier (PID)
read the current hostname
concatenate the above three values into a string separated by the period character; this is the new filename
if stat() reports that the filename exists, then wait two seconds
go to previous step until the filename does not exist
create a file with the unique filename and write the message contents to the new file
By 2000, the author of qmail recommended to append the value of a per-process counter to the PID, whose value should be incremented after each delivery, and the rate-limiting suggestion had been dropped.
By 2003, the recommendations had been further amended to require that instead of the PID and counter, the middle part of the filename should be created by "concatenating enough of the following strings to guarantee uniqueness" even in the face of multiple simultaneous deliveries to the same maildir from one or more processes:
#n, where n is (in hexadecimal) the output of the operating system's unix_sequencenumber() system call, which returns a number that increases by 1 every time it is called, starting from 0 after reboot.
Xn, where n is (in hexadecimal) the output of the operating system's unix_bootnumber() system call, which reports the number of times that the system has been booted. Together with #, this guarantees uniqueness; unfortunately, most operating systems don't support unix_sequencenumber() and unix_bootnumber().
Rn, where n is (in hexadecimal) the output of the operating system's unix_cryptorandomnumber() system call or an equivalent source, such as /dev/urandom. Unfortunately, some operating systems don't include cryptographic random number generators.
In, where n is (in hexadecimal) the UNIX inode number of this file. Unfortunately, inode numbers aren't always available through NFS.
Vn, where n is (in hexadecimal) the UNIX device number of this file. Unfortunately, device numbers aren't always available through NFS. (Device numbers are also not helpful with the standard UNIX filesystem: a maildir has to be within a single UNIX device for link() and rename() to work.)
Mn, where n is (in decimal) the microsecond counter from the same gettimeofday() used for the left part of the unique name.
Pn, where n is (in decimal) the process ID.
Qn, where n is (in decimal) the number of deliveries made by this process.
This algorithm was criticised in 2006 by Timo Sirainen, the creator of Dovecot.
As of November 2018, qmail author Bernstein had made no further changes to these filename generation recommendations. On modern POSIX systems, temporary files can be safely created with the mkstemp C library function.
The delivery process stores the message in the maildir by creating and writing to tmp/uniquefilename, and then moving this file to new/uniquefilename. The moving can be done using rename, which is atomic in many systems. Alternatively, it can be done by hard-linking the file to new and then unlinking the file from tmp. Any leftover file will eventually be deleted. This sequence guarantees that a maildir-reading program will not see a partially written message. There can be multiple programs reading a maildir at the same time. They range from mail user agents (MUAs), which access the server's file system directly, through Internet Message Access Protocol or Post Office Protocol servers acting on behalf of remote MUAs, to utilities such as biff and rsync, which may or may not be aware of the maildir structure. Readers should never look in tmp.
When a cognizant maildir-reading process (either a POP or IMAP server, or a mail user agent acting locally) finds messages in the new directory, it must move them to cur. It is just a means to notify the user "you have X new messages". This moving needs to be done using rename(), as the non-atomic link-then-unlink'' technique may result in duplicated messages. An informational suffix is appended to filenames at this stage. It consists of a colon (to separate the unique part of the filename from the actual information), a "2", a comma and various flags. The "2" specifies the version of the information that follows the comma. "2" is the only currently officially specified version, "1" being an experimental version. The specification defines flags that show whether the message has been read, deleted and so on: the initial (capital) letter of "Passed", "Replied", "Seen", "Trashed", "Draft", and "Flagged". Dovecot uses lowercase letters to match 26 IMAP keywords, which may include standardised keywords, such as $MDNSent, and user-defined flags.
Although Maildir was intended to allow lockless usage, in practice some software that uses Maildirs also uses locks, such as Dovecot.
File-system compatibility issues
The Maildir standard can only be implemented on systems that accept colons in filenames.
Systems that don't allow colons in filenames (this includes Microsoft Windows and some configurations of Novell Storage Services) can use an alternative separator, such as ";" or "-". It is often trivial to patch free and open-source software to use a different separator.
As there is currently no agreement on what character this alternative separator should be, there can be interoperability difficulties between different Maildir-supporting programs on these systems. However, not all Maildir-related software needs to know what the separator character is, because not all Maildir-related software needs to be able to read or modify the flags of a message ("read", "replied to" etc.); software that merely delivers to a Maildir or archives old messages from it based only on date, should work no matter what separator is in use. If only the MUA needs to read or modify message flags, and only one MUA is used, then non-standard alternative separators may be used without interoperability problems.
Software that supports Maildir directly
Mail servers
Dovecot IMAP server
Courier Mail Server SMTP and IMAP server, for which the Maildir++ format was invented
Sendmail The original SMTP server
Exim SMTP server
Postfix SMTP server
qmail SMTP server, for which the Maildir format was invented
MeTA1 SMTP server
OpenSMTPD SMTP server
Delivery agents
procmail
Dovecot delivery agent
maildrop
getmail, a Maildir-aware mail-retrieval and delivery agent alternative to Fetchmail
fdm
OfflineIMAP
mbsync
Mail readers
aerc (efficient and extensible email client)
Balsa previously the official GNOME mail reader (prior to Evolution)
Cone a curses-based mail reader
Evolution, official GNOME mail client
GNUMail
Gnus
KMail, KDE mail reader
mailx
Mutt
Notmuch (fast, global-search and tag-based email system)
Pine/Alpine
Mozilla Thunderbird – experimental and “disabled by default because there are still many bugs”
Notes and references
See also
mbox
MH Message Handling System
MIX (email)
External links
manual page for maildir
maildir specifications
Email storage formats |
4148868 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crash%20simulation | Crash simulation | A crash simulation is a virtual recreation of a destructive crash test of a car or a highway guard rail system using a computer simulation in order to examine the level of safety of the car and its occupants. Crash simulations are used by automakers during computer-aided engineering (CAE) analysis for crashworthiness in the computer-aided design (CAD) process of modelling new cars. During a crash simulation, the kinetic energy, or energy of motion, that a vehicle has before the impact is transformed into deformation energy, mostly by plastic deformation (plasticity) of the car body material (Body in White), at the end of the impact.
Data obtained from a crash simulation indicate the capability of the car body or guard rail structure to protect the vehicle occupants during a collision (and also pedestrians hit by a car) against injury. Important results are the deformations (for example, steering wheel intrusions) of the occupant space (driver, passengers) and the decelerations (for example, head acceleration) felt by them, which must fall below threshold values fixed in legal car safety regulations. To model real crash tests, today's crash simulations include virtual models of crash test dummies and of passive safety devices (seat belts, airbags, shock absorbing dash boards, etc.). Guide rail tests evaluate vehicle deceleration and rollover potential, as well as penetration of the barrier by vehicles.
Origin
In the years 1970 attempts were made to simulate car crash events with non-linear spring-mass systems after calibration, which require as an input the results of physical destructive laboratory tests, needed to determine the mechanical crushing behavior of each spring component of the modeled system. "First principle" simulations like more elaborate finite element models, however, need only the definition of the structural geometry and the basic material properties (rheology of car body steel, glass, plastic parts, etc.) as an input to generate the numerical model.
The origins of industrial first principle computerized car crash simulation lie in military defense, outer space and civil nuclear power plant applications. Upon presentation of a simulation of the accidental crash of a military fighter plane into a nuclear power plant on May 30, 1978 by ESI Group in a meeting organized by the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI) in Stuttgart, car makers became alerted to the possibility of using this technology for the simulation of destructive car crash tests (Haug 1981).
In the following years, German car makers produced more complex crash simulation studies, simulating the crash behavior of individual car body components, component assemblies, and quarter and half car bodies in white (BIW). These experiments culminated in a joint project by the Forschungsgemeinschaft Automobil-Technik (FAT), a conglomeration of all seven German car makers (Audi, BMW, Ford, Mercedes-Benz, Opel, Porsche, and Volkswagen), which tested the applicability of two emerging commercial crash simulation codes. These simulation codes recreated a frontal impact of a full passenger car structure (Haug 1986) and they ran to completion on a computer overnight. Now that turn-around time between two consecutive job-submissions (computer runs) did not exceed one day, engineers were able to make efficient and progressive improvements of the crash behavior of the analyzed car body structure.
Application
Crash simulations are used to investigate the safety of the car occupants during impacts on the front end structure of the car in a "head-on collision" or "frontal impact", the lateral structure of the car in a “side collision” or “side impact”, the rear end structure of a car in a "rear-end collision" or “rear impact”, and the roof structure of the car when it overturns during a "rollover". Crash simulations can also be used to assess injury to pedestrians hit by a car.
Benefits
A crash simulation produces results without actual destructive testing of a new car model. This way, tests can be performed quickly and inexpensively in a computer, which permits optimization of the design before a real prototype of the car has been manufactured. Using a simulation, problems can be solved before spending time and money on an actual crash test. The great flexibility of printed output and graphical display enables designers to solve some problems that would have been nearly impossible without the help of a computer.
Analysis
Large number of crash simulations use a method of analysis called the Finite Element Method. The complex problems are solved by dividing a surface into a large but still finite number of elements and determining the motion of these elements over very small periods of time. Another approach to crash simulations is performed by application of Macro Element Method. The difference between two mentioned above methodologies is that the structure in case of Macro Element Method consists of smaller number of elements. The calculation algorithm of structure deformation is based on experimental data rather than calculated from partial differential equations.
Pam-Crash started crash simulation and together with LS-DYNA is a software package which is widely used for application of Finite Element Method. This method allows detailed modeling of a structure, but the disadvantage lies in high processing unit requirements and calculation time.
The Visual Crash Studio uses Macro Element Methodology. In comparison with FEM it has some modeling and boundary condition limitations but its application does not require advanced computers and the calculation time is incomparably smaller. Two presented methods complement each other. Macro Element Method is useful at early stage of the structure design process while Finite Element Method performs well at its final stages.
Structural analysis
In a typical crash simulation, the car body structure is analyzed using spatial discretization, that is, breaking up the continuous movement of the body in real time into smaller changes in position over small, discrete time steps. The discretization involves subdividing the surface of the constituent, thin, sheet metal parts into a large number (approaching one million in 2006) of quadrilateral or triangular regions, each of which spans the area between "nodes" to which its corners are fixed. Each element has mass, which is distributed as concentrated masses and as mass moments of inertia to its connecting nodes. Each node has 6 kinematic degrees of freedom, that is, one node can move in three linear directions under translation and can rotate about three independent axes. The spatial coordinates (x), displacement (u), velocity (v), and acceleration (a) of each node is mostly expressed in a three-dimensional rectangular Cartesian coordinate system with axes X,Y, and Z.
If the nodes move during a crash simulation, the connected elements move, stretch, and bend with their nodes, which causes them to impart forces and moments to their nodal connections. The forces and moments at the nodes correspond to the inertia forces and moments, caused by their translational (linear) and angular accelerations and to the forces and moments transmitted by the resistance of the structural material of the connected elements as they deform. Sometimes, additional external structural loads are applied, like gravity loads from the self weight of the parts, or added loads from external masses.
The forces and moments of all nodes are collected into a column vector (or column matrix), and the time dependent equations of motion (in dynamic equilibrium) can be written as follows.
where vector (mass times acceleration vector) collects the inertia forces at the nodes, collects the external nodal loads, and collects the internal resisting forces from the deformation of the material. M is a diagonal matrix of the nodal masses. Each vector (u, v, a, F, etc.) has dimension 6 times the total number of nodes in the crash model (about 6 million “degrees of freedom” for every 1 million "nodes" in 3-D thin shell finite element models).
Time analysis
A crash simulation uses time discretization as well to separate the continuous changes in time into very small, usable segments. The dynamic equations of motion hold at all times during a crash simulation and must be integrated in time, t, starting from an initial condition at time zero, which is just prior to the crash. According to the explicit finite difference time integration method used by most crash codes, the accelerations, velocities, and displacements of the body are related by the following equations.
In these equations the subscripts n±1/2, n, n+1 denote past, present, and future times, t, at half and full-time intervals with time steps and , respectively.
Solution
The above system of linear equations is solved for the accelerations, , the velocities, , and the displacements, , at each discrete point in time, t, during the crash duration. This solution is trivial, since the mass matrix is diagonal. The computer time is proportional to the number of finite elements and the number of solution time steps. The stable solution time step, , is limited for numerical stability, as expressed by the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy condition (CFL), which states that “in any time-marching computer simulation, the time step must be less than the time for some significant action to occur, and preferably considerably less." In a crash simulation, the fastest significant actions are the acoustic signals that travel inside the structural material.
The solid elastic stress wave speed amounts to
where is the initial elastic modulus (before plastic deformation) of the material and is the mass density. The largest stable time step for a given material is therefore
,
where is the smallest distance between any two nodes of the numerical crash simulation model.
Since this distance can change during a simulation, the stable time step changes and must be updated continually as the solution proceeds in time. When using steel, the typical value of the stable time step is about one microsecond when the smallest discrete node distance in the mesh of the finite element model is about 5 millimeters. It needs then more than 100,000 time intervals to solve a crash event that lasts for one tenth of a second. This figure is exceeded in many industrial crash models demanding optimized crash solvers with High-Performance Computing (HPC) features, such as vectorization and parallel computing.
See also
Finite element method in structural mechanics
Finite element analysis
Crash test
References
Haug, E. (1981) "Engineering safety analysis via destructive numerical experiments", EUROMECH 121, Polish Academy of Sciences, Engineering Transactions 29(1), 39–49.
Haug, E., T. Scharnhorst, P. Du Bois (1986) "FEM-Crash, Berechnung eines Fahrzeugfrontalaufpralls", VDI Berichte 613, 479–505.
Automotive safety
Modeling and simulation
Simulation software
Articles containing video clips |
21566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam%20Chomsky | Noam Chomsky | Avram Noam Chomsky (born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, social critic, and political activist. Sometimes called "the father of modern linguistics", Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science. He is a Laureate Professor of Linguistics at the University of Arizona and an Institute Professor Emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and is the author of more than 150 books on topics such as linguistics, war, politics, and mass media. Ideologically, he aligns with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism.
Born to Jewish immigrants in Philadelphia, Chomsky developed an early interest in anarchism from alternative bookstores in New York City. He studied at the University of Pennsylvania. During his postgraduate work in the Harvard Society of Fellows, Chomsky developed the theory of transformational grammar for which he earned his doctorate in 1955. That year he began teaching at MIT, and in 1957 emerged as a significant figure in linguistics with his landmark work Syntactic Structures, which played a major role in remodeling the study of language. From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study. He created or co-created the universal grammar theory, the generative grammar theory, the Chomsky hierarchy, and the minimalist program. Chomsky also played a pivotal role in the decline of linguistic behaviorism, and was particularly critical of the work of B. F. Skinner.
An outspoken opponent of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, which he saw as an act of American imperialism, in 1967 Chomsky rose to national attention for his anti-war essay "The Responsibility of Intellectuals". Becoming associated with the New Left, he was arrested multiple times for his activism and placed on President Richard Nixon's Enemies List. While expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades, he also became involved in the linguistics wars. In collaboration with Edward S. Herman, Chomsky later articulated the propaganda model of media criticism in Manufacturing Consent and worked to expose the Indonesian occupation of East Timor. His defense of unconditional freedom of speech, including that of Holocaust denial, generated significant controversy in the Faurisson affair of the 1980s. Since retiring from active teaching at MIT, he has continued his vocal political activism, including opposing the 2003 invasion of Iraq and supporting the Occupy movement. Chomsky began teaching at the University of Arizona in 2017.
One of the most cited scholars alive, Chomsky has influenced a broad array of academic fields. He is widely recognized as having helped to spark the cognitive revolution in the human sciences, contributing to the development of a new cognitivistic framework for the study of language and the mind. In addition to his continued scholarship, he remains a leading critic of U.S. foreign policy, neoliberalism and contemporary state capitalism, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and mainstream news media. Chomsky and his ideas are highly influential in the anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements.
Life
Childhood: 1928–1945
Avram Noam Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928, in the East Oak Lane neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His parents, Ze'ev "William" Chomsky and Elsie Simonofsky, were Jewish immigrants. William had fled the Russian Empire in 1913 to escape conscription and worked in Baltimore sweatshops and Hebrew elementary schools before attending university. After moving to Philadelphia, William became principal of the Congregation Mikveh Israel religious school and joined the Gratz College faculty. He placed great emphasis on educating people so that they would be "well integrated, free and independent in their thinking, concerned about improving and enhancing the world, and eager to participate in making life more meaningful and worthwhile for all", a mission that shaped and was subsequently adopted by his son. Elsie was a teacher and activist born in Belarus. They met at Mikveh Israel, where they both worked.
Noam (b. 1928) was the Chomskys' first child. His younger brother, David Eli Chomsky (1934–2021), was born five years later, and worked as a cardiologist in Philadelphia. The brothers were close, though David was more easygoing while Noam could be very competitive. Chomsky and his brother were raised Jewish, being taught Hebrew and regularly involved with discussing the political theories of Zionism; the family was particularly influenced by the Left Zionist writings of Ahad Ha'am. Chomsky faced antisemitism as a child, particularly from Philadelphia's Irish and German communities.
Chomsky attended the independent, Deweyite Oak Lane Country Day School and Philadelphia's Central High School, where he excelled academically and joined various clubs and societies, but was troubled by the school's hierarchical and regimented teaching methods. He also attended Hebrew High School at Gratz College, where his father taught.
Chomsky has described his parents as "normal Roosevelt Democrats" with center-left politics, but relatives involved in the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union exposed him to socialism and far-left politics. He was substantially influenced by his uncle and the Jewish leftists who frequented his New York City newspaper stand to debate current affairs. Chomsky himself often visited left-wing and anarchist bookstores when visiting his uncle in the city, voraciously reading political literature. He wrote his first article at age 10 on the spread of fascism following the fall of Barcelona (Feb. 1939) during the Spanish Civil War and, from the age of 12 or 13, identified with anarchist politics, as well as the "anti-Bolshevik Left." He later described his discovery of anarchism as "a lucky accident" that made him critical of Stalinism and other forms of Marxism–Leninism.
University: 1945–1955
In 1945, aged 16, Chomsky began a general program of study at the University of Pennsylvania, where he explored philosophy, logic, and languages and developed a primary interest in learning Arabic. Living at home, he funded his undergraduate degree by teaching Hebrew. Frustrated with his experiences at the university, he considered dropping out and moving to a kibbutz in Mandatory Palestine, but his intellectual curiosity was reawakened through conversations with the Russian-born linguist Zellig Harris, whom he first met in a political circle in 1947. Harris introduced Chomsky to the field of theoretical linguistics and convinced him to major in the subject. Chomsky's BA honors thesis, "Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew", applied Harris's methods to the language. Chomsky revised this thesis for his MA, which he received from the University of Pennsylvania in 1951; it was subsequently published as a book. He also developed his interest in philosophy while at university, in particular under the tutelage of Nelson Goodman.
From 1951 to 1955 Chomsky was a member of the Society of Fellows at Harvard University, where he undertook research on what became his doctoral dissertation. Having been encouraged by Goodman to apply, Chomsky was attracted to Harvard in part because the philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine was based there. Both Quine and a visiting philosopher, J. L. Austin of the University of Oxford, strongly influenced Chomsky. In 1952 Chomsky published his first academic article, Systems of Syntactic Analysis, which appeared not in a journal of linguistics but in The Journal of Symbolic Logic. Highly critical of the established behaviorist currents in linguistics, in 1954 he presented his ideas at lectures at the University of Chicago and Yale University. He had not been registered as a student at Pennsylvania for four years, but in 1955 he submitted a thesis setting out his ideas on transformational grammar; he was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree for it, and it was privately distributed among specialists on microfilm before being published in 1975 as part of The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory. Harvard professor George Armitage Miller was impressed by Chomsky's thesis and collaborated with him on several technical papers in mathematical linguistics. Chomsky's doctorate exempted him from compulsory military service, which was otherwise due to begin in 1955.
In 1947 Chomsky began a romantic relationship with Carol Doris Schatz, whom he had known since early childhood. They married in 1949. After Chomsky was made a Fellow at Harvard, the couple moved to the Allston area of Boston and remained there until 1965, when they relocated to the suburb of Lexington. In 1953 the couple took a Harvard travel grant to Europe, from the United Kingdom through France, Switzerland into Italy, and Israel, where they lived in Hashomer Hatzair's HaZore'a kibbutz. Despite enjoying himself, Chomsky was appalled by the country's Jewish nationalism, anti-Arab racism and, within the kibbutz's leftist community, pro-Stalinism.
On visits to New York City, Chomsky continued to frequent the office of the Yiddish anarchist journal Fraye Arbeter Shtime and became enamored with the ideas of Rudolf Rocker, a contributor whose work introduced Chomsky to the link between anarchism and classical liberalism. Chomsky also read other political thinkers: the anarchists Mikhail Bakunin and Diego Abad de Santillán, democratic socialists George Orwell, Bertrand Russell, and Dwight Macdonald, and works by Marxists Karl Liebknecht, Karl Korsch, and Rosa Luxemburg. His readings convinced him of the desirability of an anarcho-syndicalist society, and he became fascinated by the anarcho-syndicalist communes set up during the Spanish Civil War, as documented in Orwell's Homage to Catalonia (1938). He read the leftist journal Politics, which furthered his interest in anarchism, and the council communist periodical Living Marxism, though he rejected the orthodoxy of its editor, Paul Mattick. He was also interested in the Marlenite ideas of the Leninist League of the United States, an anti-Stalinist Marxist–Leninist group, impressed by its characterization of World War II as a "phony war" instigated by both Western capitalists and the Soviet Union. He "never really believed the thesis, but... found it intriguing enough to try to figure out what they were talking about."
Early career: 1955–1966
Chomsky befriended two linguists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Morris Halle and Roman Jakobson, the latter of whom secured him an assistant professor position there in 1955. At MIT, Chomsky spent half his time on a mechanical translation project and half teaching a course on linguistics and philosophy. He described MIT as "a pretty free and open place, open to experimentation and without rigid requirements. It was just perfect for someone of my idiosyncratic interests and work." In 1957 MIT promoted him to the position of associate professor, and from 1957 to 1958 he was also employed by Columbia University as a visiting professor. The Chomskys had their first child that same year, a daughter named Aviva. He also published his first book on linguistics, Syntactic Structures, a work that radically opposed the dominant Harris–Bloomfield trend in the field. Responses to Chomsky's ideas ranged from indifference to hostility, and his work proved divisive and caused "significant upheaval" in the discipline. The linguist John Lyons later asserted that Syntactic Structures "revolutionized the scientific study of language". From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.
In 1959, Chomsky published a review of B. F. Skinner's 1957 book Verbal Behavior in the academic journal Language, in which he argued against Skinner's view of language as learned behavior. The review argued that Skinner ignored the role of human creativity in linguistics and helped to establish Chomsky as an intellectual. With Halle, Chomsky proceeded to found MIT's graduate program in linguistics. In 1961 he was awarded tenure, becoming a full professor in the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics. Chomsky went on to be appointed plenary speaker at the Ninth International Congress of Linguists, held in 1962 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which established him as the de facto spokesperson of American linguistics. Between 1963 and 1965 he consulted on a military-sponsored project "to establish natural language as an operational language for command and control"; Barbara Partee, a collaborator on this project and then-student of Chomsky, has said this research was justified to the military on the basis that "in the event of a nuclear war, the generals would be underground with some computers trying to manage things, and that it would probably be easier to teach computers to understand English than to teach the generals to program."
Chomsky continued to publish his linguistic ideas throughout the decade, including in Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965), Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar (1966), and Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought (1966). Along with Halle, he also edited the Studies in Language series of books for Harper and Row. As he began to accrue significant academic recognition and honors for his work, Chomsky lectured at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1966. His Beckman lectures at Berkeley were assembled and published as Language and Mind in 1968. Despite his growing stature, an intellectual falling-out between Chomsky and some of his early colleagues and doctoral students—including Paul Postal, John "Haj" Ross, George Lakoff, and James D. McCawley—triggered a series of academic debates that came to be known as the "Linguistics Wars", although they revolved largely around philosophical issues rather than linguistics proper. Chomsky has been open about his employer at this time, saying MIT "was a Pentagon-based university. And I was at a military-funded lab." He has said he gave "a good bit of thought" to resigning from MIT during the Vietnam War. There has since been a wide-ranging debate about what effects Chomsky's employment at MIT had on his political and linguistic ideas.
Anti-war activism and dissent: 1967–1975
Chomsky joined protests against U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War in 1962, speaking on the subject at small gatherings in churches and homes. His 1967 critique of U.S. involvement, "The Responsibility of Intellectuals", among other contributions to The New York Review of Books, debuted Chomsky as a public dissident. This essay and other political articles were collected and published in 1969 as part of Chomsky's first political book, American Power and the New Mandarins. He followed this with further political books, including At War with Asia (1970), The Backroom Boys (1973), For Reasons of State (1973), and Peace in the Middle East? (1974), published by Pantheon Books. These publications led to Chomsky's association with the American New Left movement, though he thought little of prominent New Left intellectuals Herbert Marcuse and Erich Fromm and preferred the company of activists to that of intellectuals. Chomsky remained largely ignored by the mainstream press throughout this period.
He also became involved in left-wing activism. Chomsky refused to pay half his taxes, publicly supported students who refused the draft, and was arrested while participating an anti-war teach-in outside the Pentagon. During this time, Chomsky co-founded the anti-war collective RESIST with Mitchell Goodman, Denise Levertov, William Sloane Coffin, and Dwight Macdonald. Although he questioned the objectives of the 1968 student protests, Chomsky gave many lectures to student activist groups and, with his colleague Louis Kampf, ran undergraduate courses on politics at MIT independently of the conservative-dominated political science department. When student activists campaigned to stop weapons and counterinsurgency research at MIT, Chomsky was sympathetic but felt that the research should remain under MIT's oversight and limited to systems of deterrence and defense. In 1970 he visited southeast Asia to lecture at Vietnam's Hanoi University of Science and Technology and toured war refugee camps in Laos. In 1973 he helped lead a committee commemorating the 50th anniversary of the War Resisters League.
Because of his anti-war activism, Chomsky was arrested on multiple occasions and included on President Richard Nixon's master list of political opponents. Chomsky was aware of the potential repercussions of his civil disobedience and his wife began studying for her own doctorate in linguistics to support the family in the event of Chomsky's imprisonment or joblessness. Chomsky's scientific reputation insulated him from administrative action based on his beliefs.
His work in linguistics continued to gain international recognition as he received multiple honorary doctorates. He delivered public lectures at the University of Cambridge, Columbia University (Woodbridge Lectures), and Stanford University. His appearance in a 1971 debate with French continental philosopher Michel Foucault positioned Chomsky as a symbolic figurehead of analytic philosophy. He continued to publish extensively on linguistics, producing Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar (1972), an enlarged edition of Language and Mind (1972), and Reflections on Language (1975). In 1974 Chomsky became a corresponding fellow of the British Academy.
Edward S. Herman and the Faurisson affair: 1976–1980
In the late 1970s and 1980s, Chomsky's linguistic publications expanded and clarified his earlier work, addressing his critics and updating his grammatical theory. His political talks often generated considerable controversy, particularly when he criticized the Israeli government and military. In the early 1970s Chomsky began collaborating with Edward S. Herman, who had also published critiques of the U.S. war in Vietnam. Together they wrote Counter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact & Propaganda, a book that criticized U.S. military involvement in Southeast Asia and the mainstream media's failure to cover it. Warner Modular published it in 1973, but its parent company disapproved of the book's contents and ordered all copies destroyed.
While mainstream publishing options proved elusive, Chomsky found support from Michael Albert's South End Press, an activist-oriented publishing company. In 1979, South End published Chomsky and Herman's revised Counter-Revolutionary Violence as the two-volume The Political Economy of Human Rights, which compares U.S. media reactions to the Cambodian genocide and the Indonesian occupation of East Timor. It argues that because Indonesia was a U.S. ally, U.S. media ignored the East Timorese situation while focusing on events in Cambodia, a U.S. enemy. Chomsky's response included two testimonials before the United Nations' Special Committee on Decolonization, successful encouragement for American media to cover the occupation, and meetings with refugees in Lisbon. The Marxist academic Steven Lukes publicly accused Chomsky of betraying his anarchist ideals and acting as an apologist for Cambodian leader Pol Pot. Herman said that the controversy "imposed a serious personal cost" on Chomsky, Chomsky said that "conformist intellectuals of East or West" deal with dissident opinion by trying "to overwhelm it with a flood of lies". He regarded the personal criticism as less important than the evidence that "mainstream intelligentsia suppressed or justified the crimes of their own states".
Chomsky had long publicly criticized Nazism, and totalitarianism more generally, but his commitment to freedom of speech led him to defend the right of French historian Robert Faurisson to advocate a position widely characterized as Holocaust denial. Without Chomsky's knowledge, his plea for Faurisson's freedom of speech was published as the preface to the latter's 1980 book . Chomsky was widely condemned for defending Faurisson, and France's mainstream press accused Chomsky of being a Holocaust denier himself, refusing to publish his rebuttals to their accusations. Critiquing Chomsky's position, sociologist Werner Cohn later published an analysis of the affair titled Partners in Hate: Noam Chomsky and the Holocaust Deniers. The Faurisson affair had a lasting, damaging effect on Chomsky's career, especially in France.
Critique of propaganda and international affairs: 1980–2001
In 1985, during the Nicaraguan Contra War—in which the U.S. supported the contra militia against the Sandinista government—Chomsky traveled to Managua to meet with workers' organizations and refugees of the conflict, giving public lectures on politics and linguistics. Many of these lectures were published in 1987 as On Power and Ideology: The Managua Lectures. In 1983 he published The Fateful Triangle, which argued that the U.S. had continually used the Israeli–Palestinian conflict for its own ends. In 1988, Chomsky visited the Palestinian territories to witness the impact of Israeli occupation.
Chomsky and Herman's Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988) outlines their propaganda model for understanding mainstream media. Even in countries without official censorship, they argued, the news is censored through five filters that greatly influence both what and how news is presented. The book was inspired by Alex Carey and adapted into a 1992 film. In 1989, Chomsky published Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies, in which he suggests that a worthwhile democracy requires that its citizens undertake intellectual self-defense against the media and elite intellectual culture that seeks to control them. By the 1980s, Chomsky's students had become prominent linguists who, in turn, expanded and revised his linguistic theories.
In the 1990s, Chomsky embraced political activism to a greater degree than before. Retaining his commitment to the cause of East Timorese independence, in 1995 he visited Australia to talk on the issue at the behest of the East Timorese Relief Association and the National Council for East Timorese Resistance. The lectures he gave on the subject were published as Powers and Prospects in 1996. As a result of the international publicity Chomsky generated, his biographer Wolfgang Sperlich opined that he did more to aid the cause of East Timorese independence than anyone but the investigative journalist John Pilger. After East Timor attained independence from Indonesia in 1999, the Australian-led International Force for East Timor arrived as a peacekeeping force; Chomsky was critical of this, believing it was designed to secure Australian access to East Timor's oil and gas reserves under the Timor Gap Treaty.
Iraq war criticism and retirement from MIT: 2001–2017
After the September 11 attacks in 2001, Chomsky was widely interviewed; Seven Stories Press collated and published these interviews that October. Chomsky argued that the ensuing War on Terror was not a new development but a continuation of U.S. foreign policy and concomitant rhetoric since at least the Reagan era. He gave the D.T. Lakdawala Memorial Lecture in New Delhi in 2001, and in 2003 visited Cuba at the invitation of the Latin American Association of Social Scientists. Chomsky's 2003 Hegemony or Survival articulated what he called the United States' "imperial grand strategy" and critiqued the Iraq War and other aspects of the War on Terror. Chomsky toured internationally with greater regularity during this period.
Chomsky retired from MIT in 2002, but continued to conduct research and seminars on campus as an emeritus. That same year he visited Turkey to attend the trial of a publisher who had been accused of treason for printing one of Chomsky's books; Chomsky insisted on being a co-defendant and amid international media attention the Security Courts dropped the charge on the first day. During that trip Chomsky visited Kurdish areas of Turkey and spoke out in favor of the Kurds' human rights. A supporter of the World Social Forum, he attended its conferences in Brazil in both 2002 and 2003, also attending the Forum event in India.
Chomsky supported the Occupy movement, delivering talks at encampments and producing two works that chronicled its influence: Occupy (2012), a pamphlet, and Occupy: Reflections on Class War, Rebellion and Solidarity (2013). He attributed Occupy's growth to a perception that the Democratic Party had abandoned the interests of the white working class. In March 2014, Chomsky joined the advisory council of the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation, an organization that advocates the global abolition of nuclear weapons, as a senior fellow. The 2015 documentary Requiem for the American Dream summarizes his views on capitalism and economic inequality through a "75-minute teach-in".
University of Arizona: 2017–present
In 2017, Chomsky taught a short-term politics course at the University of Arizona in Tucson and was later hired as a part-time professor in the linguistics department there, with his duties including teaching and public seminars. His salary is covered by philanthropic donations.
Chomsky signed the Declaration on the Common Language of the Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks and Montenegrins in 2018.
Linguistic theory
The basis of Chomsky's linguistic theory lies in biolinguistics, the linguistic school that holds that the principles underpinning the structure of language are biologically preset in the human mind and hence genetically inherited. He argues that all humans share the same underlying linguistic structure, irrespective of sociocultural differences. In adopting this position Chomsky rejects the radical behaviorist psychology of B. F. Skinner, who viewed behavior (including talking and thinking) as a completely learned product of the interactions between organisms and their environments. Accordingly, Chomsky argues that language is a unique evolutionary development of the human species and distinguished from modes of communication used by any other animal species. Chomsky's nativist, internalist view of language is consistent with the philosophical school of "rationalism" and contrasts with the anti-nativist, externalist view of language consistent with the philosophical school of "empiricism", which contends that all knowledge, including language, comes from external stimuli.
Universal grammar
Since the 1960s Chomsky has maintained that syntactic knowledge is at least partially inborn, implying that children need only learn certain language-specific features of their native languages. He bases his argument on observations about human language acquisition and describes a "poverty of the stimulus": an enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and the rich linguistic competence they attain. For example, although children are exposed to only a very small and finite subset of the allowable syntactic variants within their first language, they somehow acquire the highly organized and systematic ability to understand and produce an infinite number of sentences, including ones that have never before been uttered, in that language. To explain this, Chomsky reasoned that the primary linguistic data must be supplemented by an innate linguistic capacity. Furthermore, while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of inductive reasoning, if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky referred to this difference in capacity as the language acquisition device, and suggested that linguists needed to determine both what that device is and what constraints it imposes on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that result from these constraints would constitute "universal grammar". Multiple scholars have challenged universal grammar on the grounds of the evolutionary infeasibility of its genetic basis for language, the lack of universal characteristics between languages, and the unproven link between innate/universal structures and the structures of specific languages. Scholar Michael Tomasello has challenged Chomsky's theory of innate syntactic knowledge as based on theory and not behavioral observation. Although it was influential from 1960s through 1990s, Chomsky's nativist theory was ultimately rejected by the mainstream child language acquisition research community owing to its inconsistency with research evidence. It was also argued by linguists including Robert Freidin, Geoffrey Sampson, Geoffrey K. Pullum and Barbara Scholz that Chomsky's linguistic evidence for it had been false.
Transformational-generative grammar
Transformational-generative grammar is a broad theory used to model, encode, and deduce a native speaker's linguistic capabilities. These models, or "formal grammars", show the abstract structures of a specific language as they may relate to structures in other languages. Chomsky developed transformational grammar in the mid-1950s, whereupon it became the dominant syntactic theory in linguistics for two decades. "Transformations" refers to syntactic relationships within language, e.g., being able to infer that the subject between two sentences is the same person. Chomsky's theory posits that language consists of both deep structures and surface structures: Outward-facing surface structures relate phonetic rules into sound, while inward-facing deep structures relate words and conceptual meaning. Transformational-generative grammar uses mathematical notation to express the rules that govern the connection between meaning and sound (deep and surface structures, respectively). By this theory, linguistic principles can mathematically generate potential sentence structures in a language.
It is a common conception that Chomsky invented transformational-generative grammar, but his actual contribution to it was considered modest at the time when Chomsky first published his theory. In his 1955 dissertation and his 1957 textbook Syntactic Structures, he presented recent developments in the analysis formulated by Zellig Harris, who was Chomsky's PhD supervisor, and by Charles F. Hockett. Their method is derived from the work of the Danish structural linguist Louis Hjelmslev, who introduced algorithmic grammar to general linguistics. Based on this rule-based notation of grammars, Chomsky grouped logically possible phrase-structure grammar types into a series of four nested subsets and increasingly complex types, together known as the Chomsky hierarchy. This classification remains relevant to formal language theory and theoretical computer science, especially programming language theory, compiler construction, and automata theory.
Following transformational grammar's heyday through the mid-1970s, a derivative government and binding theory became a dominant research framework through the early 1990s, remaining an influential theory, when linguists turned to a "minimalist" approach to grammar. This research focused on the principles and parameters framework, which explained children's ability to learn any language by filling open parameters (a set of universal grammar principles) that adapt as the child encounters linguistic data. The minimalist program, initiated by Chomsky, asks which minimal principles and parameters theory fits most elegantly, naturally, and simply. In an attempt to simplify language into a system that relates meaning and sound using the minimum possible faculties, Chomsky dispenses with concepts such as "deep structure" and "surface structure" and instead emphasizes the plasticity of the brain's neural circuits, with which come an infinite number of concepts, or "logical forms". When exposed to linguistic data, a hearer-speaker's brain proceeds to associate sound and meaning, and the rules of grammar we observe are in fact only the consequences, or side effects, of the way language works. Thus, while much of Chomsky's prior research focused on the rules of language, he now focuses on the mechanisms the brain uses to generate these rules and regulate speech.
Political views
Chomsky is a prominent political dissident. His political views have changed little since his childhood, when he was influenced by the emphasis on political activism that was ingrained in Jewish working-class tradition. He usually identifies as an anarcho-syndicalist or a libertarian socialist. He views these positions not as precise political theories but as ideals that he thinks best meet human needs: liberty, community, and freedom of association. Unlike some other socialists, such as Marxists, Chomsky believes that politics lies outside the remit of science, but he still roots his ideas about an ideal society in empirical data and empirically justified theories.
In Chomsky's view, the truth about political realities is systematically distorted or suppressed by an elite corporatocracy, which uses corporate media, advertising, and think tanks to promote its own propaganda. His work seeks to reveal such manipulations and the truth they obscure. Chomsky believes this web of falsehood can be broken by "common sense", critical thinking, and understanding the roles of self-interest and self-deception, and that intellectuals abdicate their moral responsibility to tell the truth about the world in fear of losing prestige and funding. He argues that, as such an intellectual, it is his duty to use his social privilege, resources, and training to aid popular democracy movements in their struggles.
Although he has joined protest marches and organized activist groups, Chomsky's primary political outlets are education and publication. He offers a wide range of political writings as well as free lessons and lectures to encourage wider political consciousness. He is a member of the Industrial Workers of the World international union.
United States foreign policy
Chomsky has been a prominent critic of American imperialism and believes that World War II is the only justified war the U.S. has fought in his lifetime. He believes that the basic principle of the foreign policy of the United States is the establishment of "open societies" that are economically and politically controlled by the United States and where U.S.-based businesses can prosper. He argues that the U.S. seeks to suppress any movements within these countries that are not compliant with U.S. interests and to ensure that U.S.-friendly governments are placed in power. When discussing current events, he emphasizes their place within a wider historical perspective. He believes that official, sanctioned historical accounts of U.S. and British extraterritorial operations have consistently whitewashed these nations' actions in order to present them as having benevolent motives in either spreading democracy or, in older instances, spreading Christianity; criticizing these accounts, he seeks to correct them. Prominent examples he regularly cites are the actions of the British Empire in India and Africa and the actions of the U.S. in Vietnam, the Philippines, Latin America, and the Middle East.
Chomsky's political work has centered heavily on criticizing the actions of the United States. He has said he focuses on the U.S. because the country has militarily and economically dominated the world during his lifetime and because its liberal democratic electoral system allows the citizenry to influence government policy. His hope is that, by spreading awareness of the impact U.S. foreign policies have on the populations affected by them, he can sway the populations of the U.S. and other countries into opposing the policies. He urges people to criticize their governments' motivations, decisions, and actions, to accept responsibility for their own thoughts and actions, and to apply the same standards to others as to themselves.
Chomsky has been critical of U.S. involvement in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, arguing that it has consistently blocked a peaceful settlement. Chomsky also criticizes the U.S.'s close ties with Saudi Arabia and involvement in Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen, highlighting that Saudi Arabia has "one of the most grotesque human rights records in the world".
Capitalism and socialism
In his youth, Chomsky developed a dislike of capitalism and the pursuit of material wealth. At the same time, he developed a disdain for authoritarian socialism, as represented by the Marxist–Leninist policies of the Soviet Union. Rather than accepting the common view among U.S. economists that a spectrum exists between total state ownership of the economy and total private ownership, he instead suggests that a spectrum should be understood between total democratic control of the economy and total autocratic control (whether state or private). He argues that Western capitalist countries are not really democratic, because, in his view, a truly democratic society is one in which all persons have a say in public economic policy. He has stated his opposition to ruling elites, among them institutions like the IMF, World Bank, and GATT (precursor to the WTO).
Chomsky highlights that, since the 1970s, the U.S. has become increasingly economically unequal as a result of the repeal of various financial regulations and the rescinding of the Bretton Woods financial control agreement. He characterizes the U.S. as a de facto one-party state, viewing both the Republican Party and Democratic Party as manifestations of a single "Business Party" controlled by corporate and financial interests. Chomsky highlights that, within Western capitalist liberal democracies, at least 80% of the population has no control over economic decisions, which are instead in the hands of a management class and ultimately controlled by a small, wealthy elite.
Noting the entrenchment of such an economic system, Chomsky believes that change is possible through the organized cooperation of large numbers of people who understand the problem and know how they want to reorganize the economy more equitably. Acknowledging that corporate domination of media and government stifles any significant change to this system, he sees reason for optimism in historical examples such as the social rejection of slavery as immoral, the advances in women's rights, and the forcing of government to justify invasions. He views violent revolution to overthrow a government as a last resort to be avoided if possible, citing the example of historical revolutions where the population's welfare has worsened as a result of upheaval.
Chomsky sees libertarian socialist and anarcho-syndicalist ideas as the descendants of the classical liberal ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, arguing that his ideological position revolves around "nourishing the libertarian and creative character of the human being". He envisions an anarcho-syndicalist future with direct worker control of the means of production and government by workers' councils, who would select temporary and revocable representatives to meet together at general assemblies. The point of this self-governance is to make each citizen, in Thomas Jefferson's words, "a direct participator in the government of affairs." He believes that there will be no need for political parties. By controlling their productive life, he believes that individuals can gain job satisfaction and a sense of fulfillment and purpose. He argues that unpleasant and unpopular jobs could be fully automated, carried out by workers who are specially remunerated, or shared among everyone.
Israeli–Palestinian conflict
Chomsky has written prolifically on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, aiming to raise public awareness of it. He has long endorsed a left binationalist program in Israel and Palestine, seeking to create a democratic state in the Levant that is home to both Jews and Arabs. He has called the adoption of the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine "a very bad decision." Nevertheless, given the realpolitik of the situation, he has also considered a two-state solution on the condition that the nation-states exist on equal terms. Chomsky was denied entry to the West Bank in 2010 because of his criticisms of Israel. He had been invited to deliver a lecture at Bir Zeit University and was to meet with Palestinian Prime Minister Salam Fayyad. An Israeli Foreign Ministry spokesman later said that Chomsky was denied entry by mistake.
News media and propaganda
Chomsky's political writings have largely focused on ideology, social and political power, the media, and state policy. One of his best-known works, Manufacturing Consent, dissects the media's role in reinforcing and acquiescing to state policies across the political spectrum while marginalizing contrary perspectives. Chomsky asserts that this version of censorship, by government-guided "free market" forces, is subtler and harder to undermine than was the equivalent propaganda system in the Soviet Union. As he argues, the mainstream press is corporate-owned and thus reflects corporate priorities and interests. Acknowledging that many American journalists are dedicated and well-meaning, he argues that the mass media's choices of topics and issues, the unquestioned premises on which that coverage rests, and the range of opinions expressed are all constrained to reinforce the state's ideology: although mass media will criticize individual politicians and political parties, it will not undermine the wider state-corporate nexus of which it is a part. As evidence, he highlights that the U.S. mass media does not employ any socialist journalists or political commentators. He also points to examples of important news stories that the U.S. mainstream media has ignored because reporting on them would reflect badly upon the country, including the murder of Black Panther Fred Hampton with possible FBI involvement, the massacres in Nicaragua perpetrated by U.S.-funded Contras, and the constant reporting on Israeli deaths without equivalent coverage of the far larger number of Palestinian deaths in that conflict. To remedy this situation, Chomsky calls for grassroots democratic control and involvement of the media.
Chomsky considers most conspiracy theories fruitless, distracting substitutes for thinking about policy formation in an institutional framework, where individual manipulation is secondary to broader social imperatives. While not dismissing them outright, he considers them unproductive to challenging power in a substantial way. In response to the labeling of his own ideas as a conspiracy theory, Chomsky has said that it is very rational for the media to manipulate information in order to sell it, like any other business. He asks whether General Motors would be accused of conspiracy if it deliberately selected what it used or discarded to sell its product.
Other disciplines
Chomsky has also been active in a number of philosophical fields, including philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, and philosophy of science. In these fields he is credited with ushering in the "cognitive revolution", a significant paradigm shift that rejected logical positivism, the prevailing philosophical methodology of the time, and reframed how philosophers think about language and the mind. Chomsky views the cognitive revolution as rooted in 17th-century rationalist ideals. His position—the idea that the mind contains inherent structures to understand language, perception, and thought—has more in common with rationalism (Enlightenment and Cartesian) than behaviorism. He named one of his key works Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought (1966). This sparked criticism from historians and philosophers who disagreed with Chomsky's interpretations of classical sources and use of philosophical terminology. In the philosophy of language, Chomsky is particularly known for his criticisms of the notion of reference and meaning in human language and his perspective on the nature and function of mental representations.
Chomsky's famous 1971 debate on human nature with the French philosopher Michel Foucault was symbolic in positioning Chomsky as the prototypical analytic philosopher against Foucault, a stalwart of the continental tradition. It showed what appeared to be irreconcilable differences between two moral and intellectual luminaries of the 20th century. Foucault's position was that of critique, that human nature could not be conceived in terms foreign to present understanding, while Chomsky held that human nature contained universalities such as a common standard of moral justice as deduced through reason based on what rationally serves human necessity. Chomsky criticized postmodernism and French philosophy generally, arguing that the obscure language of postmodern, leftist philosophers gives little aid to the working classes. He has also debated analytic philosophers, including Tyler Burge, Donald Davidson, Michael Dummett, Saul Kripke, Thomas Nagel, Hilary Putnam, Willard Van Orman Quine, and John Searle.
Chomsky's contributions span intellectual and world history, including the history of philosophy. Irony is a recurring characteristic of his writing, as he often implies that his readers know better, which can make them more engaged in the veracity of his claims.
Personal life
Chomsky endeavors to separate his family life, linguistic scholarship, and political activism from each other. An intensely private person, he is uninterested in appearances and the fame his work has brought him. He also has little interest in modern art and music. McGilvray suggests that Chomsky was never motivated by a desire for fame, but impelled to tell what he perceived as the truth and a desire to aid others in doing so. Chomsky acknowledges that his income affords him a privileged life compared to the majority of the world's population; nevertheless, he characterizes himself as a "worker", albeit one who uses his intellect as his employable skill. He reads four or five newspapers daily; in the US, he subscribes to The Boston Globe, The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, Financial Times, and The Christian Science Monitor. Chomsky is non-religious, but has expressed approval of forms of religion such as liberation theology.
Chomsky has attracted controversy for calling established political and academic figures "corrupt", "fascist", and "fraudulent". His colleague Steven Pinker has said that he "portrays people who disagree with him as stupid or evil, using withering scorn in his rhetoric", and that this contributes to the extreme reactions he receives from critics. Chomsky avoids attending academic conferences, including left-oriented ones such as the Socialist Scholars Conference, preferring to speak to activist groups or hold university seminars for mass audiences. His approach to academic freedom has led him to support MIT academics whose actions he deplores; in 1969, when Chomsky heard that Walt Rostow, a major architect of the Vietnam war, wanted to return to work at MIT, Chomsky threatened "to protest publicly" if Rostow were denied a position at MIT. In 1989, when Pentagon adviser John Deutch applied to be president of MIT, Chomsky supported his candidacy. Later, when Deutch became head of the CIA, The New York Times quoted Chomsky as saying, "He has more honesty and integrity than anyone I've ever met.... If somebody's got to be running the CIA, I'm glad it's him."
Chomsky was married to Carol () from 1949 until her death in 2008. They had three children together: Aviva (b. 1957), Diane (b. 1960), and Harry (b. 1967). In 2014, Chomsky married Valeria Wasserman.
Reception and influence
Chomsky has been a defining Western intellectual figure, central to the field of linguistics and definitive in cognitive science, computer science, philosophy, and psychology. In addition to being known as one of the most important intellectuals of his time, Chomsky carries a dual legacy as both a "leader in the field" of linguistics and "a figure of enlightenment and inspiration" for political dissenters. Despite his academic success, his political viewpoints and activism have resulted in his being distrusted by the mainstream media apparatus, and he is regarded as being "on the outer margin of acceptability". The reception of his work is intertwined with his public image as an anarchist, a gadfly, a historian, a Jew, a linguist, and a philosopher.
In academia
McGilvray observes that Chomsky inaugurated the "cognitive revolution" in linguistics, and that he is largely responsible for establishing the field as a formal, natural science, moving it away from the procedural form of structural linguistics dominant during the mid-20th century. As such, some have called Chomsky "the father of modern linguistics". Linguist John Lyons further remarked that within a few decades of publication, Chomskyan linguistics had become "the most dynamic and influential" school of thought in the field. By the 1970s his work had also come to exert a considerable influence on philosophy, and a Minnesota State University Moorhead poll ranked Syntactic Structures as the single most important work in cognitive science. In addition, his work in automata theory and the Chomsky hierarchy have become well known in computer science, and he is much cited in computational linguistics.
Chomsky's criticisms of behaviorism contributed substantially to the decline of behaviorist psychology; in addition, he is generally regarded as one of the primary founders of the field of cognitive science. Some arguments in evolutionary psychology are derived from his research results; Nim Chimpsky, a chimpanzee who was the subject of a study in animal language acquisition at Columbia University, was named after Chomsky in reference to his view of language acquisition as a uniquely human ability.
ACM Turing Award winner Donald Knuth credited Chomsky's work with helping him combine his interests in mathematics, linguistics, and computer science. IBM computer scientist John Backus, another Turing Award winner, used some of Chomsky's concepts to help him develop FORTRAN, the first widely used high-level computer programming language. Immunologist Niels Kaj Jerne's 1984 Nobel lecture applied Chomsky's generative grammar theory to the immune response process. Chomsky's theory of generative grammar has also influenced work in music theory and analysis.
Chomsky is among the most cited authors living or dead. He was cited within the Arts and Humanities Citation Index more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992. Chomsky was also extensively cited in the Social Sciences Citation Index and Science Citation Index during the same period. The librarian who conducted the research said that the statistics show that "he is very widely read across disciplines and that his work is used by researchers across disciplines... it seems that you can't write a paper without citing Noam Chomsky." As a result of his influence, there are dueling camps of Chomskyan and non-Chomskyan linguistics, with the disputes between the two camps often acrimonious.
In politics
Chomsky's status as the "most-quoted living author" is credited to his political writings, which vastly outnumber his writings on linguistics. Chomsky biographer Wolfgang B. Sperlich characterizes him as "one of the most notable contemporary champions of the people"; journalist John Pilger has described him as a "genuine people's hero; an inspiration for struggles all over the world for that basic decency known as freedom. To a lot of people in the margins—activists and movements—he's unfailingly supportive." Arundhati Roy has called him "one of the greatest, most radical public thinkers of our time", and Edward Said thought him "one of the most significant challengers of unjust power and delusions". Fred Halliday has said that by the start of the 21st century Chomsky had become a "guru" for the world's anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements. The propaganda model of media criticism that he and Herman developed has been widely accepted in radical media critiques and adopted to some level in mainstream criticism of the media, also exerting a significant influence on the growth of alternative media, including radio, publishers, and the Internet, which in turn have helped to disseminate his work.
Sperlich also says that Chomsky has been vilified by corporate interests, particularly in the mainstream press. University departments devoted to history and political science rarely include Chomsky's work on their undergraduate syllabi. Critics have argued that despite publishing widely on social and political issues, Chomsky has no formal expertise in these areas; he has responded that such issues are not as complex as many social scientists claim and that almost everyone is able to comprehend them regardless of whether they have been academically trained to do so. According to McGilvray, many of Chomsky's critics "do not bother quoting his work or quote out of context, distort, and create straw men that cannot be supported by Chomsky's text".
Chomsky drew criticism for not calling the Bosnian War's Srebrenica massacre a "genocide". While he did not deny the fact of the massacre, which he called "a horror story and major crime", he felt the massacre did not meet the definition of genocide.
Chomsky's far-reaching criticisms of U.S. foreign policy and the legitimacy of U.S. power have raised controversy. A document obtained pursuant to a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request from the U.S. government revealed that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) monitored his activities and for years denied doing so. The CIA also destroyed its files on Chomsky at some point, possibly in violation of federal law. He has often received undercover police protection at MIT and when speaking on the Middle East, but has refused uniformed police protection. German news magazine Der Spiegel described Chomsky as "the Ayatollah of anti-American hatred", while American conservative commentator David Horowitz called him "the most devious, the most dishonest and ... the most treacherous intellect in America", whose work is infused with "anti-American dementia" and evidences his "pathological hatred of his own country". Writing in Commentary magazine, the journalist Jonathan Kay described Chomsky as "a hard-boiled anti-American monomaniac who simply refuses to believe anything that any American leader says".
Chomsky's criticism of Israel has led to his being called a traitor to the Jewish people and an anti-Semite. Criticizing Chomsky's defense of the right of individuals to engage in Holocaust denial on the grounds that freedom of speech must be extended to all viewpoints, Werner Cohn called Chomsky "the most important patron" of the neo-Nazi movement. The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) called him a Holocaust denier, describing him as a "dupe of intellectual pride so overweening that he is incapable of making distinctions between totalitarian and democratic societies, between oppressors and victims". In turn, Chomsky has claimed that the ADL is dominated by "Stalinist types" who oppose democracy in Israel. The lawyer Alan Dershowitz has called Chomsky a "false prophet of the left"; Chomsky called Dershowitz "a complete liar" who is on "a crazed jihad, dedicating much of his life to trying to destroy my reputation". In early 2016, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan of Turkey publicly rebuked Chomsky after he signed an open letter condemning Erdoğan for his anti-Kurdish repression and double standards on terrorism. Chomsky accused Erdoğan of hypocrisy, noting that Erdoğan supports al-Qaeda's Syrian affiliate, the al-Nusra Front.
In February 2020, before attending the 2020 Hay Festival in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, Chomsky signed a letter of condemnation of the violation of freedom of speech in the emirate, referring to the arrest of human rights activist Ahmed Mansoor. Other signers included authors Stephen Fry and Jung Chang.
Academic achievements, awards, and honors
In 1970, the London Times named Chomsky one of the "makers of the twentieth century". He was voted the world's leading public intellectual in The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll jointly conducted by American magazine Foreign Policy and British magazine Prospect. New Statesman readers listed Chomsky among the world's foremost heroes in 2006.
In the United States he is a Member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Linguistic Society of America, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Philosophical Association, and the American Philosophical Society. Abroad he is a corresponding fellow of the British Academy, an honorary member of the British Psychological Society, a member of the Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina, and a foreign member of the Department of Social Sciences of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. He received a 1971 Guggenheim Fellowship, the 1984 American Psychological Association Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology, the 1988 Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences, the 1996 Helmholtz Medal, the 1999 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science, the 2010 Erich Fromm Prize, and the British Academy's 2014 Neil and Saras Smith Medal for Linguistics. He is also a two-time winner of the NCTE George Orwell Award for Distinguished Contribution to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language (1987 and 1989). He has also received the Rabindranath Tagore Centenary Award from The Asiatic Society.
Chomsky received the 2004 Carl-von-Ossietzky Prize from the city of Oldenburg, Germany, to acknowledge his body of work as a political analyst and media critic. He received an honorary fellowship in 2005 from the Literary and Historical Society of University College Dublin. He received the 2008 President's Medal from the Literary and Debating Society of the National University of Ireland, Galway. Since 2009, he has been an honorary member of International Association of Professional Translators and Interpreters (IAPTI). He received the University of Wisconsin's A.E. Havens Center's Award for Lifetime Contribution to Critical Scholarship and was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame for "significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems." Chomsky has an Erdős number of four.
In 2011, the US Peace Memorial Foundation awarded Chomsky the US Peace Prize for anti-war activities over five decades. For his work in human rights, peace, and social criticism, he received the 2011 Sydney Peace Prize, the Sretenje Order in 2015, the 2017 Seán MacBride Peace Prize and the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award.
Chomsky has received honorary doctorates from institutions including the University of London and the University of Chicago (1967), Loyola University Chicago and Swarthmore College (1970), Bard College (1971), Delhi University (1972), the University of Massachusetts (1973), and the International School for Advanced Studies in Trieste (2012) among others. His public lectures have included the 1969 John Locke Lectures, 1975 Whidden Lectures, 1977 Huizinga Lecture, and 1988 Massey Lectures, among others.
Various tributes to Chomsky have been dedicated over the years. He is the eponym for a bee species, a frog species, and a building complex at the Indian university Jamia Millia Islamia. Actor Viggo Mortensen and avant-garde guitarist Buckethead dedicated their 2003 album Pandemoniumfromamerica to Chomsky.
Selected bibliography
Linguistics
Syntactic Structures (1957)
Current Issues in Linguistic Theory (1964)
Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965)
Cartesian Linguistics (1965)
Language and Mind (1968)
The Sound Pattern of English with Morris Halle (1968)
Reflections on Language (1975)
Lectures on Government and Binding (1981)
The Minimalist Program (1995)
Politics
American Power and the New Mandarins (1969)
Counter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact & Propaganda with Edward S. Herman (1973)
The Political Economy of Human Rights (1979)
Towards a New Cold War (1982)
The Fateful Triangle (1983)
Pirates and Emperors (1986)
Manufacturing Consent (1988)
Necessary Illusions (1989)
Deterring Democracy (1991)
Letters from Lexington (1993)
The Prosperous Few and the Restless Many (1993)
World Orders Old and New (1994)
Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship (1997)
Profit over People (1999)
9-11 (2001)
Understanding Power (2002)
Middle East Illusions (2003)
Hegemony or Survival (2003)
Getting Haiti Right This Time (2004)
Imperial Ambitions (2005)
Failed States: The Abuse of Power and the Assault on Democracy (2006)
Interventions (2007)
Gaza in Crisis (2010)
Making the Future (2012)
Occupy (2012)
Requiem for the American Dream (2017)
See also
American philosophy
Theory of language
The Anti-Chomsky Reader
Chomsky (surname)
Knowledge worker
List of linguists
List of peace activists
List of pioneers in computer science
Notes
Explanatory notes
Citations
General sources
also available, in part, on chomsky.info .
(facsimile copy of Lukes's THES article, together with some of the correspondence it provoked, including from Ralph Miliband, Ken Coates and others, with Chomsky's response)
Further reading
a review of
External links
Noam Chomsky personal archives at MIT
Noam Chomsky Audio Conservatory at Internet Archive
Faculty page at MIT
Faculty page at University of Arizona
1928 births
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American philosophers
20th-century essayists
20th-century linguists
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American philosophers
21st-century essayists
21st-century linguists
American anarchists
American anti-capitalists
American anti–Iraq War activists
American anti–Vietnam War activists
American cultural critics
American dissidents
American ethicists
American male essayists
American male non-fiction writers
American media critics
American people of Belarusian-Jewish descent
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
American philosophy academics
American political activists
American political philosophers
American political writers
American social commentators
American socialists
American tax resisters
Analytic philosophers
Anarcho-syndicalists
Anti-Americanism
Anti-consumerists
Anti-corporate activists
Anti-globalization activists
Anti-globalization writers
Anti-imperialism
Anti-poverty advocates
Articles containing video clips
Central High School (Philadelphia) alumni
Cognitive scientists
Columbia University faculty
Communication scholars
Consciousness researchers and theorists
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy
Critics of conspiracy theories
Critics of Marxism
Critics of neoconservatism
Critics of postmodernism
Cultural critics
Developmental psycholinguists
Environmental philosophers
Environmental writers
Epistemologists
Fellows of the Cognitive Science Society
Fellows of the Linguistic Society of America
Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada
Free speech activists
Freethought writers
Gratz College
Harvard Fellows
Hebrew linguists
History of economic thought
History of philosophy
Industrial Workers of the World members
Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars
Jewish American writers
Jewish anarchists
Jewish anti-Zionism in the United States
Jewish ethicists
Jewish linguists
Jewish non-fiction writers
Jewish socialists
Kyoto laureates in Basic Sciences
Lecturers
Libertarian socialists
Linguistics
Linguists from the United States
Linguists of English
Living people
Mass media theorists
Massachusetts socialists
Media critics
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Members of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina
Members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Metaphilosophers
Metaphysicians
Metaphysics writers
MIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences faculty
Moral philosophers
New Left
Occupy movement in the United States
Ontologists
Palestinian solidarity activists
People from Allston–Brighton
People from Lexington, Massachusetts
Philosophers from Pennsylvania
Philosophers of culture
Philosophers of economics
Philosophers of education
Philosophers of ethics and morality
Philosophers of history
Philosophers of language
Philosophers of linguistics
Philosophers of mind
Philosophers of psychology
Philosophers of science
Philosophers of social science
Philosophers of technology
Philosophers of war
Philosophy academics
Philosophy teachers
Philosophy writers
Propaganda theorists
Rationalists
Rationality theorists
Recipients of the Neil and Saras Smith Medal for Linguistics
Scientists from Philadelphia
Signatories of the Declaration on the Common Language
Social critics
Social philosophers
Sustainability advocates
Syntacticians
Theorists on Western civilization
University of Pennsylvania alumni
Writers about activism and social change
Writers about globalization
Writers from Philadelphia |
53348886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassandre%20software | Cassandre software | Cassandre is a free open source software for computer assisted qualitative data analysis and interpretation in humanities and social sciences. Although it refers, like other CAQDAS-software, to Grounded Theory Method, it also allows to conduct discourse analysis or quantitative content analysis. The software is designed as a server to support collaborative work. Formerly focused on semi-automatic coding, it now provides diaries assisting qualitative analysis.
In academia, Cassandre is used by social scientists in sociology, psychology, management, communication studies, education and political science. Some researchers also use it in computer science, namely in knowledge management, design, human-computer interaction and topic mapping. Many of the Cassandre users are academics and PhD students. The software tool is also used in public services (police and government departments) and in the industry (namely by Cockerill Maintenance & Ingénierie).
In 2010, in the so-called KWALON experiment, representatives of selected CAQDAS-Software were invited to analyze a dataset composed of newspapers articles and videos related to the 2008 financial crisis. The software packages Atlas.ti, MAXQDA, NVivo, Transana and Cassandre were taking part in the experiment. Commentators depicted Cassandre as the only software limited to text material and as an integrated approach between algorithms and hand-made coding. The experiment, however, suggested that the outcome of the analysis depended more of the analysis strategy than the software.
Features
Its features include:
Semi-automatic coding (through registers)
Collaborative writing (through shared diaries)
Participative research (through shared memos)
Organizing memos
Diagramming
History
Christophe Lejeune created Cassandre's first version in 2006 after his post-doctoral stay in the University of Technology of Troyes where he involved in the Social Semantic Web team and participated the definition of the Hypertopic protocol. This protocol was used by Cassandre to exchange data with other software tool from the Hypertopic suite. As a server, Cassandre was storing texts and provided a semi-automated coding feature. Rather than highlighting excerpts (like in most of QDA software), the user highlights keywords or idioms (markers) that instantly match several excerpts of material. These markers are gathered in into registers, which represent analysis categories. Markers and registers are created, managed and browsed with Porphyry's Portfolio, a Hypertopic client developed in Java by Aurélien Bénel. Cassandre also provided meta-data and some lexical analysis (words counts) accessible through the Porphyry sidebar, a Firefox add-on.
Cassandre second version surfaced in 2010. Initially designed as PHP/SQL server (first MySQL then PostgreSQL), Cassandre was refactored as a CouchDB application. Lexical analysis was optimized and included in the per text view. Coding was integrated to the browser thanks to a Firefox add-on, LaSuli, developed by Chao Zhou.
Released in 2017, the third version of Cassandre consists in a in-depth refactoring. Resting on a typology of memos inspired by Grounded Theory Method, the application provides collaborative diaries aimed at structuring qualitative analyzes. Rather than coding, analysis is made through writing.
See also
Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software
References
External links
Online diaries
Cassandre development page (GitHub)
Free QDA software
Cross-platform free software
Science software for MacOS
Science software for Linux |
1566175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google%20Talk | Google Talk | Google Talk was an instant messaging service that provided both text and voice communication. The instant messaging service was variously referred to colloquially as Gchat, Gtalk, or Gmessage among its users.
Google Talk was also the name of the client applications previously offered by Google to use the service. Google Talk applications were available for Microsoft Windows, Android, BlackBerry OS, BlackBerry 10 and Chrome OS operating systems. A Google Talk mobile web app had also been previously available. In February 2015, the Windows client was discontinued and ceased to work, with Google recommending users to use Google Hangouts instead. Users of Windows client were instructed to migrate to the Google Hangouts app on the Chrome browser platform. It remains possible to connect to Google Talk with compatible third-party clients such as Pidgin and Gajim. Currently, Google is migrating its users from Google Hangouts, to Google Chat and Google Meet.
Features
Product integration
Google Talk was integrated into Gmail where users could send instant messages to other Gmail users. As it worked within a browser, the Google Talk client did not need to be downloaded to send instant messages to Gmail users.
Conversation logs were automatically saved to a "Chats" area in the user's Gmail account. This allowed users to search their chat logs and have them centrally stored in their Gmail accounts. For a long time, it was not possible to directly download chat logs that were not attached to an email conversation, although some workarounds had been found. However, on September 15, 2011, Google announced a new feature of its Google Takeout program that allows users to download chat logs via IMAP.
Google also integrated Google Talk with Orkut. This enabled Google Talk users to interact with registered Orkut users, by sending and receiving "scraps" within Orkut. Orkut has since been shut down.
Google Talk Gadget was a web-based module that could be embedded in iGoogle (since discontinued) and other web pages, allowing text chat with users of Google Talk. This functionality was at some point discontinued without any real announcement, likely in the face of the release of the Google Hangouts services.
Google+ was integrated into Google Talk. In the standalone client and the Google Talk widget embedded into Gmail and Google+, Google+ contacts appeared in the contacts list; their respective circles were shown in Google+'s iteration of the widget. Google+ has since been shut down.
Voice and Video
It is possible to place and receive phone calls from within Gmail by using Google Talk. In order to receive calls, however, the user must upgrade to a full Google Voice account. Initially, users outside of the US could not upgrade to a full Google Voice account or receive phone calls in Gmail. (Outbound calling through Gmail does not require Google Voice and is available in many countries outside the US.) Google Talk allows users to leave a voicemail for a contact whether or not they are signed into Google Talk. Messages can be up to 10 minutes long and users can choose to have them sent to their Gmail inbox. Messages can be sent with or without first ringing the recipient's phone number.
Google also provides a Voice and Video Chat browser plugin for Google Talk (not to be confused with the standalone Google Talk client) that supports voice and video chat between Gmail users. The plugin is available for Windows (XP, Vista, and 7), Mac OS X (only on Intel-based Macs), and Linux (Debian, Ubuntu, Fedora, and OpenSUSE packages available, but the binaries work on other systems). The plugin must be downloaded and installed, but otherwise seamlessly integrates into the Gmail interface.
Encryption
The connection between the Google Talk client and the Google Talk server is encrypted, except when using Gmail's chat over HTTP, a federated network that doesn't support encryption, or when using a proxy like IMLogic. End-to-end messages are unencrypted. Some XMPP clients natively support encryption with Google Talk's servers. It is possible to have end-to-end encryption over the Google Talk network using OTR (off-the-record) encryption using other chat clients like Adium (for Mac) or Pidgin (for Linux and Windows).
Google's version of "Off the Record" is not OTR (off-the-record) encryption. Enabling "off the record" inside Gmail's Chat turns off logging of messages, but does not enable encryption.
Offline messaging
On November 1, 2006, Google introduced offline messaging to Google Talk. This allows users to send messages to their contacts, even if they are not signed in. They will receive the messages when they next go online even if the user who has sent it is offline. This only works between Gmail-accounts though, not between Google Talk servers and other XMPP servers.
Mobile device compatibility
On June 30, 2006, Nokia released new software for their Nokia 770 Internet Tablet, that included Google Talk as one of the compatible VoIP clients, because of the XMPP-based software. Another Google Talk-compatible device is Sony's mylo, released on September 15, 2006. A Google Talk client is also available for BlackBerry devices from the BlackBerry site. Google Talk support is also integrated into Google Android devices, but does not support voice and video calls below Android version 2.3.4. This was released in April 2011 for the Google Nexus S.
However, given that Google Talk provides XMPP protocol, most mobile phones for which a suitable XMPP client exists could also offer Google Talk service, at least theoretically (depending on the handset, the user may encounter security warnings because of unsigned Java ME MIDlets or limits put in place by the mobile service provider). Mobile clients specially designed for Google Talk exist as well.
Most phones support the IMPS protocol, and there are hybrid XMPP/IMPS networks (through XMPP transports, or specially designed hybrid servers), which can also contact Google Talk users. The Google Talk service itself is unusable from IMPS (that means, one cannot log with their Gmail account, but they can talk with their Gmail friends with their IMPS account from their mobile phone).
For most smartphones, including Symbian-based as well as Android, third-party applications such as Nimbuzz and Fring include support for Google Talk accounts, including VoIP calls.
Text formatting
Google Talk does not provide the user with a menu for text formatting. Nevertheless, Google Talk does support some text formatting features like making text bold and italic. To write a message in bold, a user should type the required text between two asterisks (*), for example, *this text would be bold in Google Talk*. Similarly for making text italic, one should put text between underscores (_) and for strike-through in text content, one should put text in between dashes (-). This only functions in some of the Google native tools, and does not always function as expected when received from other XMPP clients.
History
2005
On August 22, 2005, The New York Times reported a rumor of a Google-branded "communications tool" service and the Los Angeles Times provided details. Subsequently, the subdomain was found to have an active XMPP server. Two methods of logging into the server were discovered soon after and the ensuing response by eager bloggers revealed to numerous others how to log in before the official release by Google.
On the evening of August 23, many logged-in users using port 5222 to connect were disconnected and unable to log back in. Users using port 5223 to connect were still able to log in, and at 04:12:52 UTC those users received a broadcast instant message from , an apparently official username used by Google to communicate with their user base, that stated "The broken link has been fixed. Thanks for being our first users!" Port 5222-connectivity was found to have been re-enabled. On August 24, Google Talk was officially launched.
On December 15, 2005, Google released libjingle, a C++ library to implement Jingle, "a set of extensions to the IETF's Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) for use in voice over IP (VoIP), video, and other peer-to-peer multimedia sessions." Libjingle is a library of the code that Google uses for peer-to-peer communication, and was made available under a BSD license.
2006
In 2006, Google reported that they were working on adding new features such as supporting SIP in a future release, which would broaden the userbase for the program.
On January 17, 2006, Google enabled server-to-server communications, federating itself with any XMPP server that supports the dialback protocol.
On February 7, 2006, Gmail received chat functionality, using Ajax for server–browser communication, and was integrated with Google Talk. It also added the ability to chat with a built-in XMPP client.
In August 2006, Google and eBay announced that they would look into making Google Talk users able to communicate with Skype: "The companies will also explore interoperability between Skype and Google Talk via open standards to enable text chat and online presence." However, with Microsoft's acquisition of Skype on May 10, 2011, such interoperability might have been suspended between Google and eBay.
Google integrated Google Talk with Orkut on November 8, 2006.
2007
On March 14, 2007, Google released the Google Talk Gadget, an Adobe Flash-based Talk module that can be added to iGoogle (formally the Google Personalized Homepage) or embedded in any web page, thus, allowing one to chat from any operating system which is supported by Adobe Flash Player as long as Adobe Flash Player is installed.
A screen shot was posted on May 18, 2007, as part of the Google Apps presentation, showing some phone integration in Google Talk. On March 2, 2008. a Google engineer confirmed they had been using it internally for some time.
On November 26, 2007, Google Talk released Group Chat capabilities. Before this, users could chat with only one person per window. Group chat allows many users to chat with each other in an environment similar to IRC.
On December 6, 2007, Google upgraded its Gmail integrated chat to include AOL Instant Messenger chat capability. This allows Gmail users to sign into the AIM chat service and communicate with any AIM user while still being signed on to the Google Talk service. The Google Talk gadget and client have not been upgraded to enable this feature yet, and no announcement has been made as to when it will be made available.
2008
On February 25, 2008, Google added a feature called "Chatback", which allows a Google Talk account owner to chat with people who do not have one. The account owner first has to create a badge, which can be included in webpages. This badge shows the current availability of the owner. Clicking on the badge results a chat request notification to the owner who can respond by clicking on the specified URL. During the conversation, both parties have to use the Google Talk Gadget and both parties remain anonymous to each other, even the Google Account name of the owner is not revealed to the other peer.
On November 11, 2008, Google Chat (voice and video chat) was launched enabling computer to computer voice and video chat. Clues from one of the first Google Chrome builds in December 2008 suggest that a new Talk client is in the works.
As XMPP Jingle specifications became a Draft Standard, Google updated libjingle to version 0.5.1 and stated that "Google Talk is in the process of being updated to be in full compliance with the Jingle specifications."
Google has a version of Google Talk called Google Talk, Labs Edition, though it lacks many features of Google Talk's other releases.
2012
On April 20, 2012, Google announced that it was shutting down the mobile web app for Google Talk.
In June 2012, Google announced that they were planning to revamp the chat experience by merging Google Talk with Hangouts and Google Messenger to reduce confusion and fragmentation. At the Google I/O Conference 2013 Google announced that they were replacing Google Talk, Google+ Messenger and the original Google+ Hangout video chat service with Google+ Hangouts.
2013
On May 15, 2013, Google's manager of real-time communication products, Nikhyl Singhal, stated at Google I/O that the move to Google+ Hangouts will mean that XMPP (the protocol that allowed Google Talk to interoperate with other vendors and applications) will not be supported in Hangouts. Mr. Singhal stated that as long as Google Talk is available, 3rd party clients could be expected to continue to work.
2014
On October 30, 2014, Google announced on their Apps Updates blog that "The Google Talk app for Windows will continue to work for approximately two months before being turned off".
2015
On February 3, 2015, Google sent a system message to users stating, "Google Talk app for Windows will stop working on Feb 16, 2015. It is replaced by the new Hangouts Chrome app."
On February 13, 2015, Google developer Mayur Kamat posted a clarification that XMPP service relied-on by third-party chat apps would continue after the deprecation of the Windows-specific Google Talk client.
After Google officially stopped supporting Google Talk for Windows on February 23, 2015, the application continued to function normally during an apparent grace period lasting until February 28. As of that date, connection attempts returned an error message stating "Username and password do not match." Those users received a notification e-mail stating, in part: "We noticed you recently tried using the Google Talk app for Windows. We wanted to let you know that this was discontinued on February 23rd, 2015. We recommend giving Hangouts a try so you can chat with all your Google contacts."
The Google Talk for Windows application will purportedly still work by connecting through applications using the Jabber protocol including Pidgin and Gajim but cannot connect directly through Google or Gmail.
2017
The Google Talk App for Android and the Google Chat tool in Gmail were discontinued on June 26, 2017 and no longer function. Users may still continue to use third-party XMPP clients to connect to the legacy Google talk server, but only for 1-on-1 chat with Hangouts users.
See also
List of defunct instant messaging platforms
List of defunct social networking websites
Google Buzz
References
External links
Google Talk for Developers (Official site containing links to more detailed, technical, information about Google Talk.
Google Talkabout, official development blog
2005 software
Android (operating system) software
BlackBerry software
Talk
Freeware
Portable software
Products and services discontinued in 2017
Symbian instant messaging clients
Videotelephony
VoIP software
Windows instant messaging clients
XMPP clients
Google instant messaging software |
56865635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arun%20Mehta | Arun Mehta | Arun Mehta is an Indian Software Developer and a disability activist. At the request of Stephen Hawking, he, along with Vickram Crishna, developed a free and open source software named eLocutor, to allow nonverbal disabled people to write and speak.
Early life
Mehta obtained a B.Tech. degree from IIT Delhi in 1975, a master's degree in computer sciences from the Stony Brook University. After that, he worked with Siemens AG in Erlangen for three years. As a fellow of Friedrich Ebert Foundation, he joined the PhD program of the Ruhr University in 1982. After returning to India, Mehta joined Indata Com Private Limited as the Managing Director. During this time, he developed a software for early detection of Alzheimer's disease, for the University of Pittsburgh.
eLocutor
During a tour to India in 2001, Stephen Hawking delivered lecture in an international physics conference dedicated to String theory held at Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai. It was during this time, Hawking, suffering from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, contacted Mehta and Crishna along with several other software companies to write the replacement for the software he was using for the computerised machine fixed to his wheelchair, to communicate with others. Mehta and Crishna developed eLocutor, a free and open source single-button typing and speaking software.
Bibliography
References
Living people
Indian software engineers
Free software programmers
IIT Delhi alumni
Ruhr University Bochum alumni
Stony Brook University alumni
Year of birth missing (living people) |
3280590 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20West%20University | East West University | East West University (, also known as EWU), is a private university located in Aftabnagar, Dhaka of Bangladesh. It was established in 1996 under the Private University Act of 1992.
History
The culture of private universities in Bangladesh started in the early 1990s. During that period, the government felt that the existing public universities were not sufficient to meet the demand for tertiary education in the country. Moreover, to maintain their quality of education, most of the public universities in Bangladesh kept themselves selective and as a result, each year a large number of students failed to get admitted into higher educational institutions.
These issues led the government to permit the establishment of private universities, and on 9 August 1992, the Private University Act (Act 34) 1992 was passed.
East West University was established in 1996 as a non-profit organization. The university is the first major project of the Progoti Foundation for Education and Development (PFED), a non-profit, non-political, charitable organization maintained by a group of academics, business leaders, professionals and education enthusiasts led by Mohammed Farashuddin, economist and former governor of Bangladesh Bank.
BBA, BSc in computer science and BA in English at the previous campus at 45, Mohakhali Commercial Area, Dhaka. The university has some 10,400 students, in its Aftab Nagar Campus, Dhaka.
List of vice-chancellors
Professor M.M. Shahidul Hassan ( present )
Campus
In May 2012, the university shifted to its permanent campus. The permanent campus of East West University is located in Aftabnagar, Rampura on the Progoti Sarani close to Bangladesh Television on 7.4 bighas of land. Total floor area of the 9 storied university complex is 4,58,957.04 square feet with modern facilities.
East West University has also bought 5.95 acres of land at Mouja: Vadham, P.S Tongi, District: Gazipur. In addition, it has received an allotment of one bigha of land at Uttara from RAJUK.
Library
East West University has a library covering about 11000 sq ft. in the new campus with maps and journal area, and has a photocopy corner, database search corner, and newspaper display section. Each day around 2,200 users visit the library. The library contains 22,000 books, a subscription to 135 international and national journals (hardcopy), 3,300 online journals on its database, subscription to 16 national daily newspapers and around 1,500 CD-ROMs and audio cassettes.
Laboratories
There are laboratories for engineering and science disciplines, and nine computer laboratories with a local network of around 600 PCs and personal VSAT services, if not more. Universities laboratories are shared as follow:
Computer Communications Laboratories, shared by all departments,
Digital Systems Laboratory, shared by the engineering departments,
Electronics Laboratory, shared by the engineering departments,.
Electrical Circuits and Machine Laboratory, used by the EEE department,
Network Laboratory, shared by department of CSE and APCE,
Pharmacy Laboratory, used by department of Pharmacy,
Physics Laboratory, used by all the science and engineering departments,
Telecommunication Laboratory, used by the APCE department,
VLSI Laboratory, shared by CSE and EEE departments,
Software Engineering Laboratory, shared by only CSE department.
Database Laboratory, shared by CSE department.
Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, shared by CSE department.
Structure
East West University has three academic faculties. Each faculty has departments. A dean is the head of each faculty, while departments are headed by chairpersons. The Department of Business Administration is the largest and one of the oldest departments of the university. The Department of Computer Science and the Department of English are the two other founding departments.
Faculty of Sciences and Engineering
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Department of Electronics & Communications Engineering
Department of Pharmacy
Department of Mathematical & Physical Sciences
Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology
Department of Civil Engineering
Faculty of Business and Economics
Department of Business Administration
Department of Economics
Department of MBA/EMBA/MBM Programs
Faculty of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences
Department of English
Department of Social Relations
Department of Sociology
Department of Law
Department of Information Studies & Library Management
Academics
Financial support
Merit scholarships
East West University provides scholarships starting from full funding to partial tuition waivers. Each semester the top 10% students of each batch having a CGPA of 3.97 or above are awarded EWU Merit Scholarships which are worth 90,000 BDT at the undergraduate level and 75,000 BDT at the postgraduate level. All other students from the Dean's List are also eligible to receive Medha Lalon Fund Scholarship ranging from 500,000 BDT to 25,000 BDT. Besides, there are 28 directorial scholarships (25,000-20,000 BDT) are available each year for the meritorious students with exceptional case.
Financial aid
Each semester the university provides financial aid. Students facing financial difficulties (with a CGPA of 3.7 and above, those students who complete at least 30 credits last three semester) can apply once a year for support. It varies from 18,000 BDT to 35,000 BDT. EWU provides 50% tuition waiver for any one of a sibling pair studying simultaneously in the university which is worth around 45,000 BDT per year. It maintains a low tuition fees rate (BDT 4,900 per credit) compared to other leading private universities in Bangladesh. Tuition fees depends on department
Degrees and awards
EWU offers Bachelor of Arts (BA) for English graduate, Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) for Business graduate and Bachelor of Social Science (BSS) for Economics graduate. There are degrees in Business and Economics together in the form of double major. The university offers Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) for Engineering (e.g. Computer Science) for Science graduate, Bachelor of Pharmacy (B.Phrm.) for Pharmacy graduate, Bachelor of Science in Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology and Bachelor of Science in Applied Statistics.
The B.Sc. in EEE program has been granted accreditation from the Board of Accreditation for Engineering & Technical Education (BAETE). At the post-graduate level EWU offers Master of Business Administration (MBA) for business, Master of Arts (MA) for humanities and Master of Science (MS) for science and engineering, Master of Pharmacy (M.Pharm.) for pharmacy. EWU's B.Pharm. and M.Pharm. programs are accredited by the Pharmacy Council of Bangladesh.Most EWU degrees, especially business and engineering degrees, are transferable to North American, European and Australasian universities where formal collaboration exists with them.
EWU graduates are evaluated on Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) on a scale of 0 to 4 points. In addition, the university classifies students into three classes based on their earned CGPA. These are as follow:
First Class - CGPA 3.00 and above
Second Class - CGPA 2.50 to 2.99
Third Class - CGPA 2.00 to 2.49
The university provides the following awards to its outstanding students.
Gold medal : The Chancellor of the university awards a gold medal to each of the students having a CGPA of 3.97 or above on the day of convocation.
Summa cum laude: Each undergraduate student with a CGPA of 3.90 or above is awarded summa cum laude by the university and declared by the convocation marshall on the convocation day.
Magna cum laude: Each undergraduate student with a CGPA of 3.75 or above is awarded magna cum laude by the university and declared by the convocation marshall on the convocation day.
Term dates
East West University is modeled on the North American Open Credit system. It maintains tri-semester (three semesters) year with the exception of the Department of Pharmacy which maintains a bi-semester (two semesters) year. East West University semesters are as follow:
Spring: January - April (starting on the second week of January)
Summer: May - August (starting on the second week of May)
Fall: September - December (starting on the second week of September)
Note: These dates may change due to any changes that occur in the academic calendar provided by East West University Authorities.
Grading policy
Ranking
In 2020, EWU has been ranked #3549 in the world and #14 among the 166 universities in Bangladesh by the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities. The ranking is based on the university's web presence and visibility. According to IDEAS ranking of Economic Research Institutions in Bangladesh, the Department of Economics of East West University ranked 2nd in Bangladesh since 2014 (next to the Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies). Star researcher from East West University is Dr. Syed Abul Basher who has topped the list of young Economists from Bangladesh. IDEAS database contains information on 13,177 economics institutions, 43,324 authors with over 1,046,994 research publications in 94 fields.
Research
East West University has a resource Center for Research and Training (EWUCRT). The center creates knowledge through academic and applied research and disseminate knowledge through training and publication. CRT operates through a Research Committee composed of representatives from the Board, Deans and Chairs of the Academic Department.
CRT publishes the EWU Journal, a bi-annual publication of research papers. CRT publishes working papers, occasional papers and Annual Research Abstracts. Faculty members and senior students of the university produce academic papers each year and publish them in journals and conference proceedings.
In addition, CRT works with the government and private institutions at national and international levels to facilitate academic exchanges.
In 2002 EWU organized International Conference on Computer and Information Technology which is a series of Computer Science ofand Information Technology based conference hosted in Bangladesh since 1997 by a university each year. EWU is a member of Trade Knowledge Network, a collaboration of research institutions in developed and developing countries located in Africa, Asia, Europe and the Americas and also active in the South Asian Network for Development and Environmental Economists (SANDEE). Dr A.K. Enamul Haque, Professor of Economics, is a member of the board of SANDEE and an academic advisor to SANDEE researchers.
In 2006, EWU faculty members had 39 appearances in international journals and conferences. Besides these, the university provides financial support through a faculty research program to promote research culture in the campus.
Convocation
East West University holds a convocation every year in Dhaka. The first was held in Osmani Memorial Hall. After that, through 2011, the ceremony was held at the Bangabandhu International Conference Center, except in 2006, when it took place in the Winter Garden convention hall at the Dhaka Sheraton Hotel. From 2012, it moved to the university's new campus in Aftab Nagar. In accordance with the Private University Act, the President of Bangladesh, as chancellor, or his nominee presides at convocation. Education Minister Nurul Islam Nahid presided in 2009, 2013, and 2014. Minister for Agriculture Matia Chowdhury presided in 2012.
The 1st convocation was in 2002. Earl H. Potter III, Dean of the College of Business, Eastern Michigan University, delivered the convocation speech. Degrees were conferred on 85 undergraduate and 11 graduate students.
The 2nd convocation was in 2003. Professor of economics Wahiduddin Mahmud delivered the convocation speech. 161 students graduated.
The 3rd convocation was in 2004. Former Chief Justice Mustafa Kamal delivered the convocation address. 268 students graduated.
The 4th convocation was in 2005. Former Vice Chancellor of Jahangirnagar University Zillur Rahman Siddiqui, delivered the convocation speech. 387 students graduated.
The 5th convocation was in 2006. Economist Rehman Sobhan delivered the convocation address. 416 students graduated.
The 6th convocation was in 2007. Professor Emeritus of physics Jamal Nazrul Islam delivered the convocation speech. 644 students graduated.
The 7th convocation was held on 3 March 2008. Former Chief Justice Muhammad Habibur Rahman delivered the convocation speech. Degrees were bestowed on 604 undergraduate and 275 graduate students. Two students were awarded gold medals for outstanding academic performance.
The 8th convocation was held on 7 April 2009. Distinguished professor of Bengali literature Anisuzzaman delivered the convocation speech. Degrees were bestowed on 671 undergraduate and 252 graduate students. Seven students received gold medals.
The 9th convocation took place on 25 April 2010. Professor Emeritus of English Serajul Islam Choudhury delivered the convocation address. Degrees were conferred on 956 students. Six students were awarded gold medals.
The 10th convocation took place on 6 March 2011. Vice Chancellor of University of Dhaka AAMS Arefin Siddique delivered the convocation speech. Degrees were bestowed on 712 undergraduate and 361 graduate students.
The 11th convocation was held on 7 March 2012. Abdullah Abu Sayeed, President of Bishwa Sahitya Kendra (World Literature Center), delivered the convocation speech. Degrees were bestowed on 643 undergraduate and 475 graduate students.
The 12th convocation was held on 27 February 2013. Sufia Ahmed, Ekushey Padak awardee for contributions to flourishing culture and the Language Movement, delivered the convocation speech. Degrees were bestowed on 1,279 students. Three students received gold medals.
The 13th convocation was held on 24 February 2014. Novelist Selina Hossain, recipient of the Ekushey Padak for literature, delivered the convocation speech. Degrees were conferred on 1,341 students. Four students were awarded gold medals.
The 14th convocation took place on 19 March 2015. Civil rights activist Sultana Kamal delivered the convocation address. Degrees were conferred on 1,455 students. Two students were awarded gold medals.
The 15th convocation took place on Wednesday, 27 January 2016 at East West University, Aftabnagar, Dhaka. Author, physicist, professor and activist Muhammed Zafar Iqbal delivered the convocation speech. Degrees were conferred on 1,311 students. Three students were awarded gold medals.
Notable alumni
Rubana Huq
Afran Nisho
Notes and references
External links
Official website
Private universities in Bangladesh
Educational institutions established in 1996
Universities and colleges in Dhaka
1996 establishments in Bangladesh |
348300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20video%20recorder | Digital video recorder | A digital video recorder (DVR) is an electronic device that records video in a digital format to a disk drive, USB flash drive, SD memory card, SSD or other local or networked mass storage device. The term includes set-top boxes with direct to disk recording, portable media players and TV gateways with recording capability, and digital camcorders. Personal computers are often connected to video capture devices and used as DVRs; in such cases the application software used to record video is an integral part of the DVR. Many DVRs are classified as consumer electronic devices; such devices may alternatively be referred to as personal video recorders (PVRs), particularly in Canada. Similar small devices with built-in (~5 inch diagonal) displays and SSD support may be used for professional film or video production, as these recorders often do not have the limitations that built-in recorders in cameras have, offering wider codec support, the removal of recording time limitations and higher bitrates.
History
Hard-disk-based digital video recorders
The first working DVR prototype was developed in 1998 at Stanford University Computer Science department. The DVR design was a chapter of Edward Y. Chang's PhD dissertation, supervised by Professors Hector Garcia-Molina and Jennifer Widom. Two design papers were published 2017 VLDB conference,
and 1999 ICDE conference. The prototype was developed in 1998 at Prof. Pat Hanrahan's CS488 class: Experiments in Digital Television, and the prototype was demoed to industrial partners including SONY, Intel, and Apple.
Consumer digital video recorders ReplayTV and TiVo were launched at the 1999 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Nevada. Microsoft also demonstrated a unit with DVR capability, but this did not become available until the end of 1999 for full DVR features in Dish Network's DISHplayer receivers. TiVo shipped their first units on March 31, 1999. ReplayTV won the "Best of Show" award in the video category with Netscape co-founder Marc Andreessen as an early investor and board member, but TiVo was more successful commercially. Ad Age cited Forrester Research as saying that market penetration by the end of 1999 was "less than 100,000."
Legal action by media companies forced ReplayTV to remove many features such as automatic commercial skip and the sharing of recordings over the Internet, but newer devices have steadily regained these functions while adding complementary abilities, such as recording onto DVDs and programming and remote control facilities using PDAs, networked PCs, and Web browsers.
In contrast to VCRs, hard-disk based digital video recorders make "time shifting" more convenient and also allow for functions such as pausing live TV, instant replay, chasing playback (viewing a recording before it has been completed) and skipping over advertising during playback.
Many DVRs use the MPEG format for compressing the digital video. Video recording capabilities have become an essential part of the modern set-top box, as TV viewers have wanted to take control of their viewing experiences. As consumers have been able to converge increasing amounts of video content on their set-tops, delivered by traditional 'broadcast' cable, satellite and terrestrial as well as IP networks, the ability to capture programming and view it whenever they want has become a must-have function for many consumers.
Digital video recorders tied to a video service
At the 1999 CES, Dish Network demonstrated the hardware that would later have DVR capability with the assistance of Microsoft software. which also included WebTV Networks internet TV. By the end of 1999 the Dishplayer had full DVR capabilities and within a year, over 200,000 units were sold.
In the UK, digital video recorders are often referred to as "plus boxes" (such as BSKYB's Sky+ and Virgin Media's V+ which integrates an HD capability, and the subscription free Freesat+ and Freeview+). Freeview+ have been around in the UK since the late 2000s, although the platform's first DVR, the Pace Twin, dates to 2002. British Sky Broadcasting marketed a popular combined receiver and DVR as Sky+, now replaced by the Sky Q box. TiVo launched a UK model in 2000, and is no longer supported, except for third party services, and the continuation of TiVo through Virgin Media in 2010. South African based Africa Satellite TV beamer Multichoice recently launched their DVR which is available on their DStv platform. In addition to ReplayTV and TiVo, there are a number of other suppliers of digital terrestrial (DTT) DVRs, including Technicolor SA, Topfield, Fusion, Commscope, Humax, VBox Communications, AC Ryan Playon and Advanced Digital Broadcast (ADB).
Many satellite, cable and IPTV companies are incorporating digital video recording functions into their set-top box, such as with DirecTiVo, DISHPlayer/DishDVR, Scientific Atlanta Explorer 8xxx from Time Warner, Total Home DVR from AT&T U-verse, Motorola DCT6412 from Comcast and others, Moxi Media Center by Digeo (available through Charter, Adelphia, Sunflower, Bend Broadband, and soon Comcast and other cable companies), or Sky+. Astro introduced their DVR system, called Astro MAX, which was the first PVR in Malaysia but was phased out two years after its introduction.
In the case of digital television, there is no encoding necessary in the DVR since the signal is already a digitally encoded MPEG stream. The digital video recorder simply stores the digital stream directly to disk. Having the broadcaster involved with, and sometimes subsidizing, the design of the DVR can lead to features such as the ability to use interactive TV on recorded shows, pre-loading of programs, or directly recording encrypted digital streams. It can, however, also force the manufacturer to implement non-skippable advertisements and automatically expiring recordings.
In the United States, the FCC has ruled that starting on July 1, 2007, consumers will be able to purchase a set-top box from a third-party company, rather than being forced to purchase or rent the set-top box from their cable company. This ruling only applies to "navigation devices," otherwise known as a cable television set-top box, and not to the security functions that control the user's access to the content of the cable operator. The overall net effect on digital video recorders and related technology is unlikely to be substantial as standalone DVRs are currently readily available on the open market.
In Europe Free-To-Air and Pay TV TV gateways with multiple tuners have whole house recording capabilities allowing recording of TV programs to Network Attached Storage or attached USB storage, recorded programs are then shared across the home network to tablet, smartphone, PC, Mac, Smart TV.
Introduction of dual tuners
In 2003 many Satellite and Cable providers introduced dual-tuner digital video recorders. In the UK, BSkyB introduced their first PVR Sky+ with dual tuner support in 2001. These machines have two independent tuners within the same receiver. The main use for this feature is the capability to record a live program while watching another live program simultaneously or to record two programs at the same time, possibly while watching a previously recorded one. Kogan.com introduced a dual-tuner PVR in the Australian market allowing free-to-air television to be recorded on a removable hard drive. Some dual-tuner DVRs also have the ability to output to two separate television sets at the same time. The PVR manufactured by UEC (Durban, South Africa) and used by Multichoice and Scientific Atlanta 8300DVB PVR have the ability to view two programs while recording a third using a triple tuner.
Where several digital subchannels are transmitted on a single RF channel, some PVRs can record two channels and view a third, so long as all three subchannels are on two channels (or one).
In the United States, DVRs were used by 32 percent of all TV households in 2009, and 38 percent by 2010, with viewership among 18- to 40-year-olds 40 percent higher in homes that have them.
Types
Integrated television sets
DVRs are integrated into some television sets (TVs). These systems simplify wiring and operation because they employ a single power cable, have no interconnected ports (e.g., HDMI), and share a common remote control.
VESA compatibility
VESA-compatible DVRs are designed to attach to the VESA mounting holes (100×100 mm) on the back of an LCD television set (TV), allowing users to combine the TV and DVR into an integrated unit.
Set-top boxes
Over-the-air DVRs are standalone set-top-boxes that record broadcast television programs. Several companies have launched over-the-air DVR products for the consumer market over the past few years.
Some pay-TV operators provide set-top boxes that allow subscribers to attach their own network-attached storage (NAS) hard drives or solid-state or flash memory to record video and other media files (e.g., audio and photos).
PC-based
Software and hardware are available which can turn personal computers running Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X into DVRs, and is a popular option for home-theater PC (HTPC) enthusiasts.
Linux
There are many free and open source software DVR applications available for Linux. For example, TV gateway interfaces to DVB tuners and provides network tuner and TV server functions, which allows live viewing and recording over IP networks. Other examples include MythTV, Video Disk Recorder (VDR), LinuxMCE, TiVo, VBox Home TV Gateway, and Kodi (formerly XBMC).
macOS
Geniatech makes a series of digital video recording devices called EyeTV. The software supplied with each device is also called EyeTV, and is available separately for use on compatible third-party tuners from manufacturers such as Pinnacle, TerraTec, and Hauppauge.
SageTV provided DVR software for the Mac but no longer sells it. Previously sold devices support the Hauppauge HVR-950, myTV.PVR and HDHomeRun hardware with its DVR software. SageTV software also included the ability to watch YouTube and other online video with a remote control.
MythTV (see above) also runs under Mac OS X, but most recording devices are currently only supported under Linux. Precompiled binaries are available for the MythTV front-end, allowing a Mac to watch video from (and control) a MythTV server running under Linux.
Apple provides applications in the FireWire software developer kit which allow any Mac with a FireWire port to record the MPEG2 transport stream from a FireWire-equipped cable box (for example: Motorola DCT62xx, including HD streams). Applications can also change channels on the cable box via the firewire interface. Only broadcast channels can be recorded as the rest of the channels are encrypted. FireRecord (formerly iRecord) is a free scheduled-recording program derived from this SDK.
Windows
There are several free digital video recording applications available for Microsoft Windows including GB-PVR, MediaPortal, and Orb (web-based remote interface).
There are also several commercial applications available including CyberLink, SageTV (which is no longer available after Google acquired it in June 2011), Beyond TV (which is considered discontinued despite an official announcement from SnapStream since the last update was October 2010 and they are concentrating on their enterprise search products), DVBViewer, Showshifter, InterVideo WinDVR, the R5000-HD and Meedio (now a dead product – Yahoo! bought most of the company's technology and discontinued the Meedio line, and rebranded the software Yahoo! Go – TV, which is now a free product but only works in the U.S.). Most TV tuner cards come bundled with software which allows the PC to record television to hard disk. See TV tuner card. For example, Leadtek's WinFast DTV1000 digital TV card comes bundled with the WinFast PVR2 software, which can also record analog video from the card's composite video input socket.
Windows Media Center is a DVR software by Microsoft which was bundled with the Media Center edition of Windows XP, the Home Premium / Ultimate editions of Windows Vista, as well as most editions of Windows 7. When Windows 8 was released in 2012, Windows Media Center was not included with Windows 8 OEM or Retail installations, and was only available as a $15 add-on pack (including DVD Playback codecs) to Windows 8 Pro users.
Embeddable
An embeddable DVR is a standalone device that is designed to be easily integrated into more complex systems. It is typically supplied as a compact, bare circuit board that facilitates mounting it as a subsystem component within larger equipment. The control keypad is usually connected with a detachable cable, to allow it to be located on the system's exterior while the DVR circuitry resides inside the equipment.
Source video
Television and video are terms that are sometimes used interchangeably, but differ in their technical meaning. Video is the visual portion of television, whereas television is the combination of video and audio modulated onto a carrier frequency (i.e., a television channel) for delivery. Most DVRs can record both video and audio.
Analog sources
The first digital video recorders were designed to record analog television in NTSC, PAL or SECAM formats.
To record an analog signal a few steps are required. In the case of a television signal, a television tuner must first demodulate the radio frequency signal to produce baseband video. The video is then converted to digital form by a frame grabber, which converts each video image into a collection of numeric values that represent the pixels within the image. At the same time, the audio is also converted to digital form by an analog-to-digital converter running at a constant sampling rate. In many devices, the resulting digital video and audio are compressed before recording to reduce the amount of data that will be recorded, although some DVRs record uncompressed data. When compression is used, video is typically compressed using formats such as H.264 or MPEG-2, and audio is compressed using AAC or MP3.
Analog broadcast copy protection
Many consumer DVRs implement a copy-protection system called Copy Generation Management System—Analog (CGMS-A), which specifies one of four possible copy permissions by means of two bits encoded in the vertical blanking interval:
Copying is freely allowed
Copying is prohibited
Only one copy of this material may be made
This is a copy of material for which only one copy was allowed to be made, so no further copies are allowed.
CGMS-A information may be present in analog broadcast TV signals, and is preserved when the signal is recorded and played back by analog VCRs. VCRs do not understand the meanings of the bits but preserve them in case there is a subsequent attempt to copy the tape to a DVR.
DVRs such as TiVo also detect and act upon analog protection systems such as Macrovision and DCS Copy Protection which were originally designed to block copying on analog VCRs.
Digital sources
Recording digital signals is generally a straightforward capture of the binary MPEG data being received. No expensive hardware is required to quantize and compress the signal (as the television broadcaster has already done this in the studio).
DVD-based PVRs available on the market as of 2006 are not capable of capturing the full range of the visual signal available with high-definition television (HDTV). This is largely because HDTV standards were finalized at a later time than the standards for DVDs. However, DVD-based PVRs can still be used (albeit at reduced visual quality) with HDTV since currently available HDTV sets also have standard A/V connections.
ATSC broadcast
ATSC television broadcasting is primarily used in North America. The ATSC data stream can be directly recorded by a digital video recorder, though many DVRs record only a subset of this information (that can later be transferred to DVD). An ATSC DVR will also act as a set-top box, allowing older televisions or monitors to receive digital television.
Copy protection
The U.S. FCC attempted to limit the abilities of DVRs with its "broadcast flag" regulation. Digital video recorders that had not won prior approval from the FCC for implementing "effective" digital rights management would have been banned from interstate commerce from July 2005, but the regulation was struck down on May 6, 2005.
DVB
DVB digital television contains audio/visual signals that are broadcast over the air in a digital rather than analog format. The DVB data stream can be directly recorded by the DVR. Devices that can use external storage devices (such as hard disks, SSDs, or other flash storage) to store and recover data without the aid of another device are sometimes called telememory devices.
Digital cable and satellite television
Recording satellite television or digital cable signals on a digital video recorder can be more complex than recording analog signals or broadcast digital signals. There are several different transmission schemes, and the video streams may be encrypted to restrict access to subscribers only.
A satellite or cable set-top box both decrypts the signal if encrypted, and decodes the MPEG stream into an analog signal for viewing on the television. In order to record cable or satellite digital signals the signal must be captured after it has been decrypted but before it is decoded; this is how DVRs built into set-top boxes work.
Cable and satellite providers often offer their own digital video recorders along with a service plan. These DVRs have access to the encrypted video stream, and generally enforce the provider's restrictions on copying of material even after recording.
DVD
Many DVD-based DVRs have the capability to copy content from a source DVD (ripping). In the United States, this is prohibited under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act if the disc is encrypted. Most such DVRs will therefore not allow recording of video streams from encrypted movie discs.
Digital camcorders
A digital camcorder combines a camera and a digital video recorder.
Some DVD-based DVRs incorporate connectors that can be used to capture digital video from a camcorder. Some editing of the resulting DVD is usually possible, such as adding chapter points.
Some digital video recorders can now record to solid state flash memory cards (called flash camcorders). They generally use Secure Digital cards, can include wireless connections (Bluetooth and Wi-Fi), and can play SWF files. There are some digital video recorders that combine video and graphics in real time to the flash card, called DTE or "direct to edit". These are used to speed-up the editing workflow in video and television production, since linear videotapes do not then need to be transferred to the edit workstation (see Non-linear editing system).
File formats, resolutions and file systems
DVRs can usually record and play H.264, MPEG-4 Part 2, MPEG-2 .mpg, MPEG-2 .TS, VOB and ISO images video, with MP3 and AC3 audio tracks. They can also display images (JPEG and PNG) and play music files (MP3 and Ogg).
Some devices can be updated to play and record in new formats. DVRs usually record in proprietary file systems for copy protection, although some can use FAT file systems. Recordings from standard-definition television usually have 480p/i/576p/i while HDTV is usually in 720p/1080i.
Applications
Security
Digital video recorders configured for physical security applications record video signals from closed-circuit television cameras for detection and documentation purposes. Many are designed to record audio as well. DVRs have evolved into devices that are feature rich and provide services that exceed the simple recording of video images that was previously done through VCRs. A DVR CCTV system provides a multitude of advanced functions over VCR technology including video searches by event, time, date and camera. There is also much more control over quality and frame rate allowing disk space usage to be optimized and the DVR can also be set to overwrite the oldest security footage should the disk become full. In some DVR security systems remote access to security footage using a PC can also be achieved by connecting the DVR to a LAN network or the Internet.
Some of the latest professional digital video recorders include video analytics firmware, to enable functionality such as 'virtual tripwire' or even the detection of abandoned objects on the scene.
Security DVRs may be categorized as being either PC-based or embedded. A PC-based DVR's architecture is a classical personal computer with video capture cards designed to capture video images. An embedded type DVR is specifically designed as a digital video recorder with its operating system and application software contained in firmware or read-only memory.
Hardware features
Hardware features of security DVRs vary between manufacturers and may include but are not necessarily limited to:
Designed for rack mounting or desktop configurations.
Single or multiple video inputs with connector types consistent with the analogue or digital video provided such as coaxial cable, twisted pair or optical fiber cable. The most common number of inputs are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32. Systems may be configured with a very large number of inputs by networking or bussing individual DVRs together.
Looping video outputs for each input which duplicates the corresponding input video signal and connector type. These output signals are used by other video equipment such as matrix switchers, multiplexers, and video monitors.
Controlled outputs to external video display monitors.
Front panel switches and indicators that allow the various features of the machine to be controlled.
Network connections consistent with the network type and utilized to control features of the recorder and to send and/or receive video signals.
Connections to external control devices such as keyboards.
A connection to external pan-tilt-zoom drives that position cameras.
Internal CD, DVD, VCR devices typically for archiving video.
Connections to external storage media.
Alarm event inputs from external security detection devices, usually one per video input.
Alarm event outputs from internal detection features such as motion detection or loss of video.
Software features
Software features vary between manufacturers and may include but are not necessarily limited to:
User-selectable image capture rates either on an all input basis or input by input basis. The capture rate feature may be programmed to automatically adjust the capture rate on the occurrence of an external alarm or an internal event
Selectable image resolution either on an all input basis or input by input basis. The image resolution feature may be programmed to automatically adjust the image resolution on the occurrence of an external alarm or an internal event.
Compression methods determine quality of playback. H.264 hardware compression offers fast transfer rates over the Internet with high quality video.
Motion detection: Provided on an input by input basis, this feature detects motion in the total image or a user definable portion of the image and usually provides sensitivity settings. Detection causes an internal event that may be output to external equipment and/or be used to trigger changes in other internal features.
Lack of motion detection. Provided on an input by input basis, this feature detects the movement of an object into the field of view and remaining still for a user definable time. Detection causes an internal event that may be output to external equipment and/or used to trigger changes in other internal features.
Direction of motion detection. Provided on an input by input basis, this feature detects the direction of motion in the image that has been determined by the user as an unacceptable occurrence. Detection causes an internal event that may be output to external equipment and/or be used to trigger changes in other internal features.
Routing of input video to video monitors based on user inputs or automatically on alarms or events.
Input, time and date stamping.
Alarm and event logging on appropriate video inputs.
Alarm and event search.
One or more sound recording channels.
Archival.
Privacy concerns
Some (very few), but certainly not all, digital video recorders which are designed to send information to a service provider over a telephone line or Internet (or any other way) can gather and send real-time data on users' viewing habits. This problem was noted back in 2000 and was still considered a problem, specifically with TiVo, in 2015.
Television advertisements
Digital video recorders are also changing the way television programs advertise products. Watching pre-recorded programs allows users to fast-forward through commercials, and some technology allows users to remove commercials entirely. Half of viewers in the United States, for example, use DVRs to skip commercials entirely. This feature has been controversial for the last decade, with major television networks and movie studios claiming it violates copyright and should be banned.
In 1985, an employee of Honeywell's Physical Sciences Center, David Rafner, first described a drive-based DVR designed for home TV recording, time shifting, and commercial skipping. U.S. Patent 4,972,396 focused on a multi-channel design to allow simultaneous independent recording and playback. Broadly anticipating future DVR developments, it describes possible applications such as streaming compression, editing, captioning, multi-channel security monitoring, military sensor platforms, and remotely piloted vehicles.
The first DVR which had a built-in commercial skipping feature introduced in 1999 by ReplayTV at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas. In 2002, five owners of the ReplayTV DVR sued the main television networks and movie studios, asking the federal judge to uphold consumers' rights to record TV shows and skip commercials, claiming that features such as commercial skipping help parents protect their kids from excessive consumerism. ReplayTV was purchased by SONICblue in 2001 and in March 2003, SONICblue filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy after fighting a copyright infringement suit over the ReplayTV's ability to skip commercials. In 2007, DirecTV purchased the remaining assets of ReplayTV.
A third-party add-on for Windows Media Center called "DVRMSToolbox" has the ability to skip commercials.
There is a command-line program called Comskip that detects commercials in an MPEG-2 file and saves their positions to a text file. This file can then be fed to a program like MEncoder to actually remove the commercials.
Many speculate that television advertisements will be eliminated altogether, replaced by advertising in the TV shows themselves. For example, Extreme Makeover: Home Edition advertises Sears, Kenmore, Kohler, and Home Depot by specifically using products from these companies, and some sports events like the Sprint Cup of NASCAR are named after sponsors.
Another type of advertisement shown more and more, mostly for advertising television shows on the same channel, is where the ad overlays the bottom of the television screen, blocking out some of the picture. "Banners", or "logo bugs", as they are called, are referred to by media companies as Secondary Events (2E). This is done in much the same way as severe weather warnings are done. Sometimes, these take up only 5–10% of the screen, but in the extreme, can take up as much as 25% of the viewing area. Some even make noise or move across the screen. One example of this is the 2E ads for Three Moons Over Milford in the months before its premiere. A video taking up approximately 25% of the bottom-left portion of the screen would show a comet impacting into the moon with an accompanying explosion, during another television program.
Because of this widely used new technology, advertisers are now looking at a new way to market their products on television. An excerpt from the magazine Advertising Age reads: "As advertisers lose the ability to invade the home, and consumer's minds, they will be forced to wait for an invitation. This means that they have to learn what kinds of advertising content customers will actually be willing to seek out and receive."
With ad skipping and the time-sensitive nature of certain ads, advertisers are wary of buying commercial time on shows that are heavily digitally video-recorded. However, technology today makes it possible for networks to insert ads dynamically on videos being played in DVRs. Advertisers could inject time-relevant ads to recorded programs when the program is viewed. This way the ads could be not just topical but also personalized to viewers interests. DirecTV in March 2011 signed an arrangement with NDS Group to enable the delivery of such addressable advertisement.
It is believed that viewers prefer to forward ads, than to switch the channel. By switching channels, viewers will have the probability of skipping the beginning of their program. Users might switch to a channel that is also showing ads. Having the ability to pause, rewind, and forward live TV gives users a chance to change the channel fewer times. Forwarding ads can have a later effect on the viewer. Ads that get the viewers' attention will influence the viewers' to rewind and watch what was missed.
In January 2012, Dish Network announced Hopper service, costing $10 extra per month, which recorded prime-time programming from the four major broadcast networks. With the Auto Hop feature, viewers can watch the programs they choose without commercials, without making the effort to fast-forward. On May 24, 2012, Dish and the networks filed suit in federal court.
Patent and copyright litigation
On July 14, 2005, Forgent Networks filed suit against various companies alleging infringement on , entitled "Computer controlled video system allowing playback during recording". The listed companies included EchoStar, DirecTV, Charter Communications, Cox Communications, Comcast, Time Warner, and Cable One.
Scientific-Atlanta and Motorola, the manufacturers of the equipment sold by the above-mentioned companies, filed a counter-suit against Forgent Networks claiming that their products do not violate the patent, and that the patent is invalid. The two cases were combined into case 6:06-cv-208, filed in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas, Tyler Division.
According to court documents, on June 20, 2006, Motorola requested that the United States Patent and Trademarks Office reexamine the patent, which was first filed in 1991, but has been amended several times.
On March 23, 2007, Cablevision Systems Corp lost a legal battle against several Hollywood studios and television networks to introduce a network-based digital video recorder service to its subscribers. However, on August 4, 2008, Cablevision won its appeal. John M. Walker Jr., a Second Circuit judge, declared that the technology "would not directly infringe" on the media companies' rights. An appeal to the Supreme Court was rejected.
In court, the media companies argued that network digital video recorders were tantamount to video-on-demand, and that they should receive license fees for the recording. Cablevision and the appeals court disagreed. The company noted that each user would record programs on his or her own individual server space, making it a DVR that has a "very long cord."
In 2004, TiVo sued EchoStar Corp, a manufacturer of DVR units, for patent infringement. The parties reached a settlement in 2011 wherein EchoStar pays a one-time fee (in three structured payments) that grants Echostar full rights for life to the disputed TiVo patents upon first payment(as opposed to indefinite and escalating license fees to be constantly renegotiated), and Echostar granted TiVo full rights for life to certain Echostar patents and dropped their counter-suit against TiVo.
In January 2012, AT&T settled a similar suit brought by TiVo claiming patent infringement (just as with Echostar) in exchange for cash payments to TiVo totaling $215 million through June 2018 plus "incremental recurring per subscriber monthly license fees" to TiVo through July 2018, but grants no full lifetime rights as per the Echostar settlement.
In May 2012, Fox Broadcasting sued Dish Network, arguing that Dish's set-top box with DVR function, which allowed the users to automatically record prime-time programs and skip commercials, was copyright infringement and breach of contract. In July 2013, the 9th circuit rejected Fox's claims.
See also
Set-top box
Home theater PC (Media PC)
Digital media player
Smart TV
Comparison of PVR software packages
10-foot user interface
CRID
Direct-to-disk recording
DTE (Direct To Edit)
DTVPal DVR
Freeview+
Freesat+
Hopper (DVR)
Media server (Consumer)
Time shifting
Space shifting (place shifting)
Remote storage digital video recorder
MythTV
Network video recorder
SubRip
Sky+
Tablo (DVR)
TiVo
TV-Anytime
PVR-resistant advertising
Remote control
USB hard disk
USB On-The-Go
Vu+
Video server (Broadcast)
Kodi (software)
Xbox One
Notes
References
Free-to-Air Television and other PVR Challenges in Europe, technical report of the European broadcasting union
Video recorder
Set-top box
Television terminology |
28685458 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction%20collaboration%20technology | Construction collaboration technology | Construction collaboration technology refers to software applications used to enable effective sharing of project-related information between geographically dispersed members of a construction project team, often through use of a web-based software as a service platform.
History
The terms "construction collaboration" and "construction collaboration software" were coined in Australia by Aconex in 2001. It was later adopted in 2003 in the UK when seven UK-based vendors joined together to form the Network for Construction Collaboration Technology Providers (NCCTP), to promote the benefits and use of collaborative technologies in the architecture, engineering, construction (AEC) and related industries.
The phrase was taken on in the UK as it was preferred to the then commonly used term 'project extranet' which was felt might exclude use of the platforms for multi-project programmes of work, or for post-construction collaboration - e.g.: for facilities management. It also supported progressive moves within the UK construction industry to promote more collaborative or integrated approaches following the 1994 Latham and 1998 Egan Reports. For example, Sir John Egan's follow-up report, Accelerating Change in 2002, recommended:
'Integrated teams, created at the optimal time in the process and using an integrated IT approach, that fully release the contribution each can make and equitably share risk and reward in a non-adversarial way.' (p.10, emphasis added)
Other descriptions such as 'construction project management' or 'construction document management' were seen as confusing or misleading, being associated more with scheduling tools (e.g.: Microsoft Project) or with generic electronic document management systems (e.g.: Documentum) that could not easily handle AEC-oriented requirements for dispersed teams.
Characteristics
Essentially, construction collaboration technologies are deployed to support the requirements of a multi-disciplinary construction project team. This is typically drawn from multiple companies, all based in different locations with their own IT systems, and is brought together – usually temporarily – to plan, design, construct and, in some cases, to operate and maintain the resulting built asset. It is common for construction collaboration technology to be cloud based, or hosted as a centralised database. These platforms enable information to be shared and accessed in real-time by all team members.
Construction collaboration technologies replace localised sets of data held by individual team members or companies. A centralised repository or data store is created that can be accessed by all authorised team members, usually using a lowest common denominator technology: a computer equipped with an internet browser and a telecommunications link to the internet. The platforms' functionality also reflects the industry's extensive use of graphical information - most notably design drawings - and the need to be able to access, view, mark-up and comment on designs.
The core characteristics of construction collaboration technologies can be summarised as:
Organisation features (i.e.: security settings, user administration, information administration)
Communication features (i.e.: file publication, management, feedback)
Management features (i.e.: management of specific workflows, teams, work packages, multiple projects, standards)
Sharing, viewing and working with CAD-based drawings (including use of viewing tools)
Reflecting the need to encourage take-up and active use of their platforms, the leading UK construction collaboration technology vendors all adopted a similar charging structure. Rather than charging companies per-user or per-seat licenses, the applications were typically licensed per-project, with customers paying a single subscription (typically monthly or quarterly) for the duration of the planning, design and construction process, and allowing use by all companies in the project's supply chain.
Vendors
The founder members of the NCCTP were: 4Projects (Since Acquired by Viewpoint Construction Software), BIW Technologies, BuildOnline, Cadweb, Causeway Technologies and Sarcophagus. Business Collaborator and Aconex joined shortly afterwards. The NCCTP was initially managed by CIRIA before becoming a membership forum within Constructing Excellence in August 2007.
See also
Extranet
List of collaborative software
Construction Communication
References
Construction
Building
Project management software |
7064918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20hard%20disk%20drives | History of hard disk drives | In 1953, IBM recognized the immediate application for what it termed a "Random Access File" having high capacity and rapid random access at a relatively low cost. After considering technologies such as wire matrices, rod arrays, drums, drum arrays, etc., the engineers at IBM's San Jose California laboratory invented the hard disk drive. The disk drive created a new level in the computer data hierarchy, then termed Random Access Storage but today known as secondary storage, less expensive and slower than main memory (then typically drums and later core memory) but faster and more expensive than tape drives.
The commercial usage of hard disk drives (HDD) began in 1957, with the shipment of a production IBM 305 RAMAC system including IBM Model 350 disk storage. US Patent 3,503,060 issued March 24, 1970, and arising from the IBM RAMAC program is generally considered to be the fundamental patent for disk drives.
Each generation of disk drives replaced larger, more sensitive and more cumbersome devices. The earliest drives were usable only in the protected environment of a data center. Later generations progressively reached factories, offices and homes, eventually becoming ubiquitous.
Disk media diameter was initially 24 inches in diameter, but over time it has been reduced to today's 3.5-inch and 2.5-inch standard sizes. Drives with the larger 24-inch- and 14-inch-diameter media were typically mounted in standalone boxes (resembling washing machines) or large equipment rack enclosures. Individual drives often required high-current AC power due to the large motors required to spin the large disks. Drives with smaller media generally conformed to de facto standard form factors.
The capacity of hard drives has grown exponentially over time. When hard drives became available for personal computers, they offered 5-megabyte capacity. During the mid-1990s the typical hard disk drive for a PC had a capacity of about 1 gigabyte. , desktop hard disk drives typically had a capacity of 1 to 8 terabytes, with the largest-capacity drives reaching 20 terabytes (single-disk drives, "dual" drives are available up to 24 TB). Smaller, laptop internal 2.5-inch drives, are available up to 5 TB.
Unit production peaked in 2010 at about 650 million units and has been in a slow decline since then.
1950s–1970s
The IBM 350 Disk File was developed under the code-name RAMAC by an IBM San Jose team led by Reynold Johnson. It was announced in 1956 with the then new IBM 305 RAMAC computer. A variant, the IBM 355 Disk File, was simultaneously announced with the IBM RAM 650 computer, an enhancement to the IBM 650.
The IBM 350 drive had fifty platters, with a total capacity of five million 6-bit characters (3.75 megabytes). A single head assembly having two heads was used for access to all the platters, yielding an average access time of just under 1 second.
The RAMAC disk drive created a new level in the computer data hierarchy, today known as secondary storage, less expensive and slower than main memory (then typically core or drum) but faster and more expensive than tape drives. Subsequently there was a period of about 20 years in which other technologies competed with disks in the secondary storage marketplace, for example tape strips, e.g., NCR CRAM, tape cartridges, e.g., IBM 3850, and drums, e.g., Burroughs B430, UNIVAC FASTRAND, but all ultimately were displaced by HDDs. Today SSDs compete with HDDs in the marketplace.
The IBM 1301 Disk Storage Unit, announced in 1961, introduced the usage of heads having self-acting air bearings (self-flying heads) with one head per each surface of the disks. It was followed in 1963 by the IBM 1302, with 4 times the capacity.
Also in 1961, Bryant Computer Products introduced its 4000 series disk drives. These massive units stood tall, long, and wide, and had up to 26 platters, each in diameter, rotating at up to 1,200 rpm. Access times were from 50 to 205 milliseconds (ms). The drive's total capacity, depending on the number of platters installed, was up to 205,377,600 bytes (205 MB).
The first disk drive to use removable media was the IBM 1311 drive. It was introduced in 1962 using the IBM 1316 disk pack to store two million characters. It was followed by the IBM 2311 (1964) using the IBM 1316 disk pack to store 5 megabyte, IBM 2314 (1965) using the IBM 2316 disk pack to store 29 megabytes, the IBM 3330 using 3336 disk packs to store 100 megabytes and the 3330-11 using the 3336-11 to store 200 megabytes.
Memorex shipped the first HDD, the Memorex 630, in 1968, plug compatible to an IBM model 2311 marking the beginning of independent competition (Plug Compatible Manufacturers or PCMs) for HDDs attached to IBM systems. It was followed in 1969 by the Memorex 660, an IBM 2314 compatible, which was OEM'ed to DEC and resold as the RP02.
In 1964, Burroughs introduced the B-475 disk drive, with a head per track, as part of the B5500.
In 1970, IBM introduced the 2305 disk drive, with a head per track.
In 1973, Control Data Corporation introduced the first of its series of SMD disk drives using conventional disk pack technology. The SMD family became the predominant disk drive in the minicomputer market into the 1980s.
Also in 1973, IBM introduced the IBM 3340 "Winchester" disk drive and the 3348 data module, the first significant commercial use of low mass and low load heads with lubricated platters and the last IBM disk drive with removable media. This technology and its derivatives remained the standard through 2011. Project head Kenneth Haughton named it after the Winchester 30-30 rifle because it was planned to have two 30 MB spindles; however, the actual product shipped with two spindles for data modules of either 35 MB or 70 MB. The name 'Winchester' and some derivatives are still common in some non-English speaking countries to generally refer to any hard disks (e.g. Hungary, Russia).
In 1974 IBM introduced the "Swinging arm" actuator, made possible because Winchester recording heads function well when skewed to the recorded tracks. The simple design of the 62GV (Gulliver) drive, invented at IBM's UK Hursley Labs, became IBM's most licensed electro-mechanical invention of all time, being adopted in the 1980s for all HDDs, and still used nearly 40 years and 10 billion arms later.
Smaller diameter media came into usage during the 1970s and by the end of the decade standard form factors had been established for drives using nominally 8-inch media (e.g., Shugart SA1000) and nominally 5.25-inch media (e.g., Seagate ST-506).
During the 1970s, captive production, dominated by IBM's production for its own use, remained the largest revenue channel for HDDs, though the relative importance of the OEM channel grew. Led by Control Data, Diablo Systems, CalComp and Memorex, the OEM segment reached $631 million in 1979, but still well below the $2.8 billion associated with captive production.
1980s, the transition to the PC era
The 1980s saw the minicomputer age plateau as PCs were introduced. Manufacturers such as IBM, DEC and Hewlett-Packard continued to manufacture 14-inch hard drive systems as industry demanded higher storage; one such drive is the 1980 2.52 GB IBM 3380. But it was clear that smaller Winchester storage systems were eclipsing large platter hard drives.
In the 1980s 8-inch drives used with some mid-range systems increased from a low of about 30MB in 1980, to a top-of-the-line 3GB in 1989.
Hard disk drives for personal computers (PCs) were initially a rare and very expensive optional feature; systems typically had only the less expensive floppy disk drives or even cassette tape drives as both secondary storage and transport media. However, by the late 1980s, hard disk drives were standard on all but the cheapest PC and floppy disks were used almost solely as transport media.
Most hard disk drives in the early 1980s were sold to PC end users by systems integrators such as the Corvus Disk System or the systems manufacturer such as the Apple ProFile. The IBM PC XT in 1983, included an internal standard 10 MB hard disk drive, and soon thereafter internal hard disk drives proliferated on personal computers, one popular type was the ST506/ST412 hard drive and MFM interface.
HDDs continued to get smaller with the introduction of the 3.5-inch form factor in the middle of the decade Rodime 1983 and the 2.5-inch form factor PrairieTek 1988.
Industry participation peaked with about 75 active manufacturers in 1985 and then declined thereafter even though volume continued to climb: by 1989 reaching 22 million units and US$23 billion in revenue.
1990s
Even though there were a number of new entrants, industry participants continued to decline in total to 15 in 1999. Unit volume and industry revenue monotonically increased during the 1990s to 174 million units and $26 billion.
The industry production consolidated around the 3.5-inch and 2.5-inch form factors; the larger form factors dying off while several smaller form factors were offered but achieved limited success, e.g. HP 1.3-inch Kittyhawk, IBM 1-inch Microdrive, etc.
2001 to present
In 2001 the HDD industry experienced its first ever decline in units and revenue.
The number of industry participants decreased to six in 2009 and to three in 2013.
In 2009 – Fujitsu exits by selling HDD business to Toshiba
In 2011 – Floods hit many hard drive factories. Predictions of a worldwide shortage of hard disk drives cause prices to double.
In 2012 Western Digital announced the first 2.5-inch, 5 mm thick drive, and the first 2.5-inch, 7 mm thick drive with two platters
Unit production peaked in 2010 at about 650 million units. Unit shipment has been in a slow decline since then, shipping about 276 million units in 2018 with a somewhat slower decline projected thereafter.
As of August 2020, the largest hard drive is 20 TB (while SSDs can be much bigger at 100 TB, mainstream consumer SSDs cap at 8 TB). Smaller, 2.5-inch drives, are available at up to 2TB for laptops, and 5TB as external drives.
Timeline
1956 – IBM 350A, shipment of prototype disk drive to Zellerbach, SF CA, USA
1957 – IBM 350, first production disk drive, 5 million characters (6-bit), equivalent to 3.75 megabytes.
1961 – IBM 1301 Disk Storage Unit introduced with one head per surface and aerodynamic flying heads, 28 million characters (6-bit) per module.
1961 – Bryant 4000 (Bryant Computer Products division of Ex-Cell-O) up to 205 MB on up to 26 29-inch diameter platters.
1962 – IBM 1311 introduced removable disk packs containing 6 disks, storing 2 million characters per pack
1964 – IBM 2311 with 7.25 megabytes per disk pack
1964 – IBM 2310 removable cartridge disk drive with 1.02 MB on one disk
1965 – IBM 2314 with 11 disks and 29 MB per disk pack
1968 – Memorex is first to ship an IBM-plug-compatible disk drive
1970 – IBM 3330 Merlin, introduced error correction, 100 MB per disk pack
1973 – IBM 3340 Winchester introduced removable sealed disk packs that included head and arm assembly, 35 or 70 MB per pack
1974 - IBM 62GV Gulliver, introduced the Swinging Arm Actuator, adopted for all HDD in the 1980s.
1973 – CDC SMD announced and shipped, 40 MB disk pack
1976 – 1976 IBM 3350 "Madrid" – 317.5 megabytes, eight 14-inch disks, re-introduction of disk drive with fixed disk media
1979 – IBM 3370 introduced thin film heads, 571 MB, non-removable
1979 – IBM 0680 Piccolo – 64.5 megabytes, six 8-inch disks, first 8-inch HDD
1980 – The IBM 3380 was the world's first gigabyte-capacity disk drive. Two head disk assemblies (essentially two HDDs) were packaged in a cabinet the size of a refrigerator, weighed (1000 lb), and had a price tag of US$ (Model B4) which is in present-day terms.
1980 – Seagate releases the first 5.25-inch hard drive, the ST-506; it had a 5-megabyte capacity, weighed 5 pounds (2.3 kilograms), and cost US$1,500
1982 – HP 7935 404 megabyte, 7-platter hard drive for minicomputers, HP-IB bus, $27,000
1983 – RO351/RO352 first 3 inch drive released with capacity of 10 megabytes
1986 – Standardization of SCSI
1988 – PrairieTek 220 – 20 megabytes, two 2.5-inch disks, first 2.5-inch HDD
1989 – Jimmy Zhu and H. Neal Bertram from UCSD proposed exchange decoupled granular microstructure for thin film disk storage media, still used today.
1990 – IBM 0681 "Redwing" – 857 megabytes, twelve 5.25-inch disks. First HDD with PRML Technology (Digital Read Channel with 'partial-response maximum-likelihood' algorithm).
1991 – IBM 0663 "Corsair" – 1,004 megabytes, eight 3.5-inch disks; first HDD using magnetoresistive heads
1991 – Integral Peripherals 1820 "Mustang" – 21.4 megabytes, one 1.8-inch disk, first 1.8-inch HDD
1992 – HP Kittyhawk – 20 MB, first 1.3-inch hard-disk drive
1992 – Seagate ships the first 7,200-rpm hard drive, the Barracuda
1993 – IBM 3390 model 9, the last Single Large Expensive Disk drive announced by IBM
1994 – IBM introduces Laser Textured Landing Zones (LZT)
1996 – Seagate ships the first 10,000-rpm hard drive, the Cheetah
1997 – IBM Deskstar 16GB "Titan" – 16,800 megabytes, five 3.5-inch disks; first (Giant Magnetoresistance) heads
1997 – Seagate introduces the first hard drive with fluid bearings
1998 – UltraDMA/33 and ATAPI standardized
1999 – IBM releases the Microdrive in 170 MB and 340 MB capacities
2000 – Seagate ships the first 15,000-rpm hard drive, the Cheetah X15
2002 – (Parallel) ATA breaks 137 GB (128 GiB) addressing space barrier
2002 – Seagate ships the first Serial ATA hard drives
2003 – IBM sells disk drive division to Hitachi
2004 – MK2001MTN first 0.85-inch drive released by Toshiba with capacity of 2 gigabytes
2005 – Serial ATA 3 Gbit/s standardized
2005 – Seagate introduces Tunnel MagnetoResistive Read Sensor (TMR) and Thermal Spacing Control
2005 – Introduction of faster SAS (Serial Attached SCSI)
2005 – First perpendicular magnetic recording (PMR) HDD shipped: Toshiba 1.8-inch 40/80 GB
2006 – First 200 GB 2.5-inch hard drive utilizing perpendicular recording (Toshiba)
2009 – Western Digital ships first HDD with dual stage piezoelectric actuator
2010 – First hard drive manufactured by using the Advanced Format of 4,096byte sectors instead of 512byte sectors.
2012 – TDK demonstrates 2 TB on a single 3.5-inch platter
2012 – WDC acquires HGST operating it as a wholly owned subsidiary. WDC then provides rights to Toshiba, allowing it to re-enter the 3.5-inch desktop hard disk drive market.
2013 – HGST ships first modern helium-filled hard disk drive; He6 with 6 TB on 7 platters (announced in 2012).
2013 – Seagate claims first to ship shingled magnetic recording (SMR) HDDs
2021 – 20 TB HAMR drives were released in January 2021.
Manufacturing history
Manufacturing began in California's Silicon Valley in 1957 with IBM's production shipment of the first HDD, the IBM RAMAC 350. The industry grew slowly at first with three additional companies in the market by 1964, Anelex Corp., Bryant Computer Products and Data Products Corp. The industry grew rapidly in the late 1960s and again in the 1980s reaching a peak of 75 manufacturers in 1984. There have been at least 221 companies manufacturing hard disk drives but most of that industry has vanished through bankruptcy or mergers and acquisitions. Surviving manufacturers are Seagate, Toshiba and Western Digital (WD) with Toshiba as the senior participant having entered the market in 1977, twenty years after IBM started the market.
From beginning and into the early 1980s manufacturing was mainly by US firms in the United States at locations such as Silicon Valley, Los Angeles, Minnesota and Oklahoma City. In the 1980s US firms, beginning with Seagate, began to shift production to Singapore and then other locations in southeast Asia. In a span of seven years, 1983 to 1990, Singapore became the single largest location of HDD production, amounting to 55% of worldwide production. Japanese HDD companies later also moved their production to southeast Asia. Today the three remaining firms all produce their units in the Pacific Rim.
By the 1990s the dollar value of magnetic recording devices produced by companies located in California's "Silicon Valley" exceeded the dollar value of semiconductor devices produced there leading some to suggest that a more appropriate name for this area would be "Iron Oxide Valley," after the magnetic material coating the disks. All three remaining firms still have significant activities in Silicon Valley, but no HDD manufacturing. Western Digital still manufactures its read-write head wafers in Fremont CA.
See also
History of floppy disks
History of IBM magnetic disk drives
References
Further reading
External links
A brief history of hard drives, retrieved 2014 Jan 11
Timeline, 50 years of hard drives retrieved 2010 Nov 25
HDD Price History.
History of hard disk drives
Hard disk drives
History of Silicon Valley |
39081590 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice-based%20marketing%20automation | Voice-based marketing automation | Voice-based marketing automation (VBMA) refers to software platforms designed for marketing, sales, and support departments to measure, manage, and automate their phone conversations. Marketing departments, sales teams, and support agents use VBMA to initiate, manage, monitor, track, route, record, and report on sales and support phone conversations.
VBMA encompasses a wide range of automation and analytics tools. It is used as a standalone solution and as a way to complement the functionality found in traditional marketing automation software.
Comparison to marketing automation
Growth of voice-based marketing automation
Voice-based marketing automation platforms have emerged as an integrated solution in response to both the growth in mobile users and mobile advertising. It is estimated that mobile search will generate 73 billion calls to businesses (up from 30 billion in 2013) and businesses are placing more value on phone calls as a lead source, as is evident from the estimated $64.6 billion spent annually on ads to generate phone calls. With Google's call-only ad type, businesses were able to general billions of calls through mobile search. In 2015, mobile search drove 48 percent of calls. Advances in call analytics have been made to provide businesses deeper insights to measure and optimize inbound calls.
Functionality
Voice-based marketing automation software consists of the following core pieces of functionality:
Call tracking Enables marketers to tie incoming phone calls back to the specific marketing source (ad, keyword search, email, QR code, web site, collateral, trade show, or other source) that originated it.
Hosted IVR (interactive voice response) Is a cloud-based technology that allows a computer to interact with humans through the use of voice and DTMF tones input via keypad. Inbound IVRs are used as auto-attendants to answer, qualify, and route callers to their desired area of the organization. They can also be used to process orders or provide basic information without involving a live operator. Outbound IVRs are also used in voice broadcast campaigns to conduct customer surveys, solicit and process orders, and more.
Voice broadcasting Is a mass communication technique that broadcasts telephone messages to hundreds or thousands of call recipients at once. They are a means of automating appointment reminders, delivery confirmations, event promotions, reorders, accounts receivable collections, phone surveys, and more. Voice broadcasts delivered via voice-based marketing automation can be an audio recording, a text-to-speech message, or an IVR for handling recipient interaction. The system can also play different messages if a live person answers or if the call goes to voicemail.
Call routing and forwarding Automatically passes inbound phone calls to a specific location, department, agent, or group of agents based on various criteria.
Call screening Gives agents the option of accepting or declining calls based on a caller’s information.
Call transcription Captures voice interactions by transcribing conversations, IVR responses, and voice messages.
Call recording Automatically captures calls or portions of calls as audio files.
Agent panels Appear on sales and support agents computer screens and display information on incoming calls, such as their names, phone numbers, the marketing source they are calling from, and CRM information.
Manager dashboards Appear on the sales or support team manager’s computer screen and enable them to monitor agent activities.
Web form call triggering Initiates a call to a company’s agent when a visitor on their web site submits their phone number in a web form. If the agent accepts the call, the system calls the web site visitor and connects the two in conversation.
SMS messaging Is a service where business can send text messages to their use base to generate and nurture leads, confirm appointments and deliveries, provide alerts, and other functions.
API integration Is a protocol intended to be used as an interface by software components to communicate with each other.
Software analytics Enabled software practitioners to perform data exploration and analysis to obtain insightful and actionable information for completing various tasks.
How voice-based marketing automation is used
There are three types of groups who use voice-based marketing automation software:
Marketers Use voice-based marketing automation to generate, track, qualify, filter, route, and report on inbound sales calls. They also use the call recording component to review sales and support calls.
Salespeople Use voice-based marketing automation to capture and respond to phone leads. They often set up a virtual call center to manage, route, and record inbound sales calls. Sales teams also use the voice broadcasting and SMS messaging components to automate the communication of information and to process orders.
Support professionals Use voice-based marketing automation to provide phone-based customer service using a virtual call center to handle support calls. The software enables agents to work from any location and receive and transfer calls using any phone type. Support teams often use the IVR technology component to answer incoming calls, provide answers to routine inquiries, conduct surveys, and route callers who need to speak to a live person to the correct agent or group of agents.
See also
Demand generation
Lead scoring
Call tracking
Voice broadcasting
Interactive voice response (IVR)
SMS
References
Marketing software
Sales |
25764909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neal%20Brown | Neal Brown | Neal Harmon Brown (born March 11, 1980) is an American college football coach and former player. He is the head football coach at West Virginia University. Brown was previously the head coach at Troy University from 2015–2018. Brown has also previously served as the offensive coordinator at Troy (2008–2009) and Texas Tech University (2010–2012) and the University of Kentucky (2013–2014).
Early years
Brown attended Boyle County High School in Danville, Kentucky, where he was an
He played football at the University of Kentucky under head coach Hal Mumme and his assistants, Mike Leach and Tony Franklin, before transferring to the University of Massachusetts Amherst.
Coaching career
Early coaching career
Brown started his coaching career as a graduate assistant at UMass. Before joining Larry Blakeney's staff at Troy to work under Tony Franklin, he spent one-year assistant coaching stints at UMass, Sacred Heart, and Delaware. Following Franklin's departure to Auburn at the end of the 2007 regular season, Brown was promoted to offensive coordinator at Troy. When he was hired, he became the youngest coordinator in all FBS football.
Texas Tech
On January 12, 2010, Brown was announced as the offensive coordinator at Texas Tech under new Red Raiders head coach Tommy Tuberville. During the 2010 football season, the Red Raider offense performed well. During his tenure at Texas Tech, Brown perfected his NASCAR spread offense. The offense created by Brown focused on players running to the line immediately after the play and quickly snapping the ball before the defense could get set. The offense requires speed at every position to be run the way Brown envisions it. The focus of the offense was to snap the ball 8 seconds after the previous play. The 2010 Red Raiders ranked 15th in the country in total offense, 6th in passing offense, and 72nd in rushing offense.
For his coaching performance during the 2011 41–38 upset victory over the then-ranked #3 Oklahoma Sooners, he was recognized by Rivals.com as National Coordinator of the Week.
Brown was considered for the head coaching job at his alma mater, UMass, following the 2011 season. Brown was also considered for the school's head coaching job when it opened following the 2008 season.
Kentucky
On December 9, 2012 it was reported after several weeks of speculation that Brown would return to his home state to coach the offense at Kentucky under new coach Mark Stoops.
Troy
Troy announced Brown's hire on Sunday, November 30, 2014. In 2015, Brown's Trojans posted a 4–8 record. Troy was ranked for the first time in the AP top 25 on November 13, 2016, they became the first team from the Sun Belt Conference to be ranked in the Top 25 and finished the year with a record of 10–3. This was Troy's first 10 win season since joining FBS in 2001. Troy capped of the 2016 season by winning the Dollar General Bowl in Mobile, Alabama.
In Brown's third season at the helm in 2017, he led Troy to a 3–1 start to begin the season. In the fifth game of the season on September 30, Troy faced #25-ranked LSU. With Troy leading in the third quarter by a score of 24–7, LSU began to mount a comeback in the fourth quarter by scoring 14 unanswered points and trailing just 24–21 with less than 30 seconds left in the game. LSU began to move the ball down-field before having only 8 seconds left on the clock. The very next play became an interception for Troy, which sealed the upset victory. The win over LSU snapped the Tigers' 46-game non-conference home winning streak, which was the longest such streak in the country at the time. The Trojans became Sun Belt co-champions after defeating Arkansas State in a thriller, 32–25. Troy's 10–2 overall record is the programs best regular season finish since joining the FBS in 2001.
West Virginia
Brown was announced as the 35th head football coach for West Virginia University on January 5, 2019. Coming off an 8-4 (6-3) 2018 season by outgoing coach Dana Holgorsen, West Virginia was predicted to finish 8th out of 10 teams in the Big 12 media poll. After racing out to a 3-1 start to begin the 2019-20 football season, the Mountaineers lost five straight games for the first time since 2012. Three of the losses came against top-15 teams, No. 11 Texas, No. 5 Oklahoma, and No. 12 Baylor. Sitting at 3-6 (1-5) and on the verge of missing a bowl for the first time since 2013, WVU notched its only win against a ranked opponent the following week, winning at No. 24 Kansas State. With the win, WVU improved to 4-6 (2-5) and kept its bowl hopes alive. However, a loss against No. 21 Oklahoma State dashed their bowl hopes and guaranteed WVU's first losing season in six years. The Mountaineers finished the season with an upset at TCU, denying the Horned Frogs a chance at postseason play. West Virginia finished 5-7 (3-6) in Brown's first season.
Prior to Brown's second season, offensive coordinator Matt Moore was promoted to assistant head coach, and was replaced in his role as offensive coordinator by Penn State wide receivers coach Gerad Parker. Defensive coordinator Vic Koenning also resigned after allegations of mistreatment by West Virginia players. Brown promoted three defensive coaches to become co-defensive coordinators in place of Koenning. For the second straight season, West Virginia was predicted to finish 8th out of 10 teams in the Big 12 media poll. West Virginia was scheduled to open the season against Florida State, making their first appearance in the Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game since 2014. However, the game along with a matchup against rival Maryland were cancelled as a results of precautions stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic.
As a result, the Mountaineers opened the 2020-21 season with one nonconference game, a home win over FCS Eastern Kentucky. After a road loss at No. 15 Oklahoma State to begin conference play, the Mountaineers recorded two home conference wins over Baylor and Kansas for the Mountaineers' second consecutive 3-1 start. West Virginia traded road losses (Texas Tech, No. 22 Texas, No. 9 Iowa State) and home wins (No. 16 Kansas State, TCU) over the following five games to sit at 5-4 (4-4) heading into a December home matchup with No. 11 Oklahoma. The game, originally scheduled for November, had been postponed due to positive coronavirus tests within the Sooners program. However, the contest was cancelled entirely after positive coronavirus tests forced WVU to "shut down football operations" for seven days. As a result, WVU finished Brown's second season having played in just nine total regular season games, the fewest for WVU since the 1954 season. However, despite only participating in nine contests, the Mountaineers were eligible for postseason play after the NCAA waived bowl eligibility requirements. West Virginia was invited to participate in the Liberty Bowl against Tennessee, marking the Mountaineers' first appearance in the contest since 2014, their first postseason play since 2018, and only the second all-time appearance against the Volunteers. Just one day after the matchup was announced, Tennessee (3-7) announced they had paused all team activities and were unable to compete after several positive coronavirus cases. Army (9-2), who had accepted an invitation to the Independence Bowl before it was canceled due to a lack of available teams, was named as their replacement. After falling behind the Black Knights 21-10 with 7:00 left in the 3rd quarter, West Virginia rallied behind two late TD passes from Austin Kendall to complete the comeback victory, 24-21.
After finishing 6-4 (4-4) in the pandemic-shortened 2020 season, the Mountaineers were predicted to finish sixth out of ten teams in the 2021 Big 12 preseason poll, a marginal improvement over the prior two years' predicted eighth place finishes. West Virginia opened its non-conference slate with renewed rivalry games in two of its first three contests, against Maryland and Virginia Tech, respectively. Although the Mountaineers scored three TDs with RB Leddie Brown and another in the air from QB Jarrett Doege leading to a 21-20 lead entering the 4th quarter, WVU was unable to overcome committing four turnovers and lost at Maryland, 24-30. After blanking FCS Long Island 66-0 in the Mountaineers' home opener, West Virginia played former conference rival No. 15 Virginia Tech for only the second time in 16 years and the first time at Mountaineer Field since 2005. In front of a sellout September crowd, WVU raced out to a 27-7 lead in the third quarter behind two TD passes from Jarret Doege and 161 yards and a score from Leddie Brown. However, after VT erased nearly all of its 20 point deficit, the Mountaineers won on the backs of their defense via a time expiring goal-line stand, and won the Black Diamond Trophy for the first time since 2003. It was WVU's first victory over a top-15 team in the Neal Brown era. Having finished nonconference play at 2-1, the Mountaineers opened conference play on the road against perennial favorite and reigning conference champion, Oklahoma. After opening the contest with a 17-play, 75-yard TD drive, and holding the Sooners to just 91 yards of total offense in the first half, West Virginia led No. 4 Oklahoma, 10-7, on the road at halftime. However, the Mountaineers were held to just 62 yards in the second half, and lost on a last-second FG, handing the Mountaineers a ninth-consecutive loss to Oklahoma since 2012. West Virginia then lost its next two conference games against Texas Tech and Baylor to sit at 2-4 (0-3) entering its mid-October bye week, and in serious jeopardy of missing postseason play for the second time in three years. WVU then went on the road against TCU. Despite trailing early after the Horned Frogs returned the opening kickoff 100 yards for a TD, the Mountaineers recovered behind three Leddie Brown rushing TDs, and racked up 487 yards of total offense to win 29-17 and avoid an 0-4 conference start. West Virginia returned home to face No. 22 Iowa State 5-2 (3-1), who had just upset then-undefeated No. 8 Oklahoma State the week before. Despite facing the Big 12's top defense, the Mountaineers earned 492 total yards, Jarret Doege threw for three TDs, and Leddie Brown scored two more TDs on the ground as WVU beat the Cyclones, 38-31, to improve to 4-4 (2-3) on the season. However, the Mountaineers were unable to sustain their late-October success, and dropped back-to-back contests against No. 11 Oklahoma State, and at Kansas State, meaning West Virginia (4-6) (2-5) needed to win their final two games to secure postseason eligibility. West Virginia's next matchup was against Texas, who also found themselves at 4-6 and at risk of missing postseason play for the first time since 2016. In the end, Jarret Doege threw three touchdown passes and Leddie Brown rushed for 158 yards and a score to lead West Virginia to a 31-23 victory over Texas, handing the Longhorns their sixth straight loss and eliminating them from bowl consideration. WVU secured bowl eligibility a week later when Jarret Doege threw for 170 yards and three touchdowns, Leddie Brown ran for 156 yards and another score, and the Mountaineers held off Kansas on the road, 34-28. This left the Mountaineers at 6-6 (4-5), securing WVU's second consecutive fifth place finish. West Virginia was then invited to the Guaranteed Rate Bowl, marking their first appearance in the contest since 2016. It was West Virginia's first-ever matchup against Minnesota (8-4). The Golden Gophers dominated the contest on defense, holding the Mountaineers to just 206 total yards and one TD. West Virginia played without leading rusher Leddie Brown, who opted to skip the bowl game to prepare for the NFL. Jarret Doege threw for 140 yards and one interception in the losing effort, which would mark his final game as a Mountaineer, as he and West Virginia's leading receiver, Winston Wright, announced just days later that they were entering the transfer portal.
As of the end of the 2021 season, Brown's overall record at West Virginia is 17-18.
Head coaching record
References
External links
West Virginia profile
Troy profile
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Living people
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9256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma%20machine | Enigma machine | The Enigma machine is a cipher device developed and used in the early- to mid-20th century to protect commercial, diplomatic, and military communication. It was employed extensively by Nazi Germany during World War II, in all branches of the German military. The Enigma machine was considered so secure that it was used to encipher the most top-secret messages.
The Enigma has an electromechanical rotor mechanism that scrambles the 26 letters of the alphabet. In typical use, one person enters text on the Enigma's keyboard and another person writes down which of 26 lights above the keyboard illuminated at each key press. If plain text is entered, the illuminated letters are the encoded ciphertext. Entering ciphertext transforms it back into readable plaintext. The rotor mechanism changes the electrical connections between the keys and the lights with each keypress.
The security of the system depends on machine settings that were generally changed daily, based on secret key lists distributed in advance, and on other settings that were changed for each message. The receiving station would have to know and use the exact settings employed by the transmitting station to successfully decrypt a message.
While Nazi Germany introduced a series of improvements to Enigma over the years, and these hampered decryption efforts, they did not prevent Poland from cracking the machine prior to the war, enabling the Allies to exploit Enigma-enciphered messages as a major source of intelligence. Many commentators say the flow of Ultra communications intelligence from the decryption of Enigma, Lorenz, and other ciphers, shortened the war substantially, and might even have altered its outcome.
History
The Enigma machine was invented by German engineer Arthur Scherbius at the end of World War I. This was unknown until 2003 when a paper by Karl de Leeuw was found that described in detail Scherbius' changes. The German firm Scherbius & Ritter, co-founded by Scherbius, patented ideas for a cipher machine in 1918 and began marketing the finished product under the brand name Enigma in 1923, initially targeted at commercial markets. The name is said to be from the Enigma Variations of English composer Edward Elgar. Early models were used commercially from the early 1920s, and adopted by military and government services of several countries, most notably Nazi Germany before and during World War II.
Several different Enigma models were produced, but the German military models, having a plugboard, were the most complex. Japanese and Italian models were also in use. With its adoption (in slightly modified form) by the German Navy in 1926 and the German Army and Air Force soon after, the name Enigma became widely known in military circles. Pre-war German military planning emphasized fast, mobile forces and tactics, later known as blitzkrieg, which depend on radio communication for command and coordination. Since adversaries would likely intercept radio signals, messages had to be protected with secure encipherment. Compact and easily portable, the Enigma machine filled that need.
Breaking Enigma
Around December 1932 Marian Rejewski, a Polish mathematician and cryptologist at the Polish Cipher Bureau, used the theory of permutations, and flaws in the German military-message encipherment procedures, to break message keys of the plugboard Enigma machine. France's spy Hans-Thilo Schmidt obtained access to German cipher materials that included the daily keys used in September and October 1932. Those keys included the plugboard settings. The French passed the material to the Poles, and Rejewski used some of that material and the message traffic in September and October to solve for the unknown rotor wiring. Consequently the Polish mathematicians were able to build their own Enigma machines, dubbed "Enigma doubles". Rejewski was aided by fellow mathematician-cryptologists Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski, both of whom had been recruited with Rejewski from Poznań University, which institution had been selected for its students' knowledge of the German language, that area having been held by Germany prior to World War I. The Polish Cipher Bureau developed techniques to defeat the plugboard and find all components of the daily key, which enabled the Cipher Bureau to read German Enigma messages starting from January 1933.
Over time the German cryptographic procedures improved, and the Cipher Bureau developed techniques and designed mechanical devices to continue reading Enigma traffic. As part of that effort, the Poles exploited quirks of the rotors, compiled catalogues, built a cyclometer (invented by Rejewski) to help make a catalogue with 100,000 entries, invented and produced Zygalski sheets, and built the electromechanical cryptologic bomba (invented by Rejewski) to search for rotor settings. In 1938 the Poles had six bomby (plural of bomba), but when that year the Germans added two more rotors, ten times as many bomby would have been needed to read the traffic.
On 26 and 27 July 1939, in Pyry, just south of Warsaw, the Poles initiated French and British military intelligence representatives into the Polish Enigma-decryption techniques and equipment, including Zygalski sheets and the cryptologic bomb, and promised each delegation a Polish-reconstructed Enigma (the devices were soon delivered).
In September 1939, British Military Mission 4, which included Colin Gubbins and Vera Atkins, went to Poland, intending to evacuate cipher-breakers Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Różycki, and Henryk Zygalski from the country. The cryptologists, however, had been evacuated by their own superiors into Romania, at the time a Polish-allied country. On the way, for security reasons, the Polish Cipher Bureau personnel had deliberately destroyed their records and equipment. From Romania they traveled on to France, where they resumed their cryptological work, collaborating by teletype with the British, who began work on decrypting German Enigma messages, using the Polish equipment and techniques.
Gordon Welchman, who became head of Hut 6 at Bletchley Park, has written: "Hut 6 Ultra would never have gotten off the ground if we had not learned from the Poles, in the nick of time, the details both of the German military version of the commercial Enigma machine, and of the operating procedures that were in use." The Polish transfer of theory and technology at Pyry formed the crucial basis for the subsequent World War II British Enigma-decryption effort at Bletchley Park, where Welchman worked.
During the war, British cryptologists decrypted a vast number of messages enciphered on Enigma. The intelligence gleaned from this source, codenamed "Ultra" by the British, was a substantial aid to the Allied war effort.
Though Enigma had some cryptographic weaknesses, in practice it was German procedural flaws, operator mistakes, failure to systematically introduce changes in encipherment procedures, and Allied capture of key tables and hardware that, during the war, enabled Allied cryptologists to succeed.
Design
Like other rotor machines, the Enigma machine is a combination of mechanical and electrical subsystems. The mechanical subsystem consists of a keyboard; a set of rotating disks called rotors arranged adjacently along a spindle; one of various stepping components to turn at least one rotor with each key press, and a series of lamps, one for each letter. These design features are the reason that the Enigma machine was originally referred to as the rotor-based cipher machine during its intellectual inception in 1915.
Electrical pathway
An electrical pathway is a route for current to travel. By manipulating this phenomenon the Enigma machine was able to scramble messages. The mechanical parts act by forming a varying electrical circuit. When a key is pressed, one or more rotors rotate on the spindle. On the sides of the rotors are a series of electrical contacts that, after rotation, line up with contacts on the other rotors or fixed wiring on either end of the spindle. When the rotors are properly aligned, each key on the keyboard is connected to a unique electrical pathway through the series of contacts and internal wiring. Current, typically from a battery, flows through the pressed key, into the newly configured set of circuits and back out again, ultimately lighting one display lamp, which shows the output letter. For example, when encrypting a message starting ANX..., the operator would first press the A key, and the Z lamp might light, so Z would be the first letter of the ciphertext. The operator would next press N, and then X in the same fashion, and so on.
Current flows from the battery (1) through a depressed bi-directional keyboard switch (2) to the plugboard (3). Next, it passes through the (unused in this instance, so shown closed) plug "A" (3) via the entry wheel (4), through the wiring of the three (Wehrmacht Enigma) or four (Kriegsmarine M4 and Abwehr variants) installed rotors (5), and enters the reflector (6). The reflector returns the current, via an entirely different path, back through the rotors (5) and entry wheel (4), proceeding through plug "S" (7) connected with a cable (8) to plug "D", and another bi-directional switch (9) to light the appropriate lamp.
The repeated changes of electrical path through an Enigma scrambler implement a polyalphabetic substitution cipher that provides Enigma's security. The diagram on the right shows how the electrical pathway changes with each key depression, which causes rotation of at least the right-hand rotor. Current passes into the set of rotors, into and back out of the reflector, and out through the rotors again. The greyed-out lines are other possible paths within each rotor; these are hard-wired from one side of each rotor to the other. The letter A encrypts differently with consecutive key presses, first to G, and then to C. This is because the right-hand rotor steps (rotates one position) on each key press, sending the signal on a completely different route. Eventually other rotors step with a key press.
Rotors
The rotors (alternatively wheels or drums, Walzen in German) form the heart of an Enigma machine. Each rotor is a disc approximately in diameter made from Ebonite or Bakelite with 26 brass, spring-loaded, electrical contact pins arranged in a circle on one face, with the other face housing 26 corresponding electrical contacts in the form of circular plates. The pins and contacts represent the alphabet — typically the 26 letters A–Z, as will be assumed for the rest of this description. When the rotors are mounted side by side on the spindle, the pins of one rotor rest against the plate contacts of the neighbouring rotor, forming an electrical connection. Inside the body of the rotor, 26 wires connect each pin on one side to a contact on the other in a complex pattern. Most of the rotors are identified by Roman numerals, and each issued copy of rotor I, for instance, is wired identically to all others. The same is true for the special thin beta and gamma rotors used in the M4 naval variant.
By itself, a rotor performs only a very simple type of encryption, a simple substitution cipher. For example, the pin corresponding to the letter E might be wired to the contact for letter T on the opposite face, and so on. Enigma's security comes from using several rotors in series (usually three or four) and the regular stepping movement of the rotors, thus implementing a polyalphabetic substitution cipher.
Each rotor can be set to one of 26 possible starting positions when placed in an Enigma machine. After insertion, a rotor can be turned to the correct position by hand, using the grooved finger-wheel which protrudes from the internal Enigma cover when closed. In order for the operator to know the rotor's position, each has an alphabet tyre (or letter ring) attached to the outside of the rotor disc, with 26 characters (typically letters); one of these is visible through the window for that slot in the cover, thus indicating the rotational position of the rotor. In early models, the alphabet ring was fixed to the rotor disc. A later improvement was the ability to adjust the alphabet ring relative to the rotor disc. The position of the ring was known as the Ringstellung ("ring setting"), and that setting was a part of the initial setup needed prior to an operating session. In modern terms it was a part of the initialization vector.
Each rotor contains one or more notches that control rotor stepping. In the military variants, the notches are located on the alphabet ring.
The Army and Air Force Enigmas were used with several rotors, initially three. On 15 December 1938, this changed to five, from which three were chosen for a given session. Rotors were marked with Roman numerals to distinguish them: I, II, III, IV and V, all with single notches located at different points on the alphabet ring. This variation was probably intended as a security measure, but ultimately allowed the Polish Clock Method and British Banburismus attacks.
The Naval version of the Wehrmacht Enigma had always been issued with more rotors than the other services: At first six, then seven, and finally eight. The additional rotors were marked VI, VII and VIII, all with different wiring, and had two notches, resulting in more frequent turnover. The four-rotor Naval Enigma (M4) machine accommodated an extra rotor in the same space as the three-rotor version. This was accomplished by replacing the original reflector with a thinner one and by adding a thin fourth rotor. That fourth rotor was one of two types, Beta or Gamma, and never stepped, but could be manually set to any of 26 positions. One of the 26 made the machine perform identically to the three-rotor machine.
Stepping
To avoid merely implementing a simple (solvable) substitution cipher, every key press caused one or more rotors to step by one twenty-sixth of a full rotation, before the electrical connections were made. This changed the substitution alphabet used for encryption, ensuring that the cryptographic substitution was different at each new rotor position, producing a more formidable polyalphabetic substitution cipher. The stepping mechanism varied slightly from model to model. The right-hand rotor stepped once with each keystroke, and other rotors stepped less frequently.
Turnover
The advancement of a rotor other than the left-hand one was called a turnover by the British. This was achieved by a ratchet and pawl mechanism. Each rotor had a ratchet with 26 teeth and every time a key was pressed, the set of spring-loaded pawls moved forward in unison, trying to engage with a ratchet. The alphabet ring of the rotor to the right normally prevented this. As this ring rotated with its rotor, a notch machined into it would eventually align itself with the pawl, allowing it to engage with the ratchet, and advance the rotor on its left. The right-hand pawl, having no rotor and ring to its right, stepped its rotor with every key depression. For a single-notch rotor in the right-hand position, the middle rotor stepped once for every 26 steps of the right-hand rotor. Similarly for rotors two and three. For a two-notch rotor, the rotor to its left would turn over twice for each rotation.
The first five rotors to be introduced (I–V) contained one notch each, while the additional naval rotors VI, VII and VIII each had two notches. The position of the notch on each rotor was determined by the letter ring which could be adjusted in relation to the core containing the interconnections. The points on the rings at which they caused the next wheel to move were as follows.
The design also included a feature known as double-stepping. This occurred when each pawl aligned with both the ratchet of its rotor and the rotating notched ring of the neighbouring rotor. If a pawl engaged with a ratchet through alignment with a notch, as it moved forward it pushed against both the ratchet and the notch, advancing both rotors. In a three-rotor machine, double-stepping affected rotor two only. If, in moving forward, the ratchet of rotor three was engaged, rotor two would move again on the subsequent keystroke, resulting in two consecutive steps. Rotor two also pushes rotor one forward after 26 steps, but since rotor one moves forward with every keystroke anyway, there is no double-stepping. This double-stepping caused the rotors to deviate from odometer-style regular motion.
With three wheels and only single notches in the first and second wheels, the machine had a period of 26×25×26 = 16,900 (not 26×26×26, because of double-stepping). Historically, messages were limited to a few hundred letters, and so there was no chance of repeating any combined rotor position during a single session, denying cryptanalysts valuable clues.
To make room for the Naval fourth rotors, the reflector was made much thinner. The fourth rotor fitted into the space made available. No other changes were made, which eased the changeover. Since there were only three pawls, the fourth rotor never stepped, but could be manually set into one of 26 possible positions.
A device that was designed, but not implemented before the war's end, was the Lückenfüllerwalze (gap-fill wheel) that implemented irregular stepping. It allowed field configuration of notches in all 26 positions. If the number of notches was a relative prime of 26 and the number of notches were different for each wheel, the stepping would be more unpredictable. Like the Umkehrwalze-D it also allowed the internal wiring to be reconfigured.
Entry wheel
The current entry wheel (Eintrittswalze in German), or entry stator, connects the plugboard to the rotor assembly. If the plugboard is not present, the entry wheel instead connects the keyboard and lampboard to the rotor assembly. While the exact wiring used is of comparatively little importance to security, it proved an obstacle to Rejewski's progress during his study of the rotor wirings. The commercial Enigma connects the keys in the order of their sequence on a QWERTZ keyboard: Q→A, W→B, E→C and so on. The military Enigma connects them in straight alphabetical order: A→A, B→B, C→C, and so on. It took inspired guesswork for Rejewski to penetrate the modification.
Reflector
With the exception of models A and B, the last rotor came before a 'reflector' (German: Umkehrwalze, meaning 'reversal rotor'), a patented feature unique to Enigma among the period's various rotor machines. The reflector connected outputs of the last rotor in pairs, redirecting current back through the rotors by a different route. The reflector ensured that Enigma would be self-reciprocal; thus, with two identically configured machines, a message could be encrypted on one and decrypted on the other, without the need for a bulky mechanism to switch between encryption and decryption modes. The reflector allowed a more compact design, but it also gave Enigma the property that no letter ever encrypted to itself. This was a severe cryptological flaw that was subsequently exploited by codebreakers.
In Model 'C', the reflector could be inserted in one of two different positions. In Model 'D', the reflector could be set in 26 possible positions, although it did not move during encryption. In the Abwehr Enigma, the reflector stepped during encryption in a manner similar to the other wheels.
In the German Army and Air Force Enigma, the reflector was fixed and did not rotate; there were four versions. The original version was marked 'A', and was replaced by Umkehrwalze B on 1 November 1937. A third version, Umkehrwalze C was used briefly in 1940, possibly by mistake, and was solved by Hut 6. The fourth version, first observed on 2 January 1944, had a rewireable reflector, called Umkehrwalze D, nick-named Uncle Dick by the British, allowing the Enigma operator to alter the connections as part of the key settings.
Plugboard
The plugboard (Steckerbrett in German) permitted variable wiring that could be reconfigured by the operator (visible on the front panel of Figure 1; some of the patch cords can be seen in the lid). It was introduced on German Army versions in 1928, and was soon adopted by the Reichsmarine (German Navy). The plugboard contributed more cryptographic strength than an extra rotor, as it had 150 trillion possible settings (see below). Enigma without a plugboard (known as unsteckered Enigma) could be solved relatively straightforwardly using hand methods; these techniques were generally defeated by the plugboard, driving Allied cryptanalysts to develop special machines to solve it.
A cable placed onto the plugboard connected letters in pairs; for example, E and Q might be a steckered pair. The effect was to swap those letters before and after the main rotor scrambling unit. For example, when an operator pressed E, the signal was diverted to Q before entering the rotors. Up to 13 steckered pairs might be used at one time, although only 10 were normally used.
Current flowed from the keyboard through the plugboard, and proceeded to the entry-rotor or Eintrittswalze. Each letter on the plugboard had two jacks. Inserting a plug disconnected the upper jack (from the keyboard) and the lower jack (to the entry-rotor) of that letter. The plug at the other end of the crosswired cable was inserted into another letter's jacks, thus switching the connections of the two letters.
Accessories
Other features made various Enigma machines more secure or more convenient.
Schreibmax
Some M4 Enigmas used the Schreibmax, a small printer that could print the 26 letters on a narrow paper ribbon. This eliminated the need for a second operator to read the lamps and transcribe the letters. The Schreibmax was placed on top of the Enigma machine and was connected to the lamp panel. To install the printer, the lamp cover and light bulbs had to be removed. It improved both convenience and operational security; the printer could be installed remotely such that the signal officer operating the machine no longer had to see the decrypted plaintext.
Fernlesegerät
Another accessory was the remote lamp panel Fernlesegerät. For machines equipped with the extra panel, the wooden case of the Enigma was wider and could store the extra panel. A lamp panel version could be connected afterwards, but that required, as with the Schreibmax, that the lamp panel and light bulbs be removed. The remote panel made it possible for a person to read the decrypted plaintext without the operator seeing it.
Uhr
In 1944, the Luftwaffe introduced a plugboard switch, called the Uhr (clock), a small box containing a switch with 40 positions. It replaced the standard plugs. After connecting the plugs, as determined in the daily key sheet, the operator turned the switch into one of the 40 positions, each producing a different combination of plug wiring. Most of these plug connections were, unlike the default plugs, not pair-wise. In one switch position, the Uhr did not swap letters, but simply emulated the 13 stecker wires with plugs.
Mathematical analysis
The Enigma transformation for each letter can be specified mathematically as a product of permutations. Assuming a three-rotor German Army/Air Force Enigma, let denote the plugboard transformation, denote that of the reflector, and , , denote those of the left, middle and right rotors respectively. Then the encryption can be expressed as
After each key press, the rotors turn, changing the transformation. For example, if the right-hand rotor is rotated positions, the transformation becomes
where is the cyclic permutation mapping A to B, B to C, and so forth. Similarly, the middle and left-hand rotors can be represented as and rotations of and . The encryption transformation can then be described as
Combining three rotors from a set of five, each of the 3 rotor settings with 26 positions, and the plugboard with ten pairs of letters connected, the military Enigma has 158,962,555,217,826,360,000 different settings (nearly 159 quintillion or about 67 bits).
Operation
Basic operation
A German Enigma operator would be given a plaintext message to encrypt. After setting up his machine, he would type the message on the Enigma keyboard. For each letter pressed, one lamp lit indicating a different letter according to a pseudo-random substitution determined by the electrical pathways inside the machine. The letter indicated by the lamp would be recorded, typically by a second operator, as the cyphertext letter. The action of pressing a key also moved one or more rotors so that the next key press used a different electrical pathway, and thus a different substitution would occur even if the same plaintext letter were entered again. For each key press there was rotation of at least the right hand rotor and less often the other two, resulting in a different substitution alphabet being used for every letter in the message. This process continued until the message was completed. The cyphertext recorded by the second operator would then be transmitted, usually by radio in Morse code, to an operator of another Enigma machine. This operator would type in the cyphertext and — as long as all the settings of the deciphering machine were identical to those of the enciphering machine — for every key press the reverse substitution would occur and the plaintext message would emerge.
Details
In use, the Enigma required a list of daily key settings and auxiliary documents. In German military practice, communications were divided into separate networks, each using different settings. These communication nets were termed keys at Bletchley Park, and were assigned code names, such as Red, Chaffinch, and Shark. Each unit operating in a network was given the same settings list for its Enigma, valid for a period of time. The procedures for German Naval Enigma were more elaborate and more secure than those in other services and employed auxiliary codebooks. Navy codebooks were printed in red, water-soluble ink on pink paper so that they could easily be destroyed if they were endangered or if the vessel was sunk.
An Enigma machine's setting (its cryptographic key in modern terms; Schlüssel in German) specified each operator-adjustable aspect of the machine:
Wheel order (Walzenlage) – the choice of rotors and the order in which they are fitted.
Ring settings (Ringstellung) – the position of each alphabet ring relative to its rotor wiring.
Plug connections (Steckerverbindungen) – the pairs of letters in the plugboard that are connected together.
In very late versions, the wiring of the reconfigurable reflector.
Starting position of the rotors (Grundstellung) – chosen by the operator, should be different for each message.
For a message to be correctly encrypted and decrypted, both sender and receiver had to configure their Enigma in the same way; rotor selection and order, ring positions, plugboard connections and starting rotor positions must be identical. Except for the starting positions, these settings were established beforehand, distributed in key lists and changed daily. For example, the settings for the 18th day of the month in the German Luftwaffe Enigma key list number 649 (see image) were as follows:
Wheel order: IV, II, V
Ring settings: 15, 23, 26
Plugboard connections: EJ OY IV AQ KW FX MT PS LU BD
Reconfigurable reflector wiring: IU AS DV GL FT OX EZ CH MR KN BQ PW
Indicator groups: lsa zbw vcj rxn
Enigma was designed to be secure even if the rotor wiring was known to an opponent, although in practice considerable effort protected the wiring configuration. If the wiring is secret, the total number of possible configurations has been calculated to be around (approximately 380 bits); with known wiring and other operational constraints, this is reduced to around (76 bits). Because of the large number of possibilities, users of Enigma were confident of its security; it was not then feasible for an adversary to even begin to try a brute-force attack.
Indicator
Most of the key was kept constant for a set time period, typically a day. A different initial rotor position was used for each message, a concept similar to an initialisation vector in modern cryptography. The reason is that encrypting many messages with identical or near-identical settings (termed in cryptanalysis as being in depth), would enable an attack using a statistical procedure such as Friedman's Index of coincidence. The starting position for the rotors was transmitted just before the ciphertext, usually after having been enciphered. The exact method used was termed the indicator procedure. Design weakness and operator sloppiness in these indicator procedures were two of the main weaknesses that made cracking Enigma possible.
One of the earliest indicator procedures for the Enigma was cryptographically flawed and allowed Polish cryptanalysts to make the initial breaks into the plugboard Enigma. The procedure had the operator set his machine in accordance with the secret settings that all operators on the net shared. The settings included an initial position for the rotors (the Grundstellung), say, AOH. The operator turned his rotors until AOH was visible through the rotor windows. At that point, the operator chose his own arbitrary starting position for the message he would send. An operator might select EIN, and that became the message setting for that encryption session. The operator then typed EIN into the machine twice, this producing the encrypted indicator, for example XHTLOA. This was then transmitted, at which point the operator would turn the rotors to his message settings, EIN in this example, and then type the plaintext of the message.
At the receiving end, the operator set the machine to the initial settings (AOH) and typed in the first six letters of the message (XHTLOA). In this example, EINEIN emerged on the lamps, so the operator would learn the message setting that the sender used to encrypt this message. The receiving operator would set his rotors to EIN, type in the rest of the ciphertext, and get the deciphered message.
This indicator scheme had two weaknesses. First, the use of a global initial position (Grundstellung) meant all message keys used the same polyalphabetic substitution. In later indicator procedures, the operator selected his initial position for encrypting the indicator and sent that initial position in the clear. The second problem was the repetition of the indicator, which was a serious security flaw. The message setting was encoded twice, resulting in a relation between first and fourth, second and fifth, and third and sixth character. These security flaws enabled the Polish Cipher Bureau to break into the pre-war Enigma system as early as 1932. The early indicator procedure was subsequently described by German cryptanalysts as the "faulty indicator technique".
During World War II, codebooks were only used each day to set up the rotors, their ring settings and the plugboard. For each message, the operator selected a random start position, let's say WZA, and a random message key, perhaps SXT. He moved the rotors to the WZA start position and encoded the message key SXT. Assume the result was UHL. He then set up the message key, SXT, as the start position and encrypted the message. Next, he transmitted the start position, WZA, the encoded message key, UHL, and then the ciphertext. The receiver set up the start position according to the first trigram, WZA, and decoded the second trigram, UHL, to obtain the SXT message setting. Next, he used this SXT message setting as the start position to decrypt the message. This way, each ground setting was different and the new procedure avoided the security flaw of double encoded message settings.
This procedure was used by Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe only. The Kriegsmarine procedures on sending messages with the Enigma were far more complex and elaborate. Prior to encryption the message was encoded using the Kurzsignalheft code book. The Kurzsignalheft contained tables to convert sentences into four-letter groups. A great many choices were included, for example, logistic matters such as refuelling and rendezvous with supply ships, positions and grid lists, harbour names, countries, weapons, weather conditions, enemy positions and ships, date and time tables. Another codebook contained the Kenngruppen and Spruchschlüssel: the key identification and message key.
Additional details
The Army Enigma machine used only the 26 alphabet characters. Punctuation was replaced with rare character combinations. A space was omitted or replaced with an X. The X was generally used as full-stop.
Some punctuation marks were different in other parts of the armed forces. The Wehrmacht replaced a comma with ZZ and the question mark with FRAGE or FRAQ.
The Kriegsmarine replaced the comma with Y and the question mark with UD. The combination CH, as in "Acht" (eight) or "Richtung" (direction), was replaced with Q (AQT, RIQTUNG). Two, three and four zeros were replaced with CENTA, MILLE and MYRIA.
The Wehrmacht and the Luftwaffe transmitted messages in groups of five characters.
The Kriegsmarine, using the four rotor Enigma, had four-character groups. Frequently used names or words were varied as much as possible. Words like Minensuchboot (minesweeper) could be written as MINENSUCHBOOT, MINBOOT, MMMBOOT or MMM354. To make cryptanalysis harder, messages were limited to 250 characters. Longer messages were divided into several parts, each using a different message key.
Example encoding process
The character substitutions by the Enigma machine as a whole can be expressed as a string of letters with each position occupied by the character that will replace the character at the corresponding position in the alphabet. For example, a given machine configuration that encoded A to L, B to U, C to S, ..., and Z to J could be represented compactly as
LUSHQOXDMZNAIKFREPCYBWVGTJ
and the encoding of a particular character by that configuration could be represented by highlighting the encoded character as in
D > LUS(H)QOXDMZNAIKFREPCYBWVGTJ
Since the operation of an Enigma machine encoding a message is a series of such configurations, each associated with a single character being encoded, a sequence of such representations can be used to represent the operation of the machine as it encodes a message. For example, the process of encoding the first sentence of the main body of the famous "Dönitz message" to
RBBF PMHP HGCZ XTDY GAHG UFXG EWKB LKGJ
can be represented as
0001 F > KGWNT(R)BLQPAHYDVJIFXEZOCSMU CDTK 25 15 16 26
0002 O > UORYTQSLWXZHNM(B)VFCGEAPIJDK CDTL 25 15 16 01
0003 L > HLNRSKJAMGF(B)ICUQPDEYOZXWTV CDTM 25 15 16 02
0004 G > KPTXIG(F)MESAUHYQBOVJCLRZDNW CDUN 25 15 17 03
0005 E > XDYB(P)WOSMUZRIQGENLHVJTFACK CDUO 25 15 17 04
0006 N > DLIAJUOVCEXBN(M)GQPWZYFHRKTS CDUP 25 15 17 05
0007 D > LUS(H)QOXDMZNAIKFREPCYBWVGTJ CDUQ 25 15 17 06
0008 E > JKGO(P)TCIHABRNMDEYLZFXWVUQS CDUR 25 15 17 07
0009 S > GCBUZRASYXVMLPQNOF(H)WDKTJIE CDUS 25 15 17 08
0010 I > XPJUOWIY(G)CVRTQEBNLZMDKFAHS CDUT 25 15 17 09
0011 S > DISAUYOMBPNTHKGJRQ(C)LEZXWFV CDUU 25 15 17 10
0012 T > FJLVQAKXNBGCPIRMEOY(Z)WDUHST CDUV 25 15 17 11
0013 S > KTJUQONPZCAMLGFHEW(X)BDYRSVI CDUW 25 15 17 12
0014 O > ZQXUVGFNWRLKPH(T)MBJYODEICSA CDUX 25 15 17 13
0015 F > XJWFR(D)ZSQBLKTVPOIEHMYNCAUG CDUY 25 15 17 14
0016 O > FSKTJARXPECNUL(Y)IZGBDMWVHOQ CDUZ 25 15 17 15
0017 R > CEAKBMRYUVDNFLTXW(G)ZOIJQPHS CDVA 25 15 18 16
0018 T > TLJRVQHGUCXBZYSWFDO(A)IEPKNM CDVB 25 15 18 17
0019 B > Y(H)LPGTEBKWICSVUDRQMFONJZAX CDVC 25 15 18 18
0020 E > KRUL(G)JEWNFADVIPOYBXZCMHSQT CDVD 25 15 18 19
0021 K > RCBPQMVZXY(U)OFSLDEANWKGTIJH CDVE 25 15 18 20
0022 A > (F)CBJQAWTVDYNXLUSEZPHOIGMKR CDVF 25 15 18 21
0023 N > VFTQSBPORUZWY(X)HGDIECJALNMK CDVG 25 15 18 22
0024 N > JSRHFENDUAZYQ(G)XTMCBPIWVOLK CDVH 25 15 18 23
0025 T > RCBUTXVZJINQPKWMLAY(E)DGOFSH CDVI 25 15 18 24
0026 Z > URFXNCMYLVPIGESKTBOQAJZDH(W) CDVJ 25 15 18 25
0027 U > JIOZFEWMBAUSHPCNRQLV(K)TGYXD CDVK 25 15 18 26
0028 G > ZGVRKO(B)XLNEIWJFUSDQYPCMHTA CDVL 25 15 18 01
0029 E > RMJV(L)YQZKCIEBONUGAWXPDSTFH CDVM 25 15 18 02
0030 B > G(K)QRFEANZPBMLHVJCDUXSOYTWI CDWN 25 15 19 03
0031 E > YMZT(G)VEKQOHPBSJLIUNDRFXWAC CDWO 25 15 19 04
0032 N > PDSBTIUQFNOVW(J)KAHZCEGLMYXR CDWP 25 15 19 05
where the letters following each mapping are the letters that appear at the windows at that stage (the only state changes visible to the operator) and the numbers show the underlying physical position of each rotor.
The character mappings for a given configuration of the machine are in turn the result of a series of such mappings applied by each pass through a component of the machine: the encoding of a character resulting from the application of a given component's mapping serves as the input to the mapping of the subsequent component. For example, the 4th step in the encoding above can be expanded to show each of these stages using the same representation of mappings and highlighting for the encoded character:
G > ABCDEF(G)HIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
P EFMQAB(G)UINKXCJORDPZTHWVLYS AE.BF.CM.DQ.HU.JN.LX.PR.SZ.VW
1 OFRJVM(A)ZHQNBXPYKCULGSWETDI N 03 VIII
2 (N)UKCHVSMDGTZQFYEWPIALOXRJB U 17 VI
3 XJMIYVCARQOWH(L)NDSUFKGBEPZT D 15 V
4 QUNGALXEPKZ(Y)RDSOFTVCMBIHWJ C 25 β
R RDOBJNTKVEHMLFCWZAXGYIPS(U)Q c
4 EVTNHQDXWZJFUCPIAMOR(B)SYGLK β
3 H(V)GPWSUMDBTNCOKXJIQZRFLAEY V
2 TZDIPNJESYCUHAVRMXGKB(F)QWOL VI
1 GLQYW(B)TIZDPSFKANJCUXREVMOH VIII
P E(F)MQABGUINKXCJORDPZTHWVLYS AE.BF.CM.DQ.HU.JN.LX.PR.SZ.VW
F < KPTXIG(F)MESAUHYQBOVJCLRZDNW
Here the encoding begins trivially with the first "mapping" representing the keyboard (which has no effect), followed by the plugboard, configured as AE.BF.CM.DQ.HU.JN.LX.PR.SZ.VW which has no effect on 'G', followed by the VIII rotor in the 03 position, which maps G to A, then the VI rotor in the 17 position, which maps A to N, ..., and finally the plugboard again, which maps B to F, producing the overall mapping indicated at the final step: G to F.
Note that this model has 4 rotors (lines 1 through 4) and that the reflector (line R) also permutes (garbles) letters.
Models
The Enigma family included multiple designs. The earliest were commercial models dating from the early 1920s. Starting in the mid-1920s, the German military began to use Enigma, making a number of security-related changes. Various nations either adopted or adapted the design for their own cipher machines.
An estimated 40,000 Enigma machines were constructed. After the end of World War II, the Allies sold captured Enigma machines, still widely considered secure, to developing countries.
Commercial Enigma
On 23 February 1918, Arthur Scherbius applied for a patent for a ciphering machine that used rotors. Scherbius and E. Richard Ritter founded the firm of Scherbius & Ritter. They approached the German Navy and Foreign Office with their design, but neither agency was interested. Scherbius & Ritter then assigned the patent rights to Gewerkschaft Securitas, who founded the Chiffriermaschinen Aktien-Gesellschaft (Cipher Machines Stock Corporation) on 9 July 1923; Scherbius and Ritter were on the board of directors.
Enigma A (1923)
Chiffriermaschinen AG began advertising a rotor machine, Enigma model A, which was exhibited at the Congress of the International Postal Union in 1924. The machine was heavy and bulky, incorporating a typewriter. It measured 65×45×38 cm and weighed about .
Enigma B (1924)
In 1924 Enigma model B was introduced, and was of a similar construction. While bearing the Enigma name, both models A and B were quite unlike later versions: They differed in physical size and shape, but also cryptographically, in that they lacked the reflector. This model of Enigma machine was referred to as the Glowlamp Enigma or Glühlampenmaschine since it produced its output on a lamp panel rather than paper. This method of output was much more reliable and cost effective. Hence this machine was 1/8th the price of its predecessor.
Enigma C (1926)
The reflector, suggested by Scherbius' colleague Willi Korn, was introduced in Enigma C (1926).
Model C was the third model of the so-called ″glowlamp Enigmas″ (after A and B) and it again lacked a typewriter.
Enigma D (1927)
The Enigma C quickly gave way to Enigma D (1927). This version was widely used, with shipments to Sweden, the Netherlands, United Kingdom, Japan, Italy, Spain, United States and Poland. In 1927 Hugh Foss at the British Government Code and Cypher School was able to show that commercial Enigma machines could be broken, provided suitable cribs were available. Soon, the Enigma D would pioneer the use of a standard keyboard layout to be used in German computing. This "QWERTZ" layout is very similar to the American QWERTY keyboard format used in many languages.
"Navy Cipher D"
Other countries used Enigma machines. The Italian Navy adopted the commercial Enigma as "Navy Cipher D". The Spanish also used commercial Enigma machines during their Civil War. British codebreakers succeeded in breaking these machines, which lacked a plugboard. Enigma machines were also used by diplomatic services.
Enigma H (1929)
There was also a large, eight-rotor printing model, the Enigma H, called Enigma II by the Reichswehr. In 1933 the Polish Cipher Bureau detected that it was in use for high-level military communication, but it was soon withdrawn, as it was unreliable and jammed frequently.
Enigma K
The Swiss used a version of Enigma called Model K or Swiss K for military and diplomatic use, which was very similar to commercial Enigma D. The machine's code was cracked by Poland, France, the United Kingdom and the United States; the latter code-named it INDIGO. An Enigma T model, code-named Tirpitz, was used by Japan.
Typex
Once the British figured out Enigma's principle of operation, they fixed the problem with it and created their own, the Typex, which the Germans believed to be unsolvable.
Military Enigma
The various services of the Wehrmacht used various Enigma versions, and replaced them frequently, sometimes with ones adapted from other services. Enigma seldom carried high-level strategic messages, which when not urgent went by courier, and when urgent went by other cryptographic systems including the Geheimschreiber.
Funkschlüssel C
The Reichsmarine was the first military branch to adopt Enigma. This version, named Funkschlüssel C ("Radio cipher C"), had been put into production by 1925 and was introduced into service in 1926.
The keyboard and lampboard contained 29 letters — A-Z, Ä, Ö and Ü — that were arranged alphabetically, as opposed to the QWERTZUI ordering. The rotors had 28 contacts, with the letter X wired to bypass the rotors unencrypted. Three rotors were chosen from a set of five and the reflector could be inserted in one of four different positions, denoted α, β, γ and δ. The machine was revised slightly in July 1933.
Enigma G (1928–1930)
By 15 July 1928, the German Army (Reichswehr) had introduced their own exclusive version of the Enigma machine, the Enigma G.
The Abwehr used the Enigma G (the Abwehr Enigma). This Enigma variant was a four-wheel unsteckered machine with multiple notches on the rotors. This model was equipped with a counter that incremented upon each key press, and so is also known as the "counter machine" or the Zählwerk Enigma.
Wehrmacht Enigma I (1930–1938)
Enigma machine G was modified to the Enigma I by June 1930. Enigma I is also known as the Wehrmacht, or "Services" Enigma, and was used extensively by German military services and other government organisations (such as the railways) before and during World War II.
The major difference between Enigma I (German Army version from 1930), and commercial Enigma models was the addition of a plugboard to swap pairs of letters, greatly increasing cryptographic strength.
Other differences included the use of a fixed reflector and the relocation of the stepping notches from the rotor body to the movable letter rings. The machine measured and weighed around .
In August 1935, the Air Force introduced the Wehrmacht Enigma for their communications.
M3 (1934)
By 1930, the Reichswehr had suggested that the Navy adopt their machine, citing the benefits of increased security (with the plugboard) and easier interservice communications. The Reichsmarine eventually agreed and in 1934 brought into service the Navy version of the Army Enigma, designated Funkschlüssel ' or M3. While the Army used only three rotors at that time, the Navy specified a choice of three from a possible five.
Two extra rotors (1938)
In December 1938, the Army issued two extra rotors so that the three rotors were chosen from a set of five. In 1938, the Navy added two more rotors, and then another in 1939 to allow a choice of three rotors from a set of eight.
M4 (1942)
A four-rotor Enigma was introduced by the Navy for U-boat traffic on 1 February 1942, called M4 (the network was known as Triton, or Shark to the Allies). The extra rotor was fitted in the same space by splitting the reflector into a combination of a thin reflector and a thin fourth rotor.
Surviving machines
The effort to break the Enigma was not disclosed until the 1970s. Since then, interest in the Enigma machine has grown. Enigmas are on public display in museums around the world, and several are in the hands of private collectors and computer history enthusiasts.
The Deutsches Museum in Munich has both the three- and four-rotor German military variants, as well as several civilian versions. Enigma machines are exhibited at the National Codes Centre in Bletchley Park, the Government Communications Headquarters, the Science Museum in London, Discovery Park of America in Tennessee, the Polish Army Museum in Warsaw, the Swedish Army Museum (Armémuseum) in Stockholm, the Military Museum of A Coruña in Spain, the Nordland Red Cross War Memorial Museum in Narvik, Norway, The Artillery, Engineers and Signals Museum in Hämeenlinna, Finland the Technical University of Denmark in Lyngby, Denmark, in Skanderborg Bunkerne at Skanderborg, Denmark, and at the Australian War Memorial and in the foyer of the Australian Signals Directorate, both in Canberra, Australia. The Jozef Pilsudski Institute in London exhibited a rare Polish Enigma double assembled in France in 1940.
In 2020, thanks to the support of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, it became the property of the Polish History Museum.
In the United States, Enigma machines can be seen at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California, and at the National Security Agency's National Cryptologic Museum in Fort Meade, Maryland, where visitors can try their hand at enciphering and deciphering messages. Two machines that were acquired after the capture of during World War II are on display alongside the submarine at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois. A three-rotor Enigma is on display at Discovery Park of America in Union City, Tennessee. A four-rotor device is on display in the ANZUS Corridor of the Pentagon on the second floor, A ring, between corridors 8 and 9. This machine is on loan from Australia. The United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs has a machine on display in the Computer Science Department. There is also a machine located at The National WWII Museum in New Orleans. The International Museum of World War II near Boston has seven Enigma machines on display, including a U-Boat four-rotor model, one of three surviving examples of an Enigma machine with a printer, one of fewer than ten surviving ten-rotor code machines, an example blown up by a retreating German Army unit, and two three-rotor Enigmas that visitors can operate to encode and decode messages. Computer Museum of America in Roswell, Georgia has a three-rotor model with two additional rotors. The machine is fully restored and CMoA has the original paperwork for the purchase on 7 March 1936 by the German Army. The National Museum of Computing also contains surviving Enigma machines in Bletchley, England.
In Canada, a Swiss Army issue Enigma-K, is in Calgary, Alberta. It is on permanent display at the Naval Museum of Alberta inside the Military Museums of Calgary. A four-rotor Enigma machine is on display at the Military Communications and Electronics Museum at Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Kingston in Kingston, Ontario.
Occasionally, Enigma machines are sold at auction; prices have in recent years ranged from US$40,000 to US$547,500 in 2017. Replicas are available in various forms, including an exact reconstructed copy of the Naval M4 model, an Enigma implemented in electronics (Enigma-E), various simulators and paper-and-scissors analogues.
A rare Abwehr Enigma machine, designated G312, was stolen from the Bletchley Park museum on 1 April 2000. In September, a man identifying himself as "The Master" sent a note demanding £25,000 and threatening to destroy the machine if the ransom was not paid. In early October 2000, Bletchley Park officials announced that they would pay the ransom, but the stated deadline passed with no word from the blackmailer. Shortly afterward, the machine was sent anonymously to BBC journalist Jeremy Paxman, missing three rotors.
In November 2000, an antiques dealer named Dennis Yates was arrested after telephoning The Sunday Times to arrange the return of the missing parts. The Enigma machine was returned to Bletchley Park after the incident. In October 2001, Yates was sentenced to ten months in prison and served three months.
In October 2008, the Spanish daily newspaper El País reported that 28 Enigma machines had been discovered by chance in an attic of Army headquarters in Madrid. These four-rotor commercial machines had helped Franco's Nationalists win the Spanish Civil War, because, though the British cryptologist Alfred Dilwyn Knox in 1937 broke the cipher generated by Franco's Enigma machines, this was not disclosed to the Republicans, who failed to break the cipher. The Nationalist government continued using its 50 Enigmas into the 1950s. Some machines have gone on display in Spanish military museums, including one at the National Museum of Science and Technology (MUNCYT) in La Coruña and one at the Spanish Army Museum. Two have been given to Britain's GCHQ.
The Bulgarian military used Enigma machines with a Cyrillic keyboard; one is on display in the National Museum of Military History in Sofia.
On 3 December 2020, German divers working on behalf of the World Wide Fund for Nature discovered a destroyed Enigma machine in Flensburg Firth (part of the Baltic Sea) which is believed to be from a scuttled U-Boat. This Enigma machine will be restored by and be the property of the Archaeology Museum of Schleswig Holstein.
Derivatives
The Enigma was influential in the field of cipher machine design, spinning off other rotor machines. The British Typex was originally derived from the Enigma patents; Typex even includes features from the patent descriptions that were omitted from the actual Enigma machine. The British paid no royalties for the use of the patents, to protect secrecy. The Typex implementation is not the same as that found in German or other Axis versions.
A Japanese Enigma clone was codenamed GREEN by American cryptographers. Little used, it contained four rotors mounted vertically. In the United States, cryptologist William Friedman designed the M-325, a machine logically similar, although not in construction.
A unique rotor machine called Cryptograph was constructed in 2002 by Netherlands-based Tatjana van Vark. This device makes use of 40-point rotors, allowing letters, numbers and some punctuation to be used; each rotor contains 509 parts.
Machines like the SIGABA, NEMA, Typex and so forth, are deliberately not considered to be Enigma derivatives as their internal ciphering functions are not mathematically identical to the Enigma transform.
Several software implementations exist, but not all exactly match Enigma behaviour. Many Java applet Enigmas only accept single letter entry, complicating use even if the applet is Enigma compliant. Technically, Enigma@home is the largest scale deployment of a software Enigma, but the decoding software does not implement encipherment making it a derivative (as all original machines could cipher and decipher).
A user-friendly three-rotor simulator, where users can select rotors, use the plugboard and define new settings for the rotors and reflectors is available. The output appears in separate windows which can be independently made "invisible" to hide decryption. Another includes an "autotyping" function which takes plaintext from a clipboard and converts it to cyphertext (or vice versa) at one of four speeds. The "very fast" option produces 26 characters in less than one second.
Simulators
In popular culture
Literature
Hugh Whitemore's play, Breaking the Code (1986), focuses on the life and death of Alan Turing, who was the central force in continuing to solve the Enigma code in the United Kingdom, during World War II. Turing was played by Derek Jacobi, who also played Turing in a 1996 television adaptation of the play.
Robert Harris' novel Enigma (1995) is set against the backdrop of World War II Bletchley Park and cryptologists working to read Naval Enigma in Hut 8.
Neal Stephenson's novel Cryptonomicon (1999) prominently features the Enigma machine and efforts to break it, and portrays the German U-boat command under Karl Dönitz using it in apparently deliberate ignorance of its penetration.
Enigma is featured in The Code Book, a survey of the history of cryptography written by Simon Singh and published in 1999.
The Enigma machine is used as a key plot element in Century Rain by Alastair Reynolds, set in an alternate Earth where technological research has stagnated and the Enigma is the highest level of encryption available both to civilians and military.
Elizabeth Wein's The Enigma Game (2020) is a young adult historical fiction novel about three young adults (a war orphan, a volunteer driver with the Royal Air Force, and a flight leader for the 648 Squadron) who find and use an Enigma machine (hidden by a German spy) to decode overheard transmissions and help the British war effort during WWII
Films
Sekret Enigmy (1979; translation: The Enigma Secret), is a Polish film dealing with Polish aspects of the subject.
The plot of the film U-571 (released in 2000) revolves around an attempt by American, rather than British, forces to seize an Enigma machine from a German U-boat.
The 2001 war comedy film All the Queen's Men featured a fictitious British plot to capture an Enigma machine by infiltrating the Enigma factory with men disguised as women.
Harris' book, with substantial changes in plot, was adapted as the film Enigma (2001), directed by Michael Apted and starring Kate Winslet and Dougray Scott. The film was criticised for historical inaccuracies, including neglect of the role of Poland's Biuro Szyfrów. The film, like the book, makes a Pole the villain, who seeks to betray the secret of Enigma decryption.
The film The Imitation Game (2014) tells the story of Alan Turing and his attempts to crack the Enigma machine cipher during World War II.
Television
In the British television series The Bletchley Circle, the Typex was used by the protagonists during the war, and in Season 2, Episode 4, they visit Bletchley Park to seek one out, in order to crack the code of the black market procurer and smuggler Marta, who used the Typex to encode her ledger. The Circle, forced to settle for using an Enigma, instead, successfully cracks the code.
In Elementary season 5, episode 23 ("Scrambled"), a drug smuggling gang uses a four-rotor Enigma machine as part of their effort to encrypt their communications.
In Bones season 8, episode 12 ("The Corpse in the Canopy"), Dr. Jack Hodgins uses an Enigma machine to send information to Seeley Booth at the FBI in order to prevent Christopher Pelant, a master hacker, from spying on their communications.
See also
Beaumanor Hall, a stately home used during the Second World War for military intelligence
Alastair Denniston
Erich Fellgiebel
Gisbert Hasenjaeger — responsible for Enigma security
Erhard Maertens — investigated Enigma security
Fritz Thiele
United States Naval Computing Machine Laboratory
Arlington Hall
References
Bibliography
Comer, Tony (2021), "Poland's Decisive Role in Cracking Enigma and Transforming the UK's SIGINT Operations", RUSI Commentary, 27 January 2021. https://rusi.org/commentary/poland-decisive-role-cracking-enigma-and-transforming-uk-sigint-operations
Further reading
Heath, Nick, Hacking the Nazis: The secret story of the women who broke Hitler's codes TechRepublic, 27 March 2015
Marks, Philip. "Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector — Part I", Cryptologia 25(2), April 2001, pp. 101–141.
Marks, Philip. "Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector — Part II", Cryptologia 25(3), July 2001, pp. 177–212.
Marks, Philip. "Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector — Part III", Cryptologia 25(4), October 2001, pp. 296–310.
Perera, Tom. The Story of the ENIGMA: History, Technology and Deciphering, 2nd Edition, CD-ROM, 2004, Artifax Books, sample pages
Rebecca Ratcliffe: Searching for Security. The German Investigations into Enigma's security. In: Intelligence and National Security 14 (1999) Issue 1 (Special Issue) S. 146–167.
Rejewski, Marian. How Polish Mathematicians Deciphered the Enigma", Annals of the History of Computing 3, 1981. This article is regarded by Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing's biographer, as "the definitive account" (see Hodges' Alan Turing: The Enigma, Walker and Company, 2000 paperback edition, p. 548, footnote 4.5).
Ulbricht, Heinz. Enigma Uhr, Cryptologia'', 23(3), April 1999, pp. 194–205.
Untold Story of Enigma Code-Breaker — The Ministry of Defence (U.K.)
External links
Gordon Corera, Poland's overlooked Enigma codebreakers, BBC News Magazine, 4 July 2014
Long-running list of places with Enigma machines on display
Bletchley Park National Code Centre Home of the British codebreakers during the Second World War
Enigma machines on the Crypto Museum Web site
Pictures of a four-rotor naval enigma, including Flash (SWF) views of the machine
Enigma Pictures and Demonstration by NSA Employee at RSA
Kenngruppenheft
Process of building an Enigma M4 replica
Breaking German Navy Ciphers
An online Enigma Machine simulator
Enigma simulation
Universal Enigma simulator
Cryptii — Online modular playground, including 13 Enigma machine variations
Products introduced in 1918
Broken stream ciphers
Cryptographic hardware
Rotor machines
Signals intelligence of World War II
World War II military equipment of Germany
Encryption devices
Military communications of Germany
Military equipment introduced in the 1920s |
643926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC%2012207 | ISO/IEC 12207 | ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207 Systems and software engineering – Software life cycle processes is an international standard for software lifecycle processes. First introduced in 1995, it aims to be a primary standard that defines all the processes required for developing and maintaining software systems, including the outcomes and/or activities of each process.
Revision history
ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017 is the newest version, published in November 2017. The IEEE Computer Society joined directly with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in the editing process for this version. A significant change is that it adopts a process model identical to the ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2015 process model (there is one name change, the 15288 "System Requirements Definition" process is renamed to the "System/Software Requirements Definition" process). This harmonization of the two standards led to the removal of separate software development and software reuse processes, bringing the total number of 43 processes from 12207 down to the 30 processes defined in 15288. It also caused changes to the quality management and quality assurance process activities and outcomes. Additionally, the definition of "audit" and related audit activities were updated. Annex I of ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017 provides a process mapping between the 2017 version and the previous version, including the primary process alignments between the two versions; this is intended to enable traceability and ease transition for users of the previous version.
Prior versions include:
ISO/IEC 12207:2008, which was published in February 2008
ISO/IEC 12207:1995/Amd 2:2004, an amended version of the prior, published in November 2004
ISO/IEC 12207:1995/Amd 1:2002, an amended version of the prior, published in May 2002
ISO/IEC 12207:1995, the first iteration, published in July 1995; originally was divided into five primary processes (acquisition, supply, development, operation, and maintenance), with eight supporting and four organizational life cycle processes
IEEE versions
Prior to the IEEE Computer Society formally joining the editing process (becoming a major stakeholder) for the 2017 release, the IEEE maintained its own versions of ISO/IEC 12207, initially with modifications made jointly with the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA). With the 2008 update came a "shared strategy of ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 and the IEEE to harmonize their respective collections of standards," resulting in identical standards thereon, but with slightly different names. Those IEEE versions included:
IEEE Std. 12207-2008: "integrates ISO/IEC 12207:1995 with its two amendments and was coordinated with the parallel revision of ISO/IEC 15288:2002 (System life cycle processes) to align structure, terms, and corresponding organizational and project processes"; superseded by ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017
IEEE/EIA 12207.2-1997: "provides implementation consideration guidance for the normative clauses of IEEE/EIA 12207.0"; superseded/made obsolete by IEEE Std. 12207-2008, which was then superseded by ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017
IEEE/EIA 12207.1-1997: "provides guidance for recording life cycle data resulting from the life cycle processes of IEEE/EIA 12207.0"; superseded by ISO/IEC/IEEE 15289:2011, which was then superseded by ISO/IEC/IEEE 15289:2017
IEEE/EIA 12207.0-1996: "consists of the clarifications, additions, and changes [to ISO/IEC 12207:1995 for industry implementation] accepted by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) as formulated by a joint project of the two organizations"; superseded by IEEE Std. 12207-2008, which was then superseded by ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017
It's also worth noting that IEEE/EIA 12207 officially replaced MIL-STD-498 (released in December 1994) for the development of DoD software systems on May 27, 1998.
Processes not stages
The standard establishes a set of processes for managing the lifecycle of software. The standard "does not prescribe a specific software life cycle model, development methodology, method, modelling approach, or technique.". Instead, the standard (as well as ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288) distinguishes between a "stage" and "process" as follows:
stage: "period within the life cycle of an entity that relates to the state of its description or realization". A stage is typically a period of time and ends with a "primary decision gate".
process: "set of interrelated or interacting activities that transforms inputs into outputs". The same process often recurs within different stages.
Stages (aka phases) are not the same as processes, and this standard only defines specific processes - it does not define any particular stages. Instead, the standard acknowledges that software life cycles vary, and may be divided into stages (also called phases) that represent major life cycle periods and give rise to primary decision gates. No particular set of stages is normative, but it does mention two examples:
The system life cycle stages from ISO/IEC TS 24748-1 could be used (concept, development, production, utilization, support, and retirement).
It also notes that a common set of stages for software is concept exploration, development, sustainment, and retirement.
The life cycle processes the standard defines are not aligned to any specific stage in a software life cycle. Indeed, the life cycle processes that involve planning, performance, and evaluation "should be considered for use at every stage". In practice, processes occur whenever they are needed within any stage.
Processes
ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017 divides software life cycle processes into four main process groups: agreement, organizational project-enabling, technical management, and technical processes. Under each of those four process groups are a variety of sub-categories, including the primary activities of acquisition and supply (agreement); configuration (technical management); and operation, maintenance, and disposal (technical).
Agreement processes
Here ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017 includes the acquisition and supply processes, which are activities related to establishing an agreement between a supplier and acquirer. Acquisition covers all the activities involved in initiating a project. The acquisition phase can be divided into different activities and deliverables that are completed chronologically. During the supply phase a project management plan is developed. This plan contains information about the project such as different milestones that need to be reached.
Organizational project-enabling processes
Detailed here are life cycle model management, infrastructure management, portfolio management, human resource management, quality management, and knowledge management processes. These processes help a business or organization enable, control, and support the system life cycle and related projects. Life cycle model management helps ensure acquisition and supply efforts are supported, while infrastructure and portfolio management supports business and project-specific initiatives during the entire system life cycle. The rest ensure the necessary resources and quality controls are in place to support the business' project and system endeavors. If an organization does not have an appropriate set of organizational processes, a project executed by the organization may apply those processes directly to the project instead.
Technical management processes
ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017 places eight different processes here:
[Project planning]
Project assessment and control
Decision management
Risk management
Configuration management
Information management
Measurement
Quality assurance
These processes deal with planning, assessment, and control of software and other projects during the life cycle, ensuring quality along the way.
Technical processes
The technical processes of ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017 encompass 14 different processes, some of which came from the old software-specific processes that were phased out from the 2008 version.
The full list includes:
Business or mission analysis
Stakeholder needs and requirements definition
Systems/Software requirements definition
Architecture definition
Design definition
System analysis
Implementation
Integration
Verification
Transition
Validation
Operation
Maintenance
Disposal
These processes involve technical activities and personnel (information technology, troubleshooters, software specialists, etc.) during pre-, post- and during operation. The analysis and definition processes early on set the stage for how software and projects are implemented. Additional processes of integration, verification, transition, and validation help ensure quality and readiness. The operation and maintenance phases occur simultaneously, with the operation phase consisting of activities like assisting users in working with the implemented software product, and the maintenance phase consisting of maintenance tasks to keep the product up and running. The disposal process describes how the system/project will be retired and cleaned up, if necessary.
Conformance
Clause 4 describes the document's intended use and conformance requirements. It is expected that particular projects "may not need to use all of the processes provided by this document." In practice, conforming to this standard normally involves selecting and declaring the set of suitable processes. This can be done through either "full conformance" or "tailored conformance".
"Full conformance" can be claimed in one of two ways. "Full conformance to tasks" can be claimed if all requirements of the declared processes' activities and tasks are met. "Full conformance to outcomes" can be claimed if all required outcomes of the declared processes are met. The latter permits more variation.
"Tailored conformance" may be declared when specific clauses are selected or modified through the tailoring process also defined in the document.
See also
Software development process
Software release life cycle
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288
ISO/IEC 15504
ISO/IEC/IEEE 29119
ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7
Meta-modeling technique
V model
Unified Modeling Language
Build management
Release management
References
12207
Software development process
Software engineering standards
12207
12207 |
3535793 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenDocument%20adoption | OpenDocument adoption | The following article details governmental and other organizations from around the world who are in the process of evaluating the suitability of using (adopting) OpenDocument, an open document file format for saving and exchanging office documents that may be edited.
Overview
The OpenDocument format (ODF) was accepted as a standard by OASIS in May 2005, and by ISO in November 2006, as standard ISO/IEC 26300:2006.
Microsoft submitted another format, Office Open XML (aka OOXML), to Ecma International where it was accepted as a standard in December 2006. The Office Open XML specification was published as standard ISO/IEC 29500:2008 in November 2008.
OpenDocument has been officially approved by national standards bodies of Brazil, Croatia, Denmark, Ecuador, Hungary, Italy, Malaysia, Russia, South Korea, South Africa and Sweden.
NATO with its 28 members (Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Turkey, the UK, and the USA) uses ODF as a mandatory standard for all members.
Africa
South Africa
On October 23, 2007, the Department of Public Service and Administration of the South African government released a report on interoperability standards in government information systems. It specifies ODF as the standard for "working office document formats" (with UTF-8/ASCII text and comma-separated values data as the only alternatives).
Since April 2008, ODF is a national standard too, not only the standard to be used by government departments. South African code for the ODF standard is "SANS 26300:2008/ISO/IEC 26300:2006". By September 2008 all departments will be able to read and write in the Open Document Format. In 2009, ODF will become the default document format for South African government departments.
Asia
Hong Kong
The Hong Kong government releases an Interoperability Framework
every year recommending file formats for various tasks. In their latest version they recommend the use of Microsoft Office '97 or OpenOffice.org v2.0 (based on OpenDocument 1.0) file formats for collaborative editing of text documents, spreadsheets and slideshow presentations.
India
Chandershekhar, India's secretary of Ministry of Information and Technology, said, "We are glad to note that with formation of a National ODF alliance, India too would be playing a pivotal role in spearheading the ODF revolution. Further, considering the huge potential of eGovernance in the nation as well as the need to adopt open standards to make our data systems more inter-operable and independent of any limiting proprietary tools, we feel that ODF is a great technological leap and a big boon to further propel IT right to India's grass root levels. I congratulate this initiative of leading private & public organisations and wish them all the best in this endeavor."
The Allahabad High Court of India has decided, as policy, to use OpenDocument format for its documents.
Assam
Government agencies are required to:
Use ODF
Transition to open-source operating systems
Kerala
In 2007 Kerala released an Information Technology Policy
designed to turn Kerala into a knowledge society.
They decided that open standards such as ODF would be followed in e-governance projects to avoid proprietary lock in.
Japan
On June 29, 2007, the government of Japan published a new interoperability framework which gives preference to the procurement of products that follow open standards including the ODF standards. On July 2 the government declared that they wouldn't stop from adopting alternative document formats, because they hold the view that formats like Office Open XML which other organizations such as Ecma International and ISO had also approved was, according to them, an open standard, too. Also, they said that it was one of the preferences, whether the format is open, to choose which software the government shall deploy.
Government ministries and agencies are required to:
Solicit bids from software vendors whose products support internationally recognized open standards
Open formats:
Are to be preferred, and
Must be used to promote exchange of information between ministries
Japan's Diet passed an open standards software incentive as part of its omnibus Special Taxation Measures law:
Provides tax reductions for companies which buy open-standard based software
Went into effect April 2008 and expires in March 2011.
Malaysia
In August 2007, The Malaysian government announced plans to adopt open standards and the Open Document Format (ODF) within the country's public sector. The Malaysian Administration Modernization and Management Planning Unit (MAMPU) issued a tender for a nine-month study to evaluate the usage of open standards.
From April 2008 on the use of ODF is mandatory within the public sector.
South Korea
South Korean government adopted OpenDocument as a part of Korean Industrial Standards KS X ISO/IEC 26300 in 2007, but public documents are still made and distributed in .hwp format. There is no regulation of legislation about OpenDocument since 2007.
Taiwan
Already in 2009 ODF was chosen as official standard. But only from 2014 large scale migrations to ODF (and because of freedom of choice that brought) to LibreOffice started.
Europe
The European Commission has, since at least 2003, been investigating various options for storing documents in an XML-based format, commissioning technical studies such as the "Valoris Report". In March 2004, the Telematics between Administrations Committee (TAC) asked an OpenOffice team and a Microsoft team to present on the relative merits of their XML-based office document formats.
In May 2004, TAC issued a set of recommendations, in particular noting that, "Because of its specific role in society, the public sector must avoid [a situation where] a specific product is forced on anyone interacting with it electronically. Conversely, any document format that does not discriminate against market actors and that can be implemented across platforms should be encouraged. Likewise, the public sector should avoid any format that does not safeguard equal opportunities to market actors to implement format-processing applications, especially where this might impose product selection on the side of citizens or businesses. In this respect standardisation initiatives will ensure not only a fair and competitive market but will also help safeguard the interoperability of implementing solutions whilst preserving competition and innovation." It then issued recommendations, including:
Industry actors not currently involved with the OASIS Open Document Format consider participating in the standardisation process in order to encourage a wider industry consensus around the format;
Microsoft considers issuing a public commitment to publish and provide non-discriminatory access to future versions of its WordML specifications;
Microsoft should consider the merits of submitting XML formats to an international standards body of their choice;
Industry is encouraged to provide filters that allow documents based on the WordML specifications and the emerging OASIS Open Document Format to be read and written to other applications whilst maintaining a maximum degree of faithfulness to content, structure and presentation. These filters should be made available for all products;
The public sector is encouraged to provide its information through several formats. Where by choice or circumstance only a single revisable document format can be used this should be for a format around which there is industry consensus, as demonstrated by the format's adoption as a standard.
An official recommendation for a certain format was not issued however.
Belgium
A memorandum on the use of open standards for creating and exchanging office documents was approved by Belgium's federal Council of Ministers on June 23, 2006. OpenDocument was proposed as the standard for exchanging office documents such as texts, spreadsheets, presentations within the federal civil service.
Since September 2007, every federal government department has to be able to accept and read OpenDocument documents.
Croatia
Government agencies are required to:
Make each government form posted on a public Web site “accessible in a way that makes it legible in accessible freeware applications”
Options for meeting this requirement:
ODF
PDF
HTML
Denmark
The Danish Parliament has decided that ODF must be used by state authorities after April 1, 2011
Until then Government agencies are required to:
Accept ODF and OOXML “data-processing documents” created by the public, businesses, and other governmental units
Government entities are permitted to:
Refrain from implementing the new OOXML and ODF standard if doing so would incur “additional costs or inconveniences” or raise “IT security concerns”
Finland
Finland's Ministry of Justice has chosen OpenOffice.org and thus the OpenDocument format as their main document format from the beginning of 2007. The decision was made after deep research of ODF possibilities. Other ministries may follow.
France
According to French government's RGI (general interoperability framework), ODF is the "recommended format for office documents within French administrations". OOXML is tolerated for "information exchange needs through tables".
Government agencies are required to:
Accept documents submitted in XML formats: ODF format as like OOxml format (both are in "Observations")
Use PDF/A to preserve text documents
Government agencies are encouraged to:
Install OpenOffice.org (an open-source, ODF-based productivity suite)
Use ODF to create text documents, spreadsheets, and slideshow-style presentations
Government agencies are prohibited from:
Migrating to any productivity suite formats other than ODF
Germany
A large number of Bundesländer, state and goverenmental offices and cities widely use products that support ODF (e.g. LibreOffice, OpenOffice.org).
Federal
In December 2008 the governmental IT-Board of the Bundesregierung decided to make use of the ODF-Format in the Federal administration in order to improve IT-security and interoperability.
The Federal Foreign Office has migrated totally to the use of ODF formats also in the 250 foreign offices abroad (it has reduced its IT costs to a third in comparison to other Ministries ). In a message to the participants of the first international ODF-workshop in October 2007 the Federal Foreign Minister stated: "The Open Document Format, as a completely open and ISO standardized format, is an excellent vehicle for the free exchange of knowledge and information in the globalized age."
The Federal office for security in IT (Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik ) uses with StarOffice on all computers the ODF format in a cast deployment.
Since September 2007 all communications with the Federal Court of Justice (Bundesgerichtshof) and the Federal Patent Court (Bundespatentgericht) may be transmitted in the ODF format. The same has already applied for a while to other high courts, i.e. the Bundesarbeitsgericht, the Bundessozialgericht and many other courts in the Bundesland of Nordrhein-Westfalen and of the Free State of Saxony (Sachsen).
Federal agencies will be able to receive, read, send and edit ODF documents beginning no later than 2010.
Under Germany's Standards and Architectures for eGovernment Applications 4.0 (SAGA 4.0), ODF recommended for editable text documents, a multi-stakeholder initiative that recommends and mandates standards to be used by the German federal government.
Bundesländer
The City of Freiburg in Baden-Württemberg uses OpenOffice.org and OpenDocument.
The City of Munich in Bavaria has already migrated 14000 desktops to OpenOffice.org and OpenDocument while migrating as a whole to Linux.
Italy
The Italian standardization organization UNI adopted ISO/IEC 26300 (ODF 1.0) on January 26, 2007 (UNI CEI ISO/IEC 26300:2007).
The Italian region of Umbria announced its migration to LibreOffice and OpenDocument format
In 2015, the Italian Ministry of Defence announced that it would standardise on ODF and install LibreOffice on 150,000 PCs.
Netherlands
From the beginning of 2009 onwards, open source software and the ODF format will be the standard for reading, publishing and the exchange of information for all governmental organisations. Whenever the software used is not open source special reasons have to be given.
Norway
Norway's Ministry of Government Administration and Reform decided in December 2007 that ODF (ISO/IEC 26300) MUST be used from 2009 when publishing documents that are meant to be changed after downloading, i.e. forms that are to be filled in by the user. So all website forums will use this format.
From 2010 it is mandatory for all government agencies to use document formats (PDF or) ODF when exchanging documents as attachments to e-mail between government and users.
Portugal
In 2008, the Portuguese Parliament discussed a bill proposed by the PCP) determining that the adoption of open standard formats – namely ODF – shall be mandatory within all public administration agencies.
On 21 June 2011, the government published a law on Open Standards. On 8 November 2012, the list of mandatory standards was published: ODF version 1.1 becomes obligatory in July 2014.
In March 2012, the Câmara Municipal de Vieira do Minho (county of Vieira do Minho) in Portugal announced its migration to LibreOffice.
Romania
Despite the heated discussions about adopting Free Software and Open Standards in Romanian public administration - especially at eLiberatica 2009 - the Romanian Ministry for Communications and Information Society passed no official bill to enforce the use of Open Standards, particularly OpenDocument. In June 2009, the minister Gabriel Sandu declared, in an interview to Ziarul Financiar, that „we cannot give up Microsoft licenses overnight”, despite the harsh critics from the large national Free Software community and a few important local IT businesses.
However, the OpenDocument format and OpenDocument-capable software are widely used, not only by enthusiasts, but by businesses as well, including large parts of the Romanian government agencies, mayoralties, courts, notaries, insurance firms, accountants, engineers, etc. A (grossly incomplete) list of implementations, including Romania, is maintained here
Russia
The Russian standardization organization Federal Agency on Technical Regulating and Metrology adopted ISO/IEC 26300 as national standard GOST R ISO/IEC 26300-2010 (ГОСТ Р ИСО/МЭК 26300-2010) on December 21, 2010.
Serbia
Government administration is required to:
Use the ISO 19005 - Electronic document file format for long-term preservation (PDF/A format) for official electronic documents.
For drafts, proposals and templates one of the following format should be used:
ISO 26300 - Open Document Format for Office Applications (OpenDocument) v1.0
ISO 29500 - Office Open XML File Formats
If any other specialized file format is used for technical reasons, all parties in the document exchange must agree that there is a technical interoperability for using that file format.
Slovakia
In Slovakia, all public authorities should be able to read ODF format since August 2006 and can use this format for electronic communication and for publication of documents.
Since October 2008, public authorities must be able to read text documents in ODF 1.0 format.
Since July 2010, public authorities must be able to read text documents in ODF format up to version 1.2.
Since March 2009, documents in ODF 1.0 format are allowed for use with the electronic signature and qualified electronic signature.
Spain
Andalusia
Government agencies are required to:
Use open standards to interchange documents with citizens, non-governmental organizations, and other government bodies”
ODF
PDF
PDF/A
HTML
XHTML
ASCII
UNICODE
ASCII (open)
RTF (acceptable)
Extremadura
Government agencies are required to:
Create and save in ODF (manipulable) or PDF/A (static) format all documents that will be exchanged with other government entities or with citizens.
Switzerland
Government agencies are required to:
Use the following formats when exchanging documents with citizens or other agencies:
PDF/A (“urgently recommended”)
PDF/X (“recommended”)
ODF (“recommended”)
OOXML (“recommended”)
Sweden
Sweden has published ODF 1.0 as a national in August 2008. This has not been announced officially. The standards institute only added the prefix "SS" before the ISO number SS-ISO/IEC 26300:2008.
Turkey
A memorandum on the use of open standards for creating and exchanging office documents is being strongly suggested by Turkish Ministry of Development since 2008. According to "Interoperability Report" Turkish Ministry of Development, government agencies are required to:
Create and save in ODF or PDF format all documents that will be exchanged with other government entities or with citizens.
United Kingdom
Under the “Open Source, Open Standards and Re–Use: Government Action Plan”
the UK government will specify requirements by reference to open standards and require compliance with open standards in solutions where feasible. The government indicated it will support the use of ODF 1.0 (ISO/IEC 26300:2006).
BECTA (British Education Communication Technology Agency) is the UK agency in charge of defining information technology (IT) policy for all schools in the United Kingdom, including standards for all the schools' infrastructure. In 2005 they published a comprehensive document describing the policy for infrastructure in schools.
This document highly recommends the use of OpenDocument and a few other formats for office document data. BECTA explains this as follows: "Any office application used by institutions must be able to be saved to (and so viewed by others) using a commonly agreed format that ensures an institution is not locked into using specific software. The main aim is for all office based applications to provide functionality to meet the specifications described here (whether licensed software, open source or unlicensed freeware) and thus many application providers could supply the educational institution ICT market.".
In July 2014, the UK Government formally adopted the use of OpenDocument for document exchange.
Bristol City Council
Bristol City Council is no longer using OpenDocument software. It adopted the StarOffice suite in 2005 and with it the OpenDocument format across 5500 desktop computers.
It swapped back to using Microsoft Office about 4 years later.
South America
Argentina
In September 2007 the Argentinian Province of Misiones decided via decrete that the use of ODF shall be mandatory within the government. Around a million people live in this province, which is one of the 23 provinces of Argentina.
Brazil
With the publication of "e-Ping Interoperability Framework", Brazil became the first South American country to officially recommend the adoption of OpenDocuments within the government.
As stated in version v3.0 of 2007: "Preferred adoption of Open Formats: e-PING defines that, whenever possible, open standards will be used in technical specifications. "Proprietary standards" will be accepted, in this transition period, with the perspective of replacement as soon as there are conditions for a complete migration. With no loss to these goals, are to be respected those situations when there is the need to consider security requisites and information integrity. When available, Free Software solutions are to be considered preferential, accordingly with the policy defined by the Comitê Executivo de Governo Eletrônico (CEGE)"
Since April 2008 ODF is a national standard in Brazil, coded as NBRISO/IEC26300.
As of the 2010 version, the transition period has officially ended, and proprietary document formats may no longer be used in the federal public administration, although in practice this is not the case in many federal agencies and departments.
Additionally, a number of parties, including local governments, companies and non-governmental organizations have signed into the Brasília Protocol, which formalize intentions and set goals for adopting the use of the Open Document standard.
Paraná
Government agencies and state-owned companies are required to:
Use ODF for the creation, storage, and display of all electronic documents
Uruguay
Since June 2008 the "Agency for the Development of Government Electronic Management and Information and Knowledge Society of Uruguay" recommends that public documents use either ODF or PDF. ODF should be used for documents in the process of being edited and the latter for documents in final form.
Venezuela
All organizations of the Federal Government of Venezuela must:
Use ODF 1.0 (ISO/IEC 26300) for editable documents
Use PDF for non-editable documents
North America
Canada
Canadian governments do not have mandatory file formats. Microsoft office products are widely used by all levels of governments in Canada.
United States
Massachusetts
The United States state of Massachusetts has been examining its options for implementing XML-based document processing. In early 2005, Eric Kriss, Secretary of Administration and Finance in Massachusetts, was the first government official in the United States to publicly connect open formats to a public policy purpose: "It is an overriding imperative of the American democratic system that we cannot have our public documents locked up in some kind of proprietary format, perhaps unreadable in the future, or subject to a proprietary system license that restricts access."
At a September 16, 2005 meeting with the Mass Technology Leadership Council Kriss stated that he believes this is fundamentally an issue of sovereignty. While supporting the principle of private intellectual property rights, he said sovereignty trumped any private company's attempt to control the state's public records through claims of intellectual property.
Subsequently, in September 2005, Massachusetts became the first state to formally endorse OpenDocument formats for its public records and, at the same time, reject Microsoft's new XML format, now standardized as ISO/IEC 29500:2008 — Office Open XML. This decision was made after a two-year examination of file formats, including many discussions with Microsoft, other vendors, and various experts, plus some limited trial programs in individual communities like Saugus and Billerica. Microsoft Office, which has a nearly 100% market share among the state's employees, did not support OpenDocument formats until Service Pack 2 of Office 2007. Microsoft had indicated that OpenDocument formats will not be supported in new versions of Office, even though they support many other formats (including ASCII, RTF, and WordPerfect), and analysts believe it would be easy for Microsoft to implement the standard. If Microsoft chooses not to implement OpenDocument, Microsoft will disqualify themselves from future consideration. Several analysts (such as Ovum) believe that Microsoft will eventually support OpenDocument. On 6 July 2006 Microsoft announced that they would support the OpenDocument format and create a plugin to allow Office to save to ODF.
After this announcement by Massachusetts supporting OpenDocument, a large number of people and organizations spoke up about the policy, both pro and con (see the references section). Adobe, Corel, IBM, and Sun all sent letters to Massachusetts supporting the measure. In contrast, Microsoft sent in a letter highly critical of the measure. A group named "Citizens Against Government Waste" (CAGW) also opposed the decision. The group claimed that Massachusetts' policy established "an arbitrary preference for open source," though both open source software and proprietary software can implement the specification, and both kinds of developers were involved in creating the standard (CAGW, 2005). However, InternetNews and Linux Weekly News noted that CAGW has received funding from Microsoft, and that in 2001 CAGW was caught running an astroturfing campaign on behalf of Microsoft when two letters they submitted supporting Microsoft in Microsoft's anti-trust case were found to have the signatures of deceased persons (Linux Weekly News). James Prendergast, executive director of a coalition named "Americans for Technology Leadership" (ATL), also criticized the state's decision in a Fox News article. In the article, Prendergast failed to disclose that Microsoft is a founding member of ATL. Fox News later published a follow-up article disclosing that fact.
State Senator Marc R. Pacheco and State Secretary William F. Galvin have expressed reservations about this plan. Pacheco held a hearing on October 31, 2005, on the topic of OpenDocument. Pacheco did not want OpenDocument to be declared as the executive branch standard, primarily on procedural grounds. Pacheco believed that the executive branch had to receive permission to set an executive standard from the multi-branch IT Advisory Board. In contrast, The Massachusetts Information Technology Division (ITD), and its general council, believe the Advisory board's role is to advise ITD, and ITD did discuss the issue with the IT Advisory Board, but ITD's Peter J. Quinn and Linda Hamel (ITD's General Counsel) asserted that there is no requirement that "ITD approach the Advisory Board for permission to adopt policies that will impact only the Executive Department." Hamel later filed a legal briefing justifying ITD's position (Hamel, 2005). Massachusetts' Supreme Court has ruled that the various branches of government are prohibited from mandating IT standards on each other; this ruling appears to support ITD's claim. Pacheco also did not like the process used to select OpenDocument. However, Pacheco appears to have had many fundamental
misunderstandings of the issues. Andy Updegrove said that at the time, "Senator Pacheco doesn't understand the difference between open source and open standards (and certainly doesn't understand the difference between OpenDocument and OpenOffice). More than once, he indicated that he thought that the policy would require the Executive Agencies to use OpenOffice.org, not realizing that there are other compliant alternatives. He also thought that this would act to the detriment of Massachusetts software vendors, who (he thinks) would be excluded from doing business with the Commonwealth." Pacheco also thought that OpenOffice.org was under the GPL, but in fact it is released under the LGPL (Jones, October 31, 2005) (Jones, November 14, 2005). He attempted to halt implementation of OpenDocument in the executive branch via an amendment (to S. 2256), but the amended bill was never sent to the governor.
Since then in 2007 Massachusetts has amended its approved technical standards list to include Office Open XML.
References
Official Information Documents from the Commonwealth of Massachusetts:
(RTF) Enterprise Open Standards Policy (ETRM) Version 4.0
(RTF) Enterprise Technical Reference Model (ETRM) Version 4.0, effective July 2007.
(to find the documents as HTML pages, go to http://www.mass.gov and search for the documents, e.g. "etrm")
Other states and organizations in the US
In November 2005, James Gallt, associate director for the National Association of State Chief Information Officers, said that a number of other state agencies are also exploring the use of OpenDocument (LaMonica, November 10, 2005).
In April 2006, a bill was introduced in the Minnesota state legislature to require all state agencies to use open data formats. It is expected that the OpenDocument Format will be advanced as a way of meeting the proposed requirement. (Gardner, April 7, 2006).
In late 2007 and early 2008, New York State issued a Request for Public Comment concerning electronic records policy.
References
Gardner, W. David (April 7, 2006). "Minnesota Considers Mandatory Use Of ODF: It's another state battle that pits Microsoft's proprietary Office software on one side against supporters of the OpenDocument Format on the other". InformationWeek.
LaMonica, Martin (November 10, 2005). OpenDocument format gathers steam CNET News.com, published on ZDNet News.
Other regions
Australia
It was announced on 31 March 2006, that the National Archives of Australia had settled on OpenDocument as their choice for a cross-platform/application document format.
Other
According to OASIS' OpenDocument datasheet, "Singapore's Ministry of Defence, France's Ministry of Finance and its Ministry of Economy, Finance, and Industry, Brazil's Ministry of Health, the City of Munich, Germany, UK's Bristol City Council, and the City of Vienna in Austria are all adopting applications that support OpenDocument." (OASIS, 2005b).
See also
History of free and open-source software
Linux adoption
References
OASIS (2005b). OASIS OpenDocument datasheet. Accessed on October 17, 2005.
LibreOffice
OpenDocument
OpenOffice
Technological change |
31305228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACE%20Encrypt | ACE Encrypt | ACE (Advanced Cryptographic Engine) — the collection of units, implementing both a public key encryption scheme and a digital signature scheme. Corresponding names for these schemes — «ACE Encrypt» and «ACE Sign». Schemes are based on Cramer-Shoup public key encryption scheme and Cramer-Shoup signature scheme. Introduced variants of these schemes are intended to achieve a good balance between performance and security of the whole encryption system.
Authors
All the algorithms, implemented in ACE are based on algorithms developed by Victor Shoup and Ronald Cramer. The full algorithms specification is written by Victor Shoup. Implementation of algorithms is done by Thomas Schweinberger and Mehdi Nassehi, its supporting and maintaining is done by Victor Shoup. Thomas Schweinberger participated in construction of ACE specification document and also wrote a user manual.
Ronald Cramer currently stays in the university of Aarhus, Denmark. He worked on the project of ACE Encrypt while his staying in ETH in Zürich, Switzerland.
Mehdi Nassehi and Thomas Schweinberger worked on ACE project in the IBM research lab in Zürich, Switzerland.
Victor Shoup works in the IBM research lab in Zürich, Switzerland.
Security
The encryption scheme in ACE can be proven secure under reasonable and natural
intractability assumptions.
These four assumptions are:
The Decisional Diffie-Hellman (DDH) assumption
Strong RSA assumption
SHA-1 second preimage collision resistance
MARS sum/counter mode pseudo-randomness
Basic Terminology and Notation
Here we introduce some notations, being used in this article.
Basic mathematical notation
— The set of integers.
— The set of univariate polynomials with coefficients in the finite field of cardinality 2.
— integer such that for integer and .
— polynomial with such that with .
Basic string notation
— The set of all strings.
— The set of all strings with length n.
For — length of string . The string of length zero is denoted .
For — the result of and concatenation.
Bits, Bytes, Words
— The set of bits. Let us take all sets of form . For such a set A we define the "zero element":
We define as a set of bytes, and as a set of words.
For with and we define a padding operator:
Conversion operator
Conversion operator makes a conversion between elements .
Encryption Scheme
Encryption Key Pair
The encryption scheme employs two key types:
ACE public key: .
ACE private key: .
For a given size parameter , such that , key components are defined as:
— a 256-bit prime number.
— a m-bit prime number, such that .
— elements (whose multiplicative order modulo divides ).
— elements .
— elements with and , where and .
Key Generation
Algorithm. Key Generation for ACE encryption scheme.
Input: a size parameter , such that .
Output: a public/private key pair.
Generate a random prime , such that .
Generate a random prime , , such that .
Generate a random integer , such that .
Generate random integers and
Compute the following integers in :
Generate random byte strings and , where and .
Return the public key/private key pair
Ciphertext Representation
A ciphertext of the ACE encryption scheme has the form
where the components are defined as:
— integers from (whose multiplicative order modulo divides ).
— element .
— element .
we call the preamble, and — the cryptogram. If a cleartext is a string consisting of байт, then the length of is equal to .
We need to introduce the function , which maps a ciphertext to its byte-string
representation, and the corresponding inverse function . For the integer , word string , integers , and byte string ,
For integer , byte string , such that ,
Encryption Process
Algorithm. ACE asymmetric encryption operation.
input: public key and byte string .
Output: byte string — ciphertext of .
Generate at random.
Generate the ciphertext preamble:
Generate at random.
Compute , .
Compute ; note that .
Compute .
Compute the key for the symmetric encryption operation:
, .
Compute .
Compute cryptogram .
Encode the ciphertext:
Return .
Before starting off the symmetric encryption process, the input message is divided into blocks , where each of the block, possibly except the last one, is of 1024 bytes. Each block is encrypted by the stream cipher. For each encrypted block 16-byte message authentication code is computed. We get the cryptogram Note that if , then .
Algorithm. ACE asymmetric encryption process.
Input:
Output: , .
If , then return .
Initialize a pseudo-random generator state:
Generate the key :
.
While , do the following:
.
Generate mask values for the encryption and MAC:
.
.
Encrypt the plaintext: .
Generate the message authentication code:
If , then ; else .
.
Update the ciphertext: .
.
Return .
Decryption process
Algorithm. ACE decryption process.
Input: public key and corresponding private key , byt e string .
Output: Decrypted message .
Decrypt the ciphertext:
If , then return .
Compute: note that , where .
Verify the ciphertext preamble:
If or or , then return .
If , then return .
.
If , then .
Compute ; note that .
If , then .
If , then return .
Compute the key for the symmetric decryption operation:
, .
Compute .
Compute ;note that can return .
Return .
Algorithm. Decryption operation .
Input:
Output: Decrypted message .
If , then return .
Initialize a pseudo-random generator state:
Generate the key :
.
While , do the following:
.
If , then return .
Generate mask values for the encryption and MAC:
.
.
Verify the message authentication code:
If , then ; else .
.
If , then return .
Update the plaintext: .
.
Return .
Signature Scheme
The signature scheme employs two key types:
ACE Signature public key: .
ACE Signature private key: .
For the given size parameter , such that , key components are defined the following way:
— -bit prime number with — is also a prime number.
— -bit prime number with — is also a prime number.
— and has either or бит.
— elements (quadratic residues modulo ).
— 161-bit prime number.
— element
— elements .
— elements .
Key Generation
Algorithm. Key generation for the ACE public-key signature scheme.
Input: size parameter , such that .
Output: public/private key pair.
Generate random prime numbers, such that and — is also a prime number, and and .
Set .
Generate random prime number , где .
Generate random , taking into account and , and compute .
Generate random and compute .
Generate random byte strings , and .
Return public key/private key pair
Signature Representation
The signature in the ACE signature scheme has the form , where the components are defined the following way:
— element .
— integer, such that .
— elements .
— element ;note that , where — message being signed.
We need to introduce the function, which maps a signature into its byte string representation, and the corresponding inverse function . For integer , byte string , integers and , and byte string ,
For integer , byte string , where ,
Signature Generation Process
Algorithm. ACE Signature Generation Process.
Input: public key and corresponding private key and byte string , .
Output: byte string — digital signature .
Perform the following steps to hash the input data:
Generate a hash key at random, such that .
Compute .
Select at random, and compute .
Compute .
Generate a random prime , , and its certificate of correctness : . Repeat this step until .
Set ; note that .
Compute , where and where and .
Encode the signature:
Return
Notes
In the definition of ACE Encryption process and ACE Signature process some auxiliary function (e.g. UOWHash, ESHash and some other) are being used, definition of which goes beyond this article. More details about it can be found in в.
Implementation, Utilization and Performance
ACE Encryption scheme is recommended by NESSIE (New European Schemes for Signatures, Integrity and Encryption) as asymmetric encryption scheme. Press-release is dated by February 2003.
Both schemes were implemented in ANSI C, with the use of GNU GMP library. Tests were done on two platforms: Power PC 604 model 43P under AIX system and 266 MHz Pentium under Windows NT system. Result tables:
Literature
External links
http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/tech/ace
http://www.zurich.ibm.com/security/ace/
NESSIE Portfolio of recommended cryptographic primitives
Cryptographic software |
96689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troup%20County%2C%20Georgia | Troup County, Georgia | Troup County (pronounced ) is a county located in the west central portion of the U.S. state of Georgia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 67,044. The county seat is LaGrange.
Troup County comprises the LaGrange, GA Micropolitan Statistical Area. It is included in the Atlanta-Athens-Clarke County-Sandy Springs, GA Combined Statistical Area.
History
For thousands of years, this area of what is now defined as west central Georgia was occupied by cultures of indigenous peoples. In the historic period, it was part of a large area controlled by the Muscogee, also known as the Creek people.
The land for Lee, Muscogee, Troup, Coweta, and Carroll counties was ceded by the Creek to the United States in the 1825 Treaty of Indian Springs. The counties' boundaries were created by the Georgia General Assembly on June 9, 1826, but the counties themselves were not named until December 14, 1826.
The county is named for George Troup, thirty-fourth governor of Georgia, U.S. representative, and senator.
As with much of the Piedmont, this area was developed in the antebellum era for cotton cultivation after short-staple cotton was made profitable by invention of the cotton gin. By 1860 Troup County was the fourth-wealthiest in Georgia and fifth-largest slaveholding county in the state.
According to U.S. Census data, the 1860 Troup County population included 6,223 whites, 37 "free colored" and 10,002 slaves. By the 1870 census, the white population had increased about 3% to 6,408, while the "colored" population had increased about 12% to 11,224.
During the post-Reconstruction period, violence and the number of lynchings of blacks increased in the late 19th century, as whites exercised terrorism to re-establish and maintain white supremacy. Whites lynched three African Americans in Troup County in this period, most were killed around the turn of the 20th century. Such deaths occurred through the post-World War II period. A fourth man from Troup County was lynched in neighboring Harris County.
In the late 19th century, entrepreneurs in LaGrange built the first cotton mill, and others were rapidly established in this area. Initially they employed only white workers.
20th century to present
During the first half of the 20th century, thousands of blacks left Georgia and other southern states in what is known as the Great Migration. They were seeking work as mechanization reduced the number of farm jobs, and they were seeking more opportunities than in the Jim Crow South, where they were disenfranchised and socially oppressed.
On September 8, 1940, 16-year-old Austin Callaway, a black youth, was arrested in LaGrange as a suspect in an attack on a white woman. The next night a small, armed group of white men took him from the county jail, driving him out to the nearby countryside, where they lynched him: shooting him several times and leaving him for dead. In 2017 a man who was a child at the time revealed that his white family found and took Callaway to the hospital, where he died the next day. They had kept their role secret out of fear of the KKK. Callaway was noted by the local paper as dying from gunshot wounds; the New York Times at the time described it as a lynching. As was typical in these cases, no one was prosecuted for the murder. In response, that fall African Americans organized the first NAACP chapter in Troup County at Warren Temple Methodist Church in LaGrange. It has worked on a variety of civil rights issues, including voting rights, equal justice, access, and human services.
In 1947, prosperous farmer Henry "Peg" Gilbert, a married African-American father who owned and farmed 100 acres in the county, was arrested and charged with harboring a fugitive by officials from neighboring Harris County, Georgia, in the case of Gus Davidson. Also African American, the latter man was charged in the shooting death of a white farmer. Four days later Gilbert was dead, shot while held in jail by the Harris County Sheriff, in what he said was self-defense. In 2016 the Civil Rights and Restorative Justice Project of Northeastern University reported on this death in custody. They found that Gilbert had been beaten severely before his death, and shot five times. They asserted he had been detained and killed because of his success as a farmer.
By 1960, the county was recorded in the US Census as having 31,418 whites and 15,760 "Negroes" (now classified as black or African Americans). Following passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, blacks gradually regained the ability to vote and take part in the political process.
Textile manufacturing was a major part of the economy until the late 20th century, when textile manufacturing moved offshore to areas with cheaper labor. The county has acquired other industry, notably auto parts manufacturers who support the nearby Kia Motors plant. Also in the area are West Point Lake and Callaway Gardens, which attract tourists and visitors as top recreation destinations in the state.
As of 2015, the official historian of Troup County is writer Forrest Clark Johnson, III, who has published several books on the county and region's history. He is a retired teacher in the county's school system.
On January 25, 2017, Mayor Jim Thornton and Police Chief Louis M. Dekmar, of the county seat of LaGrange, publicly apologized to more than 200 people gathered for a reconciliation service at Warren Temple United Methodist Church for the police's failure decades before to protect Callaway, saying:
"I sincerely regret and denounce the role our Police Department played in Austin's lynching, both through our action and our inaction," Chief Dekmar told a crowd at a traditionally African-American church. "And for that, I'm profoundly sorry. It should never have happened."
Residents organized Troup Together, a grassroots group to acknowledge lynchings, commemorate the victims, and work on racial reconciliation. On March 18, 2017, black and white residents of the county gathered to dedicate a historic marker at Warren Temple Church "memorializing Callaway's lynching and three others documented in the area: Willis Hodnett in 1884; Samuel Owensby in 1913 and Henry Gilbert, a Troup County resident who was lynched in neighboring Harris County in 1947." Another ceremony was held at Southview Cemetery in LaGrange, where these names were read.
On April 7, 2017, Troup County's computer systems were the victim of a ransomware attack; it caused all county computer systems to be inaccessible. This included the sheriff's office and district attorney's office. After 5 days, the county was still working to get 400 computer systems back online.
Government
The government of Troup County is based on an elected county commission, or council. The chairman is elected county-wide, or at-large, and four commissioners are each elected from single-member districts. District 5 includes much of the territory of LaGrange, the county seat and most densely settled community in the county.
Politics
Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (7.2%) is water. The county is located in the Piedmont region of the state.
The entirety of Troup County is located in the Middle Chattahoochee River-Lake Harding sub-basin of the ACF River Basin (Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint River Basin).
Major highways
Interstate 85
Interstate 185
U.S. Route 27
U.S. Route 29
State Route 1
State Route 14
State Route 14 Connector
State Route 14 Spur
State Route 18
State Route 54
State Route 100
State Route 103
State Route 109
State Route 219
State Route 403 (unsigned designation for I-85)
State Route 411 (unsigned designation for I-185)
Adjacent counties
Coweta County (northeast)
Meriwether County (east)
Harris County (south)
Chambers County, Alabama (southwest/CST Border except for Lanett and Valley as they are part of the Columbus Metropolitan Area)
Randolph County, Alabama (northwest/CST Border)
Heard County (north)
Demographics
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 58,779 people, 21,920 households, and 15,607 families residing in the county. The population density was 142 people per square mile (55/km2). There were 23,824 housing units at an average density of 58 per square mile (22/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 65.80% White, 31.87% Black or African American, 0.16% Native American, 0.58% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.75% from other races, and 0.78% from two or more races. 1.71% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 21,920 households, out of which 34.60% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.10% were married couples living together, 17.90% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.80% were non-families. 24.90% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.12.
In the county, the population was spread out, with 27.90% under the age of 18, 9.20% from 18 to 24, 28.40% from 25 to 44, 21.90% from 45 to 64, and 12.60% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.70 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $35,469, and the median income for a family was $41,891. Males had a median income of $31,863 versus $22,393 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,626. About 12.20% of families and 14.80% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.70% of those under age 18 and 14.00% of those age 65 or over.
2010 census
As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 67,044 people, 24,828 households, and 17,489 families residing in the county. The population density was . There were 28,046 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county was 61.5% white, 33.4% black or African American, 1.6% Asian, 0.3% American Indian, 0.1% Pacific islander, 1.7% from other races, and 1.5% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 3.2% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 12.3% were English, 12.1% were American, 11.4% were Irish, and 7.3% were German.
Of the 24,828 households, 37.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.0% were married couples living together, 20.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 29.6% were non-families, and 25.1% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.62 and the average family size was 3.12. The median age was 36.3 years.
The median income for a household in the county was $41,770 and the median income for a family was $50,625. Males had a median income of $39,960 versus $28,218 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,699. About 15.5% of families and 19.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30.1% of those under age 18 and 14.2% of those age 65 or over.
2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 69,426 people, 24,436 households, and 15,354 families residing in the county.
Communities
Harrisonville
Hogansville
LaGrange (county seat)
Long Cane
Mountville
West Point
See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Troup County, Georgia
References
Georgia (U.S. state) counties
1826 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Populated places established in 1826
Troup |
55657465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophia%20Ananiadou | Sophia Ananiadou | Sophia Ananiadou (born Σοφία Ανανιάδου, 1957) is a Greek/British computer scientist and computational linguist. She led the development of and directs the National Centre for Text Mining (NaCTeM) in the United Kingdom. She is also a Professor in the Department of Computer Science at the University of Manchester.
Her research focusses on biomedical text mining and natural language processing and has fed into the development of numerous applications that, for example, facilitate the discovery of new knowledge, enable exploration of historical archives, allow semantic search of biomedical literature, reduce human effort in screening search hits for production of systematic reviews, enable enrichment of metabolic pathway models with evidence from the literature, allow discovery of risk in the construction industry from health and safety incident reports and enable interoperability of components in text mining workflows.
Education
Ananiadou was educated at the Lycée français St Joseph in Athens, Greece (1969–1975). She received a Bachelor of Arts (Ptychion) from the University of Athens (1979), a Master of Advanced Studies (DEA) in Linguistics from Paris VII, Jussieu, France (1980), a DEA in Literature from Paris IV, Sorbonne, France (1984) and a PhD in Computational linguistics from the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST), in 1988.
Career and research
Ananiadou was a Research Assistant at Dalle Molle Institute for Semantic and Cognitive Studies (ISSCO, 1983–1984), a Research Assistant (1985–1988) then Research Associate (1988–1993) in the Department of Language Engineering at UMIST, Senior Lecturer at Manchester Metropolitan University (1993–1999), Senior Lecturer then Reader in the School of Computing Science and Engineering, University of Salford (2000–2005), then Reader in the School of Computer Science, University of Manchester (2005–2009). Since 2009, she has served as Professor in Computer Science in the Department of Computer Science at the University of Manchester.
Ananiadou has published since 1986, has an h-index of 60 and a G2R United Kingdom ranking of 160. Since 2018, she has served as the deputy director of the Institute for Data Science and Artificial Intelligence, University of Manchester. Ananiadou received a Diplôme de traducteur (Diploma of Translator) from the Institut français d'Athènes, Greece (1979) and a Certificate in Counselling from the University of Salford, UK 2004.
Awards and honours
In 2019, in recognition of her contributions in Artificial Intelligence and text mining for Biomedicine, Ananiadou received an honorary doctorate from the University of the Aegean, on the 20th anniversary of its Department of Mediterranean Studies, Rhodes.
Ananiadou received the Unstructured Information Management Architecture (UIMA) innovation award from IBM three years running (2006, 2007 & 2008). She was awarded the Daiwa Adrian Prize in 2004 and also received a Japan Trust award from the Ministry of Education, Japan in 1997.
Ananiadou has been a Fellow of the Alan Turing Institute in London since 2018.
Since 2021, she is a member of the ELLIS Society, the professional society of the cross-national European Laboratory for Learning and Intelligent Systems.
Ananiadou served as vice president (VP) of the European Association for Terminology from 1997 to 1999.
At the 28th International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING 2020), she received, with M. Li and H. Takamura, an Outstanding Paper designation for the paper "A Neural Model for Aggregating Coreference Annotation in Crowdsourcing".
References
Living people
British women computer scientists
Academics of the University of Manchester
British computer scientists
1957 births
Greek computer scientists
Computer scientists
Natural language processing researchers |
49044032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron%20Goldman%20%28mathematician%29 | Ron Goldman (mathematician) | Ronald Neil Goldman is a Professor of Computer Science at Rice University in Houston, Texas. Professor Goldman received his B.S. in Mathematics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1968 and his M.A. and Ph.D. in Mathematics from Johns Hopkins University in 1973.
Dr. Goldman's current research interests lie in the mathematical representation, manipulation, and analysis of shape using computers. His work includes research in computer-aided geometric design, solid modeling, computer graphics, and splines. He is particularly interested in algorithms for polynomial and piecewise polynomial curves and surfaces, and he is currently investigating applications of algebraic and differential geometry to geometric modeling. He has published over a hundred articles in journals, books, and conference proceedings on these and related topics.
Before returning to academia, Dr. Goldman worked for 10 years in industry solving problems in computer graphics, geometric modeling, and computer aided design. He served as a mathematician at Manufacturing Data Systems Inc., where he helped to implement one of the first industrial solid modeling systems. Later he worked as a senior design engineer at Ford Motor Company, enhancing the capabilities of their corporate graphics and computer-aided design software. From Ford he moved on to Control Data Corporation, where he was a principal consultant for the development group devoted to computer-aided design and manufacture. His responsibilities included database design, algorithms, education, acquisitions, and research.
Dr. Goldman left Control Data Corporation in 1987 to become an associate professor of computer science at the University of Waterloo in Ontario, Canada. He joined the faculty at Rice University in Houston, Texas as a professor of computer science in July 1990.
Selected publications
References
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American computer scientists
American mathematicians
Rice University faculty
Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science alumni
Johns Hopkins University alumni |
16961142 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SYSGO | SYSGO | SYSGO GmbH is a German information technologies company that supplies operating systems and services for embedded systems with high safety and security-related requirements, using Linux. For security-critical applications, the company offers the Hypervisor and RTOS PikeOS, an operating system for multicore processors and the foundation for intelligent devices in the Internet of Things (IoT).
As an operating system manufacturer provider, SYSGO supports companies with the formal certification of software to international standards for safety and security in markets such as aerospace and defence, industrial automation, automotive, railway, medical as well as network infrastructure. SYSGO participates in a variety of international research projects and standardisation initiatives in the area of safety and security.
History
SYSGO was founded in 1991. On the initiative of company founder Knut Degen, the company specialized in the use of Linux-based operating systems in embedded applications. In the 1990s, SYSGO worked mainly with LynxOS. In 1999, the company launched the first product of its own, a development environment for Linux-based embedded applications by the name of ELinOS.
SYSGO introduced the first version of its PikeOS real-time operating system in 2005. With hypervisor functionality integrated into its basic structure, this operating system allows multiple embedded applications with different functional safety requirements to be operated on the same processor. The current version of PikeOS can run safety-critical applications for aerospace, automotive, rail and other industrial applications.
2009 saw the market launch of a software-only implementation of an AFDX stack (Avionics Full DupleX Switched Ethernet) for Safety-Critical Ethernet in accordance with ARINC-664 Part 7, which was certified to DO-178B. In 2013, SYSGO also achieved SIL 4 certification on multicore processors for EN 50128, a European standard for safety-relevant software used in railway applications.
The first subsidiary of the company was established in Ulm in 1997, followed by Prague (2004), Paris (2005) and Rostock (2008). In 2012, SYSGO was taken over by the Thales Group of France.
In 2019 SYSGO built its new headquarters in Klein-Winternheim, near Mainz and moved in by April 2020.
Products and services
SYSGO's best-known product is PikeOS, a real-time operating system with a separation kernel-based Hypervisor, which provides multiple partitions for a variety of other operating systems and equips them with time schedules.
Other products include:
ELinOS, a Linux operating system for embedded applications
Safety-Critical Ethernet/AFDX, a software implementation of ARINC-664 Part 7
Various components required for certification
The PikeOS Hypervisor forms a foundation for critical systems in which both safety and security have to be ensured. The company also offers various certification kits. These certification kits include, for example, support documentation for development and testing and, if necessary, additional safety and security information to allow the development of standards-compliant systems.
Research
SYSGO is the technical lead for the EU research project certMILS. The goal of certMILS is primarily to make a certified European MILS platform available, and thus simplify the certification of composite IT systems. The project is supported by the EU as part of the Horizon 2020 programme.
Customers and partner network
Customers include companies that are working i.a. on solutions for the Internet of Things; especially suppliers and manufacturers in the areas aerospace and defence, automotive, railway and industrial sectors who have high safety and security requirements for their applications.
References
External links
Companies based in Mainz
Linux companies
Software companies of Germany |
29950087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolej%20Universiti%20Islam%20Antarabangsa%20Selangor | Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor | The Selangor International Islamic University College () also known as KUIS is a private university located in Bandar Seri Putra, Bangi, Selangor. The college moved to this location in 2000, when the new campus was officially opened by Sharafuddin of Selangor.
Rectors
The list of the Rectors of KUIS.
Management
Rector : Prof. Madya Dato' Dr. Mohd Farid Ravi Bin Abdullah
Deputy Rector Academic & International : Dr. Zetty Nurzuliana Binti Rashed
Deputy Rector Students Affairs & Alumni : Dr. Abdul Razif Bin Zaini
Deputy Rector Research, Industry & Community Partnerships : Prof. Madya Dr. Mokmin Bin Basri
Registrar : En. Zulhizzam Bin Hamzah
Bursary : Pn. Nor Hafizin Binti Abdul Wahab
Legal Advisor : Pn. Rohaiza Binti Mat Noh
Chief Librarian : Hajah Noorlia Binti Ramli
Director of Centre of Graduate Studies : Dr. Hairol Anuar Bin Mak Din
Dean of Centre of Matriculation : Dr. Nor Effendy Bin Ahmad Sokri
Dean of Centre of Core Studies : Dr. Muhammad Yosef Bin Niteh
Dean of Faculty of Islamic Studies Civilization : Dr. Md Noor Bin Hussin
Dean of Faculty of Management & Muamalah : Dr. Norziah Binti Othman
Dean of Faculty of Education : Dr. Sapie Bin Sabilan
Dean of Faculty of Science & Information Technology : Ts. Dr. Juzlinda Binti Md. Ghazali
Dean of Faculty of Syariah & Law : Dr. Nora'inan Binti Bahari
Faculties and Centres
Centre of Graduate Studies
Centre of Matriculation
Centre of Core Studies
Faculty of Islamic Studies Civilization
Faculty of Management & Muamalah
Faculty of Education
Faculty of Science & Information Technology
Faculty of Syariah & Law
Programmes Offered
- Faculty of Islamic Studies Civilization
Diploma Pengajian Bahasa Al-Quran
Diploma Akidah dan Pemikiran Islam
Diploma Al-Quran dan As-Sunnah
Diploma Dakwah
Diploma Tahfiz Al-Quran dan Al-Qiraat
Sarjana Muda Al-Quran dan Al-Sunnah dengan Komunikasi (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Usuluddin dengan Multimedia (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Al-Quran dan Al-Qiraat (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Dakwah dengan Pengurusan Sumber Insan (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Pengajian Islam (Bahasa Arab dengan Multimedia) (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Pengajian Bahasa Al-Quran (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Pengajian Islam (Bahasa Arab Terjemahan) (Kepujian)
Sarjana Usuluddin & Pemikiran Islam
Sarjana Usuluddin (Perbandingan Agama)
Sarjana Pengajian Al-Hadis
Sarjana Pengajian Al-Quran
Sarjana Pengajian Ilmu Qiraat
Sarjana Dakwah & Pembangunan Komuniti
Sarjana Bahasa Arab untuk Tujuan Khusus
Doktor Falsafah (Islamiyyat)
Doktor Falsafah (Pengajian Bahasa Arab)
- Faculty of Management & Muamalah
Diploma Perakaunan
Diploma Pengurusan Perniagaan
Diploma Perbankan Islam
Diploma Pengurusan Sumber Manusia
Diploma Komunikasi
Diploma Pengajian Bahasa Inggeris
Sarjana Muda Pentadbiran Perniagaan dengan E-Dagang (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Pengurusan Sumber Insan (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Ekonomi dan Kewangan (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Perakaunan (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Kewangan Islam (Perbankan) (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Komunikasi (Penyiaran) (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Pengurusan (Industri Halal) (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Bahasa Inggeris dengan Komunikasi Koporat (Kepujian)
Sarjana Pentadbiran Perniagaan (Muamalah)
Sarjana Pengurusan Sumber Manusia
Sarjana Ekonomi
Sarjana Kewangan Islam
Sarjana Perakaunan
Sarjana Komunikasi
Doktor Falsafah (Pengurusan)
Doktor Falsafah (Perakaunan)
- Faculty of Education
Diploma Perguruan ( Pengajaran Bahasa Arab Sebagai Bahasa Kedua)
Diploma in Teaching (Teaching English as a Second Language)
Diploma Perguruan (Pendidikan Islam)
Diploma Perguruan (Pendidikan Awal Kanak-Kanak)
Bachelor of Education (Hons) Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL) with Multimedia
Sarjana Muda Pendidikan Islam Dengan Multimedia (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Pendidikan Tahfiz Al-Quran & Al-Qiraat (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Pendidikan Awal Kanak-Kanak (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Pendidikan Bimbingan & Kaunseling (Kepujian)
Sarjana Pendidikan (Pendidikan Islam)
Sarjana Pendidikan (Pendidikan Bahasa)
Sarjana Pendidikan (Kurikulum & Pedagogi)
Sarjana Pendidikan (Pentadbiran Pendidikan)
Sarjana Pendidikan (Teknologi Pendidikan)
Doktor Falsafah (Pendidikan)
- Faculty of Science & Information Technology
Diploma Multimedia
Diploma Sains Komputer
Sarjana Muda Multimedia Kreatif (Media Interaktif) (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Teknologi Maklumat (Teknologi Rangkaian) (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Multimedia Kreatif (Rekabentuk Digital) (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Sistem Maklumat (Kepujian)
Sarjana Teknologi Maklumat
Sarjana Sains (Multimedia Kreatif)
Doktor Falsafah (Teknologi Maklumat)
- Faculty of Syariah & Law
Diploma Pengajian Syariah
Diploma Syariah & Perundangan Islam
Sarjana Muda Syariah dengan Undang-Undang (Kepujian)
Sarjana Muda Syariah dengan Muamalat (Kepujian)
Sarjana Syariah (Pengurusan)
Sarjana Syariah Undang-Undang
References
External links
Official Kolej Universiti Antarabangsa Selangor Website
Diploma in E-Commerce Technology
KUIS Students E-Portal
Private universities and colleges in Malaysia
Colleges in Malaysia
Universities and colleges in Selangor
Islamic universities and colleges in Malaysia
Educational institutions established in 1995
1995 establishments in Malaysia
Educational institutions in Malaysia |
3841504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AVM%20GmbH | AVM GmbH | AVM is a consumer electronics company founded in 1986 in Berlin, Germany. The company produces communications, networking devices such as DSL, ISDN, Wireless and VoIP products. It had sales of €580 million in 2020 with 840 employees. It is well known for its popular FRITZ!Box series.
Products
AVM is the most popular producer for consumer and home networking products in Germany. The company has a share of around 50 percent of the German market for routers for private users. It sells DSL and Cable routers, WLAN and other networking products:
FRITZ!Box – Home networking for DSL, cable, FTTH and LTE.
FRITZ!Fon – HD telephony, Internet services and music for the FRITZ!Box.
FRITZ!WLAN – Range extender and USB WLAN sticks.
FRITZ!DECT – Smart home appliances
FRITZ!Powerline – FRITZ!Powerline expands home networking via the existing power supply.
FRITZ!Apps – Applications for smartphones for the FRITZ! range of products.
FRITZ!Card – Internal ISDN card for the PCI slot.
History
The company was founded in 1986 by four students: Johannes Nill, Peter Faxel, Ulrich Müller-Albring and Jörg-Detlef Gebert.
AVM sold its first ISDN card in 1989 for 4.300 D-Mark (2.150 Euro) to larger businesses. The company's breakthrough came in 1995 with the introduction of the FRITZ!-brand and the FRITZ!Card, an ISDN card for PCs. The name Fritz was chosen "because a non-technical name has been sought which should indicate winking German workmanship and abroad." AVM's market share for ISDN cards grew continuously to a peak of over 80 percent in 2004.
At CeBIT 2004 AVM introduced the first FRITZ!Box, a combination of DSL modem and router, later with Wi-Fi and integrated PBX. Published in 2007, the FRITZ!Box Fon WLAN 7270 was seen as innovative by supporting WLAN Draft-N (IEEE 802.11n) and containing a DECT base station and a media server.
According to market research firm IDC (2007), AVM had a market share in CPE-Equipment of 60 percent in Germany and 18 percent in Europe.
In recent years, AVM is also engaging in the field of home automation and smart home.
The "AVM" in the company name is the acronym for "Audio Visual marketing" and refers to the company's beginnings as BTX service.
See also
List of VOIP companies
References
External links
Electronics companies of Germany
Manufacturing companies based in Berlin
Networking hardware companies
German companies established in 1986
VoIP companies of Germany
Wireless networking hardware
1986 establishments in West Germany
German brands |
10939 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal%20language | Formal language | In logic, mathematics, computer science, and linguistics, a formal language consists of words whose letters are taken from an alphabet and are well-formed according to a specific set of rules.
The alphabet of a formal language consists of symbols, letters, or tokens that concatenate into strings of the language. Each string concatenated from symbols of this alphabet is called a word, and the words that belong to a particular formal language are sometimes called well-formed words or well-formed formulas. A formal language is often defined by means of a formal grammar such as a regular grammar or context-free grammar, which consists of its formation rules.
The field of formal language theory studies primarily the purely syntactical aspects of such languages—that is, their internal structural patterns. Formal language theory sprang out of linguistics, as a way of understanding the syntactic regularities of natural languages.
In computer science, formal languages are used among others as the basis for defining the grammar of programming languages and formalized versions of subsets of natural languages in which the words of the language represent concepts that are associated with particular meanings or semantics. In computational complexity theory, decision problems are typically defined as formal languages, and complexity classes are defined as the sets of the formal languages that can be parsed by machines with limited computational power. In logic and the foundations of mathematics, formal languages are used to represent the syntax of axiomatic systems, and mathematical formalism is the philosophy that all of mathematics can be reduced to the syntactic manipulation of formal languages in this way.
History
The first use of formal language is thought to be Gottlob Frege's 1879 Begriffsschrift, meaning "concept writing", which described a "formal language, modeled upon that of arithmetic, for pure thought."
Axel Thue's early semi-Thue system, which can be used for rewriting strings, was influential on formal grammars.
Words over an alphabet
An alphabet, in the context of formal languages, can be any set, although it often makes sense to use an alphabet in the usual sense of the word, or more generally a character set such as ASCII or Unicode. The elements of an alphabet are called its letters. An alphabet may contain an infinite number of elements; however, most definitions in formal language theory specify alphabets with a finite number of elements, and most results apply only to them.
A word over an alphabet can be any finite sequence (i.e., string) of letters. The set of all words over an alphabet Σ is usually denoted by Σ* (using the Kleene star). The length of a word is the number of letters it is composed of. For any alphabet, there is only one word of length 0, the empty word, which is often denoted by e, ε, λ or even Λ. By concatenation one can combine two words to form a new word, whose length is the sum of the lengths of the original words. The result of concatenating a word with the empty word is the original word.
In some applications, especially in logic, the alphabet is also known as the vocabulary and words are known as formulas or sentences; this breaks the letter/word metaphor and replaces it by a word/sentence metaphor.
Definition
A formal language L over an alphabet Σ is a subset of Σ*, that is, a set of words over that alphabet. Sometimes the sets of words are grouped into expressions, whereas rules and constraints may be formulated for the creation of 'well-formed expressions'.
In computer science and mathematics, which do not usually deal with natural languages, the adjective "formal" is often omitted as redundant.
While formal language theory usually concerns itself with formal languages that are described by some syntactical rules, the actual definition of the concept "formal language" is only as above: a (possibly infinite) set of finite-length strings composed from a given alphabet, no more and no less. In practice, there are many languages that can be described by rules, such as regular languages or context-free languages. The notion of a formal grammar may be closer to the intuitive concept of a "language," one described by syntactic rules. By an abuse of the definition, a particular formal language is often thought of as being equipped with a formal grammar that describes it.
Examples
The following rules describe a formal language over the alphabet Σ = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, +, =}:
Every nonempty string that does not contain "+" or "=" and does not start with "0" is in .
The string "0" is in .
A string containing "=" is in if and only if there is exactly one "=", and it separates two valid strings of .
A string containing "+" but not "=" is in if and only if every "+" in the string separates two valid strings of .
No string is in other than those implied by the previous rules.
Under these rules, the string "23+4=555" is in , but the string "=234=+" is not. This formal language expresses natural numbers, well-formed additions, and well-formed addition equalities, but it expresses only what they look like (their syntax), not what they mean (semantics). For instance, nowhere in these rules is there any indication that "0" means the number zero, "+" means addition, "23+4=555" is false, etc.
Constructions
For finite languages, one can explicitly enumerate all well-formed words. For example, we can describe a language as just = {a, b, ab, cba}. The degenerate case of this construction is the empty language, which contains no words at all ( = ∅).
However, even over a finite (non-empty) alphabet such as Σ = {a, b} there are an infinite number of finite-length words that can potentially be expressed: "a", "abb", "ababba", "aaababbbbaab", .... Therefore, formal languages are typically infinite, and describing an infinite formal language is not as simple as writing L = {a, b, ab, cba}. Here are some examples of formal languages:
= Σ*, the set of all words over Σ;
= {a}* = {an}, where n ranges over the natural numbers and "an" means "a" repeated n times (this is the set of words consisting only of the symbol "a");
the set of syntactically correct programs in a given programming language (the syntax of which is usually defined by a context-free grammar);
the set of inputs upon which a certain Turing machine halts; or
the set of maximal strings of alphanumeric ASCII characters on this line, i.e., the set {the, set, of, maximal, strings, alphanumeric, ASCII, characters, on, this, line, i, e}.
Language-specification formalisms
Formal languages are used as tools in multiple disciplines. However, formal language theory rarely concerns itself with particular languages (except as examples), but is mainly concerned with the study of various types of formalisms to describe languages. For instance, a language can be given as
those strings generated by some formal grammar;
those strings described or matched by a particular regular expression;
those strings accepted by some automaton, such as a Turing machine or finite-state automaton;
those strings for which some decision procedure (an algorithm that asks a sequence of related YES/NO questions) produces the answer YES.
Typical questions asked about such formalisms include:
What is their expressive power? (Can formalism X describe every language that formalism Y can describe? Can it describe other languages?)
What is their recognizability? (How difficult is it to decide whether a given word belongs to a language described by formalism X?)
What is their comparability? (How difficult is it to decide whether two languages, one described in formalism X and one in formalism Y, or in X again, are actually the same language?).
Surprisingly often, the answer to these decision problems is "it cannot be done at all", or "it is extremely expensive" (with a characterization of how expensive). Therefore, formal language theory is a major application area of computability theory and complexity theory. Formal languages may be classified in the Chomsky hierarchy based on the expressive power of their generative grammar as well as the complexity of their recognizing automaton. Context-free grammars and regular grammars provide a good compromise between expressivity and ease of parsing, and are widely used in practical applications.
Operations on languages
Certain operations on languages are common. This includes the standard set operations, such as union, intersection, and complement. Another class of operation is the element-wise application of string operations.
Examples: suppose and are languages over some common alphabet .
The concatenation consists of all strings of the form where is a string from and is a string from .
The intersection of and consists of all strings that are contained in both languages
The complement of with respect to consists of all strings over that are not in .
The Kleene star: the language consisting of all words that are concatenations of zero or more words in the original language;
Reversal:
Let ε be the empty word, then , and
for each non-empty word (where are elements of some alphabet), let ,
then for a formal language , .
String homomorphism
Such string operations are used to investigate closure properties of classes of languages. A class of languages is closed under a particular operation when the operation, applied to languages in the class, always produces a language in the same class again. For instance, the context-free languages are known to be closed under union, concatenation, and intersection with regular languages, but not closed under intersection or complement. The theory of trios and abstract families of languages studies the most common closure properties of language families in their own right.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ align="top"|Closure properties of language families ( Op where both and are in the language family given by the column). After Hopcroft and Ullman.
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Applications
Programming languages
A compiler usually has two distinct components. A lexical analyzer, sometimes generated by a tool like lex, identifies the tokens of the programming language grammar, e.g. identifiers or keywords, numeric and string literals, punctuation and operator symbols, which are themselves specified by a simpler formal language, usually by means of regular expressions. At the most basic conceptual level, a parser, sometimes generated by a parser generator like yacc, attempts to decide if the source program is syntactically valid, that is if it is well formed with respect to the programming language grammar for which the compiler was built.
Of course, compilers do more than just parse the source code – they usually translate it into some executable format. Because of this, a parser usually outputs more than a yes/no answer, typically an abstract syntax tree. This is used by subsequent stages of the compiler to eventually generate an executable containing machine code that runs directly on the hardware, or some intermediate code that requires a virtual machine to execute.
Formal theories, systems, and proofs
In mathematical logic, a formal theory is a set of sentences expressed in a formal language.
A formal system (also called a logical calculus, or a logical system) consists of a formal language together with a deductive apparatus (also called a deductive system). The deductive apparatus may consist of a set of transformation rules, which may be interpreted as valid rules of inference, or a set of axioms, or have both. A formal system is used to derive one expression from one or more other expressions. Although a formal language can be identified with its formulas, a formal system cannot be likewise identified by its theorems. Two formal systems and may have all the same theorems and yet differ in some significant proof-theoretic way (a formula A may be a syntactic consequence of a formula B in one but not another for instance).
A formal proof or derivation is a finite sequence of well-formed formulas (which may be interpreted as sentences, or propositions) each of which is an axiom or follows from the preceding formulas in the sequence by a rule of inference. The last sentence in the sequence is a theorem of a formal system. Formal proofs are useful because their theorems can be interpreted as true propositions.
Interpretations and models
Formal languages are entirely syntactic in nature, but may be given semantics that give meaning to the elements of the language. For instance, in mathematical logic, the set of possible formulas of a particular logic is a formal language, and an interpretation assigns a meaning to each of the formulas—usually, a truth value.
The study of interpretations of formal languages is called formal semantics. In mathematical logic, this is often done in terms of model theory. In model theory, the terms that occur in a formula are interpreted as objects within mathematical structures, and fixed compositional interpretation rules determine how the truth value of the formula can be derived from the interpretation of its terms; a model for a formula is an interpretation of terms such that the formula becomes true.
See also
Combinatorics on words
Free monoid
Formal method
Grammar framework
Mathematical notation
Associative array
String (computer science)
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Works cited
General references
A. G. Hamilton, Logic for Mathematicians, Cambridge University Press, 1978, .
Seymour Ginsburg, Algebraic and automata theoretic properties of formal languages, North-Holland, 1975, .
Michael A. Harrison, Introduction to Formal Language Theory, Addison-Wesley, 1978.
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Grzegorz Rozenberg, Arto Salomaa, Handbook of Formal Languages: Volume I-III, Springer, 1997, .
Patrick Suppes, Introduction to Logic, D. Van Nostrand, 1957, .
External links
University of Maryland, Formal Language Definitions
James Power, "Notes on Formal Language Theory and Parsing", 29 November 2002.
Drafts of some chapters in the "Handbook of Formal Language Theory", Vol. 1–3, G. Rozenberg and A. Salomaa (eds.), Springer Verlag, (1997):
Alexandru Mateescu and Arto Salomaa, "Preface" in Vol.1, pp. v–viii, and "Formal Languages: An Introduction and a Synopsis", Chapter 1 in Vol. 1, pp.1–39
Sheng Yu, "Regular Languages", Chapter 2 in Vol. 1
Jean-Michel Autebert, Jean Berstel, Luc Boasson, "Context-Free Languages and Push-Down Automata", Chapter 3 in Vol. 1
Christian Choffrut and Juhani Karhumäki, "Combinatorics of Words", Chapter 6 in Vol. 1
Tero Harju and Juhani Karhumäki, "Morphisms", Chapter 7 in Vol. 1, pp. 439–510
Jean-Eric Pin, "Syntactic semigroups", Chapter 10 in Vol. 1, pp. 679–746
M. Crochemore and C. Hancart, "Automata for matching patterns", Chapter 9 in Vol. 2
Dora Giammarresi, Antonio Restivo, "Two-dimensional Languages", Chapter 4 in Vol. 3, pp. 215–267
Theoretical computer science
Combinatorics on words |
18935488 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse%20engineering | Reverse engineering | Reverse engineering (also known as backwards engineering or back engineering) is a process or method through which one attempts to understand through deductive reasoning how a previously made device, process, system, or piece of software accomplishes a task with very little (if any) insight into exactly how it does so.
Reverse engineering is applicable in the fields of computer engineering, mechanical engineering, design, electronic engineering, software engineering, chemical engineering, and systems biology.
Overview
There are many reasons for performing reverse engineering in various fields. Reverse engineering has its origins in the analysis of hardware for commercial or military advantage. However, the reverse engineering process, as such, is not concerned with creating a copy or changing the artifact in some way. It is only an analysis to deduce design features from products with little or no additional knowledge about the procedures involved in their original production.
In some cases, the goal of the reverse engineering process can simply be a redocumentation of legacy systems. Even when the reverse-engineered product is that of a competitor, the goal may not be to copy it but to perform competitor analysis. Reverse engineering may also be used to create interoperable products and despite some narrowly-tailored United States and European Union legislation, the legality of using specific reverse engineering techniques for that purpose has been hotly contested in courts worldwide for more than two decades.
Software reverse engineering can help to improve the understanding of the underlying source code for the maintenance and improvement of the software, relevant information can be extracted to make a decision for software development and graphical representations of the code can provide alternate views regarding the source code, which can help to detect and fix a software bug or vulnerability. Frequently, as some software develops, its design information and improvements are often lost over time, but that lost information can usually be recovered with reverse engineering. The process can also help to cut down the time required to understand the source code, thus reducing the overall cost of the software development. Reverse engineering can also help to detect and to eliminate a malicious code written to the software with better code detectors. Reversing a source code can be used to find alternate uses of the source code, such as detecting the unauthorized replication of the source code where it was not intended to be used, or revealing how a competitor's product was built. That process is commonly used for "cracking" software and media to remove their copy protection, or to create a possibly-improved copy or even a knockoff, which is usually the goal of a competitor or a hacker.
Malware developers often use reverse engineering techniques to find vulnerabilities in an operating system to build a computer virus that can exploit the system vulnerabilities. Reverse engineering is also being used in cryptanalysis to find vulnerabilities in substitution cipher, symmetric-key algorithm or public-key cryptography.
There are other uses to reverse engineering:
Interfacing. Reverse engineering can be used when a system is required to interface to another system and how both systems would negotiate is to be established. Such requirements typically exist for interoperability.
Military or commercial espionage. Learning about an enemy's or competitor's latest research by stealing or capturing a prototype and dismantling it may result in the development of a similar product or a better countermeasure against it.
Obsolescence. Integrated circuits are often designed on proprietary systems and built on production lines, which become obsolete in only a few years. When systems using those parts can no longer be maintained since the parts are no longer made, the only way to incorporate the functionality into new technology is to reverse-engineer the existing chip and then to redesign it using newer tools by using the understanding gained as a guide. Another obsolescence originated problem that can be solved by reverse engineering is the need to support (maintenance and supply for continuous operation) existing legacy devices that are no longer supported by their original equipment manufacturer. The problem is particularly critical in military operations.
Product security analysis. That examines how a product works by determining the specifications of its components and estimate costs and identifies potential patent infringement. Also part of product security analysis is acquiring sensitive data by disassembling and analyzing the design of a system component. Another intent may be to remove copy protection or to circumvent access restrictions.
Competitive technical intelligence. That is to understand what one's competitor is actually doing, rather than what it says that it is doing.
Saving money. Finding out what a piece of electronics can do may spare a user from purchasing a separate product.
Repurposing. Obsolete objects are then reused in a different-but-useful manner.
Design. Production and design companies applied Reverse Engineering to practical craft-based manufacturing process. The companies can work on “historical” manufacturing collections through 3D scanning, 3D re-modeling and re-design. In 2013 Italian manufactures Baldi and Savio Firmino together with University of Florence optimized their innovation, design, and production processes.
Common situations
Machines
As computer-aided design (CAD) has become more popular, reverse engineering has become a viable method to create a 3D virtual model of an existing physical part for use in 3D CAD, CAM, CAE, or other software. The reverse-engineering process involves measuring an object and then reconstructing it as a 3D model. The physical object can be measured using 3D scanning technologies like CMMs, laser scanners, structured light digitizers, or industrial CT scanning (computed tomography). The measured data alone, usually represented as a point cloud, lacks topological information and design intent. The former may be recovered by converting the point cloud to a triangular-faced mesh. Reverse engineering aims to go beyond producing such a mesh and to recover the design intent in terms of simple analytical surfaces where appropriate (planes, cylinders, etc.) as well as possibly NURBS surfaces to produce a boundary-representation CAD model. Recovery of such a model allows a design to be modified to meet new requirements, a manufacturing plan to be generated, etc.
Hybrid modeling is a commonly used term when NURBS and parametric modeling are implemented together. Using a combination of geometric and freeform surfaces can provide a powerful method of 3D modeling. Areas of freeform data can be combined with exact geometric surfaces to create a hybrid model. A typical example of this would be the reverse engineering of a cylinder head, which includes freeform cast features, such as water jackets and high-tolerance machined areas.
Reverse engineering is also used by businesses to bring existing physical geometry into digital product development environments, to make a digital 3D record of their own products, or to assess competitors' products. It is used to analyze how a product works, what it does, what components it has; estimate costs; identify potential patent infringement; etc.
Value engineering, a related activity that is also used by businesses, involves deconstructing and analyzing products. However, the objective is to find opportunities for cost-cutting.
Software
In 1990, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) defined (software) reverse engineering (SRE) as "the process of analyzing a
subject system to identify the system's components and their interrelationships and to create representations of the system in another form or at a higher
level of abstraction" in which the "subject system" is the end product of software development. Reverse engineering is a process of examination only, and the software system under consideration is not modified, which would otherwise be re-engineering or restructuring. Reverse engineering can be performed from any stage of the product cycle, not necessarily from the functional end product.
There are two components in reverse engineering: redocumentation and design recovery. Redocumentation is the creation of new representation of the computer code so that it is easier to understand. Meanwhile, design recovery is the use of deduction or reasoning from general knowledge or personal experience of the product to understand the product's functionality fully. It can also be seen as "going backwards through the development cycle." In this model, the output of the implementation phase (in source code form) is reverse-engineered back to the analysis phase, in an inversion of the traditional waterfall model. Another term for this technique is program comprehension. The Working Conference on Reverse Engineering (WCRE) has been held yearly to explore and expand the techniques of reverse engineering. Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) and automated code generation have contributed greatly in the field of reverse engineering.
Software anti-tamper technology like obfuscation is used to deter both reverse engineering and re-engineering of proprietary software and software-powered systems. In practice, two main types of reverse engineering emerge. In the first case, source code is already available for the software, but higher-level aspects of the program, which are perhaps poorly documented or documented but no longer valid, are discovered. In the second case, there is no source code available for the software, and any efforts towards discovering one possible source code for the software are regarded as reverse engineering. The second usage of the term is more familiar to most people. Reverse engineering of software can make use of the clean room design technique to avoid copyright infringement.
On a related note, black box testing in software engineering has a lot in common with reverse engineering. The tester usually has the API but has the goals to find bugs and undocumented features by bashing the product from outside.
Other purposes of reverse engineering include security auditing, removal of copy protection ("cracking"), circumvention of access restrictions often present in consumer electronics, customization of embedded systems (such as engine management systems), in-house repairs or retrofits, enabling of additional features on low-cost "crippled" hardware (such as some graphics card chip-sets), or even mere satisfaction of curiosity.
Binary software
Binary reverse engineering is performed if source code for a software is unavailable. This process is sometimes termed reverse code engineering, or RCE. For example, decompilation of binaries for the Java platform can be accomplished by using Jad. One famous case of reverse engineering was the first non-IBM implementation of the PC BIOS, which launched the historic IBM PC compatible industry that has been the overwhelmingly-dominant computer hardware platform for many years. Reverse engineering of software is protected in the US by the fair use exception in copyright law. The Samba software, which allows systems that do not run Microsoft Windows systems to share files with systems that run it, is a classic example of software reverse engineering since the Samba project had to reverse-engineer unpublished information about how Windows file sharing worked so that non-Windows computers could emulate it. The Wine project does the same thing for the Windows API, and OpenOffice.org is one party doing that for the Microsoft Office file formats. The ReactOS project is even more ambitious in its goals by striving to provide binary (ABI and API) compatibility with the current Windows operating systems of the NT branch, which allows software and drivers written for Windows to run on a clean-room reverse-engineered free software (GPL) counterpart. WindowsSCOPE allows for reverse-engineering the full contents of a Windows system's live memory including a binary-level, graphical reverse engineering of all running processes.
Another classic, if not well-known, example is that in 1987 Bell Laboratories reverse-engineered the Mac OS System 4.1, originally running on the Apple Macintosh SE, so that it could run it on RISC machines of their own.
Binary software techniques
Reverse engineering of software can be accomplished by various methods.
The three main groups of software reverse engineering are
Analysis through observation of information exchange, most prevalent in protocol reverse engineering, which involves using bus analyzers and packet sniffers, such as for accessing a computer bus or computer network connection and revealing the traffic data thereon. Bus or network behavior can then be analyzed to produce a standalone implementation that mimics that behavior. That is especially useful for reverse engineering device drivers. Sometimes, reverse engineering on embedded systems is greatly assisted by tools deliberately introduced by the manufacturer, such as JTAG ports or other debugging means. In Microsoft Windows, low-level debuggers such as SoftICE are popular.
Disassembly using a disassembler, meaning the raw machine language of the program is read and understood in its own terms, only with the aid of machine-language mnemonics. It works on any computer program but can take quite some time, especially for those who are not used to machine code. The Interactive Disassembler is a particularly popular tool.
Decompilation using a decompiler, a process that tries, with varying results, to recreate the source code in some high-level language for a program only available in machine code or bytecode.
Software classification
Software classification is the process of identifying similarities between different software binaries (such as two different versions of the same binary) used to detect code relations between software samples. The task was traditionally done manually for several reasons (such as patch analysis for vulnerability detection and copyright infringement), but it can now be done somewhat automatically for large numbers of samples.
This method is being used mostly for long and thorough reverse engineering tasks (complete analysis of a complex algorithm or big piece of software). In general, statistical classification is considered to be a hard problem, which is also true for software classification, and so few solutions/tools that handle this task well.
Source code
A number of UML tools refer to the process of importing and analysing source code to generate UML diagrams as "reverse engineering." See List of UML tools.
Although UML is one approach in providing "reverse engineering" more recent advances in international standards activities have resulted in the development of the Knowledge Discovery Metamodel (KDM). The standard delivers an ontology for the intermediate (or abstracted) representation of programming language constructs and their interrelationships. An Object Management Group standard (on its way to becoming an ISO standard as well), KDM has started to take hold in industry with the development of tools and analysis environments that can deliver the extraction and analysis of source, binary, and byte code. For source code analysis, KDM's granular standards' architecture enables the extraction of software system flows (data, control, and call maps), architectures, and business layer knowledge (rules, terms, and process). The standard enables the use of a common data format (XMI) enabling the correlation of the various layers of system knowledge for either detailed analysis (such as root cause, impact) or derived analysis (such as business process extraction). Although efforts to represent language constructs can be never-ending because of the number of languages, the continuous evolution of software languages, and the development of new languages, the standard does allow for the use of extensions to support the broad language set as well as evolution. KDM is compatible with UML, BPMN, RDF, and other standards enabling migration into other environments and thus leverage system knowledge for efforts such as software system transformation and enterprise business layer analysis.
Protocols
Protocols are sets of rules that describe message formats and how messages are exchanged: the protocol state machine. Accordingly, the problem of protocol reverse-engineering can be partitioned into two subproblems: message format and state-machine reverse-engineering.
The message formats have traditionally been reverse-engineered by a tedious manual process, which involved analysis of how protocol implementations process messages, but recent research proposed a number of automatic solutions. Typically, the automatic approaches group observe messages into clusters by using various clustering analyses, or they emulate the protocol implementation tracing the message processing.
There has been less work on reverse-engineering of state-machines of protocols. In general, the protocol state-machines can be learned either through a process of offline learning, which passively observes communication and attempts to build the most general state-machine accepting all observed sequences of messages, and online learning, which allows interactive generation of probing sequences of messages and listening to responses to those probing sequences. In general, offline learning of small state-machines is known to be NP-complete, but online learning can be done in polynomial time. An automatic offline approach has been demonstrated by Comparetti et al. and an online approach by Cho et al.
Other components of typical protocols, like encryption and hash functions, can be reverse-engineered automatically as well. Typically, the automatic approaches trace the execution of protocol implementations and try to detect buffers in memory holding unencrypted packets.
Integrated circuits/smart cards
Reverse engineering is an invasive and destructive form of analyzing a smart card. The attacker uses chemicals to etch away layer after layer of the smart card and takes pictures with a scanning electron microscope (SEM). That technique can reveal the complete hardware and software part of the smart card. The major problem for the attacker is to bring everything into the right order to find out how everything works. The makers of the card try to hide keys and operations by mixing up memory positions, such as by bus scrambling.
In some cases, it is even possible to attach a probe to measure voltages while the smart card is still operational. The makers of the card employ sensors to detect and prevent that attack. That attack is not very common because it requires both a large investment in effort and special equipment that is generally available only to large chip manufacturers. Furthermore, the payoff from this attack is low since other security techniques are often used such as shadow accounts. It is still uncertain whether attacks against chip-and-PIN cards to replicate encryption data and then to crack PINs would provide a cost-effective attack on multifactor authentication.
Full reverse engineering proceeds in several major steps.
The first step after images have been taken with a SEM is stitching the images together, which is necessary because each layer cannot be captured by a single shot. A SEM needs to sweep across the area of the circuit and take several hundred images to cover the entire layer. Image stitching takes as input several hundred pictures and outputs a single properly-overlapped picture of the complete layer.
Next, the stitched layers need to be aligned because the sample, after etching, cannot be put into the exact same position relative to the SEM each time. Therefore, the stitched versions will not overlap in the correct fashion, as on the real circuit. Usually, three corresponding points are selected, and a transformation applied on the basis of that.
To extract the circuit structure, the aligned, stitched images need to be segmented, which highlights the important circuitry and separates it from the uninteresting background and insulating materials.
Finally, the wires can be traced from one layer to the next, and the netlist of the circuit, which contains all of the circuit's information, can be reconstructed.
Military applications
Reverse engineering is often used by people to copy other nations' technologies, devices, or information that have been obtained by regular troops in the fields or by intelligence operations. It was often used during the Second World War and the Cold War. Here are well-known examples from the Second World War and later:
Jerry can: British and American forces in WW2 noticed that the Germans had gasoline cans with an excellent design. They reverse-engineered copies of those cans, which cans were popularly known as "Jerry cans."
Panzerschreck: The Germans captured an American bazooka during the Second World War and reverse engineered it to create the larger Panzerschreck.
Tupolev Tu-4: In 1944, three American B-29 bombers on missions over Japan were forced to land in the Soviet Union. The Soviets, who did not have a similar strategic bomber, decided to copy the B-29. Within three years, they had developed the Tu-4, a nearly-perfect copy.
SCR-584 radar: copied by the Soviet Union after the Second World War, it is known for a few modifications - СЦР-584, Бинокль-Д.
V-2 rocket: Technical documents for the V-2 and related technologies were captured by the Western Allies at the end of the war. The Americans focused their reverse engineering efforts via Operation Paperclip, which led to the development of the PGM-11 Redstone rocket. The Soviets used captured German engineers to reproduce technical documents and plans and worked from captured hardware to make their clone of the rocket, the R-1. Thus began the postwar Soviet rocket program, which led to the R-7 and the beginning of the space race.
K-13/R-3S missile (NATO reporting name AA-2 Atoll), a Soviet reverse-engineered copy of the AIM-9 Sidewinder, was made possible after a Taiwanese (ROCAF) AIM-9B hit a Chinese PLA MiG-17 without exploding in September 1958. The missile became lodged within the airframe, and the pilot returned to base with what Soviet scientists would describe as a university course in missile development.
BGM-71 TOW missile: In May 1975, negotiations between Iran and Hughes Missile Systems on co-production of the TOW and Maverick missiles stalled over disagreements in the pricing structure, the subsequent 1979 revolution ending all plans for such co-production. Iran was later successful in reverse-engineering the missile and now produces its own copy, the Toophan.
China has reversed engineered many examples of Western and Russian hardware, from fighter aircraft to missiles and HMMWV cars, such as the MiG-15 (which became the J-7) and the Su-33 (which became the J-15). More recent analyses of China's military growth have pointed to the inherent limitations of habitual reverse engineering for advanced weapon systems.
During the Second World War, Polish and British cryptographers studied captured German "Enigma" message encryption machines for weaknesses. Their operation was then simulated on electromechanical devices, "bombes", which tried all the possible scrambler settings of the "Enigma" machines that helped the breaking of coded messages that had been sent by the Germans.
Also during the Second World War, British scientists analyzed and defeated a series of increasingly-sophisticated radio navigation systems used by the Luftwaffe to perform guided bombing missions at night. The British countermeasures to the system were so effective that in some cases, German aircraft were led by signals to land at RAF bases since they believed that they had returned to German territory.
Gene networks
Reverse engineering concepts have been applied to biology as well, specifically to the task of understanding the structure and function of gene regulatory networks. They regulate almost every aspect of biological behavior and allow cells to carry out physiological processes and responses to perturbations. Understanding the structure and the dynamic behavior of gene networks is therefore one of the paramount challenges of systems biology, with immediate practical repercussions in several applications that are beyond basic research.
There are several methods for reverse engineering gene regulatory networks by using molecular biology and data science methods. They have been generally divided into six classes:
Coexpression methods are based on the notion that if two genes exhibit a similar expression profile, they may be related although no causation can be simply inferred from coexpression.
Sequence motif methods analyze gene promoters to find specific transcription factor binding domains. If a transcription factor is predicted to bind a promoter of a specific gene, a regulatory connection can be hypothesized.
Chromatin ImmunoPrecipitation (ChIP) methods investigate the genome-wide profile of DNA binding of chosen transcription factors to infer their downstream gene networks.
Orthology methods transfer gene network knowledge from one species to another.
Literature methods implement text mining and manual research to identify putative or experimentally-proven gene network connections.
Transcriptional complexes methods leverage information on protein-protein interactions between transcription factors, thus extending the concept of gene networks to include transcriptional regulatory complexes.
Often, gene network reliability is tested by genetic perturbation experiments followed by dynamic modelling, based on the principle that removing one network node has predictable effects on the functioning of the remaining nodes of the network.
Applications of the reverse engineering of gene networks range from understanding mechanisms of plant physiology to the highlighting of new targets for anticancer therapy.
Overlap with patent law
Reverse engineering applies primarily to gaining understanding of a process or artifact in which the manner of its construction, use, or internal processes has not been made clear by its creator.
Patented items do not of themselves have to be reverse-engineered to be studied, for the essence of a patent is that inventors provide a detailed public disclosure themselves, and in return receive legal protection of the invention that is involved. However, an item produced under one or more patents could also include other technology that is not patented and not disclosed. Indeed, one common motivation of reverse engineering is to determine whether a competitor's product contains patent infringement or copyright infringement.
Legality
United States
In the United States, even if an artifact or process is protected by trade secrets, reverse-engineering the artifact or process is often lawful if it has been legitimately obtained.
Reverse engineering of computer software often falls under both contract law as a breach of contract as well as any other relevant laws. That is because most end user license agreements specifically prohibit it, and US courts have ruled that if such terms are present, they override the copyright law that expressly permits it (see Bowers v. Baystate Technologies). According to Section 103(f) of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (17 U.S.C. § 1201 (f)), a person in legal possession of a program may reverse-engineer and circumvent its protection if that is necessary to achieve "interoperability," a term that broadly covers other devices and programs that can interact with it, make use of it, and to use and transfer data to and from it in useful ways. A limited exemption exists that allows the knowledge thus gained to be shared and used for interoperability purposes.
European Union
EU Directive 2009/24 on the legal protection of computer programs, which superseded an earlier (1991) directive, governs reverse engineering in the European Union.
See also
Antikythera mechanism
Benchmarking
Bus analyzer
Chonda
Clone (computing)
Clean room design
CMM
Code morphing
Connectix Virtual Game Station
Counterfeiting
Cryptanalysis
Decompile
Deformulation
Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA)
Disassembler
Dongle
Forensic engineering
Industrial CT scanning
Interactive Disassembler
Knowledge Discovery Metamodel
Laser scanner
List of production topics
Listeroid Engines
Logic analyzer
Paycheck
Product teardown
Repurposing
Reverse architecture
Retrodiction
Sega v. Accolade
Software archaeology
Software cracking
Structured light digitizer
Value engineering
References
Sources
Elvidge, Julia, "Using Reverse Engineering to Discover Patent Infringement," Chipworks, Sept. 2010. Online: http://www.photonics.com/Article.aspx?AID=44063
Hausi A. Müller and Holger M. Kienle, "A Small Primer on Software Reverse Engineering," Technical Report, University of Victoria, 17 pages, March 2009. Online: http://holgerkienle.wikispaces.com/file/view/MK-UVic-09.pdf
Heines, Henry, "Determining Infringement by X-Ray Diffraction," Chemical Engineering Process, Jan. 1999 (example of reverse engineering used to detect IP infringement)
(introduction to hardware teardowns, including methodology, goals)
Reverse Engineering for Beginners
Samuelson, Pamela and Scotchmer, Suzanne, "The Law and Economics of Reverse Engineering," 111 Yale L.J. 1575 (2002). Online: http://people.ischool.berkeley.edu/~pam/papers/l&e%20reveng3.pdf
(xviii+856+vi pages, 3.5"-floppy) Errata: (NB. On general methodology of reverse engineering, applied to mass-market software: a program for exploring DOS, disassembling DOS.)
(pp. 59–188 on general methodology of reverse engineering, applied to mass-market software: examining Windows executables, disassembling Windows, tools for exploring Windows)
Schulman, Andrew, "Hiding in Plain Sight: Using Reverse Engineering to Uncover Software Patent Infringement," Intellectual Property Today, Nov. 2010. Online: http://www.iptoday.com/issues/2010/11/hiding-in-plain-sight-using-reverse-engineering-to-uncover-software-patent-infringement.asp
Schulman, Andrew, "Open to Inspection: Using Reverse Engineering to Uncover Software Prior Art," New Matter (Calif. State Bar IP Section), Summer 2011 (Part 1); Fall 2011 (Part 2). Online: http://www.SoftwareLitigationConsulting.com
Computer security
Espionage
Patent law
Industrial engineering
Technical intelligence
Technological races |
3846875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank%20Street%20Writer | Bank Street Writer | Bank Street Writer is a word processor for the Apple II, Atari 8-bit family, Commodore 64, MSX, Macintosh, IBM PC, and IBM PCjr computers. It was designed in 1981 by a team of educators at the Bank Street College of Education in New York City, software developer Franklin E. Smith, and programmers at Intentional Educations in Watertown, Massachusetts. The software was sold in two versions: one for elementary school students published by Scholastic and a general version from Broderbund.
History
Prior to the advent of the Bank Street Writer, most word processors ran on networked minicomputers. The most popular word processor for the personal computer was Apple Writer, which (prior to the version II release) operated in Apple's text mode where all text consisted of uppercase letters. Apple Writer used a black-on-white character to represent an actual capital letter. Microcomputer word processors of the early 1980s typically had no menus; so to perform basic functions such as copying and pasting, a writer had to type a series of keystrokes. The Bank Street Writer operated in graphics mode, where characters were displayed normally with lower and upper case letters, and it provided helpful prompts during editing.
The Bank Street Writer was initially designed for use in schools. The name was a modern-day reference to the Bank Street Readers, a widely respected early learning book series created in the 1960s by Bank Street College. The school version of the Bank Street Writer was published by Scholastic Inc. and included a series of workbooks and other teacher and student materials. The Bank Street Writer became the leading word processor used in elementary schools throughout most of the 1980s. During this period, Bank Street College, led by its president, Richard Ruopp, did pioneering work in the use of technology in elementary schools. Among the results were the Bank Street Writer and The Voyage of the Mimi, a groundbreaking science-based TV series.
The interface contains menus listing the operations the word processor can perform, such as "cut" and "paste", and brief directions for how to perform each function. The design addressed the need for a word processor that would enable elementary school children to use a computer to write stories and essays. Bank Street Writer is a modal editor - pressing the Esc key toggled between editing mode and menu mode.
Broderbund published a successful home version of the Bank Street Writer, which did not contain the additional school materials and was published as a retail software product. The Bank Street Writer was for several years the best-selling product in the "home software" category on what was then the most respected sales chart in the industry - the Softsel Hot List, from Softsel Distributing of Inglewood, California.
Reception
II Computing listed Bank Street Writer eighth on the magazine's list of top Apple II non-game, non-educational software as of late 1985, based on sales and market-share data.
At its introduction, the program was the subject of a laudatory story in Time about how the Bank Street Writer ("BSW") was introducing word processing into the classroom. From the article: "Children who once struggled to write two-page stories are churning out five pages or more." and "Most important, the children cheerfully tackle the messy business of revision." The article concluded: "Judging from recent sales, however, a good proportion of BSW users are adults. Designing a program for children, the Bank Street team inadvertently responded to a challenge the entire software industry faces: making computers accessible to people who do not understand machines and do not want to read manuals."
ANALOG Computing stated that Bank Street Writer was suited for home users wanting to write letters and school reports, albeit lacking footnotes. The author criticized the slow speed of the word processor for documents of three or more pages, reporting that he gave up on using it to write the review, but concluded that "in spite of its shortcomings, BSW is the easiest word processor program" for Atari 8-bit computers and that it "has almost everything going for it—it is up to the user to decide if it goes far enough". Antic wrote, "The Bank Street Writer was designed for use at home by the family, and for those whose writing needs are on a small scale. This is a really good first word processor - for someone new to the Atari." Byte said that it was "a good word processor, but it has limited uses". While approving of its ease of use, the magazine criticized its 38x18 screen as "simply too small to display any but the simplest documents". Compute! said of an updated version, "There will probably never be a perfect word processor ... but Bank Street Writer Plus brings us a little closer to the unattainable." InfoWorld praised the software's ease of use, stating that they used their review copy for 2 hours before opening the manual. PC Magazine criticized BSW's user friendly approach of only offering one way to access functionality as limiting for more experienced users, saying there should be a way to bypass the menus.
See also
Bank Street Music Writer
References
External links
Popular Apple II software of 1983
Other Bank Street Software Titles
1981 software
Word processors
Apple II word processors
Atari 8-bit family software
Commodore 64 software |
256439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QuickDraw | QuickDraw | QuickDraw is the 2D graphics library and associated Application Programming Interface (API) which is a core part of the classic Mac OS operating system. It was initially written by Bill Atkinson and Andy Hertzfeld. QuickDraw still existed as part of the libraries of Mac OS X, but had been largely superseded by the more modern Quartz graphics system. In Mac OS X v10.4, QuickDraw has been officially deprecated. In Mac OS X v10.5 applications using QuickDraw cannot make use of the added 64-bit support. In Mac OS X v10.8, QuickDraw header support was removed from the operating system. Applications using QuickDraw will still run under OS X 10.8 through macOS 10.13; however, the current versions of Xcode and the macOS SDK do not contain the header files to compile such programs.
Principles of QuickDraw
QuickDraw was grounded in the Apple Lisa's LisaGraf of the early 1980s and was designed to fit well with the Pascal-based interfaces and development environments of the early Apple systems. In addition, QuickDraw was a raster graphics system, which defines the pixel as its basic unit of graphical information. This is in contrast to vector graphics systems, where graphics primitives are defined in mathematical terms and rasterized as required to the display resolution. A raster system requires much less processing power however, and was the prevailing paradigm at the time that QuickDraw was developed.
QuickDraw defined a key data structure, the graphics port, or GrafPort. This was a logical drawing area where graphics could be drawn. The most obvious on-screen "object" corresponding to a GrafPort was a window, but the entire desktop view could be a GrafPort, and off-screen ports could also exist.
The GrafPort defined a coordinate system. In QuickDraw, this had a resolution of 16 bits, giving 65,536 unique vertical and horizontal locations. These are numbered from -32,767 on the extreme left (or top), to +32,767 on the extreme right (or bottom). A window was usually set up so that the top, left corner of its content area was located at 0,0 in the associated GrafPort. A window's content area did not include the window's frame, drop shadow or title bar (if any).
QuickDraw coordinates referred to the infinitely thin lines between pixel locations. An actual pixel was drawn in the space to the immediate right and below the coordinate. This made it easier for programmers to avoid graphical glitches caused by off-by-one errors.
On the Macintosh, pixels were square, and a GrafPort had a default resolution of 72 pixels per inch, chosen to match conventions established by the printing industry of having 72 points per inch.
QuickDraw also contained a number of scaling and mapping functions.
QuickDraw maintained a number of global variables per process, chief among these being the current port. This originally simplified the API, since all operations pertained to "the current port," but as the OS developed, this use of global state has also made QuickDraw much harder to integrate with modern design approaches such as multi-threading and pre-emptive multitasking. To address these problems, the Carbon API (a bridge between Mac OS 9 and Mac OS X) added additional parameters to some of the routines, allowing for the (opaque) storage of thread information and a new (non-polled) event structure.
Graphics primitives
Everything seen on a classic Mac OS screen is drawn by QuickDraw, but the library itself is quite low level. The primitive objects it can draw are:
Lines
Rectangles
Rounded (and oval) cornered rectangles
Ovals (including circles and ellipses)
Arcs (and wedges), both circular and oval
Polygons (arbitrary closed shapes built from a list of points joined by lines)
Regions (arbitrary sets of pixels—see below)
Bitmaps and Pixmaps
Text
Each of these objects (except text) may be drawn using a "pen", which can have any rectangular dimensions, pattern or color. Note that, because the pen is rectangular and axis-aligned, diagonal lines will end up thicker than horizontal or vertical ones. Shapes may be drawn filled or framed, using any pattern or color. A filled Arc forms a wedge. Text may be drawn in any installed font, in a variety of stylistic variations, and at any size and color. Depending on how the selected font is stored, text can be scaled in a variety of ways - TrueType fonts will scale smoothly to any size, whereas bitmap fonts do not usually scale well.
An important feature of QuickDraw was support for transfer modes, which governed how a destination pixel value was related to its previous value and the color of the object being drawn.
The set of attributes of the pen and text drawing are associated with the GrafPort.
Regions are a key data structure in QuickDraw. They define an arbitrary set of pixels, rather like a bitmap, but in a compressed form which can be very rapidly manipulated in complex ways. Regions can be combined (union), subtracted (difference), and XORed to form other Regions. They can be used within a GrafPort for clipping, or drawn filled or framed like any other shape. A series of framed shapes and connected lines may be combined into a Region. A Region need not consist of a contiguous set of pixels - disconnected regions are possible and common. Although regions could allow powerful graphic manipulations they are limited by the current implementation that restricts the maximum region data storage size to a sixteen bit value and so are not practical as a general-purpose drawing composition tool and practical use at high resolution is also restricted. Regions underpin the rest of QuickDraw, permitting clipping to arbitrary shapes, essential for the implementation of multiple overlapping windows. Invented by Bill Atkinson, Regions were patented as a separate invention by Apple.
A region is specified (after initial creation) by an opening of the region, drawing various QuickDraw shapes, and closing the region. Hidden routines construct the region as the QuickDraw commands are executed. Bitmaps may also be converted to regions, and bitmaps may be made from regions by "painting" or "filling" the region into a graphics port.
The internal structure of a region, other than the storage length and its bounding rectangle, is opaque - there are no Apple-published documents available, though the mechanism is outlined in the patent. Regions are implemented using both vertical and horizontal compression. A region is stored as a series of horizontal scan lines ("rasters"), each of which contains a vertical coordinate followed by a list of horizontal inversion coordinates. Each inversion point can be thought of as toggling inclusion in the region for all the points after it: the first point turns the region on, the second turns it off, and so on. Further compression is achieved by storing each line differentially: each line contains only the differences from the previous line rather than a full set of inversion points. Finally, identical adjacent scan lines are efficiently encoded by simply skipping them. In this way, a commonly used region, the rounded corner rectangle, is efficiently encoded, and complex operations such as region composition and image clipping may be done without requiring either extensive processor cycles or large amounts of memory. (The original systems executing QuickDraw code used processors operating at 8 megahertz clock rates and systems had but 128 kilobytes of writable memory.)
Because regions are bound to a specific orientation, a ninety degree rotation of a region would require both detailed reverse engineering of the structure and extensive coding. A general rotation is impractical when compared to rotating the original source boundary description and simply creating a new region. However, the API includes conversion routines to and from BitMaps. (Bitmaps may also be rotated using well known methods, but with various degrees of image degradation depending upon angle chosen, the storage and processor cycles available to the operation, and the complexity of the algorithm.)
Apple has recently (in the Carbon API) defined regions as an opaque structure under some program compilation options.
Higher level operations
Any series of graphics calls to QuickDraw can be recorded in a structure called a Picture. This can then be saved in memory and "played back" at any time, reproducing the graphics sequence. At playback time the picture may be placed at new coordinates or scaled without the loss of resolution commonly encountered in bitmap scaling. A picture can be saved to disk in which form it defines the Apple PICT format.
An entire BitMap (or PixMap, when referring to color images) may be copied from one GrafPort to another, with scaling and clipping. Known as blitting, or CopyBits, after the name of the function, this operation is the basis for most animation and sprite-like effects on the Mac.
QuickDraw provides a similar blitting function which is designed to implement scrolling within a GrafPort - the image in the port can be shifted to a new location without scaling (but with clipping if desired).
Each graphics primitive operation is vectored through the StdProcs, a series of function pointers stored in the GrafPort. This limited polymorphism permits individual operations to be overridden or replaced by custom functions, allowing printer drivers to intercept graphics commands and translate them to suitable printer operations. In this way, QuickDraw can be rendered using PostScript, a fact that enabled the Macintosh to practically invent desktop publishing.
Similar to a subclass, the Window data structure began with the associated GrafPort, thus basically making windows exchangeable with any GrafPort. While convenient, this made it easy to write erroneous code that passed an offscreen graphics port into API that expected a full-blown window.
History
QuickDraw started life as Lisa Graf as part of the Apple Lisa development. For the Macintosh it was initially simplified, but then later extended. Originally, QuickDraw GrafPorts only supported a bit depth of 1, that is one bit per pixel, or black and white. This suited the built-in screen of the early Macintosh, with its fixed size of 512×342 pixels. Limited color was supported using a crude planar model, allowing QuickDraw to drive some types of dot-matrix printer that used multi-colored ribbons, but very few applications supported this feature.
In 1987, the Macintosh II was developed and launched, which was designed as a more conventional three-box design - Computer, monitor and keyboard all separate. Because the monitor was separate, and larger than the original Mac, the video architecture had to necessarily change. In addition, the Mac II took the Macintosh from black-and-white to full color. Apple also decided at this time to support a seamless desktop spanning multiple monitors, an industry first. Thus Color QuickDraw, a significant extension of the original QuickDraw, was created. The original architecture lacked much provision for expandability, but using a series of hacks, the Apple developers managed to make the addition of color and the new video architecture virtually seamless to both developers and end users.
Color QuickDraw introduced new data structures, including GDevices to represent each attached video card/monitor, and a new color GrafPort (CGrafPort) structure to handle color, as well as PixMaps instead of BitMaps for multiple bits-per-pixel images. One of the hacks for compatibility used here was that the new structure was exactly the same size as the old one, with most data members in the same place, but with additional handles and pointers to color structures in place of the BitMap fields. The upper two bits of the rowBytes field were pressed into use as flags to distinguish a GrafPort from a CGrafPort (they were always zero on old-style GrafPorts because a BitMap could never feasibly be so wide as to ever set these bits). The use of these two high bits would come back to haunt QuickDraw later, as it forced a maximum row width of just 4,095 on 32-bit PixMaps, which became problematic for high-resolution graphics work. Later development (Carbon) eliminated this limitation but was not fully backward compatible. A Palette Manager was also added in Color QuickDraw which managed the arbitration of colors on indexed video devices. Most graphics primitives operations remained either unchanged (but would operate in color), or else new color versions of the black and white APIs were added.
Initially, Color QuickDraw was only capable of operating with 1, 2, 4 and 8-bit video cards, which were all that was available at the time. Soon after however, 24-bit video cards appeared (so-called true color), and QuickDraw was updated again to support up to 32 bits per pixel (in reality, 24 bits, with 8 unused) of color data ("32-Bit QuickDraw"). The architecture always allowed for this, however, so no new APIs were necessary. The color data structures themselves allowed a color depth of 1, 2, 4, 8, 15 and 24 bits, yielding 2, 4, 16, 256, 32,768 and 16,777,216 colors respectively, or 4, 16 and 256 scales of grey. QuickDraw took care of managing the resampling of colors to the available color depths of the actual video hardware, or transfer between offscreen image buffers, including optionally dithering images down to a lower depth to improve image quality. A set of color sampling utilities were also added so that programmers could generate optimal color palettes for use with indexed video devices.
The architecture of QuickDraw had always allowed the creation of GrafPorts and their associated BitMaps or PixMaps "offscreen", where graphics could be composed in memory without it being visible immediately on the screen. Pixels could be transferred between these offscreen ports and the screen using the QuickDraw blitting function CopyBits. Such offscreen compositing is the workhorse for games and graphics-intensive applications. However, until the advent of 32-Bit QuickDraw, such offscreen worlds had to be created and set up by hand by programmers within their applications. This could be error-prone, as it involved three or more separate and fairly complex data structures (CGrafPort, PixMap and GDevice, and for indexed devices, the color look-up table and its inverse). With 32-Bit QuickDraw, OS support for handling this was added, with the "Offscreen Graphics World" or GWorld. The video buffer (PixMap) of a GWorld could be stored in main memory, or when available in unused parts of video ram where copying to the screen could be optimized for speed by avoiding the need to transfer a large amount of pixel data across the main memory bus.
With the advent of QuickTime, QuickDraw gained the ability to deal with compressed raster data, such as JPEG. The QuickTime Image Compression Manager integrated closely with QuickDraw: in particular, image decompression calls were full-fledged QuickDraw drawing calls, and if a picture was being recorded, the compressed data would be saved as part of the picture, for display when the picture was later drawn. The Image Compression Manager also added integration with ColorSync color matching.
After this, apart from back-end changes to optimize for new processor architectures (PowerPC), QuickDraw remained largely unchanged throughout the rest of the life of the classic Mac OS. QuickDraw GX and QuickDraw 3D shared the QuickDraw name and were able to interoperate with QuickDraw PixMap and picture data structures, but were otherwise completely separate in functionality.
With Mac OS X, QuickDraw became part of the Carbon API. In 2005, with the release of Mac OS X 10.4, QuickDraw was officially deprecated.
In 2010 with MacPaint 1.3's source code release through the Computer History Museum, a historical version of QuickDraw source code became available too.
See also
Bresenham's line algorithm
References
External links
- original QuickDraw documentation from developer.apple.com
- later QuickDraw documentation from developer.apple.com
QuickDraw - list of QuickDraw resources from developer.apple.com
Folklore.org: Macintosh Stories: Round Rects Are Everywhere!, May 1981, story about creating QuickDraw
MacPaint and QuickDraw source code, Computer History Museum
-2000 Lines Of Code
Graphics libraries
Apple Inc. software
Macintosh operating systems APIs |
16426618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11552%20Boucolion | 11552 Boucolion | 11552 Boucolion is a Jupiter trojan from the Trojan camp, approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 27 January 1993, by Belgian astronomer Eric Elst at the CERGA Observatory in Caussols, France. The dark D-type asteroid is one of the 90 largest Jupiter trojans and has a long rotation period of 32.4 hours. It was named from Greek mythology after the Boucolion, who lost his sons in the Trojan War.
Orbit and classification
Boucolion is a dark Jupiter trojan in a 1:1 orbital resonance with Jupiter. It is located in the trailering Trojan camp at the Gas Giant's Lagrangian point, 60° behind its orbit . It is also a non-family asteroid of the Jovian background population. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 4.5–6.1 AU once every 12 years and 1 month (4,418 days; semi-major axis of 5.27 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 15° with respect to the ecliptic.
The asteroid was first observed as at Crimea–Nauchnij in July 1973. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Caussols in January 1993.
Physical characteristics
In the SDSS-based taxonomy, Boucolion is a D-type asteroid, the most common type among the larger Jupiter trojans. It has also been characterized as a D-type by Pan-STARRS' survey, while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes it to be a carbonaceous C-type asteroid.
Rotation period
In September 2012, a rotational lightcurve of Boucolion was first obtained from photometric observations by astronomers at the Palomar Transient Factory (PTF) in California. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 16.150 and 16.177 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.23 and 0.25 magnitude in the R- and S-band, respectively ().
A more refined, alternative period solution of hours with an amplitude of 0.21 magnitude was measured by Robert Stephens at the Center for Solar System Studies in January 2015 (). The result seems to be a 1:2 alias, i.e. twice the period, of the previously obtained lightcurve at the PTF. While not being a slow rotator, Boucolion has one of the longest periods among the larger Jupiter trojans (see table below).
Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Boucolion measures 51.136 and 53.91 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.062 and 0.035, respectively. CALL assumes a standard albedo for a carbonaceous asteroid of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 53.16 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 10.1.
Naming
This minor planet was named from Greek mythology after Boucolion, father of the two Trojan warriors Pedasos and Aesopos, who both were slain near the River Scamander during the Trojan War. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 6 January 2003 ().
Notes
References
External links
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (10001)-(15000) – Minor Planet Center
011552
Discoveries by Eric Walter Elst
Minor planets named from Greek mythology
Named minor planets
19930127 |
50365899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Kisubi | University of Kisubi | University of Kisubi (UniK), is a private, co-educational, university in Uganda.
Location
The campus of the university is in Kisubi on the Kampala–Entebbe Road, about north-east of Entebbe International Airport. This is about south of Kampala, the country's capital and largest city. The coordinates of UniK's campus are 0°07'14.0"N, 32°31'54.0"E (Latitude:0.120567; Longitude:32.531677).
History
University of Kisubi was established in 2004 by the Brothers of Christian Instruction, as a center of Uganda Martyrs University. In 2009 UniK was made a constituent college of the university. In 2015, it received provisional accreditation to become a separate, independent University. The university held its third graduation ceremony in October 2018.
Faculties
The university had three faculties as of April 2016:
Faculty of Business and Information Communication Technology
Faculty of Education
Faculty of Human and Social Sciences
Academic courses
As of April 2016, UniK offers the following academic courses:
Postgraduate
Master of Arts in Educational Leadership
Master of Business Administration
Master of Science in Clinical & Psychological Counseling
Master of Information Technology
Undergraduate
Bachelor of Arts with Education
Bachelor of Science with Education
Bachelor of Business Studies with Education
Bachelor of Business Administration & Management
Bachelor of Science in Information Technology
Bachelor of Counseling Psychology
Bachelor of Science in Rehabilitation Counseling Psychology
Bachelor of Science in Family and Child Counseling Psychology
Bachelor of Arts in Human and Religious Studies
Bachelor of Social Work & Management
Bachelor of Bio-Medical Laboratory Technology
Bachelor of Development & Management Studies
Bachelor of Arts in Economics
Bachelor of Economics and Statistics
Bachelor of Arts in Human and Religious Studies
Bachelor of Art, Fashion and Design
Bachelor of Public Relations and Mass Communication
Bachelor of Science in Public Health
Diplomas
Diploma in Business Administration
Diploma in Information Technology
Diploma in Counseling Psychology
Diploma in Bio Medical Laboratory Technology
Diploma in Business Management
Diploma in Public Health
Diploma in Social Work and Social Administration
Certificates
Certificate in Business Administration
Certificate in Information Technology
Certificate in Counseling
Certificate in Social Work and Social Administration
Certificate in Music
Certificate in Swahili
Certificate in English Proficiency
See also
Education in Uganda
List of universities in Uganda
Central Region, Uganda
List of university leaders in Uganda
References
External links
Webpage of University of Kisubi
Universities and colleges in Uganda
Educational institutions established in 2004
Education in Uganda
Wakiso District
2004 establishments in Uganda |
14905617 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan%20Ballistics%20Suit%20of%20Armor | Trojan Ballistics Suit of Armor | The Trojan Ballistics Suit of Armour is a protection suit designed by Troy Hurtubise for Canadian soldiers in Iraq and Afghanistan. Hurtubise claimed that it was "the first suit of its kind in the world, it is the first ballistics exoskeleton body suit of armour." Despite his efforts to promote the suit, the inventor experienced personal and financial hardship.
Hurtubise's death in a traffic accident in June 2018 was believed to have aborted any future research on the Trojan suit.
Development
Troy Hurtubise spent two years and $150,000 developing the Trojan suit. When worn, the Trojan provided 97% coverage of the body and a claimed 95% flexibility. The suit also weighed 50 lbs maximum. He claimed that it could be suited to a soldier for CA$2000 if it were mass-produced. It was originally designed to stop Improvised Explosive Devices like the kind used in Iraq. However, he never actually tested the suit against a live IED.
The suit used a bullet-resistant foam of Hurtubise's own design to repel bullets and knives.
Features
The Trojan Ballistics Suit of Armour's main weapons were dual pistols on magnetic holsters. There was a sheath on the wrist that contained a knife for close-quarter combat. The suit also contained a Pepper spray capsule for emergency situations. Hurtubise stated that this could be used to incapacitate 40 insurgents. This was supposedly made possible because his capsule would contain 3% oleoresin capsicum. However, it would be illegal to use in a combat situation, as capsicum is banned for use in war by the 1997 Chemical Weapons Convention.
The helmet utilized both an intake fan and an exhaust fan to keep the soldier who wore it from overheating in countries like Iraq and Afghanistan. It also included a perfectly centered laser targeting system to mark a target to be taken out by a sniper or assault vehicle. Hurtubise integrated a voice-activated radio into the helmet for easy communication. Two high-power lights were integrated into the side of the helmet. Hurtubise also included a voice-changing mechanism in the suit's helmet.
A compartment on the left arm contained a small vial of salt for the soldier, and the inventor stated that each Trojan suit would contain one dose of morphine. Also, a "last-words" recorder could be taken off of a soldier and given to the family of the soldier. A transponder chip was included that can be swallowed by a soldier so that he could be extracted. A light transponder on the chest could also be activated to signal a helicopter.
On the right leg was a small remote-controlled surveillance robot. The soldier watched the robot on a small fold-out screen on the left leg. A military time world clock was integrated into the groin protector that Hurtubise claimed was "where it's got to be." One of the shoes also had a small handheld shovel locked into it.
Raffle
Hurtubise held a raffle for his Trojan suit to raise funds to continue development. But the winner, Sara Markis, agreed to let Troy keep the suit.
Media coverage
The Trojan was featured on a Discovery channel special where he explained the features of his suit in detail.
Similarities
The Trojan suit bore a striking resemblance to the MJOLNIR battle armours from the Halo video game series. Hurtubise confirmed this in an interview, saying, "I did look at Star Wars. I looked at Halo, the video game."
See also
Body Armor
References
External links
Engadget article on the Trojan
Mission Trojan (currently down)
Edit International article on the Trojan
Article about Ebay auction
Body armor
Ballistic vests |
19014978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRiDPad | GRiDPad | GRiDPad was a trademarked name for a series of pen computing tablets built by GRiD Systems Corporation.
The GRiDPad 1900, released in 1989, is regarded as the first commercially successful tablet computer. Jeff Hawkins went on to use the GRiDPad as a predecessor for his best known-invention, the Palm Pilot.
Specifications
The GRiDPad 1900 measured and weighed . The main distinguishing aspect was its touchscreen interface with a stylus, a pen-like tool to aid with precision in a touchscreen device. The stylus was able to use handwriting-recognition software. The GRiDPad also included these features:
10 MHz 80C86 processor
MS-DOS operating system – the popular operating system used by IBM PC-compatible personal computers
A monochromatic Color Graphics Adapter (CGA) display resolution of 640x400
256KB or 512KB battery-backed RAM cards
1MB or 2MB of system memory
One serial port, two ATA-FLASH slots, and an expansion bus connector
Models
Because of its use for inventory management, the United States Army specified more durable versions of the tablet made out of magnesium that were not sold to the general public. The US Army specially ordered magnesium because it is a strong yet light metal, making it ideal for use in demanding environments.
According to a patent submitted in 1992 by an engineer at GRiD Systems, the touchscreen in the GRiDPad works by magnifying an internal Cartesian plane and calculating the displacement. Further patents by Jeff Hawkins describe flipping the screen orientation between landscape and portrait.
Reception
Because of its text-recognition interface, the GRiDPad was marketed toward specialist consumers who would use the tablet for bookkeeping. The GRiDPad was "designed to streamline the chores of workers such as route delivery drivers and claims adjusters, who typically recorded data on paper forms." Some of the agencies that used the GRiDPad included Chrysler, San Jose Police Department, and even the US Government. The first commercial customer to use the GRiDPad and who contributed to the overall requirements was Best Foods Baking Group, a division of CPC International.
The average selling price for one unit was US$2,370 without software, and $3,000 with software. It was so successful that it sold approximately $30 million in its best year.
Legacy
Although the GriDPad had the same operating system as personal computers, it was not designed to be a replacement for computers. Hawkins once said, "I never saw pen computers as a replacement for a full PC..." Although it did not replace computers, it did pave the way for other companies to invest more into tablet computers.
Not only did the GRiDPad start paving the way for tablet computers, it also helped propel Jeff Hawkins' career. Hawkins used the same stylus technology to develop his most commercially successful product, the Palm Pilot, making the GRiDPad its predecessor.
See also
GRiDCASE
References
Touchscreens
Tablet computers
Classes of computers |
31871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubiquitous%20computing | Ubiquitous computing | Ubiquitous computing (or "ubicomp") is a concept in software engineering, hardware engineering and computer science where computing is made to appear anytime and everywhere. In contrast to desktop computing, ubiquitous computing can occur using any device, in any location, and in any format. A user interacts with the computer, which can exist in many different forms, including laptop computers, tablets, smart phones and terminals in everyday objects such as a refrigerator or a pair of glasses. The underlying technologies to support ubiquitous computing include Internet, advanced middleware, operating system, mobile code, sensors, microprocessors, new I/O and user interfaces, computer networks, mobile protocols, location and positioning, and new materials.
This paradigm is also described as pervasive computing, ambient intelligence, or "everyware". Each term emphasizes slightly different aspects. When primarily concerning the objects involved, it is also known as physical computing, the Internet of Things, haptic computing, and "things that think".
Rather than propose a single definition for ubiquitous computing and for these related terms, a taxonomy of properties for ubiquitous computing has been proposed, from which different kinds or flavors of ubiquitous systems and applications can be described.
Ubiquitous computing touches on distributed computing, mobile computing, location computing, mobile networking, sensor networks, human–computer interaction, context-aware smart home technologies, and artificial intelligence.
Core concepts
Ubiquitous computing is the concept of using small internet connected and inexpensive computers to help with everyday functions in an automated fashion.
For example, a domestic ubiquitous computing environment might interconnect lighting and environmental controls with personal biometric monitors woven into clothing so that illumination and heating conditions in a room might be modulated, continuously and imperceptibly. Another common scenario posits refrigerators "aware" of their suitably tagged contents, able to both plan a variety of menus from the food actually on hand, and warn users of stale or spoiled food.
Ubiquitous computing presents challenges across computer science: in systems design and engineering, in systems modelling, and in user interface design. Contemporary human-computer interaction models, whether command-line, menu-driven, or GUI-based, are inappropriate and inadequate to the ubiquitous case. This suggests that the "natural" interaction paradigm appropriate to a fully robust ubiquitous computing has yet to emerge – although there is also recognition in the field that in many ways we are already living in a ubicomp world (see also the main article on natural user interfaces). Contemporary devices that lend some support to this latter idea include mobile phones, digital audio players, radio-frequency identification tags, GPS, and interactive whiteboards.
Mark Weiser proposed three basic forms for ubiquitous computing devices:
Tabs: a wearable device that is approximately a centimeter in size
Pads: a hand-held device that is approximately a decimeter in size
Boards: an interactive larger display device that is approximately a meter in size
Ubiquitous computing devices proposed by Mark Weiser are all based around flat devices of different sizes with a visual display. Expanding beyond those concepts there is a large array of other ubiquitous computing devices that could exist. Some of the additional forms that have been conceptualized are:
Dust: miniaturized devices can be without visual output displays, e.g. micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), ranging from nanometres through micrometers to millimetres. See also Smart dust.
Skin: fabrics based upon light emitting and conductive polymers, organic computer devices, can be formed into more flexible non-planar display surfaces and products such as clothes and curtains, see OLED display. MEMS device can also be painted onto various surfaces so that a variety of physical world structures can act as networked surfaces of MEMS.
Clay: ensembles of MEMS can be formed into arbitrary three dimensional shapes as artefacts resembling many different kinds of physical object (see also tangible interface).
In Manuel Castells' book The Rise of the Network Society, Castells puts forth the concept that there is going to be a continuous evolution of computing devices. He states we will progress from stand-alone microcomputers and decentralized mainframes towards pervasive computing. Castells' model of a pervasive computing system, uses the example of the Internet as the start of a pervasive computing system. The logical progression from that paradigm is a system where that networking logic becomes applicable in every realm of daily activity, in every location and every context. Castells envisages a system where billions of miniature, ubiquitous inter-communication devices will be spread worldwide, "like pigment in the wall paint".
Ubiquitous computing may be seen to consist of many layers, each with their own roles, which together form a single system:
Layer 1: Task management layer
Monitors user task, context and index
Map user's task to need for the services in the environment
To manage complex dependencies
Layer 2: Environment management layer
To monitor a resource and its capabilities
To map service need, user level states of specific capabilities
Layer 3: Environment layer
To monitor a relevant resource
To manage reliability of the resources
History
Mark Weiser coined the phrase "ubiquitous computing" around 1988, during his tenure as Chief Technologist of the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). Both alone and with PARC Director and Chief Scientist John Seely Brown, Weiser wrote some of the earliest papers on the subject, largely defining it and sketching out its major concerns.
Recognizing the effects of extending processing power
Recognizing that the extension of processing power into everyday scenarios would necessitate understandings of social, cultural and psychological phenomena beyond its proper ambit, Weiser was influenced by many fields outside computer science, including "philosophy, phenomenology, anthropology, psychology, post-Modernism, sociology of science and feminist criticism". He was explicit about "the humanistic origins of the 'invisible ideal in post-modernist thought'", referencing as well the ironically dystopian Philip K. Dick novel Ubik.
Andy Hopper from Cambridge University UK proposed and demonstrated the concept of "Teleporting" – where applications follow the user wherever he/she moves.
Roy Want, while a researcher and student working under Andy Hopper at Cambridge University, worked on the "Active Badge System", which is an advanced location computing system where personal mobility that is merged with computing.
Bill Schilit (now at Google) also did some earlier work in this topic, and participated in the early Mobile Computing workshop held in Santa Cruz in 1996.
Ken Sakamura of the University of Tokyo, Japan leads the Ubiquitous Networking Laboratory (UNL), Tokyo as well as the T-Engine Forum. The joint goal of Sakamura's Ubiquitous Networking specification and the T-Engine forum, is to enable any everyday device to broadcast and receive information.
MIT has also contributed significant research in this field, notably Things That Think consortium (directed by Hiroshi Ishii, Joseph A. Paradiso and Rosalind Picard) at the Media Lab and the CSAIL effort known as Project Oxygen. Other major contributors include University of Washington's Ubicomp Lab (directed by Shwetak Patel), Dartmouth College's DartNets Lab, Georgia Tech's College of Computing, Cornell University's People Aware Computing Lab, NYU's Interactive Telecommunications Program, UC Irvine's Department of Informatics, Microsoft Research, Intel Research and Equator, Ajou University UCRi & CUS.
Examples
One of the earliest ubiquitous systems was artist Natalie Jeremijenko's "Live Wire", also known as "Dangling String", installed at Xerox PARC during Mark Weiser's time there. This was a piece of string attached to a stepper motor and controlled by a LAN connection; network activity caused the string to twitch, yielding a peripherally noticeable indication of traffic. Weiser called this an example of calm technology.
A present manifestation of this trend is the widespread diffusion of mobile phones. Many mobile phones support high speed data transmission, video services, and other services with powerful computational ability. Although these mobile devices are not necessarily manifestations of ubiquitous computing, there are examples, such as Japan's Yaoyorozu ("Eight Million Gods") Project in which mobile devices, coupled with radio frequency identification tags demonstrate that ubiquitous computing is already present in some form.
Ambient Devices has produced an "orb", a "dashboard", and a "weather beacon": these decorative devices receive data from a wireless network and report current events, such as stock prices and the weather, like the Nabaztag produced by Violet Snowden.
The Australian futurist Mark Pesce has produced a highly configurable 52-LED LAMP enabled lamp which uses Wi-Fi named MooresCloud after Gordon Moore.
The Unified Computer Intelligence Corporation launched a device called Ubi – The Ubiquitous Computer designed to allow voice interaction with the home and provide constant access to information.
Ubiquitous computing research has focused on building an environment in which computers allow humans to focus attention on select aspects of the environment and operate in supervisory and policy-making roles. Ubiquitous computing emphasizes the creation of a human computer interface that can interpret and support a user's intentions. For example, MIT's Project Oxygen seeks to create a system in which computation is as pervasive as air:
In the future, computation will be human centered. It will be freely available everywhere, like batteries and power sockets, or oxygen in the air we breathe...We will not need to carry our own devices around with us. Instead, configurable generic devices, either handheld or embedded in the environment, will bring computation to us, whenever we need it and wherever we might be. As we interact with these "anonymous" devices, they will adopt our information personalities. They will respect our desires for privacy and security. We won't have to type, click, or learn new computer jargon. Instead, we'll communicate naturally, using speech and gestures that describe our intent...
This is a fundamental transition that does not seek to escape the physical world and "enter some metallic, gigabyte-infested cyberspace" but rather brings computers and communications to us, making them "synonymous with the useful tasks they perform".
Network robots link ubiquitous networks with robots, contributing to the creation of new lifestyles and solutions to address a variety of social problems including the aging of population and nursing care.
Issues
Privacy is easily the most often-cited criticism of ubiquitous computing (ubicomp), and may be the greatest barrier to its long-term success.
Public policy problems are often "preceded by long shadows, long trains of activity", emerging slowly, over decades or even the course of a century. There is a need for a long-term view to guide policy decision making, as this will assist in identifying long-term problems or opportunities related to the ubiquitous computing environment. This information can reduce uncertainty and guide the decisions of both policy makers and those directly involved in system development (Wedemeyer et al. 2001). One important consideration is the degree to which different opinions form around a single problem. Some issues may have strong consensus about their importance, even if there are great differences in opinion regarding the cause or solution. For example, few people will differ in their assessment of a highly tangible problem with physical impact such as terrorists using new weapons of mass destruction to destroy human life. The problem statements outlined above that address the future evolution of the human species or challenges to identity have clear cultural or religious implications and are likely to have greater variance in opinion about them.
Research centres
This is a list of notable institutions who claim to have a focus on Ubiquitous computing sorted by country:
Canada
Topological Media Lab, Concordia University, Canada
Finland
Community Imaging Group, University of Oulu, Finland
Germany
Telecooperation Office (TECO), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany
India
Ubiquitous Computing Research Resource Centre (UCRC), Centre for Development of Advanced Computing
Pakistan
Centre for Research in Ubiquitous Computing (CRUC), Karachi, Pakistan.
Sweden
Mobile Life Centre, Stockholm University
United Kingdom
Mixed Reality Lab, University of Nottingham
See also
Ambient media
Computer accessibility
Human-centered computing
Mobile interaction
Smart city (ubiquitous city)
Ubiquitous commerce
Ubiquitous learning
Ubiquitous robot
Wearable computer
References
Further reading
Adam Greenfield's book Everyware: The Dawning Age of Ubiquitous Computing .
John Tinnell's book Actionable Media: Digital Communication Beyond the Desktop Oxford University Press, 2018.
Salim, Flora, Abowd, Gregory UbiComp-ISWC '20: Adjunct Proceedings of the 2020 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing and Proceedings of the 2020 ACM International Symposium on Wearable Computers Association for Computing Machinery, New York, United States .
External links
International Conference on Pervasive Computing (Pervasive)
Pervasive and Mobile Computing journal, PMC (Elsevier)
Proceedings of the Semantic Ambient Media Workshop Series (iAMEA)
University of Siegen, ubicomp home publications
Artificial intelligence laboratories
Human–computer interaction
Ubiquitous computing research centers |
13994364 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Sony%20Interactive%20Entertainment%20video%20games | List of Sony Interactive Entertainment video games | This is a list of video games published by Sony Interactive Entertainment, formerly known as Sony Computer Entertainment.
PlayStation
1994
Retail
Crime Crackers (Japan only)
Motor Toon Grand Prix (Japan only)
1995
Retail
3D Lemmings (Published by Psygnosis)
Air Combat (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Arc the Lad (Japan only)
Battle Arena Toshinden (Co-published with Takara in North America and PAL only)
Beyond the Beyond (Japan & North America only)
Cyber Sled (Co-Published with Namco in PAL only)
Destruction Derby (Published by Psygnosis)
Discworld (video game) (Published by Psygnosis)
ESPN Extreme Games/1Xtreme
Hermie Hopperhead: Scrap Panic (Japan only)
Jumping Flash!
Kileak: The Blood
Mortal Kombat 3 (Co-published with Midway Games)
NHL FaceOff (North America and PAL only)
Novastorm
Philosoma
Project: Horned Owl (Japan and North America only)
Rapid Reload (Japan and PAL only)
Ridge Racer (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Tekken (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
The Raiden Project (North America only)
Twisted Metal
Victory Zone (Japan only)
Warhawk
Wipeout (Published by Psygnosis)
1996
Retail
2 Xtreme
A-IV Evolution Global (Co-published with Artdink in PAL only)
Adidas Power Soccer (Published by Psygnosis)
Aquanaut's Holiday (North America and PAL only)
Arc the Lad II (Japan only)
Assault Rigs (Published by Psygnosis)
Battle Arena Toshinden 2 (Co-published with Takara in PAL only)
Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars (PAL only)
Chronicles of the Sword (Published by Psygnosis in North America and PAL only)
Cool Boarders (North America and PAL only)
Crash Bandicoot
Defcon 5 (Published by Psygnosis in PAL only)
Destruction Derby 2 (Published by Psygnosis)
Epidemic
Formula 1 (Published by Psygnosis)
Galaxian^3 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Jet Moto
Jumping Flash! 2
Krazy Ivan (Published by Psygnosis)
Mickey's Wild Adventure (Co-published with Disney Interactive in PAL only)
MLB Pennant Race (North America only)
Motor Toon Grand Prix 2
Myst (Published by Psygnosis)
Namco Museum Vol. 1 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Namco Museum Vol. 2 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Namco Soccer Prime Goal (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Namco Tennis Smash Court (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
NBA ShootOut
NCAA GameBreaker (North America only)
NFL GameDay (North America and PAL only)
NFL GameDay 97 (North America only)
NHL FaceOff '97
Pandemonium (Co-published with Crystal Dynamics in PAL only)
PaRappa the Rapper
Penny Racers (Co-published with Takara in PAL only)
Popolocrois Story (Japan only)
Raging Skies (Co-published with Asmik Ace Entertainment in PAL only)
Ridge Racer Revolution (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Samurai Shodown III: Blades of Blood (Co-published with SNK in North America and PAL only)
StarBlade Alpha (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Tekken 2 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
The Adventures of Lomax (Published by Psygnosis)
The King of Fighters '95 (Co-published with SNK in North America and PAL only)
Tobal No. 1 (Co-published with Squaresoft in North America and PAL only)
Twisted Metal 2
Victory Zone 2 (Japan only)
Wipeout 2097 (Published by Psygnosis)
1997
Retail
Ace Combat 2 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Adidas Power Soccer International 97 (Published by Psygnosis)
Alundra (Published by Sony Computer Entertainment in Japan and by Psygnosis in PAL only)
Battle Arena Toshinden 3 (Co-published with Takara in PAL only)
Bloody Roar (North America only)
Broken Sword II: The Smoking Mirror (PAL only)
Bushido Blade (Co-published with Squaresoft in North America and PAL only)
Carnage Heart (Co-published with Artdink in North America and PAL only)
CART World Series (North America only)
Crime Crackers 2 (Japan only)
Colony Wars (Published by Psygnosis)
Cool Boarders 2 (North America and PAL only)
Crash Bandicoot 2: Cortex Strikes Back
Discworld II: Missing Presumed...?! (Published by Psygnosis)
Disney's Hercules (Co-published with Disney Interactive in PAL only)
Final Fantasy VII (Co-published with Squaresoft in North America and PAL only)
Formula 1 97 (Published by Psygnosis)
G-Police (Published by Psygnosis)
Ghost in the Shell (Japan and PAL only)
I.Q.: Intelligent Qube
Jet Moto 2
King's Field (Co-published with From Software in PAL only)
League of Pain (Published by Psygnosis)
Lifeforce Tenka (Published by Psygnosis in North America and PAL only)
MLB 98 (North America only)
Monster Trucks (Published by Psygnosis in North America and PAL only)
Namco Museum Vol. 3 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Namco Museum Vol. 4 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Namco Museum Vol. 5 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
NBA ShootOut '97
NCAA Gamebreaker 98 (North America only)
NFL GameDay 98 (North America only)
NHL FaceOff 98 (North America and PAL only)
Overboard! (Published by Psygnosis)
Porsche Challenge
Princess Maker: Yumemiru Yousei (Japan only)
Quest for Fame (Japan only)
Rage Racer (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Rally Cross
Rapid Racer
RayStorm (Co-published with Taito in PAL only)
Ray Tracers (Co-published with Taito in PAL only)
Real Bout Fatal Fury (Co-published with SNK in PAL only)
Rosco McQueen Firefighter Extreme (Published by Psygnosis)
Rush Hour (Published by Psygnosis)
SAPARi (Co-Published with VAIO)
Sentient (Published by Psygnosis in North America only)
Shadow Master (Published by Psygnosis in North America and PAL only)
Soul Blade (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Spawn: The Eternal
Steel Reign
Tail of the Sun (Co-published with Artdink in North America only)
The City of Lost Children (Published by Psygnosis in North America and PAL only)
Time Crisis (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Velldeselba Senki Tsubasa no Kunshou (Japan only)
Wild Arms
Xevious 3D/G+ (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Z (Co-published with GT Interactive in PAL only)
1998
Retail
Adidas Power Soccer 2 (Published by Psygnosis)
Adidas Power Soccer 98 (Published by Psygnosis)
Armored Core (Co-published with From Software in PAL only)
Baby Universe (Japan and PAL only)
Blast Radius (Published by Psygnosis)
Blasto
Bomberman World (Co-published with Hudson in PAL only)
Bust a Groove (Co-published with Enix by 989 Studios in North America and by Sony Computer Entertainment in PAL only)
Cardinal Syn
Colony Wars: Vengeance (Published by Psygnosis)
Contender (North America only)
Cool Boarders 3 (Published by 989 Sports in North America and by Sony Computer Entertainment in PAL only)
Crash Bandicoot 3: Warped
Dead or Alive (Co-published with Tecmo in PAL only)
Devil Dice (Japan and PAL only)
Double Cast (Japan only)
Disney•Pixar A Bug's Life (Co-published with Disney Interactive)
Ehrgeiz: God Bless the Ring (Co-published with Squaresoft in Japan and PAL only)
Einhänder (Co-published with Squaresoft in North America only)
ESPN X Games Pro Boarder (Co-published with ESPN Digital Games in PAL only)
Everybody's Golf
Final Fantasy Tactics (Co-published with Squaresoft in North America only)
Fluid (Japan and PAL only)
Formula 1 98 (Published by Psygnosis in North America and PAL only)
Gran Turismo
Jersey Devil (North America only)
Kisetsu o Dakishimete (Japan only)
Klonoa: Door to Phantomile (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Kula World (Published by Sony Computer Entertainment in Japan and PAL, and by Psygnosis in North America only)
Legend of Legaia
Libero Grande (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
MediEvil
MLB 99 (North America only)
NBA ShootOut '98 (Published by 989 Sports in North America and by Sony Computer Entertainment in PAL only)
NCAA Final Four 99 (Published by 989 Sports in North America only)
NCAA Gamebreaker 99 (Published by 989 Sports in North America only)
Newman/Haas Racing (Published by Psygnosis)
NFL GameDay 99 (Published by 989 Sports in North America only)
NFL Xtreme (Published by 989 Sports in North America and by Sony Computer Entertainment in PAL only)
NHL FaceOff 99 (Published by 989 Sports in North America and PAL only)
Nightmare Creatures (Co-published with Kalisto Entertainment in PAL only)
O.D.T. – Escape... Or Die Trying (Published by Psygnosis)
Oh No! More Lemmings (Published by Studio Liverpool)
Pet in TV (Japan and PAL only)
Point Blank (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Poporogue (Japan only)
Psybadek (Published by Psygnosis in North America and PAL only)
Rally Cross 2
Rascal (Published by Psygnosis in North America and PAL only)
Running Wild
SaGa Frontier (Co-published with Squaresoft in North America only)
Sampaguita (Japan only)
Sentinel Returns (Published by Psygnosis)
Souten no Shiroki Kami no Za: Great Peak (Japan only)
Spice World (Published by Sony Computer Entertainment in PAL and by Psygnosis in North America only)
Spyro the Dragon
Tekken 3 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
The Fifth Element (Co-published with Kalisto Entertainment in PAL only)
Tomba (North America and PAL only)
Treasures of the Deep (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Twisted Metal III (Published by 989 Studios in North America only)
Yukiwari no Hana (Japan only)
Zero Divide 2 (Co-published with Zoom in PAL only)
1999
Retail
3 Xtreme (Published by 989 Sports in North America only)
Alundra 2: A New Legend Begins (Japan only)
Anna Kournikova's Smash Court Tennis (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Ape Escape
Arc the Lad III (Japan only)
Attack of the Saucerman (Published by Psygnosis)
Barbie: Race & Ride (PAL only)
Bloodlines
Bloody Roar II (North America only)
Brightis (Japan only)
Cool Boarders 4 (Published by 989 Sports in North America and PAL only)
Crash Team Racing
Destrega (Co-published with Koei in PAL only)
Disney•Pixar A Bug's Life Activity Center (Co-published with Disney Interactive in PAL only)
Disney's Magical Tetris (Co-published with Disney Interactive in PAL only)
Disney's Tarzan (Co-published with Disney Interactive in PAL only)
Doko Demo Issyo (Japan only)
Eliminator (Published by Psygnosis)
Final Fantasy VIII (Co-published with Squaresoft in PAL, China, Hong Kong and Singapore only)
Formula One 99 (Published by Psygnosis in North America and Japan, and by Sony Computer Entertainment in PAL)
G-Police: Weapons of Justice (Published by Psygnosis in North America and by Sony Computer Entertainment in PAL only)
Global Domination (Published by Psygnosis)
Global Force: Shin Sentou Kokka (Japan only)
Gran Turismo 2
Grandia (North America only)
Jet Moto 3 (Published by 989 Sports in North America only)
Kingsley's Adventure (Published by Psygnosis in North America and PAL only)
Kurushi Final: Mental Blocks
Love & Destroy (Japan only)
MLB 2000 (Published by 989 Sports in North America only)
NBA ShootOut 2000 (Published by 989 Sports in North America only)
NCAA Final Four 99 (Published by 989 Sports in North America only)
NCAA Final Four 2000 (Published by 989 Sports in North America only)
NCAA Gamebreaker 2000 (Published by 989 Sports in North America only)
NFL GameDay 2000 (Published by 989 Sports in North America only)
NFL Xtreme 2 (Published by 989 Sports in North America only)
NHL FaceOff 2000 (Published by 989 Sports in North America and by Sony Computer Entertainment in PAL only)
Omega Boost
Ore no Ryouri (Japan only)
Over My Remain/Ore no Shikabane o Koete Yuke (Japan only)
Point Blank 2 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Pro 18: World Tour Golf (Published by Psygnosis)
R-Type Delta (Co-published with Irem in PAL only)
R4: Ridge Racer Type 4 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Retro Force (Published by Psygnosis in PAL only)
Rollcage (Published by Psygnosis)
Speed Freaks (North America and PAL only)
Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!
Supercross Circuit (Published by 989 Sports in North America only)
Syphon Filter (Published by 989 Studios in North America and by Sony Computer Entertainment in PAL only)
The Granstream Saga (Published by Sony Computer Entertainment in Japan and co-published with ARC Entertainment in PAL only)
The X-Files Game (Co-published with Fox Interactive in PAL only)
This is Football
Tiny Tank: Up Your Arsenal (North America and PAL only)
Tiny Toon Adventures: Buster and the beanstalk (PAL only)
Tomba! 2: The Evil Swine Return (North America and PAL only)
Tomoyasu Hotei: Stolen Song (Japan only)
Twisted Metal 4 (Published by 989 Studios in North America only)
UmJammer Lammy
Vib-Ribbon (Japan and PAL only)
Wipeout 3 (Published by Sony Computer Entertainment in PAL and Japan, and by Psygnosis in North America)
XI Jumbo (Japan only)
2000
Retail
Ace Combat 3: Electrosphere (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Aconcagua (Japan only)
Barbie Super Sports (PAL only)
Bealphareth (Japan only)
Boku no Natsuyasumi (Japan only)
Colin McRae Rally (North America only)
Colony Wars: Red Sun (Published by Psygnosis)
Cool Boarders 2001 (North America only)
Covert Ops: Nuclear Dawn (Japan and PAL only)
Crash Bash
Destruction Derby Raw (PAL only)
Disney's Aladdin in Nasira's Revenge (Co-published with Disney Interactive in PAL and North America only)
Disney's Story Studio: Mulan (Co-published with Disney Interactive in PAL only)
Disney's The Emperor's New Groove (Co-published with Disney Interactive in North America and PAL only)
Dragon Valor (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Everybody's Golf 2
Formula One 2000 (North America and PAL only)
Ghoul Panic (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Grind Session (North America and PAL only)
Jackie Chan Stuntmaster (Co-published with Radical Entertainment in PAL only)
In Cold Blood (PAL only)
Legend of Dragoon
Magical Dice Kids (Japan only)
MediEvil 2
MLB 2001 (North America only)
Monster Rancher (Co-published with Tecmo in PAL only)
Moto Racer World Tour (PAL only)
Mr. Driller (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Ms. Pac-Man Maze Madness (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Muppet Monster Adventure (PAL only)
Muppet RaceMania (PAL only)
NBA ShootOut 2001 (North America only)
NCAA Final Four 2000 (North America only)
NCAA Gamebreaker 2001 (North America only)
NFL GameDay 2001 (North America only)
NHL FaceOff 2001 (North America only)
Pac-Man World (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Popolocrois Story II (Japan only)
Rescue Shot (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Rollcage Stage II (PAL only)
Shachou Eiyuuden: The Eagle Shooting Heroes (Japan only)
Shadow Madness (Co-published with Crave Entertainment in PAL only)
Space Debris (PAL only)
Spyro: Year of the Dragon
Star Ixiom (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Star Ocean: The Second Story (Co-published with Enix in North America and PAL only)
Syphon Filter 2 (Published by 989 Studios in North America and by Sony Computer Entertainment in PAL only)
Team Buddies (PAL only)
Terracon (PAL only)
This is Football 2
Walt Disney's The Jungle Book Groove Party (Co-published with Disney Interactive in PAL only)
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire 2nd Edition (North America only)
Wild 9 (Co-published with Interplay in Japan only)
Wild Arms 2 (Japan and North America only)
Wipeout 3: Special Edition (PAL only)
2001
Retail
C-12: Final Resistance
Disney•Pixar Monsters, Inc. Scream Team (Co-published with Disney Interactive in North America and PAL only)
Disney's Atlantis: The Lost Empire (Co-published with Disney Interactive)
Disney's Party Time with Winnie The Pooh (Co-published with Disney Interactive in PAL only)
Disney's The Little Mermaid II (Co-published with Disney Interactive in PAL only)
Formula One 2001 (PAL only)
Libero Grande International (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
MLB 2002 (North America only)
NCAA Final Four 2002 (North America only)
NBA ShootOut 2002 (North America only)
NFL GameDay 2002 (North America only)
Point Blank 3 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Syphon Filter 3
Time Crisis: Project Titan (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Twisted Metal: Small Brawl (North America only)
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire 3rd Edition (North America only)
2002
Retail
Alfred Chicken (PAL only)
Disney's Treasure Planet (Co-published with Disney Interactive)
Disney's Lilo & Stitch (Co-published with Disney Interactive)
Final Fantasy VI (Co-published with Squaresoft in PAL only)
Final Fantasy Anthology (Co-published with Squaresoft in PAL only)
Firebugs (PAL only)
Formula One Arcade (PAL only)
Jim Henson's The Hoobs (PAL only)
Klonoa Beach Volleyball (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
MLB 2003 (North America only)
NBA ShootOut 2003 (North America only)
NFL GameDay 2003 (North America only)
Peter Pan in Disney's Return to Never Land (Co-published with Disney Interactive)
Stuart Little 2 (North America and PAL only)
WRC: FIA World Rally Championship Arcade (PAL only)
2003
Retail
Jinx (PAL only)
MLB 2004 (North America only)
NBA ShootOut 2004 (North America only)
NFL GameDay 2004 (North America only)
2004
Retail
MLB 2005 (North America and Japan only)
NFL GameDay 2005 (North America only)
PlayStation 2
2000
Retail
Bikkuri Mouse (Japan only)
Blood: The Last Vampire - Gekan (Japan only)
Blood: The Last Vampire - Joukan (Japan only)
Dead or Alive 2 (Co-published with Tecmo in PAL only)
FantaVision
NCAA Final Four 2001 (North America only)
NFL GameDay 2001 (North America only)
Ridge Racer V (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Scandal (Japan only)
Tekken Tag Tournament (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
TVDJ (Japan only)
2001
Retail
AirBlade (PAL only)
Bravo Music: Christmas Edition (Japan only)
Cool Boarders 2001 (North America only)
ATV Offroad Fury
Dark Cloud
Extermination
Formula One 2001
Frequency (North America and PAL only)
Genshi no Kotoba (Japan only)
Gran Turismo 3: A-Spec
Gran Turismo Concept Tokyo 2001 (Japan only)
Gran Turismo Concept Tokyo-Geneva (PAL only)
Gran Turismo Concept Tokyo-Seoul (South-Korea only)
Ico
Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy
Kinetica (North America only)
Klonoa 2: Lunatea's Veil (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Legaia 2: Duel Saga (Japan only)
Mad Maestro! (Japan only)
Mister Mosquito (Japan only)
MotoGP (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
NBA ShootOut 2001 (North America only)
NCAA Final Four 2002 (North America only)
NFL GameDay 2002 (North America only)
NHL FaceOff 2001
Okage: Shadow King (North America and Japan only)
PaRappa the Rapper 2
Pipo Saru 2001 (Japan only)
Rimo-Cocoron (Japan only)
Sagashi ni Ikouyo (Japan only)
SkyGunner (Japan only)
Sky Odyssey (Japan and PAL only)
The Bouncer (Co-published with Squaresoft in PAL only)
The Yamanote Sen: Train Simulator Real (Japan only)
Time Crisis II (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
This is Football 2002 (PAL and North America only)
Tsungai: Atonement (Japan only)
Twisted Metal: Black
Vampire Night (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Yoake no Mariko (Japan only)
WRC
2002
Retail
Ace Combat: Distant Thunder (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Alpine Racer 3 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
ATV Offroad Fury 2 (North America only)
Boku no Natsuyasumi 2: Umi no Bokuen Hen (Japan only)
Bravo Music: Chou-Meikyokuban (Japan only)
Disney•Pixar Monsters, Inc. Scream Team (Co-published with Disney Interactive in North America and PAL only)
Disney's Stitch: Experiment 626
Disney's Treasure Planet (Co-published with Disney Interactive)
Drakan: The Ancients' Gates (North America and PAL only)
Dropship: United Peace Front (PAL only)
Dual Hearts (Japan only)
Ecco the Dolphin: Defender of the Future (Co-published with Sega in PAL only)
Everybody's Golf 3 (Japan and North America only)
Ferrari F355 Challenge (Co-published with Sega in PAL only)
Final Fantasy X (Co-published with Squaresoft in PAL only)
Formula One 2002
Futari no Fantasvision (Japan only)
Gacharoku (Japan only)
Headhunter (Co-published with Sega in PAL only)
Jet X20 (North America only)
Kingdom Hearts (Co-published with Squaresoft in PAL only)
Let's Bravo Music (Japan only)
MotoGP 2 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
NBA ShootOut 2003 (North America only)
NCAA Final Four 2003 (North America only)
NCAA Gamebreaker 2003 (North America only)
NFL GameDay 2003 (North America only)
NHL FaceOff 2003 (North America only)
Ninja Assault (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Otostaz (Japan only)
Peter Pan in Disney's Return to Never Land (Co-published with Disney Interactive)
Poinie's Poin (Japan only)
Popolocrois: Adventure of Beginnings (Japan only)
Ratchet & Clank
Rez (Co-published with Sega in PAL only)
Sly Cooper and the Thievius Raccoonus
Smash Court Tennis Pro Tournament (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
SOCOM U.S. Navy SEALs
Space Channel 5 (Co-published with Sega in PAL only)
Space Fishermen (Japan only)
Surveillance Kanshisha (Japan only)
Tekken 4 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
The Getaway
The Keihin Kyuukou: Train Simulator Real (Japan only)
The Mark of Kri (North America and PAL only)
This is Football 2003
Twisted Metal: Black Online
Virtua Fighter 4 (Co-published with Sega in PAL only)
Yoake no Mariko 2nd Act (Japan only)
Wild Arms 3 (Japan and North America only)
Wipeout Fusion
WRC II Extreme
XI Go (Japan only)
2003
Retail
Amplitude (North America and PAL only)
Ape Escape 2 (Japan and PAL only)
Arc the Lad: Twilight of the Spirits
Dark Chronicle
Deka Voice (Japan only)
Dog's Life (PAL only)
Downhill Domination (North America and Japan only)
EverQuest Online Adventures (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and by Sony Computer Entertainment in PAL only)
EverQuest Online Adventures: Frontiers (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America only)
EyeToy: Play
EyeToy: Groove
Flipnic: Ultimate Pinball (Japan only)
Formula One 2003
Gacharoku 2: Kondo wa Sekai Isshuu yo!! (Japan only)
Ghosthunter (PAL only)
Hardware: Online Arena (PAL and Korea only)
Jak II
Kuma Uta (Japan only)
Lifeline (Japan only)
Jampack Winter 2003 (North America only)
MLB 2004 (Published in North America and Japan only)
Mojib-Ribbon (Japan only)
MotoGP 3 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
My Street (North America and PAL only)
NBA ShootOut 2004 (North America only)
NCAA Final Four 2004 (North America only)
NFL GameDay 2004 (North America only)
Pac-Man World 2 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Primal
Ratchet & Clank: Going Commando
Shibai Michi (Japan only)
Shinobi (Co-published with Sega in PAL only)
SOCOM II U.S. Navy SEALs
Space Channel 5: Part 2 (Co-published with Sega in PAL only, except UK)
This is Football 2004 (PAL and North America only)
Time Crisis 3 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
War of the Monsters
WRC 3
2004
Retail
Arc the Lad: End of Darkness (Japan only)
Ape Escape: Pumped & Primed
Athens 2004
ATV Offroad Fury 3 (North America only)
Bakufuu Slash! Kizna Arashi (Japan only)
Champions of Norrath: Realms of EverQuest (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America only)
Crisis Zone (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Destruction Derby: Arenas
DJbox (Japan only)
DJ: Decks & FX (PAL only)
Doko Demo Issho: Toro to Nagare Boshi (Japan only)
Everybody's Golf 4
EyeToy: Antigrav (North America and PAL only)
EyeToy: Monkey Mania (Japan and PAL only)
EyeToy: Play 2 (North America and PAL only)
Final Fantasy XI (Co-published with Square-Enix in North America only)
Finny the Fish & the Seven Waters (Japan only)
Formula One 04
Gran Turismo 4: Prologue
Gretzky NHL 2005 (North America only)
I-Ninja (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Jackie Chan Adventures (PAL only)
Jak 3
Jet Li: Rise to Honor
Kill.Switch (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Killzone
Koufuku Sousakan (Japan only)
MLB 2005 (Published in North America and Japan only)
Popolocrois:Adventure of the Law of the Moon (Japan only)
Pride of the Dragon Peace (Japan only)
Prince of Persia: Jikan no Suna (Co-published with Ubisoft in Japan only)
Ratchet & Clank: Up Your Arsenal
SingStar (PAL only)
SingStar Party (PAL only)
Siren
Sly 2: Band of Thieves
Smash Court Tennis Pro Tournament 2 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Soulcalibur III (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Syphon Filter: The Omega Strain
The Getaway: Black Monday
This is Football 2004 (PAL and North America only)
This is Football 2005 (PAL and North America only)
Vib-Ripple (Japan only)
WRC 4
2005
Retail
Ace Combat:Squadron Leader (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Ape Escape 3
Bokura no Kazoku (Japan only)
Brave: The Search for Spirit Dancer (Co-published with VIS Entertainment in PAL only)
Buzz!: The Music Quiz
Champions: Return to Arms (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America only)
Death by Degrees (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Disney's Peter Pan: The Legend of Never Land (Co-published with Disney Interactive in PAL only)
EyeToy: Chat (PAL only)
EyeToy: EduKids (Asia only)
EyeToy: Kinetic (North America and PAL only)
EyeToy: Play 3 (PAL only)
Formula One 05
Gaelic Games: Football (PAL only)
Genji: Dawn of the Samurai
God of War (North America and PAL only)
Gran Turismo 4
Gretzky NHL 06 (North America only)
Jak X: Combat Racing (North America and PAL only)
Kenran Butou Sai: The Mars Daybreak (Japan only)
Mawaza (Japan only)
MLB 2006 (Published in North America only)
MotoGP 4 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
NBA 06 (North America only)
Neopets: The Darkest Faerie (North America only)
Ratchet: Deadlocked
Rise of the Kasai (North America only)
Roland Garros Paris 2005:Powered by Smash Court Tennis (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Shadow of the Colossus
SingStar '80s
SingStar Pop
SingStar The Dome (PAL only)
Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves
SOCOM 3 U.S. Navy SEALs
Soul Calibur 3 (Co-published with Namco)
SpyToy (North America and PAL only)
Stuart Little 3: Big Photo Mode Adventure (PAL only)
Tekken 5 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Wild Arms 4 (Japan only)
Wild Arms Alter Code: F (Japan only)
WRC: Rally Evolved (PAL only)
Xenosaga Episode II: Jenseits von Gut und böse (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
2006
Retail
24: The Game (PAL only)
Ace Combat Zero: The Belkan War (Co-published with Bandai Namco Games in PAL only)
Ape Escape: Million Monkeys (Japan only)
ATV Offroad Fury 4
B-Boy (PAL only)
Blood+ Souyoku no Battle Rondo (Japan only)
Brave Story: Wataru no Bouken (Japan only)
Buzz!: The Big Quiz
Buzz!: The Sports Quiz (PAL only)
Buzz! Junior: Jungle Party
EyeToy: Kinetic Combat (PAL only)
EyeToy: Play Sports (PAL only)
Forbidden Siren 2 (Japan and PAL only)
Formula One 06
Gran Turismo 4 Online test version (Japan only)
Gunparade Orchestra: Ao no Shou (Japan only)
Gunparade Orchestra: Midori no Shou (Japan only)
Gunparade Orchestra: Shiro no Shou (Japan only)
Lemmings (PAL only)
MLB 06: The Show (North America and Korea only)
NBA 07 (North America only)
Rule of Rose (Japan only)
Shinobido: Way of the Ninja (PAL only)
SingStar Anthems (PAL only)
SingStar Legends
SingStar Rocks!
SOCOM U.S. Navy SEALs: Combined Assault
Tourist Trophy
Urban Reign (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
Wild Arms 5 (Japan only)
2007
Retail
Buzz!: The Hollywood Quiz
Buzz! The Mega Quiz
Buzz! Junior: Monster Rumble
Buzz! Junior: Robo Jam
Everybody's Tennis
EyeToy Astro Zoo (PAL only)
Gaelic Games: Football 2 (PAL only)
Gaelic Games: Hurling (PAL only)
God of War II (North America and PAL only)
MLB 07: The Show (North America and Korea only)
NBA 08 (North America and Australia only)
Rogue Galaxy
SingStar '90s
SingStar Amped (North America and Australia only)
SingStar Pop Hits 2 (PAL only)
SingStar Rock Ballads (PAL only)
SingStar R&B (PAL only)
Syphon Filter: Dark Mirror
2008
Retail
Buzz!: The Pop Quiz
Buzz!: The Schools Quiz
Buzz! Junior: Ace Racers (PAL only)
Buzz! Junior: Dino Den (PAL only)
EyeToy Play: Hero (PAL only)
EyeToy Play: PomPom Party (PAL only)
MLB 08: The Show (North America only)
NBA 09: The Inside (North America only)
Ratchet & Clank: Size Matters
SingStar ABBA
SingStar BoyBands vs GirlBands
SingStar Country (North America only)
SingStar Hottest Hits (Australia only)
SingStar Party Hits (Australia only)
SingStar Pop Vol. 2 (North America only)
SingStar Singalong with Disney (PAL only)
SingStar Summer Party (PAL only)
Twisted Metal: Head-On: Extra Twisted Edition (North America only)
2009
Retail
Buzz!: Brain of the World (PAL only)
Cart Kings (India only)
Chandragupta: Warrior Prince (India only)
Desi Adda: Games of India (India only)
Ghostbusters: The Video Game (PAL only)
Hanuman: Boy Warrior (India only)
Jak and Daxter: The Lost Frontier
MLB 09: The Show (North America only)
MotorStorm: Arctic Edge
Secret Agent Clank (North America and PAL only)
SingStar Latino (North America only)
SingStar Motown
SingStar Queen
SingStar Take That (UK only)
SingStar Vasco (Italy only)
Wipeout Pulse (PAL only)
2010
Retail
MLB 10: The Show (North America and Korea only)
SingStar Chart Hits (Australia Only)
SingStar Wiggles (Australia only)
Street Cricket Champions (India only)
Syphon Filter: Logan's Shadow (North America only)
2011
Retail
Chandragupta: Warrior Prince (India only)
MLB 11: The Show (North America and Korea only)
RA. ONE: The Game (India only)
2012
Retail
Street Cricket Champions 2 (India only)
2013
Retail
DON 2 The Game (India only)
PlayStation 3
2006
Retail
Genji: Days of the Blade
NBA 07 (North America and Japan only)
Resistance: Fall of Man
Untold Legends: Dark Kingdom (Published by Sony Online Entertainment)
PlayStation Network
Blast Factor
Cash Guns Chaos DLX (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America only)
Go! Sudoku
Gran Turismo HD Concept
Lemmings
Mainichi Issho (Japan only)
2007
Retail
Boku no Natsuyasumi 3: Kitaguni Hen: Chiisana Boku no Dai Sougen (Japan only)
Folklore
Formula One Championship Edition
Heavenly Sword
Lair
MLB 07: The Show (North America and Korea only)
MotorStorm
NBA 08 (North America and PAL only)
Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction
Ridge Racer 7 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
SingStar
The Eye of Judgment
Uncharted: Drake's Fortune
Warhawk
PlayStation Network
Aqua Vita (North America and PAL only)
Calling All Cars!
Everyday Shooter
EyeCreate
Feel Ski
Flow
Go! Puzzle
High Stakes on the Vegas Strip: Poker Edition (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
High Velocity Bowling
LocoRoco Cocoreccho!
Mesmerize Distort (North America and PAL only)
Mesmerize Trace (North America and PAL only)
Nucleus
Operation Creature Feature (PAL and North America only)
Pain (Retail version in PAL only)
PixelJunk Racers (North America and PAL only)
Piyotama
Snakeball
Super Rub 'a' Dub
Super Stardust HD
Tekken 5: Dark Resurrection (Co-published with Namco Bandai Games in PAL only)
The Trials of Topoq
Tori Emaki
Toy Home
2008
Retail
Afrika (Japan only)
Aquanaut's Holiday: Hidden Memories (Japan only)
Buzz!: Quiz TV
Gran Turismo 5 Prologue
Everybody's Golf 5
LittleBigPlanet
MLB 08: The Show (North America and Korea only)
MotorStorm: Pacific Rift
NBA 09: The Inside (North America only)
Resistance 2
SingStar ABBA
SingStar Vol. 2
SingStar Vol. 3
SOCOM U.S. Navy SEALs: Confrontation
Time Crisis 4 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
PlayStation Network
Buzz! Junior: Jungle Party (PAL and North America only)
Crash Commando
Dark Mist
Echochrome
Elefunk
Linger in Shadows
PixelJunk Eden (North America and PAL only)
PixelJunk Monsters (North America and PAL only)
PlayStation Home
Ratchet & Clank Future: Quest for Booty (Retail version in PAL only)
Siren: Blood Curse (Retail version in PAL only)
Sky Diving
The Last Guy
Wipeout HD
2009
Retail
Buzz!: Brain of the World (PAL only)
Buzz!: Quiz World
Demon's Souls (Japan only)
Desi Adda: Games of India (India only)
EyePet (PAL only)
Ghostbusters: The Video Game (PAL only)
God of War Collection (North America and PAL only)
Infamous
Killzone 2
MLB 09: The Show (North America, Korea and Australia only)
Ratchet & Clank Future: A Crack in Time
SingStar Latino (North America only)
SingStar Motown (PAL only)
SingStar Queen
SingStar Pop Edition (PAL only)
SingStar Starter Pack (PAL only)
SingStar Take That (UK only)
SingStar Vasco (Italy only)
Toro to Morimori (Japan only)
Uncharted 2: Among Thieves
Wipeout HD Fury (PAL only)
PlayStation Network
.detuned
Bejeweled 2 (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
Buzz! Junior: Dino Den (PAL only)
Buzz! Junior: Monster Rumble (PAL and North America only)
Buzz! Junior: Robo Jam (PAL and North America only)
Fat Princess
Flower
Gravity Crash
GTI Club+: Rally Côte d'Azur (North America only)
Heavy Weapon (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
Hustle Kings
Magic Orbz (North America only)
Numblast
Peggle (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
Peggle Nights (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
PixelJunk Shooter (North America and PAL only)
Rag Doll Kung Fu: Fists of Plastic
Revenge of the Wounded Dragons (North America only)
Savage Moon
Switchball (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
The Punisher: No Mercy
Trash Panic
Zuma (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
2010
Retail
Beat Sketcher
Buzz!: The Ultimate Music Quiz (PAL only)
EyePet Move Edition
God of War III
Gran Turismo 5
Heavy Rain
Heavy Rain Move Edition
High Velocity Bowling Move Edition (North America and Japan only)
Kung Fu Rider
Mag
MLB 10: The Show (North America and Korea only)
ModNation Racers
SingStar Chart Hits (Australia only)
SingStar Dance
SingStar Guitar (PAL only)
Sly Collection
Sports Champions
Start the Party!
The Fight: Lights Out
The Shoot
Time Crisis: Razing Storm (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)
TV Superstars
White Knight Chronicles
PlayStation Network
Buzz!: Quiz Player (PAL only, free-to-play version)
Dead Nation
Eat Them!
echochrome ii
Feeding Frenzy 2: Shipwreck Showdown (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
MotorStorm 3D Rift
PixelJunk Racers: 2nd Lap (North America and PAL only)
Qlione Evolve (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
Sackboy's Prehistoric Moves
SingStar Viewer
Swords & Soldiers (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
TerRover (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
Top Darts
Tumble
2011
Retail
Bleach: Soul Resurrecciòn (Japan only)
Carnival Island
DC Universe Online
DanceStar Party (PAL and North America only)
EyePet & Friends
God of War: Origins Collection
Infamous 2
Killzone 3
LittleBigPlanet 2
Medieval Moves: Deadmund's Quest
MLB 11: The Show (North America, Korea and Australia only)
MotorStorm: Apocalypse (PAL and North America only)
Move Fitness (Retail version in PAL, Asia and Korea, only download in North America)
PlayStation Move Ape Escape (Retail version in Japan, Asia and PAL, only download in North America and UK)
PlayStation Move Heroes
Ratchet & Clank: All 4 One
Resistance 3
SingStar Back to the '80s (PAL only)
SOCOM 4
Start the Party! Save the World (Retail version in PAL and Asia only )
Tekken Hybrid (Co-published with Namco Bandai Games in PAL only)
The Ico & Shadow of the Colossus Collection
Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception
White Knight Chronicles 2
PlayStation Network
Acceleration of Suguri X Edition (Published by Sony Online Entertainment)
Akimi Village (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
DC Universe Online (Published by Sony Online Entertainment, free-to-play version)
Free Realms (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North and PAL only)
Infamous: Festival of Blood
Payday: The Heist (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
PixelJunk Shooter 2 (North America and PAL only)
PixelJunk SideScroller (North America and PAL only)
Plants vs. Zombies (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
RA. ONE: The Game (PAL only, retail version in India only)
Rochard (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
Sideway New York (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
Slam Bolt Scrappers (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)
2012
Retail
DanceStar Party Hits (PAL only)
God of War Saga (North America only)
Jak and Daxter Collection
Journey Collector's Edition
Killzone Trilogy
LittleBigPlanet Karting
MLB 12: The Show (North America, Korea and Australia only) PlayStation All-Stars Battle RoyaleRatchet & Clank CollectionRatchet & Clank: Full Frontal AssaultSorcerySports Champions 2StarhawkTwisted MetalWonderbook: Book of Spells (PAL and North America only)PlayStation NetworkDaturaJourneyKillzone (Remastered version)Killzone 3 MultiplayerMaliciousMotorStorm RCMove Street Cricket (PAL only, retail version in India only)PixelJunk 4am (North America and PAL only)SingStar (Free-to-play version)Sound ShapesThe Unfinished SwanTokyo Jungle (Retail version in Japan only)When Vikings Attack!2013RetailBeyond: Two SoulsGod of War: AscensionGran Turismo 6Invizimals: The Lost Kingdom (Retail version in PAL only, download only in North America)MLB 13: The Show (Retail version in North America, Korea and Australia, download only in PAL)PuppeteerRatchet & Clank: Into the NexusSly Cooper: Thieves in TimeThe Last of UsWonderbook: Book of Potions (PAL and North America only)Wonderbook: Diggs Nightcrawler (PAL and North America only)Wonderbook: Walking with Dinosaurs (PAL and North America only)PlayStation NetworkBentley's HackpackDanceStar Digital (PAL only, free-to-play version)Dare to Fly (PAL only)Doki-Doki UniverseDust 514Everybody's Golf 6 (Retail version in Japan only)Kite Fight (PAL only)Move Street Cricket II (PAL only, retail version in India only)Pro FoosballRain (Retail version in Japan only)Ratchet: Deadlocked (Remastered version)Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception Multiplayer Free-to-play2014RetailLittleBigPlanet 3MinecraftMLB 14: The Show (Retail version in North America, download only in PAL)Ratchet & Clank: Ginga Saikyo Tristar Pack (Japan only)PlayStation NetworkCounterSpyEntwinedHohokumPain (Free-to-play version)SingStarResogun2015RetailMLB 15: The ShowPlayStation NetworkHelldivers2016RetailMLB The Show 16PlayStation 4
2013Retail Killzone: Shadow Fall KnackPlayStation NetworkDC Universe Online (Published by Sony Online Entertainment)Doki-Doki UniverseEscape PlanFlowFlowerResogunSound ShapesThe Playroom2014RetailDestiny (Published by Sony Computer Entertainment in Japan only)DriveclubInfamous First Light (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America)Infamous Second SonLittleBigPlanet 3 MLB 14: The Show (Retail version in North America, download only in PAL)The Last of Us RemasteredPlayStation NetworkCounterSpyDead Nation: Apocalypse EditionEntwinedHohokumKillzone: Shadow Fall Intercept (Standalone version)SingStarThe Unfinished Swan2015RetailBloodborneCall of Duty: Black Ops III (Published by Sony Computer Entertainment in Japan only)Gravity Rush Remastered God of War III RemasteredHelldivers: Super-Earth Ultimate EditionJourney Collector's EditionMLB 15: The Show (Retail version in North America, download only in PAL)Tearaway UnfoldedThe Order: 1886Uncharted: The Nathan Drake CollectionUntil DawnPlayStation NetworkBeyond: Two SoulsDestiny: The Taken King (Published by Sony Computer Entertainment in Japan only)Driveclub Bikes (Standalone version)Everybody's Gone to the RaptureFat Princess AdventuresGuns Up!HelldiversHustle KingsJourneyUltra Street Fighter IV (Published by Sony Computer Entertainment outside Japan)Super Stardust UltraThe Last of Us: Left Behind (Standalone version)2016RetailHere They Lie (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America) (PlayStation VR support)MLB The Show 16No Man's Sky (Co-published with Hello Games in PAL only)Ratchet & ClankShadow of the Beast (Retail version in Asian only)The Heavy Rain & Beyond: Two Souls CollectionThe Last GuardianUncharted: Drake's Fortune RemasteredUncharted 2: Among Thieves RemasteredUncharted 3: Drake's Deception RemasteredUncharted 4: A Thief's EndPlayStation NetworkAlienationBound (PlayStation VR support)Hardware: RivalsHeavy RainKill Strain The Tomorrow ChildrenPlayStation VRDriveclub VRHustle Kings VR (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America)PlayStation VR WorldsRIGS: Mechanized Combat LeagueSuper Stardust Ultra VR (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America)The Playroom VR (Download only)Tumble VR (Download only)Until Dawn: Rush of Blood2017RetailCrash Bandicoot N. Sane Trilogy (Published by Sony Interactive Entertainment in Japan only)Destiny 2 (Published by Sony Interactive Entertainment in Japan only)Gran Turismo Sport (PlayStation VR support)Gravity Rush 2Horizon Zero DawnKnack IIMLB The Show 17Everybody's GolfMatterfall (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America)Nioh (Published by Sony Interactive Entertainment outside Japan)Uncharted: The Lost LegacyWipeout Omega CollectionPlayStation NetworkDrawn to DeathJak and Daxter BundleLocoRoco RemasteredLocoRoco 2 RemasteredMalicious Fallen (Published by Sony Interactive Entertainment outside Japan)PaRappa the Rapper RemasteredPatapon RemasteredStifledPlayStation VRFarpointHonkowa Presents: Nogizaka46 VR Horror House (only available in Japan)No Heroes Allowed! VR (Retail version in Asia, download only internationally)StarBlood ArenaThe Last Guardian VR Demo (Download only)Air Force Special Ops: Nightfall (Download only)PlayLinkHidden AgendaKnowledge is PowerSingStar CelebrationThat's You!2018RetailDetroit: Become HumanGod of WarMarvel's Spider-ManMLB The Show 18Quantic Dream Collection (North America only)Shadow of the ColossusTetris Effect (Retail Version)Wipeout Omega Collection (PlayStation VR support)PlayStation NetworkWorld of WarriorsPlayStation VRAnimal Force (published by SIE outside North American)Astro Bot Rescue MissionBravo TeamDéracinéFirewall: Zero HourThe InpatientTrack LabPlayLinkChimpartyFranticsKnowledge is Power: Decades2019RetailConcrete GenieDays GoneDeath StrandingMediEvilMLB The Show 19Monkey King: Hero Is Back (Published by Sony Interactive Entertainment in Asia only)PlayStation NetworkDreams (Early Access)EricaReadySet HeroesPlayStation VRBlood & TruthEverybody's Golf VRImmortal Legacy: The Jade Cipher2020RetailCall of Duty: Black Ops Cold War (Published by Sony Interactive Entertainment in Japan)DreamsGhost of TsushimaMarvel's Spider-Man: Miles MoralesMLB The Show 20Nioh 2 (Published by Sony Interactive Entertainment outside Asia)Predator: Hunting GroundsSackboy: A Big AdventureThe Last of Us Part IIPlayStation NetworkPatapon 2 RemasteredPlayStation VRMarvel's Iron Man VRTilt Brush 2021
RetailGhost of Tsushima Director's CutMLB The Show 21PlayStation NetworkGhost of Tsushima: Legends 2022
Retail Horizon Forbidden WestAnnounced for 2022RetailGod of War RagnarökGran Turismo 7MLB The Show 22PlayStation 5
2020RetailDemon's SoulsCall of Duty: Black Ops Cold War (Published by Sony Interactive Entertainment in Japan)Sackboy: A Big AdventureMarvel's Spider-Man: Miles MoralesPlayStation NetworkAstro's PlayroomMarvel's Spider-Man Remastered2021RetailDestruction AllStarsThe Nioh Collection (Published by Sony Interactive Entertainment outside Japan)MLB The Show 21ReturnalRatchet & Clank: Rift ApartGhost of Tsushima Director's CutDeath Stranding Director's CutCall of Duty: Vanguard (Published by Sony Interactive Entertainment in Japan)PlayStation NetworkNioh Remastered (Published by Sony Interactive Entertainment outside Japan)Nioh 2 Remastered (Published by Sony Interactive Entertainment outside Japan)Ghost of Tsushima: Legends2022RetailUncharted: Legacy of Thieves CollectionHorizon Forbidden WestAnnounced for 2022RetailGod of War RagnarökGran Turismo 7MLB The Show 22 Announced for 2023
Retail Marvel's Spider-Man 2 To be announced
Retail Marvel's WolverineStar Wars: Knights of the Old Republic RemakePlayStation VR2Horizon Call of the MountainPlayStation Portable
2004RetailDoko Demo Issho (Japan only)2005RetailApe Escape AcademyApe Escape: On the LooseArcher Maclean's Mercury (Japan only)ATV Offroad Fury: Blazin' Trails (North America only)Everybody's Golf PortableF1 Grand PrixFired UpGlorace: Phantastic Carnival (South Korea only)Go! Sudoku (Japan and PAL only)Gretzky NHL (North America only)Gretzky NHL 06 (North America only)Hand Dic (South Korea only)MediEvil: ResurrectionMLB (North America and South Korea only)MLB 2006 (North America only)Namco Museum Battle Collection (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)NBA (North America only)NBA 06 (North America only)PoPoLoCrois (Japan only)Pursuit Force (PAL and North America only)Ridge Racer (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)SOCOM U.S. Navy SEALs: Fireteam BravoThe Con (North America, South Korea and PAL only)Twisted Metal: Head-OnUntold Legends: Brotherhood of the Blade (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America only)Wipeout PureWorld Tour Soccer: Challenge EditionWRC: FIA World Rally Championship (PAL only)Work Time Fun (Japan only)2006RetailAce Combat X: Skies of Deception (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)Ape Escape Academy 2 (Japan and PAL only)Ape Escape Racing (Japan and Asia only)ATV Offroad Fury ProB-Boy (PAL only)Blade Dancer: Lineage of Light (Japan only)Blood+ Final Piece (Japan only)Blood: The Last Vampire (Japan only)Boku no Natsuyasumi (Japan only)Brave Story (Japan only)DaxterField Commander (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America only)Formula One 06 (Japan and PAL only)Gangs of LondonKillzone: LiberationKingdom of ParadiseLemmingsLocoRocoMercury Meltdown (Japan only)MLB 06: The Show (North America and Japan only)Monster Kingdom: Jewel Summoner (Japan only)MotoGP (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)NBA 07 (North America only)Neopets: Petpet Adventures: The Wand of Wishing (North America only)Passport to... Amsterdam (PAL only)Passport to... Barcelona (PAL only)Passport to... London (PAL only)Passport to... Paris (PAL only)Passport to... Prague (PAL only)Passport to... Rome (PAL only)Ridge Racer 2 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)SOCOM U.S. Navy SEALs: Fireteam Bravo 2Syphon Filter: Dark MirrorTalkmanTekken: Dark Resurrection (Co-published with Namco Bandai Games in PAL only)Tenchi no Mon 2: Busouden (Japan only)Untold Legends: The Warrior's Code (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America only)World Tour Soccer 06XI Coliseum (Japan only)2007RetailApe Escape: SaruSaru Big Mission (Japan only)Jeanne d'Arc (Japan and North America only)MLB 07: The Show (North America and South Korea only)NBA 08 (North America only)PaRappa the RapperPursuit Force: Extreme Justice (PAL and North America only)Ratchet & Clank: Size MattersRezel Cross (Japan only)Shinobido: Tales of the Ninja (Japan and PAL only)Smash Court Tennis 3 (Co-published with Namco in PAL only)SOCOM U.S. Navy SEALs: Tactical StrikeSyphon Filter: Logan's ShadowWhat Did I Do to Deserve This, My Lord? (Japan only)Wild Arms XF (Japan only)Wipeout PulsePlayStation NetworkApe Quest (Retail version in Japan only)BeatsGo! PuzzleSyphon Filter: Combat Ops2008RetailBuzz!: Brain Bender (PAL only)Buzz!: Master QuizCoded Soul: Uketsugareshi Idea (Japan and South Korea only)Echochrome (Retail version in Japan and PAL only)Everybody's Golf Portable 2God of War: Chains of Olympus (North America and PAL only)LocoRoco 2MLB 08: The Show (North America and South Korea only)NBA 09: The Inside (North America only)PataponSecret Agent ClankWhat Did I Do to Deserve This, My Lord? (Japan only)PlayStation NetworkBrain Challenge (North America only)Everyday ShooterFlowMainichi Issho Portable (Japan only)Super Stardust Portable2009RetailBoku no Natsuyasumi 4: Seitouchi Shounen Tanteidan, Boku to Himitsu no Chizu (Japan only)Buzz!: Brain of the World (PAL only)Buzz!: Quiz WorldChandrugpta: Warrior Prince (India only)Desi Adda: Games of India (India only)Enkaku Sōsa: Shinjitsu e no 23 NichikanGhostbusters: The Video Game (PAL only)Gran TurismoInvizimals (PAL and North America only)Jak and Daxter: The Lost FrontierLittleBigPlanetMLB 09: The Show (North America, Korea and Australia only)NBA 10 The Inside (North America only)MotorStorm: Arctic EdgePatapon 2Resistance: RetributionPlayStation NetworkLocoRoco Midnight CarnivalNumblastPinball HeroesPixelJunk Monsters Deluxe (North America and PAL only)Savage Moon The Hera Campaign2010RetailEchoshift (Retail version in Japan and PAL only)Everybody's Tennis PortableEyePetFat Princess: Fistful of Cake (PAL and North America only)God of War: Ghost of SpartaInvizimals: Shadow Zone (PAL and North America only)Jungle PartyMLB 10: The Show (North America and Korea only)ModNation RacersPatito Feo: el juego màs bonito (PAL only: Spain, Portugal and Italy)SOCOM U.S. Navy SEALs: Fireteam Bravo 3Street Cricket Champions (India only)The Eye of Judgment: Legends (Retail version in Japan and PAL only)PlayStation NetworkEverybody's Stress Buster (Retail version in Japan and Asia only)Gravity CrashNo Heroes Allowed! (Retail version in Japan only)Patchwork Heroes (Retail version in Japan only)Announcing Patchwork Heroes for PSP. PlayStation.BlogPinball Heroes Bundle 22011RetailBuzz!: The Ultimate Music Quiz (PAL only)Disney•Pixar Cars 2 (PAL and North America only)Cart Kings (India only)EyePet Adventures (PAL only)Geronimo Stilton in The Kingdom of Fantasy The Videogame (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America)Invizimals: The Lost Tribes (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America)MLB 11: The Show (North America, South Korea and Australia only)Patapon 3The Mystery Team (PAL only)White Knight Chronicles: Origins (Japan and PAL only)2012RetailGeronimo Stilton: Return to The Kingdom of Fantasy The Videogame (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America)Phineas and Ferb: Across the 2nd Dimension (PAL and North America only)Street Cricket Champions 2 (India only)2013RetailDON 2 The Game (India only)PlayStation NetworkInvizimals: Hidden Challenges (PAL only)PlayStation Vita
2012RetailEverybody's Golf 6Gravity RushLittleBigPlanet PS VitaLittle DeviantsMLB 12: The Show (Retail version in North America, Korea and Australia, download only in PAL)ModNation Racers: Road TripPlayStation All-Stars Battle RoyaleReality FightersResistance: Burning SkiesSmart As...Uncharted: Golden AbyssUnit 13Wipeout 2048PlayStation NetworkCliff DivingEcolibriumEscape PlanFireworksFrobisher Says!Hustle KingsMotorStorm RCPaint ParkPlants vs. Zombies (Published by Sony Online Entertainment in North America and PAL only)PulzARSound ShapesSuper Stardust Deltat@gTable FootballTable Ice HockeyTable Top TanksTop DartsTravel BugTreasure ParkUncharted: Fight for FortuneWhen Vikings Attack!2013RetailDisney Epic Mickey 2: The Power of Two (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America)Invizimals: The Alliance (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America)Jak and Daxter TrilogyKillzone: MercenaryMLB 13: The Show (Retail version in North America, Korea and Australia, download only in PAL)Sly Cooper: Thieves in TimeSoul SacrificeTearawayThe Walking Dead: The Complete First SeasonPlayStation NetworkBentley's HackpackDoki-Doki UniverseFlowFlowerJacob Jones and the Bigfoot MysteryImaginstrumentsInvizimals Hidden Challenges (PAL only)Malicious RebirthOpen Me!Paint Park PlusPlayStation Home ArcadeRatchet & Clank: Full Frontal AssaultTable Mini GolfWake-up Club2014RetailBorderlands 2Disney's The Muppets Movie Adventures (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America next yearFreedom WarsGod of War CollectionInvizimals: The Resistance (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America)LittleBigPlanet PS Vita: Marvel Super Hero Edition (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America)Minecraft (Retail version in PAL, download code only in North America)MLB 14: The Show (Retail version in North America, download only in PAL)PlayStation Vita Pets (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America)Ratchet & Clank Collection (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America)The Sly CollectionPlayStation NetworkCounterSpyDead NationDestiny of SpiritsEntwinedHohokumLemmings TouchMurasaki BabyNo Heroes Allowed: No Puzzles Either!ResogunSoul Sacrifice Delta (Retail version in Japan and Hong Kong only)The Hungry HordeThe Unfinished Swan2015RetailLooney Tunes: Galactic Sports! (PAL released, North America release later this year)MLB 15: The Show (Download code only in North America)Moe Chronicle (Asia only)Phineas and Ferb: Day of Doofenshmirtz (Retail version in PAL, download only in North America)PlayStation NetworkBigFestDisney's The Muppets Movie Adventures (Download only in North America, released in PAL the previous year)Fat Princess: Piece of CakeHelldiversOreshika: Tainted Bloodlines (Retail version in Japan and Hong Kong only)Run Sackboy! Run!MonsterBagMicrosoft Windows
2015Helldivers2016Everybody's Gone to the Rapture 2018Guns Up! 2019ReadySet Heroes 2020Horizon Zero Dawn Predator: Hunting Grounds
2021Days Gone 2022
God of War Announced for 2022
Uncharted: Legacy of Thieves Collection
iOS/Android
2014 PS Vita Pets: Puppy Parlour (Published under PlayStation Mobile)Run Sackboy! Run! (Published under PlayStation Mobile)2016Invizimals: Battle Hunters (Published under PlayStation Mobile)Uncharted: Fortune Hunter (Published under PlayStation Mobile)''
See also
Sony Interactive Entertainment
SIE Worldwide Studios
List of Xbox Game Studios video games
List of products published by Nintendo
Notes
References
External links
Sony Interactive Entertainment Inc.
SIE Worldwide Studios
Sony Computer Entertainment |
18598241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia%205800%20XpressMusic | Nokia 5800 XpressMusic | Nokia 5800 XpressMusic is a smartphone part of the XpressMusic line, announced by Nokia on 2 October 2008 in London and started shipping in November of that year. Code-named "Tube", it was the first touchscreen-equipped S60 device by Nokia - essentially it was the first device to run Symbian^1, also known as S60 5th Edition, the touch-specific S60-based platform created by the Symbian Foundation. The touchscreen features tactile feedback (though it does not use Nokia's Haptikos technology).
Nokia 5800 XpressMusic has a 3.2-inch display with a resolution of 640x360 pixels, and has many features standard to the Nokia Nseries, such as GPS, HSDPA and Wi-Fi support. It was a highly anticipated device in 2008 and went on to become a commercial success with 8 million units sold a year after release. It was praised for its supplied stylus and low price, but was viewed negative by critics for its camera and software issues.
History
The Nokia 5800 XpressMusic is not the first touchscreen device in Nokia's range. In 2004, the Nokia 7700 was announced, a Nokia Series 90 device that was cancelled before it reached the market. This was followed by the Nokia 7710 which was an upgraded version of the 7700 and became available during 2005. Nokia also produced the UIQ-based Nokia 6708 phone in 2005, but this was not an in-house development and was bought in from Taiwanese manufacturer BenQ. Nokia have also produced a range of Maemo-based Internet tablets which have a touchscreen interface, but are not mobile phones by themselves (one can connect and use a phone via Bluetooth). The 5800 is, however, Nokia's first Symbian S60 touchscreen device. The 16:9 aspect ratio display was the first among mobile phones. It has a compatibility mode for Java applications that are not touchscreen-aware. It works by using part of the screen for displaying the essential buttons required by the program.
The launch of the 5800 XpressMusic in January 2009 was followed-up with the release of the Nokia N97 in May and June 2009, followed by the Series 40 based Nokia 6208c in January 2009. The device, as well as the Nokia Music Store, launched in South Africa on 24 April 2009.
On the market, the Nokia 5800 XpressMusic would compete with other touchscreen devices such as Sony Ericsson Xperia X1, Sony Ericsson Satio, iPhone 3G, HTC Touch Diamond, LG Renoir, LG Arena (KM900), BlackBerry Storm 9500, Samsung Pixon and Samsung i900 Omnia.
In early February 2009 the website Mobile-Review.com, which was initially very enthusiastic about the handset, published its research and concluded that the Nokia 5800 had a design flaw. Specifically, when phones were used on a daily basis, their earpieces, produced for Nokia under contract by a third party, would cease to function in a very short time. Repairs performed under warranty would only temporarily fix the problem. The defect was found to be in the earpiece design. Nokia's public relations department had admitted that the Nokia 5800 XpressMusic contained this design defect. According to Nokia, they switched to another earpiece manufacturer, so all 5800's produced during February 2009 or later should be free from defect, with previously produced earpieces eligible for free warranty repair. New earpiece parts have also been supplied to Nokia service centres and future phone repairs should permanently fix the defect.
Navigation Edition
On 21 August 2009, Nokia announced a new variant named Nokia 5800 Navigation Edition. In addition to the normal Nokia 5800, it has the latest version of Nokia Maps pre-installed. It also comes with a car charger and car kit inside the box because the GPS decreases the battery life. Both the Nokia 5800 XpressMusic and the 5800 Navigation Edition, however, have free lifetime navigation, due to the new version of Ovi Maps.
The service was available at nokia.com.
Marketing
A prototype of this handset was seen in the 2008 Batman movie, The Dark Knight and a number of music videos such as Christina Aguilera's "Keeps Gettin' Better", "Womanizer" by Britney Spears, Flo Rida's "Right Round", Pitbull's "Shut It Down", The Pussycat Dolls' "Jai Ho!" and "Hush Hush", Katy Perry's "Waking Up in Vegas" and Cobra Starship's "Good Girls Go Bad".
The phone has received generally positive reviews, with UK phone magazine Mobile Choice awarding it a full 5 stars in its 7 January 2009 issue.
Sales
On 23 January 2009, Nokia announced it had shipped the millionth 5800 XpressMusic device, even though it still had not been fully released worldwide. Noknok reported by April that it was one of the fastest selling smartphones of all time. In Nokia's Q1 report released on 16 April 2009 it was announced the company had shipped 2.6 million units during the quarter, with cumulative shipments of more than 3 million units since the smartphone's launch. Q2 results released 16 July 2009 reports 3.7 million units shipped during the quarter and more than 6.8 million units total have shipped since the release. As of November 2009, over 8 million units had been sold.
Specifications
Nokia 5800 XpressMusic has the following specifications:
81-mm / 3.2-inch 16.7M TFT resistive touchscreen, 360 × 640 pixels resolution (16:9 display ratio).
Dimensions: 111 × 51.7 × 15.5 mm, 83 cm3
Weight: 109 g (incl. battery and sim card).
S60 5th edition OS with touch input running Symbian OS v9.4
Quad band GSM / GPRS / EDGE: GSM 850 / 900 / 1800 / 1900
Dual band UMTS / HSDPA: UMTS 900 / 2100 (5800–1) or UMTS 850 / 1900 (5800-2 Latin America and Brazil variant)
Stand-by time – Up to 406 hrs
Integrated hands-free speakerphone
Vibrating alert
Accelerometer for auto screen rotation.
3.2 MP AF Carl Zeiss lens, dual LED flash, 3x digital zoom and geotagging support.
GPS with A-GPS function and Ovi Maps
FM Radio 76.0–108 MHz with RDS (max. 20 stations).
3.5 mm headphone / video-out jack and Nokia video-out cable CA-75U.
MicroSDHC card slot (up to 16 GB) and 8GB card included in box (unofficial support up to 32 GB)
Micro-USB 2.0 connector, Bluetooth 2.0 (EDR/A2DP/AVRCP) and Wireless LAN.
Colours available – Black, Blue & Red
Keys and input method
Stylus, plectrum and finger touch support for text input and user interface control (alphanumeric keypad, full and mini qwerty keyboard, handwriting recognition)
Dedicated Media Bar touch key for access to music, gallery, share on-line, Video Centre and web browser
Voice commands
Physical keys for application launch key (menu key), send & end, power, camera, lock, volume up & down, slide unlock.
Software
Built-in support for Flash Lite 3.1.
Java ME MIDP 2.0 included.
Read-only trial version of QuickOffice is available, allowing to read MS Office/OpenOffice.org files, also supporting the Office Open XML file format.
Adobe Reader LE trial version
Ovi Maps
Other s60v5 (*.sis) and Java (*.jar) software.
Pre-installed Bounce Touch & Global Race: Raging Thunder Games
Firmware updates
From firmware version 20.0.012 onwards, the 5800's CPU clock was increased from 369 MHz to 434 MHz, matching the N97 specification. However, improved overall performance can be observed since firmware version 30.
On 13 January 2010, Nokia released a major firmware update, version 40.0.005. The update includes bug fixes, speed improvements and new features. The most visible are kinetic scrolling to all menus (except the main and applications menus) and an improved home screen that was first introduced on the Nokia 5530. This software update also saw the removal of alphanumeric keypad in landscape view during text input, which was replaced by a full QWERTY keyboard. The new home screen provides a contacts carousel, with up to 20 contacts and program shortcuts on screen at the same time. There is a change on option selecting in every menus, but hard to notice; if one selects and holds on that selection, it will be in white, but normal colours when selecting an option is still being red like in v20.
On 19 April 2010, firmware version 50.0.005 was released. This new major update brought some new features available in Nokia N97, such as an upgrade to the existing web browser to version 7.2 and full kinetic scrolling and auto-full screen while browsing the web; a new music player with mini-album art in the song list and the album list, initial letter filtering of track titles in the music player while scrolling using the scroll-bar. As a result, the search function was removed from the music player. A new application called Ovi Sync was installed and the Nokia Music Store received a revamped user interface and was renamed to "Ovi Music". In some regions, Quick Office 4.2.374 is integrated with full free license. Search application's icon was changed and a few more minor updates for better touch sensitivity and tweaks for faster operation of the phone are present. And a little update to the color, the option you select is in silver, but when hold an option, it is still being white like v40. There is also the new feature, one-touch dialling.
Firmware 51.0.006 appeared in August 2010 and contained minor bug fixes and updates to various applications. RDS function, however, remains dysfunctional since version 40.0.005. The web browser has lost its ability to re-flow the text when the page is enlarged.
Firmware 51.2.007 was also released for North American Nokia 5800 RM-428 in August 2010 with the following changes:
This software release comes with an improved browser, improved video calls, and a new version of Mail for Exchange. There are also general performance improvements.
Improved Mail for Exchange
Improved video calls
Improved browser
Performance improvements
In November 2010, an updated firmware for Nokia 5800 was released for Nokia 5800 as V52.0.007. The firmware update expects
Greater New Features
Updated Application
Performance improvements
RDS function fix
There is still no "pencil" or "select several" ability in the gallery. A big disadvantage still exists as pictures and videos are listed in one gallery and there are no separate galleries for pictures and videos.
On 20 October 2011, firmware version 60.0.003 was released. This new major update brought the new Symbian Anna browser 7.3.1.33 and swipe to unlock feature.
See also
Mobile Java
Nokia PC Suite
Nokia Software Updater
Qt (framework)
RealPlayer
Text-to-speech
Wireless personal area network (WPAN)
References
External links
Nokia 5800 XpressMusic Product Page
Nokia 5800 XpressMusic Complete Device Specifications
Nokia end-user support forum
Nokia Device Manager
5800
Smartphones
Symbian devices
Portable media players
Handwriting recognition
S60 (software platform)
Digital audio players
Personal digital assistants
Devices capable of speech recognition
Mobile phones introduced in 2008 |
4348507 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pylaemenes | Pylaemenes | In Greek mythology, Pylaemenes (Ancient Greek: Πυλαιμένης) may refer to two distinct characters:
Pylaemenes, king of the Eneti tribe of Paphlagonia. He claimed to be related to Priam through Phineus, as the latter's daughter Olizone was married to Dardanus. Pylaemenes led his Paphlagonian forces to the Trojan War, as a Trojan ally. He was killed in battle by Menelaus of Sparta. His son named Harpalion was killed by the Cretan warrior Meriones, son of Molus. Homer provided no parentage for Pylaemenes, but other mythographers named his father as Bilsates or Melius.
Pylaemenes, one of the Suitors of Penelope who came from Dulichium along with other 56 wooers. He, with the other suitors, was shot dead by Odysseus with the help of Eumaeus, Philoetius, and Telemachus.
Notes
References
Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Dictys Cretensis, from The Trojan War. The Chronicles of Dictys of Crete and Dares the Phrygian translated by Richard McIlwaine Frazer, Jr. (1931-). Indiana University Press. 1966. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Homer, Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. . Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Livy - Book 1
Kings in Greek mythology
People of the Trojan War
Characters in the Iliad
Suitors of Penelope
Characters in Greek mythology |
13621776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splashtop%20OS | Splashtop OS | Splashtop OS (previously known as SplashTop) is a discontinued Linux distribution intended to serve as instant-on environment for personal computers. It is open source software with some closed source components. The original concept of Splashtop was that it was intended to be integrated on a read-only device and shipped with the hardware, rather than installed by the user. It did not prevent the installation of another operating system for dual booting. It was an instant-on commercial Linux distribution targeting PC motherboard vendors and other device manufacturers. The first OEM partner for the original Splashtop was ASUS, and their first joint product was called Express Gate. Later, other computer manufacturers also built Splashtop into certain models and re-branded it under different names. The aspects below detailing these events are retained verbatim from past articles, for historical reference.
It boots in about 5 seconds, was thus marketed as "instant-on". It uses Bootsplash, SquashFS, Blackbox, SCIM, and the Linux kernel 2.6.
Support for Splashtop OS has been withdrawn and downloads of Splashtop OS have been disabled on the Splashtop website. Its popularity quickly declined after announcing an agreement with Microsoft and most vendors who included it eventually started using a version that required a windows installation and later simply dropped it. Splashtop Inc. then focused on a remote desktop solution.
Features
Splashtop features a graphical user interface, a web browser based on Mozilla Firefox 2.0 (later updated to Firefox 3.0), a Skype VoIP client, a chat client based on Pidgin, and a stripped-down file manager based on PCManFM. It also includes Adobe Flash Player 10.
Splashtop OS shipping in HP, Dell, Lenovo, Acer, and other OEMs was based on Mozilla-based web browser. Google declined to be the search engine as Google did not want to revenue share on search traffic with DeviceVM.
Despite Splashtop OS is Linux based, Splashtop closed partnership with Yahoo! and Microsoft Bing as search engines. After assessing Splashtop OS technology, Google decided to launch its own ChromeOS and Chromebook.
The online downloadable version of Splashtop OS (beta) version 0.9.8.1 uses Microsoft Bing as search engine, a Chromium-based web browser with Adobe Flash Player plug-in preinstalled. Existing Windows bookmarks and Wi-Fi settings can be imported from Windows.
Most versions of Asus motherboards no longer come with Splashtop preinstalled, as the manufacturer now limits the inclusion of its built-in Express Gate flash drive to "Premium" motherboards such as the P6T Deluxe and P7P55D-E Premium. Other Asus motherboards allow installation of the compact OS via a Windows-only based installer on its support CD. Installation from CD requires a Windows partition to store 500 MB of files, which has to be a SATA drive defined as IDE (no support for AHCI).
If one doesn't have a Windows-based machine, it is possible to install Splashtop on a USB hard drive, from the sources.
As of June 2010, Splashtop, as supplied for Asus motherboards, had no support for add-on wireless hardware such as PCI cards.
Internals
Splashtop can work with a 512 MB flash memory embedded on the PC motherboard. The flash memory can be also emulated on the Windows drive (see below). A proprietary core engine starts at the BIOS boot and loads a specialized Linux distribution called a Virtual Appliance Environment (VAE). While running this VAE, the user can launch Virtual Appliances (VA) or container. Skype is a VA or container, for instance.
The Sony VAIO versions such as 1.3.4.3 are installed as VAIO Quick Web Access. The installer and the resulting SquashFS files occupy roughly 2×250 MB. The SquashFS files consist of a hidden and two hidden folders and in the Windows -partition, where corresponds to for a DOS file system emulation of a USB flash drive. The MD5 checksums of the various bootsplash xxxx and Virtual Appliance xxxx files (including a special Firefox configuration) are noted in for a simple integrity check at the Splashtop start. VAIO laptops offer special buttons ASSIST, WEB, or VAIO depending on the model. The power button on these laptops triggers an ordinary PC boot process, the WEB button starts Splashtop. If a Windows-version configured for VAIO is already running the WEB button only starts the default browser.
The open sources used for major parts of different Splashtop versions can be downloaded. Parts of Splashtop are subject to patents.
DeviceVM owns various patents around instant-on techniques, including being the first OS to leverage on-board flash for enhanced performance, and intelligently cache hardware probing info so next boot will be faster. Many techniques are now incorporated by Microsoft and other modern OS for fast startup.
Products using Splashtop
Asus distributed Splashtop in various motherboards and laptops, including select products from Eee family, under name "Express Gate". Splashtop was also available in netbooks and laptops from various vendors under names "Acer InstantView", "HP QuickWeb", "Dell Latitude On", "Lenovo Quick Start", "LG Smart On", "VAIO Quick Web Access" and "Voodoo IOS".
Total shipment achieved over 100 million computers annually by 2009.
See also
HyperSpace
Latitude ON
coreboot
Extensible Firmware Interface
Open Firmware
OpenBIOS
References
External links
BIOS
Embedded Linux distributions
Linux distributions used in appliances
Linux distributions |
35051629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wombat%20%28operating%20system%29 | Wombat (operating system) | In computing, Wombat is an operating system, a high-performance virtualised Linux embedded operating system marketed by Open Kernel Labs, a spin-off of National ICT Australia's (now NICTA) Embedded, Real Time, Operating System Program.
Wombat is a de-privileged (paravirtualised) Linux running on an L4 and IGUANA system. It is optimized for embedded systems.
See also
L4Linux
References
External links
Wombat: A portable user-mode Linux for embedded systems (presentation slides)
Virtualised os: wombat
Iguana
L4 Based Operating Systems
L4.Sec Microkernel Specification
NICTA L4-embedded Kernel
Real-time operating systems
Embedded operating systems
Microkernel-based operating systems
ARM operating systems |
1555671 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online%20advertising | Online advertising | Online advertising, also known as online marketing, Internet advertising, digital advertising or web advertising, is a form of marketing and advertising which uses the Internet to promote products and services to audiences and platform users. Online advertising includes email marketing, search engine marketing (SEM), social media marketing, many types of display advertising (including web banner advertising), and mobile advertising. Advertisements are increasingly being delivered via automated software systems operating across multiple websites, media services and platforms, known as programmatic advertising.
Like other advertising media, online advertising frequently involves a publisher, who integrates advertisements into its online content, and an advertiser, who provides the advertisements to be displayed on the publisher's content. Other potential participants include advertising agencies who help generate and place the ad copy, an ad server which technologically delivers the ad and tracks statistics, and advertising affiliates who do independent promotional work for the advertiser.
In 2016, Internet advertising revenues in the United States surpassed those of cable television and broadcast television. In 2017, Internet advertising revenues in the United States totaled $83.0 billion, a 14% increase over the $72.50 billion in revenues in 2016. And research estimates from 2019's online advertising spend puts it at $125.2 billion in the United States, some $54.8 billion higher than the spend on television ($70.4 billion).
Many common online advertising practices are controversial and, as a result, have been increasingly subject to regulation. Many internet users also find online advertising disruptive and have increasingly turned to ad blocking for a variety of reasons. Online ad revenues also may not adequately replace other publishers' revenue streams. Declining ad revenue has led some publishers to place their content behind paywalls.
History
In early days of the Internet, online advertising was mostly prohibited. For example, two of the predecessor networks to the Internet, ARPANET and NSFNet, had "acceptable use policies" that banned network "use for commercial activities by for-profit institutions". The NSFNet began phasing out its commercial use ban in 1991.
Email
The first widely publicized example of online advertising was conducted via electronic mail. On 3 May 1978, a marketer from DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation), Gary Thuerk, sent an email to most of the ARPANET's American west coast users, advertising an open house for a new model of a DEC computer. Despite the prevailing acceptable use policies, electronic mail marketing rapidly expanded and eventually became known as "spam."
The first known large-scale non-commercial spam message was sent on 18 January 1994 by an Andrews University system administrator, by cross-posting a religious message to all USENET newsgroups. In January 1994 Mark Eberra started the first email marketing company for opt in email list under the domain Insideconnect.com. He also started the Direct Email Marketing Association to help stop unwanted email and prevent spam.
Four months later, Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel, partners in a law firm, broadly promoted their legal services in a USENET posting titled "Green Card Lottery – Final One?" Canter and Siegel's Green Card USENET spam raised the profile of online advertising, stimulating widespread interest in advertising via both Usenet and traditional email. More recently, spam has evolved into a more industrial operation, where spammers use armies of virus-infected computers (botnets) to send spam remotely.
Display ads
Online banner advertising began in the early 1990s as page owners sought additional revenue streams to support their content. Commercial online service Prodigy displayed banners at the bottom of the screen to promote Sears products. The first clickable web ad was sold by Global Network Navigator in 1993 to a Silicon Valley law firm. In 1994, web banner advertising became mainstream when HotWired, the online component of Wired Magazine, and Time Warner's Pathfinder (website) sold banner ads to AT&T and other companies. The first AT&T ad on HotWired had a 44% click-through rate, and instead of directing clickers to AT&T's website, the ad linked to an online tour of seven of the world's most acclaimed art museums.
Search ads
GoTo.com (renamed Overture in 2001, and acquired by Yahoo! in 2003) created the first search advertising keyword auction in 1998. Google launched its "AdWords" (now renamed Google Ads) search advertising program in 2000 and introduced quality-based ranking allocation in 2002, which sorts search advertisements by a combination of bid price and searchers' likeliness to click on the ads.
Recent trends
More recently, companies have sought to merge their advertising messages into editorial content or valuable services. Examples include Red Bull's Red Bull Media House streaming Felix Baumgartner's jump from space online, Coca-Cola's online magazines, and Nike's free applications for performance tracking. Advertisers are also embracing social media and mobile advertising; mobile ad spending has grown 90% each year from 2010 to 2013.
According to Ad Age Datacenter analysis, in 2017 over half of agency revenue came from digital work.
Types of online advertising
Display advertising
Display advertising conveys its advertising message visually using text, logos, animations, videos, photographs, or other graphics. Display advertising is ubiquitous across online systems including websites, search engines, social media platforms, mobile applications and email. Google and Facebook dominate online display advertising, which has become highly concentrated market, with estimates that they were responsible for 70% of overall US digital advertising revenue in 2016. The goal of display advertising is to obtain more traffic, clicks, or popularity for the advertising brand or organization. Display advertisers frequently target users with particular traits to increase the ads' effect.
Web banner advertising
Web banners or banner ads typically are graphical ads displayed within a web page. Many banner ads are delivered by a central ad server.
Banner ads can use rich media to incorporate video, audio, animations, buttons, forms, or other interactive elements using Java applets, HTML5, Adobe Flash, and other programs. Frame ads were the first form of web banners. The colloquial usage of "banner ads" often refers to traditional frame ads. Website publishers incorporate frame ads by setting aside a particular space on the web page. The Interactive Advertising Bureau's Ad Unit Guidelines proposes standardized pixel dimensions for ad units.
Pop-ups/pop-unders: A pop-up ad is displayed in a new web browser window that opens above a website visitor's initial browser window. A pop-under ad opens a new browser window under a website visitor's initial browser window. Pop-under ads and similar technologies are now advised against by online authorities such as Google, who state that they "do not condone this practice".
Floating ad: A floating ad, or overlay ad, is a type of rich media advertisement that appears superimposed over the requested website's content. Floating ads may disappear or become less obtrusive after a pre-set time period.
Expanding ad: An expanding ad is a rich media frame ad that changes dimensions upon a predefined condition, such as a preset amount of time a visitor spends on a webpage, the user's click on the ad, or the user's mouse movement over the ad. Expanding ads allow advertisers to fit more information into a restricted ad space.
Trick banners: A trick banner is a banner ad where the ad copy imitates some screen element users commonly encounter, such as an operating system message or popular application message, to induce ad clicks. Trick banners typically do not mention the advertiser in the initial ad, and thus they are a form of bait-and-switch. Trick banners commonly attract a higher-than-average click-through rate, but tricked users may resent the advertiser for deceiving them.
News Feed Ads
"News Feed Ads", also called "Sponsored Stories", "Boosted Posts", typically exist on social media platforms that offer a steady stream of information updates ("news feed") in regulated formats (i.e. in similar sized small boxes with a uniform style). Those advertisements are intertwined with non-promoted news that the users are reading through. Those advertisements can be of any content, such as promoting a website, a fan page, an app, or a product.
Some examples are: Facebook's "Sponsored Stories", LinkedIn's "Sponsored Updates", and Twitter's "Promoted Tweets".
This display ads format falls into its own category because unlike banner ads which are quite distinguishable, News Feed Ads' format blends well into non-paid news updates. This format of online advertisement yields much higher click-through rates than traditional display ads.
Advertising sales and delivery models
The process by which online advertising is displayed can involve many parties. In the simplest case, the website publisher selects and serves the ads. Publishers which operate their own advertising departments may use this method. Alternatively ads may be outsourced to an advertising agency under contract with the publisher, and served from the advertising agency's servers or ad space may be offered for sale in a bidding market using an ad exchange and real-time bidding, known as programmatic advertising.
Programmatic advertising
Programmatic advertising involves automating the sale and delivery of digital advertising on websites and platforms via software rather than direct human decision-making. Advertisements are selected and targeted to audiences via ad servers which often use cookies, which are unique identifiers of specific computers, to decide which ads to serve to a particular consumer. Cookies can track whether a user left a page without buying anything, so the advertiser can later retarget the user with ads from the site the user visited.
As advertisers collect data across multiple external websites about a user's online activity, they can create a detailed profile of the user's interests to deliver even more targeted advertising. This aggregation of data is called behavioral targeting. Advertisers can also target their audience by using contextual to deliver display ads related to the content of the web page where the ads appear. Retargeting, behavioral targeting, and contextual advertising all are designed to increase an advertiser's return on investment, or ROI, over untargeted ads.
Advertisers may also deliver ads based on a user's suspected geography through geotargeting. A user's IP address communicates some geographic information (at minimum, the user's country or general region). The geographic information from an IP can be supplemented and refined with other proxies or information to narrow the range of possible locations. For example, with mobile devices, advertisers can sometimes use a phone's GPS receiver or the location of nearby mobile towers. Cookies and other persistent data on a user's machine may provide help narrowing a user's location further.
This involves many parties interacting automatically in real time. In response to a request from the user's browser, the publisher content server sends the web page content to the user's browser over the Internet. The page does not yet contain ads, but contains links which cause the user's browser to connect to the publisher ad server to request that the spaces left for ads be filled in with ads. Information identifying the user, such as cookies and the page being viewed, is transmitted to the publisher ad server.
The publisher ad server then communicates with a supply-side platform server. The publisher is offering ad space for sale, so they are considered the supplier. The supply side platform also receives the user's identifying information, which it sends to a data management platform. At the data management platform, the user's identifying information is used to look up demographic information, previous purchases, and other information of interest to advertisers. The process is sometimes described as a ‘waterfall’.
Broadly speaking, there are three types of data obtained through such a data management platform:
First party data refers to the data retrieved from customer relationship management (CRM) platforms, in addition to website and paid media content or cross-platform data. This can include data from customer behaviors, actions or interests.
Second party data refers to an amalgamation of statistics related to cookie pools on external publications and platforms. The data is provided directly from the source (adservers, hosted solutions for social or an analytics platform). It is also possible to negotiate a deal with a particular publisher to secure specific data points or audiences.
Third party data is sourced from external providers and often aggregated from numerous websites. Businesses sell third-party data and are able to share this via an array of distribution avenues.
This customer information is combined and returned to the supply side platform, which can now package up the offer of ad space along with information about the user who will view it. The supply side platform sends that offer to an ad exchange.
The ad exchange puts the offer out for bid to demand-side platforms. Demand side platforms act on behalf of ad agencies, who sell ads which advertise brands. Demand side platforms thus have ads ready to display, and are searching for users to view them. Bidders get the information about the user ready to view the ad, and decide, based on that information, how much to offer to buy the ad space. According to the Internet Advertising Bureau, a demand side platform has 10 milliseconds to respond to an offer. The ad exchange picks the winning bid and informs both parties.
The ad exchange then passes the link to the ad back through the supply side platform and the publisher's ad server to the user's browser, which then requests the ad content from the agency's ad server. The ad agency can thus confirm that the ad was delivered to the browser.
This is simplified, according to the IAB. Exchanges may try to unload unsold ("remnant") space at low prices through other exchanges. Some agencies maintain semi-permanent pre-cached bids with ad exchanges, and those may be examined before going out to additional demand side platforms for bids. The process for mobile advertising is different and may involve mobile carriers and handset software manufacturers.
Interstitial ads: An interstitial ad displays before a user can access requested content, sometimes while the user is waiting for the content to load. Interstitial ads are a form of interruption marketing.
Text ads: A text ad displays text-based hyperlinks. Text-based ads may display separately from a web page's primary content, or they can be embedded by hyperlinking individual words or phrases to the advertiser's websites. Text ads may also be delivered through email marketing or text message marketing. Text-based ads often render faster than graphical ads and can be harder for ad-blocking software to block.
Search engine marketing (SEM)
Search engine marketing, or SEM, is designed to increase a website's visibility in search engine results pages (SERPs). Search engines provide sponsored results and organic (non-sponsored) results based on a web searcher's query. Search engines often employ visual cues to differentiate sponsored results from organic results. Search engine marketing includes all of an advertiser's actions to make a website's listing more prominent for topical keywords. The primary reason behind the rising popularity of Search Engine Marketing has been Google. There were a few companies that had its own PPC and Analytics tools. However, this concept was popularized by Google. Google Ad words was convenient for advertisers to use and create campaigns. And, they realized that the tool did a fair job, by charging only for someone's click on the ad, which reported as the cost-per-click for which a penny was charged. This resulted in the advertisers monitoring the campaign by the number of clicks and were satisfied that the ads could be tracked.
Search engine optimization, or SEO, attempts to improve a website's organic search rankings in SERPs by increasing the website content's relevance to search terms. Search engines regularly update their algorithms to penalize poor quality sites that try to game their rankings, making optimization a moving target for advertisers. Many vendors offer SEO services.
Sponsored search (also called sponsored links, search ads, or paid search) allows advertisers to be included in the sponsored results of a search for selected keywords. Search ads are often sold via real-time auctions, where advertisers bid on keywords. In addition to setting a maximum price per keyword, bids may include time, language, geographical, and other constraints. Search engines originally sold listings in order of highest bids. Modern search engines rank sponsored listings based on a combination of bid price, expected click-through rate, keyword relevancy and site quality.
Social media marketing
Social media marketing is commercial promotion conducted through social media websites. Many companies promote their products by posting frequent updates and providing special offers through their social media profiles. Videos, interactive quizzes, and sponsored posts are all a part of this operation. Usually these ads are found on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and Snapchat.
Mobile advertising
Mobile advertising is ad copy delivered through wireless mobile devices such as smartphones, feature phones, or tablet computers. Mobile advertising may take the form of static or rich media display ads, SMS (Short Message Service) or MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service) ads, mobile search ads, advertising within mobile websites, or ads within mobile applications or games (such as interstitial ads, "advergaming," or application sponsorship). Industry groups such as the Mobile Marketing Association have attempted to standardize mobile ad unit specifications, similar to the IAB's efforts for general online advertising.
Mobile advertising is growing rapidly for several reasons. There are more mobile devices in the field, connectivity speeds have improved (which, among other things, allows for richer media ads to be served quickly), screen resolutions have advanced, mobile publishers are becoming more sophisticated about incorporating ads, and consumers are using mobile devices more extensively. The Interactive Advertising Bureau predicts continued growth in mobile advertising with the adoption of location-based targeting and other technological features not available or relevant on personal computers. In July 2014 Facebook reported advertising revenue for the June 2014 quarter of $2.68 billion, an increase of 67 percent over the second quarter of 2013. Of that, mobile advertising revenue accounted for around 62 percent, an increase of 41 percent on the previous year.
Email advertising
Email advertising is ad copy comprising an entire email or a portion of an email message. Email marketing may be unsolicited, in which case the sender may give the recipient an option to opt out of future emails, or it may be sent with the recipient's prior consent (opt-in). Businesses may ask for your email and send updates on new products or sales.
Chat advertising
As opposed to static messaging, chat advertising refers to real-time messages dropped to users on certain sites. This is done using live chat software or tracking applications installed within certain websites with the operating personnel behind the site often dropping adverts on the traffic surfing around the sites. In reality, this is a subset of the email advertising but different because of its time window.
Online classified advertising
Online classified advertising is advertising posted online in a categorical listing of specific products or services. Examples include online job boards, online real estate listings, automotive listings, online yellow pages, and online auction-based listings. Craigslist and eBay are two prominent providers of online classified listings.
Adware
Adware is software that, once installed, automatically displays advertisements on a user's computer. The ads may appear in the software itself, integrated into web pages visited by the user, or in pop-ups/pop-unders. Adware installed without the user's permission is a type of malware.
Affiliate marketing
Affiliate marketing occurs when advertisers organize third parties to generate potential customers for them. Third-party affiliates receive payment based on sales generated through their promotion. Affiliate marketers generate traffic to offers from affiliate networks, and when the desired action is taken by the visitor, the affiliate earns a commission. These desired actions can be an email submission, a phone call, filling out an online form, or an online order being completed.
Content marketing
Content marketing is any marketing that involves the creation and sharing of media and publishing content in order to acquire and retain customers. This information can be presented in a variety of formats, including blogs, news, video, white papers, e-books, infographics, case studies, how-to guides and more.
Considering that most marketing involves some form of published media, it is almost (though not entirely) redundant to call 'content marketing' anything other than simply 'marketing'. There are, of course, other forms of marketing (in-person marketing, telephone-based marketing, word of mouth marketing, etc.) where the label is more useful for identifying the type of marketing. However, even these are usually merely presenting content that they are marketing as information in a way that is different from traditional print, radio, TV, film, email, or web media.
Online marketing platform
An online marketing platform (OMP) is an integrated web-based platform that combines the benefits of a business directory, local search engine, search engine optimisation (SEO) tool, customer relationship management (CRM) package and content management system (CMS). eBay and Amazon are used as online marketing and logistics management platforms. On Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, LinkedIn, and other Social Media, retail online marketing is also used. Online business marketing platforms such as Marketo, MarketBright and Pardot have been bought by major IT companies (Eloqua-Oracle, Neolane-Adobe and Unica-IBM).
Unlike television marketing in which Nielsen TV Ratings can be relied upon for viewing metrics, online advertisers do not have an independent party to verify viewing claims made by the big online platforms.
The European Union defines online platforms as "information society services that allow business users to offer goods or services to consumers, with a view to facilitating the initiating of direct transactions between those business users and consumers; they are provided to business users on the basis of contractual relationships between the provider of those services and business users offering goods or services to consumers." Almost half of the small and medium sized businesses who responded to an EU survey in 2018 said that they use online marketplaces to sell their goods and services.
Compensation methods
Advertisers and publishers use a wide range of payment calculation methods. In 2012, advertisers calculated 32% of online advertising transactions on a cost-per-impression basis, 66% on customer performance (e.g. cost per click or cost per acquisition), and 2% on hybrids of impression and performance methods.
CPM (cost per mille)
Cost per mille, often abbreviated to CPM, means that advertisers pay for every thousand displays of their message to potential customers (mille is the Latin word for thousand). In the online context, ad displays are usually called "impressions." Definitions of an "impression" vary among publishers, and some impressions may not be charged because they don't represent a new exposure to an actual customer. Advertisers can use technologies such as web bugs to verify if an impression is actually delivered.
Similarly, revenue generated can be measured in Revenue per mille (RPM).
Publishers use a variety of techniques to increase page views, such as dividing content across multiple pages, repurposing someone else's content, using sensational titles, or publishing tabloid or sexual content.
CPM advertising is susceptible to "impression fraud," and advertisers who want visitors to their sites may not find per-impression payments a good proxy for the results they desire.
CPC (cost per click)
CPC (Cost Per Click) or PPC (Pay per click) means advertisers pay each time a user clicks on the ad. CPC advertising works well when advertisers want visitors to their sites, but it's a less accurate measurement for advertisers looking to build brand awareness. CPC's market share has grown each year since its introduction, eclipsing CPM to dominate two-thirds of all online advertising compensation methods.
Like impressions, not all recorded clicks are valuable to advertisers. GoldSpot Media reported that up to 50% of clicks on static mobile banner ads are accidental and resulted in redirected visitors leaving the new site immediately.
CPE (cost per engagement)
Cost per engagement aims to track not just that an ad unit loaded on the page (i.e., an impression was served), but also that the viewer actually saw and/or interacted with the ad.
CPV (cost per view)
Cost per view video advertising. Both Google and TubeMogul endorsed this standardized CPV metric to the IAB's (Interactive Advertising Bureau) Digital Video Committee, and it's garnering a notable amount of industry support. CPV is the primary benchmark used in YouTube Advertising Campaigns, as part of Google's AdWords platform.
CPI (cost per install)
The CPI compensation method is specific to mobile applications and mobile advertising. In CPI ad campaigns brands are charged a fixed of bid rate only when the application was installed.
CPL (cost per lead)
Cost per lead compensation method implies that the advertiser pays for an explicit sign-up from a consumer interested in the advertiser's offer.
Attribution of ad value
In marketing, "attribution" is the measurement of effectiveness of particular ads in a consumer's ultimate decision to purchase. Multiple ad impressions may lead to a consumer "click" or other action. A single action may lead to revenue being paid to multiple ad space sellers.
Other performance-based compensation
CPA (Cost Per Action or Cost Per Acquisition) or PPP (Pay Per Performance) advertising means the advertiser pays for the number of users who perform a desired activity, such as completing a purchase or filling out a registration form. Performance-based compensation can also incorporate revenue sharing, where publishers earn a percentage of the advertiser's profits made as a result of the ad. Performance-based compensation shifts the risk of failed advertising onto publishers.
Fixed cost
Fixed cost compensation means advertisers pay a fixed cost for delivery of ads online, usually over a specified time period, irrespective of the ad's visibility or users' response to it. One examples is CPD (cost per day) where advertisers pay a fixed cost for publishing an ad for a day irrespective of impressions served or clicks.
Benefits of online advertising
Cost
The low costs of electronic communication reduce the cost of displaying online advertisements compared to offline ads. Online advertising, and in particular social media, provides a low-cost means for advertisers to engage with large established communities. Advertising online offers better returns than in other media.
Measurability
Online advertisers can collect data on their ads' effectiveness, such as the size of the potential audience or actual audience response, how a visitor reached their advertisement, whether the advertisement resulted in a sale, and whether an ad actually loaded within a visitor's view. This helps online advertisers improve their ad campaigns over time.
Formatting
Advertisers have a wide variety of ways of presenting their promotional messages, including the ability to convey images, video, audio, and links. Unlike many offline ads, online ads also can be interactive. For example, some ads let users input queries or let users follow the advertiser on social media. Online ads can even incorporate games.
Targeting
Publishers can offer advertisers the ability to reach customizable and narrow market segments for targeted advertising. Online advertising may use geo-targeting to display relevant advertisements to the user's geography. Advertisers can customize each individual ad to a particular user based on the user's previous preferences. Advertisers can also track whether a visitor has already seen a particular ad in order to reduce unwanted repetitious exposures and provide adequate time gaps between exposures.
Coverage
Online advertising can reach nearly every global market, and online advertising influences offline sales.
Speed
Once ad design is complete, online ads can be deployed immediately. The delivery of online ads does not need to be linked to the publisher's publication schedule. Furthermore, online advertisers can modify or replace ad copy more rapidly than their offline counterparts.
Concerns
Security concerns
According to a US Senate investigation in 2014, there are security and privacy concerns for users due to the infrastructure of online advertising. This is because of the potential for malware to be disseminated through online advertisements and for such malvertising to be inserted and triggered without sufficient protection or screening. Ransomware gangs were spotted using carefully targeted Google search advertising to redirect victims to pages dropping malware.
Banner blindness
Eye-tracking studies have shown that Internet users often ignore web page zones likely to contain display ads (sometimes called "banner blindness"), and this problem is worse online than in offline media. On the other hand, studies suggest that even those ads "ignored" by the users may influence the user subconsciously.
Fraud on the advertiser
There are numerous ways that advertisers can be overcharged for their advertising. For example, click fraud occurs when a publisher or third parties click (manually or through automated means) on a CPC ad with no legitimate buying intent. For example, click fraud can occur when a competitor clicks on ads to deplete its rival's advertising budget, or when publishers attempt to manufacture revenue.
Click fraud is especially associated with pornography sites. In 2011, certain scamming porn websites launched dozens of hidden pages on each visitor's computer, forcing the visitor's computer to click on hundreds of paid links without the visitor's knowledge.
As with offline publications, online impression fraud can occur when publishers overstate the number of ad impressions they have delivered to their advertisers. To combat impression fraud, several publishing and advertising industry associations are developing ways to count online impressions credibly.
Heterogeneous clients
Because users have different operating systems, web browsers and computer hardware (including mobile devices and different screen sizes), online ads may appear to users differently from how the advertiser intended, or the ads may not display properly at all. A 2012 comScore study revealed that, on average, 31% of ads were not "in-view" when rendered, meaning they never had an opportunity to be seen. Rich media ads create even greater compatibility problems, as some developers may use competing (and exclusive) software to render the ads (see e.g. Comparison of HTML 5 and Flash).
Furthermore, advertisers may encounter legal problems if legally required information doesn't actually display to users, even if that failure is due to technological heterogeneity. In the United States, the FTC has released a set of guidelines indicating that it's the advertisers' responsibility to ensure the ads display any required disclosures or disclaimers, irrespective of the users' technology.
Ad blocking
Ad blocking, or ad filtering, means the ads do not appear to the user because the user uses technology to screen out ads. Many browsers block unsolicited pop-up ads by default. Other software programs or browser add-ons may also block the loading of ads, or block elements on a page with behaviors characteristic of ads (e.g. HTML autoplay of both audio and video). Approximately 9% of all online page views come from browsers with ad-blocking software installed, and some publishers have 40%+ of their visitors using ad-blockers.
Anti-targeting technologies
Some web browsers offer privacy modes where users can hide information about themselves from publishers and advertisers. Among other consequences, advertisers can't use cookies to serve targeted ads to private browsers. Most major browsers have incorporated Do Not Track options into their browser headers, but the regulations currently are only enforced by the honor system.
Privacy concerns
The collection of user information by publishers and advertisers has raised consumer concerns about their privacy. Sixty percent of internet users surveyed sais they would use Do Not Track technology to block all collection of information if given an opportunity. Over half of all Google and Facebook users are concerned about their privacy when using Google and Facebook, according to Gallup.
Many consumers have reservations about online behavioral targeting. By tracking users' online activities, advertisers are able to understand consumers quite well. Advertisers often use technology, such as web bugs and respawning cookies, to maximize their abilities to track consumers. According to a 2011 survey conducted by Harris Interactive, over half of Internet users had a negative impression of online behavioral advertising, and forty percent feared that their personally-identifiable information had been shared with advertisers without their consent. Consumers can be especially troubled by advertisers targeting them based on sensitive information, such as financial or health status. Furthermore, some advertisers attach the MAC address of users' devices to their 'demographic profiles' so they can be retargeted (regardless of the accuracy of the profile) even if the user clears their cookies and browsing history.
Trustworthiness of advertisers
Scammers can take advantage of consumers' difficulties verifying an online persona's identity, leading to artifices like phishing (where scam emails look identical to those from a well-known brand owner) and confidence schemes like the Nigerian "419" scam. The Internet Crime Complaint Center received 289,874 complaints in 2012, totaling over half a billion dollars in losses, most of which originated with scam ads.
Consumers also face malware risks, i.e. malvertising, when interacting with online advertising. Cisco's 2013 Annual Security Report revealed that clicking on ads was 182 times more likely to install a virus on a user's computer than surfing the Internet for porn. For example, in August 2014 Yahoo's advertising network reportedly saw cases of infection of a variant of Cryptolocker ransomware.
Spam
The Internet's low cost of disseminating advertising contributes to spam, especially by large-scale spammers. Numerous efforts have been undertaken to combat spam, ranging from blacklists to regulatorily-required labeling to content filters, but most of those efforts have adverse collateral effects, such as mistaken filtering.
Regulation
In general, consumer protection laws apply equally to online and offline activities. However, there are questions over which jurisdiction's laws apply and which regulatory agencies have enforcement authority over trans-border activity. Many laws specifically regulate the ways online ads are delivered. For example, online advertising delivered via email is more regulated than the same ad content delivered via banner ads. Among other restrictions, the U.S. CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 requires that any commercial email provide an opt-out mechanism. Similarly, mobile advertising is governed by the Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991 (TCPA), which (among other restrictions) requires user opt-in before sending advertising via text messaging.
As with offline advertising, industry participants have undertaken numerous efforts to self-regulate and develop industry standards or codes of conduct. Several United States advertising industry organizations jointly published Self-Regulatory Principles for Online Behavioral Advertising based on standards proposed by the FTC in 2009. European ad associations published a similar document in 2011. Primary tenets of both documents include consumer control of data transfer to third parties, data security, and consent for collection of certain health and financial data. Neither framework, however, penalizes violators of the codes of conduct.
The Online Intermediation Services Regulation (2019/1150/EU) or P2B Regulation came into force in all EU Member States and the UK on 12 July 2020. The Regulation aims to promote fairness and transparency for business users of online intermediation services or online platforms. The main aim of the Regulation is to establish a legal framework which will guarantee transparent terms and conditions for business users of online platforms, as well as effective opportunities for redress when these terms and conditions are not respected. Such transparency and fairness underpin improvements in the function of the Digital Single Market especially for the benefit of SMEs. The regulations also set up an EU Observatory to monitor the impact of the new rules, called the Observatory on the Online Platform Economy.
The UK's Online Intermediation Services for Business Users (Enforcement) Regulations 2020 replicate the effects of the EU Regulation.
Privacy and data collection
Privacy regulation can require users' consent before an advertiser can track the user or communicate with the user. However, affirmative consent ("opt in") can be difficult and expensive to obtain. Industry participants often prefer other regulatory schemes.
Different jurisdictions have taken different approaches to privacy issues with advertising. The United States has specific restrictions on online tracking of children in the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA), and the FTC has recently expanded its interpretation of COPPA to include requiring ad networks to obtain parental consent before knowingly tracking kids. Otherwise, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission frequently supports industry self-regulation, although increasingly it has been undertaking enforcement actions related to online privacy and security. The FTC has also been pushing for industry consensus about possible Do Not Track legislation.
In contrast, the European Union's "Privacy and Electronic Communications Directive" restricts websites' ability to use consumer data much more comprehensively. The EU limitations restrict targeting by online advertisers; researchers have estimated online advertising effectiveness decreases on average by around 65% in Europe relative to the rest of the world.
See also
Adblock
Advertising
Advertising campaign
Advertising management
Advertising media
Branded entertainment
Digital marketing
Direct marketing
Integrated marketing communications
Marketing communications
Media planning
Promotion (marketing)
Promotional mix
Promotional campaign
Product placement
Promotional merchandise
Sales promotion
Mobile marketing
References
Advertising by medium
Online advertising methods
Digital marketing |
16213713 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NolaPro | NolaPro | NolaPro is a cloud / web-based ERP application running under a proprietary commercial license. It was first released in 2003 as a freeware accounting alternative to SAP ERP and QuickBooks because of its ability to scale in these markets.
NolaPro is categorized as a boutique software, which allows custom functionality changes upon request. It permits unrestricted integration with 3rd party applications and offers source code procurement for companies to develop their own ERP systems.
This application can be cloud-hosted by the author or installed locally on Microsoft Windows or Linux, accessed via common web browsers, and utilizes MySQL and PHP.
The software includes the following modules:
Accounts Payable
Accounts Receivable
Administrative Tools
Business-to-Business (B2B) Web Portal
Customer Database
General Ledger
Inventory Management
Order Tracking (Fulfillment & Service)
Payroll & Employee Timeclock
Point-of-Sale (PoS)
Shopping Cart (modified OSCommerce) for e-commerce transactions.
Vendor Database
Multi-currency is available for NolaPro, making it one of the few small applications which supports monetary exchange rates. It has been translated into 30+ languages via contributions from the NolaPro community. An API is also available for developers who wish to integrate NolaPro with their in-house or 3rd party applications. From 2013-16, NolaPro was featured on all Lenovo devices under the Windows 8 store platform.
Reviews
In November 2019, The Balance (formerly About.com) ranked NolaPro as the #1 option for Small Business Accounting software.
NolaPro was positively reviewed by Personal Financial Advices in June 2019, providing an accurate overview of the software's functionality and services.
CNet editors provided an unpaid review of NolaPro in January 2013, and awarded 4.5 out of 5 stars. It historically ranks in the top 10 out of over 1300 business apps on CNet's Download.com site.
CBS News Moneywatch featured NolaPro in January 2009, with Dave Johnson giving the software a very positive review.
NolaPro was featured on the cover of the Linux Journal in November 2008 and given a comprehensive 5 page assessment, resulting in a positive review.
TechRepublic blog writer Jack Wallen positively reviewed NolaPro 4 in January 2008 providing a comprehensive user-walkthrough and installation overview.
In May 2005, NolaPro was recognized by Entrepreneur Magazine by its inclusion in Entrepreneur's 2005 Complete Guide to Software.
See also
Accounting software
Comparison of accounting software
References
External links
NolaPro homepage
ASP Accounting Systems
Business software companies
Computer companies of the United States
ERP software
ERP software companies
Accounting software for Linux
PHP software
Web applications |
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