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22807593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy%20management%20software | Energy management software | Energy Management Software (EMS) is a general term and category referring to a variety of energy-related software applications which may provide utility bill tracking, real-time metering, building HVAC and lighting control systems, building simulation and modeling, carbon and sustainability reporting, IT equipment management, demand response, and/or energy audits. Managing energy can require a system of systems approach.
Energy management software often provides tools for reducing energy costs and consumption for buildings, communities or industries. EMS collects energy data and uses it for three main purposes: Reporting, Monitoring and Engagement. Reporting may include verification of energy data, benchmarking, and setting high-level energy use reduction targets. Monitoring may include trend analysis and tracking energy consumption to identify cost-saving opportunities. Engagement can mean real-time responses (automated or manual), or the initiation of a dialogue between occupants and building managers to promote energy conservation. One engagement method that has recently gained popularity is the real-time energy consumption display available in web applications or an onsite energy dashboard/display.
Data collection
Energy Management Software collects historic and/or real-time interval data, with intervals varying from quarterly billing statements to minute-by-minute smart meter readings. The data are collected from interval meters, Building Automation Systems (BAS), directly from utilities, directly from sensors on electrical circuits, or other sources. Past bills can be used to provide a comparison between pre- and post-EMS energy consumption.
Data analytics
Through Energy Data Analytics, EMS assists the users in the composition of mathematical formulas for analyzing, forecasting and tracking energy conservation measures to quantify the success of the measure, once implemented. Energy analytics help energy managers combine across energy and non-energy data to create key performance indicators, calculate carbon footprint, greenhouse gas, renewable heat incentives and energy efficiency certifications to meet local climate change policies, directives, regulation and certifications. Energy analytics also include intelligent algorithms such as classification and machine learning to analyse the energy consumption of buildings and/or its equipment that build up a memory of energy use patterns, learn the good and bad energy consumption behaviours and notify in case of abnormal energy use.
Reporting
Reporting tools are targeted at owners and executives who want to automate energy and emissions auditing. Cost and consumption data from a number of buildings can be aggregated or compared with the software, saving time relative to manual reporting. EMS offers more detailed energy information than utility billing can provide; another advantage is that outside factors affecting energy use, such as weather condition or building occupancy, can be accounted for as part of the reporting process. This information can be used to prioritize energy savings initiatives and balance energy savings against energy-related capital expenditures.
Bill verification can be used to compare metered consumption against billed consumption. Bill analysis can also demonstrate the impact of different energy costs, for example by comparing electrical demand charges to consumption costs.
Greenhouse gas (GHG) accounting can calculate direct or indirect GHG emissions, which may be used for internal reporting or enterprise carbon accounting.
Monitoring
Monitoring tools track and display real-time and historical data. Often, EMS includes various benchmarking tools, such as energy consumption per square foot, weather normalization or more advanced analysis using energy modelling algorithms to identify anomalous consumption. Seeing exactly when energy is used, combined with anomaly recognition, can allow Facility or Energy Managers to identify savings opportunities.
Initiatives such as demand shaving, replacement of malfunctioning equipment, retrofits of inefficient equipment, and removal of unnecessary loads can be discovered and coordinated using the EMS. For example, an unexpected energy spike at a specific time each day may indicate an improperly set or malfunctioning timer. These tools can also be used for Energy Monitoring and Targeting. EMS uses models to correct for variable factors such as weather when performing historical comparisons to verify the effect of conservation and efficiency initiatives.
EMS may offer alerts, via text or email messages, when consumption values exceed pre-defined thresholds based on consumption or cost. These thresholds may be set at absolute levels, or use an energy model to determine when consumption is abnormally high or low. More recently, smartphones and tablets are becoming mainstream platforms for EMS.
Engagement
Engagement can refer to automated or manual responses to collected and analyzed energy data. Building control systems can respond as readily to energy fluctuation as a heating system can respond to temperature variation. Demand spikes can trigger equipment power-down processes, with or without human intervention.
Another objective of Engagement is to connect occupants’ daily choices with building energy consumption. By displaying real-time consumption information, occupants see the immediate impact of their actions. The software can be used to promote energy conservation initiatives, offer advice to the occupants, or provide a forum for feedback on sustainability initiatives.
People-driven energy conservation programs, such as those sponsored by Energy Education, can be highly effective in reducing energy use and cost.
Letting occupants know their real-time consumption alone can be responsible for a 7% reduction in energy consumption.
See also
Energy & Facility Management Software
Building automation
Energy monitoring and targeting
Energy saving
Google PowerMeter
EnergyCAP
RETScreen
Energy Management System
References
External links
U.S. Dept of Energy's Building Technologies Program
Energy
Energy conservation
Management systems
Building automation
Business software
Low-energy building
Sustainable building |
66272984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenHPI%20%28Service%20Availability%29 | OpenHPI (Service Availability) | OpenHPI is an open-source software system providing an abstracted interface to managing computer hardware, typically for chassis and rack based servers. It is production ready implementation of the Hardware Platform Interface specification from Service Availability Forum, complimenting existing hardware management standards. Founded in 2003, OpenHPI is maintained by the OpenHPI Project.
OpenHPI provides resource modeling, sensor management, control, watchdog, inventory data associated with resources, abstracted system event log, hardware events/alarms, and a managed hot-swap interface. It aims for Service Availability beyond High Availability (HA) expectations.
History
The OpenHPI project was conceived by Carrier Grade Linux hardware experts, and announced on the Linux kernel mailing list on 19 March 2003, by Andrea Brugger. OpenHPI was described as "a universal interface for creating resource system models, such as chassis and rack-based servers, but extendable for other domains such as clustering, virtualization, and simulation". It had modular hardware support implemented using a plugin architecture, the top-level OpenHPI implementation being independent of the underlying hardware. Supporters include IBM, Intel, Samsung, HPE, and others technical equipment manufacturers.
Features
The following features are supported by OpenHPI software:
OpenHPI base library
OpenHPI utility functions
OpenHPI Daemon
HPI Client programs and HPI shell
Simulator Plugin
Dynamic Simulator Plugin
Slave Plugin
Test Agent Plugin
IMPI Direct Plugin
SNMP BladeCenter/RSA Plugin
iLO2 RIBCL Plugin
SOAP/XML BladeSystem c-Class Plugin
Oneview/REST Synergy Plugin
rtas Plugin
sysfs Plugin
watchdog Plugin
OpenHPI also provides a set of client programs as examples for typical HPI usage, for testing, or invocation from scripts. The hpi_shell is a command shell for calling HPI functions interactively.
Releases
The following table summarizes the main OpenHPI releases:
See also
SAForum
OpenSAF
SCOPE Alliance
References
External links
OpenHPI
SA Forum
Free software
2003 software
Free software programmed in C++
Linux Foundation projects
Software using the BSD license
Application programming interfaces |
230946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idea%E2%80%93expression%20distinction | Idea–expression distinction | The idea–expression distinction or idea–expression dichotomy is a legal doctrine in the United States that limits the scope of copyright protection by differentiating an idea from the expression or manifestation of that idea.
Unlike patents, which may confer proprietary rights in relation to general ideas and concepts per se when construed as methods, copyrights cannot confer such rights. An adventure novel provides an illustration of the concept. Copyright may subsist in the work as a whole, in the particular story or characters involved, or in any artwork contained in the book, but generally not in the idea or genre of the story. Copyright, therefore, may not subsist in the idea of a man venturing out on a quest, but may subsist in a particular story that follows that pattern. Similarly, if the methods or processes described in a work are patentable, they may be the subject of various patent claims, which may or may not be broad enough to cover other methods or processes based on the same idea. Arthur C. Clarke, for example, sufficiently described the concept of a communications satellite (a geostationary satellite used as a telecommunications relay) in a 1945 paper that it was not considered patentable in 1954 when it was developed at Bell Labs.
Legal origins and status
Philosophically, there is disagreement about the distinction between thought and language.
In the past it was often thought that the two could not be separated, and so a paraphrase could never exactly reproduce a thought expressed in different words.
At the opposite extreme is the view that concepts and language are completely independent, so there is always a range of ways in which a concept can be expressed.
In the United States, the doctrine originated from the 1879 Supreme Court case of Baker v. Selden. The Supreme Court held in Selden that, while exclusive rights to the "useful arts" (in this case bookkeeping) described in a book might be available by patent, only the description itself was protectable by copyright. In later cases, the Supreme Court has stated that "unlike a patent, a copyright gives no exclusive right to the art disclosed; protection is given only to the expression of the idea—not the idea itself," and that "copyright's idea/expression dichotomy 'strike[s] a definitional balance between the First Amendment and the Copyright Act by permitting free communication of facts while still protecting an author's expression.'"
In the English decision of Donoghue v. Allied Newspapers Limited (1938) Ch 106, the court illustrated the concept by stating that "the person who has clothed the idea in form, whether by means of a picture, a play or a book" owns the copyright. In the Australian decision of Victoria Park Racing and Recreation Grounds Co. Ltd v. Taylor (1937) 58 CLR 479 at 498, Latham CJ used the analogy of reporting a person's fall from a bus: the first person to do so could not use the law of copyright to stop other people from announcing this fact.
Today, Article 1.2 of the European Union Software Directive expressly excludes from copyright ideas and principles that underlie any element of a computer program, including those that underlie its interfaces. As stated by the European Court of Justice in SAS Institute Inc. v World Programming Ltd., "to accept that the functionality of a computer program can be protected by copyright would amount to making it possible to monopolize ideas, to the detriment of technological progress and industrial development."
Scènes à faire
Some courts have recognized that particular ideas can be expressed effectively only by using certain elements or background. The French name for this doctrine is Scènes à faire. Therefore, even the expression in these circumstances is unprotected, or extremely limited to verbatim copying only. This is true in the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth countries.
The term "Scenes a faire" means "obligatory scene", a scene in a play that the audience "has been permitted to foresee and to desire from the progress of the action; and such a scene can never be omitted without a consequent dissatisfaction." The term was applied to copyright law in Cain v. Universal Pictures (1942), where the United States District Court for the Southern District of California ruled that "... similarities and incidental details necessary to the environment or setting of an action are not the material of which copyrightable originality consists."
The concept has been used by U.S. and U.K. courts.
The term is used both in the sense of a scene that follows inevitably from a situation,
or a standard scene that is always included in a particular genre of work.
Another court said "Under the ... doctrine of scènes à faire, courts will not protect a copyrighted work from infringement if the expression embodied in the work necessarily flows from a commonplace idea."
The concept has been extended to computer software, where some aspects may be dictated by the problem to be solved, or may be standard programming techniques.
In the United States it is recognized that certain background elements are universal or at least commonplace in some types of work. For example, in Walker v. Time Life Films, Inc., 784 F.2d 44 (2d Cir. 1986), the Second Circuit said that in a film about cops in the South Bronx it was inevitable that the scenery would include drunks, stripped cars, prostitutes, and rats. In Gates Rubber Co. v. Bando Chemical Industries, Ltd., 9 F.3d 823 (10th Cir. 1993), the Tenth Circuit held that hardware standards and mechanical specifications, software standards and compatibility requirements, computer manufacturer design standards, target industry practices and demands, and computer industry programming practices were unprotectable scènes à faire for computer programs. The principle must have a limit, however, so that something is outside the scènes à faire doctrine for South Bronx movies. Perhaps, cockroaches, gangs, and muggings are also part of the South Bronx scène à faire, but further similarity such as the film having as characters "a slumlord with a heart of gold and a policeman who is a Zen Buddhist and lives in a garage surely goes beyond the South Bronx scène à faire. There must be some expression possible even in a cliche-ridden genre."
Merger doctrine
A broader but related concept is the merger doctrine. Some ideas can be expressed intelligibly only in one or a limited number of ways. The rules of a game provide an example. In such cases the expression merges with the idea and is therefore not protected.
There are cases where there is very little choice about how to express some fact or idea, so a copy or close paraphrase may be unavoidable.
In this case, the "merger doctrine" comes into play.
The fact or idea and the expression are seen as merged, and the expression cannot be protected.
The merger doctrine is typically applied only to factual information or scientific theories, not to imaginative works such as plays or novels where the author has a much broader choice of expression.
The merger doctrine has been applied to the user interface design of computer software, where similarity between icons used by two different programs is acceptable if only a very limited number of icons would be recognizable by users, such as an image looking like a page to represent a document.
However, in 1994 a U.K. judge in Ibcos Computers v. Barclays Mercantile Finance cast doubt on the merger doctrine, saying he was not comfortable with the idea that "if there is only one way of expressing an idea that way is not the subject of copyright."
United States courts are divided on whether merger prevents copyrightability in the first place, or should instead be considered when determining if the defendant copied protected expression. Only one federal circuit, the Ninth Circuit, has specifically held that merger should be considered a "defense" to copyright infringement, but this is not considered an affirmative defense as the plaintiff still carries the burden of proof that infringement occurred.
See also
Feist Publications v. Rural Telephone Service
Ho v. Taflove
Functionality doctrine
Stock character
Notes
Intellectual property law
Legal doctrines and principles |
63148404 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilkay%20Altintas | Ilkay Altintas | Ilkay Altintas is a Turkish-American data and computer scientist, and researcher in the domain of supercomputing and high-performance computing applications. Since 2015, Altintas has served as chief data science officer of the San Diego Supercomputer Center (SDSC), at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), where she has also served as founder and director of the Workflows for Data Science Center of Excellence (WorDS) since 2014, as well as founder and director of the WIFIRE lab. Altintas is also the co-initiator of the Kepler scientific workflow system, an open-source platform that endows research scientists with the ability to readily collaborate, share, and design scientific workflows.
Born in Aydın, Turkey, Altintas attended Middle East Technical University before embarking on a research career. While pursuing her career as a research scientist, she completed her PhD at the University of Amsterdam in 2011. In addition to her work as a research scientist, she is a computer science lecturer at the University of California, San Diego. Altintas is also a co-founder and board member of the Data Science Alliance nonprofit. She serves on the advisory board of several national agencies and companies, and as an editor of peer-reviewed scientific journals.
Education
Altintas graduated from Middle East Technical University in Ankara, Turkey with a bachelor's degree in computer engineering in 1999, and a master's degree in computer engineering in 2001. In 2011, she received a PhD in computational science from the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands, for her work and contributions toward workflow-driven collaborative science.
Career and research
After graduating from Middle East Technical University in 2001, Altintas was hired as a research programmer at the San Diego Supercomputer Center (SDSC). She went on to serve SDSC as the assistant director of the National Laboratory for Advanced Data Research (NLADR), the founder and director of the Scientific Workflow Automation Technologies Laboratory, and deputy coordinator for research. Currently, she is the chief data science officer of SDSC, where she is also the founder and director of the Workflows for Data Science Center of Excellence (WorDS); the founder and director of the WIFIRE lab; and the division director for Cyberinfrastructure Research, Education and Development. The WorDS hub at SDSC serves to promote the utilization and distribution of workflow services in the context of a variety of domains and projects, ranging from the WIFIRE lab (which Altintas founded and currently directs) to the Kepler scientific workflow system (which Altintas serves as the co-initiator of).
WIFIRE Lab
On October 26, 2003, Altintas experienced California wildfires for the first time, after witnessing the Cedar Fire in San Diego County. The environmental and economic toll that this natural disaster had on the residents of San Diego County inspired Altintas to contribute to improving the then-current systems of managing and predicting wildfires. She allotted much of her time thereafter to learning about California's fire-adapted ecosystem, and the two factors, weather and fuel, that contribute significantly to the spread and dynamic behavior of wildfires. She noted that the behavior of wildfires can be computationally modeled, with data for modeling purposes being pulled from the physical environment (e.g., landscape data, real-time weather information and camera imagery, and remote sensor data). This spurred the creation of Altintas' brainchild, the WIFIRE lab, which received National Science Foundation (NSF) funding from 2013 to 2018. Using scalable computing and dynamic, automated, scientific workflows, data are collected and processed, and can be retrieved and accessed by a diverse array of audiences. The main accomplishments of the WIFIRE lab till date include the deployment of data integration services at the intersection of fire science, data management, and machine learning; real-time data driven fire modeling services (with the help of the High Performance Wireless Research and Education Network (HPWREN)); and automated fire modeling workflows and machine learning pipelines. The WIFIRE lab currently serves a community of 130+ organizations, and works to combine data science and fire science to aid in dynamic fire modeling at scale. Altintas has presented on past and ongoing WIFIRE research to a variety of audiences, ranging from stakeholders and policymakers at the California State Capitol to UC San Diego School of Global Policy and Strategy (GPS) Science Policy Fellows Program graduate students.
The real-time fire modeling services provided by the WIFIRE lab have aided in the identification and traceability of wildfire outbreaks in local California communities. In addition to aiding in the identification and traceability of wildfire outbreaks, the framework of the services deployed by WIFIRE is being used toward aiding in the identification and traceability of the COVID-19 outbreak. The application of the real-time map (used initially for wildfire identification) in the space of COVID-19 research serves the purpose of alerting individuals in real-time regarding information surrounding the spread and severity of the virus in certain areas.
For her pioneering WIFIRE work, Altintas has been featured on various US-based radio broadcasts, newspapers, and magazines. She has been featured on TIME magazine, the National Public Radio (NPR), The New York Times, and Voice of America, along with research scientists whom she has collaborated with. She has also been featured on the University of California Television (UCTV) channel for her WIFIRE research.
The Kepler Project
Altintas is the co-initiator of the Kepler scientific workflow system, an open source platform that allows its users to share and collaborate on workflows for a variety of applications. The Kepler Project website provides its visitors with the opportunity to download the Kepler application. It also serves as a home for information regarding upcoming Kepler-related workshops, references on how to use Kepler for a varied set of subjects and applications (such as bioinformatics), and tips regarding how to maneuver the application in an effective manner.
Teaching
Altintas currently serves as the faculty co-director of the Master of Advanced Studies in Data Science and Engineering, and as a lecturer in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, at UC San Diego. In addition, she is a big data MOOC instructor through Coursera and edX, having taught over a million learners till date.
Awards and honors
White House Office of Science and Technology Policy Invited Workshop Speaker (2016)
Halıcıoğlu Data Science Institute (HDSI) Fellow, Inducted by invitation, University of California, San Diego (2018)
Pi Person of the Year, Inaugural Recipient, San Diego Supercomputer Center (SDSC) (2014)
Innovations in Networking Award for Experimental Applications, Corporation for Education Network Initiatives in California (CENIC) (2018)
Emerging Woman Leader in Technical Computing Award, Association for Computing Machinery's Special Interest Group on High Performance Computing (ACM SIGHPC) (2017)
Peter Chen Big Data Young Researcher Award, The Services Society (2017)
Award for Excellence for Early Career Researchers, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), Technical Committee on Scalable Computing (TCSC) (2015)
Best Workshop Paper Award for "Towards an Integrated Cyberinfrastructure for Scalable Data-Driven Monitoring, Dynamic Prediction and Resilience of Wildfires," International Conference on Computational Science (ICCS), Reykjavík, Iceland (2015)
Editor's Choice Awards, HPCwire (2014)
Best Application of Big Data in HPC
Best Data-Intensive System (End User focused)
Reader's Choice Award for Best Application of Big Data in HPC, HPCwire (2014)
See also
List of female scientists in the 21st century
List of Middle East Technical University alumni
List of University of Amsterdam alumni
References
External links
Ilkay Altintas at San Diego Supercomputer Center
Living people
1977 births
American people of Turkish descent
Turkish scientists
American scientists
Turkish computer scientists
American computer scientists
Scientists from California
Data scientists
Computer scientists
Women computer scientists
Women data scientists
Turkish women scientists
Turkish women computer scientists
American women computer scientists
Middle East Technical University alumni
University of Amsterdam alumni
University of California, San Diego people
University of California, San Diego faculty
21st-century scientists |
699718 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20verification%20and%20validation | Software verification and validation | In software project management, software testing, and software engineering, verification and validation (V&V) is the process of checking that a software system meets specifications and requirements so that it fulfills its intended purpose. It may also be referred to as software quality control. It is normally the responsibility of software testers as part of the software development lifecycle. In simple terms, software verification is: "Assuming we should build X, does our software achieve its goals without any bugs or gaps?" On the other hand, software validation is: "Was X what we should have built? Does X meet the high-level requirements?"
Definitions
Verification and validation are not the same thing, although they are often confused. Boehm succinctly expressed the difference as
Verification: Are we building the product right?
Validation: Are we building the right product?
"Building the product right" checks that the specifications are correctly implemented by the system while "building the right product" refers back to the user's needs. In some contexts, it is required to have written requirements for both as well as formal procedures or protocols for determining compliance. Ideally, formal methods provide a mathematical guarantee that software meets its specifications.
Building the product right implies the use of the Requirements Specification as input for the next phase of the development process, the design process, the output of which is the Design Specification. Then, it also implies the use of the Design Specification to feed the construction process. Every time the output of a process correctly implements its input specification, the software product is one step closer to final verification. If the output of a process is incorrect, the developers are not building the product the stakeholders want correctly. This kind of verification is called "artifact or specification verification".
Building the right product implies creating a Requirements Specification that contains the needs and goals of the stakeholders of the software product. If such artifact is incomplete or wrong, the developers will not be able to build the product the stakeholders want. This is a form of "artifact or specification validation".
Note: Verification begins before Validation and then they run in parallel until the software product is released.
Software verification
It would imply to verify if the specifications are met by running the software but this is not possible (e. g., how can anyone know if the architecture/design/etc. are correctly implemented by running the software?). Only by reviewing its associated artifacts, can someone conclude whether or not the specifications are met.
Artifact or specification verification
The output of each software development process stage can also be subject to verification when checked against its input specification (see the definition by CMMI below).
Examples of artifact verification:
Of the design specification against the requirement specification: Do the architectural design, detailed design and database logical model specifications correctly implement the functional and non-functional requirements specifications?
Of the construction artifacts against the design specification: Do the source code, user interfaces and database physical model correctly implement the design specification?
Software validation
Software validation checks that the software product satisfies or fits the intended use (high-level checking), i.e., the software meets the user requirements, not as specification artifacts or as needs of those who will operate the software only; but, as the needs of all the stakeholders (such as users, operators, administrators, managers, investors, etc.). There are two ways to perform software validation: internal and external. During internal software validation, it is assumed that the goals of the stakeholders were correctly understood and that they were expressed in the requirement artifacts precisely and comprehensively. If the software meets the requirement specification, it has been internally validated. External validation happens when it is performed by asking the stakeholders if the software meets their needs. Different software development methodologies call for different levels of user and stakeholder involvement and feedback; so, external validation can be a discrete or a continuous event. Successful final external validation occurs when all the stakeholders accept the software product and express that it satisfies their needs. Such final external validation requires the use of an acceptance test which is a dynamic test.
However, it is also possible to perform internal static tests to find out if the software meets the requirements specification but that falls into the scope of static verification because the software is not running.
Artifact or specification validation
Requirements should be validated before the software product as a whole is ready (the waterfall development process requires them to be perfectly defined before design starts; but iterative development processes do not require this to be so and allow their continual improvement).
Examples of artifact validation:
User Requirements Specification validation: User requirements as stated in a document called User Requirements Specification are validated by checking if they indeed represent the will and goals of the stakeholders. This can be done by interviewing the stakeholders and asking them directly (static testing) or even by releasing prototypes and having the users and stakeholders to assess them (dynamic testing).
User input validation: User input (gathered by any peripheral such as keyboard, bio-metric sensor, etc.) is validated by checking if the input provided by the software operators or users meets the domain rules and constraints (such as data type, range, and format).
Validation vs. verification
According to the Capability Maturity Model (CMMI-SW v1.1),
Software Validation: The process of evaluating software during or at the end of the development process to determine whether it satisfies specified requirements. [IEEE-STD-610]
Software Verification: The process of evaluating software to determine whether the products of a given development phase satisfy the conditions imposed at the start of that phase. [IEEE-STD-610]
Validation during the software development process can be seen as a form of User Requirements Specification validation; and, that at the end of the development process is equivalent to Internal and/or External Software validation. Verification, from CMMI's point of view, is evidently of the artifact kind.
In other words, software verification ensures that the output of each phase of the software development process effectively carry out what its corresponding input artifact specifies (requirement -> design -> software product), while software validation ensures that the software product meets the needs of all the stakeholders (therefore, the requirement specification was correctly and accurately expressed in the first place). Software verification ensures that "you built it right" and confirms that the product, as provided, fulfills the plans of the developers. Software validation ensures that "you built the right thing" and confirms that the product, as provided, fulfills the intended use and goals of the stakeholders.
This article has used the strict or narrow definition of verification.
From a testing perspective:
Fault – wrong or missing function in the code.
Failure – the manifestation of a fault during execution. The software was not effective. It does not do "what" it is supposed to do.
Malfunction – according to its specification the system does not meet its specified functionality. The software was not efficient (it took too many resources such as CPU cycles, it used too much memory, performed too many I/O operations, etc.), it was not usable, it was not reliable, etc. It does not do something "how" it is supposed to do it.
Related concepts
Both verification and validation are related to the concepts of quality and of software quality assurance. By themselves, verification and validation do not guarantee software quality; planning, traceability, configuration management and other aspects of software engineering are required.
Within the modeling and simulation (M&S) community, the definitions of verification, validation and accreditation are similar:
M&S Verification is the process of determining that a computer model, simulation, or federation of models and simulations implementations and their associated data accurately represent the developer's conceptual description and specifications.
M&S Validation is the process of determining the degree to which a model, simulation, or federation of models and simulations, and their associated data are accurate representations of the real world from the perspective of the intended use(s).
Accreditation is the formal certification that a model or simulation is acceptable to be used for a specific purpose.
The definition of M&S validation focuses on the accuracy with which the M&S represents the real-world intended use(s). Determining the degree of M&S accuracy is required because all M&S are approximations of reality, and it is usually critical to determine if the degree of approximation is acceptable for the intended use(s). This stands in contrast to software validation.
V&V methods
Formal
In mission-critical software systems, formal methods may be used to ensure the correct operation of a system. These formal methods can prove costly, however, representing as much as 80 percent of total software design cost.
Independent
Independent Software Verification and Validation (ISVV) is targeted at safety-critical software systems and aims to increase the quality of software products, thereby reducing risks and costs through the operational life of the software. The goal of ISVV is to provide assurance that software performs to the specified level of confidence and within its designed parameters and defined requirements.
ISVV activities are performed by independent engineering teams, not involved in the software development process, to assess the processes and the resulting products. The ISVV team independency is performed at three different levels: financial, managerial and technical.
ISVV goes beyond "traditional" verification and validation techniques, applied by development teams. While the latter aim to ensure that the software performs well against the nominal requirements, ISVV is focused on non-functional requirements such as robustness and reliability, and on conditions that can lead the software to fail.
ISVV results and findings are fed back to the development teams for correction and improvement.
History
ISVV derives from the application of IV&V (Independent Verification and Validation) to the software. Early ISVV application (as known today) dates back to the early 1970s when the U.S. Army sponsored the first significant program related to IV&V for the Safeguard Anti-Ballistic Missile System. Another example is NASA's IV&V Program, which was established in 1993.
By the end of the 1970s IV&V was rapidly becoming popular. The constant increase in complexity, size and importance of the software led to an increasing demand on IV&V applied to software.
Meanwhile, IV&V (and ISVV for software systems) consolidated and is now widely used by organizations such as the DoD, FAA, NASA and ESA. IV&V is mentioned in DO-178B, ISO/IEC 12207 and formalized in IEEE 1012.
At ESA
Initially in 2004-2005, a European consortium led by the European Space Agency, and composed by DNV, Critical Software SA, Terma and CODA SciSys plc created the first version of a guide devoted to ISVV, called "ESA Guide for Independent Verification and Validation" with support from other organizations. This guide covers the methodologies applicable to all the software engineering phases in what concerns ISVV.
In 2008 the European Space Agency released a second version, having received inputs from many different European Space ISVV stakeholders.
Methodology
ISVV is usually composed by five principal phases, these phases can be executed sequentially or as results of a tailoring process.
Planning
Planning of ISVV activities
System criticality analysis: Identification of critical components through a set of RAMS activities (Value for Money)
Selection of the appropriate methods and tools
Requirements verification
Verification for: completeness, correctness, testability
Design verification
Design adequacy and conformance to software requirements and interfaces
Internal and external consistency
Verification of feasibility and maintenance
Code verification
Verification for: completeness, correctness, consistency
Code metrics analysis
Coding standards compliance verification
Validation
Identification of unstable components/functionalities
Validation focused on error-handling: complementary (not concurrent) validation regarding the one performed by the development team
Compliance with software and system requirements
Black box testing and White box testing techniques
Experience based techniques
Regulatory environment
Software often must meet the compliance requirements of legally regulated industries, which is often guided by government agencies or industrial administrative authorities. For instance, the FDA requires software versions and patches to be validated.
See also
Compiler correctness
Cross-validation
Formal verification
Functional specification
Independent Verification and Validation Facility
International Software Testing Qualifications Board
Software verification
Software requirements specification
Validation (drug manufacture)
Verification and validation – General
Verification and Validation of Computer Simulation Models
Independent verification systems
Software testing
Software engineering
Software quality
Static code analysis
Requirements engineering
Safety-critical system
Katherine Johnson Independent Verification and Validation Facility
Further reading
External links
Chapter on Software quality (including VnV) in SWEBOK
References
Software testing
Formal methods
Software quality
pt:Qualidade de software |
547707 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20Filing%20Protocol | Apple Filing Protocol | The Apple Filing Protocol (AFP), formerly AppleTalk Filing Protocol, is a proprietary network protocol, and part of the Apple File Service (AFS), that offers file services for macOS and the classic Mac OS. In Mac OS 9 and earlier, AFP was the primary protocol for file services. The protocol was deprecated starting in OS X 10.9 Mavericks, and AFP Server support was removed in macOS 11 Big Sur. In macOS 10.x, AFP is one of several file services supported, with others including Server Message Block (SMB), Network File System (NFS), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and WebDAV. AFP currently supports Unicode file names, POSIX and access control list permissions, resource forks, named extended attributes, and advanced file locking.
Compatibility
AFP versions 3.0 and greater rely exclusively on TCP/IP (port 548) for establishing communication, supporting AppleTalk only as a service discovery protocol. The AFP 2.x family supports both TCP/IP (using Data Stream Interface) and AppleTalk for communication and service discovery. Many third-party AFP implementations use AFP 2.x, thereby supporting AppleTalk as a connection method. Still earlier versions rely exclusively on AppleTalk. For this reason, some older literature refers to AFP as "AppleTalk Filing Protocol". Other literature may refer to AFP as "AppleShare", the name of the Mac OS 9 (and earlier) AFP client.
Notable current compatibility topics are:
Mac OS X v10.4 and later eliminates support for AFP servers that rely solely on AppleTalk for communication.
Computers using classic Mac OS can connect to AFP 3.x servers, with some limitations. For example, the maximum file size in Mac OS 8 is 2 gigabytes. Typically, Mac OS 9.1 or later is recommended for connecting to AFP 3.x servers; for versions of original Mac OS prior to 9.1, installation of the AppleShare client 3.8.8 is required.
AFP 3.0 and later is required for network home directories, since Mac OS X requires POSIX permissions on user home directories. Single sign-on using Kerberos requires AFP 3.1.
APFS: AFP is incompatible with sharing of APFS volumes but is still usable as a Time Machine destination in High Sierra.
History
Early implementations of AFP server software were available in Mac OS starting with System 6, in AppleShare and AppleShare IP, and in early "1.x" releases of Mac OS X Server. In client operating systems, AFP was called "Personal File Sharing", and supported up to ten simultaneous connections. These AFP implementations relied on version 1.x or 2.x of the protocol. AppleShare IP 5.x, 6.x, and the "1.x" releases of Mac OS X Server introduced AFP version 2.2. This was the first version to offer transport connections using TCP/IP as well as AppleTalk. It also increased the maximum share point size from four gigabytes to two terabytes, although the maximum file size that could be stored remained at two gigabytes due to limitations in the original Mac OS.
Changes made in AFP since version 3.0 represent major advances in the protocol, introducing features designed specifically for Mac OS X clients.
However, like the AppleShare client in original Mac OS, the AFP client in Mac OS X continues to support type and creator codes, along with filename extensions.
AFP 3.0 was introduced in Mac OS X Server 10.0.3, and was used through Mac OS X Server 10.1.5. It was the first version to use the UNIX-style POSIX permissions model and Unicode UTF-8 file name encodings. Version 3.0 supported a maximum share point and file size of two terabytes, the maximum file size and volume size for Mac OS X until version 10.2. (Note that the maximum file size changed from version 2.2, described above.) Before AFP 3.0, 31 bytes was the maximum length of a filename sent over AFP.
AFP 3.1 was introduced in Mac OS X Server version 10.2. Notable changes included support for Kerberos authentication, automatic client reconnect, NFS resharing, and secure AFP connections via Secure Shell (SSH). The maximum share point and file size increased to 8 terabytes with Mac OS X Server 10.2, and then to 16 terabytes with Mac OS X Server 10.3.
AFP 3.2 adds support for Access Control Lists and extended attributes in Mac OS X Server 10.4. Maximum share point size is at least 16 terabytes, although Apple has not published a limits document for Mac OS X Server 10.4.
AFP 3.2+ was introduced in Mac OS X Leopard and adds case sensitivity support and improves support for Time Machine (synchronization, lock stealing, and sleep notifications).
AFP 3.3 mandates support for Replay Cache functionality (required for Time Machine).
AFP 3.4, introduced in OS X Mountain Lion, includes a minor change in the mapping of POSIX errors to AFP errors.
See Apple's Developer documentation on AFP Version Differences.
The macOS client
In Mac OS X Tiger, users can connect to AFP servers by browsing for them in the Network globe or entering an AFP Uniform Resource Locator (URL) into the Connect to Server dialog. In Mac OS X Leopard and later releases, AFP shares are displayed in the Finder sidebar. AFP URLs take the form: afp:///, where is the server's IP address, Domain Name System (DNS) name, or Bonjour name, and is the name of the share point. In Snow Leopard and later, a URL of the form afp://// can be used to mount a subdirectory underneath a share point.
macOS also offers Personal File Sharing, a "light" implementation of the current version of AFP. In Mac OS X 10.4, users can share the contents of their Public folders by checking Personal File Sharing in the Sharing section of System Preferences.
AFP URLs for AppleTalk servers took the form: afp://at/:. For networks without AppleTalk zones, an asterisk (*) would be substituted for the zone name.
Third-party implementations
Third party server implementations of AFP are available from a number of companies.
An open source AFP server called Netatalk (AFP 3.4) is available for Unix-like operating systems and integrated into NAS solutions including Buffalo NAS systems, Exanet ExaStore, Iomega's Home Media Network Hard Drive, IXsystems TrueNAS, LaCie NAS OS, Lime Technology unRAID, Napp-it, Netgear ReadyNAS, QNAP NAS, Synology DiskStation, Thecus NAS, and more. Netatalk v3.1, released 2013-10-28, adds Spotlight support.
Novell Open Enterprise Server supports AFP.
Microsoft includes AFP 2.2 server support as an option in some versions of Windows (NT, 2000 & 2003). Windows NT Server (3 and 4) only supported AppleTalk, 2000 added AppleShare over IP; Services for Macintosh (SFM), was removed from Windows Server 2008 onwards.
Novell's NetWare supports AFP.
HELIOS UB+ supports AFP on a whole array of different Unix based platforms.
The open source Filesystem in Userspace (FUSE) and command-line client implementation afpfs-ng for Linux and Unix-like operating systems
GroupLogic ExtremeZ-IP (AFP 3.3) and MacServerIP for Windows offer AFP 3.x support - now Acronis Files Connect.
A few NAS solutions support AFP independently implemented (see also Netatalk solutions above): Adaptec's Snap Server (AFP 3.1), and Apple's AirPort Time Capsule (AFP 3.2).
Jaffer is a Java implementation of Appletalk File Protocol v3.1.
Xinet from North Plains Systems offers an AFP platform that can run on most Unix based platforms. One of their products, ka-share, has been a main stay on Solaris SPARC and Silicon Graphics IRIX platforms.
Columbia AppleTalk Protocol (CAP) was an open source implementation of AFP and AppleTalk from Columbia University that has been discontinued and has fallen out of use.
supported by GVfs through gfvs-afp-volume-monitor
See also
List of network protocols
List of file systems
References
External links
File Services Manual for Mac OS X Server 10.4
Apple Filing Protocol Programming Guide
Apple Filing Protocol Reference
Mac OS X: Some Mac OS X Applications and Services Require AFP 3.0 or Later
Inside AppleTalk - original specification for the AppleTalk protocol stack including AFP
Glossary of Networking Terms
NewsFactor Network article, A
Macintosh: File System Specifications and Terms
Apple Technical Note TN1150 on the HFS Plus Volume Format
Apple shifts from AFP to SMB2
Filing Protocol
Apple Inc. file systems
Network protocols
Network file systems
Presentation layer protocols |
15905137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livechat%20Software | Livechat Software | LiveChat Software (WSE:LVC) is a customer service software company and developer of LiveChat - software as a service-based help desk software and online chat software for ecommerce sales, customer support and lead generation.
The company has offices in Wrocław, Poland and Boston, Massachusetts, United States. It serves more than 28,000 paid customers in over 150 countries, including Adobe, AirAsia, Best Buy, Better Business Bureau, ING, Huawei, Orange and PayPal.
History
Founded in 2002 as LiveChat Sp. z o.o. (LLC) in Wrocław, Poland, since October 2007 runs as a stock company.
In October 2006 50% of company stock was bought by Capital Partners S.A., investment and consultancy firm publicly listed at Warsaw Stock Exchange. In February 2008 Capital Partners S.A. decided to follow its strategy of having fewer companies but larger individual transactions and sold its entire stake along with another 13% of company stock to another publicly listed company, Gadu-Gadu S.A. This way LiveChat Software became another Polish company in Naspers capital group, joining Gadu-Gadu and Allegro.pl.
In January 2011, the management team sought to get back a controlling equity stake in the company and started a management buyout. After Naspers agreed in June 2011 to sell its entire stake, the founders teamed up with private equity firm Tar Heel Capital to finalize the buyout of the 60% stake. After the transaction was completed in September 2011, the founders own 60% of the stake, while Tar Heel Capital owns 40% of the company.
LiveChat Software has been introduced to the Warsaw Stock Exchange in April 2014 with the symbol LVC.
Products
LiveChat
LiveChat is main product sold by the company. It is a live support software and help desk software used by companies to provide real-time communication with customers using different communication channels: online chat on the website and inside mobile applications, email and social media (such as Facebook Messenger and Twitter).
LiveChat Software owns the technology it uses in the product, however in areas unrelated directly to chat, the company relies on 3rd party services. Technology partners include: Elastic for search and analytics engine, Postmark for delivery of transactional emails, Recurly for subscription billing and Pingdom for performance monitoring and uptime tracking.
On the software market, company cooperates with such companies as Microsoft, MySQL AB, Intel or Red Hat.
ChatBot
ChatBot is the second product sold by the company. It was initially launched and developed as BotEngine and was rebranded to ChatBot in November 2018. It is an artificial intelligence-based bot platform. It creates intelligent chatbots to communicate with customers in messaging apps, such as Messenger and Slack. It integrates with LiveChat. Other features include rich messages, an intelligent matching system, entities system (that allow to validate and save user input) and an open API.
HelpDesk
HelpDesk is the third product sold by the company. It is a system for tracking, prioritizing and resolving customer support tickets. Customers can leave messages for companies by using dedicated email addresses. Team members can create tickets if customer queries came from other communication channels, such as LiveChat, Facebook Messenger, WhatsApp or a phone call.
All inquiries are collected as tickets and assigned with the appropriate statuses and categories within the application. The application stores customer profiles and the history of their previous messages.
Knowledge Base
Knowledge Base is a tool that builds a self-service help center. It can be used both as an internal database for agents and an external public help center for customers. The internal widget is equipped with AI support that suggests articles answering customer queries.
Past products
Products offered in the past, but currently discontinued are: GG Pro (which was a corporate instant messenger) and Chat Server, which was a chat software for moderated chat rooms. Besides developing and selling communication solutions, in 2004-2010 LiveChat Software was the owner of one of the first Polish online chat portals - POLChat.
Another product offered by the company was chat.io. It was a chat widget for websites, apps and social messaging with message sneak peaks, agent ratings and chat routing. It allowed integrations with multiple communication channels, like Facebook Messenger. It was a chat platform for developers who like to customize product for their needs. The chat.io platform provided APIs to allow developers to build features atop the current offering. The product has been discontinued and became a part of LiveChat.
Awards
In October 2007 LiveChat (formerly LIVECHAT Contact Center) was listed among top Customer Support and Feedback applications in Inside CRM report recommended by Guy Kawasaki.
In 2011 Deloitte listed LiveChat Software as one of the fastest growing Central European technology companies in Deloitte Technology Fast 50 program - the company was selected for the 2011 award based on its 545% revenue growth over the previous five years (2005–2010). In 2012 the company was listed 18th in the same ranking, based on its 830% revenue growth.
In 2013 the company has been listed by Red Herring in the group of the most innovative companies from across Europe. It has been recognized by Deloitte in its annual Technology Fast 50 program and listed 18th with 624% revenue growth.
In 2015, during the Private Equity Forum & Awards Gala organized by the Executive Club with the support of Polish Private Equity & Venture Capital Association, LiveChat Software has been awarded “Private Equity Diamonds in the category Portfolio company (small cap). Later that year, LiveChat Software was shortlisted for the European Small and Mid-Cap Awards organised by EuropeanIssuers, FESE and the European Commission. One of three companies entered for the awards by Warsaw Stock Exchange, LiveChat was among the only CEE companies to be shortlisted.
Corporate social responsibility
The company has supported organizations during the 2020 COVID-19 outbreak, by offering its services for free to non-profits and for-profits helping towards the Covid-19 cause.
It also has long history of supporting the customer service community and individuals working in that space with tools that help with their development. One of the examples is Typing Speed Test - a free tool that works as an online speed typing contest. It is used to improve efficiency and accuracy of typing skills (measured in words per minute). Number of tests taken with the tool already exceeds tens of millions. Another example is a Customer Service Training - a free customer experience training for agents and customer service professionals.
See also
Allegro.pl
Gadu-Gadu
LiveChat
Naspers
References
Software companies established in 2002
Polish companies established in 2002
Internet properties established in 2002
Software companies of Poland
Information technology companies of Poland
Companies based in Wrocław
Polish brands |
13312001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InScript%20keyboard | InScript keyboard | InScript (short for Indic Script) is the decreed standard keyboard layout for Indian scripts using a standard 104- or 105-key layout. This keyboard layout was standardised by the Government of India for inputting text in languages of India written in Brahmic scripts, as well as the Santali language, written in the non-Brahmic Ol Chiki script. It was developed by the Indian Government and supported by several public and private organisations. This is the standard keyboard for 12 Indian scripts including Devanagari, Bengali, Gujarati, Gurmukhi, Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Tamil and Telugu, among others.
The InScript layout is built into most of the major operating systems including Windows (2000 and later), and most Linux and Mac OS systems. It is also available in some mobile phones and (in the case of Tamil and Hindi) in Apple's iOS 5 and higher. It is available in Android 4.0 (Ice Cream Sandwich) and higher but removed from latest Google Keyboard application (Gboard) and Google Indic Keyboard. It is also available for Windows Mobile 5.x and 6.x from third parties.
Keyboard layout
Devanagari InScript bilingual keyboard layout has a common layout for all the Indian scripts. Most Indic scripts have the same phonetic character order. A person who knows InScript typing in one script can type in any other Indic script using dictation even without knowledge of that script.
History
The first InScript keyboard was standardised in 1986 under the auspices of the DOE (Department of Electronics at the Ministry of Communications & Information Technology). It was subsequently revised in 1988 by a DOE committee and modifications were made to accommodate nuqta extended keys as well as to add certain matras. The last revision to the BIS document was made in 1992, after which the document has not undergone any revision. This was partly because very few new characters were added to the ISCII code-set and these if at all were handled by extending and generating the character by the use of the nuqta. The BIS document specifically mentions such characters. Hence the InScript keyboards were felt to be self-sufficient. With the advent of Unicode, a few new characters were added to each code-page; characters for which the BIS document had not made any provision. In addition Unicode introduced the concept of ZWJ and ZWNJ, as well as that of normalisation.
These new features had marked repercussions on storage as well as inputting and an urgent need was felt for a revision whereby each new character introduced in Unicode would be accommodated on the keyboard and a uniform manner of entering data as well as storing data would be devised. With this urgent requirement in mind, CDAC GIST involved in the initiative all major players: IBM, Microsoft and Red Hat Linux and hence in 2008, a joint meeting was organised between CDAC GIST and senior representatives of these multi-nationals to devise a common and uniform strategy for inputting and equally important for storage. This would enable the creation of one single keyboard and more importantly one single storage, essential for all high-end NLP. A task-force was created with two major briefs:
Evolve a design policy which would retain the major features of the existing Inscript keyboard.
Accommodate on the keyboard every character proposed in Unicode 5.1 and also ensure that the design could accommodate all future additions. This resulted in a document by the joint deliberations of all these companies described as proposal for “Enhanced InScript keyboard layout 5.1”.
See also
Clip font
Tamil 99 keyboard for Tamil.
References
External links
Online Hindi Typing
Hindi Keyboard
InScript Keyboard Overlay
Inscript Malayalam Keyboard Help (PDF)
TVS Devanagari Bilingual keyboards with details of keyboard layout, installation instructions for Windows/Linux, shops and online purchase
Typing Devanagari text using Hindi Traditional keyboard
Balendu Sharma Dadhich on Why Hindi users must adopt Inscript
Type in Hindi | Easy Hindi Typing
Indic computing
Brahmic scripts
Keyboard layouts |
1965334 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markus%20Hess | Markus Hess | Markus Hess, a German citizen, is best known for his endeavours as a hacker in the late 1980s. Alongside fellow hackers Dirk Brzezinski and Peter Carl, Hess hacked into networks of military and industrial computers based in the United States, Europe and East Asia, and sold the information to the Soviet KGB for US$54,000. During his time working for the KGB, Hess is estimated to have broken into 400 U.S. military computers. The hacked material included "sensitive semiconductor, satellite, space, and aircraft technologies".
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Hess's hacking activities were discovered in 1986 by Clifford Stoll, an astronomer turned systems administrator of the computer center of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL) in California. Stoll's first job duty was to track a 75-cent accounting error in the LBL system. Early in his investigation, Stoll discovered that the LBL computer system was compromised and that the hacker had obtained root, or system privileges. Such a security compromise was more important than the accounting error. Stoll eventually discovered how the hacker broke in and identified the hacker's activities on the system. LBL management considered attempting to seal off the system from this hacker, but Stoll and his colleagues convinced LBL's management that this would not be effective. Ultimately, they installed a honeypot to ensnare the hacker.
Getting in
Hess' initial activities started at the University of Bremen in Germany through the German Datex-P network via satellite link or transatlantic cable to the Tymnet International Gateway. Tymnet was a "gateway" service that a user called into that routed them to any one of a number of computer systems that also used the service. Tymnet was one of a number of services available that provided local telephone numbers, where directly accessing the computer would have been a long-distance call. Users normally used packet-switching services like Tymnet for their lower costs. Once he accessed Tymnet, Hess branched out to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California and to the Tymnet Switching System. It was through this switching system that he accessed the LBL computers.
Hess was able to attack 400 U.S. military computers by using LBL to "piggyback" to ARPANET and MILNET. ARPANET was a civilian wide area network created by the Department of Defense, which would later become what is now known as the Internet. MILNET was its military counterpart.
Targets
The facilities that Hess hacked into included:
SRI International – Menlo Park, California, US
U.S. Army Darcom – Seckenheim, West Germany
Fort Buckner, Camp Foster – Okinawa, Japan
U.S. Army 24th Infantry – Fort Stewart, Georgia, US
U.S. Navy Coastal Systems Computer – Panama City, Florida, US
U.S. Air Force – Ramstein Air Base, West Germany
MIT MX Computer, Cambridge, Massachusetts, US
OPTIMIS Database – The Pentagon, US
United States Air Force Systems Command – El Segundo, California, US
Anniston Army Depot – Anniston, Alabama, US
Tracking Hess and his capture
Stoll, with the help of local authorities, traced the call to a Tymnet switch in Oakland, California. Because the call came from Oakland rather than Berkeley, it was obvious that the hacker was not working local to the university. Tymnet officials helped LBL trace the various calls, even though the hacker attempted to conceal their origin. Enlisting the aid of AT&T and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Stoll eventually determined that the calls were being "piggybacked" across the United States, but originating from Hanover, Germany.
Stoll trapped Hess by creating records of a bogus military project conducted on LBL computers; according to The Cuckoo's Egg, he and his girlfriend conceived this plan while showering, giving it the unofficial name of "Operation Showerhead". While the bogus information was convincing, the primary goal was simply to keep the hacker connected long enough to trace his connection, and with the hope that the hacker might send a written request for further information listed as available in hard copy. This simple technique worked: a request for the additional information was received from a Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania address.
At the time, this type of hacking was new, and it was a considerable challenge to get the cooperation of the FBI and the West German government. Eventually, the German authorities were able to break in and arrest Hess. Hess went to trial in 1990, and Stoll testified against him. Hess was found guilty of espionage and was given a 20-month suspended sentence.
Literature and films
After Hess's capture, Stoll wrote about his efforts to track and locate Hess in a technical paper "Stalking the Wily Hacker" for the journal Communications of the ACM
and a book
The Cuckoo's Egg for the general public.
The Cuckoo's Egg was adapted into a 1990 Nova episode "The KGB, The Computer, and Me".
See also
Chaos Computer Club
References
Further reading
The Internet Incident ()
VTK Productions March The Second Movie Page
German computer criminals
German people convicted of spying for the Soviet Union
Hacking (computer security)
Living people
1960s births
People of the Cold War
Cyberwarfare |
298404 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20O.%20Rabin | Michael O. Rabin | Michael Oser Rabin (; born September 1, 1931) is an Israeli mathematician and computer scientist and a recipient of the Turing Award.
Biography
Early life and education
Rabin was born in 1931 in Breslau, Germany (today Wrocław, in Poland), the son of a rabbi. In 1935, he emigrated with his family to Mandate Palestine. As a young boy, he was very interested in mathematics and his father sent him to the best high school in Haifa, where he studied under mathematician Elisha Netanyahu, who was then a high school teacher.
Rabin graduated from the Hebrew Reali School in Haifa in 1948, and was drafted into the army during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The mathematician Abraham Fraenkel, who was a professor of mathematics in Jerusalem, intervened with the army command, and Rabin was discharged to study at the university in 1949.
He received an M.Sc. from Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1953 and a Ph.D. from Princeton University in 1956.
Career
Rabin became Associate Professor of Mathematics at the University of California, Berkeley (1961–62) and MIT (1962-63). Before moving to Harvard University as Gordon McKay Professor of Computer Science in 1981, he was a professor at the Hebrew University.
In the late 1950s, he was invited for a summer to do research for IBM at the Lamb Estate in Westchester County, New York with other promising mathematicians and scientists. It was there that he and Dana Scott wrote the paper "Finite Automata and Their Decision Problems". Soon, using nondeterministic automata, they were able to re-prove Kleene's result that finite state machines exactly accept regular languages.
As to the origins of what was to become computational complexity theory, the next summer Rabin returned to the Lamb Estate. John McCarthy posed a puzzle to him about spies, guards, and passwords, which Rabin studied and soon after he wrote an article, "Degree of Difficulty of Computing a Function and Hierarchy of Recursive Sets."
Nondeterministic machines have become a key concept in computational complexity theory, particularly with the description of the complexity classes P and NP.
Rabin then returned to Jerusalem, researching logic, and working on the foundations of what would later be known as computer science. He was an associate professor and the head of the Institute of Mathematics at the Hebrew University at 29 years old, and a full professor by 33. Rabin recalls, "There was absolutely no appreciation of the work on the issues of computing. Mathematicians did not recognize the emerging new field".
In 1960, he was invited by Edward F. Moore to work at Bell Labs, where Rabin introduced probabilistic automata that employ coin tosses in order to decide which state transitions to take. He showed examples of regular languages that required a very large number of states, but for which you get an exponential reduction of the number of states if you go over to probabilistic automata.
In 1969, Rabin proved that the second-order theory of n successors is decidable. A key component of the proof implicitly showed determinacy of parity games, which lie in the third level of the Borel hierarchy.
In 1975, Rabin finished his tenure as Rector of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and went to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the USA as a visiting professor. Gary Miller was also there and had his polynomial time test for primality based on the extended Riemann hypothesis. While there, Rabin invented the Miller–Rabin primality test, a randomized algorithm that can determine very quickly (but with a tiny probability of error) whether a number is prime. Rabin's method was based on previous work of Gary Miller that solved the problem deterministically with the assumption that the generalized Riemann hypothesis is true, but Rabin's version of the test made no such assumption. Fast primality testing is key in the successful implementation of most public-key cryptography, and in 2003 Miller, Rabin, Robert M. Solovay, and Volker Strassen were given the Paris Kanellakis Award for their work on primality testing.
In 1976 he was invited by Joseph Traub to meet at Carnegie Mellon University and presented the primality test. After he gave that lecture, Traub had said, "No, no, this is revolutionary, and it's going to become very important."
In 1979, Rabin invented the Rabin cryptosystem, the first asymmetric cryptosystem whose security was proved equivalent to the intractability of integer factorization.
In 1981, Rabin reinvented a weak variant of the technique of oblivious transfer invented by Wiesner under the name of multiplexing, allowing a sender to transmit a message to a receiver where the receiver has some probability between 0 and 1 of learning the message, with the sender being unaware whether the receiver was able to do so.
In 1987, Rabin, together with Richard Karp, created one of the most well-known efficient string search algorithms, the Rabin–Karp string search algorithm, known for its rolling hash.
Rabin's more recent research has concentrated on computer security. He is currently the Thomas J. Watson Sr. Professor of Computer Science at Harvard University and Professor of Computer Science at Hebrew University. During the spring semester of 2007, he was a visiting professor at Columbia University teaching Introduction to Cryptography.
Awards and honours
Rabin is a foreign member of the United States National Academy of Sciences, a member of the
French Academy of Sciences and a foreign member of the Royal Society.
In 1976, the Turing Award was awarded jointly to Rabin and Dana Scott for a paper written in 1959, the citation for which states that the award was granted:
For their joint paper "Finite Automata and Their Decision Problems," which introduced the idea of nondeterministic machines, which has proved to be an enormously valuable concept. Their (Scott & Rabin) classic paper has been a continuous source of inspiration for subsequent work in this field.
In 1995, Rabin was awarded the Israel Prize, in computer sciences. In 2010, Rabin was awarded the Tel Aviv University Dan David Prize ("Future" category), jointly with Leonard Kleinrock and Gordon E. Moore, for Computers and Telecommunications. Rabin was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Science from Harvard University in 2017.
See also
Oblivious transfer
Rabin automaton
Rabin fingerprint
Hyper-encryption
List of Israel Prize recipients
References
External links
Short Description in an Information Science Hall of Fame at University of Pittsburgh
Oblivious transfer
Quotes from some of Professor Rabin's classes
Website for one of Rabin's courses
Description of Rabin's research by Richard J. Lipton
1931 births
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Israeli mathematicians
Israeli computer scientists
Hebrew Reali School alumni
Einstein Institute of Mathematics alumni
Hebrew University of Jerusalem faculty
Columbia University faculty
Turing Award laureates
Dijkstra Prize laureates
Israel Prize in computer sciences recipients
Members of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities
Modern cryptographers
Logicians
Theoretical computer scientists
Living people
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Tarski lecturers
International Association for Cryptologic Research fellows
IBM Research computer scientists
IBM employees
Harvard University faculty
ETH Zurich faculty
Gödel Lecturers |
27172704 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20ID | Apple ID | Apple ID is an authentication method used by Apple for iPhone, iPad, Mac and other Apple devices. Apple IDs contain user personal information and settings. When an Apple ID is used to log in to an Apple device, the device will automatically use the settings associated with the Apple ID.
Operation
Creation of account
An Apple ID account can be created free of charge from the My Apple ID web page. An Apple ID is a valid email address, protected by a password set by the user that is a case-sensitive alphanumeric string of at least eight characters. Apple will send a verification email to the email address the user provided and the user is required to follow the URL included in the verification email to activate the account. It is possible to create an Apple ID without specifying a credit card.
In March 2013, Apple ID launched an optional two-step verification security feature for authentication. When enabled, a second verification step is required when using the Apple ID under certain conditions, such as a web login, or making a Store purchase from a new device. The feature uses the Find My service to send a four-digit pin code to a trusted device associated with the Apple ID when the second verification step is required for authentication.
Modification
Users can change their passwords or personal information on the My Apple ID page by selecting the "Manage your account" link. Changes that a user makes to an Apple ID account, whilst they are using one Apple product, are also recognized by other applications where the user uses the same Apple ID account (for example, the online Apple Store, iCloud, or iPhoto). Apple will send a verification email to the email address provided and the user is required to follow the URL included in the verification email to confirm the changes. After confirming the changes, users may still be asked to verify their information the next time they use their Apple ID to purchase online, such as using the iTunes Store.
Apple also allows users to change the name of an Apple ID but users must contact Apple customer service to make such a change.
Retrieval
An Apple ID may be disabled for security reasons if the password is entered incorrectly multiple times. The user will be warned with a message when the account has been disabled. Apple IDs and passwords can be retrieved by answering account security questions on iForgot. For security reasons, Apple will not reset the password for an Apple ID account.
Another error is "Your Apple ID has been disabled" without disclosure of a reason. The cause of this error is as yet unknown and resetting one's password does not clear it. It has been reported as occurring on both iPhone and iPod Touch devices as well as in iTunes. One can get this issue resolved by contacting iTunes Store support at www.apple.com/support/.
Multiple Apple IDs
Users can use different Apple IDs for their store purchases and for their iCloud storage and other uses. This includes many MobileMe users who have always had difficulties as they were forced to use more than one Apple ID, because on signing-up to the MobileMe service a new Apple ID was automatically created using the me.com email address being created at the time, meaning users could not change their previous Apple ID email address to be their me.com email address and has always remained so. Apple does not permit different accounts to be merged.
Apple Online Discussions
Apple Discussions is a user-to-user support forum where Apple experts and users get together to discuss Apple products. Any user can browse and read the discussion forum without the need of an Apple ID. However, an Apple ID gives the user the ability to participate in Apple Discussion websites such as allowing the user to ask questions about any Apple hardware or software products, to receive help, tips, and solutions from other Apple users.
iWork publishing
iWork Publishing allowed an Apple ID user to upload and share iWork projects such as Pages, Numbers, and Keynotes. The published contents could be viewed publicly or by whoever the user invited via iWork.com. The user did not need to know whether his or her colleagues use a Mac or a PC. Since iWork was a web based service, anyone with a web browser and internet connection can use it.
On July 31, 2012, iWork.com was shut down in favor of iCloud, Apple's cloud service.
FaceTime and iMessage
FaceTime is a video calling application for iOS 4 or later and OS X Snow Leopard or later. An Apple ID is not required to use FaceTime if one owns an iPhone (One can make calls with their iPhone number on their Mac, iPod, and iPad).
iMessage is an instant messaging application for iOS 5 or later, watchOS, and OS X Mountain Lion or later. An Apple ID is not required to use iMessage if one owns an iPhone.
Apple Online Store
An Apple ID is not required to place an order on the Apple Online Store. Apple lets buyers place orders on its online store without an Apple ID by using the Guest Checkout Feature. An Apple ID and the Guest Checkout Feature both allow the customer to access order info such as invoices, check the order status, and track the shipping package. However, Apple IDs allow users to customize their Apple Online Store experiences. Users can save items they are interested in purchasing; save a cart if they are almost ready to place an order; save shipping and billing addresses and payment information to speed up the checkout process; use 1-Click ordering on Apple's website and check Apple Gift Card balances.
Apple digital stores
Apple ID gives users access to buying (or downloading for free) and later free re-download of many Apple-based resources, including:
iTunes Store: music, movies, TV shows, podcasts, audiobooks, mobile phone ringtones.
iBooks Store: ebooks, interactive books, digital textbooks (usable on iOS devices and Macs running Mavericks).
App Store: iOS apps.
Mac App Store: macOS apps.
iTunes Store, App Store (for iOS apps), Mac App Store, iBooks Store, and Newsstand all make use of Apple ID. To purchase digital media such as movies and music on the iTunes Store or the App Store, an Apple ID is required. A user can use an Apple ID and password to sign into the iTunes Store or App Store to buy content or authorize items the user has purchased. The ID is the proof of ownership for the content the user has previously downloaded from Apple digital stores.
The Apple ID allows the user to re-download their purchased content for any of their devices. For iTunes on computers, an Apple ID is authorized to copy purchased content on up to five computers at a time. Apple has not confirmed exactly how many iOS devices can use the purchased content of one ID.
According to Apple support "Your Apple ID can have up to 10 devices and computers (combined) associated with it."
iCloud
iCloud allows users to store data such as music and iOS applications on remote computer servers for download to multiple devices such as iOS-based devices running iOS 5 or later, and personal computers running OS X 10.7.2 Lion or later, or Microsoft Windows (Windows Vista service pack 2 or later). iCloud replaced Apple's MobileMe service, acting as a data syncing center for email, contacts, calendars, bookmarks, notes, reminders (to-do lists), iWork documents, photos and other data. The service also allows users to wirelessly back-up their iOS devices to iCloud instead of manually doing so using iTunes.
Every Apple ID comes with 5 GB of free storage. One may purchase additional storage if they wish to.
Sign in with Apple
On June 9, 2019, Apple unveiled a single sign-on provider built around Apple ID known as "Sign In with Apple". Based on OAuth 2.0 and OpenID Connect, it is designed as a privacy-focused alternative to other social login services, minimizing the amount of personal information sent to a service, and allowing use of disposable email addresses forwarding to the user's Apple ID email.
Related terms
Apple Developer
References
External links
Apple Inc. services
Federated identity |
25808702 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FrontlineSMS | FrontlineSMS | FrontlineSMS is a free open source software used by a variety of organizations to distribute and collect information via text messaging (SMS). The software works without an internet connection and with a cell phone and computer.
History
The software was originally developed in 2005 by Ken Banks for conservationists to keep in touch with communities in Kruger National Park in South Africa. The 2.0 release is a deep redesign and is the first version to install a browser-based interface to the Java FrontlineSMS backend.
Usage
FrontlineSMS enables users to connect a range of mobile devices to a computer to send and receive SMS text messages. The software works without an internet connection by connecting a device such as a cell phone or GSM modem with a local phone number. FrontlineSMS can send and receive messages, group contacts, respond to messages, and trigger other events. If internet access is available, FrontlineSMS can be connected to online SMS services and set up to feed incoming messages to other web or e-mail services. FrontlineSMS includes different features which enable messages to be filtered by keyword, or allows the submission of Java-based forms with FrontlineSMS Forms.
It has been used to monitor national elections in the Philippines, Afghanistan and Nigeria. For example, in April 2007 it was used by the Network of Mobile Election Monitors (NMEM) to oversee the 2007 Nigerian general election. Volunteers with mobile phones sent back reports from election booths to a central hub in an effort to prevent vote rigging. A similar system was deployed to monitor the 2009 Afghan presidential election, where it was combined with the crisis-mapping tool Ushahidi, to plot the reports on an online map.
After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, FrontlineSMS team members helped establish the 4636 Short Code through other related organizations (Ushahidi, InSTEDD) to allow people on the ground to report emergency information.
FrontlineSMS and its sister organizations are also improving the provision of healthcare in developing countries, where bad roads, long distances, and a shortage of healthcare workers make delivering care difficult. FrontlineSMS:Medic uses the FrontlineSMS software to gather health data and assist in patient follow-up. Community health workers use FrontlineSMS:Medic to transmit information about symptoms and follow up with patients much more quickly and efficiently (by sending a text message rather than driving long distances over bad roads). When FrontlineSMS:Medic was first introduced in one area of Malawi, the local hospital doubled the number of tuberculosis patients treated over six months, while saving 2,100 hours in travel and work time and $3,500 in costs. The tool is now being used in 11 countries, mostly in sub Saharan Africa. In June 2010, FrontlineSMS:Medic team released a public beta of PatientView, which allows hospitals to manage patient information in rural settings where there is no Internet access. The FrontlineSMS:Medic team is also working on a monitoring system to capture symptoms across different languages and spellings and detect disease hotspots, and are working with a researcher at the University of California, Los Angeles to develop an addition that would allow remote diagnosis of malaria and some sexually transmitted diseases, including potentially HIV.
License
FrontlineSMS is licensed under the LGPL. The licensing is defined on the software's SourceForge page.
References
External links
Mobile device management software
Utilities for macOS
Utilities for Windows
Utilities for Linux
Software using the LGPL license
Emergency communication
Emergency management software |
6197957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer%20Shopper%20%28US%20magazine%29 | Computer Shopper (US magazine) | Computer Shopper was a monthly consumer computer magazine published by SX2 Media Labs. The magazine ceased print publication in April 2009. The website was closed and redirected to the PCMag website in late May 2018.
History
Computer Shopper magazine was established in 1979 in Titusville, Florida. It began as a tabloid-size publication on yellow newsprint that primarily contained classified advertising and ads for kit computers, parts, and software. The magazine was created by Glenn Patch, publisher of the photo-equipment magazine Shutterbug Ads, in the hopes of applying its formula to a PC-technology magazine. The magazine expanded into prebuilt home computers and white box IBM PC compatibles through the 1980s.
The magazine grew to several hundred pages, mostly of advertisements. It was during this time that the magazine was sold to Ziff Davis Publishing, first as a limited partnership, then solely owned. It was later sold, in 2000, along with Ziff-Davis' ZDNet Web site, to CNET. CNET sold Computer Shopper to new owners, SX2 Media Labs, in 2006. In April 2009, SX2 Media Labs discontinued the print version of the magazine. The business continued on as a Web entity, ComputerShopper.com, which was reacquired by Ziff-Davis in 2012.
Magazine
Computer Shopper, the print magazine, comprised the following sections at the end of its publication:
Boot Up. A commentary and product-news section written by the magazine's expert editors. A column written by Senior Editor Sarah E. Anderson examined tech-buying and related issues from a working mother's perspective.
Reviews. Each issue contained more than two dozen reviews.
Features. Typically two or three per issue, the feature stories were often product-centric, comprising product comparisons and buying guides.
Help and How-To. These articles provided assistance for technical problems and gave step-by-step directions on how to perform common tasks.
Shut Down. A retrospective look at technology through the archives of Computer Shopper.
A user-submitted listing of Bulletin Board Systems (BBS) throughout the US and Canada.
List of editors-in-chief
Stan Veit (1983–1989)
Bob Lindstrom (1989–1991)
John Dickinson (1991–1994)
John Blackford (1994–2000)
Janice Chen (2000–2006)
Rik Fairlie (2006–2007)
John A. Burek (2008–2017)
References
Defunct computer magazines published in the United States
Home computer magazines
Monthly magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1979
Magazines disestablished in 2009
Magazines published in Florida
1979 establishments in Florida
2009 disestablishments in Florida |
2904015 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LliureX | LliureX | LliureX () is a project of the Generalitat Valenciana whose objective is the introduction of the new technologies of information and communication based on free software in the education system in the Valencian Community.
It is a Linux distribution that is used on over 110,000 PCs in schools in the Valencia region. Originally it was based on Debian but since version 7.09 it is based on Ubuntu.
References
External links
Official site (in Valencian and Spanish)
Educational operating systems
Spanish-language Linux distributions
Ubuntu derivatives
Valencian Community
Linux distributions |
31941849 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICloud | ICloud | iCloud is a cloud storage and cloud computing service from Apple Inc. launched on October 12, 2011. As of 2018, the service had an estimated 850 million users, up from 782 million users in 2016.
iCloud enables users to store data such as documents, photos, and music on remote servers for download to iOS, macOS or Windows devices, to share and send data to other users, and to manage their Apple devices if lost or stolen.
iCloud also provides the means to wirelessly back up iOS devices directly to iCloud, instead of being reliant on manual backups to a host Mac or Windows computer using iTunes. Service users are also able to share photos, music, and games instantly by linking accounts via AirDrop wireless.
iCloud replaced Apple's MobileMe service, acting as a data syncing center for email, contacts, calendars, bookmarks, notes, reminders (to-do lists), iWork documents, photos, and other data.
Apple has eleven company owned and operated data centers supporting iCloud services. The company has six data centers in the United States, two in Denmark, and three in Asia. One of Apple's original iCloud data centers is located in Maiden, North Carolina, US.
Beginning in 2011, iCloud is based on Amazon Web Services and Microsoft Azure (Apple iOS Security white paper published in 2014, Apple acknowledged that encrypted iOS files are stored in Amazon S3 and Microsoft Azure). In 2016, Apple signed a deal with Google to use Google Cloud Platform for some iCloud services.
In October 2016, Bloomberg reported that Apple was working on project Pie which aims to improve the speed and experience of Apple's online services by being operated more directly by Apple.
In June 2021, Apple introduced iCloud+, which introduced Private Relay, Hide My Email and custom email domains to paid users of the services, as well as an unlimited storage limit for video from cameras added through HomeKit Secure Video.
System requirements
iCloud account creation requires either an iOS device running iOS 5 or later or a Mac running OS X Lion v10.7.5 or later, as well as an internet connection and a compatible web browser. Also, certain features have their own minimum requirements of OS versions. For example, using iCloud Photo Sharing requires OS X Mavericks v10.9 or above on a Mac.
Devices running older versions of macOS (before Mavericks) or iOS (below 7) may be unable to sign into iCloud after the iCloud password has been changed: the only resolution for this issue is to upgrade the OS, which may be impossible on a device that does not meet the newer OS minimum requirements.
Synchronizing with a PC requires Windows 7 or later and using the iCloud Control Panel, and optionally Outlook 2007 or later or the built-in Windows 10 Mail and Calendar apps to sync Calendar, Contacts, and Reminders. Users must own an Apple device to set up iCloud for Windows.
Synchronization of bookmarks requires Safari 5.1.1 or later on macOS, and Internet Explorer 9, Firefox 22 or Google Chrome 28 or later on Windows.
MobileMe account users could move their accounts to an iCloud account, keeping the same account details.
History
iCloud was announced on June 6, 2011, at the 2011 Apple Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC). Apple announced that MobileMe would be discontinued after June 30, 2012, with anyone who had an account before the unveiling of iCloud having their MobileMe service extended to that date, free of charge.
The official website, www.icloud.com, went live in early August for Apple Developers. On October 12, 2011, iCloud became available to use via an iTunes update. iCloud had 20 million users in less than a week after launch. The iCloud.com domain and registered trademark were bought from a Swedish company called Xcerion, who rebranded their service to CloudMe. Apple now controls major domains like iCloud.de, iCloud.fr and iCloud.es.
A class action lawsuit by customers unhappy over the transition from MobileMe to iCloud was filed in early-May 2012.
In June 2019, iCloud was introduced to Windows 10 via the Microsoft Store.
On June 7, 2021, Apple introduced an upgraded version of iCloud for users who paid for additional storage called iCloud+ during their 2021 Apple Worldwide Developers Conference. iCloud+ includes Private Relay, which allowed users to browse Safari without being tracked, Hide My Email, which allows users to sign up to websites and other apps with a private email address that forwarded messages to their main inbox, and updates to HomeKit Secure Video which allows iCloud+ users to add an unlimited number of HomeKit cameras that do not count against the storage limit.
Announcement
The first official mention of iCloud from Apple came on May 31, 2011, when a press release announced that it would demonstrate the service at the WWDC on June 6, 2011. A banner hung at the Moscone Center for WWDC revealed the iCloud logo five days before the official launch.
At the WWDC 2011 keynote speech, Steve Jobs (in one of his last public appearances) announced iCloud will replace MobileMe services and that the basic iCloud service will be free of charge.
Features
The cloud-based system allows users to store heterogeneous music, photos, applications, documents, bookmarks, reminders, backups, notes, Apple Books, and contacts and provides a platform for Apple's email servers and calendars. Third-party iOS and macOS app developers can implement iCloud functionality in their apps through the iCloud API.
Backup and restore
iCloud allows users to back up the settings and data on iOS devices running iOS 5 or later. Data backed up includes photos and videos in the Camera Roll, device settings, app data, messages (iMessage, SMS, and MMS), ringtones, and Visual Voicemails. Backups occur daily when the device is locked and connected to Wi-Fi and a power source. In case of a malfunction of any Apple device, during the restoration process, iCloud offers to restore all data along with App data only if the device was synced to iCloud and backed up.
Back to My Mac
Back to My Mac, also previously part of MobileMe, is now part of iCloud. As before, this service allows users to log in remotely to other computers that have Back to My Mac enabled and are configured with the same Apple ID. On August 9, 2018, Apple updated a support document to note that Back to My Mac would not be part of the upcoming macOS Mojave (10.14) release.
Email
An iCloud account can include an email account, much like MobileMe, .Mac, and iTools did previously. However, unlike MobileMe and its previous iterations, the email account is an optional part of an iCloud account, in that the user can choose to use a non-iCloud email address as their iCloud Apple ID. The email account can be accessed using any standard IMAP-compatible email client, as well as via web browser at iCloud.com. Additionally, on an iOS device, iCloud email is push-enabled.
Users who converted existing MobileMe accounts to iCloud accounts kept their existing "@me.com" email addresses; users whose accounts pre-dated MobileMe and had both me.com and mac.com email addresses kept both. As well as retaining their previous addresses, users also received the matching "@icloud.com" address. As there is only one mailbox per account, all messages sent to any of a user's iCloud email addresses end up in the same inbox.
Find My Friends
Find My iPhone My Friends was added to iCloud alongside the launch of iOS 5, allowing users to share their current location with their friends or family. iOS 6 added location-based alerts to notify the user when a device arrives at a certain location.
On iOS 9 and 10, Find My Friends is built into iOS and cannot be removed. From iOS 11 onwards it is included, but can be deleted and then subsequently reinstalled from the iOS App Store.
In October 2015, Find My Friends was added to iCloud.com to view other "friends" locations.
Find My iPhone
Find My iPhone, formerly part of MobileMe, allows users to track the location of their iOS device or Mac. A user can see the device's approximate location on a map (along with a circle showing the radius depicting the margin of error), display a message and/or play a sound on the device (even if it is set to silent), change the password on the device, and remotely erase its contents. The feature was first announced on June 10, 2009, and was included in the iOS 3.0 software update as a feature for paying MobileMe users. Find My iPhone was made free of charge with the iOS 4.2.1 software update on November 22, 2010, but only for devices introduced in 2010. An iOS app was also released by Apple on June 18, 2010, which allows users to locate their device from other iOS devices running iOS 4 or later software. In iOS 5, Find My iPhone was continued as a feature for iCloud. iOS 6 introduced Lost Mode, a new feature that allows the user to mark a device as "lost", making it easier to protect and find. The feature also allows someone that finds the user's lost iPhone to call the user directly without unlocking it. Similar phone finder services under various names are available for other families of smartphones.
Activation Lock was introduced in 2013 with iOS 7. It is integrated with iCloud and Find My iPhone feature. This new feature locks the activation of any iPhone, iPad, iPod touch or Apple watch which has been restored in either DFU or Recovery mode without first disabling the Find My iPhone feature. Once restore is completed, the device will ask for the Apple ID and password that has been previously associated with it, to proceed with activation, ultimately preventing any stolen device from being usable.
As of iOS 9, Find my iPhone is a built-in app, and thus cannot be removed.
In iOS and iPadOS 13, Both Find my iPhone and Find My Friends have been removed in favour of Find My.
Find My
Find My replaced Find my iPhone and Find My Friends, merging the two apps in iOS and iPadOS 14.
iCloud Keychain
iCloud Keychain is a password manager developed by Apple that syncs passwords across devices and suggests secure ones when creating new accounts.
iCloud Keychain backups provide different security guarantees than traditional iCloud backups. This is because iCloud Keychain uses "end-to-end encryption", meaning that iCloud Keychain backups are designed so that the provider does not have access to unencrypted data. This is accomplished through the use of a novel "key vault" design based on a Hardware Security Module located in Apple's data centers.
iTunes Match
iTunes Match debuted on November 14, 2011. It was initially available to US users only. For an annual fee, customers can scan and match tracks in their iTunes music library, including tracks copied from CDs or other sources, with tracks in the iTunes Store, so customers do not have to repurchase said tracks. Customers may download up to 100,000 tracks in 256 kbit/s DRM-free AAC file format that matches tracks in any supported audio file formats in customers' iTunes libraries, including ALAC and MP3. Customers also have the choice to keep their original copies stored on their computers or have them replaced by copies from the iTunes Store. Any music not available in the iTunes Store is uploaded for download onto customers' other supported devices and computers; doing this will not take storage from the customers' iCloud's storage allowance. Any such tracks stored in the higher quality lossless audio ALAC, or original uncompressed PCM formats, WAV and AIFF, are transcoded to 256 kbit/s DRM-free AAC format before uploading to the customers' iCloud storage account, leaving the original higher quality local files in their original format.
If a user stops paying for the iTunes Match service, all copies of the DRM-free AAC iTunes Store versions of tracks that have already been downloaded onto any device can be kept, whether on iOS devices or computers.
From iOS 7 and OS X Mavericks, the iTunes Radio function will be available across devices, including integration with the Music app, both on portable iOS devices and Apple TV (2nd generation onwards), as well as inside the iTunes app on Macintosh and Windows computers. It will be included in an ad-free version for subscribers to the iTunes Match service and is currently available only in the US and Australia
The streaming Genius shuffle is not available in current versions of iOS but is available in iTunes on the Mac.
On January 28, 2016, ad-free iTunes Radio was discontinued and is therefore no longer part of iTunes Match.
, iTunes Match is available in 116 countries, while iTunes in the Cloud is available in 155 countries.
iWork for iCloud
During the 2013 Apple Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) keynote speech, iWork for iCloud was announced for release at the same time as the next version of the app versions of iWork later in the year. The three apps for both iOS and macOS that form Apple's iWork suite (Pages, Numbers, and Keynote), will be made available on a web interface (named as Pages for iCloud, Numbers for iCloud, and Keynote for iCloud respectively), and accessed via the iCloud website under each user's iCloud Apple ID login. They will also sync with the user's iOS and macOS versions of the app, should they have them, again via their iCloud Apple ID.
This allows the user to edit and create documents on the web, using one of the supported browsers: Safari, Chrome, and Microsoft Edge. It also means that Microsoft Windows users now have access to these native –previously only Apple device– document editing tools, via the web interface.
Photo Stream
Photo Stream is a service supplied with the basic iCloud service which allows users to store the most recent 1,000 photos on the iCloud servers for up to 30 days free of charge. When a photo is taken on a device with Photo Stream enabled, it is automatically uploaded to the iCloud servers. From there, it becomes available for viewing and saving on the rest of the user's Photo Stream-enabled devices. The photo is automatically removed from the server after 30 days or when it becomes photo number 1,001 in the user's stream. Photo Stream installed on a Mac or Windows desktop computer includes an option to have all photos permanently saved on that device. The service is also integrated with Apple TV, allowing users to view their recent photos wirelessly on their HDTV.
iCloud Photos
iCloud Photos is a feature on iOS 8.1 or later and OS X Yosemite (version 10.10) or later, plus web app access. The service stores all of the user's photos, maintaining their original resolution and metadata. Users can access their iCloud Photos on supported devices via the new Photos app when available or via the iCloud Photos web app at iCloud.com, which helps limit the amount of local storage each device needs to use to store photos (particularly those with smaller storage capacities) by storing lower-resolution versions on the device, with the user having the option to keep some/all stored locally at a higher resolution.
Storage
Since its introduction in 2011, each account has 5 GB of free storage for owners of either an iOS device using iOS 5.x or later, or a Mac using OS X Lion 10.7 or later. Users can purchase additional storage for a total of 50 GB, 200 GB or 2 TB. The amount of storage is shared across all devices per iCloud Apple ID.
Several native features of iCloud use each user's iCloud storage allowance, specifically, Backup and restore, and email, Contacts, and Calendars. On Macs, users can also store most filetypes into iCloud folders of their choosing, rather than only storing them locally on the machine. While Photo Stream uses the iCloud servers, usage does not come out of the user's iCloud storage allowance. This is also true for iTunes Match music content, even for music that is not sold in the iTunes Store and which gets uploaded into iCloud storage, it does not count against the user's allowance. Other apps can optionally integrate app storage out of the user's iCloud storage allowance.
Not all of a user's content counts as part of their iCloud storage allowance. Apple can keep a permanent track of every purchase a user makes under their Apple ID account, and by associating each piece of content with the user, it means only one copy of every Store item is needed to be kept on Apple's servers. For items bought from the iTunes Store (music, music videos, movies, TV shows), Apple Books Store (books), or App Store (iOS apps), this uses a service Apple call iTunes in the Cloud, allowing the user to automatically, or manually if preferred, re-download any of their previous purchases on to a Mac, PC, or iOS device. Downloaded (or streamed, provided the user is connected to the Internet) iTunes Store content can be used across all these devices, however, while Apple Books Store and App Store content can be downloaded to Macs and PCs for syncing to iOS devices, only iOS and Mac devices (and their respective apps) can be used to read the books. Similarly, macOS apps purchased from the Mac App Store are also linked to the Apple ID they were purchased through and can be downloaded to any Mac using the same Apple ID. Also, when a user registers any new device, all previously bought Store content can be downloaded from the Store servers or non-Store content from the iCloud servers.
Audiobooks and their metadata fields from non-Apple purchased sources are not synced across devices (macOS or iOS) inside the Apple Books apps, and nor does the metadata from non-Apple purchased books (in Ebook or PDF format). There remains a syncing mismatch on some types of media, between Apple-purchased content and non-Apple purchased content that remains in effect for iCloud users.
iCloud Drive
iCloud Drive is iCloud's file hosting service, that syncs files across devices running iOS 8, OS X Yosemite (version 10.10), or Windows 7 or later, plus online web app access via iCloud.com. Users can store any kind of file (including photos, videos, documents, music, and other apps' data) in iCloud Drive and access it on any Mac, iPad, iPhone, iPod Touch, or Windows PC, with any single file being a maximum of 50 GB in file size (earlier it was 15 GB). This allows users to start their work on one device and continue on another device. By default, users still get 5 GB of storage for free as previously, but the expandable storage plans available have increased in size (current tiers: 50 GB, 200 GB, and 2 TB), and altered to monthly subscription payment options from the yearly ones offered under the previous MobileMe service.
In iOS 11, iCloud Drive has been integrated into the new Files app that gives users access to all their cloud and local on-device storage, which replaced the standalone iCloud Drive app.
Messages on iCloud
Messages on iCloud is a feature on iOS 11.4 and macOS High Sierra 10.13.5 which keeps all of a user's iMessages and SMS texts stored in the cloud.
Private Relay
Private Relay, an iCloud+ feature currently on beta, allows users to browse Safari privately, similar to a virtual private network. According to Apple, "regulatory reasons" prevent the company from launching Private Relay in China, Belarus, Russia, Colombia, Egypt, Kazakhstan, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkmenistan, Uganda, and the Philippines.
Up to 5% of Wikipedia editors globally could be negatively affected by using Private Relay, because Wikipedia blocks ranges of IP addresses to combat page vandalism
Hide My Email
Hide My Email is available to iCloud+ users and allows users in Mail and Safari to generate temporary Apple email addresses which forward messages to their main email address.
Custom email domain
Custom email domains, an iCloud+ feature, allows users to personalize their email address with a custom domain name and invite family members to use the same domain with their iCloud Mail accounts.
Criticism
iCloud has been criticized by third-party developers for bugs that make some features nearly unusable under earlier versions of iOS and macOS, specifically the use of Core Data in iCloud, for storing and syncing larger amounts of data between third-party apps on users' devices. Third-party developers have reported that the changes implemented in the release of iOS 7 and OS X Mavericks (version 10.9) address these iCloud criticisms.
Name dispute
iCloud Communications, a telecommunications company in Arizona, sued Apple in June 2011 for trademark infringement shortly after Apple announced iCloud. The lawsuit was filed in the US District Court of Arizona and demanded that Apple stop using the iCloud name and pay unspecified monetary damages. iCloud Communications changed its name to Clear Digital Communications in August 2011 and dropped its lawsuit against Apple shortly thereafter.
Privacy
Apple's iCloud service, including iCloud Drive and iOS device backups, does not provide end-to-end encryption, also known as client-side encryption, and without end-to-end encryption, users' information is left unsecured because it remains easily accessible to unauthorized persons. Furthermore, Apple reserves the right to and admits to scanning user data for illegal content.
In August 2014, it was rumored that hackers had discovered an exploit involving the Find My iPhone service, which potentially allowed an attacker to brute-force a user's Apple ID and access their iCloud data. The exploit was later incorrectly rumored to have been used as part of an August 2014 leak of a large number of private, nude photos of celebrities that had been synced to their iCloud storage from their iPhone. Apple confirmed that it was working with law enforcement agencies to investigate the leak. Apple subsequently denied that the iCloud service itself or the alleged exploit was responsible for the leak, asserting that the leaks were the result of a very targeted phishing attack against the celebrities. On September 13, 2014 Tim Cook, while being interviewed by Charlie Rose, stated on camera that the celebrity leaks were not an iCloud exploit at all, but rather the celebrities had been phished by very targeted phishing to trick them out of their login credentials.
Apple has been scanning iCloud Mail for CSAM information starting 2019. On August 5, 2021, Apple confirmed it has planned to started scanning iCloud Photos for the same reason. After receiving a public backlash against Apple scanning private photos, Apple announced it will collect further input before releasing new functionality.
China
In February 2018, Apple announced that iCloud users in China would have their data, including encryption data, on servers called "云上贵州" located in the country to comply with local regulations. This raised concerns from human rights activists who claim that it may be used to track dissidents. In response, CEO Tim Cook stated that Apple encrypts "the same in every country in the world other than China".
On June 7, 2021, during the WWDC event, Apple announced that iCloud's new 'private relay' feature would not work in China for regulatory reasons.
See also
Comparison of file hosting services
Comparison of online backup services
Comparison of online music lockers
Cloud backup
File hosting service
References
External links
– official site
Information about iCloud on Apple.com
2011 software
Apple Inc. services
Cloud applications
Companies' terms of service
Computer-related introductions in 2011
Data synchronization
File hosting for macOS
File sharing services
Internet properties established in 2011
IOS
Storage software
Webmail
■ |
1696833 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peiter%20Zatko | Peiter Zatko | Peiter C. Zatko, better known as Mudge, is a network security expert, open source programmer, writer, and a hacker. He was the most prominent member of the high-profile hacker think tank the L0pht as well as the long-lived computer and culture hacking cooperative the Cult of the Dead Cow.
While involved with the L0pht, Mudge contributed significantly to disclosure and education on information and security vulnerabilities. In addition to pioneering buffer overflow work, the security advisories he released contained early examples of flaws in the following areas: code injection, race condition, side-channel attack, exploitation of embedded systems, and cryptanalysis of commercial systems. He was the original author of the password cracking software L0phtCrack.
In 2010 Mudge accepted a position as a program manager at DARPA where he oversaw cyber security research. In 2013 Mudge went to work for Google in their Advanced Technology & Projects division. In 2020, he was hired as head of security at Twitter.
Biography
Born in December 1970, Mudge graduated from the Berklee College of Music at the top of his class and is an adept guitar player.
Mudge was responsible for early research into a type of security vulnerability known as the buffer overflow. In 1995 he published "How to Write Buffer Overflows", one of the first papers on the topic. He published some of the first security advisories and research demonstrating early vulnerabilities in Unix such as code injection, side-channel attacks, and information leaks, and was a leader in the full disclosure movement. He was the initial author of security tools L0phtCrack, AntiSniff, and l0phtwatch.
Mudge was one of the first people from the hacker community to reach out and build relationships with government and industry. In demand as a public speaker, he spoke at hacker conferences such as DEF CON and academic conferences such as USENIX. Mudge has also been a member of Cult of the Dead Cow since 1996.
He was one of the seven L0pht members who testified before a Senate committee in 1998 about the serious vulnerabilities of the Internet at that time. The L0pht became the computer security consultancy @stake in 1999, and Mudge became the vice president of research and development and later chief scientist.
In 2000, after the first crippling Internet distributed denial-of-service attacks, he was invited to meet with President Bill Clinton at a security summit alongside cabinet members and industry executives.
In 2004 he became a division scientist at government contractor BBN Technologies, where he originally worked in the 1990s, and also joined the technical advisory board of NFR Security. In 2010, it was announced that he would be project manager of a DARPA project focused on directing research in cyber security. In 2013 he announced that he would leave DARPA for a position at Google ATAP. In 2015 Zatko announced on Twitter he would join a project called #CyberUL, a testing organisation for computer security inspired by Underwriters Laboratories, mandated by the White House.
On 11 August 2007 he married Sarah Lieberman, a co-worker at BBN.
DARPA
At DARPA he created the Cyber Analytical Framework the agency used to evaluate DoD investments in offensive and defensive cyber security. During his tenure he ran at least three DoD programs known as Military Networking Protocol (MNP), Cyber-Insider Threat (CINDER), and Cyber Fast Track (CFT).
Military Networking Protocol (MNP) provided network prioritization with full user-level attribution for military computer networks.
Cyber-Insider Threat (CINDER) focused on identifying cyber espionage conducted by virtual insider threats such as future variants of Stuxnet or Duqu. CINDER is often mistakenly associated with WikiLeaks in the media. This is possibly due to the confusion between DARPA programs focused on identifying human insider threat such as ADAMS and the identification of software espionage posed by malware in the CINDER program. This issue was clarified by Mudge in his Defcon 2011 keynote at 46 minutes and 11 seconds into the talk.
Cyber Fast Track (CFT) provided resources and funding to security research, including programs run by hackers, hackerspaces, and makerlabs. The program provided an alternative to traditional government contracting vehicles that was accessible to individuals and small companies previously unable to work within the cumbersome and complicated DARPA process. The novel contracting effort had an averaging time of 7 days from receipt of proposal to funding being provided to the proposing research organization. The program was initially announced at Shmoocon during his 2011 keynote.
Awards
2013 Office of the Secretary of Defense Exceptional Public Service Award
2011 SC Magazine Top 5 influential IT security thinkers of the year
2007 Boston Business Journal 40 under 40
Refereed papers
An Architecture for Scalable Network Defense, Proceedings of the 34th Annual IEEE Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Strayer, Miliken, Watro, Heimerdinger, Harp, Goldman, Spicuzza, Schwartz, Mankins, Kong, and Zatko., Proceedings of the 34th Annual IEEE Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), October 2009.
SLINGbot: A System for Live Investigation of Next Generation Botnets, Alden Jackson, David Lapsley, Christine Jones, Mudge Zatko, Chaos Golubitsky, and W. Timothy Strayer, Proceedings of Cybersecurity Applications and Technologies Conference for Homeland Security (CATCH), Washington, D.C., March 2009.
Security Analysis of the Palm Operating System and its Weaknesses Against Malicious Code Threats, Joe Grand and Mudge, 10th Usenix Security Symposium, Washington, D.C., August 2001.
Cryptanalysis of Microsoft's PPTP Authentication Extensions (MSCHAPv2), Bruce Schneier, Mudge, and David A. Wagner, Secure Networking CQRE [Secure] 1999, International Exhibition and Congress, Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science, no. 1740, pp. 192–203, Nov/Dec, 1999.
Cryptanalysis of Microsoft's Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP), Bruce Schneier and Mudge, Fifth ACM Conference on Communications and Computer Security, pages 132–141, March 1998.
L0pht Security advisories and software
Mudge published numerous papers and advisories detailing security problems across different applications and operating systems and was a pioneering champion of full disclosure.
Crontab buffer overflow vulnerabilities, Oct 2001
Initial Cryptanalysis of the RSA SecurID Algorithm, Jan 2001
AntiSniff: Identification of remote systems in promiscuous mode, May 2000
Race conditions within RedHat Linux initscripts, Dec 2000
Reverse Engineering Cactus Software shell-lock obfuscation techniques, Oct 1999
Solaris /bin/su side channel attack, June 1999
L0pht Watch: A tool for filesystem race condition attacks, Jan 1999
Hash disclosure vulnerabilities in Quakenbush Windows NT Password Appraiser, Jan 1999
suGuard privilege escalation attack, Jan 1999
Embedded FORTH Hacking on Sparc Hardware, Phrack Magazine, Volume 8, Issue 53, July 1998
Race Condition in Rational Systems ClearCase source control system, Jan 1998
Imap 4.1 remote memory dump and retrieval of sensitive information, Oct 1997
L0phtCrack: Technical rant on vulnerabilities in Microsoft encryption and passwords, July 1997
Root Compromise through Solaris libc_getopt(3), Jan 1997
BSD distributions of modstat allow compromise of DES keys, passwords, and ring 0 control, Dec 1996
Kerberos 4 memory leaks provide sensitive credential information via remote attacks, Nov 1996
Privilege escalation through Sendmail 8.7.5 GECOS buffer overflow vulnerability, Nov 1996
cgi-bin/test-cgi parsing vulnerabilities allow remote directory traversal, April 1996
Design weaknesses in the SecurID authentication system, 1996
MONKey: An attack on the s/key one-time-password system, 1995
References
External links
L0phtCrack, Password Cracking Software
1970 births
Living people
Berklee College of Music alumni
People associated with computer security
Cult of the Dead Cow members
L0pht
People from Massachusetts
Google employees
People from Mountain View, California |
6312142 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Where%20Troy%20Once%20Stood | Where Troy Once Stood | Where Troy Once Stood is a 1990 book by Iman Jacob Wilkens that argues that the city of Troy was located in England and that the Trojan War was fought between groups of Celts. The standard view is that Troy is located near the Dardanelles in Turkey. Wilkens claims that Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, though products of ancient Greek culture, are originally orally transmitted epic poems from Western Europe. Wilkens disagrees with conventional ideas about the historicity of the Iliad and the location and participants of the Trojan War.
His work has had little impact among professional scholars. Anthony Snodgrass, Emeritus Professor of Classical Archaeology at Cambridge University, has named Wilkens as an example of an "infinitely less-serious" writer.
The title of his book comes from the Roman poet Ovid: "Now there are fields where Troy once stood..." (Latin: Iam seges est, ubi Troia fuit…, Ovid, Heroides 1.1.53)
Wilkens' arguments
Wilkens argues that Troy was located in England on the Gog Magog Hills in Cambridgeshire, and that the city of Ely refers to Ilium, another name for Troy. He believes that Celts living there were attacked around 1200 BC by fellow Celts from the European continent to battle over access to the tin mines in Cornwall as tin was a very important component for the production of bronze. In fact, Homer names the attackers of Troy as Achaeans, Argives and Danaans, not Greeks.
Wilkens further hypothesises that the Sea Peoples found in the Late Bronze Age Mediterranean were Celts, who after the war settled in Greece and the Aegean Islands as the Achaeans and Pelasgians. They named new cities after the places they had come from and brought the oral poems that formed the basis of the Iliad and the Odyssey with them from western Europe. Wilkens writes that, after being orally transmitted for about four centuries, the poems were translated and written down in Greek around 750 BC. The Greeks, who had forgotten about the origins of the poems, located the stories in the Mediterranean, where many Homeric place names could be found, but the poems' descriptions of towns, islands, sailing directions and distances were not altered to fit the reality of the Greek setting. He also writes that "It also appears that Homer's Greek contains a large number of loan words from western European languages, more often from Dutch rather than English, French or German." These languages are considered by linguists to have not existed until at least 1000 years after Homer.
Wilkens argues that the Atlantic Ocean was the theatre for the Odyssey instead of the Mediterranean. For example: he locates Scylla and Charybdis at present day St Michael's Mount.
Evidence
To support his hypothesis Wilkens uses archaeological evidence, for instance the Isleham Hoard in the battlefield, and etymological evidence, particularly place-names, for instance the location of Ismaros in Brittany at Ys or the location of Homer's Sidon at Medina Sidonia in Spain. He also argues that Homer described locations around the Atlantic, with distinctive topographical features. He also finds evidence that "snowy" Mount Olympus, home of the gods, was Mont Blanc, the highest peak in the Alps.
He also identifies similarities in the English names of 14 rivers in Cambridgeshire to those named in the Iliad, including the Cam (Scamander) and Thames (Temese) and added a "reconstruction" of the Trojan battlefield in Cambridgeshire to his 2005 revised edition.
Cádiz would match the description of Ithaca; There is in the land of Ithaca a certain harbour of Phorcys, the old man of the sea, and at its mouth two projecting headlands sheer to seaward, but sloping down on the side toward the harbour...
Sources
Wilkens mentions several sources for his ideas.
Belgian lawyer Théophile Cailleux wrote that Odysseus sailed the Atlantic Ocean, starting from Troy, which he situated near the Wash in England (1879).
Karel Jozef de Graeve, member of the Flemish council, wrote that the historical and mythological background of Homer's work should be sought in Western Europe, around the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta (posthumously, 1806).
Reviews
As a work of fringe history, Where Troy Once Stood was largely ignored by academics. Isolated exceptions were a casual dismissal by A. M. Snodgrass and gentle mockery by Maurizio Bettini. Paul Millett, in a 2001 review of the Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, remarked that the geographers' decision to place Troy in northern Turkey rather than East Anglia was "presumably resolved without much difficulty".
Some reviewers noted the book's potential interest for popular audiences. M. F. MacKenzie wrote in Library Journal that the book "presents a compelling argument" and "makes for interesting reading", while also noting that it would not "be well received by serious classicists". In The Independent's "Building a library" series Tom Holland recommended the work for those who "have had enough of scepticism" about the Trojan War legend and have "wondered why Ilium sounds a bit like Ilford".
A review in Publishers Weekly noted that in Wilkens' "fanciful reading" of the texts, he "plays fast and loose with the evidence."
Author
Iman Jacob Wilkens (born March 13, 1936 at Apeldoorn in the Netherlands, deceased May 4, 2018 (82 years old) in Roncq, Nord, Hauts-de-France, France) was educated in Economics at the University of Amsterdam. From 1966 he lived in France where for more than thirty years he has done research on Homer.
Popular culture
Clive Cussler's 2003 Dirk Pitt novel Trojan Odyssey uses Wilkens' hypothesis as a backdrop.
Publication history
First published in Great Britain in 1990 by Rider / Century Hutchinson, London
Paperback published in Great Britain in 1991 by Rider / Random Century, London
Published in the United States in 1991 by St Martin's Press, New York
Book-club edition in Great Britain in 1992 by BCA, London
Published in the Netherlands (in Dutch translation) in 1992 by Bigot & Van Rossum, Baarn
Published in the Netherlands (Revised edition in Dutch translation) in 1999 by Bosch & Keuning (Tirion), Baarn
Published in 2005/2009 (5th revised edition in English) by Gopherpublishers.com, Amsterdam,
Published in 2012 (revised edition in English) by Gopher.nl, Amsterdam,
Published in 2012 (third revised edition in Dutch translation) by Chaironeia.nl, Leeuwarden,
See also
Bronze Age Britain
Atlantic Bronze Age
Geography of the Odyssey
Mediterranean warfare and the Sea Peoples
Troy Town
Historicity of the IliadHistoria Regum Britanniae''
Notes
Bibliography
External links
The official site of Iman Wilkens
Lecture: The Trojan Kings of England
Preview of the book: Where Troy Once Stood
Maps
Map of the geography of the Odyssey based on the ideas of Iman Wilkens
1990 non-fiction books
2005 non-fiction books
20th-century history books
21st-century history books
Archaeology books
Archaeology of the United Kingdom
Bronze Age Europe
History books about ancient Greece
History books about England
History of Cambridgeshire
History of Suffolk
Hills of Cambridgeshire
Homeric scholarship
Pseudoarchaeological texts |
41786567 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shyam%20Sunder%20Goenka | Shyam Sunder Goenka | Shyam Sunder Goenka born on 15 October 1932 in Kolkata in a Marwari family to parents Thakursi Das Goenka and Bhagwani Devi Goenka. He was an Indian entrepreneur, Founder and Executive Chairman of Tally Solutions, Bangalore, one of India’s first software product companies.
Early life and background
Shyam Sunder Goenka graduated in Commerce from West Bengal State University. During the late 60’s, he moved out of Calcutta, to set up his own textile machinery business called Vijay Bobbins and Industries Pvt. Ltd. in Bangalore.
Career
In the 80’s, while running the textile machinery business, Shyam Sunder Goenka was looking for software to manage his business but was unable to find one which was simple and efficient. This prompted him to inspire his son, Bharat Goenka, to pursue his passion for software and technology to create software that would handle financial accounts for his business. He emphasized to his son that software must be such that it makes the life of the users easier. His insights and guidance led to the creation of simple and easy to use a software called Peutronics Financial Accountant (PFA).
He took the first version to the market to sell to hitherto unknown buyers, before taking advantage of his social network and business associates for adoption. The positive response that the software received in an age where buying computers was still an expensive affair for companies in India, led S.S. Goenka to believe in the product’s potential and market reach.
In 1986, he along with his son established Peutronics as a company which later morphed into Tally Solutions Pvt. Ltd. in 1999 and the software, PFA became popular as Tally.
Headquartered in Bangalore, India, S.S Goenka with his strategic insight expanded the company to three metro cities in India- Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata, along with an international office at London.
S.S Goenka’s vision, business ethos, and acute entrepreneurship led to the early popularity of the product with more than lakh customers. He was also instrumental in laying the foundation for a strong channel partner network for Tally in India.
He died of a heart attack on 21 October 2002 in Bangalore at the age of 70.
References
Businesspeople from Bangalore
2002 deaths
1932 births |
24148115 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slirp | Slirp | Slirp (sometimes capitalized SLiRP) is a software program that emulates a PPP, SLIP, or CSLIP connection to the Internet using a text-based shell account. Its original purpose became largely obsolete as dedicated dial-up PPP connections and broadband Internet access became widely available and inexpensive. It then found additional use in connecting mobile devices, such as PDAs, via their serial ports. Another significant use case is firewall piercing/port forwarding. One typical use of Slirp creates a general purpose network connection over a SSH session on which port forwarding is restricted. Another use case is to create external network connectivity for unprivileged containers.
Usage
Shell accounts normally only allow the use of command line or text-based software, but by logging into a shell account and running Slirp on the remote server, a user can transform their shell account into a general purpose SLIP/PPP network connection, allowing them to run any TCP/IP-based application—including standard GUI software such as the formerly popular Netscape Navigator—on their computer. This was especially useful in the 1990s because simple shell accounts were less expensive and/or more widely available than full SLIP/PPP accounts.
In the mid-1990s, numerous universities provided dial-up shell accounts (to their faculty, staff, and students). These command line-only connections became more versatile with SLIP/PPP, enabling the use of arbitrary TCP/IP-based applications. Many guides to using university dial-up connections with Slirp were published online (e.g. , , , ). Use of TCP/IP emulations software like Slirp, and its commercial competitor TIA was banned by some shell account providers, who believed its users violated their terms of service or consumed too much bandwidth.
Slirp is also useful for connecting PDAs and other mobile devices to the Internet: by connecting such a device to a computer running Slirp, via a serial cable or USB, the mobile device can connect to the Internet.
Limitations
Unlike a true SLIP/PPP connection, provided by a dedicated server, a Slirp connection does not strictly obey the principle of end-to-end connectivity envisioned by the Internet protocol suite. The remote end of the connection, running on the shell account, cannot allocate a new IP address and route traffic to it. Thus the local computer cannot accept arbitrary incoming connections, although Slirp can use port forwarding to accept incoming traffic for specific ports.
This limitation is similar to that of network address translation. It does provide enhanced security as a side effect, effectively acting as a firewall between the local computer and the Internet.
Current status
Slirp is free software licensed under a BSD-like, modified 4-clause BSD license by its original author. After the original author stopped maintaining it, Kelly Price took over as maintainer. There were no releases from Kelly Price after 2006. Debian maintainers have taken over some maintenance tasks, such as modifying Slirp to work correctly on 64-bit computers. In 2019, a more actively maintained Slirp repository was used by slirp4netns to provides network connectivity for unprivileged, rootless containers.
Influence on other projects
Despite being largely obsolete, Slirp made a great influence on the networking stacks used in virtual machines and other virtualized environments. The established practice of connecting the virtual machines to the host's network stack was to use the various packet injection mechanisms. Raw sockets, being one of such mechanisms, were originally used for that purpose, and, due to many problems and limitations, were later replaced with the TAP device.
Packet injection is a privileged operation that may introduce a security threat, something that the introduction of TAP device solved only partially. Slirp-derived NAT implementation brought a solution to this long-standing problem. It was discovered that Slirp has the full NAPT implementation as a stand-alone user-space code, whereas other NAT engines are usually embedded into a network protocol stack and/or do not cooperate with the host OS when doing PAT (use their own port ranges and require packet injection). QEMU project have adopted the appropriate code portions of the Slirp package and got the permission from its original authors to re-license it under 3-clause BSD license.
Such license change allowed many other FOSS projects to adopt the QEMU-provided Slirp portions, which was (and still is) not possible with the original Slirp codebase because of the license compatibility problems. Some of the notable adopters are VDE and VirtualBox projects. Even though the Slirp-derived code was heavily criticized, to date there is no competing implementation available.
See also
PPP daemon
The Internet Adapter, a commercial product that competed with Slirp
References
External links
Slirp Maintenance Project, official site for recent versions of Slirp
Latest version of Slirp (1.0.17) from Debian
Free network-related software
Unix network-related software
1995 software |
69015988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Computer%20and%20Peripheral | American Computer and Peripheral | American Computer and Peripheral (AC&P) was an American computer company based in Santa Ana, California. The company was founded in 1985 by Alan Lue and released several expansion boards for the IBM PC as well as a few PC clones before going bankrupt in December 1989. Obscure in its own time, the company's 386 Translator was the first plug-in board for Intel's newly released 80386 processor and the first mass-market computing device to offer consumers a means of using the 386 in July 1986.
History
PC clones
American Computer and Peripheral was founded in Santa Ana in April 1985 by Alan Lue. Among the company's first offerings were a duo of IBM PC clones: the American XTSR and the American 286. These clones were introduced in May 1986 and were clones of IBM's PC XT and PC AT, respectively. The clock speed of the XTSR's Intel 8088 microprocessor was selectable, allowing users to change it from 4.77 MHz to 7.37 MHz. The module that allowed this selection of clock speeds was later sold separately as the American Turbo. The American 286 featured a motherboard in the Baby AT form factor with five expansion slots house in the same case as the American XTSR. AC&P later introduced the American 286-A, an AT clone with a full-sized AT motherboard, featuring eight expansion slots. AC&P hired Chi Yeung, previously a designer for Eagle Computer before the company went out of business in 1986, to design the 286-A. Both it and the regular 286 ran the Intel 80286, with clock speeds selectable from 6 MHz to 8 MHz.
Upgrade devices
In June 1986, AC&P released the 386 Translator. This was a module that could be plugged into the pin-grid array socket reserved for the 80286 microprocessor on the motherboard of IBM's PC AT or clones of the AT, in order to upgrade them to the newer 80386 by Intel. This product allowed AC&P to beat Compaq by a slim margin in offering consumers the first means through which they could interact with the 386. Compaq released the Deskpro 386, the first PC clone that featured a 386—and which marked the first time a major component to the IBM PC standard was upgraded by a company outside IBM—in September 1986. The 386 Translator was designed by NDR, a electronics design firm located in Corona, California. Scheduled for release as soon as Intel started shipping the chip out to computer vendors like AC&P, which occurred in mid-July along with Intel shipping production samples of the 386 to consumers, AC&P launched the 386 Translator ahead of time in late June.
Various companies such as Daisy Systems and Valid Logic Systems manufactured software development workstations equipped with the 386 microprocessor and running Intel's own assembler, compilers, and software utilties as early as December 1985, when pre-production batches of 386es were manufactured. However, these workstations were large, cumbersome to set up and expensive, costing several thousands of dollars. The 386 Translator, by comparison, cost $895 (equivalent to $ in ) with a 386 included or $395 ($ in ) without. In addition, existing ATs could be equipped with the 386 using AC&P's module, avoiding the need for a dedicated workstation. Counter-intuitive to the nature of an upgrade module, however, the 386 Translator ran an AT computer 10 percent than a stock computer with a 286. This was due to the module inserting wait states in order for slower AT-grade memory chips to work with the faster 386. Aside from this performance penalty, the 386 Translator allowed software developers with ATs to get a head start on learning 386's new virtual 8086 mode. According to David Springer of NDR, the 386 Translator was also targeted at high-end users wanting to set up a file server on an AT-class machine.
Just three months after the release of the 386 Translator, in November, AC&P introduced the 386 Turbo expansion board. Like the Translator, the Turbo board allowed users to upgrade their existing ATs with the 386 processor, this time with the promise of increased speed over the AT's 286 processor. The company touted a 400 percent increase in software performance and claimed that the Turbo could double the clock speeds of ATs running between 6 and 12 MHz. The company later revised their claim to only double the clock speeds of 6 and 8 MHz 286s, as 386 processors at the time were not rated for 24 MHz. The 386 Turbo allowed users to switch the clock speed of the 386 on the fly, and it also included 1 MB of cache memory.
AC&P recommissioned NDR for the design of the 386 Turbo. It was comparable to Intel's Inboard 386, which came out at the same time. Both boards plugged into one of the AT's 16-bit ISA expansion slots. While Intel offered a version of the Inboard that could work on XTs, the 386 Turbo could only be used by ATs. The Turbo's 1 MB of memory was strictly used for cache, while the Inboard could accept up to 4 MB of memory chips to be used as conventional RAM, on top of having 64 KB of cache memory itself. The Turbo was to be accompanied by a graphics accelerator card, dubbed the "Turbo Graphics Adapter", which would have included a 82786 graphics processing unit for use with CAD–CAM systems. Scheduled for release alongside the 386 Translator in November, it was ultimately shelved.
Reputation
AC&P's peripherals received mixed reviews throughout the company's short life. Stephen Satchell of InfoWorld found that the Turbo 386 failed to double the performance of ATs with 6 MHz 286 processors, as claimed by the company, instead only increasing performance by 83 percent. He felt that this was the product's biggest downfall, because 6 MHz ATs had the slowest clock speeds of the AT class, and thus users with these computers would have been the perfect market for the Turbo. Satchell contrasted the Turbo with Intel's Inboard, which increased performance of 6 MHz ATs by 250 percent, surmounting even the Turbo's boost on 8 MHz machines. Howard Marks of PC Magazine found the increased performance adequate on his AT but panned the lack of memory beyond the 1 MB used for cache; access to memory on the computer's motherboard above 1 MB would be bottlenecked by the AT's 16-bit data bus, negating the processing speed of the 386. Satchell praised the company's Abovefunction multifunction board as a bargain, on the other hand.
The poor quality of the documentation provided with the company's products was a source of frequent criticism. Of the Turbo 386, Satchell wrote that its manual was "lacking in several key areas. Both the wording and the diagrams are unclear, and a user could easily damage the system board by removing the 286 chip as directed in the manual". Marks found an error in the same manual: a jumper on the board was factory-set to "slow mode" as stated in the manual, underclocking the 386 to be later configured for "fast mode" in a program provided with the Turbo 386. However Marks discovered that the Turbo 386 only worked on his PC AT with jumper configured for "fast mode"—the AT displayed nothing when he first turned it on with the Turbo 386 configured to "slow mode", leading him to believe that he had destroyed his computer. When the company released a mouse in 1987, Christopher Barr of PC Magazine found that it only worked with Mouse Systems drivers not included with the mouse, a trait not mentioned in its manual.
The company declared bankruptcy in 1989, just four years after its incorporation. It was suspended from the Franchise Tax Board of California in 1990.
Notes
Citations
References
External links
American Computer and Peripheral at Michael Nadeau's Classic Tech
American companies established in 1985
American companies disestablished in 1990
Computer companies established in 1985
Computer companies disestablished in 1990
Defunct computer companies based in California
Defunct computer companies of the United States
Defunct computer hardware companies |
17746336 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China%20Software%20Industry%20Association | China Software Industry Association | The China Software Industry Association (CSIA) is the major representative and one of the most active associations in the China software industry. Its goal is to promote the development of software industry in China and provide a hub with overseas markets.
The organization has also be empowered by the nation's state country under the "No.18 Document" as part of the 46 local software industry associations to become a key tool to the country's information industry.
In its operations, the organization is nationally accredited by creating forums, intellectual property rights protection, and other activities related to setting industry regulation drivers within the country. The organization's members include major multinational corporations such as Microsoft as it enables them to meet fellow software industry organizations, innovators, and enhance the industry.
Domestic software industry
China's software industry grew at a CAGR of more than 39% over the period from 2001 to 2007 and is further anticipated to grow at a CAGR of nearly 22% through 2012.
Rapid growth in IT spending among various industrial segments, including government, banking and manufacturing are likely to propel the domestic software industry in near future.
The ongoing large-scale endeavors for 3G deployments are expected to fuel growth in the demand for 3G telecom software across various application platforms.
Expanding broadband infrastructure with increased Internet penetration among Small and Medium Businesses (SMBs) will help the SaaS market to grow at a CAGR of approx 44% during 2008-2012.
The software outsourcing market is anticipated to grow at a CAGR of nearly 34% from 2008 to 2012.
The current perception of lack of required talent in coming few years is urging the foreign IT training and education centers to expand into China's IT education market.
Key companies
Software parks
China's Top Ten Software Technology Parks, according to CCID Consulting as of February 2008 (in order):
See also
These are the associations in Asia for the IT and service industries:
Japan Information Industry Association (JISA)
NASSCOM (National Association of Software and Services Companies), India
Philippine Software Industry Association
Vietnam Software Association (VINASA)
References
External links
Official Association Website
China Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
Trade associations based in China
Technology trade associations |
45112545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Looker%20%28company%29 | Looker (company) | Looker Data Sciences, Inc. is an American computer software company headquartered in Santa Cruz, California. It was acquired by Google in 2019 and is now part of the Google Cloud Platform. Looker markets a data exploration and discovery business intelligence platform.
History
The company was founded in Santa Cruz, California in January, 2012 by Lloyd Tabb and Ben Porterfield. The product grew out of Tabb's experience building software at companies like Netscape, LiveOps, and Luminate before founding Looker.
Looker makes use of a simple modeling language called LookML that lets data teams define the relationships in their database so business users can explore, save, and download data without needing to know SQL.
The product was the first commercially available business intelligence platform built for and aimed at scalable or massively parallel relational database management systems like Amazon Redshift, Google BigQuery, HP Vertica, Netezza, and Teradata.
On August 13, 2013, Looker announced a Series A round of funding from Redpoint Ventures, First Round Capital, and PivotNorth Capital, raising more than $18M. Prior to the Series A round, Looker raised $2M in a seed round from First Round Capital and PivotNorth Capital. On March 11, 2015 Looker raised $30M in series B funding. In July, 2015, Jen Grant joined as chief marketing officer, and the company estimated it has 140 employees. On January 14, 2016 Looker raised $48M in series C funding from Kleiner Perkins. At that time, the company estimated 450 customers, including Jet.com. On March 30, 2017 Looker raised $81.5M in series D funding led by Capital G. On December 6, 2018 Looker raised $103M in series E funding led by Premji Invest. On June 21, 2016 Looker celebrated the release of Winning With Data, a book coauthored by Looker CEO, Frank Bien and Redpoint Partner, Tomasz Tunguz.
On June 6, 2019, Google announced it was acquiring Looker for $2.6 billion. The acquisition was finalized February 2020.
Under Google Cloud Platform
The Looker Platform for Data operates today as a part of Google Cloud Platform. It has thousands of customers and offers a wide variety of tools for relational database work, business intelligence, and other related services. Looker's 2019 revenue is estimated to be about $140 million.
References
External links
Data visualization software
Business software
Google acquisitions
Business intelligence companies
2019 mergers and acquisitions
Business services companies established in 2012
Software companies established in 2012
Software companies based in California
Data warehousing products
Companies based in Santa Cruz, California
2012 establishments in California
Software companies of the United States
Google Cloud
Business services companies disestablished in the 21st century
Business intelligence
Business analysis
Big data companies |
1872972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trumpet%20Winsock | Trumpet Winsock | Trumpet Winsock is an implementation of the Winsock application programming interface for Windows 3.x developed by Peter Tattam from Trumpet Software International. It was a shareware program that had a TCP/IP stack.
History
The first version, 1.0A, was released in 1994. It rapidly gained reputation as the best tool for connecting to the internet. Guides for internet connectivity commonly advised to use Trumpet Winsock. The author received very little financial compensation for developing the software. In 1996, a 32-bit version was released.
Lawsuit
In the Trumpet Software Pty Ltd. v OzEmail Pty Ltd. case, the defendant had distributed Trumpet Winsock for free with a magazine. It did also suppress notices that the software was developed by Trumpet Software.
Replacement by Microsoft
Microsoft eventually released their own TCP/IP stack on Windows 95 with Internet Explorer 3. Windows for Workgroups had support for TCP/IP, but only on a LAN.
Architecture
The binary for Trumpet Winsock is called TCPMAN.EXE. Other files included the main winsock.dll and three UCSC connection .cmd file scripts.
References
External links
Internet Archive - Trumpet Winsock
Winworld - Trumpet Winsock
Cyber Harvard - Using Trumpet On Netcruiser Accounts
Network socket
1994 software
History of the Internet
Windows communication and services |
24388577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CinemaDNG | CinemaDNG | CinemaDNG is the result of an Adobe-led initiative to define an industry-wide open file format for digital cinema files. CinemaDNG caters for sets of movie clips, each of which is a sequence of raw video images, accompanied by audio and metadata. CinemaDNG supports stereoscopic cameras and multiple audio channels. CinemaDNG specifies directory structures containing one or more video clips, and specifies requirements and constraints for the open format files, (DNG, TIFF, XMP, and/or MXF), within those directories, that contain the content of those clips.
CinemaDNG is different from the Adobe DNG (Digital Negative) format that is primarily used as a raw image format for still cameras. However, each CinemaDNG image is encoded using that DNG image format. The image stream can then be stored in one of two formats: either as video essence using frame-based wrapping in an MXF file, or as a sequence of DNG image files in a specified file directory. Each clip uses just one of these formats, but the set of clips in a movie may use both.
Rationale
The purpose of CinemaDNG is to streamline workflows and help ensure easy archiving and exchange. There are several advantages from using raw image data for cinema, just as there are for still photography, but like the latter the presence of proprietary raw formats can inhibit the required integration. Movie development typically involves complicated workflows involving many stages and multiple suppliers of software and hardware components. All of these indicate the desirability of using open formats.
The ability to store images either within an MXF wrapper or as a DNG-sequence, with the ability to transfer from one to the other, provides extra flexibility. An additional benefit of using DNG is that there can be interchange between a CinemaDNG workflow and a still camera workflow. One use is to extract stills from a movie for publicity or other purposes.
The DNG images that Adobe provided in the short example of how to store a video clip as a sequence of DNG files, (see "Tangible deliverables"), were taken with a Canon EOS 30D dSLR camera, (and converted to DNG), rather than with a more conventional movie camera. This shows how any boundaries between different types of photography are weak, and illustrates why such open formats are important for the workflows of the future.
Timeline
7 March 2008: The domain name cinemadng.org was registered by Adobe.
14 April 2008: Adobe issued the press release that announced CinemaDNG.
April 2009 onwards: Various companies began to announce plans or even products to support CinemaDNG (see "Signs of progress").
10 September 2009: Adobe Labs made available pre-release versions of specifications and products for handling CinemaDNG (see "Tangible deliverables").
20 November 2009: Adobe Labs provided a "CinemaDNG Refresh" - primarily extra (longer) samples.
25 September 2012: Adobe Labs drops support for CinemaDNG for Premiere Pro, stating that performance was not satisfactory.
2014: Support for CinemaDNG was expanded in Premiere Pro CC.
Signs of progress
CinemaDNG has become an accepted file format in its brief history:
IRIDAS (April 2009): (IRIDAS Supports CinemaDNG RAW Standard): "IRIDAS ... today announced universal support for the emerging CinemaDNG standard in all of the 2009 versions of its products."
Silicon Imaging (April 2009): (Silicon Imaging Oscar Filmmaking Digital Cinema Cameras go 3D): "The files can also be exported as a CinemaDNG sequences ... at a later time."
Vision Research (May 2009): (in a forum): "Is a cinemaDNG support planned for the next Software release?" - "Phantom software already has support for save/convert a cine to DNG format. This is a good start to get a cinemaDNG."
RadiantGrid (September 2009): (RadiantGrid Technologies Launches v5.0 of the RadiantGrid Platform at IBC 2009): "Important new features .... Native decoding of CinemaDNG ... from MXF Op-Atom and Op1a sources .... TrueGrid transcoding from ... CinemaDNG ... image sequences".
Gamma & Density (September 2009): (3cP - Cinematographer's Color Correction Program): "Technical Highlights of 3cP: Support for the ... CinemaDNG image data format".
Adobe (September 2009 and November 2009): Specification and prerelease products and other resources from Adobe Labs (see "Tangible deliverables").
ViewPLUS (December 2009): "ViewPLUS introduced the Lumiere 4K x 2K digital camera system at the International Technical Exhibition on Imaging Technology and Equipment in Yokohama, Japan. The Lumiere camera system also includes Lumiere-REC, a software development kit (SDK) that allows users to record image data and output to movie industry-standard CinemaDNG RAW file format."
Ikonoskop (April 2009): Ikonoskop announces an HD digital cinema camera that records in CinemaDNG.
INDIECAM (March 2010): (Indiecam announce to show their latest prototype indieSHUTTLE at the NAB Show 2010.) All Indiecam products offer CinemaDNG capabilities.
Digital Bolex (March 2012): Digital Bolex announces a 2k resolution digital cinema camera that records in CinemaDNG.
Blackmagic Design (April 2011): Blackmagic Design announces support for CinemaDNG in DaVinci Resolve 8 and DaVinci Resolve Lite. Released in July 2011, DaVinci Resolve Lite is available for download at the BMD web site at no charge and offers the industry a standardized playback application for CinemaDNG files from all camera sources that can be used for camera development, on set or in the post production process.
Blackmagic Design (April 2012): Blackmagic Design announces support for CinemaDNG in their 2.5k resolution digital cinema camera.
Weisscam (April 2012): Weisscam announces a 2K resolution digital cinema camera that records in CinemaDNG and shoots up to 300 frames per second.
Blackmagic Design (April 2013): Blackmagic Design announces support for CinemaDNG in their Pocket Cinema Camera and Production Camera 4K.
Norpix (January 2013): Norpix announces support for CinemaDNG export (transcoding), with its StreamPix 5 DVR software, commonly used when recording video with Machine Vision Cameras.
Convergent Design (2014): Convergent Design have included CinemaDNG recording for the Sony FS700 and FS7 cameras in their Odyssey 7Q video recorder.
Blackmagic Design (April 2014): Blackmagic Design announces support for CinemaDNG in their Blackmagic URSA camera.
Atomos (2015): Atomos announces CinemaDNG recording from selected cameras (Sony FS700, Arri Alexa, Aja CION) in their Shogun video recorder.
slimRAW (April 2015): slimRAW lossless compressor for CinemaDNG raw video released. It converts uncompressed CinemaDNG to losslessly compressed CinemaDNG "for a substantial data size reduction with no image quality loss".
DJI (March 2016): DJI Zenmuse X5R Aerial Camera System for Inspire 1 Pro UAV utilizes CinemaDNG sequences to record video content to a removable SSD drive.
Fastvideo (August 2016): Fast CinemaDNG Processor software. All stages of CinemaDNG workflow are performed on NVIDIA GPU to get very fast RAW image processing, including Blackmagic CinemaDNG files. 4K footage could be processed and played smoothly at full resolution (without proxies) in realtime. CinemaDNG Player, Converter, Editor, Denoiser, Compressor and Trimmer on CUDA
Sigma (July 2019): Sigma announces the Sigma fp - the "world's smallest and lightest full-frame mirrorless digital camera" with 12-bit CinemaDNG external recording
Tangible deliverables
All of these are free and freely available; however, at November 2009 the products are prerelease versions:
Adobe CinemaDNG Importer prerelease1 adds support to Adobe After Effects CS4, Adobe Premiere Pro CS4, and Adobe Soundbooth CS4 for reading CinemaDNG video streams in the form of MXF files and DNG file sequences. (Mac OS and Windows).
"CinemaDNG - Image Data Format Specification (Version 1.0.0.0)" (PDF)
"CinemaDNG Workflow - Using the CinemaDNG File Format in Cinema Workflows" (PDF)
"CinemaDNG sample files" (directory structures in ZIP containing clips, icons, and images in both MXF and DNG-sequence forms). These are available as short samples (8 frames) and long samples (100 frames)
A new Adobe Labs forum specifically for CinemaDNG.
Standardization
There does not appear to be any commitment from Adobe (or any other company) to submit CinemaDNG to a standards body such as ISO. However, they have repeatedly emphasized that it will be an open format, and Adobe has stated "CinemaDNG uses documented, vendor-neutral, standard formats for video and imaging – DNG, TIFF/EP, and MXF. The format is unencrypted and free from intellectual property encumbrances or license requirements". It is reasonable to speculate that eventually CinemaDNG will become a formal standard, based on the history of DNG itself which has been submitted to ISO for use in the revision of ISO 12234-2 (TIFF/EP).
Rather than creating entirely new file formats, the strategy for CinemaDNG is primarily to specify how to package files and other data-sets, of existing open and/or standard formats, in consistent ways, so that not only can individual components of a movie be interchanged and archived, but so can sets of clips with all their associated video, audio, and metadata files. The emphasis is on having a systematic structure that supports the very complicated workflows, involving many stages and suppliers and software and hardware components, of movie development. The CinemaDNG specification is largely about this systematic directory structure and the requirements and constraints that ensure that individual files fit within it.
If CinemaDNG follows the same sort of path to standardization as DNG, (or indeed, PDF), there will first be a period while the specification is tested in the marketplace to ensure that it works in practise as well as theory. It will then be revised accordingly, so that whatever is standardized will be credible, well supported by products, and ready for immediate use.
In November 2014 Blackmagic Design introduced an extension to the CinemaDNG format in the form of a lossy compression scheme used in their URSA cameras. This format uses a 12-bit Huffman Coding by patching jpeg-9a for 12-bit support. These CinemaDNG files are supported by Blackmagic Design's own DaVinci Resolve software, slimRAW and Fast CinemaDNG Processor.
The adoption of CinemaDNG among camera manufacturers appears to be hindered by Red Digital Camera’s patent US9245314, which covers in-camera recording of lossless compressed raw video. There had been an unsuccessful attempt to invalidate the patent.
See also
Digital Negative (DNG)
References
External links
CinemaDNG Technology Center on Adobe.com
Graphics file formats |
172809 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD%20player | DVD player | A DVD player is a device that plays DVDs produced under both the DVD-Video and DVD-Audio technical standards, two different and incompatible standards. Some DVD players will also play audio CDs. DVD players are connected to a television to watch the DVD content, which could be a movie, a recorded TV show, or other content.
The first DVD player was created by Sony Corporation in Japan in collaboration with Pacific Digital Company from the United States in 1997. Some manufacturers originally announced that DVD players would be available as early as the middle of 1996. These predictions were too optimistic. Delivery was initially held up for "political" reasons of copy protection demanded by movie studios, but was later delayed by lack of movie titles. The first players appeared in Japan on November 1, 1996, followed by the United States on March 31, 1997, with distribution limited to only seven major cities for the first six months.
Players slowly trickled into other regions around the world. Prices for the first players in 1997 started at $600 and could top out at prices over $1000. By the end of 2000, players were available for under $100 at discount retailers. In 2003 players became available for under $50. Six years after the initial launch, close to one thousand models of DVD players were available from over a hundred consumer electronics manufacturers.
Fujitsu released the first DVD-ROM-equipped computer on November 6 in Great Britain. Toshiba released a DVD-ROM-equipped computer and a DVD-ROM drive in Japan in early 1997 (moved back from December which was moved back from November). DVD-ROM drives from Toshiba, Pioneer, Panasonic, Hitachi, and Sony began appearing in sample quantities as early as January 1997, but none were available before May. The first PC upgrade kits (a combination of DVD-ROM drive and hardware decoder card) became available from Creative Labs, Hi-Val, and Diamond Multimedia in April and May 1997. In 2014, every major PC manufacturer has models that include DVD-ROM drives.
The first DVD-Audio players were released in Japan by Pioneer in late 1999, but they did not play copy-protected discs. Matsushita (under the Panasonic and Technics labels) first released full-fledged players in July 2000 for $700 to $1,200. DVD-Audio players are now also made by Aiwa, Denon, JVC, Kenwood, Madrigal, Marantz, Nakamichi, Onkyo, Toshiba, Yamaha, and others. Sony released the first SACD players in May 1999 for $5,000. Pioneer's first DVD-Audio players released in late 1999 also played SACD. SACD players are now also made by Accuphase, Aiwa, Denon, Kenwood, Marantz, Philips, Sharp, and others.
Technical details
A DVD player has to complete these tasks:
Read a DVD in ISO – UDF version 1.02 format
Optionally decrypt the data with either CSS and/or Macrovision
Read and obey the DVDs Regional lockout codes and display a warning if the player is not authorized to play the DVD
Decode the MPEG-2 video stream with a maximum of 10 Mbit/s (peak) or 8 Mbit/s (continuous)
Decode sound in MP2, PCM or AC-3 format and output (with optional AC-3 to stereo downmixing) on stereo connector, optical or electric digital connector
Output a video signal, either an analog one (in NTSC or PAL format) on the composite, S-Video, SCART, or component video connectors, or a digital one on the DVI or HDMI connectors.
DVD players cannot play Blu-ray discs due to using different wavelength laser's Blu-ray use a Blue Violet laser instead of a Red laser. However, all Blu-ray players are "backwards compatible" and they will play DVDs and some are compatible with CD and other disc formats.
DVD players are largely controlled through a remote control. Built-in controls on the main unit's panel such as a four-directional buttons vary depending on model. Some models may lack advanced built-in controls, making operation more dependent on the remote control.
CD/DVD/AVI/MP4 playback
Additionally, most DVD players allow users to play audio CDs (CD-DA, MP3, etc.) and Video CDs (VCD). A few include a home cinema decoder (i.e. Dolby Digital, Digital Theater Systems (DTS)). Some newer devices also play videos in the MPEG-4 ASP video compression format (such as DivX) popular in the Internet.
Portable players
Most hardware DVD players must be connected to a television; there are portable devices which have an attached LCD screen and stereo speakers. Portable DVD players are often used for long road trips and travel. They often have a plug for the 12 volt power jack in cars. Some models have two screens, so that two people in the back seat can both watch the movie. Other portable DVD players have a single screen that opens up like a laptop computer screen.
Output
Due to multiple audio (and video) output devices, there are many outputs on a DVD player, such as an RCA jack, component outputs, and an HDMI output. Consumers may become confused with how to connect a player to a TV or amplifier. Most systems include an optional digital audio connector for this task, which is then paired with a similar input on the amplifier. The physical connection is typically RCA connectors or TOSLINK, which transmits a S/PDIF stream carrying either uncompressed digital audio (PCM) or the original compressed audio data (Dolby Digital, DTS, MPEG audio) to be decoded by the audio equipment.
Video
Video is another issue which continues to present most problems. Early generations of DVD players usually outputted analog video only, via both composite video on an RCA jack and S-Video. However, neither connector was intended to be used for progressive video, and most later players sold then gained another set of connectors, component video, which keeps the three components of the video, luminance and two color differentials, on fully separate wires. This video information is taken directly from the DVD itself. The three components compare well to S-Video, which uses two wires, uniting and degrading the two color signals, and composite, which uses only wire one, uniting and degrading all three signals.
The connectors are further confused by using a number of different physical connectors on different player models, RCA or BNC, as well as using VGA cables in a non-standard way (VGA is normally analog RGB—a different, incompatible form of component video). Even worse, there are often two sets of component outputs, one carrying interlaced video, and the other progressive, or an interlaced/progressive switch (either a physical switch or a menu setting).
In Europe (but not most other PAL areas), SCART connectors are generally used, which can carry composite and analog RGB interlaced video signals (RGB can be progressive, but not all DVD players and displays support this mode) or Y/C (S-Video), as well as analog two-channel sound and automatic 4:3 or 16:9 (widescreen) switching on a single convenient multi-wire cable. The analog RGB component signal offers video quality which is superior to S-Video and identical to YPbPr component video. However, analog RGB and S-Video signals can not be carried simultaneously, due to each using the same pins for different uses, and displays often must be manually configured as to the input signal, since no switching mode exists for S-Video. (A switching mode does exist to indicate whether composite or RGB is being used.) Some DVD players and set-top boxes offer YPbPr component video signals over the wires in the SCART connector intended for RGB, though this violates the official specification and manual configuration is again necessary. (Hypothetically, unlike RGB component, YPbPr component signals and S-Video Y/C signals could both be sent over the wire simultaneously, since they share the luminance (Y) component.)
HDMI is a digital connection for carrying high-definition video, similar to DVI. Along with video, HDMI also supports up to eight-channel digital audio. DVD players with connectors for high-definition video can upconvert the source to formats used for higher definition video (e.g., 720p, 1080i, 1080p, etc.), before outputting the signal. By no means, however, will the resulting signal be high-definition video; that is, aside from optional deinterlacing, upconverting generally consists of merely scaling the video's dimensions to match that of higher resolution formats, foregoing the scaling that would normally occur in the output device.
USB
Some DVD players include a USB video recorder. As well as such, there are also have DVD players with a USB port to be able to play digital media types as well as MP4, MP3, etc.
Wireless
Wireless connections (bluetooth and/or Wi-Fi) are useful to manage (play/record) wirelessly content from or to other devices (i.e. cell phones).
Prices
, retail prices for such a device, depending on its optional features (such as digital sound or video output), start between 30 and 80 USD/Euro. They are usually cheaper than VCRs.
Manufacture
the largest producer of DVD players is China; in 2002 they produced 30 million players, more than 70% of the world output. These producers have to pay US$15–$20 per player in license fees, to the patent holders of the DVD technology (Sony, Philips, Toshiba and Time Warner) as well as for MPEG-2 licenses. To avoid these fees, China has developed the Enhanced Versatile Disc standard as an intended successor of DVD; , EVD players were only being sold in China.
Software
Software DVD players are programs that allow users to view DVD videos on a computer with a DVD-ROM drive. Some examples are the VLC media player, 5KPlayer and MPlayer (all free software), as well as WinDVD, TotalMedia Theatre, PowerDVD and DVD Player.
Among others, there are variants & huge kinds of software DVD players as well as multimedia player software which has DVD video playback capability, whether its proprietary-type (as commercial software), freeware, shareware or just a free software are available in the market.
Successors
In the battle to succeed and to improve upon the role of the DVD player as the mainstream medium for stored audiovisual content on optical disc, there were two major contestants: the HD DVD player and the Blu-ray Disc player, utilizing two incompatible technologies that reproduced higher resolution video images and more complete audio information than was possible with DVD. On February 19, 2008, Toshiba, creator of the former technology, announced it would cease production on all HD DVD products, leaving Blu-ray as the high definition successor to DVD players.
As technology improved, various players were sold, some of which were also Blu-ray players, that could upscale and up-convert DVD content, increasing the overall perceived picture quality.
See also
CD-ROM
Digital video recorder
DVD-Audio
HD media player
Recorder
VCR
Video scaler
Comparison of portable media players
Compact Disc and DVD copy protection
References
External links
The Inner Workings of CD/DVD Drives WeCanFigureThisOut.org
Player
Audiovisual introductions in 1996
Consumer electronics
Home video
Japanese inventions
Video hardware
20th-century inventions |
483773 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loader%20%28computing%29 | Loader (computing) | In computer systems a loader is the part of an operating system that is responsible for loading programs and libraries. It is one of the essential stages in the process of starting a program, as it places programs into memory and prepares them for execution. Loading a program involves reading the contents of the executable file containing the program instructions into memory, and then carrying out other required preparatory tasks to prepare the executable for running. Once loading is complete, the operating system starts the program by passing control to the loaded program code.
All operating systems that support program loading have loaders, apart from highly specialized computer systems that only have a fixed set of specialized programs. Embedded systems typically do not have loaders, and instead, the code executes directly from ROM or similar. In order to load the operating system itself, as part of booting, a specialized boot loader is used. In many operating systems, the loader resides permanently in memory, though some operating systems that support virtual memory may allow the loader to be located in a region of memory that is pageable.
In the case of operating systems that support virtual memory, the loader may not actually copy the contents of executable files into memory, but rather may simply declare to the virtual memory subsystem that there is a mapping between a region of memory allocated to contain the running program's code and the contents of the associated executable file. (See memory-mapped file.) The virtual memory subsystem is then made aware that pages with that region of memory need to be filled on demand if and when program execution actually hits those areas of unfilled memory. This may mean parts of a program's code are not actually copied into memory until they are actually used, and unused code may never be loaded into memory at all.
Responsibilities
In Unix, the loader is the handler for the system call execve(). The Unix loader's tasks include:
validation (permissions, memory requirements etc.);
copying the program image from the disk into main memory;
copying the command-line arguments on the stack;
initializing registers (e.g., the stack pointer);
jumping to the program entry point (_start).
In Microsoft Windows 7 and above, the loader is the LdrInitializeThunk function contained in ntdll.dll, that does the following:
initialisation of structures in the DLL itself (i.e. critical sections, module lists);
validation of executable to load;
creation of a heap (via the function RtlCreateHeap);
allocation of environment variable block and PATH block;
addition of executable and NTDLL to the module list (a doubly-linked list);
loading of KERNEL32.DLL to obtain several important functions, for instance BaseThreadInitThunk;
loading of executable's imports (i.e. dynamic-link libraries) recursively (check the imports' imports, their imports and so on);
in debug mode, raising of system breakpoint;
initialisation of DLLs;
garbage collection;
calling NtContinue on the context parameter given to the loader function (i.e. jumping to RtlUserThreadStart, that will start the executable)
Relocating loaders
Some operating systems need relocating loaders, which adjust addresses (pointers) in the executable to compensate for variations in the address at which loading starts. The operating systems that need relocating loaders are those in which a program is not always loaded into the same location in the address space and in which pointers are absolute addresses rather than offsets from the program's base address. Some well-known examples are IBM's OS/360 for their System/360 mainframes, and its descendants, including z/OS for the z/Architecture mainframes.
OS/360 & Derivatives
In OS/360 and descendant systems, the (privileged) operating system facility is called IEWFETCH, and is an internal component of the OS Supervisor, whereas the (non-privileged) LOADER application can perform many of the same functions, plus those of the Linkage Editor, and is entirely external to the OS Supervisor (although it certainly uses many Supervisor services).
IEWFETCH utilizes highly specialized channel programs, and it is theoretically possible to load and to relocate an entire executable within one revolution of the DASD media (about 16.6 ms maximum, 8.3 ms average, on "legacy" 3,600 rpm drives). For load modules which exceed a track in size, it is also possible to load and to relocate the entire module without losing a revolution of the media.
IEWFETCH also incorporates facilities for so-called overlay structures, and which facilitates running potentially very large executables in a minimum memory model (as small as 44 KB on some versions of the OS, but 88 KB and 128 KB are more common).
The OS's nucleus (the always resident portion of the Supervisor) itself is formatted in a way that is compatible with a stripped-down version of IEWFETCH. Unlike normal executables, the OS's nucleus is "scatter loaded": parts of the nucleus are loaded into different portions of memory; in particular, certain system tables are required to reside below the initial 64 KB, while other tables and code may reside elsewhere.
The system's Linkage Editor application is named IEWL. IEWL's main function is to associate load modules (executable programs) and object modules (the output from, say, assemblers and compilers), including "automatic calls" to libraries (high-level language "built-in functions"), into a format which may be most efficiently loaded by IEWFETCH. There are a large number of editing options, but for a conventional application only a few of these are commonly employed.
The load module format includes an initial "text record", followed immediately by the "relocation and/or control record" for that text record, followed by more instances of text record and relocation and/or control record pairs, until the end of the module.
The text records are usually very large; the relocation and/or control records are small as IEWFETCH's three relocation and/or control record buffers are fixed at 260 bytes (smaller relocation and/or control records are certainly possible, but 260 bytes is the maximum possible, and IEWL ensures that this limitation is complied with, by inserting additional relocation records, as required, before the next text record, if necessary; in this special case, the sequence of records may be: ..., text record, relocation record, ..., control record, text record, ...).
A special byte within the relocation and/or control record buffer is used as a "disabled bit spin" communication area, and is initialized to a unique value. The Read CCW for that relocation and/or control record has the Program Controlled Interrupt bit set. The processor is thereby notified when that CCW has been accessed by the channel via a special IOS exit. At this point the processor enters the "disabled bit spin" loop (sometimes called "the shortest loop in the world"). Once that byte changes from its initialized value, the CPU exits the bit spin, and relocation occurs, during the "gap" within the media between the relocation and/or control record and the next text record. If relocation is finished before the next record, the NOP CCW following the Read will be changed to a TIC, and loading and relocating will proceed using the next buffer; if not, then the channel will stop at the NOP CCW, until it is restarted by IEWFETCH via another special IOS exit. The three buffers are in a continuous circular queue, each pointing to its next, and the last pointing to the first, and three buffers are constantly reused as loading and relocating proceeds.
IEWFETCH can, thereby, load and relocate a load module of any practical size, and in the minimum possible time.
Dynamic linkers
Dynamic linking loaders are another type of loader that load and link shared libraries (like .so files, .dll files or .dylib files) to already loaded running programs.
See also
Compile and go system
DLL hell
Direct binding
Dynamic binding (computing)
Dynamic dead code elimination
Dynamic dispatch
Dynamic library
Dynamic linker
Dynamic loading
Dynamic-link library
GNU linker
Library (computing)
Linker (computing)
Name decoration
Prebinding
Prelinking
Relocation (computer science)
Relocation table
Shebang (Unix)
Static library
gold (linker)
prelink
Bug compatibility
References
Operating system kernels
Computer libraries |
49427485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20Rover%20Challenge | European Rover Challenge | European Rover Challenge (ERC, ERC Space & Robotics) – The annual international Martian robots competition attended by teams from around the world. The competition has been organized since 2014 in Poland.
The ERC is the biggest robotics and space event in Europe addressed to the world of science and business, the new technologies sector as well as the general public. The European Rover Challenge, like the University Rover Challenge, is a part of the Rover Challenge Series – the most prestigious robotics competitions in the world.
The core of ERC is an international Martian robot competition (so-called Mars rover analogs) attended by students, graduates, and researchers from universities around the world. The teams consist of several people who work hard on a fully functional next-generation Mars robot for 12 months. Each team includes specialists in mechatronics, automation, robotics, autonomy, connectivity, and navigation. They come with departments connected with administrations, team management, promotion, and finances.
Traditionally the competition is accompanied by events addressed to the wider public, such as the Inspiration Zone, lectures delivered by experts, and film screenings related to space. Those participants who are involved with the space sector can take part in workshops as well as substantive and mentoring meetings, panel discussions, and debates.
In 2020, the ERC competition was carried out in the new remote formula, in which competitors from several continents remotely controlled a robot located on the Marsyard on the campus of the Kielce University of Technology in Poland.
Since 2021, the competition takes place both in the remote and on-site formula.
Remote formula
In the Remote Edition of the European Rover Challenge, the teams teleoperate and run their software on standardized equipment provided by the Organizer. This means every team competes using the same hardware and needs to show their skills in software development, mission planning, risk management and other soft skills.
During the Preparation Phase to the Challenge, the teams will be given access to 3D models and technical documentation of the hardware and a basic software together with a simulation environment to be used for development. There will be 3 Test Drives planned during the year where the teams will connect to the real-life equipment in a similar setup as used in the Challenge to test their solutions.
Leo Rover mobile robot
Leo Rover is a standard mobile robot used since ERC2020. All the teams use the same Rover in the competition and are able to run their own software dedicated to the Tasks operation.
Leo Rover is a 4-wheeled small-scale mobile robot with an outline of roughly 41x46 cm and a weight of 6,5 kg (7,8 kg with payload). The Rover runs on Ubuntu with ROS Melodic. In ERC Remote Edition Leo Rover comes with a special payload allowing for autonomy implementation and Tasks performance together with network devices allowing for low-latency and high-bandwidth connection to the Internet.
Competition tasks (REMOTE)
Simulation Task – This simple task, together with the Preliminary Report, will be considered as a part of the qualification process. Teams are expected to record a short screencast video (max. 2 minutes) showing:
Leo Rover simulation: A short traversal of Leo Rover on the Marsyard in Gazebo simulation – the more sophisticated functionalities are shown and used the better (i.e. driving with semi-autonomy, teleoperation with a controller, etc.)
Robotic Arm simulation: A short movement of UR3 Robotic Arm in the Robotic Cell.
Science Task – The aim of the Task is to prepare and execute a simple science-driven exploration plan on the Mars Yard (Geological map of the Mars Yard including a coherent geological interpretation of the ‘landing site’; A short description of the geological history of the area; A Hypothesis related to the geology of Mars Yard that can be tested by taking a picture in a specific location on the Mars Yard)
Navigation Task – The aim of the Navigation part of the Task is to navigate Leo Rover safely through Mars Yard, visit all waypoints and deliver dedicated probes to each of the waypoints.
Maintenance Task – The essence of the task is to localize and turn off faulty elements of a device during its maintenance procedure and attach an additional sensor to the device outer shell to be able to monitor it in the future. The Teams will need to manipulate buttons located on the device panel, stick a sensor to the device case, check for faulty appliance, and turn off the appliance. The wide range of requirements indicates the difficulty of this Task. ArUco markers will be installed on each component to allow the Teams and the software to recognize the right components and fixtures.
Presentation Task – The presentation task lets Teams introduce themselves and present their projects. The Jury expects to learn how the Team worked on the project, what kind of technical solutions are implemented in the rover (on-site formula) or in the software (remote formula), what was the approach of the Team to solve particular tasks during the competition (e.g., electro-mechanical design, algorithms for both onsite and remote formulas), and how the team solved problems and issues which occurred during development (lessons learnt). The team should also be prepared for a Q&A session and discussions with Judges.
On-site formula
In the on-site formula, the teams work hard for twelve months on the preparation of a fully functional Martian robot according to the requirements set by the organizer. Each team includes, among others specialists in mechatronics, automation, robotics, autonomy, communication and navigation. They are accompanied by departments related to administration, team management, promotion and finances.
The aim of the competition is to demonstrate and evaluate the achievements and proposed solutions. All tasks are designed to eliminate the "luck" factor, so teams should carefully prepare to complete them.
Competition tasks (ON-SITE)
Science Task – The aim of the Task is to prepare and execute a simple science-driven exploration plan on the Mars Yard (Geological map of the Mars Yard including a coherent geological interpretation of the ‘landing site’; A short description of the geological history of the area; A Hypothesis related to the geology of Mars Yard that can be tested by taking a picture in a specific location on the Mars Yard)
Navigation Task – This task is intended to demonstrate the system’s ability for semi to fully autonomous traverse. The Team has to develop a project which gradually evolves into a fully autonomous system, traversing and gathering important data on its way.
Probing Task – This task intends to demonstrate the ability of the system to place and collect probes from the rover’s cache in the in the locations selected in the Science Task by the Teams. The Team has to reach locations marked on the map, pick up the probes from rover’s on-board container and place these in the specified locations.
Maintenance Task – The task is intended to demonstrate the ability of rovers in operating a variety of elements mounted on a panel. The Team has to use the rover’s manipulating device to set switches to the required positions, measure electrical parameters, set other panel controls and observe indicators’ feedback.
Presentation Task – The presentation task lets Teams introduce themselves and present their projects. The Jury expects to learn how the Team worked on the project, what kind of technical solutions are implemented in the rover (on-site formula) or in the software (remote formula), what was the approach of the Team to solve particular tasks during the competition (e.g., electro-mechanical design, algorithms for both onsite and remote formulas), and how the team solved problems and issues which occurred during development (lessons learnt). The team should also be prepared for a Q&A session and discussions with Judges.
The tasks are based on roadmaps – documents used in planning strategic missions of NASA and ESA. They are completed in the Marsyard created from several tons of soil in the color reminding the surface of Mars. It includes natural obstacles copying the Martian landscapes.
Unlike other competitions of this kind, it is not allowed to use GPS during the ERC and team members do not see the robots they are navigating. They can only use their robot’s camera view.
Competition history
The European Rover Challenge has been organized since 2014. The plans to organise the first edition were announced at the International Space Week. From the very beginning, its originators expected the competition to have an international character and a wide range.
1st edition (5–7 September 2014)
The first edition of ERC took place at the Regional Science and Technology Centre in Chęciny near Kielce, Świętokrzyskie Voivoedship. The competition was attended by nine teams from Poland, Lithuania, India, Egypt, and Colombia. Among the guests, there was Professor Scott Hubbard, former head of NASA’a Ames Research Centre, and Robert Zubrin, founder of the Mars Society.
Winners:
1st place: SCORPIO, Wrocław, Poland
2nd place: IMPULS, Kielce, Poland
3rd place: Lunar and Mars Rover Team, Kairo, Egypt
During the event, the Regional Science and Technology Centre, where the competition took place, was officially opened.
2nd edition (4–6 September 2015)
The second edition of ERC also took place at the Regional Science and Technology Centre. The competition was attended by 29 teams from the USA, Australia, India, Colombia, the Netherlands, Egypt, Poland, Canada, and other countries. Specials guests of the second edition included the last man on the Moon, Apollo 17 astronaut, Harrison Schmitt, and writer Andy Weir (the meeting was conducted remotely).Winners:
1st place: USST, Canada
2nd place: Next, Białystok, Poland
3rd place: McGill Robotics, Canada
3rd edition (10–12 September 2016)
In 2016 the competition took place in Jasionka near Rzeszów. The competition was attended by 23 teams from Poland (15 teams), Australia, Canada, Bangladesh, India, Turkey, Nepal, and other countries.
An important event during the ERC was a Polish part of a civil debate on the future of space exploration organized by the European Space Agency. The debate took place in 22 countries at the same time and was attended by 2,000 people who were not involved with the space sector. They discussed such subjects as space exploration, using its resources, and the growing importance of space. Its objective was to verify public opinion and the results were to be considered while developing future strategies of ESA.Winners:
1st place: Raptors, Poland
2nd place: Impuls, Poland
3rd place: McGill Robotics, Canada
4th edition (14–15 September 2018)
The fourth edition of the European Rover Challenge was organized in Starachowice, at the Museum of Nature and Technology. The competition was attended by 35 teams from 20 countries. The fourth edition of the challenge was accompanied by the biggest Science and Technology Show Zone in history. It attracted over 25,000 visitors. Among the guests there was astronaut Tim Peake, Artemis Westenberg - President of Explore Mars Europe, Gianfranco Visentin, Head of Automation and Robotics Section at ESA, and Maria Antonietta Perino, Head of Advanced Exploration Programmes at Thales Alenia Space.
It was the first time when Pro Formula was organized along with the competition. It was addressed to professionals from the space sector and constructors of space robots who wanted to test their constructions in the Mars Yard without participating in the challenge.
Winners:
1st place: Impuls, Poland
2nd place: Raptors, Poland
3rd place: Robotics for Space Exploration, Canada
Jury Award: RoverOva, Czech Republic
5th edition (13–15 September 2019)
The ERC 2019 took place at the Kielce University of Technology with over 40 teams qualified for the competition.
The fifth edition of the challenge was accompanied by the Mentoring and Business Conference attended by representatives of the space sector from Poland, Europe and the whole world, including Steve Jurczyk, Associate Administrator at NASA, Maria Antonietta Perino from Thales Alenia Space, Gianfranco Visentin and Pantelis Poulakis from ESA and Artemis Westenberg from Explore Mars Europe.
Winners:
1st place: Impuls, Poland
2nd place: AGH Space Systems, Poland
3rd place: RoverOva, Czech Republic
6th edition (11–13 September 2020)
The sixth edition of the ERC was held at the Kielce University of Technology. Over 60 teams from all over the world applied to participate in the competition. The 2020 edition was the first one to introduce the remote formula. The competition was conducted using the Freedom Robotics platform and Leo Rover mobile robots. A total of 33 teams qualified for the finals.
Winners:
1st place: ERIG e.V., Germany
2nd place: RoverOva, Czech Republic
3rd place (ex aequo): DJS Antariksh, India and Robocol, Colombia
Additional awards:
Best Design Award: Best Design: AGH Space Systems, Poland
Best Design Award: Best Docs: STAR Dresden e.V., Germany
Best Design Award: Best Science Design: ERIG e.V., Germany
Best Autonomy Navigation: RoverOva, Czech Republic
Best Scientists: METU Rover, Turkey
Best Science Planning: DJS Antariksh, India
Best Planetary Map: Robocol, Colombia
Best Analysis: RoverOva, Czech Republic
Best Dexterity: RoboClyde, UK
Best Presentation: AGH Space Systems, Poland
Mathworks Special Prize: SKA Robotics, Poland
The 2020 edition was the first to be broadcast live on the organizer's website during the three days of the event. The guests of the ERC2020 industry conference were, among others:
Natalia Lemarquis – United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs Space4Women;
Giuliana Rotola – European Southern Observatory; International Space University;
Maria-Gabriella Sarah – European Space Agency;
Gianfranco Visentin – European Space Agency;
Douglas Terrier – National Aeronautics and Space Administration;
Pascale Ehrenfreund – International Astronautical Federation; Space Policy Institute;
Ken Davidian – Federal Aviation Administration.
7th edition (10–12 September 2021)
The seventh edition of the ERC was held at the Kielce University of Technology. The 2021 edition was the first to be held in both on-site and remote formula.
Winners:
1st place (on-site): Impuls Team, Poland
2nd place (on-site): ITU Rover Team, Turkey
3rd place (on-site): EPFL Xplore, Switzerland
1st place (remote): DJS Antariksh, India
2nd place (remote): ERIG, Germany
3rd place (remote): RoboClyde, UK
Additional awards:
Best Navigation (on-site): AGH Space Systems, Poland
Best Maintenance (on-site): ITU Rover Team, Turkey
Best Science (on-site): EPFL Xplore, Switzerland
Best Probing (on-site): EPFL Xplore, Switzerland
Best Presentation (on-site): AGH Space Systems, Poland
Best Navigation (remote): DJS Antariksh, India
Best Maintenance (remote): ERIG, Germany
Best Science (remote): DJS Antariksh, India
Best Presentation (remote): Mars Rover Manipal, India
Selected speakers that appeared during the ERC 2021 live broadcast:
Robert D. Cabana – NASA Associate Administrator;
Robert Zubrin – Mars Society, Pioneer Astronautics;
Annalisa Donati – EURISY;
Chris Welch – International Space University;
Maria Antonietta Perino – Thales Alenia Space;
Grzegorz Wrochna – Polska Agencja Kosmiczna;
Artemis Westenberg – Explore Mars Europe.
Bibliography
References
Mars rovers
Robotics competitions
Rover Challenge Series |
5677952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff%20Waugh | Jeff Waugh | Jeff Waugh (also known as "jdub") is an Australian free software and open source software engineer. He is known for his past prominence in the GNOME and Ubuntu projects and communities.
Career
In 2004, Waugh was hired by Mark Shuttleworth as an early employee of Canonical Ltd. and member of the Ubuntu project, where he worked in business development. At OSCON in 2005, Waugh won "Best Evangelist" in the Google-O'Reilly Open Source Awards for his evangelism of Ubuntu and GNOME. He announced his resignation from Canonical in July 2006 to focus more fully on his work in the GNOME project.
From 2007 Waugh and then-wife Pia Waugh were co-directors of Waugh Partners, an Australian Open Source consultancy launched in 2006. Waugh Partners won the 2007 NSW State Pearcey Award for Young Achievers for their work promoting Free Software to the Australian ICT industry. In 2008 Waugh was a partner of the One Laptop Per Child Australia program. In 2008 Pia Waugh moved to a new career; Waugh's later employers have included Bulletproof Networks and Kounta.
Positions
Waugh has served in a number of formal and semi-formal positions in Free Software development and community projects:
Director, Open Source Industry Australia, 2008
Director, the GNOME Foundation board, 2003–2004 and 2006–2008
Member of the linux.conf.au 2007 organising team
Chairman of the Annodex Foundation 2005–2006
GNOME release manager 2001–2005
President of the Sydney Linux Users Group, 2002–2003
Member of the committee of the Sydney Linux Users Group, 2000–2002.
Member of the linux.conf.au 2001 organising team
Other development projects
Waugh is an author of the Python feed aggregator Planet.
Personal life
Waugh was married to fellow open-source advocate and community leader Pia Waugh until 2011. He wrote on his blog in September 2011, on the occasion of RUOK? Day, that he had been struggling with depression since his late teens, and that it had been a contributing factor to the divorce, but that he felt he had overcome it.
References
External links
"Software that 'just works'" – 2003 Sydney Morning Herald interview with Jeff Waugh
"Open sore on Planet GNOME" – 2008 iTWire story on Planet GNOME
"Open source survey: many questions remain" iTWire story on OSS survey
"GNOME needs to get its act together" iTWire story on GNOME project
Living people
Open source people
Free software programmers
Year of birth missing (living people)
Australian computer specialists
GNOME developers
Ubuntu (operating system) people
People from Sydney
Australian bloggers |
3612894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brio%20Technology | Brio Technology | Brio Technology was a San Francisco Bay area software company cofounded in 1984 by Yorgen Edholm and Katherine Glassey. The company is best known for their business intelligence software systems, starting with DataPivot on the Apple Macintosh. Brio Software was acquired by Hyperion in 2003. Hyperion was in turn acquired by Oracle in 2007. The Hyperion performance management software become the basis of the current Oracle Enterprise Performance Management (EPM) solution which is still offered today as Oracle EPM Cloud. The Brio Technology products were offered as part of the Oracle Business Intelligence (OBIEE) solutions for a time but was eventually deprecated in favour of Oracle's business intelligence solution that was acquired separately from Siebel in 2006. Consequently the ever shrinking user base of Brio Technology is limited to those customers who purchased Brio products years ago.
History
Brio Technology was founded in San Francisco in 1984 as a consulting company. It made money early by doing contract work for Metaphor Corporation and performing contract programming.
Business intelligence software
By 1990, Brio had developed its first product, Data Prism, a database query and analysis tool.
The next year, Brio released Data Pivot, an innovative program designed to allow regular or sequenced data to be totaled automatically. This was one of the first OLAP software applications. The DataPivot code was later sold in the early 1990s to Borland and integrated into Quattro Pro. The essential idea of DataPivot (pivot tables) was also added to Microsoft Excel a bit later. Also Lotus Improv was built around a similar (though independently created) idea. Brio gained a patent for the idea behind DataPivot ("Cross Tab Analysis and Reporting Method") in 1999.
In 1993, Brio released Data Edit, a tool which allowed more direct manipulation of data in relational databases such as Oracle, Sybase, and DB2.
In 1995, Brio gained some much needed funding from the venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins. Kleiner Perkins insisted on some management changes (co-founder Yorgen Edholm was made the sole CEO of the company) and the ground was laid for taking the company public. Brio went public (former stock symbol of BRIO - Nasdaq) on May 5, 1998.
Flush with money, Brio started looking for businesses to acquire. In order to complement its technology, Brio looked at and later acquired SQRiBE Technologies. SQRiBE was a small company in Palo Alto, CA with reporting (SQR) and a new portal product (ReportMart).
Executive changeover
However, the merger with the company SQRiBE (also based in the Bay area) in 1999 did not work out well. Although the combined company did reach a record high of revenues in the year 2000 of $150 million (annualized), financial problems were looming. After reporting a net loss for first quarter of 2001, Yorgen Edholm resigned as CEO. Katherine Glassey was forced out of the company a few months later.
Brio hired Craig D. Brennan, a former SVP of Global CRM at Oracle, as its new CEO January 1, 2001. After his first 90 days at Brio, he realized that the company was in worse shape than described by the board. Not only was the Tech Bubble bursting, the economy in a recession, but the merger between Brio and SQRiBE was in name only. There was no vision, strategy, or plan to integrate the two companies. There were either no formal business processes or there were multiple overlapping teams, processes, and so on.
Brennan brought in a new executive team in his first six months and together they came up with a new vision for the company focused on Brio 8, their first integrated Business Intelligence Suite, with a complete redesign from mainframe and client-server to a web-based "zero footprint" architecture.
The company survived the terrible business environment of 2001. The company was required to do two major layoffs in 2001 to reduce its operational losses and to conserve cash. By the end of 2001, the company had achieved cash flow break-even.
Beginning in 2002, the company focused on installing business processes across all functions, dedicated most of its development resources to Brio 8, and managed new maintenance requirements for its most important customers. By the end of the year, the company launched Brio 8 to enthusiastic customers, partners, and press. The company was growing revenue again and had achieved a small profit.
Acquisition by Hyperion
In 2003, the executive team, working with the board, determined that the Business Intelligence market was going to consolidate and it made sense for the company to consider being acquired. The company focused on both growing its revenue and profitability while also seeking an acquirer. The best fit was Hyperion and over the course of several quarters, Brio Software was acquired and integrated into Hyperion's operations.
A quarter after Hyperion acquired Brio Software, their new integrated capabilities gave them new sales opportunities, and Hyperion achieved YR/YR 30% product growth for several quarters. The Hyperion stock price went from $15 per share to over $50 per share over the next few quarters. In March 2007, Oracle announced that it was acquiring Hyperion, this deal was finalized four months later, in July 2007.
External links
"Hyperion To Acquire Brio Software" Press Release
"Brio Resources: Products, Support, and Discussion Forums" from the Hyperion Developer Network
References
Companies based in San Francisco |
5887605 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch%20Vehicle%20Digital%20Computer | Launch Vehicle Digital Computer | The Launch Vehicle Digital Computer (LVDC) was a computer that provided the autopilot for the Saturn V rocket from launch to Earth orbit insertion. Designed and manufactured by IBM's Electronics Systems Center in Owego, New York, it was one of the major components of the Instrument Unit, fitted to the S-IVB stage of the Saturn V and Saturn IB rockets. The LVDC also supported pre- and post-launch checkout of the Saturn hardware. It was used in conjunction with the Launch Vehicle Data Adaptor (LVDA) which performed signal conditioning from the sensor inputs to the computer from the launch vehicle.
Hardware
The LVDC was capable of executing 12190 instructions per second. For comparison, a 2012-era microprocessor can execute 4 instructions per cycle at 3 GHz, achieving 12 billion instructions per second, one million times faster.
Its master clock ran at 2.048 MHz, but operations were performed bit-serially, with 4 cycles required to process each bit, 14 bits per instruction phase, and 3 phases per instruction, for a basic instruction cycle time of 82 μs (168 clock cycles) for a simple add. A few instructions (such as multiply or divide) took several multiples of the basic instruction cycle to execute.
Memory was in the form of 13-bit syllables, each with a 14th parity bit. Instructions were one syllable in size, while data words were two syllables (26 bits). Main memory was random access magnetic core, in the form of 4,096-word memory modules. Up to 8 modules provided a maximum of 32,768 words of memory. Ultrasonic delay lines provided temporary storage.
For reliability, the LVDC used triple-redundant logic and a voting system. The computer included three identical logic systems. Each logic system was split into a seven-stage pipeline. At each stage in the pipeline, a voting system would take a majority vote on the results, with the most popular result being passed on to the next stage in all pipelines. This meant that, for each of the seven stages, one module in any one of the three pipelines could fail, and the LVDC would still produce the correct results.
The result was an estimated reliability of 99.6% over 250 hours of operation, which was far more than the few hours required for an Apollo mission.
With four memory modules, giving a total capacity of 16,384 words, the computer weighed , was in size and consumed 137W.
Software architecture and algorithms
LVDC instruction words were split into a 4-bit opcode field (least-significant bits) and a 9-bit operand address field (most-significant bits). This left it with sixteen possible opcode values when there were eighteen different instructions: consequently, three of the instructions used the same opcode value, and used two bits of the address value to determine which instruction was executed.
Memory was broken into 256-word "sectors". 8 bits of the address specified a word within a sector, and the 9th bit selected between the software-selectable "current sector" or a global sector called "residual memory".
The eighteen possible LVDC instructions were:
Programs and algorithms
In flight the LVDC ran a major computation loop every 2 seconds for vehicle guidance, and a minor loop 25 times a second for attitude control. The minor loop is triggered by a dedicated interrupt every 40 ms and takes 18 ms to run.
Unlike the Apollo Guidance Computer software, the software which ran on the LVDC seems to have vanished. While the hardware would be fairly simple to emulate, the only remaining copies of the software are probably in the core memory of the Instrument Unit LVDCs of the remaining Saturn V rockets on display at NASA sites.
Interrupts
The LVDC could also respond to a number of interrupts triggered by external events.
For a Saturn IB these interrupts were:
For a Saturn V these interrupts were:
Construction
The LVDC was approximately wide, high, and deep and weighed . The chassis was made of magnesium-lithium alloy LA 141, chosen for its high stiffness, low weight, and good vibration damping characteristics. The chassis was divided into a 3 x 5 matrix of cells separated by walls through which coolant was circulated to remove the 138 watts of power dissipated by the computer. Slots in the cell walls held "pages" of electronics. The decision to cool the LVDC by circulating coolant through the walls of the computer was unique at the time and allowed the LVDC and LVDA (part-cooled using this technique) to be placed in one cold plate location due to the three dimensional packaging. The cold plates used to cool most equipment in the Instrument Unit were inefficient from a space view although versatile for the variety of equipment used. The alloy LA 141 had been used by IBM on the Gemini keyboard, read out units, and computer in small quantities and the larger frame of the LVDC was produced from the largest billets of LA 141 cast at the time and subsequently CNC machined into the frame.
A page consisted of two boards back to back and a magnesium-lithium frame to conduct heat to the chassis. The 12-layer boards contained signal, power, and ground layers and connections between layers were made by plated-through holes.
Up to 35 alumina squares of could be reflow soldered to a board. These alumina squares had conductors silk screened to the top side and resistors silk-screened to the bottom side. Semiconductor chips of , each containing either one transistor or two diodes, were reflow soldered to the top side. The complete module was called a unit logic device. The unit logic device (ULD) was a smaller version of IBM's Solid Logic Technology (SLT) module, but with clip connections. Copper balls were used for contacts between the chips and the conductive patterns.
The hierarchy of the electronic structure is shown in the following table.
Gallery
See also
Apollo Guidance Computer
Apollo PGNCS primary spacecraft guidance system
Gemini Spacecraft On-Board Computer (OBC)
Notes
References
IBM, Saturn V Launch Vehicle Digital Computer, Volume One: General Description and Theory, 30 November 1964
IBM, Saturn V Guidance Computer, Semiannual Progress Report, 1 Apr. - 30 Sep. 1963, 31 October 1963; archive
Bellcomm, Inc, Memory Requirements for the Launch Vehicle Digital Computer (LVDC), April 25, 1967
Boeing, Saturn V Launch Vehicle Guidance Equations, SA-504, 15 July 1967
NASA Marshall Spaceflight Center, Saturn V Flight Manual SA-503, 1 November 1968
NASA Marshall Spaceflight Center, Skylab Saturn IB Flight Manual, 30 September 1972
M.M. Dickinson, J.B. Jackson, G.C. Randa. IBM Space Guidance Center, Owego, NY. "Saturn V Launch Vehicle Digital Computer and Data Adapter." Proceedings of the Fall Joint Computer Conference, 1964, pages 501–516.
S. Bonis, R. Jackson, and B. Pagnani. IBM Space Guidance Center, Owego, NY. "Mechanical and Electronic Packaging for a Launch-Vehicle Guidance Computer." International Electronic Circuit Packaging Symposium 21–24 August 1964. Pages 226–241.
IBM, Apollo Study Report, Volume 2. IBM Space Guidance Center, Owego, NY, 1 October 1963. 133 pages. Also available on Virtual AGC (search for 63-928-130).
NASA MSFC, Astrionics System Handbook Saturn Launch Vehicles NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, 1 Nov 1968. MSFC No. IV-4-401-1. IBM No. 68-966-0002. 419 pages. Chapter 15 is about the LVDC and Launch Vehicle Data Adapter.
External links
IBM Archives: Saturn Guidance Computer
High-resolution photos of LDVC components at the SpaceAholic collection of Apollo Lunar Module and Saturn V spaceflight artifacts
Guidance computers
Apollo program hardware
IBM avionics computers
Spacecraft navigation instruments |
18566753 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigabyte%20M912 | Gigabyte M912 | The first netbook offering by Gigabyte, the M912, is a hybrid netvertible Tablet PC device, was released in 2008. It features an Intel Atom processor and comes preloaded with either Windows XP, Windows Vista or a customised Linux distribution. The hardware varies slightly depending on the OS chosen. The Linux Version for example does not include Bluetooth and has a lower resolution screen. Press accounts suggest that there may be significant heat and speed issues compared with other netbooks. Other criticisms focus on Gigabyte's choice to ship one variant with Windows Vista Home Basic, which lacks official Tablet PC support.
Features and variations
Common features:
8.9" Touchscreen
Windows models:
CCFL backlit 1280x768 display
Linux models, and possibly M912T:
LED backlit 1024x600 display
2.5 Inch HDD Bay
ExpressCard slot
4-in-1 card reader: Secure Digital/MMC/Memory Stick/MS Pro †
1GB SO-DIMM
1.6 GHz Intel Atom
Intel 945GSE Express Chipset+ICH7M
Variations include two models running Windows XP Home (M912X) and Windows Vista Home Basic (M912V) with a 160GB hard drive and a screen resolution of 1280x768. The Ubuntu Linux version, M912M, is expected to ship with a 1024x600 screen resolution and 80GB hard drive. Another, the M912S, is expected to ship with a 4GB SSD. Another expected model, the M912T, is believed to have DVB-T support. While the Linux powered models are expected to ship with substantially lower screen-resolutions, their screens feature energy saving LED-backlights.
Good OS inc, has revealed that the Gigabyte M912 will be the first netbook to be offered with their "Cloud" instant on browser based operating system, that will add instant on internet access to the M912 touch screen netbook.
See also
Cloud (operating system)
Netbook
Comparison of netbooks
Internet appliance
References
External links
Official site
Subnotebooks
Netbooks
Gigabyte Technology |
720672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alias%20%28Mac%20OS%29 | Alias (Mac OS) | In classic Mac OS System 7 and later, and in macOS, an alias is a small file that represents another object in a local, remote, or removable file system and provides a dynamic link to it; the target object may be moved or renamed, and the alias will still link to it (unless the original file is recreated; such an alias is ambiguous and how it is resolved depends on the version of macOS). In Windows, a "shortcut", a file with a .lnk extension, performs a similar function.
It is similar to the Unix symbolic link, but with the distinction of working even if the target file moves to another location on the same disk (in this case it acts like a hard link, but the source and target of the link may be on different filesystems, and the target of the link may be a directory). As a descendant of BSD, macOS supports Unix symbolic (and hard) links as well.
Function
An alias acts as a stand-in for any object in the file system, such as a document, an application, a folder, a hard disk, a network share or removable medium or a printer. When double-clicked, the computer will act the same way as if the original file had been double-clicked. Likewise, choosing an alias file from within a 'File Open' dialog box would open the original file. The purpose of an alias is to assist the user in managing large numbers of files by providing alternative ways to access them without having to copy the files themselves. While a typical alias under the classic Mac OS was small, between 1 and 5 KB, under macOS it can be fairly large, more than 5 MB (5000 KB) for the alias to a folder.
Preventing alias failure
An alias is a dynamic reference to an object. The original may be moved to another place within the same filesystem, without breaking the link. The operating system stores several pieces of information about the original in the resource fork of the alias file. Examples of the information used to locate the original are:
path
file ID (inode number)
directory ID (inode number)
name
file size
Since any of these properties can change without the computer's knowledge, as a result of user activity, various search algorithms are used to find the most plausible target. This fault-tolerance sets the alias apart from similar functions in some other operating systems, such as the Unix symbolic link or the Microsoft Windows shortcut, at the expense of increased complexity and unpredictability. For example, an application can be moved from one directory to another within the same filesystem, but an existing alias would still launch the same application when double-clicked.
The question can arise of how an alias should work if a file is moved, and then a file is created with the same name as the original moved file, since the alias can be used to locate both the original name and the new location of the original file. With symbolic links the reference is unambiguous (soft links refer to the new file, hard links to the original). Before Mac OS X 10.2, however, such an ambiguous alias would consistently find the original moved file, rather than the recreated file. In Mac OS X 10.2 and later releases, the new file is found, matching the behaviour of symbolic links . macOS applications can programmatically use the old behavior if required.
Aliases are similar in operation to shadows in the graphical Workplace Shell of the OS/2 operating system.
Distinguishing marks
In System 7 through Mac OS 9, aliases distinguished themselves visually to the user by the fact that their file names were in italics. To accommodate languages that don't have italics (such as Japanese), in Mac OS 8.5 another distinguishing mark was added, badging with an "alias arrow"—a black arrow with a small white border—similar to that used for shortcuts in Microsoft Windows.
In macOS, the filenames of aliases are not italicized, but the arrow badge remains.
File structure
The alias files in macOS start by the magic number 62 6F 6F 6B 00 00 00 00 6D 61 72 6B 00 00 00 00 which is in ASCII book␀␀␀␀mark␀␀␀␀ (␀ representing the Null character).
Following the magic number, it has been reported that an alias has a set of records inside it, each record is 150 bytes long and consists of the fields shown below (all integers are big endian). However, alias files are far larger than this would explain, and include other information at least including icons.
4 bytes user type name/app creator code = long ASCII text string (none = 0)
2 bytes record size = short unsigned total length
2 bytes record version = short integer version (current version = 2)
2 bytes alias kind = short integer value (file = 0; directory = 1)
1 byte volume name string length = byte unsigned length
27 bytes volume name string (if volume name string < 27 chars then pad with zeros)
4 bytes volume created mac date = long unsigned value in seconds since beginning 1904 to 2040
2 bytes volume signature = short unsigned HFS value
2 bytes volume type = short integer mac os value (types are Fixed HD = 0; Network Disk = 1; 400kB FD = 2;800kB FD = 3; 1.4MB FD = 4; Other Ejectable Media = 5 )
4 bytes parent directory id = long unsigned HFS value
1 bytes file name string length = byte unsigned length
63 bytes file name string (if file name string < 63 chars then pad with zeros)
4 bytes file number = long unsigned HFS value
4 bytes file created mac date = long unsigned value in seconds since beginning 1904 to 2040
4 bytes file type name = long ASCII text string
4 bytes file creator name = long ASCII text string
2 bytes nlvl From (directories from alias thru to root) = short integer range
2 bytes nlvl To (directories from root thru to source) = short integer range (if alias on different volume then set above to -1)
4 bytes volume attributes = long hex flags
2 bytes volume file system id = short integer HFS value
10 bytes reserved = 80-bit value set to zero
4+ bytes optional extra data strings = short integer type + short unsigned string length (types are Extended Info End = -1; Directory Name = 0; Directory IDs = 1; Absolute Path = 2; AppleShare Zone Name = 3; AppleShare Server Name = 4; AppleShare User Name = 5; Driver Name = 6; Revised AppleShare info = 9; AppleRemoteAccess dialup info = 10)
string data = hex dump
odd lengths have a 1 byte odd string length pad = byte value set to zero
Alias record structure outside of size length
The following is for use with the Apple's Alias Resource Manager.
4 bytes resource type name = long ASCII text string
2 bytes resource ID = short integer value
2 bytes resource end pad = short value set to zero
Java code to flag an alias file
// This function checks whether a file matches the alias magic number.
public static boolean checkForMacAliasFile(File inputFile) throws FileNotFoundException, IOException {
// Only files can be aliases.
// Do not test directories; they will be false.
if (inputFile.isFile()) {
byte[] bookmark = new byte[] {
0x62, 0x6F, 0x6F, 0x6B, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x6D, 0x61, 0x72, 0x6B, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00
};
long length = inputFile.length();
if (length > 16) {
byte[] result = new byte[16];
FileInputStream fis = new FileInputStream(inputFile);
fis.read(result);
fis.close();
return Arrays.equals(result, bookmark);
}
}
return false;
}
There is a github repo with working C++ code here.
Managing aliases
User interface
In System 7, the only way to create an alias was to select the original and choose "Make Alias" from the "File" menu. An alias, with the same name and " alias" appended would then be created in the same folder. In later versions, it became possible to create aliases by drag-and-drop, while holding down the command and option modifier keys.
Mac OS 8.5 added a feature for re-connecting aliases that had been broken for one reason or another (when the simple search algorithms failed to find a reliable replacement). This was done by selecting a new target through the standard Open File dialog.
In Mac OS 8.5 options were added for command-option dragging an object in the Finder to create an alias at that location. This is where the alias cursor was added to the system. The cursor mirrors the appearance of the "create shortcut" cursor on Windows systems.
Programming API
The Alias Manager API is part of Carbon. It is unknown whether it was present in Mac OS Classic.
Mac OS X 10.6 introduced some alias-related APIs to Cocoa, as a part of .
Relation to BSD symbolic and hard links
Unix and similar operating systems provide 2 features very similar to macOS aliases: symbolic links and hard links.
When using the macOS Finder, links are displayed and treated largely like macOS aliases, and even carry an identical "Kind" attribute.
However, when using the shell command line, macOS aliases are not recognized: for example, you cannot use the cd command with the name of an alias file. This is because an alias is implemented as a file on the disk that must be interpreted by an API while links are implemented within the filesystem and are thus functional at any level of the OS.
There is currently no pre-installed command to resolve an alias to the path of the file or directory it refers to. However, a freely available C program makes use of the Mac Carbon APIs to perform this task. Given that, commands such as cd can be set up to check for aliases and treat them just like symbolic or hard links.
References
External links
System 7 aliases — Article about System 7 aliases, from 1992
Macintosh operating systems
Apple Inc. file systems |
888754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BeIA | BeIA | BeIA, or BeOS for Internet Appliances, was a minimized version of Be Inc.'s BeOS operating system for embedded systems.
The BeIA system presents a browser-based interface to the user. The browser was based on the Opera 4.0 code base, and was named Wagner. Unlike the BeOS, which runs the Tracker and Deskbar at boot-up, the BeIA OS boots straight into the Opera browser interface (much like the later Google Chrome OS does with the Google Chrome browser). While it is possible to boot BeIA into an interface similar to the standard BeOS, doing so involves special knowledge.
BeIA compression techniques
The BeIA operating system employs a number of techniques to minimise the system footprint. These involve a number of pre processes which yield an installable file system image.
The CFS Filesystem was used to reduce the file system size. CFS (Compressed File System) was a file system created in house at Be Inc that aimed to compress the files within itself to save space. The filesystem had a similar set of properties to the native BeOS file system BFS, but some of the more advanced features (live queries and attributes) were either broken or non-functional in many of the Beta releases of the software.
The BeOS uses ELF format executable files, much as many other operating systems. BeIA uses an extended version of ELF, the name of which is unknown but which has come to be known as CELF, from the CEL magic word within the executable header and the fact that it is derived from ELF format executables through a compression process. The CELF (Compressed ELF) files use a patented technique to compress the op codes within the executable and reduce the overall footprint of each executable file. The file was compressed by creating a set of dictionaries that contain the op codes and are read by the kernel at start up and mapped into the executable in memory at run time. This makes the file fast loading, but has an extreme disadvantage, in that the dictionary is not extendible by the user and adding extra executable was not possible when using CELF compression techniques unless the executable symbols existed within the dictionary already present. The creation of CELF executables is generally done in batch. The entire system will be compressed and a file system image created from the crushed files.
Crushing was the term coined for the compression of the system using CELF format. BeIA can run either as CELF or ELF based. However, it can only use one or the other file formats.
Versions
The following BeIA versions were released to developers at stages of the development of the system.
Pre 1.0 build - reports to be 4.5.2, this is likely a hang over from the BeOS version. Pre numbering of BeIA.
1.0 beta 9 (uncrushed binaries are compatible with Release Candidate)
1.0 Release Candidate (circa the clipper)
1.0
2.0
History
BeIA is believed by many to be partially responsible for the death of Be, Inc., as sales were never anywhere near as high as anticipated.
During 2001, a Zanussi "internet fridge" toured the US with a BeIA powered DT-300 webpad docked in its door.
List of BeIA devices
Sony eVilla - sold as a home web terminal with BeIA preloaded
Compaq IA-1 - sold with either BeIA or MSN Companion.
HARP - not a computer, but a standard for audio streaming terminals, used by Virgin in some of their stores
Proview iPAD (PI-520B)
DT Research DT-300 (NB. DT-325 was used with later 2.0 betas)
Hardware known to run BeIA (official and unofficial)
See also
BeOS
BeIA Product overview
BeIA FAQ
BeIA DataSheet
BeIA browser tests
Link discussing BeIA technical terminology
DT300 and BeIA hacking discussion.
References
External links
(BeIA)
BeIA Demo
BeOS
Embedded operating systems
Information appliances
Opera Software
X86 operating systems |
3023668 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pdftotext | Pdftotext | pdftotext is an open-source command-line utility for converting PDF files to plain text files—i.e. extracting text data from PDF-encapsulated files. It is freely available and included by default with many Linux distributions, and is also available for Windows as part of the Xpdf Windows port. Such text extraction is complicated as PDF files are internally built on page drawing primitives, meaning the boundaries between words and paragraphs often must be inferred based on their position on the page.
pdftotext is part of the Xpdf software suite. Poppler, which is derived from Xpdf, also includes an implementation of pdftotext. On most Linux distributions, pdftotext is included as part of the poppler-utils package.
See also
List of PDF software
References
External links
Linux text-related software
Free PDF software |
42856501 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videoball | Videoball | Videoball is a minimalist sports video game by Action Button Entertainment. Up to six human and computer-controlled players form two teams. Each uses an analog stick and a single button to control triangles that shoot charged projectiles at a ball and other players. The objective is to knock the ball into the opposing team's goal. Apart from exhibition matches, the game has a scenario challenge-based Arcade mode, and supports online team and ranked multiplayer matchmaking. Videoball has a simple visual style with bright colors, basic shapes, and many customization options.
The game originated in a dare to make a "one-button StarCraft. Videoball designer and Action Button founder Tim Rogers prototyped the game and challenged himself to keep its game mechanics spartan and accessible, yet challenging for competitive players. Action Button and publisher Iron Galaxy released Videoball for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One platforms on July 12, 2016. Linux and OS X releases were planned, but have since been cancelled. Videoball received favorable reviews. Critics praised the precision and craft of its game design as well as its welcoming aesthetics but remarked that its visual simplicity belied the depth of its gameplay.
Gameplay
Videoball plays as a two-dimensional hybrid of air hockey and soccer on a single screen. Players form two teams of one to three players. Each player uses an analog stick to control a triangle-shaped avatar and presses a single button to shoot triangle-shaped projectiles. The object of the game is to knock one or more circular balls into the opposing team's goal. Players hold the button to charge a shot, which fires upon release. The projectile can propel the ball, block other projectiles, and incapacitate opponents. Since the shot is triangle-shaped, it can only drive the ball for some distance before the ball veers off-course.
The longer the player charges their shot, the more powerful the projectile becomes. A tap of the button shoots a small, low-impact projectile that disintegrates upon impact. A medium tap, about a second long, creates a larger, persistent triangle that dribbles the ball as long as the two continue to make contact. The third charge level shoots a large triangle that fires the ball with explosive force. This "slam" can be reversed by an opponent by firing any projectile into the slammed ball. If held for an additional second, the fourth level of a charged shot creates a defensive square barrier for the player to place on the playing field. These square barriers will disintegrate upon absorbing player projectiles. Player triangles that collide with balls or projectiles are knocked back and briefly incapacitated. Many of the game's common actions are named. For instance, players hit by projectiles are "tackled" and projectiles that hit projectiles are "intercepted".
The game supports up to six human or artificial intelligence players in local and online multiplayer, except on the PlayStation 4, which has a human player limit of four per console. Videoball has team and ranked matchmaking multiplayer modes. There is no set practice game mode, but players can train against computer-controlled opponents in exhibition matches and the scenario-based Arcade mode, in which the player faces two computer-controlled opponents in specific level configurations. The Arcade mode artificial intelligence personalities each have fitting names, such as Homer (who stays near its endzone) and Punchy (who bullies players with projectiles). Some work in pairs to establish gameplay concepts, such as Tippy, who passes the ball to Toppy, who maintains the top of the field.
Videoball rules are fully customizable. Players choose from several color schemes, field layouts and patterns, and the number of balls in play. They can also choose the time limit and allow for special scoring, in which special shots count as more than one point. The game is visualized in all solid, bright colors and basic shapes, and features voiceover announcers. Games last an average of four minutes, though they can last several times more.
Development
Videoball designer Tim Rogers describes the game as "an abstract minimalist electronic sport". Its development began as a dare from QWOP developer Bennett Foddy, Rogers's friend, to make a "one-button StarCraft. Rogers, the founder of Action Button Entertainment, made what he estimated as 40 or 50 inconsequential prototypes before adding an analog stick to the button. Videoball evolved from a slow-paced strategy game to a fast-paced sports game as it graduated from early prototypes.
Rogers compared the game's design process to the austerity of Gordon Ramsay's Kitchen Nightmares, wherein Ramsay convinces failing restaurants to reduce their menu size and make those few dishes well. Rogers commented that this emphasis on fewer elements makes each element's nuances more prominent. Polygon Tracey Lien described the development team's process as "chasing a certain purity". Rogers conceived Videoball as a sport without narrative or artifice and thus sought to avoid traditional video game metaphors, such as knowing the triangle avatars and projectiles as "ships" or "bullets". He wanted the game to be accessible to newcomers but still fun and strategic for experts. The game designer applied his conception of Super Mario Bros. 3 "sticky friction"a sense through which the player feels the physics affecting their avatarto the game's controls. Rogers emphasized the importance of strategy in playing the game and noted that players in prototype games played roles or zones like in competitive basketball (e.g, center or forward positions).
Rogers has livestreamed prerelease sessions of Videoball via Twitch. He broadcast gameplay from Twitch's booth at PAX East 2014 with indie publisher Midnight City. In February 2014, PC Gamer Wes Fenlon reported that the game still had work left in its artwork, soundtrack, new arenas, and online multiplayer mode. Videoball was selected for the July 2014 Evolution Championship Series fighting game tournament's Indie Showcase. The developers had plans to include cross-platform multiplayer, support for more than six simultaneous players, and a campaign mode. Rogers has said that ranked matchmaking was highly requested by fans. Videoball was planned for release in 2014, and ultimately launched on July 12, 2016, on PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows, with Iron Galaxy as its publisher. Linux and OS X releases were planned, but have since been cancelled.
Reception
Pre-release reviewers all cited Videoball minimalism both in aesthetics and gameplay, and compared the game with the skill and strategy of football and basketball. Before its release, PC Gamer Wes Fenlon found himself thinking about Videoball daily after last playing two weeks prior. He credited its "addictive sort of fun" and his own excitement for local multiplayer on PC alongside titles such as Hokra and TowerFall. He felt that the game's tagline of being appropriate for both a child's birthday party and prison was correct albeit silly. Fenlon praised the game's minimalist visuals, "peppy music, and chirpy sound effects". He compared the player's controls to that of Asteroids and contrasted its simplicity with the 100-hour onboarding process for League of Legends, having learned how to play Videoball in just "a couple minutes". Jason Bohn (Hardcore Gamer) wrote that the simple controls made the game accessible for new teams to quickly strategize. Polygon Tracey Lien compared the game's feel to basketball, football, and hockey. Citing the strong role of strategy in playing the game, she compared the array of projectiles fired to military strategy or a football play. Game Informer Kyle Hilliard said his time with the game left him "wanting more". Graham Smith (Rock, Paper, Shotgun) found Videoball difficult to spectate and had trouble distinguishing between the players' triangle avatars. Jason Bohn (Hardcore Gamer) only became interested in the game after testing it, and credited the quality of its game design with changing his opinion.
The game received generally favorable reviews at launch. Reviewers noted the precision and craft of its game design. Reviewers compared Videoball to other games including the South Asian board game Carrom, and a cross between Asteroids (1979) and Rocket League (2015). GameSpot reviewer wrote that Videoball was the 2016 equivalent of Rocket League, in that both had idiosyncratic concepts and little prior anticipation, but simple and fun gameplay.
Samit Sakar (Polygon) felt that he was in control of all parts of his play, even as he lost to computer-controlled opponents. Joshua Calixto (Kill Screen) found himself naming his preferred ball-handling techniques as he played. While Nic Rowen (Destructoid) said that he would normally avoid game mechanics discussion in his reviews, "Videoball is all about its mechanics". He praised the momentum and "pleasing grip" behind the avatars and the acceleration physics of changing direction or moving out of a full stop. Polygon Sakar noted the game's balance between competition and enjoyment. Despite the game's simple controls, Destructoid found that sloppy play could easily backfire on the player. Jason D'Aprile (GameSpot) said that the game depends on things knocking into each other for its entertainment, such as bank shots and hitting opponents. He disliked that the only control style was tank-style controls. Polygon initially wanted a tutorial mode but ultimately felt that the single-player Arcade mode, with set scenarios against two computer-controlled opponents, filled this need. Destructoid called the Arcade mode increasingly unfair in its addition of field disadvantages to the player. While Polygon and Destructoid praised the artificial intelligence of the computer-controlled avatars, GameSpot wrote that they were simple, and often ignored balls during single-player matches.
Critics praised the game's welcoming aesthetics, and some, its visual design. Kill Screen considered the game's affect delightful and Destructoid said its bright color scheme and rubber-like surfaces were disarming and recalled the feel of an inflatable castle. Polygon reviewer described the title as having "old-school sensibilities" in its arcade-style visual design, with simple geometry and flat 2D art. He added that the game succeeds in particular because of its "goofy tone" and "delightful wrapper" of music, scrolling ticker, and fanciful announcers, which managed to charm him without appearing inauthentic. GameSpot reviewer wrote that Videoball audiovisual replication of 1990s-era Sega aesthetics triggered instant "warm and fuzzy ... nostalgia". Reviewers said that the game's visuals deceptively betrayed the depth of its gameplay. Calixto of Kill Screen concluded that Videoball "feels like it's trying to knock down barriers to entry" in its "bubbly and peaceful" visual design, with gradients and 90s Japanese arcade-style music. He thought, however, that the voiceovers were somewhat campy.
Reviewers noted the game's accessibility. Calixto of Kill Screen said that Videoball countered a trend in games culture that relied on learning professional strategies online in order to play competitively. He cited the affordances for experimentation in the game's controls and saw Videoball as being primarily concerned with awakening "its own brand of DIY metagaming", hence the reviewer's interest in naming his own techniques. Calixto further praised the game for resisting the standardization of one correct way to play with its variety of game fields. While Rowen (Destructoid) doubted that Videoball would be the future of eSports, he concluded that the game made for good local multiplayer fun, and vastly preferred the experience of local to online multiplayer. He compared the title to Super Bomberman in how quickly the game escalates from a friendly match to cut-throat competition.
References
External links
2016 video games
Action Button Entertainment games
Cancelled Linux games
Cancelled macOS games
Fantasy sports video games
Indie video games
Iron Galaxy games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
PlayStation 4 games
Video games developed in the United States
Windows games
Xbox One games |
29800948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20digital%20forensics%20tools | List of digital forensics tools | During the 1980s, most digital forensic investigations consisted of "live analysis", examining digital media directly using non-specialist tools. In the 1990s, several freeware and other proprietary tools (both hardware and software) were created to allow investigations to take place without modifying media. This first set of tools mainly focused on computer forensics, although in recent years similar tools have evolved for the field of mobile device forensics. This list includes notable examples of digital forensic tools.
Forensics-focused operating systems
Debian-based
Kali Linux is a Debian-derived Linux distribution designed for digital forensics and penetration testing, formerly known as BackTrack.
Parrot Security OS is a cloud-oriented Linux distribution based on Debian and designed to perform security and penetration tests, do forensic analysis, or act in anonymity. It uses the MATE Desktop Environment, Linux Kernel 4.6 or higher and it is available as a live lightweight installable ISO image for 32-bit, 64-bit and ARM processors with forensic options at boot, optimizations for programmers, and new custom pentesting tools.
Ubuntu-based
CAINE Linux is an ubuntu-based live CD/DVD. CAINE stands for Computer Aided INvestigative Environment.
Pentoo-based
Pentoo Penetration Testing Overlay and Livecd is a live CD and Live USB designed for penetration testing and security assessment. Based on Gentoo Linux, Pentoo is provided both as 32-bit and 64-bit installable live CD. Pentoo also is available as an overlay for an existing Gentoo installation. It features packet injection patched wifi drivers, GPGPU cracking software, and many tools for penetration testing and security assessment. The Pentoo kernel includes grsecurity and PAX hardening and extra patches – with binaries compiled from a hardened toolchain with the latest nightly versions of some tools available.
Computer forensics
Memory forensics
Memory forensics tools are used to acquire or analyze a computer's volatile memory (RAM). They are often used in incident response situations to preserve evidence in memory that would be lost when a system is shut down, and to quickly detect stealthy malware by directly examining the operating system and other running software in memory.
Mobile device forensics
Mobile forensics tools tend to consist of both a hardware and software component. Mobile phones come with a diverse range of connectors, the hardware devices support a number of different cables and perform the same role as a write blocker in computer devices.
Software forensics
Software forensics is the science of analyzing software source code or binary code to determine whether intellectual property infringement or theft occurred. It is the centerpiece of lawsuits, trials, and settlements when companies are in dispute over issues involving software patents, copyrights, and trade secrets. Software forensics tools can compare code to determine correlation, a measure that can be used to guide a software forensics expert.
Other
References
See also
List of data recovery software
Digital forensics |
166258 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%20Corps%20%28United%20States%29 | V Corps (United States) | V Corps, formerly known as the Fifth Corps, is a regular corps of the United States Army at Fort Knox. It was previously active during World War I, World War II, Cold War, Kosovo, and the War on Terrorism.
Shoulder sleeve insignia
The corps's shoulder patch, a pentagon whose points lie on an imaginary circle 2 1/8 inches (5.40 cm) in diameter whose edges are white lines 3/16-inch (.48 cm) in width and whose radial lines are white 1/8-inch (.32 cm) in width, was approved on 3 December 1918. The triangles thus outlined in white are flag blue. The pentagon represents the number of the Corps, while blue and white are the colors associated with Corps flags.
History
World War I
V Corps was organized 7–12 July 1918 in the Regular Army in France, as part of the American Expeditionary Forces. By the end of World War I, the Corps had fought in three named campaigns.
Headquarters Company, V Corps was withdrawn from the Organized Reserve on 1 October 1933 and allotted to the Regular Army. At the same time, the Corps HQ was partially activated at Fort Hayes, OH, with Regular personnel from HQ, Fifth Corps Area, and Reserve personnel from the corps area at large. Though an Regular Army, Inactive, unit from 1927 to 1940, the Corps HQ was organized provisionally for short periods using its assigned Reserve officers and staff officers from HQ, Fifth Corps Area. These periods of provisional Active Duty were generally for command post exercises and major maneuvers. HQ, V Corps was fully activated on 20 October 1940, less Reserve personnel, at Camp Beauregard, LA.
World War II
After Nazi Germany declared war on the United States on 11 December 1941, the corps deployed (January 1942) the first American soldiers to the European Theater of Operations, United States Army. That initial deployment was known as the U.S. Army Northern Ireland Force or MAGNET. On 6 June 1944, V Corps assaulted Omaha Beach, Normandy. Corps soldiers then broke out from the beachhead, liberated Paris and Sedan, Ardennes, and raced to the German border. After liberating Luxembourg, V Corps fought in the Battle of the Bulge, captured Leipzig, made first contact with the Red Army at Torgau, and, south in Czechoslovakia, liberated Plzeň by May 1945.
Cold War
In March 1947, United States European Command directed that its combat forces were to convert to "Occupation duties." On 1 December 1950, due to concern of a Soviet threat to Western Europe during the Korean War, Seventh Army was activated as a field army in Europe. Seventh Army absorbed the two main Occupation Duty forces then in Germany, namely the 1st Infantry Division and the United States Constabulary.
By middle 1948 limited combat training had been restored within the European Command.
In December, 1950 President Truman declared a National Emergency due to the Korean War, and four divisions were dispatched to reinforce U.S. forces in Europe, including the National Guard's 28th and 43rd Infantry Divisions. In May 1951 the 4th Infantry Division arrived in United States Army Europe (USAREUR) in Germany, and on 3 August 1951, V Corps was reactivated and assigned to the Seventh Army in USAREUR. In July the 2d Armored Division arrived in Germany, and on 25 August 1951 the 4th Infantry Division (HQ: Frankfurt) and 2d Armored Division (HQ: Bad Kreuznach) were assigned as V Corps divisions.
The Constabulary was inactivated upon the arrival of the four U.S. division augmentation forces to Germany. V Corps was assigned to the northern area of the U.S. Occupation Zone of Germany (which included the Fulda Gap), and the VII Corps was assigned to the southern area of the U.S. Zone (one of the National Guard divisions (the 43rd) was stationed in the Munich area, and the other (the 28th) was between Munich and Stuttgart). Several years later the newly forming West German Army displaced the GDP positions of some of the U.S. units stationed in the far southern area of West Germany. As a consequence, the U.S. units' GDP positions were moved further north, as was the U.S. VII Corps' wartime southern boundary line (even though the U.S. units remained in their original kasernes). This shifting action likely coincided with the same time frame as the Summer and Fall conversion of all Seventh Army units to the ROAD organization.
Although, as referenced above, in 1951 the 1st Infantry Division was assigned to the newly activated VII Corps, the significance of the V Corps assigned Fulda Gap and Meiningen Gap (AKA Grabfeld Gap) defense influenced not only the reassignment of the Wuerzburg-headquartered 1st Infantry Division to V Corps on 2 February 1952, but also the 1 October 1953 assignment of the newly formed 19th Armor Group, headquartered at Frankfurt, to V Corps.
As of June 1954, the main unit assignments to V Corps were 1st Infantry Division, 4th Infantry Division, 2d Armored Division, and 19th Armor Group (19th AG was the size of a large brigade, with 3 tank battalions and one mech. infantry battalion stationed from Mannheim to Wildflecken). The first U.S. armored division to be stationed east of the Rhine River in the Cold War, namely V Corps' 3d Armored Division, arrived in May/June 1956. (The 3d Armored Div. replaced the 4th Infantry Div.; later, the 2d Armored Div. was replaced by the Bad Kreuznach arriving 8th Infantry Div.) The 19th Armor Group (HQ Frankfurt) was replaced by the 4th Armor Group on 1 July 1955 (the 4th AG was approximately the size of the replaced 19th AG); the 4th Armor Group was deactivated in the 1963 ROAD conversion. In 1958 the 1st Infantry Division gyroscoped to CONUS, and was replaced in V Corps by the 3rd Infantry Division from CONUS.
Due to the 1963 ROAD reorganization in USAREUR, V Corps ultimately lost two assigned units:
(1) the 4th Armor Group was inactivated;
(2) the 3rd Infantry Division, with its headquarters at Wuerzburg, was reassigned to VII Corps.
After the Cold War collapse of the Warsaw Pact, V Corps soldiers deployed both units and individuals to Saudi Arabia for the Gulf War; and to other operations in Kuwait, northern Iraq, Croatia, Somalia, Republic of Macedonia, Rwanda, and Zaire.
Organization 1989
At the end of the Cold War in 1989 V Corps consisted of the following units:
V Corps, Frankfurt, West Germany
3rd Armored Division, Frankfurt
4th Infantry Division (Mechanized), Fort Carson, Colorado (Operation Reforger unit)
8th Infantry Division (Mechanized), Bad Kreuznach
V Corps Artillery, Frankfurt
41st Field Artillery Brigade, Babenhausen
42nd Field Artillery Brigade, Giessen
11th Armored Cavalry Regiment, Fulda
194th Armored Brigade, Fort Knox, Kentucky (Operation Reforger unit)
197th Infantry Brigade (Mechanized), Fort Benning, Georgia (Operation Reforger unit)
12th Aviation Brigade, Wiesbaden
130th Engineer Brigade, Hanau
18th Military Police Brigade, Frankfurt
22nd Signal Brigade (Corps), Frankfurt
205th Military Intelligence Brigade, Frankfurt
3rd Corps Support Command, Wiesbaden
1990s
In December 1994, as part of the realignment of United States Armed Forces, V Corps moved from the IG Farben Building to Campbell Barracks in Heidelberg, severing a forty-three-year tie with Frankfurt. The corps reached out to the armed forces of eastern Europe with numerous initiatives to foster closer ties and better understanding. Maintaining the NATO commitment, V Corps in 1994 created two bi-national corps with Germany. For Command Component Land Heidelberg missions, the corps commanded the 13th (German) Armored Infantry Division, while II (German) Corps commanded the 1st Armored Division.
In December 1995, V Corps deployed 1st Armored Division and elements of six separate brigades for the Implementation Force (IFOR). The corps headquarters and Headquarters Company, the 3d Support Command, and the separate brigades helped form the National Support Element headquartered in Hungary for United States Armed Forces in Bosnia. Brigades of the two divisions rotated in the peace enforcement mission for a number of years in Bosnia. Headquarters and Headquarters Company, V Corps, was decorated with the Army Superior Unit Award in 1998 in recognition of the unit's performance in Implementation Force (IFOR). In April 1999, V Corps deployed the headquarters and subordinate units to Albania as Task Force Hawk, a force involved in the ongoing crisis in Kosovo. The 1st Infantry Division served in Kosovo twice and the 1st Armored Division served once, in addition to V Corps separate brigades.
War on Terrorism
At the end of 2002, V Corps deployed to Kuwait under United States Central Command for the Iraq War. The United States-led coalition brought about a regime change in Iraq and satisfied international concerns about Iraq and weapons of mass destruction. The corps and its maneuver brigades crossed into Iraq on 21 March 2003 as the main effort. In sixteen days of fighting, V Corps advanced more than 540 miles straight-line distance from Kuwait to Baghdad, decisively defeated the Iraqi Armed Forces, and toppled the regime of Saddam Hussein.
On 15 June 2003, the corps formed Combined Joint Task Force 7, based in Baghdad, and continued military operations to pacify the remainder of Iraq, rebuild the country, and create democratic institutions. As part of Combined Joint Task Force 7 mission, V Corps soldiers sought out and arrested or killed the major figures in the previous Iraqi regime, culminating in the arrest of Saddam Hussein himself. On 1 February 2004, V Corps was succeeded in Combined Joint Task Force 7 by III Corps and redeployed to its home station in Heidelberg, Germany. In recognition of its combat achievements in Iraq, the Department of the Army, in 2004, awarded the Headquarters and Headquarters Company the Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army).
In January 2006, the corps, deployed to Iraq and replaced XVIII Airborne Corps as the command and control element for Multi-National Corps–Iraq. During its second year-long deployment, which ended on 14 December 2006, V Corps continued to lead coalition forces and made great strides battling a widespread insurgency, and conducting a massive rebuilding effort.
From 2012 to 2013, V Corps served in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, providing command and control of all U.S. ground forces stationed there. On 16 February 2012, it was announced that Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion, V Corps would inactivate upon redeployment from Afghanistan per guidance issued by the Department of the Army earlier that same year. On 12 June 2013, V Corps was awarded an Army Superior Unit Award, a Meritorious Unit Commendation, then ceremonially inactivated at Biebrich Palace, Wiesbaden, Germany.
Reactivation
On 11 February 2020, the United States Department of the Army announced the activation of corps headquarters (V Corps). V Corps Headquarters will have approximately 635 soldiers, with approximately 200 who will support an operational command post in Europe. The Corps Headquarters is projected to be operational by autumn 2020.
On 12 February 2020, the Army announced that V Corps' new headquarters would be located at Fort Knox, Kentucky.
United States Army Chief of Staff, General James McConville stated:"The activation of an additional Corps headquarters provides the needed level of command and control focused on synchronizing U.S. Army, allied, and partner nation tactical formations operating in Europe. It will enhance U.S. Army Europe and U.S. European Command as they work alongside allies and partners to promote regional stability and security."The establishment of V Corps supports United States European Command's request for increased command and control capability.
In May 2020, MG John Kolasheski, commanding general of the 1st Infantry Division was nominated to command the newly reactivated V Corps. Once confirmed by the Senate he would receive a third star. Kolasheski was confirmed to the rank of lieutenant general on 21 May 2020. He was promoted by Army Chief of Staff James C. McConville on 4 August 2020 in Kraków, Poland. McConville announced that V Corps forward headquarters would be established in Poland after the next fiscal year starts on 1 October 2020. 200 of the expected 630 headquarters staff members would be stationed in Poznan on a rotational basis. The forward headquarters will "conduct operational planning, mission command and oversight of the rotational forces in Europe", and work alongside allies and partners to build readiness and enhance interoperability.
On 21 July 2021 MG J. Broadwater was announced as DCG, V Corps. In May of 2021, MG Matthew Van Wagenen was appointed as DCG-Manoeuvre to be based in Poznan, Poland.
See also
Ardennes-Alsace Order of Battle
Liberation of Iraq Order of Battle
List of commanders
Meuse-Argonne Order of Battle
References
Bibliography
Burger, Eric H. Staff Sgt. "V Corps Song–March "Victory!"." Print.
Condon, Edward J., Jr., and Raymond A. Mathews Historical Report of the V Corps-1949. n.p., 1950.
Hill, John G. V Corps Operations in ETO, 6 Jan 1942 – 9 May 1945. Paris: Paul Viviers, 1945.
History V Corps June 6, '44. 668th Engineer Topographic Company, 1945.
Huebner, C.R. "V Corps From Belgium to Czechoslovakia". Army and Navy Journal 83 (4 December 1945):55ff.
Tucker, Spencer, ed. A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. Volume V: 1861–1918. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2010.
United States. Dept. of Army. Center of Military History. Armies, Corps, Divisions, and Separate Brigades. Wilson, John B., Comp. Washington: GPO, 1999.
United States. Dept. of Army. Center of Military History. "Ruck it up!" The post-Cold War transformation of V Corps, 1990–2001. By Charles E. Kirkpatrick. Washington: GPO, 2006.
United States. Dept. of Army. Combined Arms Center. V Corps in Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1995–1996: an oral history. Harold E. Raugh, Jr., Ed. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: Combat Studies Institute Press, 2010.
United States. Dept. of Army. Headquarters, V Corps. "It Will Be Done!" U.S. Army V Corps, 1918–2009: a pictorial history. Harold E. Raugh, Jr., Ed. Grafenwoehr, Germany: Druckerei Hutzler, 2009.
United States. Dept. of Army. Headquarters, V Corps. The History of V Corps. By Charles E. Kirkpatrick. n.p., 2001.
External links
Government
Lineage and Honors Information at the U.S. Army Center of Military History
General information
V Corps at GlobalSecurity.org
1918 establishments in France
1919 disestablishments in Kansas
1922 establishments in Kentucky
1924 disestablishments in Kentucky
1940 establishments in Louisiana
2013 disestablishments in Germany
2020 establishments in Kentucky
Corps of the United States Army
Corps of the United States in World War II
Military units and formations established in 1918
Military units and formations disestablished in 1919
Military units and formations established in 1922
Military units and formations disestablished in 1924
Military units and formations established in 1940
Military units and formations disestablished in 2013
Military units and formations established in 2020
Military units and formations of the United States in World War I
Military units and formations of the United States in the Cold War
Military units and formations of the United States in the War on Terror
Organizations based in Kentucky |
1472757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capella%20%28notation%20program%29 | Capella (notation program) | capella is a musical notation program or scorewriter developed by the German company Capella Software AG (formerly WHC), running on Microsoft Windows or corresponding emulators in other operating systems, like Wine on Linux and others on Apple Macintosh. Capella requires to be activated after a trial period of 30 days. The publisher writes the name in lower case letters only. The program was initially created by Hartmut Ring, and is now maintained and developed by Bernd Jungmann.
Capella is one of the earliest computer programs for music notation and has a relatively moderate price compared with Finale or Sibelius, though unlike those programs, it presently runs only on Windows. Capella claims to have 300,000 users for the music notation program and 120,000 for the OCR program. Digital sheet music in capella formats is available in various online music libraries, especially in German speaking areas. The German Protestant hymnal has been digitized using capella software.
Originally available only in German, capella is now available in English (US and British), French, Dutch, Finnish, Polish (version 5.3) and Czech (capella 2008).
Features
The current version is Capella Professional 8.0, which includes guitar chord notation ability, and guitar tab writing functions, in addition to the standard music notation tools. A capella start program is offered with several restrictions for a lower price. A free capella reader can display, print and play a capella score.
Data entry is possible via computer keyboard entirely, via mouse or in a combination with a MIDI keyboard. It is intended for multi staff scores like choir music, or orchestral music.
Capella is a practically-oriented application suited for amateur and professional musicians alike. It includes engraving as well as MIDI import and export.
capella can play back the score (the full score or an arbitrary selection of staves) via the computer's sound card, to MIDI devices or using VST modules. capella's captune module allows to select the output channels and to fine-tune the sounds.
Version 7 brought live voice extraction: one can switch between the view on the full score for the whole orchestra and the view on a selection of the staves of one or a group of instruments. On printing and exporting, only the voices being shown in the current view will be used. Specific instruction of individual voices can be marked as "only visible in extracted voice". Live voice extraction is also available in the free Reader program; in the limited version of the editor Capella start, such live voice extractions are not available for editing.
Version 7.1 introduced Unicode compatibility; UTF-8 is now the standard text encoding format.
Current features
The following modules are advertised for Capella 7 (February 2016):
capella
For the production of large complex music scores. Edit and arrange a score of voices/instruments in any number of pages of any number of staves per line, with multiple voice parts per stave. Playback with MIDI sound, import/export with other music software via MusicXML.
capella start
Cut-down version of capella with up to 4 staves per line, up to 2 voices per stave, and up to 100 bars.
Technicalities
The file format of capella evolved from a proprietary digital encoding (filename extension *.cap) to an open, XML text based format called CapXML with extension *.capx. There are CapXML 1.0 and 2.0 formats. Each *.capx file is a ZIP archive containing the actual XML with filename score.xml. CapXML differs from MusicXML in various aspects, one being that in CapXML the basic node is the chord which can have one or more notes, whereas in MusicXML the notes of a chord are single nodes which have to be put into relation with one another. Capella can import and export MusicXML files.
Documentation of CapXML and the binary CAP file format, as well as of the programming interface is available for download at the Capella website.
Capella provides a programming interface for Python scripts with a set of Python-classes providing the capella object hierarchy. Python scripts can be used as a plug-in to the capella program or run stand-alone, i.e. within a Capella editing session or externally, directly on the file or group of files. CapXML scores can, of course, be directly processed by any XML-aware software.
Capella-programmer Bernd Jungmann used the Python scripting to produce a Braille-interface to Capella for blind users with a refreshable Braille display. Braille printing is possible using the MakeBraille service of the German Central Library for the Blind (DZB - Deutsche Zentralbibliothek für Blinde) in Leipzig, which accepts CapXML and MusicXML files as input, and offers its service for private, non-commercial uses only.
Companion products
Companion products to capella provide Music OCR (Capella Scan, which uses the FineReader engine from the Russian company ABBYY to recognize text, including Gothic letters), music recognition out of audio files (Capella Wave Kit), music teaching and training (rondo, audite!), composition aids (tonica fugata, with automatic composition of polyphonic sets, canons, and fugues), and production of accompaniment music files or CDs for karaoke-like uses for amateurs and professionals (Capella Playalong).
capella-scan
Convert scanned sheet music into a capella score for editing. including transposition.
capella melody trainer
Personal trainer for singers and instrumentalists.
capella playAlong
Converts capella, musicXML and MIDI to MP3 format.
tonica fugata
Add a three- or four-part harmonisation to a melody, compose a canon fugue on a given melody, analyse the harmonies in a given work.
tonica pop
Add harmonisation in 'pop' style.
History
Before capella, there was tonica, a program to analyse musical notation. Since some people used tonica mainly to print musical scores, the idea for a scorewriter was born.
The first version was published in 1992 as a program named "Allegro", running under MS-DOS with its own graphical interface. Since the name was already taken, the name had to be changed - taking the name from the brightest star in the constellation Auriga, Capella. Only the original file name extension ALL was kept for the binary notation file format. The first real capella is version 1.01 dated 15 May 1992. Version 1.5 was the last MS-DOS Version, published in 1993.
The only alternative back then was the much more expensive Finale on Atari ST or Macintosh, or since 1993 Sibelius on Acorn Computers.
Version 2 used Windows 3.1. The file format changed to another proprietary binary format with extension CAP. Many details, including lyrics, were lost in the conversion from ALL to CAP files.
Version 3.0 moved from 16-bit to 32-bit software. The file format changed again, also with some losses in the conversion. This format is internally designated as CAP3. This binary file format was kept, until the XML-based format CapXML 1.0 with extension CAPX was introduced.
In 2004, scripting was introduced.
Capella has always used and uses copy protection; initially by requiring the installation CD to be in the CD reader, today by requiring activation (after a trial period of 30 days).
The company was originally called "whc Musiksoftware", then "whc Musiksoftware GmbH". The name was changed to "capella-software GmbH" in the fall of 2002, changing the legal form from GmbH to AG (Aktiengesellschaft) in March 2011.
Version 8, published in late 2017, is a major rewrite of the program using the Qt, a cross-platform application framework and widget toolkit, which made possible the publication of a version for macOS, i.e. Apple Macintosh. The Reader 8, using the Qt platform, had already been released March 29, 2016, 20 months before the main program.
See also
List of music software
References
External links
capella company homepage (English)
capella-blind by Bernd Jungmann
Independent Wiki on capella with scripts to download (German)
Independent forum on capella (German)
Variations on the term "a capella"
Scores in Capella format
Scorewriters |
17084941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford%20University%20Network | Stanford University Network | The Stanford University Network, also known as SUN, SUNet or SU-Net is the campus computer network for Stanford University.
History
Stanford Research Institute, formerly part of Stanford but on a separate campus, was the site of one of the four original ARPANET nodes. Later ARPANET nodes were located in the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, the Computer Science Department, and the Stanford University Medical Center. In late 1979, the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center donated equipment including Xerox Alto computers, a laser printer, and file server connected by Ethernet local area network technology.
A router based on the PDP-11 computer from Digital Equipment Corporation with software from MIT was used to connect the Ethernet to the ARPANET. The PARC Universal Packet protocol was initially used on the local parts of the network, which was the experimental version of Ethernet with a data rate under 3 megabits/second. As the TCP/IP protocols evolved through the 1980s, a TCP/IP network was built on the main campus, extending to other departments, and connecting many other computers. This network was called the Stanford University Network or SUN. Today, the campus network is referred to as SUNet.
Andy Bechtolsheim, a Stanford graduate student at the time, designed a SUN workstation for use on the network in 1980. It was inspired by the Alto, but used a more modular design powered by a Motorola 68000 processor interfaced to other circuit boards using Multibus. The workstations were used by researchers to develop the V-System and other projects. Bechtolsheim licensed the design to become the basis of the products of Sun Microsystems (whose name was a pun based on the SUN acronym).
The CPU board could be configured with Bechtolsheim's experimental Ethernet boards, or commercial 10 megabit/second boards made by 3Com or others to act as a router. These routers were called Blue Boxes for the color of their case. The routers were developed and deployed by a group of students, faculty, and staff, including Len Bosack who was in charge of the computer science department's computers, and Sandy Lerner who was the Director of Computer Facilities for the Stanford University Graduate School of Business. All told there were about two dozen Blue Boxes scattered across campus. This original router design formed the base of the first Cisco Systems router hardware products, founded by Bosack and Lerner (who were married at the time).
The original router software was called NOS, Network Operating System, written by William Yeager, a staff research engineer at Stanford's medical school. Distinguishing features of NOS were that it was written in C and that it was multi-tasking capable; this allowed additional network interfaces and additional features to be easily added as new tasks. NOS was the basis of Cisco's IOS operating system. In 1987, Stanford licensed the router software and two computer boards to Cisco, after investigations by Stanford staff members such as Les Earnest.
References
External links
Router man, an interview with William Yeager
ARPANET
History of the Internet
Stanford University |
89847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod | IPod | The iPod is a series of portable media players and multi-purpose mobile devices designed and marketed by Apple Inc. The first version was released on October 23, 2001, about months after the Macintosh version of iTunes was released. As of 2022, only the 7th generation iPod touch remains in production.
Like other digital music players, some versions of the iPod can serve as external data storage devices. Prior to macOS 10.15, Apple's iTunes software (and other alternative software) could be used to transfer music, photos, videos, games, contact information, e-mail settings, Web bookmarks, and calendars to the devices supporting these features from computers using certain versions of Apple macOS and Microsoft Windows operating systems.
Before the release of iOS 5, the iPod branding was used for the media player included with the iPhone and iPad, which was separated into apps named "Music" and "Videos" on the iPod Touch. As of iOS 5, separate Music and Videos apps are standardized across all iOS-powered products. While the iPhone and iPad have essentially the same media player capabilities as the iPod line, they are generally treated as separate products. During the middle of 2010, iPhone sales overtook those of the iPod.
History
Portable MP3 players had been around since the mid 1990s, but Apple found existing digital music players "big and clunky or small and useless" with user interfaces that were "unbelievably awful". Apple thought flash memory-based players didn't carry enough songs and the hard drive based ones were too big and heavy so the company decided to develop its own.
As ordered by CEO Steve Jobs, Apple's hardware engineering chief Jon Rubinstein contacted Tony Fadell, a former employee of General Magic and Philips who had a business idea to invent a better MP3 player and build a music sales store to complement it. Fadell, who had previously developed the Philips Velo and Nino PDA, had started a company called Fuse Systems to build the MP3 player and had been turned down by RealNetworks, Sony and Philips. Rubinstein had already discovered the Toshiba hard disk drive while meeting with an Apple supplier in Japan, and purchased the rights to it for Apple, and had also already worked out how the screen, battery, and other key elements would work.
Fadell found support for his project with Apple Computer and was hired by Apple in 2001 as an independent contractor to work on the iPod project, then code-named project P-68. Due to the engineers and resources at Apple being constrained with the iMac line, Fadell hired engineers from his startup company, Fuse, and veteran engineers from General Magic and Philips to build the core iPod development team.
Time constraints forced Fadell to develop various components of the iPod outside Apple. Fadell partnered with a company called PortalPlayer to design the software for the new Apple music player which became the iPod OS. Within eight months, Tony Fadell's team and PortalPlayer had completed a prototype. The power supply was then designed by Michael Dhuey and the display design made by Apple design engineer Jonathan Ive in-house. The aesthetic was inspired by the 1958 Braun T3 transistor radio designed by Dieter Rams, while the wheel-based user interface was prompted by Bang & Olufsen's BeoCom 6000 telephone.
Apple contracted another company, Pixo, to help design and implement the user interface (as well as Unicode, memory management, and event processing) under the direct supervision of Steve Jobs.
Steve Jobs is said to have dropped a prototype into an aquarium infront of engineers to demonstrate from bubbles leaving its housing that there is internal space to be saved.
The name iPod was proposed by Vinnie Chieco, a freelance copywriter, who (with others) was called by Apple to figure out how to introduce the new player to the public. After Chieco saw a prototype, he thought of the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey and the phrase "Open the pod bay doors, Hal", which refers to the white EVA Pods of the Discovery One spaceship. Chieco saw an analogy to the relationship between the spaceship and the smaller independent pods in the relationship between a personal computer and the music player.
The product (which Fortune called "Apple's 21st-Century Walkman") was developed in less than one year and unveiled on October 23, 2001. Jobs announced it as a Mac-compatible product with a 5 GB hard drive that put "1,000 songs in your pocket."
Apple researched the trademark and found that it was already in use. Joseph N. Grasso of New Jersey had originally listed an "iPod" trademark with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) in July 2000 for Internet kiosks. The first iPod kiosks had been demonstrated to the public in New Jersey in March 1998, and commercial use began in January 2000 but had apparently been discontinued by 2001. The trademark was registered by the USPTO in November 2003, and Grasso assigned it to Apple Computer, Inc. in 2005.
The earliest recorded use in commerce of an "iPod" trademark was in 1991 by Chrysalis Corp. of Sturgis, Michigan, styled "iPOD", for office furniture.
As development progressed, Apple continued to refine the software's look and feel, rewriting much of the code. Starting with the iPod Mini, the Chicago font was replaced with Espy Sans. Later iPods switched fonts again to Podium Sans—a font similar to Apple's corporate font, Myriad. Color display iPods then adopted some Mac OS X themes like Aqua progress bars, and brushed metal meant to evoke a combination lock.
In 2007, Apple modified the iPod interface again with the introduction of the sixth-generation iPod Classic and third-generation iPod Nano by changing the font to Helvetica and, in most cases, splitting the screen in half by displaying the menus on the left and album artwork, photos, or videos on the right (whichever was appropriate for the selected item).
In 2006, Apple with Irish rock band U2 presented a special edition of the 5th-generation iPod. Like its predecessor, this iPod has the signatures of the four members of the band engraved on its back, but this one was the first time the company changed the color of the stainless steel back from a silver chrome to black. This iPod was only available with 30 GB of storage capacity. The special edition entitled purchasers to an exclusive video with 33 minutes of interviews and performance by U2, downloadable from the iTunes Store.
In mid-2015, several new color schemes for all of the current iPod models were spotted in the latest version of iTunes, 12.2. Belgian website Belgium iPhone originally found the images when plugging in an iPod for the first time, and subsequent leaked photos were found by Pierre Dandumont.
On July 27, 2017, Apple removed the iPod Nano and Shuffle from its stores, marking the end of Apple producing standalone music players. Currently, the iPod Touch is the only iPod produced by Apple.
Hardware
Audio
The third-generation iPod had a weak bass response, as shown in audio tests. The combination of the undersized DC-blocking capacitors and the typical low impedance of most consumer headphones form a high-pass filter, which attenuates the low-frequency bass output. Similar capacitors were used in the fourth-generation iPods. The problem is reduced when using high-impedance headphones and is completely masked when driving high-impedance (line level) loads, such as an external headphone amplifier. The first-generation iPod Shuffle uses a dual-transistor output stage, rather than a single capacitor-coupled output, and does not exhibit reduced bass response for any load.
For all iPods released in 2006 and earlier, some equalizer (EQ) sound settings would distort the bass sound far too easily, even on undemanding songs. This would happen for EQ settings like R&B, Rock, Acoustic, and Bass Booster, because the equalizer amplified the digital audio level beyond the software's limit, causing distortion (clipping) on bass instruments.
From the fifth-generation iPod on, Apple introduced a user-configurable volume limit in response to concerns about hearing loss. Users report that in the sixth-generation iPod, the maximum volume output level is limited to 100 dB in EU markets. Apple previously had to remove iPods from shelves in France for exceeding this legal limit. However, users who have bought a new sixth-generation iPod in late 2013 have reported a new option that allowed them to disable the EU volume limit. It has been said that these new iPods came with an updated software that allowed this change. Older sixth-generation iPods, however, are unable to update to this software version.
Connectivity
Originally, a FireWire connection to the host computer was used to update songs or recharge the battery. The battery could also be charged with a power adapter that was included with the first four generations.
The third generation began including a 30-pin dock connector, allowing for FireWire or USB connectivity. This provided better compatibility with non-Apple machines, as most of them did not have FireWire ports at the time. Eventually, Apple began shipping iPods with USB cables instead of FireWire, although the latter was available separately. As of the first-generation iPod Nano and the fifth-generation iPod Classic, Apple discontinued using FireWire for data transfer (while still allowing for use of FireWire to charge the device) in an attempt to reduce cost and form factor. As of the second-generation iPod Touch and the fourth-generation iPod Nano, FireWire charging ability has been removed. The second-, third-, and fourth-generation iPod Shuffle uses a single 3.5 mm minijack phone connector which acts as both a headphone jack or a USB data and charging port for the dock/cable.
The dock connector also allowed the iPod to connect to accessories, which often supplement the iPod's music, video, and photo playback. Apple sells a few accessories, such as the now-discontinued iPod Hi-Fi, but most are manufactured by third parties such as Belkin and Griffin. Some peripherals use their own interface, while others use the iPod's own screen. Because the dock connector is a proprietary interface, the implementation of the interface requires paying royalties to Apple.
Apple introduced a new 8-pin dock connector, named Lightning, on September 12, 2012 with their announcement of the iPhone 5, the fifth-generation iPod Touch, and the seventh-generation iPod Nano, which all feature it. The new connector replaces the older 30-pin dock connector used by older iPods, iPhones, and iPads. Apple Lightning cables have pins on both sides of the plug so it can be inserted with either side facing up.
Bluetooth connectivity was added to the last model of the iPod Nano, and Wi-Fi to the iPod Touch.
Accessories
Many accessories have been made for the iPod line. A large number are made by third-party companies, although many, such as the iPod Hi-Fi and iPod Socks, are made by Apple. Some accessories add extra features that other music players have, such as sound recorders, FM radio tuners, wired remote controls, and audio/visual cables for TV connections. Other accessories offer unique features like the Nike+iPod pedometer and the iPod Camera Connector. Other notable accessories include external speakers, wireless remote controls, protective case, screen films, and wireless earphones. Among the first accessory manufacturers were Griffin Technology, Belkin, JBL, Bose, Monster Cable, and SendStation.
BMW released the first iPod automobile interface, allowing drivers of newer BMW vehicles to control an iPod using either the built-in steering wheel controls or the radio head-unit buttons. Apple announced in 2005 that similar systems would be available for other vehicle brands, including Mercedes-Benz, Volvo, Nissan, Toyota, Alfa Romeo, Ferrari, Acura, Audi, Honda, Renault, Infiniti and Volkswagen. Scion offers standard iPod connectivity on all their cars.
Some independent stereo manufacturers including JVC, Pioneer, Kenwood, Alpine, Sony, and Harman Kardon also have iPod-specific integration solutions. Alternative connection methods include adapter kits (that use the cassette deck or the CD changer port), audio input jacks, and FM transmitters such as the iTrip—although personal FM transmitters are illegal in some countries. Many car manufacturers have added audio input jacks as standard.
Beginning in mid-2007, four major airlines, United, Continental, Delta, and Emirates, reached agreements to install iPod seat connections. The free service will allow passengers to power and charge an iPod, and view video and music libraries on individual seat-back displays. Originally KLM and Air France were reported to be part of the deal with Apple, but they later released statements explaining that they were only contemplating the possibility of incorporating such systems.
Software
The iPod line can play several audio file formats including MP3, AAC/M4A, Protected AAC, AIFF, WAV, Audible audiobook, and Apple Lossless. The iPod Photo introduced the ability to display JPEG, BMP, GIF, TIFF, and PNG image file formats. Fifth- and sixth-generation iPod Classic models, as well as third-generation iPod Nano models, can also play MPEG-4 (H.264/MPEG-4 AVC) and QuickTime video formats, with restrictions on video dimensions, encoding techniques and data rates. Originally, iPod software only worked with Classic Mac OS and macOS; iPod software for Microsoft Windows was launched with the second-generation model. Unlike most other media players, Apple does not support Microsoft's WMA audio format—but a converter for WMA files without digital rights management (DRM) is provided with the Windows version of iTunes. MIDI files also cannot be played, but can be converted to audio files using the "Advanced" menu in iTunes. Alternative open-source audio formats, such as Ogg Vorbis and FLAC, are not supported without installing custom firmware onto an iPod (e.g., Rockbox).
During installation, an iPod is associated with one host computer. Each time an iPod connects to its host computer, iTunes can synchronize entire music libraries or music playlists either automatically or manually. Song ratings can be set on an iPod and synchronized later to the iTunes library, and vice versa. A user can access, play, and add music on a second computer if an iPod is set to manual and not automatic sync, but anything added or edited will be reversed upon connecting and syncing with the main computer and its library. If a user wishes to automatically sync music with another computer, an iPod's library will be entirely wiped and replaced with the other computer's library.
Interface
iPods with color displays use anti-aliased graphics and text, with sliding animations. All iPods (except the 3rd-generation iPod Shuffle, the 6th & 7th generation iPod Nano, and iPod Touch) have five buttons and the later generations have the buttons integrated into the click wheel – an innovation that gives an uncluttered, minimalist interface. The buttons perform basic functions such as menu, play, pause, next track, and previous track. Other operations, such as scrolling through menu items and controlling the volume, are performed by using the click wheel in a rotational manner. The 3rd-generation iPod Shuffle does not have any controls on the actual player; instead, it has a small control on the earphone cable, with volume-up and -down buttons and a single button for play and pause, next track, etc. The iPod Touch has no click-wheel; instead, it uses a touch screen along with a home button, sleep/wake button, and (on the second and third generations of the iPod Touch) volume-up and -down buttons. The user interface for the iPod Touch is identical to that of the iPhone. Differences include the lack of a phone application. Both devices use iOS.
iTunes Store
The iTunes Store (introduced April 29, 2003) is an online media store run by Apple and accessed through iTunes. The store became the market leader soon after its launch and Apple announced the sale of videos through the store on October 12, 2005. Full-length movies became available on September 12, 2006.
At the time the store was introduced, purchased audio files used the AAC format with added encryption, based on the FairPlay DRM system. Up to five authorized computers and an unlimited number of iPods could play the files. Burning the files with iTunes as an audio CD, then re-importing would create music files without the DRM. The DRM could also be removed using third-party software. However, in a deal with Apple, EMI began selling DRM-free, higher-quality songs on the iTunes Stores, in a category called "iTunes Plus." While individual songs were made available at a cost of US$1.29, 30¢ more than the cost of a regular DRM song, entire albums were available for the same price, US$9.99, as DRM encoded albums. On October 17, 2007, Apple lowered the cost of individual iTunes Plus songs to US$0.99 per song, the same as DRM encoded tracks. On January 6, 2009, Apple announced that DRM has been removed from 80% of the music catalog and that it would be removed from all music by April 2009.
iPods cannot play music files from competing music stores that use rival-DRM technologies like Microsoft's protected WMA or RealNetworks' Helix DRM. Example stores include Napster and MSN Music. RealNetworks claims that Apple is creating problems for itself by using FairPlay to lock users into using the iTunes Store. Steve Jobs stated that Apple makes little profit from song sales, although Apple uses the store to promote iPod sales. However, iPods can also play music files from online stores that do not use DRM, such as eMusic or Amie Street.
Universal Music Group decided not to renew their contract with the iTunes Store on July 3, 2007. Universal will now supply iTunes in an 'at will' capacity.
Apple debuted the iTunes Wi-Fi Music Store on September 5, 2007, in its Media Event entitled "The Beat Goes On...". This service allows users to access the Music Store from either an iPhone or an iPod Touch and download songs directly to the device that can be synced to the user's iTunes Library over a WiFi connection, or, in the case of an iPhone, the telephone network.
Games
Video games are playable on various versions of iPods. The original iPod had the game Brick (originally invented by Apple's co-founder Steve Wozniak) included as an easter egg hidden feature; later firmware versions added it as a menu option. Later revisions of the iPod added three more games: Parachute, Solitaire, and Music Quiz.
In September 2006, the iTunes Store began to offer additional games for purchase with the launch of iTunes 7, compatible with the fifth generation iPod with iPod software 1.2 or later. Those games were: Bejeweled, Cubis 2, Mahjong, Mini Golf, Pac-Man, Tetris, Texas Hold 'Em, Vortex, Asphalt 4: Elite Racing and Zuma. Additional games have since been added. These games work on the 6th and 5th generation iPod Classic and the 5th and 4th generation iPod Nano.
With third parties like Namco, Square Enix, Electronic Arts, Sega, and Hudson Soft all making games for the iPod, Apple's MP3 player has taken steps towards entering the video game handheld console market. Even video game magazines like GamePro and EGM have reviewed and rated most of their games as of late.
The games are in the form of .ipg files, which are actually .zip archives in disguise. When unzipped, they reveal executable files along with common audio and image files, leading to the possibility of third party games. Apple has not publicly released a software development kit (SDK) for iPod-specific development. Apps produced with the iPhone SDK are compatible only with the iOS on the iPod Touch and iPhone, which cannot run click wheel-based games.
File storage and transfer
All iPods except for the iPod Touch can function in "disk mode" as mass storage devices to store data files but this may not be the default behavior. If an iPod is formatted on a Mac OS computer, it uses the HFS+ file system format, which allows it to serve as a boot disk for a Mac computer. If it is formatted on Windows, the FAT32 format is used. With the release of the Windows-compatible iPod, the default file system used on the iPod line switched from HFS+ to FAT32, although it can be reformatted to either file system (excluding the iPod Shuffle which is strictly FAT32). Generally, if a new iPod (excluding the iPod Shuffle) is initially plugged into a computer running Windows, it will be formatted with FAT32, and if initially plugged into a Mac running Mac OS it will be formatted with HFS+.
Unlike many other MP3 players, simply copying audio or video files to the drive with a typical file management application will not allow an iPod to properly access them. The user must use software that has been specifically designed to transfer media files to iPods so that the files are playable and viewable. Usually iTunes is used to transfer media to an iPod, though several alternative third-party applications are available on a number of different platforms.
iTunes 7 and above can transfer purchased media of the iTunes Store from an iPod to a computer, provided that computer containing the DRM protected media is authorized to play it.
Media files are stored on an iPod in a hidden folder, along with a proprietary database file. The hidden content can be accessed on the host operating system by enabling hidden files to be shown. The media files can then be recovered manually by copying the files or folders off the iPod. Many third-party applications also allow easy copying of media files off of an iPod.
Models and features
While the suffix "Classic" was not introduced until the sixth generation, it has been applied here retroactively to all generic iPods for clarity.
Patent disputes
In 2005, Apple faced two lawsuits claiming patent infringement by the iPod line and its associated technologies: Advanced Audio Devices claimed the iPod line breached its patent on a "music jukebox", while a Hong Kong-based IP portfolio company called Pat-rights filed a suit claiming that Apple's FairPlay technology breached a patent issued to inventor Ho Keung Tse. The latter case also includes the online music stores of Sony, RealNetworks, Napster, and Musicmatch as defendants.
Apple's application to the United States Patent and Trademark Office for a patent on "rotational user inputs", as used on the iPod interface, received a third "non-final rejection" (NFR) in August 2005. Also in August 2005, Creative Technology, one of Apple's main rivals in the MP3 player market, announced that it held a patent on part of the music selection interface used by the iPod line, which Creative Technology dubbed the "Zen Patent", granted on August 9, 2005. On May 15, 2006, Creative filed another suit against Apple with the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. Creative also asked the United States International Trade Commission to investigate whether Apple was breaching U.S. trade laws by importing iPods into the United States.
On August 24, 2006, Apple and Creative announced a broad settlement to end their legal disputes. Apple will pay Creative US$100 million for a paid-up license, to use Creative's awarded patent in all Apple products. As part of the agreement, Apple will recoup part of its payment, if Creative is successful in licensing the patent. Creative then announced its intention to produce iPod accessories by joining the Made for iPod program.
Sales
On January 8, 2004, Hewlett-Packard (HP) announced that they would sell HP-branded iPods under a license agreement from Apple. Several new retail channels were used—including Walmart—and these iPods eventually made up 5% of all iPod sales. In July 2005, HP stopped selling iPods due to unfavorable terms and conditions imposed by Apple.
In January 2007, Apple reported record quarterly revenue of US$7.1 billion, of which 48% was made from iPod sales.
On April 9, 2007, it was announced that Apple had sold its one-hundred millionth iPod, making it the best-selling digital music player of all time. In April 2007, Apple reported second-quarter revenue of US$5.2 billion, of which 32% was made from iPod sales. Apple and several industry analysts suggest that iPod users are likely to purchase other Apple products such as Mac computers.
On October 22, 2007, Apple reported quarterly revenue of US$6.22 billion, of which 30.69% came from Apple notebook sales, 19.22% from desktop sales and 26% from iPod sales. Apple's 2007 year revenue increased to US$24.01 billion with US$3.5 billion in profits. Apple ended the fiscal year 2007 with US$15.4 billion in cash and no debt.
On January 22, 2008, Apple reported the best quarter revenue and earnings in Apple's history so far. Apple posted record revenue of US$9.6 billion and record net quarterly profit of US$1.58 billion. 42% of Apple's revenue for the First fiscal quarter of 2008 came from iPod sales, followed by 21% from notebook sales and 16% from desktop sales.
On October 21, 2008, Apple reported that only 14.21% of total revenue for fiscal quarter 4 of the year 2008 came from iPods. At the September 9, 2009 keynote presentation at the Apple Event, Phil Schiller announced total cumulative sales of iPods exceeded 220 million. The continual decline of iPod sales since 2009 has not been a surprising trend for the Apple corporation, as Apple CFO Peter Oppenheimer explained in June 2009: "We expect our traditional MP3 players to decline over time as we cannibalize ourselves with the iPod Touch and the iPhone." Since 2009, the company's iPod sales have continually decreased every financial quarter and in 2013 a new model was not introduced onto the market.
, Apple reported that total number of iPods sold worldwide was 350 million.
Market share
Since October 2004, the iPod line has dominated digital music player sales in the United States, with over 90% of the market for hard drive-based players and over 70% of the market for all types of players. During the year from January 2004 to January 2005, the high rate of sales caused its U.S. market share to increase from 31% to 65% and in July 2005, this market share was measured at 74%. In January 2007 the iPod market share reached 72.7% according to Bloomberg Online. In the Japanese market iPod market share was 36% in 2005, albeit still leader there. In Europe, Apple also led the market (especially the UK) but local brands such as Archos managed to outsell Apple in certain categories.
One of the reasons for the iPod's early success, having been released three years after the very first digital audio player (namely the MPMan), was its seamless integration with the company's iTunes software, and the ecosystem built around it such as the iTunes Music Store, as well as a competitive price. As a result, Apple achieved a dominance in the MP3 player market as Sony's Walkman did with personal cassette players two decades earlier. The software between computer and player made it easy to transfer music over and synchronize it, tasks that were considered difficult on pre-iPod MP3 players like those from Rio and Creative.
Some of the iPod's chief competitors during its pinnacle include Creative's Zen, Sony's Walkman, iriver, and Cowon's iAudio and others. The iPod's dominance was challenged numerous times: in November 2004, Creative's CEO "declared war" on the iPod; that same year, Sony's first hard disk Walkman was designed to take on the iPod, accompanied by its own music store Sony Connect; while Microsoft initially attempted to compete using a software platform called Portable Media Center, and in later years designed the Zune line. These competitors failed to make major dents and Apple remained dominant in the fast growing digital audio player market during the decade. Mobile phone manufacturers Nokia and Sony Ericsson also made "music phones" to rival iPod. Apple's popular iTunes Store catalog played a part in keeping Apple firmly market leader, also helped by the mismanagement of others, such as Sony's unpopular SonicStage software.
One notable exception where iPod was not faring well was in South Korea, where as of 2005 Apple held a small market share of less than 2%, compared to market leaders iRiver, Samsung and Cowon.
As of 2011, iPod held a 70% market share in global MP3 players. Its closest competitor was noted to be the Sansa line from SanDisk.
Industry impact
iPods have won several awards ranging from engineering excellence, to most innovative audio product, to fourth best computer product of 2006. iPods often receive favorable reviews; scoring on looks, clean design, and ease of use. PC World wrote that iPod line has "altered the landscape for portable audio players". Several industries are modifying their products to work better with both the iPod line and the AAC audio format. Examples include CD copy-protection schemes, and mobile phones, such as phones from Sony Ericsson and Nokia, which play AAC files rather than WMA.
Besides earning a reputation as a respected entertainment device, the iPod has also been accepted as a business device. Government departments, major institutions, and international organizations have turned to the iPod line as a delivery mechanism for business communication and training, such as the Royal and Western Infirmaries in Glasgow, Scotland, where iPods are used to train new staff.
iPods have also gained popularity for use in education. Apple offers more information on educational uses for iPods on their website, including a collection of lesson plans. There has also been academic research done in this area in nursing education and more general K-16 education. Duke University provided iPods to all incoming freshmen in the fall of 2004, and the iPod program continues today with modifications. Entertainment Weekly put it on its end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "Yes, children, there really was a time when we roamed the earth without thousands of our favorite jams tucked comfortably into our hip pockets. Weird."
The iPod has also been credited with accelerating shifts within the music industry. The iPod's popularization of digital music storage allows users to abandon listening to entire albums and instead be able to choose specific singles which hastened the end of the Album Era in popular music.
Criticism
Battery problems
The advertised battery life on most models is different from the real-world achievable life. For example, the fifth-generation 30 GB iPod Classic was advertised as having up to 14 hours of music playback. However, an MP3.com report stated that this was virtually unachievable under real-life usage conditions, with a writer for the site getting, on average, less than 8 hours from an iPod. In 2003, class action lawsuits were brought against Apple complaining that the battery charges lasted for shorter lengths of time than stated and that the battery degraded over time. The lawsuits were settled by offering individuals with first or second-generation iPods either US$50 store credit or a free battery replacement and offering individuals with third-generation iPods an extended warranty that would allow them to get a replacement iPod if they experienced battery problems.
As an instance of planned obsolescence, iPod batteries are not designed to be removed or replaced by the user, although some users have been able to open the case themselves, usually following instructions from third-party vendors of iPod replacement batteries. Compounding the problem, Apple initially would not replace worn-out batteries. The official policy was that the customer should buy a refurbished replacement iPod, at a cost almost equivalent to a brand new one. All lithium-ion batteries lose capacity during their lifetime even when not in use (guidelines are available for prolonging life-span) and this situation led to a market for third-party battery replacement kits.
Apple announced a battery replacement program on November 14, 2003, a week before a high publicity stunt and website by the Neistat Brothers. The initial cost was US$99, and it was lowered to US$59 in 2005. One week later, Apple offered an extended iPod warranty for US$59. For the iPod Nano, soldering tools are needed because the battery is soldered onto the main board. Fifth generation iPods have their battery attached to the backplate with adhesive.
The first generation iPod Nano may overheat and pose a health and safety risk. Affected iPod Nanos were sold between September 2005 and December 2006. This is due to a flawed battery used by Apple from a single battery manufacturer. Apple recommended that owners of affected iPod Nanos stop using them. Under an Apple product replacement program, affected Nanos were replaced with current generation Nanos free of charge.
Reliability and durability
iPods have been criticized for alleged short lifespan and fragile hard drives. A 2005 survey conducted on the MacInTouch website found that the iPod line had an average failure rate of 13.7% (although they note that comments from respondents indicate that "the true iPod failure rate may be lower than it appears"). It concluded that some models were more durable than others. In particular, failure rates for iPods employing hard drives were usually above 20% while those with flash memory had a failure rate below 10%. In late 2005, many users complained that the surface of the first-generation iPod Nano can become scratched easily, rendering the screen unusable. A class-action lawsuit was also filed. Apple initially considered the issue a minor defect, but later began shipping these iPods with protective sleeves.
Labor disputes
On June 11, 2006, the British tabloid The Mail on Sunday reported that iPods are mainly manufactured by workers who earn no more than US$50 per month and work 15-hour shifts. Apple investigated the case with independent auditors and found that, while some of the plant's labor practices met Apple's Code of Conduct, others did not: employees worked over 60 hours a week for 35% of the time and worked more than six consecutive days for 25% of the time.
Foxconn, Apple's manufacturer, initially denied the abuses, but when an auditing team from Apple found that workers had been working longer hours than were allowed under Chinese law, they promised to prevent workers working more hours than the code allowed. Apple hired a workplace standards auditing company, Verité, and joined the Electronic Industry Code of Conduct Implementation Group to oversee the measures. On December 31, 2006, workers at the Foxconn factory in Longhua, Shenzhen formed a union affiliated with the All-China Federation of Trade Unions, the Chinese government-approved union umbrella organization.
In 2010, a number of workers committed suicide at a Foxconn operations in China. Apple, HP, and others stated that they were investigating the situation. Foxconn guards have been videotaped beating employees. Another employee killed himself in 2009 when an Apple prototype went missing, and claimed in messages to friends, that he had been beaten and interrogated.
As of 2006, the iPod was produced by about 14,000 workers in the U.S. and 27,000 overseas. Further, the salaries attributed to this product were overwhelmingly distributed to highly skilled U.S. professionals, as opposed to lower-skilled U.S. retail employees or overseas manufacturing labor. One interpretation of this result is that U.S. innovation can create more jobs overseas than domestically.
Timeline of models
See also
Comparison of portable media players
Comparison of iPod managers
iPhone
Podcast
iPad
Notes
References
External links
– official site at Apple Inc.
iPod troubleshooting basics and service FAQ at Apple Inc.
Apple's 21st century Walkman article, Brent Schlender, Fortune, November 12, 2001
, Steven Levy, Newsweek, July 26, 2004
The Perfect Thing article, Steven Levy, Wired, November 2006
iPod (1st generation) complete disassembly at TakeItApart.com
Apple Inc. hardware
ITunes
Portable media players
Foxconn
Computer-related introductions in 2001
Digital audio players
Products introduced in 2001 |
33518864 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIVA%20%28software%29 | KIVA (software) | KIVA is a family of Fortran-based Computational Fluid Dynamics software developed by Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL). The software predicts complex fuel and air flows as well as ignition, combustion, and pollutant-formation processes in engines. The KIVA models have been used to understand combustion chemistry processes, such as auto-ignition of fuels, and to optimize diesel engines for high efficiency and low emissions. General Motors has used KIVA in the development of direct-injection, stratified charge gasoline engines as well as the fast burn, homogeneous-charge gasoline engine. Cummins reduced development time and cost by 10%–15% using KIVA to develop its high-efficiency 2007 ISB 6.7-L diesel engine that was able to meet 2010 emission standards in 2007. At the same time, the company realized a more robust design and improved fuel economy while meeting all environmental and customer constraints.
History
LANL's Computational Fluid Dynamics expertise hails from the very beginning of the Manhattan Project in the 1940s. When the United States found itself in the midst of the first energy crisis in the 1970s, this core Laboratory capability transformed into KIVA, an internal combustion engine modeling tool designed to help make automotive engines more fuel-efficient and cleaner-burning. A "kiva" is actually a round Pueblo ceremonial chamber that is set underground and entered from above by means of a ladder through its roof; drawing on LANL's southwestern heritage, an analogy is made with the typical engine cylinder in which the entrance and exit of gases is achieved through valves set in the cylinder.
The first public release of KIVA was made in 1985 through the National Energy Software Center (NESC) at Argonne National Laboratory, which served at the time as the official distribution hub for Department of Energy-sponsored software. Distribution of KIVA continued through the Energy Science and Technology Software Center (ESTSC) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee until 2008, when distribution of multiple versions of KIVA returned to LANL's Technology Transfer Division (TT). KIVA is used by hundreds of institutions worldwide, including the Big Three U.S. auto makers, Cummins, Caterpillar, and various federal laboratories.
Overview
Fuel economy is heavily dependent upon engine efficiency, which in turn depends to a large degree on how fuel is burned within the cylinders of the engine. Higher in-cylinder pressures and temperatures lead to increased fuel economy, but they also create more difficulty in controlling the combustion process. Poorly controlled and incomplete combustion can cause higher levels of emissions and lower engine efficiencies.
In order to optimize combustion processes, engine designers have traditionally undertaken manual engine modifications, conducted testing, and analyzed the results. This iterative process is painstakingly slow, costly, and does not lend itself to identifying the optimal engine design specifications. In response to these problems, Los Alamos National Laboratory scientists developed KIVA, an advanced computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling code that accurately simulates the in-cylinder processes of engines.
KIVA, a transient, three-dimensional, multiphase, multicomponent code for the analysis of chemically reacting flows with sprays has been under development at LANL for decades. The code uses an Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) methodology on a staggered grid, and discretizes space using the finite volume method. The code uses an implicit time-advancement with the exception of the advective terms that are cast in an explicit but second-order monotonicity-preserving manner. Also, the convection calculations can be subcycled in the desired regions to avoid restricting the time step due to Courant conditions.
KIVA's functionality extends from low speeds to supersonic flows for both laminar and turbulent regimes. Transport and chemical reactions for an arbitrary number of species and their chemical reactions is provided. A stochastic particle method is used to calculate evaporating liquid sprays, including the effects of droplet collisions, agglomeration, and aerodynamic breakups.
Although specifically designed for simulating internal combustion engines, the modularity of the code facilitates easy modifications for solving a variety of hydrodynamics problems involving chemical reactions. The versatility and range of features have made KIVA programs attractive to a variety of non-engine applications as well; these range from convection towers to modeling silicon dioxide condensation in high pressure oxidation chambers. Other applications have included the analysis of flows in automotive catalytic converters, power plant smokestack cleaning, pyrolytic treatment of biomass, design of fire suppression systems, Pulsed Detonation Engines (PDEs), stationary burners, aerosol dispersion, and design of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems. The code has found a widespread application in the automotive industry.
Versions
KIVA-3V
KIVA-3V is the most mature version of KIVA still maintained and distributed through LANL; it is an improved version of the earlier Federal Laboratory Consortium Excellence in Technology Transfer Award-winning KIVA3 (1993), extended to model vertical or canted valves in the cylinder head of a gasoline or diesel engine. KIVA3, in turn, was based on the earlier KIVA2 (1989) and used the same numerical solution procedure and solved the same types of equations.
KIVA-3V uses a block-structured mesh with connectivity defined through indirect addressing. The departure from a single rectangular structure in logical space allows complex geometries to be modeled with significantly greater efficiency because large regions of deactivated cells are no longer necessary. Cell-face boundary conditions permit greater flexibility and simplification in the application of boundary conditions. KIVA-3V also contains a number of significant improvements over its predecessors. New features enhanced the robustness, efficiency, and usefulness of the overall program for engine modeling. Automatic restart of the cycle with a reduced timestep in case of iteration limit or temperature overflow effectively reduced code crashes. A new option provided automatic deactivation of a port region when it is closed from the cylinder and reactivation when it communicates with the cylinder. Extensions to the particle-based liquid wall film model made the model more complete and a split injection option was also added. A new subroutine monitors the liquid and gaseous fuel phases and energy balance data and emissions are monitored and printed. In addition, new features were added to the LANL-developed grid generator, K3PREP, and the KIVA graphics post processor, K3POST.
KIVA-4
KIVA-4 is maintained and distributed through LANL. While KIVA-4 maintains the full generality of KIVA-3V, it adds the capability of computing with unstructured grids. Unstructured grids can be generated more easily than structured grids for complex geometries. The unstructured grids may be composed of a variety of elements including hexahedra, prisms, pyramids, and tetrahedra. However, the numerical accuracy diminishes when the grid is not composed of hexahedra. KIVA-4 was developed to work with the many geometries accommodated within KIVA-3V, which includes 2D axisymmetric, 2D planar, 3D axisymmetric sector geometries, and full 3D geometries. KIVA-4 also features a multicomponent fuel evaporation algorithm. Many of the numerical algorithms in KIVA-3V generalize properly to unstructured meshes; however, fundamental changes were needed in the solution of the pressure equation and the fluxing of momentum. In addition, KIVA-4 loops over cell faces to compute diffusion terms.
KIVA-4mpi
Recently, LANL researchers developed KIVA-4mpi, a parallel version of KIVA-4, and the most advanced version of KIVA maintained and distributed by LANL. KIVA-4mpi also solves chemically reacting, turbulent, multi-phase viscous flows, but does this on multiple computer processors with a distributed computational domain (grid). KIVA-4mpi internal combustion engine modeling capabilities are the same as that of KIVA-4, and are based on the KIVA-4 unstructured grid code. The software is well suited for modeling internal combustion engines on multiple processors using the message passing interface (MPI). On August 9, 2011, LANL honored the authors of KIVA-4mpi with the Distinguished Copyright Award for demonstrating a breadth of commercial applications, potential to create economic value, and the highest level of technical excellence.
KIVA-EXEC
KIVA-EXEC is a free, reduced-functionality executable-only trial version of KIVA-4. KIVA-EXEC has all the performance of Los Alamos National Laboratory's premier KIVA-4 code, but with a 45K cell limitation. KIVA-EXEC is perfect for beginners who do not need or intend to modify the source code.
KIVA videos
KIVA4 slant valve
Cubit scalloped bowl
4 Valve KIVA-4 mpi
4 Valve FEARCE, 2018 new FEM based LANL T-3 software (David Carrington and Jiajia Waters )
Alternative software
Advanced Simulation Library (open source: AGPL)
COMSOL Multiphysics
CLAWPACK
Code Saturne (GPL)
Coolfluid (LGPLv3)
deal.II
FEATool Multiphysics
FreeCFD
Gerris Flow Solver
Nektar++
OpenFVM
SU2 code (LGPL)
References
External links
Free, personal-use Linux-compatible (Red Hat recommended) KIVA-EXEC download
KIVA-4 User’s Manual
KIVA-3V manual (0.4MB, searchable within READER.)
KIVA-3V manual (1.5MB, searchable within READER.)
KIVA-3 manual (2.2 MB, searchable within READER.)
KIVA-II manual (9.0MB, scanned document, not searchable.)
Los Alamos National Laboratory’s Fluid Dynamics and Solid Mechanics Group
Los Alamos National Laboratory Technology Transfer Division
Fortran software
Physics software
Industrial software
Computational fluid dynamics
Finite element software for Linux |
8634001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linter%20SQL%20RDBMS | Linter SQL RDBMS | Linter SQL RDBMS is the main product of RELEX Group. Linter is a Russian DBMS compliant with the SQL:2003 standard and supporting the majority of operating systems, among them Windows, various versions of Unix, QNX, and others. The system enables transparent interaction between the client applications and the database server functioning in different hardware and software environments. DBMS Linter includes program interfaces for the majority of popular development tools. The system provides a high data security level allowing the user to work with secret information. Linter is the only DBMS certified by FSTEC of Russia as compliant with Class 2 data security requirements and Level 2 of undeclared feature absence control. For many years Linter has been used by Russian Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and other government bodies.
History
The history of Linter dates back to 1980. The system has domestic predecessors whose developers later took direct part in the creation of Linter. By 1983, according to a state order, the Voronezh construction design office "Systemprogramm" had successfully completed the relational DBMS "BARS" under the real-time operating system "RAFOS" (RT-11 prototype) for computers of the SM set. Since 1985, the system developers accepted the mobility, compatibility and openness concept. As a result, DBMS "INTEREAL" was implemented. The system covered a wide spectrum of hardware and software platforms, from "Electronika-85" and Intel 8086 control modules to SM1702 and "Electronika-82" computer complexes and their VAX prototypes. In 1990, the DBMS development team founded the research-and-production company "RELEX" ("Relational Expert Systems"). At this time DBMS Linter was launched. In the late 1990s, Linter-VS 6.0 was developed as part of a project performed by RELEX for the Russian Ministry of Defense. The prototype of the system was Linter 5.7 (1999) developed by RELEX. Linter-VS 6.0 is available only for OS MSVS (mobile system of the armed forces). There also exists Linter-VS 6.0.1 developed in VNIINS based on PostgreSQL 7.2 This system is also available for OS MSVS.
RelX Embedded, a compact American/Japanese-developed version of Linter is implemented in Sony products, including a Linter phone (Sony Ericsson SO903i), as well as a Kenwood Navigation System ("HDD[Smá:t]Navi Emotional Sound" HDV-990 and HDV-790).
References
External links
Linter Official Website in English
Linter Official Website in Russian
Linter Japanese Website
RDBMS Linter SQL at SAL (Scientific Applications on Linux), MSU
RELEX Group
Proprietary database management systems
OS/2 software
MacOS database-related software
Solaris software
Unix software
RDBMS software for Linux
Windows database-related software |
6836667 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PacketExchange | PacketExchange | PacketExchange was a British multinational network services provider based in London. Founded in 2002 by Jason Velody and Kieron O'Brien who were supported by Nigel Titley, Giles Heron, and Katie Snowball as the founder team, its network connected 45 points of presence across Europe, Asia and the United States over a private backbone consisting primarily of multiple 10 Gigabit Ethernet links over dedicated wavelengths on a fiber-optic mesh.
PacketExchange's of services include Ethernet Private Line (both EPL and EVPL), wide-area peering, community of interest networking, content delivery network, single and multi-homed Internet transit and dedicated Internet access. The company also offers expertise in peering/BGP and infrastructure to support cloud computing.
The company headquarters are in London, UK with offices in the United States.
Company history
The company was founded to act as a wide-area Internet Exchange Point and application delivery service provider. The company's original business model was to use Ethernet and MPLS technology to build a distributed Internet Exchange Point as well as to provide point to point Ethernet connectivity. This model was reasonably successful, with over 140 networks peering traffic over the PacketExchange network. The commoditization of the IP market forced the company to evolve.
In January 2005, PacketExchange acquired and integrated XchangePoint.
In October 2007, PacketExchange was hired by the rock band Radiohead for the internet release of their album In Rainbows. In February 2008, Rick Mace became the new CEO, and simultaneously PacketExchange secured an additional $12 million investment. The company added two network points of presence during 2008: one in the Telx colocation facility in New York and another in Singapore.
In January 2010 Mzima Networks announced that its network assets were acquired by PacketExchange. Grant Kirkwood became PacketExchange's CTO. The two companies merged customer bases and operations resulting in a combined company with an extensive global network footprint that leverages its 10 Gigabit backbone to provide global Ethernet private line services, MPLS and VPLS networking, IP transit and peering services.
Mzima Networks
The Mzima Network was a data network and Internet Protocol (IP) computer network extending across the United States, Europe and Asia. The word Mzima means “alive” in the Kiswahili language.
The network was started in California in 2001 by Mzima Corporation, N.A which acquired several companies with Internet networks. In 2005 the Mzima Network became the first all-10 Gigabit Ethernet backbone through a partnership with Force10 Networks. The Mzima IP backbone network expanded into Europe in 2006 providing connectivity for content providers, enterprise companies, and international telecommunication carriers. The fault-tolerant designed backbone network, connected Tier 1 network carriers and network providers that engage in private peering.
It incorporated the Provider Backbone Bridge Traffic Engineering (PBB-TE) standard to adapt Ethernet technology to carrier networks.
PBB-TE technology was incorporated into communications networking equipment by such companies as Ciena Corporation. This Ethernet technology provided fast re-route capabilities allowing optimization of unused network capacity. Since it provided an alternative to Tier 1 service providers and multi-homed networks, the Mzima Network claimed route-optimized transit and private peering.
In January 2010 Mzima Networks announced its network assets were acquired by PacketExchange. The two companies merged customer bases and operations.
Acquisition
In May 2011, Global Telecom & Technology (GTT) acquired PacketExchange for US$20 million in cash.
See also
List of Internet exchange points
References
PacketExchange, October 21, 2008; "PacketExchange Launches Global Network Services in Singapore".
Reuters, May 29, 2008; "PacketExchange Launches Services at Telx in New York".
Information Week, February 11, 2008; "PacketExchange Grabs $12 Million Investment... And CEO"
Digital50, October 11, 2007; "PacketExchange Brings New Radiohead Album to Fans Around the Globe in Record Time".
Telecommunications Magazine. May 2005. PacketExchange: without peers?
External links
Official Site
Internet exchange points in the United Kingdom
Internet service providers of the United Kingdom
Companies established in 2002
2002 establishments in England |
172237 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porto%20Alegre | Porto Alegre | Porto Alegre (, , Brazilian ; ) is the capital and largest city of the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul. Its population of 1,488,252 inhabitants (2020) makes it the twelfth most populous city in the country and the center of Brazil's fifth largest metropolitan area, with 4,405,760 inhabitants (2010). The city is the southernmost capital city of a Brazilian state.
Porto Alegre was founded in 1769 by Manuel Jorge Gomes de Sepúlveda, who used the pseudonym José Marcelino de Figueiredo to hide his identity; but the official date is 1772 with the act signed by immigrants from the Azores, Portugal.
The city lies on the eastern bank of the Guaíba Lake, where five rivers converge to form the Lagoa dos Patos, a giant freshwater lagoon navigable by even the largest of ships. This five-river junction has become an important alluvial port as well as a chief industrial and commercial center of Brazil.
In recent years, Porto Alegre hosted the World Social Forum, an initiative of several non-government organizations. The city became famous for being the first city that implemented participatory budgeting. The 9th Assembly of the World Council of Churches was held in Porto Alegre in 2006. Since 2000, Porto Alegre also hosts one of the world's largest free software events, called FISL.
The city was one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup, having previously been a venue for the 1950 FIFA World Cup.
In the middle of 2010s, Porto Alegre had a growing wave of violence, being ranked as 39th among the world's 50 most violent cities in 2017. Nevertheless, the number of violent crimes has been dropping steadily since 2018.
History
The official date of the foundation of the city of Porto Alegre is 26 March 1772 by Manuel Sepúlveda, when Freguesia de São Francisco do Porto dos Casais was created and changed a year later to Nossa Senhora da Madre de Deus de Porto Alegre. However, the village started in 1752, when 60 Azorean couples were brought over by the Treaty of Madrid in order to set up Missions at the Northeast Region of Rio Grande do Sul that was handed over to the Portuguese Crown in exchange for the Sacramento Colony located on the margin of the Plata River. Land demarcation took a long time and the Azoreans settled permanently at Porto de Viamão, which was the first name by which Porto Alegre went by.
On 24 July 1773, Porto Alegre became the capital city of the province, when the administration of Manuel Sepúlveda, who used the fictitious name or pseudonym José Marcelino de Figueiredo, to hide their identity, officially started. In 1824, immigrants from all over the world started arriving, especially German, Italian, Spanish, Polish, Jewish, and Lebanese.
The capital city of Rio Grande do Sul is also the capital city of the Pampas region, the name given to the region of fauna and flora typical of the vast plains that dominate the landscape of the southern tip of Brazil, part of Argentina and Uruguay. This is where the Gaúcho comes from, the historical figure of a brave warrior that fought legendary battles and wars in the quest to conquer the borders of the Kingdoms of Portugal and Spain in the 16th century.
There were many wars, but it was the nineteenth century that marked its people, after they fought a long war for their independence from the Brazilian Empire. The Farrapos War started with the confrontation in Porto Alegre, near the Azenha bridge on 20 September 1835. This conflict etched in the pages of history the myth of the gaucho that is still praised in songs and celebrated in annual pageants and honored as names of streets and parks.
When the Farrapos War ended, the city continued to develop and underwent strong urban restructuring during the last decades of the 18th century, driven by the accelerated growth of port-related activities and shipyards. Its development continued over time and the city kept abreast with cultural, political and social events that were taking place within Brazil. Porto Alegre is the birthplace of great writers, intellectuals, artists, politicians, and episodes that marked the history of Brazil.
The city became known worldwide in 1963 through hosting the World University Games. In 1985, the people of Porto Alegre joined the movement for free elections and one of the largest demonstrations took place in the city.
The city
The city is on a delta resulting from the junction of five rivers, officially called Guaíba Lake (popularly mentioned as a river, too). The city dates from the mid-18th century, when immigrants from the Azores, islands in the Atlantic Ocean that are part of Portugal, settled in the area, encouraged by the Portuguese government. The city was officially established in 1742. Porto Alegre is one of the wealthiest cities in Latin America and one of the most diverse. Its residents includes immigrants from Portugal, Russia, Germany, Italy, Spain, Ukraine and Poland. There are also significant Arab and Jewish contingents among its population. The Afro-Brazilian population of the state is concentrated in the city.
Before this, Porto Alegre was the port of Viamão on the shore of Guaíba Lake. Its previous name was Porto dos Casais (Port of the Couples). and it was initially settled by Azoreans. Many families of settlers came from the city of Rio Grande in the littoral Lagunar region, to the south, a military fortress at that time. Today Rio Grande is the most important port of the State of Rio Grande do Sul. The city is also known as "Porto do Sol" (Port of the Sun) and "Cidade Sorriso" (Smile City). More than 70 neighborhoods (see below) are part of the city and two-thirds of the population are concentrated in the Zona Norte (Northern Zone), where most of the economic activity, including the city center, takes place.
Porto Alegre was the seat of the World Social Forum in 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005 and 2010. As the second largest city in southern Brazil, it is an important industrial center in the area. It is also a center for gaúcho (the popular name for natives of the state) history and culture, famous for its churrasco (barbecue) and chimarrão (a strong and hot tea prepared from erva mate). Important Brazilian universities, such as Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA) and Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS) are there. In 2000, the literacy rate was 97%. The high quality of life is one of the city's main features.
Geography
The city of Porto Alegre is located at the northern end of the large coastal lagoon, Lagoa dos Patos in southeastern Brazil. The city lies on the east bank of the mouth of the Rio Guaiba, the estuary of which forms the enormous freshwater lagoon, Lagoa dos Patos. It additionally serves as the state capital of Brazil's southernmost state, Rio Grande do Sul.
Porto Alegre has a long coastline on the Guaíba Lake, and its topography is punctuated by 40 hills. In the lake, a vast body of water, a maze of islands facing the city creates an archipelago where a unique ecosystem gives shelter to abundant wildlife. The city area concentrates 28% of the native flora of Rio Grande do Sul, with 9,288 species. Among these, there are many trees which are vestiges of the Atlantic Forest. Fauna are also diversified, especially in the islands and hills. The Portoalegrense environs include many parks, squares and wooded streets.
Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification, Porto Alegre has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) characterized by its high variability, but with well-defined seasons and evenly distributed rain throughout the year. The presence of Lake Guaíba contributes to increase the humidity of the air. The city experiences the most prominent difference among seasons and between temperature extremes among all Brazilian capitals. One reason for that is the highest latitude, which also contributes for the occurrence of 14 hours of daylight in December and 10 hours in June. Due to a large depletion in the ozone layer over the south of Brazil, the population is occasionally dangerously exposed to extremely high UV radiation.
The winter is mild to cool, windy, rainy and quite changeable, which is also a feature of this time of the year. Usual winter temperatures range from to . In the coldest days of the year the temperature may fall slightly below zero, like in 2012, when it recorded . The summers are very hot, with temperatures that go up to , sometimes reaching . Sometimes, summer usually has irregular rains and periods of drought. Fall tends to be as changeable as winter, but is typically warmer. Spring is usually very rainy, with thunderstorms, strong winds and hailstorms. The climate of Porto Alegre is very affected by El Niño phenomenon, with flooding in some neighborhoods of the city, especially in the islands in the Lake Guaiba. However, a drainage system and a wall along the Historic District were built after a major flood in 1941 that devastated the city, preventing further damage.
Snow is very rare, sometimes confused with sleet. The only snowfall events in Porto Alegre were in 1879, 1910, 1984, 1994, 2000 and 2006, and few of them featured accumulation. However, frost sometimes occurs in the city. Occurrence of radiation fog is common, causing several delays in early flights. Unlike other large Brazilian cities much farther north, notably Brasília, São Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro who observe a pronounced summer maximum in precipitation amounts, the city of Porto Alegre experiences a prominent winter maximum in precipitation values and cloud cover, for the summer season is primarily hot and dry; though evidently high humidity levels often give a distinct mugginess to the air and negatively impacts air quality. Annually Porto Alegre receives an average-total precipitation amount of . This average makes the city slightly wetter than Rio at yet, to a very small extent, drier than both São Paulo at and Brasilia at .
The highest recorded temperature was while the lowest recorded temperature was .
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Vegetation
Porto Alegre lies in a transitional area between the subtropical forest and the Southern Brazilian grasslands (pampa). A number of conservation programmes have been established to protect native trees. Many of the city's avenues have been planted with different tree species. One striking example of this is Teresópolis Avenue, where bottle trees have been planted. The city is covered in green vegetation and Lapacho and Jacaranda are the main species that can be found locally. The trees from the hills are protected. Two environmental conservation areas can be found in this city: "Delta do Jacuí" (Jacuí Delta) State Park and Lami Biological Reserve.
The urban area has many parks and plazas, making Porto Alegre one of the greenest provincial capitals in Brazil. The first city squares date from the second half of the 18th century and were originally large public spaces used as food markets. The city has of green space, occupying 31 percent of the city's area. This is an average of 17.6 m2 per person. More than one million trees line the public streets and SMAM plants an average of 30,000 seedlings each year. The four main parks are: Parque Farroupilha, a park; Jardim Botânico (The Botanical Garden of Porto Alegre), with some 725 species of vegetation on about of land; and Parque Marinha do Brasil (The Brazilian Navy's Park), a vast park of more than which offers a wide variety of sports fields and tracks. The city's cycleway is called the Caminho dos Parques, which at over long links the Moinhos do Vento, Farroupilha and Guaíba shore parks.
The Lami José Lutzenberger Biological Reserve was established in 1975 in the Lami neighborhood of Porto Alegre, named after the local agronomist and environmentalist José Lutzenberger. It was the first municipal reserve in Brazil. The reserve covers . It reopened in April 2002 after being closed for more than ten years to allow its ecosystems to recover.
The reserve conserves nature and supports research and environmental education.
Water
Sewer service is available to 87.7 percent of the city, and 100 percent of the population is serviced by treated water. While in most Brazilian cities the water is supplied by large state companies, in Porto Alegre the Municipal Department of Water and Sanitation Services, (DMAE) is the provider. It is the largest municipal water supplier in the country and enjoys operational autonomy and financial independence. As a separate entity from the municipal government it can make its own decisions on how to invest revenues it has collected, and such decisions are not directly subject to interference from the municipality. It receives no subsidies and makes no payments to the municipality itself. As a municipal undertaking, DMAE enjoys tax-exempt status, which allows it to keep water prices lower.
In 2010, the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) approved a US$83.2 million to support the Integrated Socioenvironmental Program of Porto Alegre. The program will be carried out by the Municipal Department of Management and Strategic Support and will focus on improving water quality in Guaíba Lake and the Cavalhada River, developing urban infrastructure to reduce flood risk along the Cavalhada River, improving the environmental management in the Municipality of Porto Alegre, and promoting efficient municipal water, sanitation and storm drainage services. This program will improve the quality of life of the population of Porto Alegre by restoring water quality along the west side of Lake Guaíba and directly benefitting more than 700,000 residents through expanded public sanitation services and urban environmental improvement.
The Jacuí estuary contains the Jacuí Delta State Park, which in turn contains the Banhados do Delta Biological Reserve, a fully protected area which covers the islands of Pólvora and Pombas.
Air quality
Motor vehicles are responsible for the main atmospheric pollutant emissions. The city has the second worst air quality in Brazil, after only São Paulo. The use of new buses along dedicated busways has decreased pollutants as there is less idling time. SMAM (the Municipal Council of the Environment) has encouraged the use of the cleanest fuels and has played a role in monitoring pollution levels.
A partnership between SMAM, the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, the State Environmental Protection Foundation (FEPAM) and Petrobrás has created a network of five air monitoring stations in Porto Alegre. By utilizing a Petrobrás product called city diesel, sulphur levels in the air have dropped from 1.2 percent in 1989 to 0.5 percent. Hybrid buses which run on both diesel and electricity are also being considered for the future. Because Porto Alegre has a ready supply of natural gas, the city's taxi fleet is gradually being converted to it from gasoline.
Demographics
Ethnic groups
According to the 2010 IBGE Census, there were 1,365,039 people residing in the city of Porto Alegre. The census revealed the following numbers: 1,116,659 White people (79.2%), 143,890 Black people (10.2%), 141,411 Pardo (Multiracial) people (10%), 4,062 Asian people (0.3%), 3,308 Amerindian people (0.2%). In 2010, the city of Porto Alegre was the 10th most populous city in Brazil. In 2010, the city had 269,519 opposite-sex couples and 1,401 same-sex couples. The population of Porto Alegre was 53.6% female and 46.4% male.
Porto Alegre is mostly composed of Brazilians of European descent. Its colonization started in the mid-18th century, mostly with the arrival of Portuguese colonists from the Azores Islands. From 1748 to 1756, 2,300 Azoreans were sent to the region by the King of Portugal to protect Southern Brazil from neighboring invaders. These colonists, mostly composed of married couples, established the city of Porto dos Casais (literally translated "harbor of the couples"), nowadays Porto Alegre. In 1775, 55% of Rio Grande do Sul's population was of Azorean Portuguese origin. Porto Alegre was composed mainly of Azoreans and their African slaves until the first half of the 19th century.
The first non-Portuguese people to settle Rio Grande do Sul were German immigrants. In 1824, the first immigrants from Germany arrived in Porto Alegre, but they were sent to what is now the city of São Leopoldo ( away). From 1824 to 1914, 50,000 Germans arrived in Rio Grande do Sul. Most of these colonists had rural communities in the countryside of the State as their first destination. The large rural exodus in Brazil in the early 20th century brought many German-descendants to Porto Alegre and, nowadays, they compose a large percentage of the population. The second largest group of immigrants who arrived in Porto Alegre were the Italians. They started immigrating to Brazil in 1875, mainly from the Northern Italian Veneto region. As the Germans, Italians were also first sent to rural communities, mainly in the Serra Gaúcha region. After some decades, many of them started to migrate to other parts of Rio Grande do Sul, including Porto Alegre. Minority communities of immigrants, such as Central Europeans from Poland and Eastern Europeans from Ukraine and Jews; Arabs from Palestine, Lebanon and Syria; Asians from Japan; as well as Spaniards arriving after the Civil War also made Porto Alegre their home. According to an autosomal DNA genetic study from 2011, the ancestral composition of the population of Porto Alegre is: 77.70% European, 12.70% African and 9.60% Native American.
Population growth
Changing demographics of the city of Porto Alegre
Source: Planet Barsa Ltda.
Religion
According to the 2010 population census, the population of Porto Alegre is made up of Roman Catholics (63.85%); Protestants or evangelicals (11.65%); spiritists (7.03%); Umbanda and Candomblé (3.35%); the unreligious (10.38%) and people of other religions (3.64%).
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a temple in Porto Alegre.
Politics, government and citizenship
The executive branch is headed by the mayor of the municipality, which includes departments and other public administration bodies directly and indirectly. The legislature is represented by the City Council.
It hosted the first three editions of the World Social Forum in 2001, 2002 and 2003. The third edition attracted 20,763 delegates from 130 countries, with a total audience of 100,000 people from all parts of the world.
Participatory budgeting
A feature of public administration in Porto Alegre is the adoption of a system of popular participation in the definition of public investment, called the Participatory Budget. The first full participatory budgeting process was developed in the city starting in 1989. Participatory budgeting in its most meaningful form took place in the city from 1991 to 2004. Participatory budgeting was part of a number of innovative reform programs to overcome severe inequality in living standards amongst city residents. One third of the city's residents lived in isolated slums at the city outskirts, lacking access to public amenities (water, sanitation, health care facilities, and schools).
Participatory budgeting in Porto Alegre has occurred annually, starting with a series of neighborhood, regional, and citywide assemblies, where residents and elected budget delegates identify spending priorities and vote on which priorities to implement. Porto Alegre spent about 200 million dollars per year on construction and services, This money is subject to participatory budgeting, unlike the annual spending on fixed expenses such as debt service and pensions, which is not subject to public participation. Around fifty thousand residents of Porto Alegre took part at the peak of the participatory budgeting process (compared to 1.5 million city inhabitants), with the number of participants having grown year on year since 1989. Participants are from diverse economic and political backgrounds. Although participatory budgeting appears to continue in the city today, two prominent scholars on the process have stated that "after the defeat of the Workers' Party in late 2004, a politically conservative coalition maintained the surface features of PB while returning the actual functioning of the administration to more traditional modes of favor-trading and the favoring of local elites."
The participatory budgeting cycle starts in January and runs throughout the year in many assemblies in each of the city's 16 districts, dealing with many areas of interest to urban life. The meetings elect delegates to represent specific neighborhoods. The mayor and staff attend, in order to respond to citizens' concerns. In the following months, delegates meet to review technical project criteria and district needs.
City department staff may participate according to their area of expertise. At a second regional plenary, regional delegates prioritize the district's demands and elect 42 councillors representing all districts and thematic areas to serve on the Municipal Council of the Budget. The main function of the Municipal Council of the Budget is to reconcile the demands of each district with available resources, and to propose and approve an overall municipal budget. The resulting budget is binding, though the city council can suggest, but not require, changes. Only the Mayor may veto the budget, or remand it back to the Municipal Council of the Budget (this has never happened).
A World Bank paper suggests that participatory budgeting has led to direct improvements in facilities in Porto Alegre. For example, sewer and water connections increased from 75% of households in 1988 to 98% in 1997. The number of schools quadrupled since 1986. According to Fedozzi and Costa, this system has been recognized as a successful experience of interaction between people and the official administrative spheres in public administration and, as such, has gained a broad impact on the political scene nationally and internationally, being interpreted as a strategy for the establishment of an active citizenship in Brazil. The distribution of investment resources planning that follows a part of the statement of priorities for regional or thematic meetings, culminating with the approval of an investment plan that works and activities program broken down by investment sector, by region and around the city. Also according to Fedozzi, this favors:
The high number of participants, after more than a decade, suggests that participatory budgeting encourages increasing citizen involvement, according to the paper. Also, Porto Alegre's health and education budget increased from 13% (1985) to almost 40% (1996), and the share of the participatory budget in the total budget increased from 17% (1992) to 21% (1999).
Despite being the pioneering experiment of participatory budgeting, Porto Alegre like many other examples does not have guaranteed sustainability. The positive impact has dwindled since 2004 due to funding changes and decreasing government commitment. Participatory budgeting has been suspended in Porto Alegre since 2017
Economy
Located at the junction of five rivers, it has become an important alluvial port as well as one of the chief industrial and commercial centers in Brazil. Products of the rich agricultural and pastoral hinterland, such as soybeans, leather, canned beef, and rice, are exported from Porto Alegre to destinations as far away as Africa and Japan.
According to SENAES (National Office of Solidarity Economy), it is considered a solidarity economy, the ensemble of economic activities with the following characteristics: cooperation, self-management, economic feasibility and solidarity. In 2005, the office identified 14,954 solidary enterprises in Brazil, among which 85 are located in Porto Alegre.
Among the main businesses located in Porto Alegre are Gerdau, Petroleo Ipiranga, Zaffari and RBS. Since 2000, General Motors (GM) is operating in Gravataí, located in the Metropolitan Region. Also in this Region but in Triunfo, there is a Petrochemical Pool, and in Eldorado do Sul Dell Computers has established a plant. In the health sector, the three hospitals: Hospital Moinhos de Vento, which is a private, JCAH-accredited hospital, Santa Casa de Misericordia Hospital and Clinicas Hospital, public, are considered among the best in Latin America. The latter are university-affiliated, referral hospitals for the South of Brazil. Commerce is a very important economic activity, with many malls (like Praia de Belas Shopping, Shopping Iguatemi and the smaller though posh Shopping Moinhos). The Metropolitan Region of Porto Alegre, directed to the production of shoes (around Novo Hamburgo) and to petrochemical industries, as well as services.
In the city is located the Electronics Technology Center (CEITEC), focused on the development and production of application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), today announced the opening of Latin America's first IC design center. To create state-of-the-art semiconductor products for high-volume markets that will be consumed in Latin America as well as exported to global markets. CEITEC S.A will accelerate the growth of Latin America's electronics industry by leveraging Brazil's regional influence, leadership and economic strength. The company will add 60 engineers to its ranks who will design RFID, digital media and wireless communication chips for its fabrication facility now ramping up for production. The total investment by the Brazilian government is almost US$210 million. The company is implementing a fab-lite strategy with the ability to manufacture analog/digital chips at its facility in Porto Alegre. The in-house design center with more than 100 engineers.
Its rural hinterland yields a variety of agricultural and pastoral products, including meat and hides, wool, rice, beans, cashews, avocados, wheat, grapes, and tobacco. From the forests comes lumber. The city's industries are chiefly concerned with processing these products and include meat-packing, lard refining, leather tanning, shipbuilding, and the manufacturing of textiles, metallurgic goods, electrical and communications equipment, plastics, pharmaceuticals, perfume, beer, and chemicals. There are also steel mills, an oil terminal, and a petrochemical complex. Power comes from coal mined at nearby São Jerônimo and from a hydroelectric plant at Salto. The city has many business and financial institutions and is also an educational centre.
The GDP for the city was R$30,116,002,000 (2006). The per capita income for the city was R$20,900 (2006).
Sustainability programs
Energy
In Brazil, there are also a few coal-fired plants, fuel-oil fired plants and one nuclear facility. Increased utilization of natural gas and other sources is planned in order to reduce Brazil's overdependence on hydroelectric power. In 1999, a natural gas pipeline from Bolivia to Brazil was completed, with its terminus in Porto Alegre. Brazilian investment group Central Termoeletrica Sul (CTSul) has plans to invest US$698 million in a 650MW coal-fired power generation plant in Cachoeira do Sul, located in Rio Grande do Sul.
The largest wind energy park in Brazil, which is being built east of Porto Alegre in Osório, will add 150 megawatts (MW) to the Brazilian energy matrix. The production represents 5 percent of the energy consumed in the state of Rio Grande do Sul and would be sufficient to meet two-thirds of Porto Alegre's energy demands. The Farm opened in 2008 with 75 2MW turbines and has been approved for a 300MW expansion which would make it the largest wind farm in the region. The project is part of the Alternative Energy Sources Program (Proinfa) from state-owned Eletrobrás, which will purchase the energy produced for the next 20 years.
Recycling
Porto Alegre was one of the first cities in Brazil to develop a recycling program and has been acknowledged as having the best management practices in the country. The city produces about 1,600 tonnes of household waste per day. Since 1997, all non-recyclable waste has been disposed of in landfill sites. Infiltration into the soil is prevented by the double-walled construction of a clay layer and a high-density polythene geo-membrane, the lowering of the water table and the draining off and treatment of any effluent.
Tourism and recreation
The area includes attractions such as the Piratini Palace, the seat of the state Government, Porto Alegre Botanical Garden, Moinhos de Vento Park the Public Market and Farroupilha Park
Nightlife
Porto Alegre is well known in Brazil for its diverse nightlife. The city's clubs, pubs, bars and restaurants provide entertainment for a wide range of tastes and budgets, going from the cheap, traditional beer-'n-bite in a corner bar to all-night raves, and nightclubs. In the "SoHo" area of Porto Alegre, there is a block full of bars, restaurants and clubs.
Bars, some with live music, are spread out along, and just off, alongside the Parque Farroupilha and near the Federal University. Throughout the year, Porto Alegre's numerous Centros de Tradição Gaúcha organize traditional meals, music and dance performances.
Porto Alegre boasts a popular music scene and a considerable theatrical tradition. Foreign performers of all kinds usually include Porto Alegre on any Brazilian or wider South American tour. The Sala Jazz Tom Jobim features the city's best jazz, and there are live afternoon jazz sessions at the Café Concerto (within the Casa de Cultura), which also has an arthouse cinema. There are three more screens at the Espaço Unibanco (Unibanco Cultural Space), another art house cinema. Finally, the Centro Cultural Usina do Gasômetro, a converted 1920s power station on the banks of the river just west of the centre, includes a cinema, theatre and galleries, and it also has a cafe and a bookshop.
In Cidade Baixa (translates as "Downtown") neighborhood, the historical street João Alfredo has many options. Discotheques include Dado Bier, Beco, Opinião and Nega Frida. The corner between Gal Lima e Silva Street and República Street is the center of the neighborhood's nightlife. Cavanhas, Pingüim, Copão, Cotiporã and Panorama are some of the bars. To dance MPB (Brazilian popular music), historical street João Alfredo has many options.
In Calçada da Fama, Padre Chagas Street is full of more fashionable bars, like Lilliput and Dado Pub. Goethe Avenue has a concentration of bars (Tri Bar, Arsenal, Dolphin's) and dance clubs. There is also a vibrant more alternative scene with clubs such as Ocidente, Beco, Anexo B and Cucko. Rua Fernando Gomes has a concentration of pubs, cafes, bars. Avenida Osvaldo Aranha, alongside the Parque Farroupilha and near the Federal University has bars with a predominantly young and trendy clientele. Moinhos de Vento is one of the richest neighborhoods in the city. Its bars and clubs are more likely to be fashionable, including upscale Pink Elephant Club, Faro and Box 21, which feature mostly house music. Along Padre Chagas Street people can find typical Irish pubs and cafes. A fictionalized view of the Porto Alegre nightlife could be seen in the Érico Verissimo's novel Noite.
Education
Educational institutions in the area include Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (a.k.a. UFCSPA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (a.k.a. UFRGS), Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (a.k.a. PUC), Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos (a.k.a. Unisinos) and Centro Universitário Ritter dos Reis.
Educational system
There are three important universities in Porto Alegre: the Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) and the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS) all of which ranked among the top universities in Brazil and Latin America. UFRGS is also one of the 3 main universities in the country for post-graduation work. The PUCRS technological park – TECNOPUC – is one of the largest scientific and technological parks in Latin America with interaction of graduate courses, research and innovation. PUCRS is also one of the best universities for air transport and pilot formation in the world. Other very important universities are the Lutheran University of Brazil - (Universidade Luterana do Brasil) - ULBRA and UNISINOS, among other university centers.
Culture
Museums
Rio Grande do Sul Museum of Art – MARGS
With an eclectic style, the building was designed by German architect Theo Wiederspahn. Originally it was the headquarters of the Fiscal Surveillance Agency of the Federal Revenue Office. Nowadays, it hosts the largest public collection of art works in Rio Grande do Sul.
Júlio de Castilhos Museum
Created in 1903, this is the oldest museum in the state. Its collection comprises thousands of pieces related to the local history, from Indian relics to objects and iconography about the Ragamuffin War and the Paraguayan War, including an important section showing fine sculptures from the Jesuitic Reductions.
Joaquim José Felizardo Museum
This is an important museum with a large collection of archaeological artifacts and photographs of Porto Alegre's old times. Its historical building, dating from 1845 to 1855, is one of the few intact relics of colonial architecture inside the modern urban environment.
Rio Grande do Sul Memorial
This museum displays a huge collection of documents, maps, objects, prints and other items related to the state's history. Its building, designed by Theodor Wiederspahn, is one of the finest examples of eclectic architecture in the city.
Iberê Camargo Foundation
An iconic landmark in the southern part of Porto Alegre, the Iberê Camargo Foundation houses the permanent installation of gaucho artist Iberê Camargo. It also hosts traveling exhibitions which change several times a year. The building, designed by Portuguese architect Álvaro Siza was opened in 2008 and offers views of the Guaiba river as well as downtown Porto Alegre.
Luiz Carlos Prestes' Memorial
Projected by Oscar Niemeyer, the Luiz Carlos Prestes' Memorial is a recent addition to the city' cultural landscape. Besides the wall presentation of Prestes' life, a hall for cultural, social and political events is placed to the citizens of Porto Alegre.
Carnival/Carnaval
The Porto Alegre Carnival began in the 18th century with the entrudo, a prank brought over by the Portuguese from the Azores, whereby people threw flour, water, and "limão de cheiro" missiles at each other. At the end of the 19th century, two important Carnival associations were born. Rivalry between the two long dominated the city's Carnival. The corso, a parade of floats down Porto Alegre's streets, was a celebration enjoyed by the more well-to-do of the city's inhabitants.
One of the most important Carnival personalities is King Momo. At the beginning of Carnival, usually in February, he receives the keys to the city from the Mayor of Porto Alegre, symbolically governing the Carnival during the four days of revelry. Vincente Rao was the most popular King Momo.
Cuisine
One of the most famous foods of Brazil, churrasco (slow-grilled and -roasted meat), originated in Rio Grande do Sul. But the local cuisine is eclectic, and rice and beans sit on southern tables beside Italian and German dishes, thanks to the South's many European immigrants. Colonial coffee is the elaborate 5 PM tea, with breads, pies, and German kuchen, popular among the Germans in the South.
The traditional beverage is chimarrao, a South-American caffeine-rich infused drink. The Chalet of the XV de Novembro Plaza is located along the Glênio Peres Square, it is one of the most traditional bar-draught beer-restaurants in the city, where the last "lambe-lambe" photographs of the region work. "Lambe-lambes" are photographers who develop pictures outdoor using the oldest method known. In the Bavarian style, with art nouveau traits, the centenary Chalet was built up on a demountable steel structure, keeping its original chandeliers and tiles even nowadays.
Events
A wide range of cultural events are held in Porto Alegre. In addition to the traditional celebrations, a wide variety of activities are organized at Porto Alegre during the different seasons.
World Social Forum: On several occasions (2001, 2002, 2003, 2005) the World Social Forum has been hosted in Porto Alegre. This event gathered more than 100,000 people from more than 100 countries each year. The main aim of these meetings is to discuss and deal with social issues.
Porto Verão Alegre: during the summer, for example, the "Porto Verão Alegre" or (Porto Summer Alegre) takes place in this city. This celebration consists of a number of performances and exhibitions. In 2005 about seventy plays could be enjoyed.
International Free Software Forum: the Fórum Internacional de Software Livre (International Free Software Forum or simply FISL) is an event sponsored by Associação Software Livre (Free Software Association), a Brazilian NGO that, among other objectives, seeks the promotion and adoption of free software.
Farroupilha Week: this cultural celebration takes place in mid September with parades, food and musical exhibitions. The "Acampamento Farroupilha" takes place in Harmonia Park, where thousands of people set up their tents and eat typical food to commemorate the Farroupilha Revolution.
Bookfair: Held each November at Alfândega Square. In October Porto Alegre holds the greatest Book Fair in the Americas, an event that has been taking place since 1955. Each year about 2,000,000 people attend this fair.
Worldwide Pinhole Photography: this is an international event created to promote and celebrate the art of pinhole photography. The event is held each year on the last Sunday in April.
Mercosur Biennial Exhibition: is held in Porto Alegre every two years between October and December. This is an important art and cultural event that attracts a large number of people as well.
Carnival: As do other Brazilian cities, Porto Alegre holds extensive festivities during the period immediately preceding Lent. Among them, there is an Escola de Samba contest, featuring Academia de Samba Puro, Acadêmicos da Orgia, Bambas da Orgia, Estado Maior da Restinga, Fidalgos e Aristocratas, Império da Zona Norte, and Impeadores do Samba, among others.
Transportation
International airport
Salgado Filho International Airport serves commercial flights to most major cities all over Brazil and to smaller cities in the South of the country. There are also international flights to other South American countries, Panama, and Portugal.
Air Force Base
Canoas Air Force Base - ALA3, one of their most important bases of the Brazilian Air Force, is located in the nearby city of Canoas.
Port
The Port of Porto Alegre is situated in the Eastern margin of Guaíba Lake. The port lying on the eastern bank of the Guaíba lake at the point where its waters empty into the huge Lagoa dos Patos is one of Brazil's largest ports. Located near the main access roads to Porto Alegre, it is away from the Salgado Filho International Airport and has access to the light railway station, through the docks of Mauá and Navegantes. Its geographical position enables a permanent traffic between Porto Alegre and Buenos Aires, transporting steel-industry products and mainly agricultural produce.
Metro
Porto Alegre has a rapid transit system operated by Trensurb, which links downtown Porto Alegre to its northern neighborhoods and to cities to the north of the metropolitan area, as Canoas, Esteio, Sapucaia do Sul, São Leopoldo and Novo Hamburgo. The line has stations at strategic spots, such as: the Public Market, the bus station, the airport and many other important and urban spots throughout Porto Alegre and the other cities the metro covers. The line is built at surface level (30 km, totally segregated) and elevated (12 km).
Trensurb is operated jointly by the federal government, the state government of Rio Grande do Sul and the city of Porto Alegre through the company Trensurb S.A. (Company of Urban Trains of Porto Alegre S.A.) and has 22 working stations, with a total extension of nearly , carrying about 130,000 users a day.
Building of the (sole) Line 1 of the metro started in 1980. The choice of path was made to relieve the heavy traffic of highway BR-116, which already presented serious problems with the transit at the time. The line was inaugurated on March 2, 1985, between the Central Public Market and Sapucaia do Sul. In December 1997, it was extended to Unisinos. An extension of São Leopoldo–Museum was added in November 2000, after two months of trial service. , an extension to Novo Hamburgo is being completed, with the first station already fully functional.
A metro system inside Porto Alegre only is currently planned and it is already subject of much publicity and speculation. However, no project has been approved so far and the beginning of the constructions is yet undefined.
Highways
There are two federal highways in the city, BR-290 and BR-116, both running close to its northern and northwestern border. The small number is due to the inexistence of many destinations southeast or south of Porto Alegre (considering the landmass east of Lagoa dos Patos), if not for the cities of Pelotas (the third-biggest in population in the State) and Rio Grande (which hosts the State biggest port). Nonetheless, when coming from west, both highways bond in the neighbor municipality of Eldorado do Sul, running mostly jointly within the borders of Porto Alegre, only coming to separate at the very interchange to Canoas. This way, BR-116 has virtually no sole run within Porto Alegre.
BR-290 highway runs east–west across the state, linking the northeast coast of the state to the Uruguay–Argentina–Brazil border. It runs close to the northern border of the municipality. Coming from west, as it reaches the urban area of Porto Alegre, BR-290 highway becomes a high-standard long freeway that connects to the coast and to the BR-101 highway. The latter is an important way to get to Porto Alegre from the north of the country, by the city Osório. BR-101 connects to Curitiba, Florianópolis and northern Santa Catarina state, and has been recently upgraded to highway standards, with multiple lanes. By entering the BR-290 freeway/BR-101 system, and the other highways it connects to, it is possible to drive from Porto Alegre to as far as Rio de Janeiro or Belo Horizonte almost entirely through 4-lane (or more) highways.
The other road, BR-116, is a longitudinal highway, running northeast–south across the state, linking Porto Alegre to several satellite cities and other Brazilian capitals to the north, and Pelotas and Uruguay to the south. Within the municipality, it only touches the northwest side of the city, close to the end of Rio Gravataí (Gravataí River), sharing its entire run with BR-290, only separating when heading north onto Canoas.
A third road, BR-448, is currently under construction. BR-448 is planned to connect the northeast of Porto Alegre to Sapucaia do Sul, as an alternative to BR-116, notably jam-packed on its Canoas-Novo Hamburgo stretch during traffic rush hours.
The connection between downtown Porto Alegre and the highways is made by Avenida Presidente Castelo Branco (President Castelo Branco Avenue), which is a short - - avenue also bordering the northwest side of the city, Avenida dos Estados (States' Avenue), which is the access way to the Salgado Filho International Airport, and Avenida Assis Brasil (Assis Brasil Avenue), the main Avenue in the northern Porto Alegre.
Bus
The city has a functioning transportation system, especially the autobuses. Porto Alegre has also mini-buses from and to all the main neighborhoods in the city, with sitting-only transport and the possibility to hop on and off at any point but also higher fares. Linha Turística (Tourist Line) is a bus that leaves from Usina do Gasômetro tourist terminal around six times per day. During 90 minutes, it traverses the various districts of Porto Alegre, for a modest price. Exclusive bus lanes in the median of seven radial corridors that converge on the city center are used by both urban and regional lines. The bus fleet totals 1,600, with 150 minibuses. About 325 million people use the system annually.
Those lines have no prefix. It is quite common to switch buses at downtown but since there is a myriad of lines there, it can be challenging to find the right terminal for the next bus. Transversal lines prefix "T" (T1, T2, ..., T11), connect different neighborhoods without going through the downtown area, which effectively eliminates the need of changing buses for the most common trips. Circular lines prefix "C" (C1, C2, C3), as the name indicates, run in a circular manner, usually connecting parts of the downtown area to the nearest neighborhoods.
Mayor José Fogaça renewed his agreement with EMBARQ and the Center for Sustainable Transport Brazil (CTS-Brasil) to improve accessibility and mobility in downtown Porto Alegre. The agreement, signed on March 11, includes a new partnership with the Andean Development Corporation, a Latin American multilateral financial institution that is expected to provide $1 million in non-reimbursable technical assistance to help Porto Alegre complete the preparation phase of the "Portais da Cidade" bus rapid transit project, a groundbreaking transport system designed to reduce pollution and congestion downtown. The system will include a southern extension to accommodate activities for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. CAF's technical assistance will be administered through CTS-Brasil, which has been working to expand sustainable transport in Porto Alegre since 2005.
The bus station downtown and is served by several national and international lines. It is also connected to a Trensurb station (Porto Alegre Metro) and several municipal bus lines. Northbound passengers can rely on good bus connections throughout Brazil. However, an express bus might be recommended to travel to Uruguay or Argentina to avoid several stops en route.
Taxi
Porto Alegre has a total of 3,922 authorized taxicabs, with 317 taxi stops. Regular taxis are colored red, whereas
airport taxicabs are colored white, both with blue strips on the sides containing white lettering.
Public transportation statistics
The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Porto Alegre, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 74 min. 17% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 20 min, while 39% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 7.3 km, while 14% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.
Sports
Football is a passion of the people from Porto Alegre. There is a big rivalry between two football clubs, Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense, founded in 1903, and Sport Club Internacional, founded in 1909. Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense and Sport Club Internacional currently play in the top league in Brazil, the Serie A. Both have successful histories, having won national and international titles, including the South American top honour, the Copa Libertadores, and the highest global trophy for football clubs, the Intercontinental Cup, now known as the Club World Cup.
Porto Alegre was one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup held in Brazil. The modernization of the Beira-Rio Stadium, home of SC Internacional and the city's 2014 FIFA World Cup venue, left the venue with a capacity for 56,000 spectators. Internacional's former home, the Estádio dos Eucaliptos, was a venue for the 1950 FIFA World Cup. Local rivals Grêmio play in their own stadium in the Humaitá district. The Arena do Grêmio stadium replaced the Estádio Olímpico Monumental in 2012 and meets CONMEBOL/FIFA standards. The Arena do Grêmio stadium has a capacity for 60,540 spectators.
American football is also played in the city, with two teams: Porto Alegre Pumpkins, the oldest in the state, and Porto Alegre Bulls, who play with the Esporte Clube São José, a club with multiple sports.
On January 22, 2015, Porto Alegre hosted its first Ultimate Fighting Championship event at the Gigantinho. UFC Fight Night: Bigfoot vs. Mir was headlined by former heavyweight champion Frank Mir making his Brazilian debut, knocking out Brasilia native Antônio Silva.
Neighborhoods
Neighborhoods of Porto Alegre are geographical divisions of the city. There is no devolution of administrative powers to neighborhoods, although there are several neighborhoods associations devoted to improve their own standards of living. Porto Alegre has nowadays 81 official distinguished neighborhoods.
Notable people
Luiz Adriano, footballer
Adriana Calcanhotto, musician
Fe Garay, volleyballer
Humberto Gessinger, leader of the band Engenheiros do Hawaii
Carla Körbes, ballet dancer
José Lutzenberger, bilingual German-Brazilian; successfully projected himself internationally as an environmentalist
Roger Manganelli, bassist and singer of American ska punk band Less Than Jake
Manuela d'Ávila, politician
Mario Quintana, Writer
Martha Medeiros, writer and journalist
Elis Regina, singer
Lupicinio Rodrigues, composer
Ronaldinho, footballer
Lily Safra, philanthropist and social figure
Cármelo de los Santos, violinist
Jucinara, footballer
Daiane dos Santos, gymnast
Moacyr Scliar, author
Paulo Cesar Tinga, footballer
Iêda Maria Vargas, Miss Rio, Miss Brazil 1963 and Miss Universe 1963
Luis Fernando Verissimo, author
Fabrício Werdum, mixed martial artist, former UFC Heavyweight Champion
Tatiana Weston-Webb, surfer
Raphinha, footballer
International relations
Twin towns – sister cities
Porto Alegre is twinned with:
Horta, Portugal (1982)
Kanazawa, Japan (1967)
La Plata, Argentina (1982)
Morano Calabro, Italy (1982)
Natal, Brazil (1992)
Newark, United States (2006)
Punta del Este, Uruguay (1984)
Portalegre, Portugal (1982)
Ribeira Grande, Portugal (1982)
Rosario, Argentina (1994)
Suzhou, China (2004)
Partner cities
Porto Alegre also has the following partner city:
Paris, France (2001)
See also
List of Hills of Porto Alegre
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Porto Alegre Convention & Visitors Bureau page
Official homepage (some pages available in English)
Port cities in Brazil
Populated places established in 1772
1772 establishments in Brazil |
42205465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan%20Zeleny%20bibliography | Milan Zeleny bibliography | This is an incomplete list of selected academic publications by Milan Zeleny, sorted by different disciplines and research areas.
Articles
Pre-exile work until 1967
Analysis of Complex Projects by Critical Path Method (Analýza složitých procesů metodou kritické cesty), Ekonomicko-matematická laboratoř při EÚ ČSAV, Výzkumná publikace č. 4, Praha, 1964, p. 130.
"Network Analysis Techniques (CPM, PERT)" (Metody analýzy sítí (CPM, PERT)), Ekonomicko-matematický obzor, 1(1965) 3, pp. 225–262.
“The Multidimensional Model of Complex Technological Projects” (Vícerozměrný model složitých technicko-ekonomických procesů (VRM-step)), Pozemní stavby, 13(1965), pp. 351–4. (With P. Bezděk)
“Scientific Management of Complex Systems" (Vědecké řízení složitých soustav), Věda a život, č. 1-2 (1965), pp. 705– 709.
"Optimal Balancing of Production Lines" (Metody optimálního vyvažování výrobních linek), Podniková Organizace, 20(1966)19, pp. 456– 458.
American Specialists on Critical Path (Američtí specialisté o kritické cestě), Ekonomicko-matematická laboratoř při EÚ ČSAV, Informační publikace č. 25, Praha, 1966, p. 88.
"Network Analysis by Dynamic Programming Technique" (Analýza sítě technikou dynamického programování), Ekonomicko–matematický obzor, 3(1967) 1, pp. 63–74.
"A Markovian Approach to Network Analysis Methods-MANAM” (Markovský přístup k řešení problémů analýzy sítě), Ekonomicko–matematický obzor, 3(1967)2, pp. 214–259.
Optimization
Linear Multiobjective Programming, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1974, p. 220.
"The Techniques of Linear Multiobjective Programming," Revue Française d'Automatique, d'Informatique et de Recherche Operationelle, 8(1974) V-3, pp. 51–71. (With P. L. Yu)
"The Set of All Nondominated Solutions in Linear Cases and A Multicriteria Simplex Method," Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications, 49(1975) 2, pp. 430–468. (With P. L. Yu)
"Ellipsoid Algorithms in Mathematical Programming," Human Systems Management, 1(1980) 2, pp. 173–178.
"The Pros and Cons of Goal Programming," Computers and Operations Research, 8(1981)4, pp. 357–359.
"An External Reconstruction Approach (ERA) to Linear Programming," Computers and Operations Research, 13(1986) 1, pp. 95–100.
"Optimal System Design: Towards New Interpretation of Shadow Prices in Linear Programming," Computers and Operations Research, 14(1987) 4, pp. 265–271. (With M. Hessel)
"Fuzziness, Knowledge, and Optimization: New Optimality Concepts," in: Fuzzy Optimization: Recent Advances, edited by M. Delgado, J. Kacprzyk, J.-L. Verdegay and M.A. Vila, Physica-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1994, pp. 3–20.
"Rethinking Optimality: Eight Concepts," Human Systems Management, 15(1996)1, pp. 1–4.
"Eight Concepts of Optimality," in: Multicriteria Analysis, edited by J. Climaco, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1997, pp. 191–200.
"From Maximization to Optimization: MCDM and the Eight Models of Optimality," in: Essays in Decision Making, edited by M. H. Karwan, J. Spronk and J. Wallenius, Springer-Verlag, 1997, pp. 107–119.
Multiple Criteria Decision Making
Multiple Criteria Decision Making, University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, S. C., 1973, p. 816. (Editor with J. L. Cochrane)
"A Concept of Compromise Solutions and the Method of the Displaced Ideal," Computers and Operations Research, 1(1974) 4, pp. 479–496.
Multiple Criteria Decision Making: Kyoto 1975, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1976, p. 340. (Editor)
"Games with Multiple Payoffs," International Journal of Game Theory, 4(1976) 4, pp. 179–191.
Multiple Criteria Decision Making, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1982.
Multiple Criteria Decision Making: Selected Case Studies, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1982. (Editor with C. Carlsson and A. Torn)
MCDM - Past Decade and Future Trends, A Source Book of Multiple Criteria Decision Making, JAI Press, Greenwich, Conn., 1984. (Editor)
"Introduction: Ten Years of MCDM," in: MCDM - Past Decade and Future Trends, A Source Book of Multiple Criteria Decision Making, edited by M. Zeleny, JAI Press, Greenwich, Conn., 1984, pp. ix-xiii. Also: "Multicriterion Design of High-Productivity Systems," pp. 169–187.
"Multiple Criteria Decision Making (MCDM)," in: Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences, vol. 5, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1985, pp. 693–696.
"Multicriteria Decision Making," in: Systems & Control Encyclopedia, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, N.Y., 1987, pp. 3116–3121.
"Systems Approach to Multiple Criteria Decision Making: Metaoptimum," in: Toward Interactive and Intelligent Decision Support Systems, edited by Y. Sawaragi, K. Inoue and H. Nakayama, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1987, pp. 28–37.
"Multicriteria Decision Making," in: Systems & Control Encyclopedia, Supplementary Volume 1, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, N.Y., 1990, pp. 431–437.
"Gestalt System of Holistic Graphics: New Management Support View of MCDM," Computers and Operations Research, 18(1991) 2, pp. 233–239. (With E. Kasanen and R. Ostermark)
"Cognitive Equilibrium," Ekonomicko-matematický obzor, 27(1991) 1, pp. 53–61
"Measuring Criteria: Weights of Importance," Human Systems Management, 10(1991) 4, pp. 237–238.
"An Essay into a Philosophy of MCDM: A Way of Thinking or Another Algorithm?" Invited Essay, Computers and Operations Research, 19(1992) 7, pp. 563–566.
"The Ideal-Degradation Procedure: Searching for Vector Equilibria," in: Advances In Multicriteria Analysis, edited by P.M. Pardalos, Y. Siskos, C. Zopounidis, Kluwer, 1995, pp. 117–127.
"Tradeoffs-Free Management," in: The Art and Science of Decision-Making, edited by P. Walden et al., Abo University Press, Abo, 1996, pp. 276–283.
"Towards the Tradeoffs-Free Optimality in MCDM," in: Multicriteria Analysis, edited by J. Climaco, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1997, pp. 596–601.
"Multiple Criteria Decision Making: Eight Concepts of Optimality," Human Systems Management, 17(1998)2, pp. 97–107.
“The KM-MCDM interface in decision design: tradeoffs-free conflict dissolution“, Int. J. Applied Decision Sciences, 1(2008)1, pp. 3–23.¨
“MCDM: From Paradigm Lost to Paradigm Regained?” J. of Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis, 2011
“MCDM: In Search of New Paradigms...” in: The New State of MCDM in 21st Century, MCDM conference, Chengdu, June 22–26, 2009, Springer-Verlag, 2011.
Management Science
"Managers Without Management Science?" Interfaces, 5(1975) 4, pp. 35–42.
"New Vistas of Management Science," Computers and Operations Research, 2(1975) 2, pp. 121–125.
"The Attribute-Dynamic Attitude Model (ADAM)," Management Science, 25(1976) 1, pp. 12–26.
"Linear Multiparametric Programming by Multicriteria Simplex Method," Management Science, 23(1976) 2, pp. 159–170. (With P. L. Yu)
Multiple Criteria Decision Making, TIMS Studies in the Management Sciences, Vol. 6, North-Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 1977, p. 270. (Editor with M.K. Starr)
"The Last Mohicans of OR: Or, It Might Be in the 'Genes'," Interfaces, 9(1979) 5, pp. 135–141.
"Descriptive Decision Making and Its Applications," in: Applications of Management Science, Vol. 1, edited by R.L. Schultz, JAI Press, Greenwich, Conn., 1981, pp. 327–388.
"New Vistas in Management Science," in: Cases and Readings in Management Science, edited by E.F. Turban and P. Loomba, Business Publications, Plano, Texas, 1982, pp. 319–325.
"Work and Leisure," in: International Encyclopedia of Business & Management, Routledge, London, 1996, pp. 5082–8. Also: "Multiple Criteria Decision Making," pp. 978–90. "Critical Path Analysis (CPA)," pp. 904–9. "Optimality and Optimization," pp. 3767–80. "Bata-System of Management," pp. 351–4.
Human Systems Management: Integrating Knowledge, Management and Systems, World Scientific, 2nd Printing 2008.
“Strategy as Action: from Porter to Anti-Porter,” Int. J. Strategic Decision Sciences, 1(2010)1, pp. 1–22.
Psychology and Judgment
"On the Inadequacy of the Regression Paradigm Used in the Study of Human Judgment," Theory and Decision, 7(1976) 1/2, pp. 57–65.
"Conflict Dissolution," General Systems Yearbook, XXI, 1976, pp. 131–136.
"Intuition and Probability," The Wharton Magazine, 1(1977)4, pp. 63–68.
"Intuition, Its Failures and Merits," in: Surviving Failures, edited by B. Persson, Humanities Press, Atlantic Highlands, N.J., 1979, pp. 172–183.
"Cognitive Equilibrium: A New Paradigm of Decision Making?" Human Systems Management, 8(1989)3, pp. 185–188.
"In Search of Cognitive Equilibrium: Beauty, Quality and Harmony," Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis, 3(1994), pp. 48.1-48.11.
Autopoiesis
"Simulation of Self-Renewing Systems," in: Evolution and Consciousness: Human Systems in Transition, edited by E. Jantsch and C. H. Waddington, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Ma., 1976, pp. 150–165. (With N.A. Pierre)
"Self-Organization of Living Systems: A Formal Model of Autopoiesis," Int. J. General Systems, 4(1977) I, pp. 13–28.
"APL-AUTOPOIESIS: Experiments in Self-Organization of Complexity," in: Progress in Cybernetics and Systems Research, vol. Ill, edited by R. Trappl et al., Hemisphere Publishing Corp., Washington, D.C., 1978, pp. 65–84.
Autopoiesis, Dissipative Structures, and Spontaneous Social Orders, AAAS Selected Symposium 55, Westview Press, Boulder, Co., 1980. (Editor)
"Autopoiesis: A Paradigm Lost?" in: Autopoiesis, Dissipative Structures, and Spontaneous Social Orders, AAAS Selected Symposium 55, edited by M. Zeleny, Westview Press, Boulder, Co., 1980, pp. 3–43.
"What Is Autopoiesis?" in: Autopoiesis: A Theory of Living Organization, edited by M. Zeleny, Elsevier North Holland, New York, NY, 1981, pp. 4–17.
"Autogenesis: On the Self-Organization of Life," in: Autopoiesis: A Theory of Living Organization, edited by M. Zeleny, Elsevier North Holland, New York, NY, 1981, pp. 91–115.
"Autopoiesis Today," in: Cybernetics Forum, Special Issue Devoted toAutopoiesis, edited by M. Zeleny, 10(1981) 2/3, Summer/Fall 1981, pp. 3–6. Also: "Self-Organization of Living Systems: A Formal Model of Autopoiesis," pp. 24–38.
"Autopoiesis," in: Systems & Control Encyclopedia, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, N.Y., 1987, pp. 393–400.
"Simulation Models of Autopoiesis: Variable Structure," in: Systems & Control Encyclopedia, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, N.Y., 1987, pp. 4374–4377.
"Simulation Models of Autopoiesis: Variable Structure," in: Systems & Control Encyclopedia, Supplementary Volume 1, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, N.Y., 1990, pp. 543–547.
"All Autopoietic Systems Must Be Social Systems," Journal of Social and Biological Structures, 14(1991) 3, pp. 311–332. (With K. D. Hufford)
"Are Biological Systems Social Systems?" Human Systems Management, 10(1991)2, pp. 79–81.
"The Application of Autopoiesis in Systems Analysis: Are Autopoietic Systems Also Social Systems?" Int. J. General Systems, 21(1992) 2, pp. 145–160. (With K. D. Hufford)
"The Ordering of the Unknown by Causing It to Order Itself," Int. J. General Systems, 21(1992) 2, pp. 239–253. (With K. D. Hufford)
"On Social Nature of Autopoietic Systems," in: Evolution, Order and Complexity, edited by E. L. Khalil and K. E. Boulding, Routledge, London, 1996, pp. 122–145.
"Autopoiesis and Self-Sustainability in Economic Systems," Human Systems Management, 16(1997)4, pp. 251–262.
"Autopoiesis (Self-production) in SME Networks," Human Systems Management, 20(2001)3, pp. 201–207.
“Autopoiesis”, in: International Encyclopedia of Organization Studies, edited by S. R. Clegg and J. R. Bailey, Sage Publications, 2007.
Spontaneous Social Orders
"Holistic Aspects of Biological and Social Organizations: Can They Be Studied?" in: Environment and Population: Problems of Adaptation, edited by John B. Calhoun, Praeger Publishers, New York, 1983, pp. 150–153.
"Spontaneous Social Orders," in: The Science and Praxis of Complexity, The United Nations University, Tokyo, 1985, pp. 312–328.
"Spontaneous Social Orders," Int. J. General Systems, 11(1985) 2, pp. 117–131.
"Les orders sociaux spontanes," in: Science et pratique de la complexite, Actes du colloque de Montpellier, Mai 1984, IDATE/UNU, La Documentation Française, Paris, 1986, pp. 357–378.
"La grande inversione: Corso e ricorso dei modi di vita umani," in: Physis: abitare la terra, edited by M. Ceruti and E. Laszlo, Feltrinelli, Milano, 1988, pp. 413–441.
"Spontaneous Social Orders," in: A Science of Goal Formulation: American and Soviet Discussions of Cybernetics and Systems Theory, edited by S. A. Umpleby and V. N. Sadovsky, Hemisphere Publishing Corp., Washington, D.C., 1991, pp. 133–150.
"Alia ricerca di un equilibrio cognitivo: bellezza, qualita e armonia," in: Estimo ed economia ambientale: le nuove frontiere nel campo della valutazione, edited by L. Fusco Girard, Franco Angeli, Milano, 1993, pp. 113–131.
"Ecosocieties: Societal Aspects of Biological Self-Production," Soziale Systeme, 1(1995)2, pp. 179–202.
Economics
Columbia Journal of World Business, Focus: Decision Making, XII (1977)3, p. 136. (Editor with M.K. Starr)
"At the End of the Division of Labor," Human Systems Management, 6(1986) 2, pp. 97–99.
"Beyond capitalism and socialism: Human manifesto," Human Systems Management, 7(1988) 3, pp. 185–188.
"Moving from the Age of Specialization to the Era of Integration," Human Systems Management, 9(1990)3, pp. 153–171. (With R. Comet and J.A.F. Stoner)
"Transition To Free Markets: The Dilemma of Being and Becoming," Human Systems Management, 10(1991) 1, pp. 1–5.
"Privatization," Human Systems Management, 10(1991)3, pp. 161–163.
"Reforms in Czechoslovakia: Tradition or Cosmopolitanism?" in: Management Reform in Eastern and Central Europe: Use of Pre-Communist Cultures, edited by M. Maruyama, Dartmouth Publishing Company (Dover), 1992, pp. 45–64.
"Economics, Business and Culture," Human Systems Management, 12(1993)3, pp. 171–174.
"Eastern Europe: Quo Vadis?" Human Systems Management, 12(1993)4, pp. 259–264.
"Human and Social Capital: Prerequisites for Sustained Prosperity," Human Systems Management, 14(1995)4, pp. 279–282.
"Asset Optimization and Multi-Resource Planning" Human Systems Management, 15(1996)3, pp. 153–155.
"Ecosocieta: aspetti sociali dell'auto-produzione biologica," in: Teorie Evolutive e Transformazioni Economiche, edited by E. Benedetti, M. Mistri and S. Solari, CEDAMPadova, 1997, pp. 121–142.
"The Decline of Forecasting?" Human Systems Management, 16(1997)1, pp. 1–3.
"Insider Ownership and LBO Performance," Human Systems Management, 16(1997) 4, pp. 243–245.
"National and Corporate Asset Optimization: From Macro- to Micro-Reengineering," in: Economic Transformation & Integration: Problems, Arguments, Proposals, edited by R. Kulikowski, Z. Nahorski and J. Owsinski, Systems Research Institute, Warsaw, 1998, pp. 103–118.
"Beyond the Network Organization: Self-Sustainable Web Enterprises," in: Business Networks in Asia, edited by F.-J. Richter, Quorum Books, Westport, CT, 1999, pp. 269–285.
"Strategy for Macro- and Micro-Reengineering in Knowledge-based Economies” in: The Socio-Economic Transformation: Getting Closer to What? edited by Z. Nahorski, J. Owsinski, and T. Szapiro, Macmillan, London, 1999, pp. 113–125.
"Elimination of Tradeoffs in Modem Business and Economics," in: New Frontiers of Decision Making for the Information Technology Era, edited by M. Zeleny and Y. Shi, World Scientific Publishers, 2000.
“Innovation Factory: Production of Value-Added Quality and Innovation,” Economics and Management, 9(2006)4, pp. 58–65.
“On the Essential Multidimensionality of an Economic Problem: Towards Tradeoffs-Free Economics,” Czech Economic Review, 3(2009)2, pp. 154–175.
“Invisible Hand of the Market,” in: Atlas of Transformation, JRP Ringier, Zurich, 2010.
“Ownership,” in: Atlas of Transformation, JRP Ringier, Zurich, 2010, pp.
Fuzzy Sets
"Membership Functions and Their Assessment," in: Current Topics in Cybernetics and Systems, edited by J. Rose, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1978, pp. 391–392.
"Fuzzy Sets: Precision and Relevancy," in: Applied Systems and Cybernetics, Vol. 6, edited by G.E. Lasker, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, N.Y., 1981, pp. 2719–2721.
"Qualitative versus Quantitative Modeling in Decision Making," Human Systems Management, 4(1983) 1, pp. 39–42.
"On the (Ir) Relevancy of Fuzzy Sets Theories," Human Systems Management, 4(1984)4, pp. 301–306.
"Parallelism, Integration, Autocoordination and Ambiguity in Human Support Systems," in: Fuzzy Logic in Knowledge-Based Systems, Decision and Control, edited by M.M. Gupta and T. Yamakawa, North-Holland, New York, 1988, pp. 107–122.
"The Role of Fuzziness in the Construction of Knowledge," in: The Interface Between Artificial Intelligence and Operations Research in Fuzzy Environment, eds. J.-L. Verdegay and M. Delgado, Interdisciplinary Systems Research Series no. 95, Verlag TDv Rheinland, 1989, pp. 233–252.
"Cognitive Equilibrium: A Knowledge-Based Theory of Fuzziness and Fuzzy Sets," Int. J. General Systems, 19(1991) 4, pp. 359–381.
"Fuzzifying the 'Precise' Is More Relevant Than Modeling the Fuzzy 'Crisply' (Rejoinder by M. Zeleny)," Int. J. General Systems, 19(1991)4, pp. 435–440.
Management
"Management of Human Systems & Human Management of Systems,“ Erhvervs økonomisk Tidsskrift, April 1986, pp. 107–116.
"Management of Human Systems & Human Management of Systems," in: Trends and Megatrends in the Theory of Management, ed. E. Johnsen, Bratt International, Lund, 1986, pp. 35–44.
"The Law of Requisite Variety: Is It Applicable to Human Systems?" Human Systems Management, 6(1986) 4, pp. 269–271.
"On Human Systems Management: An Emerging Paradigm," Human Systems Management, 6(1986) 2, pp. 181–184.
"Integrated Process Management: A Management Technology for the New Competitive Era," in: Global Competitiveness: Getting the U.S. Back on Track, edited by M.K. Starr, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1988, pp. 121–158. (With M. Hessel and M. Mooney)
"Integrated Process Management: A Management Technology for the New Competitive Era," Part 1 (in Japanese, transl. Y. Kondo), Standardization and Quality Control, 42(1989)10, pp. 61–68. Part 2, 42(1989)11, pp. 78–85. (With M. Hessel and M. Mooney)
"Management Wisdom of the West," Part 1 (in Japanese), Standardization and Quality Control, 43(1990) 11, pp. 41–48. Part 2, 43(1990) 12, pp. 43–48.
"Osaka Lectures on IPM," (in Japanese, transl. Y. Kondo), Standardization and Quality Control, 42(1989) 12, pp. 75–82.
"What Is Integrated Process Management?" Human Systems Management, 7(1988) 3, pp. 265–267.
"Quality Management Systems: Subject to Continuous Improvement?" Human Systems Management, 8(1989)1, pp. 1–3.
"Amoeba: The New Generation of Self-Managing Human Systems," Human Systems Management, 9(1990) 2, pp. 57–59.
"Management Wisdom of the West," Human Systems Management, 9(1990) 2, 119-125.
"Management Challenges in the 1990s," in: Managing Toward the Millennium, edited by J.E. Hennessy and S. Robins, Fordham University Press, New York, 1991, pp. 3–65. (With R. Comet and J.A.F. Stoner)
"Towards Trade-Offs-Free Management," Human Systems Management, 13(1994)4, pp. 241–243.
"Global Management Paradigm," Human Systems Management, 14(1995)3, pp. 191–194.
"Customer-Specific Value Chain: Beyond Mass Customization?" Human Systems Management, 15(1996)2, pp. 93–97.
"Comparative Management Systems: Trade-Offs-Free Concept," in: Dynamics of Japanese Organizations, edited by F.-J. Richter, Routledge, London, 1996, pp. 167–177.
"The Fall of Strategic Planning," Human Systems Management, 16(1997)2, pp. 77–79.
“Effective Strategic Action: Exploring Synergy Sources of European and Asian Management Systems,” (with M. Blahova), Human Systems Management, 32(2013)3.
Baťa System
"The Roots of Modem Management: Bat'a-System," Human Systems Management, 6(1986) 1, pp. 4–7.
"The Root of Modern Management: Bat'a-System," (in Japanese, transl. Y. Kondo) Standardization and Quality Control, 40(1987)1, pp. 50–53.
"Three-Men Talk on Bat'a-System," (In Japanese) Standardization and Quality Control, 41(1988) 1, pp. 15–24.
"Bat'a System of Management: Managerial Excellence Found," Human Systems Management, 7(1988) 3, pp. 213–219.
"Bata, Thomas (1876-1932)," in: IEBM Handbook of Management Thinking, Thomson, London, 1997, pp. 49–52.
“Bata Management System: A built-in resilience against crisis at the micro level,” Czech Economic Review, 4(2010)1, pp. 102–117.
Finance
"Multidimensional Measure of Risk: Prospect Ranking Vector (PRV)," in: Multiple Criteria Problem Solving, edited by S. Zionts, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1978, pp. 529–548.
Uncertain Prospects Ranking and Portfolio Analysis Under the Conditions of Partial Information, Mathematical Systems in Economics 44, Oelschlager, Gunn & Hain Publishers, Cambridge, MA., 1979/1980. (With G. Colson)
"Satisficing, Optimization and Risk in Portfolio Selection," in: Readings in Strategy for Corporate Investment, edited by F.G.J. Derkinderen and R.L. Crum, Pitman Publishing, Boston, 1981, pp. 200–219.
History
B. Trentowski, Stosunek Filozofii do Cybernetyki czyli sztuki rzadzenia narodem; A.A. Bogdanov, Tektologia: vseobschaia organizatsionaia nauka; J.Ch. Smuts, Holism and Evolution; S. Leduc, The Mechanism of Life, Int. J. General Systems, 5(1979) 1, pp. 63–71.
"Cybernetics and General Systems- A Unitary Science?" Kybernetes, 8(1979) 1, pp. 17–23.
"Cybernetyka," Int. J. General Systems, 13(1987) 3, pp. 289–294.
"Tectology," Int. J. General Systems, 14(1988) 4, pp. 331–343.
"Trentowski's Cybemetyka," in: Systems & Control Encyclopedia, Supplementary Volume 1, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, N.Y., 1990, pp. 587–589.
“W. Edwards Deming,” in: The Oxford Handbook of Management Theorists, eds. M. Witzel and M. Warner, Ch. 11, Oxford University Press, 2013, pp. 196–218.
Transformation
"The Self-Service Society: A New Scenario of the Future," Planning Review, 7(1979) 3, pp. 3–7, 37-38.
"Towards a Self-Service Society," Human Systems Management, 1(1980) 1, pp. 1–3.
"Socio-Economic Foundations of a Self-Service Society," in: Progress in Cybernetics and Systems Research, vol. 10, Hemisphere Publishing, Washington, D.C., 1982, pp. 127–132.
"Self-Service Trends in the Society," in: Applied Systems and Cybernetics, Vol. 3, edited by G. E. Lasker, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, N.Y., 1981, pp. 1405–1411.
"Self-Service Aspects of Health Maintenance: Assessment of Current Trends," Human Systems Management, 2(1981) 4, pp. 259–267. (With M. Kochen)
"The Grand Reversal: On the Corso and Ricorso of Human Way of Life," World Futures, 27(1989), pp. 131–151.
"Structural Recession in the U.S.A.," Human Systems Management, 11(1992)1, pp. 1–4.
"Work and Leisure," in: IEBM Handbook on Human Resources Management, Thomson, London, 1997, pp. 333–339. Also: "Bata-System of Management," pp. 359–362.
"Industrial Districts of Italy: Local-Network Economies in a Global-Market Web," Human Systems Management, 18(1999)2, pp. 65–68.
“Machine/Organism Dichotomy of Free-Market Economics: Crisis or Transformation?” Human Systems Management, 29(2010)4, pp. 191–204.
“Genesis of the Worldwide Crisis,” in: Atlas of Transformation, JRP Ringier, Zurich, 2010.
“Crisis or Transformation: On the corso and ricorso of human systems,” Human Systems Management, 31(2012)1, pp. 49–63.
De Novo Programming
"On the Squandering of Resources and Profits via Linear Programming," Interfaces, 11(1981)5, pp. 101–107.
"A Case Study in Multiobjective Design: De Novo Programming," in: Multiple Criteria Analysis: Operational Methods, edited by P. Nijkamp and J. Spronk, Gower Publishing, Hampshire, 1981, pp. 37–52.
"Multicriterion Design of High-Productivity Systems: Extensions and Applications," in: Decision Making with Multiple Objectives, edited by Y.Y. Haimes and V. Chankong, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1985, pp. 308–321.
"Optimal System Design with Multiple Criteria: De Novo Programming Approach," Engineering Costs and Production Economics, 10(1986), pp. 89–94.
"Optimizing Given Systems vs. Designing Optimal Systems: The De Novo Programming Approach," Int. J. General Systems, 17(1990) 4, pp. 295–307.
"De Novo Programming," Ekonomicko-matematický obzor, 26(1990) 4, pp. 406–413.
"Trade-Offs-Free Management via De Novo Programming," International Journal of Operations and Quantitative Management, 1(1995)1, pp. 3–13.
"The Evolution of Optimality: De Novo Programming," in: Evolutionary Multi-Criterion Optimization, edited by C.A. Coello Coello et al., Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 1–13.
“Multiobjective Optimization, Systems Design and De Novo Programming,” in: Handbook of Multicriteria Analysis, edited by. C. Zopounidis and P.M. Pardalos, Springer-Verlag, 2010, pp. 243–262.
Knowledge Management
"Management Support Systems: Towards Integrated Knowledge Management," Human Systems Management, 7(1987) 1, pp. 59–70.
"Knowledge as a New Form of Capital, Part 1: Division and Reintegration of Knowledge," Human Systems Management, 8(1989)1, pp. 45–58. "Part 2: KnowledgeBased Management Systems," 8(1989)2, pp. 129–143.
"Knowledge As Capital/Capital As Knowledge," Human Systems Management, 9(1990)3, pp. l29-130.
"Knowledge As Capital: Integrated Quality Management," Prometheus, 9(1991)1, pp. 93–101.
"Knowledge As Coordination of Action," Human Systems Management, 15(1996)4, pp. 211–213.
"Knowledge-Information Circulation through the Enterprise: Forward to the Roots of Knowledge Management," in: Data Mining and Knowledge Management, edited by Y. Shi, W. Xu, and Z. Chen, Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, 2004, pp. 22–33.
Human Systems Management: Integrating Knowledge, Management and Systems, World Scientific, 2005.
"Knowledge-Information Autopoietic Cycle: Towards the Wisdom Systems," Int. J. Management and Decision Making, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2006, pp. 3–18.
“The Innovation Factory: Management Systems, Knowledge Management and Production of Innovations,“ in: Expanding the Limits of the Possible, edited by P. Walden, R. Fullér, and J. Carlsson, Åbo, November 2006, pp. 163–175.
“From Knowledge to Wisdom: On Being Informed and Knowledgeable, Becoming Wise and Ethical,” International Journal of Information Technology & Decision Making, 5(2006)4, pp. 751–762.
“Knowledge Management and the Strategies of Global Business Education: From Knowledge to Wisdom“, in: The Socio-EconomicTransformation: Getting Closer to What? edited by Z. Nahorski, J. W. Owsiński and T. Szapiro, Palgrave Macmillan, Houndmills, 2007, Ch. 7, pp. 101–116.
“Knowledge Management and Strategic Planning: A Human Systems Perspective,” in: Making Strategies in Spatial Planning: Knowledge and Values, edited by M. Cerreta, G. Concilio and V. Monno, Series: Urban and Landscape Perspectives, Vol. 9, Springer-Verlag, 2010, pp. 257–280.
“Integrated Knowledge Management,” Int. J. Information Systems and Social Change, 4(2013)4, pp. 54–70.
Technology Management
"High Technology Management," Human Systems Management, 3(1982) 2, pp. 57–59.
"La gestione a tecnologia e la gestione della tecnologia superiore," in: La sfida della complessita, edited by G. Bocchi and M. Ceruti, Feltrinelli, Milano, 1985, pp. 401–413.
"High Technology Management," Human Systems Management, 6(1986) 2, pp. 109–120.
"Telework, Telecommuting and Telebusiness," Human Systems Management, 17(1998)4, pp. 223–225.
IEBM Handbook of Information Technology in Business, Editor, Thomson, London, 2000, p. 870.
New Frontiers of Decision Making for the Information Technology Era, Editor with Y. Shi, World Scientific Publishers, 2000.
"Introduction: What Is IT/S?” in: IEBM Handbook of Information Technology in Business, ed. M. Zeleny, Thomson, London, 2000, pp. xv-xvii. Also: "High Technology Management," pp. 56–62. "Global Management Paradigm," pp. 48–55. "Mass Customization," pp. 200–207. "Autopoiesis (Self-Production)," pp. 283–290. "Business Process Reengineering (BPR)," pp. 14–22. "Knowledge vs. Information," pp. 162–168. "Integrated Process Management," pp. 110–118. "Self-Service Society," pp. 240–248. "Telepresence," pp. 821–827. "Kinetic Enterprise & Forecasting," pp. 134–141. "New Economy," pp. 208–217. "Tradeoffs Management," pp. 450–458. "Critical Path Analysis," pp. 308–314. "Decision Making, Multiple Criteria," pp. 315–329. "Optimality and Optimization," pp. 392–409.
IEBM Handbook of Information Technology in Business, Editor, Paperback edition, Thomson, London, 2001, p. 870.
"Knowledge of Enterprise: Knowledge Management or Knowledge Technology?" International Journal of Information Technology & Decision Making, 1(2002)2, pp. 181–207.
“Entering the Era of Networks: Global Supply and Demand Outsourcing Networks and Alliances,” in: Quantitative Methoden der Logistik und des Supply Chain Management, edited by M. Jacquemin, R. Pibornik, and E. Sucky, Verlag Dr. Kovač, Hamburg, 2006, pp. 85–97.
“The mobile society: effects of global sourcing and network organization”’, Int. J. Mobile Learning and Organization, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2007, pp. 30–40.
“Strategy and strategic action in the global era: overcoming the knowing-doing Gap”, Int. J. Technology Management, Vol. 43, Nos. 1-3, 2008, pp. 64–75.
“Technology and High Technology: Support Net and Barriers to Innovation,” Advanced Management Systems, vol. 1, no. 1, 2009, pp. 8–21.
“Technology and High Technology: Support Net and Barriers to Innovation,” Acta Mechanica Slovaca, vol. 13, no. 1, 2009, pp. 6–19.
“High Technology and Barriers to Innovation: From Globalization to Localization,” Int. J. Info. Tech. Dec. Mak., 11 (2012) p. 441.
Artificial Life
"Osmotic Growths: A Challenge to Systems Science," Int. J. General Systems, 14(1988) 1, pp. 1–17. (With G.J. Klir and K.D. Hufford)
Interview on Artificial Life, in: "Child of a Lesser God" (E. Regis and T. Dworetzky), Omni, 11(1988) 1, pp. 92–170.
"Precipitation Membranes, Osmotic Growths, and Synthetic Biology," in: Artificial Life, edited by C.G. Langton, Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, vol. VI, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1989, pp. 125–139. (With G. J. Klir and K.D. Hufford)
"Synthetic Biology and Osmotic Growths," in: Systems & Control Encyclopedia, Supplementary Volume 1, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, N.Y., 1990, pp. 573–578.
References
Zeleny, Milan |
23118538 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exaile | Exaile | Exaile is a cross-platform free and open-source audio player, tag editor and library organizer. It was originally conceived to be similar in style and functions to KDE's Amarok 1.4, but uses the GTK widget toolkit rather than Qt. It is written in Python and utilizes the GStreamer media framework.
Exaile incorporates many features from Amarok (and other media players) like automatic fetching of album art, handling of large libraries, lyrics fetching, Last.fm support, advanced tag editing, and optional iPod and MSC device support via plugins.
Compared to typical music players, Exaile is able to handle large music libraries without requiring a massive importing of all music files into its own organizational structure. To facilitate this, Exaile allows users to organize their music library in a wide variety of ways, such as by tags, group tags, smart playlists, genre, storage location, and more.
In addition, Exaile supports plugins that provide features such as ReplayGain support, an equalizer with presets, previewing tracks via a secondary soundcard, and Moodbar integration.
See also
Quod Libet
References
Notes
Review: Exaile Makes Playing Music Simple and Stress-Free, by LinuxInsider.com
Review: Exaile Media Player, by linux.com
External links
Exaile documentation
2009 software
Free audio software
Free media players
Linux media players
IPod software
Jukebox-style media players
Free software programmed in Python
Software that uses PyGObject
Software that uses GStreamer
Audio player software that uses GTK
Applications using D-Bus
Cross-platform free software
Tag editors for Linux |
67057482 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%20Microsoft%20Exchange%20Server%20data%20breach | 2021 Microsoft Exchange Server data breach | A global wave of cyberattacks and data breaches began in January 2021 after four zero-day exploits were discovered in on-premises Microsoft Exchange Servers, giving attackers full access to user emails and passwords on affected servers, administrator privileges on the server, and access to connected devices on the same network. Attackers typically install a backdoor that allows the attacker full access to impacted servers even if the server is later updated to no longer be vulnerable to the original exploits. , it was estimated that 250,000 servers fell victim to the attacks, including servers belonging to around 30,000 organizations in the United States, 7,000 servers in the United Kingdom, as well as the European Banking Authority, the Norwegian Parliament, and Chile's Commission for the Financial Market (CMF).
On 2 March 2021, Microsoft released updates for Microsoft Exchange Server 2010, 2013, 2016 and 2019 to patch the exploit; this does not retroactively undo damage or remove any backdoors installed by attackers. Small and medium businesses, local institutions, and local governments are known to be the primary victims of the attack, as they often have smaller budgets to secure against cyber threats and typically outsource IT services to local providers that do not have the expertise to deal with cyber attacks.
On 12 March 2021, Microsoft announced the discovery of "a new family of ransomware" being deployed to servers initially infected, encrypting all files, making the server inoperable and demanding payment to reverse the damage. On 22 March 2021, Microsoft announced that in 92% of Exchange servers the exploit has been either patched or mitigated.
Background
Microsoft Exchange is considered a high-value target for hackers looking to penetrate business networks, as it is email server software, and, according to Microsoft, it provides "a unique environment that could allow attackers to perform various tasks using the same built-in tools or scripts that admins use for maintenance." In the past, Microsoft Exchange has been attacked by multiple nation-state groups.
On 5 January 2021, security testing company DEVCORE made the earliest known report of the vulnerability to Microsoft, which Microsoft verified on 8 January. The first breach of a Microsoft Exchange Server instance was observed by cybersecurity company Volexity on 6 January 2021. By the end of January, Volexity had observed a breach allowing attackers to spy on two of their customers, and alerted Microsoft to the vulnerability. After Microsoft was alerted of the breach, Volexity noted the hackers became less stealthy in anticipation of a patch.
On 2 March 2021, another cybersecurity company, ESET, wrote that they were observing multiple attackers besides Hafnium exploiting the vulnerabilities. Wired reported on 10 March that now that the vulnerability had been patched, many more attackers were going to reverse engineer the fix to exploit still-vulnerable servers. Analysts at two security firms reported they had begun to see evidence that attackers were preparing to run cryptomining software on the servers.
On 10 March 2021, security researcher Nguyen Jang posted proof-of-concept code to Microsoft-owned GitHub on how the exploit works, totaling 169 lines of code; the program was intentionally written with errors so that while security researchers could understand how the exploit works, malicious actors would not be able to use the code to access servers. Later that day, GitHub removed the code as it "contains proof of concept code for a recently disclosed vulnerability that is being actively exploited". On 13 March, another group independently published exploit code, with this code instead requiring minimal modification to work; the CERT Coordination Center's Will Dormann said the "exploit is completely out of the bag by now" in response.
The attacks came shortly after the 2020 United States federal government data breach, which also saw the compromising of Microsoft's Outlook web app and supply chain. Microsoft said there was no connection between the two incidents.
Perpetrator
Microsoft said that the attack was initially perpetrated by the Hafnium, a Chinese state-sponsored hacking group (advanced persistent threat) that operates out of China. Hafnium is known to install the web shell China Chopper. Microsoft identified Hafnium as "a highly skilled and sophisticated actor" that historically has mostly targeted "entities in the United States for the purpose of exfiltrating information from a number of industry sectors, including infectious disease researchers, law firms, higher education institutions, defense contractors, policy think tanks and NGOs." Announcing the hack, Microsoft stated that this was "the eighth time in the past 12 months that Microsoft has publicly disclosed nation-state groups targeting institutions critical to civil society." As of 12 March 2021, there were, in addition to Hafnium, at least nine other distinct groups exploiting the vulnerabilities, each different styles and procedures.
The Chinese government denied involvement, calling the accusations "groundless."
In a July 19, 2021 joint statement, the US, UK, EU, NATO, and other Western nations accused the Ministry of State Security (MSS) of perpetrating the Exchange breach, along with other cyberattacks, "attributing with a high degree of confidence that malicious cyber actors affiliated with PRC’s MSS conducted cyber espionage operations utilizing the zero-day vulnerabilities in Microsoft Exchange Server disclosed in early March 2021."
Methodology
Hackers took advantage of four separate zero-day vulnerabilities to compromise Microsoft Exchange servers' Outlook Web Access (OWA), giving them access to victims' entire servers and networks as well as to emails and calendar invitations, only at first requiring the address of the server, which can be directly targeted or obtained by mass-scanning for vulnerable servers; the attacker then uses two exploits, the first allowing an attacker to connect to the server and falsely authenticate as a standard user. With that, a second vulnerability can then be exploited, escalating that user access to administrator privileges. The final two exploits allow attackers to upload code to the server in any location they wish, that automatically runs with these administrator privileges. Attackers then typically use this to install a web shell, providing a backdoor to the compromised server, which gives hackers continued access to the server as long as both the web shell remains active and the Exchange server remains on.
Through the web shell installed by attackers, commands can be run remotely. Among the actions observed are the downloading of all emails from servers, downloading the passwords and email addresses of users as Microsoft Exchange stores these unencrypted in memory, adding users, adding further backdoors to affected systems, accessing other systems in the network that are unsusceptible to the original exploit, and installing ransomware. As patching the Exchange server against the exploit does not retroactively remove installed backdoors, attackers continue to have access to the server until the web shell, other backdoors and user accounts added by attackers are removed.
On 27 and 28 February 2021, there was an automated attack, and on 2 and 3 March 2021, attackers used a script to return to the addresses to drop a web shell to enable them to return later. Referring to the week ending 7 March, CrowdStrike co-founder Dmitri Alperovitch stated: "Every possible victim that hadn't patched by mid-to-end of last week has already been hit by at least one or several actors". After the patch was announced, the tactics changed when using the same chain of vulnerabilities.
Microsoft Exchange Server versions of 2010, 2013, 2016 and 2019 were confirmed to be susceptible, although vulnerable editions are yet to be fully determined. Cloud-based services Exchange Online and Office 365 are not affected.
Impact
Hackers have exploited the vulnerabilities to spy on a wide range of targets, affecting an estimated 250,000 servers. Tom Burt, Microsoft's vice president for Customer Security & Trust, wrote that targets had included disease researchers, law offices, universities, defense contractors, non-governmental organizations, and think tanks.
Automatic updates are typically disabled by server administrators to avoid disruption from downtime and problems in software, and are by convention installed manually by server administrators after these updates are tested with the existing software and server-setup; as smaller organizations often operate under a smaller budget to do this in-house or otherwise outsource this to local IT providers without expertise in cybersecurity, this is often not done until it becomes a necessity, if ever. This means small and medium businesses, and local institutions such as schools and local governments are known to be the primary victims of the attack as they are more likely to not have received updates to patch the exploit. Rural victims are noted to be "largely on their own", as they are typically without access to IT service providers. On 11 March 2021, Check Point Research revealed that in the prior 24 hours "the number of exploitation attempts on organizations it tracks tripled every two to three hours."
Check Point Research has observed the United States as being the most attacked country with 17% of all exploit attempts, followed by Germany with 6%, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands both at 5%, and Russia with 4% of all exploits; government/military is the most targeted sector with 23% of exploit attempts, followed by manufacturing at 15%, banking and financial services at 14%, software vendors with 7% and healthcare at 6%.
The attack was discovered after attackers were discovered downloading all emails belonging to specific users on separate corporate Exchange servers. An undisclosed Washington think tank reported attackers sending convincing emails to contacts in a social engineering attack that encouraged recipients to click on a link. On 11 March 2021, Norway's parliament, the Storting, reported being a victim of the hack, stating that "data has been extracted."
The European Banking Authority also reported that it had been targeted in the attack, later stating in a press release that the scope of impact on its systems was "limited" and that "the confidentiality of the EBA systems and data has not been compromised".
Security company ESET identified "at least 10" advanced persistent threat groups compromising IT, cybersecurity, energy, software development, public utility, real estate, telecommunications and engineering businesses, as well as Middle Eastern and South American governmental agencies. One APT group was identified deploying PowerShell downloaders, using affected servers for cryptocurrency mining. Cybereason CEO Lior Div noted that APT group Hafnium "targeted small and medium-sized enterprises ... The assault against Microsoft Exchange is 1,000 times more devastating than the SolarWinds attack."
On 12 March 2021, Microsoft Security Intelligence announced "a new family of ransomware" called DearCry being deployed to the servers that had been initially infected, encrypting device contents, making servers unusable and demanding payment to recover files. Microsoft stated: "There is no guarantee that paying the ransom will give you access to your files."
On 18 March 2021, an affiliate of ransomware cybergang REvil claimed they had stolen unencrypted data from Taiwanese hardware and electronics corporation Acer, including an undisclosed number of devices being encrypted, with cybersecurity firm Advanced Intel linking this data breach and ransomware attack to the Microsoft Exchange exploits. Advanced Intel detected one of Acer's Microsoft Exchange servers first being targeted on 5 March 2021. REvil has demanded a $50 million U.S. dollar ransom, claiming if this is paid they would "provide a decryptor, a vulnerability report, and the deletion of stolen files", and stating that the ransom would double to $100 million U.S. dollars if not paid on 28 March 2021.
Responses
On 2 March 2021, the Microsoft Security Response Center (MSRC) publicly posted an out-of-band Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) release, urging its clients to patch their Exchange servers to address a number of critical vulnerabilities. On 15 March, Microsoft released a one-click PowerShell tool, The Exchange On-Premises Mitigation Tool, which installs the specific updates protecting against the threat, runs a malware scan which also detects installed web shells, and removes threats that were detected; this is recommended as a temporary mitigation measure, as it does not install other available updates.
On 3 March 2021, the U.S. Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) issued an emergency directive forcing government networks to update to a patched version of Exchange. On 8 March, CISA tweeted what NBC News described as an "unusually candid message" urging "ALL organizations across ALL sectors" to address the vulnerabilities.
Other official bodies expressing concerns included the White House, Norway's National Security Authority and the Czech Republic's Office for Cyber and Information Security. On 7 March 2021, CNN reported that the Biden administration was expected to form a task force to address the breach; the Biden administration has invited private-sector organizations to participate in the task force and will provide them with classified information as deemed necessary. U.S. National Security Advisor Jake Sullivan stated that the U.S. is not yet in a position to attribute blame for the attacks.
In July of 2021, the Biden administration, along with a coalition of Western allies, formally blamed China for the cyber attack. The administration highlighted the ongoing threat of from Chinese hackers, but did not accompany the condemnation with any form of sanctions. According to White House press secretary Jen Psaki, the administration is not ruling out future consequences for China.
See also
Chinese cyberwarfare
Chinese espionage in the United States
Cyberwarfare in the United States
Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)
List of data breaches
2020 United States federal government data breach
References
2021 in computing
Internet security
Microsoft software
Computer security exploits
Cyberattacks
Data breaches
Hacking in the 2020s
Software bugs |
11782465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Robb%20%28author%29 | John Robb (author) | John Robb is an American author, military analyst, and entrepreneur.
Career
Military
Robb graduated from the United States Air Force Academy Honors Program with a Bachelor of Science in astronautical engineering in 1985 and completed USAF Undergraduate Pilot Training (UPT) in 1986.
During his military career, Robb worked in the area of counterterrorism with the United States Special Operations Command, participating in global operations as a mission commander, pilot and mission planner in El Salvador, Panama, Colombia, Turkey, and Egypt, among others.
He resigned his Air Force commission with the rank of captain in August 1992.
After leaving the Air Force, Robb attended Yale University. He graduated with a master's degree in public and private management (MPPM) in 1995.
Internet analyst
After graduating from Yale, Robb was hired by Forrester Research, a technology research company located in Cambridge, MA., in June 1995. He published his first report at Forrester in December 1995, called "Internet Computing" with George Forrester Colony, the CEO of Forrester, as the editor.
Robb was made a senior analyst in January 1996 and led the launch of Forrester's first research service dedicated to covering developments on the Internet, called "Interactive Technologies". While there, he wrote the reports, "Which Web Browser" and "Which Web Server" in early 1996. In summer 1996, he wrote the report "Navigation Hubs" which predicted that web search services like Yahoo would dominate the Web. In fall 1996, he wrote the Forrester report, "Personal Broadcast Networks" on the rise of social software — software that allowed people to broadcast their written thoughts, pictures and videos and to subscribe to other people doing the same.
For these reports, Robb was awarded Forrester's "Best Research" award in 1997. Further, the 1997 Forrester Forum (Forrester's annual conference in Boston), was dedicated to the theme of "Personal Broadcast Networks".
Robb has been quoted as an expert source on technological trends by The New York Times, The Economist, The Washington Post, The Wall Street Journal, Business Week, Fortune Magazine, CNBC, Fox News, BBC, and NPR.
Entrepreneur
In 1997, Robb co-founded (with Julio Gomez and Alex Stein) Gomez, a performance measurement company in financial services. Gomez was sold to Compuware Corporation in 2009 for $295 million.
While at Gomez, Robb and Julio Gomez created the first Gomez Performance Scorecard at the latter's kitchen table. It was an objective system for ranking the quality of a broker's online offering. The Gomez Scorecards provided objective decision support to hundreds of thousands of people opening online brokerage and banking accounts.
With the help of Dann Sheridan, Robb designed and built the Gomez performance measurement system. This system was briefly featured as the "online broker weather report" on CNBC. The Gomez network checked on the availability of transactions systems that operated at big banks and brokerage firms like Fidelity Investments and JP Morgan. The Gomez network consisted of monitoring servers in 54 cities around the world, on six continents and across 23 different Internet backbones. Measurements were taken every five minutes and reported back in real time.
Social software pioneer
Robb became the president of UserLand Software — a pioneer in the development of XML-RPC, SOAP, RSS, and OPML — in 2001. He became the CEO in 2003.
He was the product manager for Radio UserLand, the first RSS aggregator and blog publishing tool in fall 2001. This tool allowed individuals to both publish their work to the Web as a blog and to subscribe to the blogs of other people. Decentralized control over publishing and subscription, as seen in Radio, now serves as the basis for social networking and social software.
To educate a growing number of people on the power of social software networks, Robb formed a discussion group called K-Logs, Knowledge Management Weblogs in 2001. This group explored how decentralized publishing and subscription using social software would and could be used.
In 2003, Robb signed a deal with Martin Nisenholtz, the CEO of New York Times digital to publish an RSS feed for The New York Times, the first major publication to use RSS.
Military theorist
In 2004, Robb began the blog Global Guerrillas to cover developments in terrorism and guerrilla warfare. In April 2007, he published his book Brave New War, introducing the concept of open-source warfare and superempowered terrorism. The book was featured in The New York Times by the columnist David Brooks.
His thesis contributed to the overall understanding of the "Global War on Terror" and specifically the Iraq War. Numerous other contemporary military theorists have noted the significance of Robb's work, including Thomas P.M. Barnett, William Lind and Chet Richards.
Noah Shachtman, the editor of Wired's military column, "Danger Room", wrote, "For years, now, no one has had a better read on the enemies that America has been fighting — from Afghanistan to Iraq to Indonesia to here at home — than John Robb."
David Brooks in The New York Times wrote, "Over the past few years, John Robb has been dissecting the behavior of these groups on his blog, Global Guerrillas. Robb is a graduate of the Air Force Academy and Yale University, and he has worked both as a special ops counterterrorism officer and as a successful software executive. In other words, he’s had personal experience both with modern warfare and the sort of information management that is the key to winning it. He’s collected his thoughts in a fast, thought-sparking book, “Brave New War”."
Resilient communities
In 2006, Robb turned his attention from the international war on terror to the domestic concept of "resilient communities". The concept was formally introduced in his article "Power to the People" published in Fast Company in March 2006, and expanded in Brave New War (John Wiley & Sons, 2007).
Robb defines resilient communities as a social and economic development in response to a broken bureaucracy. Resilient communities are self-dependent, producing all critical goods (food, water, energy, security, etc.) locally rather than relying on a central supply system. Such communities do not separate themselves from society, but are prepared for any breakdown in society that might arise.
References
External links
Global Guerrillas
WaldenLabs
"The Open-Source War", New York Times October 15, 2005
"Power to the People", Fast Company March 2006
"Best and Brightest", Esquire 2007
"The Coming Urban Terror", City Journal, Summer 2007
American military writers
United States Air Force Academy alumni
Living people
1962 births
Yale School of Management alumni |
41476832 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%205001%E2%80%936000 | Meanings of minor planet names: 5001–6000 |
5001–5100
|-
| 5001 EMP || || The annual publication Ephemerides Of Minor Planets (). It contains astrometric information about minor planets ||
|-id=002
| 5002 Marnix || || Philips Marnix van Sint Aldegonde (1538–1598), mayor of Antwerp, believed to have been the composer of the 'Wilhelmus', which became the Dutch national anthem in 1932 ||
|-id=003
| 5003 Silvanominuto || || Silvano Minuto (born 1940), Italian amateur astronomer, founder of the Suno Observatory and promoter of several regional laws on light pollution ||
|-id=004
| 5004 Bruch || || Max Bruch (1838–1920), German composer ||
|-id=005
| 5005 Kegler || 1988 UB || Ignatius Kegler (1680–1746), a German Jesuit and Astronomer Royal in Beijing ||
|-id=006
| 5006 Teller || || Edward Teller (1908–2003), Hungarian-born American physicist ||
|-id=007
| 5007 Keay || || Colin Stewart Lindsay Keay (born 1930), Australian physicist and astronomer past president of IAU Commission 22 and chairman of the IAU Working Group on the Prevention of Interplanetary Pollution ||
|-id=008
| 5008 Miyazawakenji || 1991 DV || Kenji Miyazawa, Japanese poet and children's novelist ||
|-id=009
| 5009 Sethos || 2562 P-L || Sethos I, an Egyptian pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty ||
|-id=010
| 5010 Amenemhêt || 4594 P-L || Amenemhět III (1844–1797 B.C.), an Egyptian pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty ||
|-id=011
| 5011 Ptah || 6743 P-L || Ptah, Egyptian god ||
|-id=012
| 5012 Eurymedon || 9507 P-L || Eurymedon, charioteer of Agamemnon and servant of Nestor in the Trojan War ||
|-id=013
| 5013 Suzhousanzhong || || Suzhousanzhong ("Suzhou No. 3 Middle School"), Jiangsu province, China, on the occasion (2006) of its 100th anniversary ||
|-id=014
| 5014 Gorchakov || 1974 ST || Prince Alexander Gorchakov (1798–1883), chancellor of the Russian Empire ||
|-id=015
| 5015 Litke || 1975 VP || Count Fyodor Litke (1797–1882), Russian navigator and explorer ||
|-id=016
| 5016 Migirenko || || Georgij Sergeeveich Migirenko (born 1916), Russian physicist ||
|-id=017
| 5017 Tenchi || || Emperor Tenji (626–671), Japan ||
|-id=018
| 5018 Tenmu || || Emperor Temmu (c. 631–686), Japan ||
|-id=019
| 5019 Erfjord || || Erfjord, village in Norway ||
|-id=020
| 5020 Asimov || || Isaac Asimov (1920–1992), Russian-American science fiction writer ||
|-id=021
| 5021 Krylania || || Anna Kapitsa (born 1903) née Krylova, daughter of mathematician Aleksey Krylov and wife of physicist Pyotr Kapitsa ||
|-id=022
| 5022 Roccapalumba || || Roccapalumba, a village in Sicily, Italy ||
|-id=023
| 5023 Agapenor || || Agapenor, mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=024
| 5024 Bechmann || 1985 VP || Poul Bechmann is the former head of the mechanical workshop at the Brorfelde Observatory, Denmark ||
|-id=025
| 5025 Mecisteus || || Mecisteus from Greek mythology, who carried the wounded Teucer and Hypsenor off the battlefield. Mecisteus and his father Echius were killed by Polydamas while defending the Greek ships. ||
|-id=026
| 5026 Martes || || Animal species pine marten (Martes martes) and beech marten (Martes foina) living on Klet Mountain, Czech Republic, where the Klet Observatory is located ||
|-id=027
| 5027 Androgeos || || Androgeos, mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=028
| 5028 Halaesus || || Halaesus, mythological Greek warrior ||
|-id=029
| 5029 Ireland || || Named for the country of Ireland ||
|-id=030
| 5030 Gyldenkerne || || Kjeld Gyldenkerne (1919–1999), Danish astronomer ||
|-id=031
| 5031 Švejcar || || Josef Švejcar (1897–19XX), Czech physician ||
|-id=032
| 5032 Conradhirsh || 1990 OO || Conrad W. Hirsh (1941–1999), teacher and explorer ||
|-id=033
| 5033 Mistral || 1990 PF || Frédéric Mistral (1830–1914), French writer and Nobel Prize laureate ||
|-id=034
| 5034 Joeharrington || || Joseph Harrington (born 1967), American planetary scientist at Cornell University, New York ||
|-id=035
| 5035 Swift || 1991 UX || Lewis A. Swift (1820–1913), American astronomer and comet hunter ||
|-id=036
| 5036 Tuttle || || Horace P. Tuttle (1837–1923), American astronomer and American Civil War veteran ||
|-id=037
| 5037 Habing || 6552 P-L || Harm Jan Habing (born 1937), Dutch astronomer and professor at Leiden University ||
|-id=038
| 5038 Overbeek || 1948 KF || Daniel Overbeek (born 1920), South African amateur astronomer and past president of ASSA ||
|-id=039
| 5039 Rosenkavalier || || Richard Strauss (1864–1949), German composer of opera, notably Der Rosenkavalier (The Knight of the Rose) ||
|-id=040
| 5040 Rabinowitz || 1972 RF || David Rabinowitz, American astronomer at Spacewatch and a discoverer of minor planets himself ||
|-id=041
| 5041 Theotes || || Theotes, mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=042
| 5042 Colpa || 1974 ME || "Colpa", the Huarpe word for stones that are composed of "pure minerals". These indigenous people lived in San Juan province of Argentina, where the discovering Félix Aguilar Observatory is located ||
|-id=043
| 5043 Zadornov || || Mikhail Zadornov, Russian comedian † ||
|-id=044
| 5044 Shestaka || || Ivan Sofronovich Shestaka (1937–1994), chief researcher of comets and meteors at the astronomical observatory of Odessa University, Russia ||
|-id=045
| 5045 Hoyin || || Yin Ho (1908–1983), Chinese philanthropist from Macau ||
|-id=046
| 5046 Carletonmoore || 1981 DQ || Carleton Bryant Moore (born 1932) professor of chemistry and geology of the Center for Meteorite Studies at Arizona State University ||
|-id=047
| 5047 Zanda || || Brigitte Zanda (born 1958), a meteorite curator at the Muséum National d´Histoire Naturelle de Paris and an adjunct faculty member at Rutgers University ||
|-id=048
| 5048 Moriarty || 1981 GC || Professor Moriarty, character in the Sherlock Holmes stories ||
|-id=049
| 5049 Sherlock || || Sherlock Holmes, fictional detective ||
|-id=050
| 5050 Doctorwatson || || Dr. Watson, character in the Sherlock Holmes stories ||
|-id=051
| 5051 Ralph || 1984 SM || Ralph Florentin Nielsen (1942–1995) was head of the electronics laboratory at the Brorfelde Observatory, Denmark ||
|-id=052
| 5052 Nancyruth || || Nancy R. Lebofsky, American educator ||
|-id=053
| 5053 Chladni || || Ernst Chladni (1756–1827), German physicist and musician ||
|-id=054
| 5054 Keil || || Klaus Keil (born 1934), American meteoriticist at University of Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology ||
|-id=055
| 5055 Opekushin || || Aleksandr Mikhailovich Opekushin (1838–1923), Russian sculptor ||
|-id=056
| 5056 Rahua || || Rahua, wife of one of the four sons of Pirua Wiracocha, creator god of civilization in Inca mythology ||
|-id=057
| 5057 Weeks || || Eric R. Weeks (born 1970), a Professor in the Physics Department at Emory University ||
|-id=058
| 5058 Tarrega || 1987 OM || Francisco Tárrega, Spanish classical guitarist-composer ||
|-id=059
| 5059 Saroma || 1988 AF || Lake Saroma, Hokkaido, Japan ||
|-id=060
| 5060 Yoneta || || Katsuhiko Yoneta (1904–1957), Japanese engineer and a graduate of Hokkaido University ||
|-id=061
| 5061 McIntosh || 1988 DJ || Bruce A. McIntosh, Canadian astronomer ||
|-id=062
| 5062 Glennmiller || 1989 CZ || Glenn Miller, American jazz musician and bandleader of the swing era ||
|-id=063
| 5063 Monteverdi || || Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643), Italian composer and Catholic priest ||
|-id=064
| 5064 Tanchozuru || 1990 FS || Tancho, Japanese crane ||
|-id=065
| 5065 Johnstone || || Paul Johnstone (died 1976), the first director and producer of The Sky at Night, a British documentary television programme on astronomy ||
|-id=066
| 5066 Garradd || 1990 MA || Gordon J. Garradd (born 1959), Australian amateur astronomer and photographer ||
|-id=067
| 5067 Occidental || 1990 OX || Occidental College, located in the Eagle Rock neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, United States ||
|-id=068
| 5068 Cragg || 1990 TC || Thomas A. Cragg, an American amateur astronomer ||
|-id=069
| 5069 Tokeidai || 1991 QB || Sapporo Tokeidai, Japan ||
|-id=070
| 5070 Arai || 1991 XT || Arai Ikunosuke, Japanese from Bakumatsu to Meiji ||
|-id=071
| 5071 Schoenmaker || 3099 T-2 || Anton A. Schoenmaker, Dutch technical officer at the Leiden Observatory ||
|-id=072
| 5072 Hioki || || Tsutomu Hioki, Japanese astronomer ||
|-id=073
| 5073 Junttura || 1943 EN || "Junttura" embodies the Finnish mentality to get things done, stubbornly and at all costs ||
|-id=074
| 5074 Goetzoertel || || Goetz Oertel, American physicist and chairman of AURA ||
|-id=075
| 5075 Goryachev || || Nikolaj Nikanorovich Goryachev (1883–1940), Russian professor of astronomy at Tomsk University ||
|-id=076
| 5076 Lebedev-Kumach || || Vasily Lebedev-Kumach (1898–1949), Soviet and Russian poet and songwriter ||
|-id=077
| 5077 Favaloro || 1974 MG || René Favaloro, Argentine cardiologist (1923–2000), creator of the bypass coronary surgery ||
|-id=078
| 5078 Solovjev-Sedoj || 1974 SW || Vasilij Pavlovich Solovjev-Sedoj (1907–1979), Russian composer ||
|-id=079
| 5079 Brubeck || 1975 DB || Dave Brubeck (1920–2012), American jazz pianist and composer ||
|-id=080
| 5080 Oja || 1976 EB || Tarmo Oja, Swedish astronomer ||
|-id=081
| 5081 Sanguin || || Juan Sanguin (1933–2006) was an Argentinian astronomer who was in charge of the minor planet and comet programs at the El Leoncito Station for more than a quarter of a century ||
|-id=082
| 5082 Nihonsyoki || || Nihon Shoki, the first written history of Japan, compiled in the 8th century ||
|-id=083
| 5083 Irinara || 1977 EV || Irina Evgen'evna Raksha, Russian writer and friend of the discoverer Nikolai Chernykh ||
|-id=084
| 5084 Gnedin || || Yurij Nikolaevich Gnedin (born 1935), Russian astrophysicist ||
|-id=085
| 5085 Hippocrene || 1977 NN || Hippocrene, mythological Greek fountain ||
|-id=086
| 5086 Demin || || Vladimir Grigor'evich Demin (1929–1996), Russian professor at Moscow University and expert on celestial mechanics and dynamics of rigid bodies ||
|-id=087
| 5087 Emel'yanov || || Nikolai Vladimirovich Emel'yanov (born 1946), Russian astronomer head of the Celestial Mechanics Department of the Sternberg Astronomical Institute in Moscow ||
|-id=088
| 5088 Tancredi || || Gonzalo Tancredi, Uruguayan astronomer ||
|-id=089
| 5089 Nádherná || 1979 SN || Sidonie Nádherná (1885–1950), Czech-British writer ||
|-id=090
| 5090 Wyeth || 1980 CG || Stuart Wyeth, American donor of the Wyeth 1.5-meter telescope at Harvard Observatory ||
|-id=091
| 5091 Isakovskij || || Mikhail Vasil'evich Isakovskii (1900–1973), Russian poet ||
|-id=092
| 5092 Manara || 1982 FJ || Alessandro Manara, astronomer at Brera Astronomical Observatory in Milan, Italy ||
|-id=093
| 5093 Svirelia || || Elsa Gustavovna Sviridova, the wife of Russian composer Georgy Sviridov ||
|-id=094
| 5094 Seryozha || || Sergey Kapitsa (1928–2012), Russian physicist ||
|-id=095
| 5095 Escalante || 1983 NL || Jaime Escalante (1930–2010), Bolivian-born mathematics teacher ||
|-id=096
| 5096 Luzin || || Nikolai Nikolaevich Luzin, Russian mathematician ||
|-id=097
| 5097 Axford || || Ian Axford (1933–2010), New Zealand-born astrophysicist and longtime director of the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research ||
|-id=098
| 5098 Tomsolomon || || Tom Solomon (born 1962) holds a Presidential Professorship in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at Bucknell University ||
|-id=099
| 5099 Iainbanks || || Iain M. Banks (1954–2013), a Scottish writer ||
|-id=100
| 5100 Pasachoff || 1985 GW || Jay Myron Pasachoff, Field Memorial Professor of Astronomy, Williams College, United States ||
|}
5101–5200
|-
| 5101 Akhmerov || || Vadim Zinov'evich Akhmerov (born 1929), doctor in the Crimean Peninsula ||
|-id=102
| 5102 Benfranklin || || Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), American scientist, philosopher and statesman ||
|-id=103
| 5103 Diviš || || Prokop Diviš (1698–1765), Czech scientist and monk ||
|-id=104
| 5104 Skripnichenko || || Vladimir Ilich Skripnichenko (born 1942), Russian astronomer, staff member and deputy director of the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy in Saint Petersburg ||
|-id=105
| 5105 Westerhout || || Gart Westerhout (1927–2012), Dutch radio astronomer ||
|-id=106
| 5106 Mortensen || 1987 DJ || Inger Mortensen (born 1910) is an aunt of Brorfelde observer Karl Augustesen. ||
|-id=107
| 5107 Laurenbacall || || Lauren Bacall (1924–2014), an American actress ||
|-id=108
| 5108 Lübeck || || Vincent Lübeck (1654–1740), German composer and organist ||
|-id=109
| 5109 Robertmiller || || Robert J. Miller (born 1950), an American astronomer at the U.S. Naval Observatory ||
|-id=110
| 5110 Belgirate || 1987 SV || The Italian village of Belgirate located on the shore of Lake Maggiore in Piedmont ||
|-id=111
| 5111 Jacliff || || Clifford (1929–1993) and Jackie (born 1935) Holmes, American amateur astronomers ||
|-id=112
| 5112 Kusaji || || Shigeharu Kusaji (1879–1956), Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=113
| 5113 Kohno || 1988 BN || Masaru Kohno (born 1926), Japanese classical guitar maker ||
|-id=114
| 5114 Yezo || 1988 CO || Named for Japan's northern island of Hokkaido, which was known as Yezo until 1869. ||
|-id=115
| 5115 Frimout || || Dirk D. Frimout (born 1941), Belgian astrophysicist and astronaut with the U.S. Space Shuttle ||
|-id=116
| 5116 Korsør || 1988 EU || Korsør, a town on the southwestern coast of Sjælland almost exactly 100 km from Copenhagen, is the birthplace of Brorfelde observer Karl Augustesen. ||
|-id=117
| 5117 Mokotoyama || 1988 GH || Mount Mokoto, in eastern Hokkaido, Japan ||
|-id=118
| 5118 Elnapoul || 1988 RB || Elna (1917–1992) and Poul Hyttel (born 1909), the parents-in-law of Brorfelde observer Karl Augustesen. ||
|-id=119
| 5119 Imbrius || || Imbrius, from Greek mythology. He was the son of Mentor and married to Medesicaste, an illegitimate daughter of King Priam of Troy. Imbrius was killed by Teucer during the Trojan War. ||
|-id=120
| 5120 Bitias || || Bitias, Trojan warrior and wandering companion of Aeneas, from Greek mythology ||
|-id=121
| 5121 Numazawa || || Shigemi Numazawa (born 1958), Japanese amateur astronomer, astrophotographer and space artist ||
|-id=122
| 5122 Mucha || || Alphonse Mucha (1860–1939), Czech artist ||
|-id=123
| 5123 Cynus || 1989 BL || Cynus, a location in the Iliad from whrere the Locrians filled forty ships as part of the Greek armada that set out against Troy. ||
|-id=124
| 5124 Muraoka || 1989 CW || Kenji Muraoka (born 1955), Japanese amateur astronomer and orbit computer ||
|-id=125
| 5125 Okushiri || || Okushiri Island, some 30 km to the southwest of Hokkaido, noted for its rich fishing grounds for squid and scallops. ||
|-id=126
| 5126 Achaemenides || || Achaemenides, mythological Greek warrior ||
|-id=127
| 5127 Bruhns || || Nicolaus Bruhns (1665–1697), Danish-German organist, violinist, and composer ||
|-id=128
| 5128 Wakabayashi || 1989 FJ || Wakabayashi-ku, Sendai, Japan ||
|-id=129
| 5129 Groom || 1989 GN || Steven L. Groom, a computer engineer at JPL and creator of NEAT's autonomous observing system ||
|-id=130
| 5130 Ilioneus || || Ilioneus, mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=132
| 5132 Maynard || 1990 ME || Owen Eugene Maynard, Canadian aeronautical engineer ||
|-id=133
| 5133 Phillipadams || 1990 PA || Phillip Adams (born 1939), an Australian broadcaster, writer and social commentator ||
|-id=134
| 5134 Ebilson || || Elisabeth Bilson (born 1937), administrator in the Department of Astronomy at Cornell University Src ||
|-id=135
| 5135 Nibutani || 1990 UE || Nibutani, sacred land for the indigenous Ainu of Hokkaidō, Japan. ||
|-id=136
| 5136 Baggaley || || W. Jack Baggaley (born 1938), English radar meteor researcher at the University of Canterbury in New Zealand ||
|-id=137
| 5137 Frevert || 1990 VC || Friedrich Frevert (1914–2001), German astronomer Src ||
|-id=138
| 5138 Gyoda || || Gyōda, Saitama, Japan ||
|-id=139
| 5139 Rumoi || || Rumoi, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=140
| 5140 Kida || 1990 XH || Kinjirō Kida (1893–1962), Hokkaido-born painter, known for his landscapes, and whose work has been compared to that of Cézanne and other impressionists. ||
|-id=141
| 5141 Tachibana || 1990 YB || Tachibana, a kendo club ||
|-id=142
| 5142 Okutama || 1990 YD || Okutama Observatory, Japan ||
|-id=143
| 5143 Heracles || 1991 VL || Heracles, Greek hero ||
|-id=144
| 5144 Achates || 1991 XX || Achates, mythical Trojan warrior ||
|-id=145
| 5145 Pholus || 1992 AD || Pholus, mythological centaur ||
|-id=146
| 5146 Moiwa || 1992 BP || Mount Moiwa, the mountain that offers an outstanding panorama of the city of Sapporo and is popular both to skiers and to hikers in its virgin forest. ||
|-id=147
| 5147 Maruyama || 1992 BQ || Maruyama hill, a small hill, situated near Mt. Moiwa in the southwestern part of Sapporo and known for a beautiful park and zoo, as well as the Hokkaido Shrine. ||
|-id=148
| 5148 Giordano || 5557 P-L || Giordano Bruno (1548–1600), Italian Dominican priest ||
|-id=149
| 5149 Leibniz || 6582 P-L || Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716), German philosopher, mathematician, and co-inventor of calculus ||
|-id=150
| 5150 Fellini || 7571 P-L || Federico Fellini (1920–1993), Italian film director ||
|-id=151
| 5151 Weerstra || 2160 T-2 || Claas Weerstra, Dutch comet chaser and administrative officer and longtime programmer at the Leiden Observatory ||
|-id=152
| 5152 Labs || 1931 UD || Dietrich Labs (born 1921), German astrophysicist and professor at Heidelberg University and Königstuhl Observatory ||
|-id=153
| 5153 Gierasch || 1940 GO || Peter J. Gierasch (born 1940), planetary scientist, co-founder of Cornell University's Center for Radiophysics and Space Research, and winner of the 2014 Gerard P. Kuiper Prize ||
|-id=154
| 5154 Leonov || || Yevgeny Leonov (1926–1994), Soviet artist and actor ||
|-id=155
| 5155 Denisyuk || 1972 HR || Yurij Nikolaevich Denisyuk (1927–2006), head of a laboratory at the Ioffe Physical and Technical Institute in St. Petersburg and a member of the Royal Photographic Society. ||
|-id=156
| 5156 Golant || 1972 KL || Victor Evgen'evich Golant (born 1928), director of the department of plasma physics, atomic physics and astrophysics at the Ioffe Physical and Technical Institute in Saint Petersburg ||
|-id=157
| 5157 Hindemith || || Paul Hindemith (1895–1963), German composer, violist and conductor ||
|-id=158
| 5158 Ogarev || 1976 YY || Nikolay Ogarev (1813–1877), a Russian poet, historian and political activist ||
|-id=159
| 5159 Burbine || 1977 RG || Thomas Burbine, American planetary scientist at Mount Holyoke College ||
|-id=160
| 5160 Camoes || 1979 YO || Luís de Camões (1524–1580) Portuguese poet ||
|-id=161
| 5161 Wightman || || Kingsley W. Wightman, teacher of astronomy at Chabot Space and Science Center in Oakland, California ||
|-id=162
| 5162 Piemonte || 1982 BW || Piedmont, the northwestern region of Italy, with its capital Turin ||
|-id=163
| 5163 Vollmayr-Lee || || Katharina Vollmayr-Lee (born 1967), a Professor in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at Bucknell University. ||
|-id=164
| 5164 Mullo || || Mullo, a Celtic god, associated by the Romans with Mars ||
|-id=165
| 5165 Videnom || 1985 CG || Videnom, popular weekly Danish television program on natural science. ||
|-id=166
| 5166 Olson || || Irvin Edward "Ole" Olson (1910–1993), an American telescope-dome manufacturer ||
|-id=167
| 5167 Joeharms || || John (Joe) Eric Harms, an Australian geologist ||
|-id=168
| 5168 Jenner || 1986 EJ || Edward Jenner (1749–1823), English medical doctor, who introduced the smallpox vaccine ||
|-id=169
| 5169 Duffell || || Stephen Duffell (born 1943), friend of Edward Bowell who discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=170
| 5170 Sissons || 1987 EH || Anthony Sissons (born 1943), friend of Edward Bowell who discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=171
| 5171 Augustesen || || Karl A. Augustesen (born 1945) has for several decades been the observer at the Schmidt telescope erected at Brorfelde in 1965. ||
|-id=172
| 5172 Yoshiyuki || || Yoshiyuki Endo (born 1953), the landowner of the Kushiro Observatory ||
|-id=173
| 5173 Stjerneborg || || Stjerneborg, pioneering astronomical observatory built by Tycho Brahe ||
|-id=174
| 5174 Okugi || 1988 HF || Shin Okugi (born 1952), Japanese optical engineer and director of the software division of Goto Optical Laboratory ||
|-id=175
| 5175 Ables || || Harold D. Ables (born 1938), American astronomer and former director at the United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station ||
|-id=176
| 5176 Yoichi || 1989 AU || The Japanese city of Yoichi located in southwestern Hokkaido and noted for its fruit and marine products. ||
|-id=177
| 5177 Hugowolf || || Hugo Wolf (1860–1903), Austrian composer ||
|-id=178
| 5178 Pattazhy || || Sainudeen Pattazhy (born 1962), an Indian environmentalist and zoologist ||
|-id=179
| 5179 Takeshima || || Toshio Takeshima (born 1930), a Japanese Iai master and friend of Tsutomu Seki who discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=180
| 5180 Ohno || 1989 GF || Keiko Ohno (born 1959), Japanese activities in promoting the public awareness of the study of astronomy and space science. She is an software developer at Goto Optical Laboratory ||
|-id=181
| 5181 SURF || 1989 GO || Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowship (SURF) program of Caltech ||
|-id=182
| 5182 Bray || 1989 NE || Olin D. Bray (born 1907), an American medical doctor and friend of Eleanor Helin who discovered this minor planet. The naming took place on the occasion of Bray's 85th birthday in 1992. ||
|-id=183
| 5183 Robyn || || Laurie Robyn Ernst Yeomans, wife of Donald Yeomans, , president of IAU Commission 20 ||
|-id=184
| 5184 Cavaillé-Coll || || Aristide Cavaillé-Coll (1811–1899), member of a famous French dynasty of organ builders ||
|-id=185
| 5185 Alerossi || || Alessandro Rossi (born 1964), a member of the Group of Satellite Flight Dynamics at the Istituto CNECE in Pisa ||
|-id=186
| 5186 Donalu || || Dona(lu) Wheeler Roman, wife of American discoverer Brian P. Roman ||
|-id=187
| 5187 Domon || || Ken Domon (1909–1990), Japanese photographer ||
|-id=188
| 5188 Paine || || Thomas O. Paine (1921–1992), American metallurgist, third Administrator of NASA, and advisor to the Planetary Society ||
|-id=190
| 5190 Fry || || Stephen Fry (born 1957), an English writer, actor, comedian, TV presenter and activist ||
|-id=191
| 5191 Paddack || || Stephen J. Paddack (born 1934), an aeronautical engineer and contributor to the understanding of the Yorp effect ||
|-id=192
| 5192 Yabuki || 1991 CC || Hiroshi Yabuki (born 1960), a leading Japanese developer of automated planetarium programs at Goto Optical Laboratory ||
|-id=193
| 5193 Tanakawataru || 1992 ET || Wataru Tanaka (born 1939), Japanese astronomer and professor at the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan ||
|-id=194
| 5194 Böttger || 4641 P-L || Johann Friedrich Böttger (1682–1719), a German alchemist and one of the early inventors of hard-paste porcelain in Meissen, Germany ||
|-id=195
| 5195 Kaendler || 3289 T-1 || Johann Joachim Kaendler (1706–1775), German sculptor, later founder of the European style of porcelain in Meissen, Germany ||
|-id=196
| 5196 Bustelli || 3102 T-2 || Franz Anton Bustelli (1723–1763), Swiss artist, involved with the Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory ||
|-id=197
| 5197 Rottmann || 4265 T-2 || Friedrich Rottmann (1797–1850), German Romantic landscape painter and father of Carl Rottmann ||
|-id=198
| 5198 Fongyunwah || || Yun-Wah Fong, Chinese educator and mentor of Chinese astronomer Yang Jiexing, who is an uncredited co-discoverer of this minor planet at the Purple Mountain Observatory ||
|-id=199
| 5199 Dortmund || || The city of Dortmund, capital of North Rhein-Westphalia, Germany ||
|-id=200
| 5200 Pamal || 1983 CM || Patrick Michael Malotki (born 1974), friend of Edward Bowell who discovered this minor planet. The naming took place on the occasion of his 21st birthday (the nickname stands for "pas mal", French for "not bad", a compliment). ||
|}
5201–5300
|-
| 5201 Ferraz-Mello || 1983 XF || Sylvio Ferraz-Mello (born 1936), Brazilian astronomer ||
|-id=202
| 5202 Charleseliot || 1983 XX || Charles William Eliot (1834–1926), an American chemist and the 21st President of Harvard College ||
|-id=203
| 5203 Pavarotti || || Luciano Pavarotti (1935–2007), Italian opera singer ||
|-id=204
| 5204 Herakleitos || || Herakleitos, Ancient Greek philosopher ||
|-id=205
| 5205 Servián || || Berta E. Servián de Flores (1914–1996), the first Paraguayan woman aviator. ||
|-id=206
| 5206 Kodomonomori || 1988 ED || Kodomo no Mori (Children's Forest), Treeplanting program in Japan ||
|-id=207
| 5207 Hearnshaw || 1988 HE || John Bernard Hearnshaw (born 1946), New Zealand spectroscopist, who has guided the Mount John University Observatory through major developments over 30 years ||
|-id=208
| 5208 Royer || || Msgr. Ronald E. Royer, American priest, amateur astronomer and astrophotographer ||
|-id=209
| 5209 Oloosson || || Oloosson, a town mentioned in the Catalogue of Ships in the Iliad by Homer. ||
|-id=210
| 5210 Saint-Saëns || || Camille Saint-Saëns (1835–1921), French composer ||
|-id=211
| 5211 Stevenson || 1989 NX || David J. Stevenson (born 1948), New Zealand planetary scientist Src</ref> ||
|-id=212
| 5212 Celiacruz || 1989 SS || Celia Cruz (1925–2003), a Cuban-American salsa singer and performer ||
|-id=213
| 5213 Takahashi || 1990 FU || Kiichiro Takahashi, president of Takahashi Seisakusho ||
|-id=214
| 5214 Oozora || || Super Ōzora, Limited express train at Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=215
| 5215 Tsurui || 1991 AE || Tsurui, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=216
| 5216 Cannizzo || 1941 HA || John Kendall Cannizzo (1957–2018) was an American astrophysicist who worked at the NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. He also spent time at the Harvard College Observatory, where he met his wife Catherine Asaro, and did research as a Humboldt Fellow at the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics. ||
|-id=217
| 5217 Chaozhou || 1966 CL || Chaozhou, a Chinese city in Guangdong Province, cradle of the Chaoshan Culture. ||
|-id=218
| 5218 Kutsak || || Mariya Romanovna Kutsak (1928–1997) was a schoolteacher of physics and astronomy in the city of Omsk for about 40 years ||
|-id=219
| 5219 Zemka || || Aleksandr Grigorjevich Zemka (born 1947), friend of the discoverer, electrotechnics engineer in Zaporozhje, both a prominent specialist and a good organizer who wins the respect of his colleagues and acquaintances. He provided valuable help to the discoverer in improving the 0.64-m telescope used for the Crimean NEA Survey ||
|-id=220
| 5220 Vika || || Viktoriya Semenovna Vinogradova (born 1928), doctor at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory on the Crimean peninsula ||
|-id=221
| 5221 Fabribudweis || 1980 FB || Wenceslaus Fabri de Budweis (c. 1460–1518), Czech scientist and author of almanacs ||
|-id=222
| 5222 Ioffe || || Abram Ioffe (1880–1960), Russian physicist and pioneer in semi-conductor research ||
|-id=223
| 5223 McSween || || Harry McSween, planetary geologist and geochemist, meteorite researcher Src ||
|-id=224
| 5224 Abbe || || Ernst Abbe (1840–1905), German astronomer, optician, educator and director of the Jena Observatory ||
|-id=225
| 5225 Loral || || Loral Inc, an American manufacturer of CCDs ||
|-id=226
| 5226 Pollack || 1983 WL || James B. Pollack (1938–1994), an American planetary scientist at the NASA Ames Research Center. ||
|-id=227
| 5227 Bocacara || 1986 PE || Bocacara, a Spanish village south of the historic university city of Salamanca. It was first settled in the Middle Ages and remained a farming and herding village until the end of the 20th century. Crops included wheat, beans and garbanzos, but Bocacara was renowned in the region for its potatoes. ||
|-id=228
| 5228 Máca || 1986 VT || Jan Máca, schoolmate and friend of the discoverer, for his contribution to the protection of nature ||
|-id=229
| 5229 Irurita || || Irurita is one of 15 villages nestled in the Baztan Valley, within the autonomous community of Navarre in the Basque Country in northern Spain. ||
|-id=230
| 5230 Asahina || 1988 EF || Takashi Asahina, Japanese conductor ||
|-id=231
| 5231 Verne || 1988 JV || Jules Verne, French novelist and playwright ||
|-id=232
| 5232 Jordaens || || Jacob Jordaens, Flemish painter ||
|-id=233
| 5233 Nastes || || Nastes, from Greek mythology. With his brother Amphimacus, he was a leader of the Carian contingent on the side of the Trojans in the Trojan War. Nastes was killed in the river Maeander by Achilles, who stripped off his armour and golden ornaments. ||
|-id=234
| 5234 Sechenov || 1989 VP || Ivan Sechenov (1829–1905), Russian naturalist and physiologist ||
|-id=235
| 5235 Jean-Loup || || Jean-Loup Bertaux (born 1942), a French planetary scientist who headed the Department of Solar System Studies at CNRS ||
|-id=236
| 5236 Yoko || || Yoko Huruta, wife of discoverer ||
|-id=237
| 5237 Yoshikawa || || Katsunori Yoshikawa (born 1942), owner of the land on which the Nihondaira Observatory was built on. The observatory is located in one of the green-tea producing areas in Japan. ||
|-id=238
| 5238 Naozane || || Kumagai Naozane, early samurai ||
|-id=239
| 5239 Reiki || || Reiki Kushida, a Japanese amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets. She was the first woman to discover a supernova (1991bg) visually. ||
|-id=240
| 5240 Kwasan || 1990 XE || Kwasan Observatory of Kyoto University is located near Kyoto, Japan ||
|-id=241
| 5241 Beeson || 1990 YL || Charlotte "Charlie" Beeson (born 1990) is a British astronomer, computer programmer, gymnast, dancer and musician, who undertook research at the Harvard- Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics for her Masters Thesis: Methods to Improve Near-Earth Asteroid Discovery and Spectroscopic Characterisation Rates. ||
|-id=242
| 5242 Kenreimonin || 1991 BO || Empress Dowager Kenrei, Japan ||
|-id=243
| 5243 Clasien || 1246 T-2 || Clasien Shane, wife of American astronomer William Whitney Shane (born 1923) at the Leiden and Nijmegen observatories ||
|-id=244
| 5244 Amphilochos || || Amphilochos (son of Amphiaraos), mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=245
| 5245 Maslyakov || || Aleksandr Vasil'evich Maslyakov, Russian TV journalist, known for the program "Club of Merry and Resourceful Persons" (KVN) ||
|-id=246
| 5246 Migliorini || 1979 OB || Fabio Migliorini (1971–1997), a young researcher who died in a mountain accident ||
|-id=247
| 5247 Krylov || || Aleksey Krylov (1863–1945), a Russian mathematician and naval architect ||
|-id=248
| 5248 Scardia || 1983 GQ || Marco Scardia (born 1948), Italian astrometrist at the Merate and Brera observatories in northern Italy ||
|-id=249
| 5249 Giza || 1983 HJ || Giza, Egyptian city on the west bank of the Nile, known for some of Egypt's greatest antiquities ||
|-id=250
| 5250 Jas || 1984 QF || Czech for 'brightness' and the initials of the South Bohemian Astronomical Society (Jihočeská Astronomická Společnost) ||
|-id=251
| 5251 Bradwood || 1985 KA || Frank Bradshaw Wood, American astronomer ||
|-id=252
| 5252 Vikrymov || || Viktor Aleksandrovich Krymov (born 1929), deputy director of the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy (ITA) in St Peterburg, Russia ||
|-id=253
| 5253 Fredclifford || 1985 XB || Fred Clifford (1924–1980) was a mariner, joining the U.S. Merchant Marine in 1943 to fulfill a life-long dream of going to sea. He was a forward thinker and inspired early technological development of foam-core surfboards and was co-owner of Clifford/George Surfboards in Santa Barbara, California, USA in the 1960s. ||
|-id=254
| 5254 Ulysses || || Odysseus (Roman name: "Ulysses"), mythological Greek king ||
|-id=255
| 5255 Johnsophie || 1988 KF || John and Sophie Karayusuf, parents of Alford S. Karayusuf, a friend of the discoverer. Under the starry skies of the Syrian Desert, they inspired their children to study the stars and planets and to wonder in amazement at the ability of mankind to explore the heavens ||
|-id=256
| 5256 Farquhar || 1988 NN || Robert W. Farquhar (1932–2015), an American mission design specialist at NASA ||
|-id=257
| 5257 Laogonus || || Laogonus, from Greek mythology. He was the son of Bias and grandson of King Priam of Troy. Laogonus and his brother Dardanus were killed by Achilles, who knocked the brothers from their chariots, smiting one with a cast of his spear and the other with his sword in close fight. ||
|-id=258
| 5258 Rhoeo || || Rhoeo was thrown in the ocean locked in a chest after her father learned she was pregnant. She was guided by Apollo, her lover, to the island of Delos where she gave birth to Anius, who later prophesied that the siege of Troy would go on for ten years. ||
|-id=259
| 5259 Epeigeus || || Epeigeus, mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=260
| 5260 Philvéron || 1989 RH || Philippe Véron, French astronomer ||
|-id=261
| 5261 Eureka || 1990 MB || Eureka!, Greek exclamation of discovery ||
|-id=262
| 5262 Brucegoldberg || || Bruce A. Goldberg, an American scientist at JPL and USAF Phillips Laboratory, was a friend of Eleanor F. Helin, who discovered this minor planet. ||
|-id=263
| 5263 Arrius || || Harrison Callum Bertram Steel (born 1992), son of British discoverer Duncan Steel ||
|-id=264
| 5264 Telephus || 1991 KC || Telephus, mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=265
| 5265 Schadow || 2570 P-L || Johann Gottfried Schadow (1764–1850), German sculptor whose work includes the chariot on top of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin ||
|-id=266
| 5266 Rauch || 4047 T-2 || Christian Daniel Rauch, German sculptor ||
|-id=267
| 5267 Zegmott || 1966 CF || Tarik Zegmott (born 1992) is a British Astronomy PhD student whose research for his Masters thesis, "Optimising Observing Strategies for Near-Earth Asteroid Characterisation", was undertaken at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. ||
|-id=268
| 5268 Černohorský || || Martin Cernohorský, Czech physicist. ||
|-id=269
| 5269 Paustovskij || || Konstantin Paustovsky (1892–1968), Russian writer ||
|-id=270
| 5270 Kakabadze || 1979 KR || David Kakabadze (1889–1952), a Georgian painter and avantgardist ||
|-id=271
| 5271 Kaylamaya || || Kayla Maya Soderblom was the daughter of planetary scientist Jason Soderblom and granddaughter of planetary scientist Larry Soderblom. Born with a congenital heart problem, Kayla lived only 15 months, but was a source of happiness and inspiration for all who knew her. ||
|-id=272
| 5272 Dickinson || || Terence Dickinson, Canadian astronomy populariser ||
|-id=273
| 5273 Peilisheng || || Pei Lisheng, 20th-century Chinese satellite scientist and oceanographer ||
|-id=274
| 5274 Degewij || 1985 RS || Johan Degewij (born 1944), Dutch astronomer ||
|-id=275
| 5275 Zdislava || 1986 UU || Saint Zdislava (sv. Zdislava), Moravian noblewoman, wife of Markvartic Havel, Duke of Lemberk, known for her generosity to the poor, and an early lay member of the Dominican Order ||
|-id=276
| 5276 Gulkis || 1987 GK || Samuel Gulkis, an American astronomer and expert in radio and submillimeter astronomy at JPL, was a supporter of the NEAT program ||
|-id=277
| 5277 Brisbane || 1988 DO || Brisbane, the name of the capital city of Queensland, itself honors Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, an astronomer and the colonial governor who established Australia's first permanent observatory in 1822. The minor planet's discoverer was born 20 km from Brisbane's birthplace in Ayrshire, Scotland ||
|-id=278
| 5278 Polly || || Polly Brooks, member of the Planetary Society's New Millennium Committee ||
|-id=279
| 5279 Arthuradel || 1988 LA || Arthur Adel, American astrophysicist ||
|-id=280
| 5280 Andrewbecker || 1988 PT || Andrew C. Becker (born 1973), an American astronomer and data scientist at the University of Washington. ||
|-id=281
| 5281 Lindstrom || || Marilyn Lindstrom (born 1946) (born Marilyn R. Martin), American planetary geologist and curator of the U.S. Antarctic meteorite collection at NASA's Johnson Space Center ||
|-id=282
| 5282 Yamatotakeru || 1988 VT || Yamato Takeru, Japanese legendary prince ||
|-id=283
| 5283 Pyrrhus || 1989 BW || Neoptolemus, son of Achilles ||
|-id=284
| 5284 Orsilocus || || Greek warrior Orsilochus, son of Diocles and twin brother of Crethon, killed by Aeneas during the Trojan War ||
|-id=285
| 5285 Krethon || || Greek warrior Crethon (Krethon), son of Diocles and twin brother of Orsilochus, killed by Aeneas during the Trojan War ||
|-id=286
| 5286 Haruomukai || || Haruo Mukai (1949–1986) was the younger brother of Japanese astronomer Masaru Mukai, who co-discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=287
| 5287 Heishu || 1989 WE || Heishu Hosoi, Japanese confucianist ||
|-id=288
| 5288 Nankichi || 1989 XD || Nankichi Niimi, Japanese author ||
|-id=289
| 5289 Niemela || || Born in Helsinki, Virpi Niemela (born 1936) moved to Argentina at the age of 17. She received her Ph.D. in astronomy at La Plata observatory, where she has conducted her professional work. Her main field of research is massive stars, an area to which she has contributed over 150 refereed papers ||
|-id=290
| 5290 Langevin || || Yves Langevin (born 1951), French planetary scientist at the Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale in Orsay ||
|-id=291
| 5291 Yuuko || 1990 YT || Yuuko Matsuyama, wife of discoverer ||
|-id=292
| 5292 Mackwell || || Stephen J. Mackwell (born 1956) is the Director of the Lunar and Planetary Institute. ||
|-id=293
| 5293 Bentengahama || || Benten beach (Bentengahama), a sandy beach near Kushiro in northern Japan, where the co-discoverer, Kazuro Watanabe, spent his childhood. ||
|-id=294
| 5294 Onnetoh || 1991 CB || Lake Onnetoh, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=295
| 5295 Masayo || 1991 CE || Masayo Mizuno, wife of discoverer ||
|-id=296
| 5296 Friedrich || 9546 P-L || Caspar David Friedrich (1774–1840), German Romantic landscape painter ||
|-id=297
| 5297 Schinkel || 4170 T-2 || Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781–1841), German architect and painter ||
|-id=298
| 5298 Paraskevopoulos || 1966 PK || John Stefanos Paraskevopoulos, Greek astronomer, director of the Athens Observatory and later superintendent of the Boyden Observatory ||
|-id=299
| 5299 Bittesini || 1969 LB || Luciano Bittesini (born 1950), Italian amateur astronomer and astrometrist at Farra d'Isonzo Observatory ||
|-id=300
| 5300 Sats || || Nataliya Il'inichna Sats (1903–1993), Soviet author and founder of the Moscow Musical Children's Theater ||
|}
5301–5400
|-
| 5301 Novobranets || || Vasilij Andreevich Novobranets (1904–1984), Russian and Ukrainian writer. ||
|-id=302
| 5302 Romanoserra || || Romano Serra (born 1954), Italian physicist ||
|-id=303
| 5303 Parijskij || || Yurij Nikolaevich Parijskij (born 1932), Russian radio astronomer and cosmologist ||
|-id=304
| 5304 Bazhenov || || Vasily Bazhenov (1737–1799), Russian architect ||
|-id=305
| 5305 Bernievolz || || Bernard Volz (born 1961), American amateur astronomer and former president of the Amherst Area Amateur Astronomers Association ||
|-id=306
| 5306 Fangfen || 1980 BB || Fen Fang, Chinese astronomer ||
|-id=307
| 5307 Paul-André || 1980 YC || Paul-André Herbelin (1933–1994), Swiss friend of the American discoverer Edward Bowell ||
|-id=308
| 5308 Hutchison || || Robert Hutchison (born 1938) former curator of meteorites at the Natural History Museum, London ||
|-id=309
| 5309 MacPherson || || Glenn Joseph MacPherson (born 1950), curator at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. ||
|-id=310
| 5310 Papike || || James Papike (born 1937), director emeritus of the Institute of Meteoritics at the University of New Mexico. ||
|-id=311
| 5311 Rutherford || || Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937), born and educated in New Zealand, won the 1908 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his work on radioactive disintegration of elements. He was the first to develop radioactive dating of the Earth, established the nuclear atom, and predicted the existence of the neutron. ||
|-id=312
| 5312 Schott || || Otto Schott (1851–1935), a German chemist, glass technologist, and the inventor of borosilicate glass ||
|-id=313
| 5313 Nunes || || Pedro Nunes (1502–1578), Portuguese mathematician and geographer ||
|-id=314
| 5314 Wilkickia || || Andrey Vilkitsky (1858–1913) and Boris Vilkitsky (1885–1961), father and son, Russian hydrographers and Arctic explorers ||
|-id=315
| 5315 Bal'mont || || Konstantin Balmont (1867–1942), a Russian symbolist poet and translator ||
|-id=316
| 5316 Filatov || || Vladimir Filatov (1875–1956), ophthalmologist and surgeon ||
|-id=317
| 5317 Verolacqua || 1983 CE || Veronica Lynn Passalacqua, a volunteer who compiled the International Comet Quarterly archive of photometric data on comets ||
|-id=318
| 5318 Dientzenhofer || || Kryštof Dientzenhofer, Czech architect ||
|-id=319
| 5319 Petrovskaya || || Margarita Sergeevna Petrovskaya (, born 1933), Russian astronomer and staff member of the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy in Saint Petersburg ||
|-id=320
| 5320 Lisbeth || 1985 VD || Lisbeth Fogh Olsen, daughter of Danish co-discoverer Hans Jørn Fogh Olsen ||
|-id=321
| 5321 Jagras || 1985 VN || Jakob Grove Rasmussen, fiancé of the daughter of Danish co-discoverer Hans Jørn Fogh Olsen ||
|-id=323
| 5323 Fogh || || Hans Jørn Fogh Olsen (born 1943), Danish astronomer and discoverer of minor planets at Brorfelde Observatory ||
|-id=324
| 5324 Lyapunov || 1987 SL || Aleksandr Mikhailovich Lyapunov (1857–1918), Russian mathematician, engineer and physicist ||
|-id=325
| 5325 Silver || 1988 JQ || Leon Silver (born 1925), professor of geology at Caltech ||
|-id=326
| 5326 Vittoriosacco || || Vittorio Sacco (born 1941), an Italian amateur astronomer and popularizer of astronomy. ||
|-id=327
| 5327 Gertwilkens || || Gert Wilkens (born 1957) has been the financial administrator of Stichting De Koepel, former Dutch center for the popularization of astronomy and space science. He serves as librarian of the astronomical library of Sonnenborgh Observatory in Utrecht in the Netherlands. Wilkens is a co-editor of the astronomical annual Sterrengids. ||
|-id=328
| 5328 Nisiyamakoiti || || Koichi Nishiyama, Japanese mountaineer and amateur astronomer, meteor, comet, and nova hunter ||
|-id=329
| 5329 Decaro || 1989 YP || Mario De Caro, Italian philosopher ||
|-id=330
| 5330 Senrikyu || || Sen no Rikyū, Japanese tea master ||
|-id=331
| 5331 Erimomisaki || || Cape Erimo, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=332
| 5332 Davidaguilar || 1990 DA || David Aguilar, American director of public affairs at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, astronomical photographer, and telescope maker ||
|-id=333
| 5333 Kanaya || 1990 UH || Kanaya, Shizuoka, Japan ||
|-id=334
| 5334 Mishima || 1991 CF || Mishima, Shizuoka, Japan ||
|-id=335
| 5335 Damocles || 1991 DA || Damocles, mythological Greek figure ||
|-id=337
| 5337 Aoki || 1991 LD || Masahiro Aoki (1920–1984), Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=338
| 5338 Michelblanc || || Michel Blanc (born 1949), French planetary scientist and director of the Pic du Midi Observatory ||
|-id=340
| 5340 Burton || 4027 P-L || William Butler Burton (born 1940), American professor of astronomy at the University of Leiden ||
|-id=341
| 5341 Purgathofer || 6040 P-L || Alois Purgathofer (1925–1983), Austrian astronomer ||
|-id=342
| 5342 Le Poole || 3129 T-2 || Rudolf Le Poole (born 1942), Dutch astronomer at Leiden ||
|-id=343
| 5343 Ryzhov || || Yurij Aleksandrovich Ryzhov (born 1930), a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences ||
|-id=344
| 5344 Ryabov || 1978 RN || Yurij Aleksandrovich Ryabov (born 1923), professor at the Moscow Road-Transport Institute ||
|-id=345
| 5345 Boynton || || William Boynton (born 1944), professor of cosmochemistry and geochemistry at the University of Arizona, has measured elemental abundances in meteorites as a means of probing the early history of the solar system. He is the team leader for the gamma-ray spectrometer on the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft ||
|-id=346
| 5346 Benedetti || || Mario Benedetti (1920–2009), an internationally-renowned Uruguayan writer and member of the so-called 45 Generation of writers, essayists and poets. He received several national and international awards, including the VII Premio Reina Sofia de Poesia Iberoamericana in 1999. ||
|-id=347
| 5347 Orestelesca || || Oreste Lesca, amateur astronomer. ||
|-id=348
| 5348 Kennoguchi || 1988 BB || Ken Noguchi (b.~1973) is a Japanese alpinist and environmental activist. In 1999 he reached the summit of Mt. Everest and became the youngest person in the world (at that time) to climb the highest mountains on each of the seven continents ||
|-id=349
| 5349 Paulharris || 1988 RA || Paul P. Harris (1868–1947), founder of Rotary International in 1905 ||
|-id=350
| 5350 Epetersen || || Erik V. Petersen (born 1911), Danish amateur astronomer ||
|-id=351
| 5351 Diderot || || Denis Diderot, French writer ||
|-id=352
| 5352 Fujita || 1989 YN || Yoshio Fujita, Japanese astrophysicist and professor emeritus of the University of Tokyo ||
|-id=354
| 5354 Hisayo || || Hisayo Kaneda, daughter of second discoverer. ||
|-id=355
| 5355 Akihiro || 1991 CA || Akihiro Ueda, son of first discoverer. ||
|-id=356
| 5356 Neagari || || Neagari, the name of an old town in Nomi District, Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan. ||
|-id=357
| 5357 Sekiguchi || 1992 EL || Tomohiko Sekiguchi (born 1970), an associate professor at Hokkaido University of Education since 2008. ||
|-id=358
| 5358 Meineko || 1992 QH || Meineko is the pen name of Kiyota Seiichiro (born 1962), who has been observing variable stars since 1975. As Meineko, he has written a monthly guide on variable stars in the Japanese astronomy magazine Gekkan Tenmon and on CCD observation methods in textbooks. ||
|-id=359
| 5359 Markzakharov || || Mark Anatolievich Zakharov (born 1933), Russian producer ||
|-id=360
| 5360 Rozhdestvenskij || || Robert Ivanovich Rozhdestvenskij (1932–1994), Russian poet, journalist and popular songwriter ||
|-id=361
| 5361 Goncharov || || Ivan Goncharov (1812–1891) is known for his four novels Oblomov, Obryv ("Precipice"), Obyknovennaya istoriya ("Unusual event") and Fregat "Pallada" ("Frigate Pallada"). ||
|-id=362
| 5362 Johnyoung || 1978 CH || John W. Young (1930–2018) was a United States naval aviator and test pilot and NASA astronaut. He flew on Gemini 3, Gemini 10, Apollo 10, Apollo 16 (becoming the ninth person to walk on the Moon), and commanded two Space Shuttle missions (STS-1 and STS-9). ||
|-id=363
| 5363 Kupka || 1979 UQ || František Kupka (1871–1957), Czech painter and graphic artist ||
|-id=365
| 5365 Fievez || || Charles Fiévez (1844–1890), pioneer of astronomical spectroscopy in Belgium † ||
|-id=366
| 5366 Rhianjones || || Rhian Jones (born 1960), an experimental and sample petrologist at the Institute of Meteoritics at the University of New Mexico. ||
|-id=367
| 5367 Sollenberger || 1982 TT || Paul Sollenberger (1891–1995), American astronomer and first civilian director of Time Service at the United States Naval Observatory ||
|-id=368
| 5368 Vitagliano || || Aldo Vitagliano (born 1948), Italian astronomer ||
|-id=369
| 5369 Virgiugum || || Jungfraujoch (latinized), a site in the Swiss Alps and location of the Sphinx Observatory ||
|-id=370
| 5370 Taranis || 1986 RA || Celtic god Taranis ||
|-id=372
| 5372 Bikki || 1987 WS || Bikki Sunazawa, Ainu sculptor ||
|-id=374
| 5374 Hokutosei || || Hokutosei, Japanese overnight limited express ||
|-id=375
| 5375 Siedentopf || || Heinrich Siedentopf (1906–1963), a German astronomer and director of the Jena Observatory and Sternwarte Tübingen. ||
|-id=377
| 5377 Komori || 1991 FM || Yukimasa Komori (1900–), Japanese owner of Astro-Dome. He was also a member of the committee at Gotoh Planetarium ||
|-id=378
| 5378 Ellyett || 1991 GD || Clifton Darfield Ellyett (born 1915), pioneer of radar meteor research in New Zealand ||
|-id=379
| 5379 Abehiroshi || 1991 HG || Hiroshi Abe (born 1958), a discoverer of numerous minor planets at Yatsuka Observatory since 1993. ||
|-id=380
| 5380 Sprigg || 1991 JT || Reg Sprigg (1919–1994), an Australian exploration geologist, oceanographer, biologist, author and conservationist. ||
|-id=381
| 5381 Sekhmet || 1991 JY || Sekhmet, Egyptian goddess ||
|-id=382
| 5382 McKay || || Christopher P. McKay, (born 1954), space scientist and exobiologist at NASA-Ames Research Center. ||
|-id=383
| 5383 Leavitt || 4293 T-2 || Henrietta Swan Leavitt (1868–1921), American astronomer and discoverer of the luminosity–period relation for Cepheids ||
|-id=384
| 5384 Changjiangcun || 1957 VA || Changjiangcun, Jiangsu province, China, "the famous flower of Yangtze River", Chinese homonym of the Yangtze River ||
|-id=385
| 5385 Kamenka || || Kamenka (Kamianka), a town in central Ukraine ||
|-id=386
| 5386 Bajaja || || Esteban Bajaja (born 1931), Argentine radio-astronomer ||
|-id=387
| 5387 Casleo || 1980 NB || The Leoncito Astronomical Complex (CASLEO) in Argentina ||
|-id=388
| 5388 Mottola || || Stefano Mottola, Italian astronomer and a discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=389
| 5389 Choikaiyau || || Kai-Yau Choi, Chinese director of the Zhongshan Scientific Center and chairman of the Choi Educational Foundation ||
|-id=390
| 5390 Huichiming || || For his help in alleviating poverty, Hui Chi Ming (born 1964) received the China Glory Facilitative Poverty Aid Award and the United Nations Humanity and Peace Promotion Award. ||
|-id=391
| 5391 Emmons || || Richard H. Emmons (1919–2005), American physicist and astronomy educator ||
|-id=392
| 5392 Parker || 1986 AK || Donald C. Parker (1939–2015), American amateur astronomer ||
|-id=393
| 5393 Goldstein || 1986 ET || Richard M. Goldstein (born 1927), radar astronomer at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ||
|-id=394
| 5394 Jurgens || || Raymond Francis Jurgens (born 1937), American radar astronomer at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ||
|-id=395
| 5395 Shosasaki || || Sho Sasaki (born 1960), a professor at the University of Tokyo. ||
|-id=397
| 5397 Vojislava || || Vojislava Protić–Benišek (born 1946), daughter of Serbian astronomer Milorad B. Protić ||
|-id=399
| 5399 Awa || 1989 BT || Awa Province, ancient name of Tokushima prefecture, Japan ||
|}
5401–5500
|-
| 5401 Minamioda || 1989 EV || Minamioda, Kamikawa, Hyōgo, Japan ||
|-id=402
| 5402 Kejosmith || || Keith C. Smith and his wife Joan Furlong, stellar and laboratory spectroscopists University College, London, respectively ||
|-id=403
| 5403 Takachiho || 1990 DM || Takachiho, Miyazaki, Japan ||
|-id=404
| 5404 Uemura || || Naomi Uemura, Japanese adventurer ||
|-id=405
| 5405 Neverland || 1991 GY || Neverland, fictional land where Peter Pan, Tinker Bell and other mythical creatures and beings live ||
|-id=406
| 5406 Jonjoseph || || Jonathan Joseph, programmer analyst at the Department of Astronomy of Cornell University Src ||
|-id=408
| 5408 Thé || 1232 T-1 || Pik-Sin Thé (born 1927), an Indonesian astronomer, who was a member of the IAU and director of Bosscha Observatory † ||
|-id=409
| 5409 Saale || 1962 SR || Saale, German river ||
|-id=410
| 5410 Spivakov || 1967 DA || Vladimir Spivakov (born 1944 ), Russian conductor and violinist ||
|-id=411
| 5411 Liia || || Liia Forrer-Tsiganovskaja, wife of a friend of Russian discoverer Nikolai Chernykh ||
|-id=412
| 5412 Rou || || Aleksandr Arturovich Rou (1906–1973), Russian actor and film producer ||
|-id=413
| 5413 Smyslov || || Vasily Smyslov (1921–2010), Russian chess grandmaster and World Chess Champion from 1957 to 1958 ||
|-id=414
| 5414 Sokolov || || Viktor Georgievich Sokolov (born 1946), Russian astronomer and staff member at the Institute for Theoretical Astronomy (ITA) ||
|-id=415
| 5415 Lyanzuridi || || Konstantin Petrovich Lyanzuridi (born 1934), engineer in vacuum technology and optics who has worked at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory ||
|-id=416
| 5416 Estremadoyro || || Víctor Antolí Estremadoyro Robles (1913–2003), Peruvian astronomer, founder of the Peruvian Association of Astronomy and the Iberoamerican League of Astronomy ||
|-id=417
| 5417 Solovaya || 1981 QT || Nina A. Solovaya (born 1940), Russian astronomer and a celestial mechanic at Sternberg Astronomical Institute ||
|-id=418
| 5418 Joyce || || James Joyce, Irish writer ||
|-id=419
| 5419 Benua || || Nicholas Benois (Benua), Russian architect, and his sons Leon Benois, Russian architect, and Alexandre Benois, Russian painter ||
|-id=420
| 5420 Jancis || || Jancis Robinson, British Master of Wine, editor of The Oxford Companion to Wine, weekly contributor to the Financial Times ||
|-id=421
| 5421 Ulanova || || Galina Sergeyevna Ulanova, Russian ballerina ||
|-id=422
| 5422 Hodgkin || || Dorothy Hodgkin (1910–1994), British biochemist and Nobel Prize laureate ||
|-id=423
| 5423 Horahořejš || 1983 DC || Petr Hora Hořejš (born 1938), a Czech journalist, screenwriter and novelist. ||
|-id=424
| 5424 Covington || || Arthur Edwin Covington, first Canadian radio-astronomer ||
|-id=425
| 5425 Vojtěch || || Václav Vojtěch (1901–1932), Czech Antarctic explorer ||
|-id=426
| 5426 Sharp || 1985 DD || Robert P. Sharp (1911–2004), American professor of geology at Caltech. Expert on glaciers, the movement of sand dunes and the geology of Mars. ||
|-id=427
| 5427 Jensmartin || 1986 JQ || Jens Martin Knudsen, Danish astrophysicist ||
|-id=430
| 5430 Luu || || Jane Luu (born 1963), Vietnamese-American astronomer and co-discoverer of the first classical Kuiper belt object, ||
|-id=431
| 5431 Maxinehelin || 1988 MB || Maxine Anne Helin, mother-in-law of American discoverer Eleanor F. Helin ||
|-id=432
| 5432 Imakiire || 1988 VN || Kyōko Imakiire (born 1965), Japanese yachtswoman ||
|-id=433
| 5433 Kairen || || Imakiire's Yacht ||
|-id=434
| 5434 Tomwhitney || 1989 ES || Thomas (Tom) D. Whitney (born 1941), longtime president of the Amherst Area Amateur Astronomers Association ||
|-id=435
| 5435 Kameoka || || Kameoka, Kyoto, Japan ||
|-id=436
| 5436 Eumelos || 1990 DK || Eumelos, mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=438
| 5438 Lorre || 1990 QJ || Jean Lorre, an American scientist at JPL's Image Processing Laboratory ||
|-id=439
| 5439 Couturier || 1990 RW || Pierre Couturier (born 1942), French physicist and director of the Paris Observatory from 1999 to 2003 ||
|-id=440
| 5440 Terao || 1991 HD || Hisashi Terao (1855–1923), first Japanese professor of astronomy at University of Tokyo ||
|-id=441
| 5441 Andymurray || || Andy Murray (born 1987), Scottish professional tennis player. ||
|-id=442
| 5442 Drossart || || Pierre Drossart (born 1956), researcher of the CNRS at Paris Observatory ||
|-id=443
| 5443 Encrenaz || || Thérèse Encrenaz (born 1946), French astronomer, Director of Research at CNRS and Director of the Space Research Department at Paris Observatory ||
|-id=444
| 5444 Gautier || || Daniel Gautier (born 1936), French astronomer at Paris Observatory ||
|-id=445
| 5445 Williwaw || || Williwaw, a dramatic mountain on the skyline of Anchorage. ||
|-id=446
| 5446 Heyler || || Gene A. Heyler (born 1956), of the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University and contributor to the NEAR Shoemaker mission † ||
|-id=447
| 5447 Lallement || || Rosine Lallement (born 1951), French astrophysicist ||
|-id=448
| 5448 Siebold || 1992 SP || Philipp Franz von Siebold (1796–1866), German physician, botanist and traveler, who stayed in Japan for six years ||
|-id=450
| 5450 Sokrates || 2780 P-L || Socrates, Ancient Greek philosopher ||
|-id=451
| 5451 Plato || 4598 P-L || Plato, Ancient Greek philosopher ||
|-id=453
| 5453 Zakharchenya || || Boris Petrovich Zakharchenya (born 1928), Russian scientist at Ioffe Institute in Saint Petersburg ||
|-id=454
| 5454 Kojiki || || Kojiki, the first written mythology of Japan ||
|-id=455
| 5455 Surkov || || Vladimir Vasil'evich Surkov (born 1945), Russian database expert and staff member of the Moscow Aviation Institute ||
|-id=456
| 5456 Merman || || Grigorij (Hirsh) Aronovich Merman (born 1921), staff member of the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy (ITA) in Saint Petersburg ||
|-id=457
| 5457 Queen's || || Queen's University, Kingston, Canada ||
|-id=458
| 5458 Aizman || || Mikhail Iosifovich Aizman (born 1947), Russian telecommunications specialist and president of MTU-INFORM, a large telephone communication and data transfer system in Russia ||
|-id=459
| 5459 Saraburger || || Sara Schöffer-Burger (born 1894), who helped Dutch Jews in World War II ||
|-id=460
| 5460 Tsénaat'a'í || 1983 AW || Navajo for "flying rock" (1996 Flagstaff Festival of Science asteroid naming contest winner) ||
|-id=461
| 5461 Autumn || || Autumn Dongxia Thomas (born 2002), is the granddaughter of Norman G. Thomas who discovered this minor planet. ||
|-id=463
| 5463 Danwelcher || 1985 TO || Dan Welcher (born 1948), American composer and conductor ||
|-id=464
| 5464 Weller || || Harold Weller (born 1941), American conductor ||
|-id=465
| 5465 Chumakov || || Mikhail Chumakov (1909–1993), Russian microbiologist and virologist ||
|-id=466
| 5466 Makibi || || Kibi Makibi, Japanese scholar and noble ||
|-id=468
| 5468 Hamatonbetsu || 1988 BK || Hamatonbetsu, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=470
| 5470 Kurtlindstrom || || Kurt Leighton Lindstrom (born 1955), American program executive for NASA's New Horizons Pluto-Kuiper Belt mission ||
|-id=471
| 5471 Tunguska || || Tunguska, site of a presumed asteroidal impact ||
|-id=473
| 5473 Yamanashi || 1988 VR || Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan ||
|-id=474
| 5474 Gingasen || || Furusato Ginga Line of Hokkaidō Chihoku Kōgen Railway, Japan (Abolished in 2006) ||
|-id=475
| 5475 Hanskennedy || 1989 QO || Hans D. Kennedy (born 1924) is a Dutch-Australian astronomer ||
|-id=476
| 5476 Mulius || || Mulius, a Trojan warrior in Greek mythology. He was killed during the Trojan War by Achilles, who drove his javelin through one ear and out the other of Mulius' head. ||
|-id=477
| 5477 Holmes || || Robert E. Holmes Jr. (b.~1956), amateur astronomer, who directs the Astronomical Research Observatory in Westfield, Illinois ||
|-id=478
| 5478 Wartburg || || The Wartburg Castle, in central Germany ||
|-id=479
| 5479 Grahamryder || || Graham Ryder (1949–2002), British lunar geologist ||
|-id=481
| 5481 Kiuchi || 1990 CH || Tsuruhiko Kiuchi (born 1954), Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=482
| 5482 Korankei || 1990 DX || Kōrankei, a Japanese town located in the middle of Aichi prefecture ||
|-id=483
| 5483 Cherkashin || || Andrej Andreevich Cherkashin (1920–1993), a Russian literary scholar and historian, researcher of A. S. Pushkin's genealogy and author of The Millennial Family Tree of Pushkin ||
|-id=484
| 5484 Inoda || || Shigeru Inoda, Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=485
| 5485 Kaula || || William M. Kaula, Australian-American geophysicist Src ||
|-id=488
| 5488 Kiyosato || || Kiyosato, a town of Hokuto, Yamanashi, Japan ||
|-id=489
| 5489 Oberkochen || || Oberkochen, town in southern Germany ||
|-id=490
| 5490 Burbidge || 2019 P-L || Margaret Burbidge (1919–2020), British astrophysicist ||
|-id=491
| 5491 Kaulbach || 3128 T-1 || Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1805–1874), a German painter ||
|-id=492
| 5492 Thoma || 3227 T-1 || Hans Thoma (1839–1924), German painter ||
|-id=493
| 5493 Spitzweg || 1617 T-2 || Carl Spitzweg (1808–1885), German painter ||
|-id=494
| 5494 Johanmohr || || Johan Maurits Mohr (1716–1775), Dutch-German pastor, astronomer and meteorologist ||
|-id=495
| 5495 Rumyantsev || || Nikolay Rumyantsev (1754–1826), Foreign Minister and Chancellor of the Russian Empire ||
|-id=497
| 5497 Sararussell || 1975 SS || Sara Russell (born 1966), British meteoriticist at the Natural History Museum ||
|-id=498
| 5498 Gustafsson || || Bengt Gustafsson (born 1943), Swedish astronomer ||
|-id=500
| 5500 Twilley || 1981 WR || Royston C. Twilley, British teacher of the discoverer Edward L. G. Bowell ||
|}
5501–5600
|-id=502
| 5502 Brashear || 1984 EC || John Brashear (1840–1920), American astronomer and instrument builder ||
|-id=504
| 5504 Lanzerotti || || Louis J. Lanzerotti (born 1938), an American space physicist ||
|-id=505
| 5505 Rundetaarn || || The "Rundetaarn", or Round Tower, is the astronomical observatory built in the heart of Copenhagen from 1637 to 1642 by king Christian IV. Its unique interior spiral staircase makes it possible to stroll all the way to the top. ||
|-id=506
| 5506 Artiglio || || The Artiglio, an Italian steamship used as a salvage ship in the early 20th century. ||
|-id=507
| 5507 Niijima || 1987 UJ || Tsuneo Niijima, Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=508
| 5508 Gomyou || 1988 EB || Gomyou, north of Kakegawa, Japan. Location of the discovering Oohira Station. ||
|-id=509
| 5509 Rennsteig || || The Rennsteig, a long ridge walk in the Thuringian Forest, Germany ||
|-id=511
| 5511 Cloanthus || || Cloanthus, mythical person related to Trojan War: Cloanthus wins the ship race held as part of Anchises' funeral games (Aeneid, Book V) ||
|-id=513
| 5513 Yukio || 1988 WB || Yukio Hasegawa (born 1950), Japanese amateur astronomer and telescope maker ||
|-id=514
| 5514 Karelraška || || Karel Raška (1909–1987), a Czech physician and epidemiologist, known as "the father of the conception of epidemiologic surveillance". ||
|-id=515
| 5515 Naderi || || Firouz Naderi (born 1946) is a scientist, engineer and manager who has led major programs at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. ||
|-id=516
| 5516 Jawilliamson || 1989 JK || Jack Williamson, American science-fiction author ||
|-id=517
| 5517 Johnerogers || 1989 LJ || John E. Rogers, American amateur astronomer known for his computer software and for his computation of orbits ||
|-id=518
| 5518 Mariobotta || 1989 YF || Mario Botta (born 1943), a Swiss architect ||
|-id=519
| 5519 Lellouch || || Emmanuel Lellouch (born 1963), planetary scientist at Observatoire de Paris. ||
|-id=520
| 5520 Natori || 1990 RB || Akira Natori (born 1956), Japanese astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=521
| 5521 Morpurgo || || Pieter Morpurgo, British producer of the long-running BBC programme The Sky at Night ||
|-id=522
| 5522 De Rop || || Willy De Rop (born 1933), Belgian astronomer at Uccle Observatory ||
|-id=523
| 5523 Luminet || || Jean-Pierre Luminet (born 1951), French researcher at the Paris Observatory. ||
|-id=524
| 5524 Lecacheux || || Jean Lecacheux, a French planetary scientist at Paris Observatory ||
|-id=526
| 5526 Kenzo || || Kenzo Suzuki, Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=529
| 5529 Perry || 2557 P-L || Marcus Perry, an American chief engineer with the Spacewatch program ||
|-id=530
| 5530 Eisinga || 2835 P-L || Eise Eisinga, Frisian astronomer who built a planetarium ||
|-id=531
| 5531 Carolientje || 1051 T-2 || Caroline van Houten, granddaughter of the Dutch astronomers (husband and wife) Cornelis and Ingrid van Houten ||
|-id=532
| 5532 Ichinohe || 1932 CY || Naozō Ichinohe (1872–1920), Japanese astronomer and science writer ||
|-id=533
| 5533 Bagrov || 1935 SC || Nikolaj Vasil'evich Bagrov (born 1937), Russian geographer at the Simferopol State University ||
|-id=535
| 5535 Annefrank || 1942 EM || Anne Frank (Annelies Frank), German Jewish diarist ||
|-id=536
| 5536 Honeycutt || 1955 QN || Kent Honeycutt (born 1940), on the faculty of Indiana University, has made fundamental contributions to our understanding of the structure of accretion disks, cataclysmic variables and cool stars, as well as to the design and construction of innovative instrumentation, including spectrographs and robotic observatories. ||
|-id=537
| 5537 Sanya || || Sanya, located on the southern tip of Hainan Island, is the only tropical seaside tourist city in China. ||
|-id=538
| 5538 Luichewoo || || Lui Che-woo, Chinese mineralogist ||
|-id=539
| 5539 Limporyen || || Lim Por-yen (born 1914), a prestigious philanthropist who helped launch many schools and a first-class Limporyen library in China. ||
|-id=540
| 5540 Smirnova || || Tamara Mikhailovna Smirnova, Russian astronomer ||
|-id=541
| 5541 Seimei || || Abe no Seimei, Onmyōji ||
|-id=542
| 5542 Moffatt || || Ethelwin Moffatt (born 1926), a benefactor of the discovering Perth Observatory and direct descendant of the first Astronomer Royal, John Flamsteed. ||
|-id=543
| 5543 Sharaf || || Shafika Gil'mievna Sharaf (born 1915), a celestial mechanic and staff member at the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy (ITA) in Saint Petersburg, Russia ||
|-id=544
| 5544 Kazakov || || Matvej Fedorovich Kazakov (1738–1812), Russian architect ||
|-id=545
| 5545 Makarov || || Askol'd Anatol'evich Makarov (born 1925), Russian choreographer and professor of the St. Petersburg Conservatoire ||
|-id=546
| 5546 Salavat || 1979 YS || Salavat, an industrial city in the Republic of Bashkortostan, Russia ||
|-id=547
| 5547 Acadiau || || Acadia University, Canada Src ||
|-id=548
| 5548 Thosharriot || 1980 TH || Thomas Harriot (1560–1621), English mathematician, inventor of the < and > symbols, and who drew the Moon from Syon House, near London, on 1609 July 26 (O.S.), several months before Galileo. ||
|-id=549
| 5549 Bobstefanik || || Robert Phillip Stefanik (born 1938), American astronomer and director of the discovering Oak Ridge Observatory ||
|-id=551
| 5551 Glikson || 1982 BJ || Andrew Y. Glikson, was a senior research scientist with the Australian Geological Survey ||
|-id=552
| 5552 Studnička || || František Josef Studnička, Czech mathematician ||
|-id=553
| 5553 Chodas || || Paul Winchester Chodas (born 1952), Canadian astronomer and member of the Solar System Dynamics Group at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ||
|-id=554
| 5554 Keesey || || Michael S. W. Keesey (born 1937), a member of the Solar System Dynamics Group at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. ||
|-id=555
| 5555 Wimberly || || Ravenel N. Wimberly (born 1946), a member of the Solar System Dynamics Group at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. ||
|-id=557
| 5557 Chimikeppuko || || Lake Chimikeppu, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=558
| 5558 Johnnapier || || John Napier of Merchiston (1550–1617), a Scottish mathematician and inventor. ||
|-id=559
| 5559 Beategordon || || Beate Sirota Gordon (1923–2012), Austrian-born American performing arts presenter and women's rights advocate ||
|-id=560
| 5560 Amytis || 1990 MX || Amytis Barrett (1909–2000), an American contributor to the Caltech community. This minor planet was named on the occasion of her 85th birthday. ||
|-id=561
| 5561 Iguchi || 1991 QD || Masatoshi Iguchi, president of the Photovoltaic Popularization Associaction in Japan ||
|-id=562
| 5562 Sumi || 1991 VS || Sumi Kaneda (born 2006), a granddaughter of Japanese astronomer Hiroshi Kaneda, who co-discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=563
| 5563 Yuuri || || Yuuri Ueda (born 2005), a granddaughter of Japanese astronomer Seiji Ueda, who co-discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=564
| 5564 Hikari || || Hikari Ueda (born 2010), a granddaughter of Japanese astronomer Seiji Ueda, who co-discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=565
| 5565 Ukyounodaibu || || Kenreimon-In Ukyō no Daibu, Japanese poet and lady-in-waiting attended to Taira no Tokuko ||
|-id=567
| 5567 Durisen || || Richard H. Durisen (born 1946), on the faculty of Indiana University, has applied dynamical simulations to star and planet formation, the structure and stability of astrophysical disks and planetary ring systems, and he has used numerical hydrodynamics techniques to study gravitational instabilities in disks around young stars. ||
|-id=568
| 5568 Mufson || || Stuart Mufson (born 1946), on the faculty of Indiana University, has built pioneering instrumentation for investigations in high-energy astrophysics, including cosmic-ray physics and the search for dark matter. He has also contributed to the understanding of the interstellar medium and of regions of star formation. ||
|-id=569
| 5569 Colby || 1974 FO || Michael John Colby (born 1952), American spacecraft integration manager of NASA's New Horizons Pluto-Kuiper Belt mission. ||
|-id=570
| 5570 Kirsan || || Kirsan Ilyumzhinov (born 1962), Russian chess grandmaster and president of the International Chess Federation ||
|-id=571
| 5571 Lesliegreen || 1978 LG || Leslie Green, British treasurer of the Junior Astronomical Society (now the Society for Popular Astronomy), 1967–2007. ||
|-id=572
| 5572 Bliskunov || || Aleksandr Ivanovich Bliskunov (1938–1996), orthopaedic surgeon from the Crimean Peninsula ||
|-id=573
| 5573 Hilarydownes || 1981 QX || Hilary Downes (born 1954) is a planetary petrologist at Birkbeck College London. She is a terrestrial mantle expert, and her planetary science research seeks to understand the geological evolution of the ureilite meteorite parent body. ||
|-id=574
| 5574 Seagrave || 1984 FS || Frank Evans Seagrave (1860–1934), an American amateur astronomer. ||
|-id=575
| 5575 Ryanpark || || Sang H. ("Ryan") Park (born 1978), a member of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's Solar System Dynamics Group. ||
|-id=576
| 5576 Albanese || || Dominique Albanese, photographer and observer at the Schmidt telescope of the Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur. ||
|-id=577
| 5577 Priestley || || Joseph Priestley (1733–1804), an English clergyman. ||
|-id=578
| 5578 Takakura || 1987 BC || Emperor Takakura (1161–1181), the 80th emperor of Japan, succeeded to the throne in 1168. He was the seventh son of emperor Goshirakawa and an expert at playing the Japanese flute. ||
|-id=579
| 5579 Uhlherr || 1988 JL || H. Ralph Uhlherr, an Australian engineer, researcher with the USGS and collector of tektites. ||
|-id=580
| 5580 Sharidake || || Mount Shari, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=581
| 5581 Mitsuko || || Mitsuko Iwamoto, wife of one of discovers ||
|-id=583
| 5583 Braunerová || || Zdenka Braunerová, Czech artist ||
|-id=584
| 5584 Izenberg || 1989 KK || Noam Raphael Izenberg (born 1967), of the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University and contributor to the NEAR Shoemaker mission Src ||
|-id=585
| 5585 Parks || 1990 MJ || Robert J. Parks (1922–2011), a US aerospace engineer and deputy director at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ||
|-id=588
| 5588 Jennabelle || || Jenna Belle Weathers Roman, grandmother of the discoverer ||
|-id=589
| 5589 De Meis || || Salvatore De Meis (1930–2016), of Milan, is engaged in the application of astronomical calculations to the dating of historical events, particularly of Babylonian astronomy. ||
|-id=591
| 5591 Koyo || || Koyo Kawanishi, Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=592
| 5592 Oshima || || Yoshiaki Oshima, Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=593
| 5593 Jonsujatha || || Jonathan Brian Marsden and Sujatha Nagarajan, friends and neighbors of American discoverer Eleanor F. Helin ||
|-id=594
| 5594 Jimmiller || || James K. Miller (born 1939), celestial mechanics and orbital dynamics expert at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. ||
|-id=595
| 5595 Roth || 1991 PJ || Mary Roth, administrative assistant in the Department of Astronomy at Cornell University Src ||
|-id=596
| 5596 Morbidelli || || Alessandro Morbidelli (born 1966), Italian astronomer ||
|-id=597
| 5597 Warren || || Jeffrey R. Warren (born 1960), of the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University and contributor to the NEAR Shoemaker mission ||
|-id=598
| 5598 Carlmurray || || Carl Desmond Murray (born 1955), British astronomer, Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy at Queen Mary College London ||
|}
5601–5700
|-id=603
| 5603 Rausudake || 1992 CE || Mount Rausu, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=605
| 5605 Kushida || 1993 DB || Yoshio Kushida (born 1957), Japanese seismologist ||
|-id=606
| 5606 Muramatsu || 1993 EH || Osamu Muramatsu (born 1949), who works at the planetarium in Sibuya and who has discovered numerous minor planets and comets since 1986. ||
|-id=608
| 5608 Olmos || 1993 EO || Edward James Olmos (born 1947), American actor ||
|-id=609
| 5609 Stroncone || 1993 FU || Stroncone, village in central Italy and location of the Santa Lucia Stroncone Astronomical Observatory ||
|-id=610
| 5610 Balster || 2041 T-3 || Harry H. M. Balster (born 1946), Dutch amateur astronomer and his sister Yvonne ||
|-id=612
| 5612 Nevskij || || Alexander Nevsky (1221–1263), a saint of the Russian Orthodox Church and legendary for his military victories over German and Swedish invaders ||
|-id=613
| 5613 Donskoj || || Dmitrij Donskoj (1350–1389), grand prince of Moscow and Vladimir principalities, and great-grandson of Alexander Nevsky (also see #612) ||
|-id=614
| 5614 Yakovlev || 1979 VN || Konstantin Karol'evich Yakovlev (born 1955), director of the scientific-production firm "Blok" in Saint Petersburg, Russia. ||
|-id=615
| 5615 Iskander || 1983 PZ || Fazil Iskander (1929–2016), a Soviet and Russian writer and poet ||
|-id=616
| 5616 Vogtland || || Vogtlandkreis (or simply: Vogtland), region in Saxony, Germany ||
|-id=617
| 5617 Emelyanenko || 1989 EL || Vyacheslav Emelyanenko (born 1952), head of the department of theoretical mechanics at South Ural University. ||
|-id=618
| 5618 Saitama || 1990 EA || Saitama Prefecture, Japan ||
|-id=619
| 5619 Shair || || Fredrick H. Shair, Manager of the Educational Affairs Office at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ||
|-id=620
| 5620 Jasonwheeler || 1990 OA || Jason Wheeler Roman (born 1995), youngest son of the first discoverer ||
|-id=621
| 5621 Erb || || Bryan Erb (born 1931) and Dona Marie Erb (née German), Canadian space scientists Src ||
|-id=622
| 5622 Percyjulian || || Percy Lavon Julian (1899–1975) was an African American chemist. His groundbreaking work into synthesizing medical drugs from plants paved the way for medications that hundreds of millions of people use today. In his lifetime he received over one hundred medical patents. ||
|-id=623
| 5623 Iwamori || 1990 UY || Yasuke Iwamori, late principal of Kyoto city Rakuyou technical high school who taught physics and astronomy there. Name proposed by the discoverer following a suggestion by S. Sakabe. ||
|-id=624
| 5624 Shirley || || William J. and Christine Shirley, American philanthropists who have supported Caltech and Mt. Wilson Observatory and have preserved and restored the Hale Solar Laboratory in San Marino ||
|-id=625
| 5625 Jamesferguson || || James Ferguson (1710–1776), a Scottish astronomer. ||
|-id=626
| 5626 Melissabrucker || 1991 FE || Melissa J. Brucker (born 1977) researches small bodies in the solar system. As Deputy Principal Investigator for the Spacewatch Project, she organizes and makes observations of high priority Earth-approaching asteroids. ||
|-id=627
| 5627 Short || 1991 MA || James Short (1710–1768) was a Scottish mathematician and manufacturer of optical instruments, known for his high quality telescopes used by the Royal Society for the 1761 and 1769 transits of Venus. ||
|-id=628
| 5628 Preussen || || Prussia (), former kingdom and German state ||
|-id=629
| 5629 Kuwana || || Kuwana, Mie, Japanese city located in Mie Prefecture ||
|-id=630
| 5630 Billschaefer || 1993 FZ || William Schaefer, American amateur astronomer and telescope maker ||
|-id=631
| 5631 Sekihokutouge || || Sekihoku Pass, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=632
| 5632 Ingelehmann || 1993 GG || Inge Lehmann (1888–1993), Danish seismologist ||
|-id=634
| 5634 Victorborge || || Victor Borge (1909–2000), born Borge Rosenbaum, was a Danish musician and comedian, who started his career as a classical pianist. ||
|-id=635
| 5635 Cole || || Joshua Cole, fictional character in Arthur Preston Hankins' novel Cole of Spyglass Mountain ||
|-id=636
| 5636 Jacobson || 1985 QN || Robert A. Jacobson (born 1944), an authority on spacecraft navigation techniques, and a developer of ephemerides for natural satellites at JPL ||
|-id=637
| 5637 Gyas || || Gyas, a companion of Trojan hero Aeneas from classical mythology. He participated in the ship race held as part of Anchises' funeral games (Aeneid, Book V) ||
|-id=638
| 5638 Deikoon || || Deicoon, mythical person related to Trojan War: son of Pergasus, killed by Agamemnon (Iliad, Book V) (not to be confused with Deicoon, one of three sons of Herakles by Megara) ||
|-id=639
| 5639 Ćuk || 1989 PE || Matija Ćuk (born 1978), astronomer, a discoverer of the BYORP mechanism and winner of the Harold C. Urey Prize in 2014 ||
|-id=640
| 5640 Yoshino || || The Japanese town of Yoshino (part of Kagoshima city) in southern Japan. It is the home town of the first discoverer, Masaru Mukai ||
|-id=641
| 5641 McCleese || 1990 DJ || Daniel J. McCleese, American planetary scientist and manager at JPL ||
|-id=642
| 5642 Bobbywilliams || || Bobby G. Williams (born 1951), celestial mechanics and spacecraft navigation expert at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. ||
|-id=643
| 5643 Roques || || Françoise Roques (born 1956), French astronomer ||
|-id=644
| 5644 Maureenbell || || Maureen E. Ockert-Bell (born 1961), member of the NEAR Shoemaker computer team ||
|-id=647
| 5647 Sarojininaidu || 1990 TZ || Sarojini Naidu (1879–1949) was an Indian poet. She advocated for non-violence as a means for social change and was responsible for much of the strategic planning that eventually led to Indian independence. She is well known for writing The Golden Threshold, a collection of poems. ||
|-id=648
| 5648 Axius || || Axius is a river god who was the grandfather of the Trojan ally Asteropaios and father of Pelegon who he conceived with the mortal woman Periboea. ||
|-id=649
| 5649 Donnashirley || || Donna Shirley (born 1941), American engineer and author, formerly of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, member of the Advisory Council of the Planetary Society ||
|-id=650
| 5650 Mochihito-o || 1990 XK || Prince Mochihito (died 1180), the third son of emperor Goshirakawa. He was a fount of knowledge, known for his poetry and for playing the Japanese flute. With Minamoto Yorimasa, he fought against the Heike without success. ||
|-id=651
| 5651 Traversa || || Gilles Traversa, technical night-assistant at the Haute-Provence Observatory in France ||
|-id=652
| 5652 Amphimachus || || Amphimachus from Greek mythology. Amphimachus was the son of Cteatus, a leader of the Epeians at the Trojan War and was killed by Hector. ||
|-id=653
| 5653 Camarillo || || The private Camarillo Observatory in Camarillo, California, on the El Camino Real, where John Rogers secured follow-up observations of this minor planet. The town was named by the Southern Pacific Railroad in 1901 in tribute to Adolfo Camarillo (1864–1958), a prominent local rancher. The first discoverer is a former town resident. ||
|-id=654
| 5654 Terni || 1993 KG || The town and province of Terni in Italy ||
|-id=655
| 5655 Barney || 1159 T-2 || American astronomer Ida Barney (1886–1982), who worked at the Yale University Observatory and supervised the Yale Observatory Zone Catalog program ||
|-id=656
| 5656 Oldfield || A920 TA || Mike Oldfield (born 1953), English composer and multi-instrumentalist ||
|-id=657
| 5657 Groombridge || || Stephen Groombridge (1755–1832), British merchant and astronomer who compiled the Catalogue of Circumpolar Stars ||
|-id=658
| 5658 Clausbaader || 1950 DO || Claus Baader (1924–1995), German manufacturer of planetaria, domes and telescopes, and mentor of amateur astronomers in the German-speaking countries ||
|-id=659
| 5659 Vergara || || Gladys Vergara (1928–2016), Uruguayan astronomer and a director of the Astronomical Observatory of Montevideo ||
|-id=661
| 5661 Hildebrand || || Alan Russell Hildebrand (born 1955), Canadian geologist ||
|-id=662
| 5662 Wendycalvin || || Wendy Marie Calvin (born 1961) has made many important contributions to the field of planetary spectroscopy. Her work has included spectral studies of the martian surface and polar caps, Charon, Callisto and Ganymede. She has also helped pioneer the concept of using aircraft in the exploration of Mars. ||
|-id=663
| 5663 McKeegan || || Kevin McKeegan (born 1958), a professor of geochemistry at the University of California in Los Angeles. ||
|-id=664
| 5664 Eugster || || Otto Eugster (born 1938), professor at the University of Bern. ||
|-id=665
| 5665 Begemann || || Friedrich Begemann (1927–), German pioneering cosmochemist and meteoriticist who determined the first cosmic-ray-exposure age of a meteorite. He later investigated isotopic anomalies in meteorites and established the physical conditions that produced these anomalies. ||
|-id=666
| 5666 Rabelais || || François Rabelais (c. 1494–1553), French Renaissance writer, physician and humanist ||
|-id=667
| 5667 Nakhimovskaya || || Nakhimov Nautical College in Saint Petersburg and Russian admiral Pavel Nakhimov (1802–1855) ||
|-id=668
| 5668 Foucault || 1984 FU || Léon Foucault (1819–1868), French physicist and astronomer known for his demonstration of the Foucault pendulum in Paris in 1851, a device demonstrating the effect of the Earth's rotation. ||
|-id=670
| 5670 Rosstaylor || || Stuart Ross Taylor (1925–2021), New Zealand-born geochemist and planetary scientist known for his studies of the geology of the Moon through lunar samples ||
|-id=671
| 5671 Chanal || 1985 XR || Roger Chanal, French amateur astronomer ||
|-id=672
| 5672 Libby || || Willard Libby (1908–1980), American physical chemist noted and Nobel Prize awardee in 1960 ||
|-id=673
| 5673 McAllister || || Frances McAllister, American humanitarian, philanthropist and founder of "The Arboretum" at Flagstaff, Arizona ||
|-id=674
| 5674 Wolff || || John M. Wolff, trustee of the Wolff Foundation ||
|-id=675
| 5675 Evgenilebedev || || Evgeny Lebedev (1917–1997), Russian actor ||
|-id=676
| 5676 Voltaire || || Voltaire (1694–1778), French writer ||
|-id=677
| 5677 Aberdonia || || University of Aberdeen, on the occasion of the quincentenary of its founding ||
|-id=678
| 5678 DuBridge || 1989 TS || Lee Alvin DuBridge (1901–1994), American nuclear physicist, Director of MIT Radiation Laboratory and latterly of Caltech ||
|-id=679
| 5679 Akkado || 1989 VR || Akka cave, Iwate, Japan ||
|-id=680
| 5680 Nasmyth || || James Hall Nasmyth (1808–1890), a Scottish engineer and astronomer. ||
|-id=681
| 5681 Bakulev || || Aleksandr Nikolaevich Bakulev (1890–1967), a pioneering Soviet neurosurgeon ||
|-id=682
| 5682 Beresford || 1990 TB || Anthony Charles Beresford (born 1942), prominent Australian amateur astronomer. Amongst his wide-ranging astronomical interests he is an active artificial satellite observer, having been part of Operation Moonwatch from 1960 to 1975. He plays an important role in the dissemination of astronomical information and discoveries in South Australia. Always knowledgeable about current events, Tony Beresford has been of considerable help to the discoverer on many occasions. Name suggested and citation endorsed by Duncan I. Steel. ||
|-id=683
| 5683 Bifukumonin || 1990 UD || Bifukumon-In, Empress of Emperor Toba, Japan. ||
|-id=684
| 5684 Kogo || || Kogō no Tsubone, consort of Emperor Takakura, Japan. ||
|-id=685
| 5685 Sanenobufukui || 1990 XA || Sanenobu Fukui (born 1916), a well-known observer of Mars for more than 60 years. ||
|-id=686
| 5686 Chiyonoura || 1990 YQ || Chiyo's Beach, Kushiro, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=687
| 5687 Yamamotoshinobu || || Shinobu Yamamoto (1911–), director of the planetarium in Japan ||
|-id=688
| 5688 Kleewyck || || Canadian artist Emily Carr (1871–1945), who was given the name "Klee Wyck" by the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast ||
|-id=689
| 5689 Rhön || || Rhön Mountains, a range of volcanic mountains in Germany ||
|-id=691
| 5691 Fredwatson || 1992 FD || Frederick Garnett Watson (born 1944) specializes in astronomical instrumentation and helped pioneer the use of fiber-optic spectroscopy. He was astronomer-in-charge of the Anglo-Australian Observatory and is currently Australia's Astronomer at Large. Through his frequent radio appearances and magazine columns, he has become a well-known public figure. ||
|-id=692
| 5692 Shirao || 1992 FR || Motomaro Shirao, Japanese photographer and amateur astronomer ||
|-id=694
| 5694 Berényi || 3051 P-L || Dénes Berényi (1928–2012), Hungarian nuclear physicist and director of the Institute of Nuclear Research of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in Debrecen ||
|-id=695
| 5695 Remillieux || 4577 P-L || Joseph Remillieux (born 1940), French physicist ||
|-id=696
| 5696 Ibsen || 4582 P-L || Henrik Ibsen (1828–1906), Norwegian playwright ||
|-id=697
| 5697 Arrhenius || 6766 P-L || Svante August Arrhenius (1859–1927), Swedish chemist and Nobel Laureat ||
|-id=698
| 5698 Nolde || 4121 T-1 || Emil Nolde (1867–1956), German Expressionist painter ||
|-id=699
| 5699 Munch || 2141 T-3 || Edvard Munch (1863–1944), Norwegian artist ||
|-id=700
| 5700 Homerus || 5166 T-3 || Homer, Greek epic poet and author of the Iliad from which many minor-planet names are sourced ||
|}
5701–5800
|-
| 5701 Baltuck || 1929 VS || Miriam Baltuck (born 1954), American geologist, NASA's representative in Australia and southeast Asia, director of university advancement at the Australian National University ||
|-id=702
| 5702 Morando || 1931 FC || Bruno Morando (born 1931), a French astronomer and director of the Bureau des Longitudes ||
|-id=703
| 5703 Hevelius || 1931 VS || Johannes Hevelius (1611–1687), a Polish astronomer ||
|-id=704
| 5704 Schumacher || 1950 DE || Heinrich Christian Schumacher (1780–1850), a German-Danish astronomer ||
|-id=705
| 5705 Ericsterken || 1965 UA || Eric Sterken (1948–1998), professional gardener and landscaper who took care of the gardens of the Brussels Planetarium. ||
|-id=706
| 5706 Finkelstein || || Andrej Mikhajlovich Finkelstein (born 1942), founder and director of the Russian Academy of Sciences' Institute of Applied Astronomy in St. Petersburg, and expert in relativistic celestial mechanics and radioastrometry ||
|-id=707
| 5707 Shevchenko || || Vladislav Vladimirovich Shevchenko (born 1940), head of the Russian Lunar and Planetary Research Department of the Sternberg Astronomical Institute, Moscow, and member of IAU's Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature ||
|-id=708
| 5708 Melancholia || || Melancholia, one of the four humours ||
|-id=709
| 5709 Tamyeunleung || || Fong Tamyeunleung (born 1924), a Chinese charity worker ||
|-id=710
| 5710 Silentium || 1977 UP || Silentium (Latin for silence), by far the shortest official naming citation ever published ||
|-id=711
| 5711 Eneev || || Timur Magometovich Eneev (born 1924), applied mathematician and celestial mechanician at the Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics. ||
|-id=712
| 5712 Funke || 1979 SR || Jaromír Funke (1896–1945), a Czech photographer ||
|-id=714
| 5714 Krasinsky || 1982 PR || Georgij Al'bertovich Krasinskij (born 1939), a staff-member of the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy (ITA) in Saint Petersburg ||
|-id=715
| 5715 Kramer || || Kathryn Xymena Kramer, Development Director at Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, United States ||
|-id=716
| 5716 Pickard || 1982 UH || Elizabeth D. Pickard, philanthropist and long-time supporter of the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, United States ||
|-id=717
| 5717 Damir || || Alim Matveevich Damir (1894–1982), a physician and professor at the First and Second Medical Institutes in Moscow ||
|-id=719
| 5719 Křižík || 1983 RX || František Křižík (1847–1941), a Czech inventor ||
|-id=720
| 5720 Halweaver || 1984 FN || Harold Anthony Weaver (born 1953), an American astronomer † ||
|-id=722
| 5722 Johnscherrer || 1986 JS || John Randell Scherrer (born 1960), American project manager and deputy payload manager on NASA's New Horizons Pluto Kuiper Belt mission ||
|-id=723
| 5723 Hudson || || Scott Hudson (born 1959), an American electrical engineer and radar astronomer ||
|-id=725
| 5725 Nördlingen || || Nördlingen, a medieval town in southern Germany ||
|-id=726
| 5726 Rubin || || Vera Rubin (1928–2016), an American astronomer best known for her research on galaxy rotation rates ||
|-id=730
| 5730 Yonosuke || || Yonosuke Nakano (1887–1974), a Japanese astronomer, educator, and co-founder of the Gekko Observatory ||
|-id=731
| 5731 Zeus || || Zeus, Greek god ||
|-id=734
| 5734 Noguchi || || Soichi Noguchi (born 1965), a Japanese astronaut ||
|-id=735
| 5735 Loripaul || 1989 LM || Lori L. Paul, environmentalist and assistant director of Telescopes in Education (TIE) at the Mount Wilson Institute and JPL ||
|-id=736
| 5736 Sanford || 1989 LW || John Sanford, former president of the Orange County Astronomers and recipient of the Bruce Blair Award ||
|-id=737
| 5737 Itoh || 1989 SK || Kazuyuki Itoh, Japanese amateur astronomer. ||
|-id=738
| 5738 Billpickering || || Bill Pickering (1910–2004), former director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ||
|-id=739
| 5739 Robertburns || || Robert Burns (1759–1796), a Scottish poet and lyricist. ||
|-id=740
| 5740 Toutoumi || || Tōtōmi Province, ancient name of western part of Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan. ||
|-id=741
| 5741 Akanemaruta || 1989 XC || Akane Maruta (1988–1998), a Japanese girl after whom the Akane Astronomical Observatory is also named ||
|-id=743
| 5743 Kato || 1990 UW || Yasuo Katō (1949–1982), a Japanese mountain climber ||
|-id=744
| 5744 Yorimasa || 1990 XP || Minamoto no Yorimasa, early samurai ||
|-id=747
| 5747 Williamina || || Williamina Fleming (1857–1911), a Scottish-American astronomer at Harvard College Observatory, instrumental for the creation of a stellar designation system and classifying most stars listed in the Henry Draper Catalogue. She also discovered hundreds of variable stars and dozens of nebulae, such as the Horsehead Nebula in 1888. ||
|-id=748
| 5748 Davebrin || 1991 DX || Glen David Brin (born 1950), American astrophysicist and science fiction writer ||
|-id=749
| 5749 Urduja || 1991 FV || Urduja, legendary warrior princess from the Philippines ||
|-id=750
| 5750 Kandatai || || Tai Kanda (born 1938), Japanese astronomer and staff member of the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan ||
|-id=751
| 5751 Zao || 1992 AC || Mount Zaō, Tōhoku region, Japan ||
|-id=753
| 5753 Yoshidatadahiko || 1992 EM || Tadahiko Yoshida, vice president of AES (Advanced Engineering Services), Japanese aerospace company ||
|-id=756
| 5756 Wassenbergh || 6034 P-L || Henri Wassenbergh (1924–2014), was a Dutch Professor of Air and Space Law at Leiden University and founder of the International Institute of Air and Space Law at Leiden ||
|-id=757
| 5757 Tichá || 1967 JN || Jana Tichá (born 1965), a Czech astronomer, director of the Kleť Observatory, and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=758
| 5758 Brunini || || Adrián Brunini (born 1959), Argentine astronomer. He is the head of the celestial mechanics group at La Plata Observatory and known for his research on the formation and evolution of the Solar System. ||
|-id=759
| 5759 Zoshchenko || || Mikhail Zoshchenko, Russian satirist ||
|-id=760
| 5760 Mittlefehldt || || David Wayne Mittlefehldt (born 1951), an American astronomer and geochemist Src ||
|-id=761
| 5761 Andreivanov || || Andrei V. Ivanov (born 1937), a Russian cosmochemist and meteoriticist ||
|-id=762
| 5762 Wänke || || Heinrich Wänke (1928–2015), an Austrian cosmochemist and meteoriticist at Max Planck Society ||
|-id=765
| 5765 Izett || 1986 GU || Glen A. Izett, an American geologist ||
|-id=766
| 5766 Carmelofalco || || Carmelo Falco (born 1978) is an enthusiastic amateur astronomer with great scientific and technological skills. He is president of the Ettore Majorana amateur astronomers association and scientific director of the Lematre Observatory in Racalmuto (Sicily). ||
|-id=767
| 5767 Moldun || || Meudon (Moldun in old Gaelic), suburb of Paris, France, and location of the Astrophysics Section of the Paris Observatory ||
|-id=768
| 5768 Pittich || || Eduard M. Pittich (born 1940), a Slovak astronomer ||
|-id=769
| 5769 Michard || 1987 PL || Raymond Michard (born 1925), administrator of the Côte d'Azur Observatory in France ||
|-id=770
| 5770 Aricam || 1987 RY || Arianna Laurenti (born 2017) and Camilla Laurenti (born 2017), twin granddaughters of Italian astronomer Mario Di Martino at the Turin Observatory, who was a friend of the discoverer Henri Debehogne (1928–2007). ||
|-id=771
| 5771 Somerville || || Mary Somerville (1780–1872), British mathematician and scientific author ||
|-id=772
| 5772 Johnlambert || 1988 LB || John V. Lambert (born 1945) has developed techniques for determining the sizes and shapes of minor planets from occultation and lightcurve observations. He is now involved in the U.S. Air Force Space Command and the Phillips Laboratory programs for the study of near-earth objects. ||
|-id=773
| 5773 Hopper || 1989 NO || Grace Hopper (December 9, 1906 – January 1, 1992) an American computer scientist and United States Navy rear admiral ||
|-id=774
| 5774 Ratliff || 1989 NR || Nicholas Paul Ratliff (1982–2002), of Oklahoma City who died at the age of 20. He was a keen baseballer and interested in astronomy, ever since he was given a telescope at the age of five. ||
|-id=775
| 5775 Inuyama || 1989 SP || Inuyama, a city in the northern part of Aichi Prefecture. ||
|-id=777
| 5777 Hanaki || 1989 XF || Many years ago, Yoichi Hanaki (born 1937) used to make astronomical observations, notably of Jupiter, with the second discoverer. Later he established the vocational training facility Hoshi-no-mura that endeavors to help mentally handicapped people. ||
|-id=778
| 5778 Jurafrance || || The French Jura, a department in eastern France. ||
|-id=779
| 5779 Schupmann || || Ludwig Schupmann, German 19th–20th-century optician, who described in Die Medial-Fernrohre a reflecting-refracting telescope with Mangin mirrors that eliminates chromatic aberrations while using common optical glasses ||
|-id=780
| 5780 Lafontaine || || Jean de la Fontaine, French poet ||
|-id=781
| 5781 Barkhatova || || Klavdiia Aleksandrovna Barkhatova (Claudia Barkhatova; 1917–1990), a Russian astronomer and founder of the Kourovka Observatory ||
|-id=782
| 5782 Akirafujiwara || 1991 AF || Akira Fujiwara, Japanese project scientist for the Hayabusa mission to the near-Earth object 25143 Itokawa ||
|-id=783
| 5783 Kumagaya || 1991 CO || Kumagaya, Saitama, Japan ||
|-id=784
| 5784 Yoron || 1991 CY || Yoronjima (Yoron island), north of Okinawa prefecture, Japan ||
|-id=785
| 5785 Fulton || 1991 FU || Joseph A. Fulton, hardware engineer and involved in the Palomar Planet-Crossing Asteroid Survey ||
|-id=786
| 5786 Talos || 1991 RC || Talos, from Greek mythology, was the nephew of Daedalus, who tried to murder him because he was jealous of his inventiveness ||
|-id=789
| 5789 Sellin || 4018 P-L || Ivan A. Sellin (born 1939), professor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and at the University of Tennessee in Knoxville ||
|-id=790
| 5790 Nagasaki || 9540 P-L || Nagasaki, Japan ||
|-id=791
| 5791 Comello || 4053 T-2 || Georg Comello (born 1942), Dutch amateur astronomer ||
|-id=792
| 5792 Unstrut || 1964 BF || The Unstrut, a river in eastern Germany ||
|-id=793
| 5793 Ringuelet || || Adela Ringuelet, Argentine astronomer, co-founder of the Argentinian Astronomical Association (Asociación Argentina de Astronomía) ||
|-id=794
| 5794 Irmina || || Mikhailovna Golodyaevskaya (1931–1956), a Russian student of the Moscow Conservatory ||
|-id=795
| 5795 Roshchina || || Elena Olegovna Roshchina (1966–1994), a Russian journalist ||
|-id=796
| 5796 Klemm || || Per Klemm (1949–2011), a Danish professor of microbiology. ||
|-id=797
| 5797 Bivoj || 1980 AA || Bivoj, mythological Bohemian hero ||
|-id=798
| 5798 Burnett || || Donald Burnett (born 1937), American cosmochemist, lead investigator for the Genesis mission ||
|-id=799
| 5799 Brewington || || Howard J. Brewington (born 1952), American amateur astronomer and discoverer of comets ||
|-id=800
| 5800 Pollock || || Jackson Pollock, American artist ||
|}
5801–5900
|-
| 5801 Vasarely || 1984 BK || Victor Vasarely (1908–1997), a Hungarian painter, sculptor, and graphic artist. ||
|-id=802
| 5802 Casteldelpiano || || Castel del Piano, an ancient castle near Carrara, Tuscany, Italy, that has been recently restored by two great lovers of astronomy and friends of the discoverer, Sabina Ruffaldi and Andrea Ghigliazza. ||
|-id=803
| 5803 Ötzi || 1984 OA || Ötzi the Iceman, the mummified "iceman" ||
|-id=804
| 5804 Bambinidipraga || || Bambini di Praga, a Czech children's choir ||
|-id=805
| 5805 Glasgow || 1985 YH || Glasgow, UK and The Astronomical Society of Glasgow ||
|-id=806
| 5806 Archieroy || || Archie Roy (Archibald Edmiston Roy), astronomer, Professor Emeritus of Astronomy in the University of Glasgow, Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, The Royal Astronomical Society ||
|-id=807
| 5807 Mshatka || || Country estate of Nikolaj Yakovlevich Danilevskij, Russian thinker ||
|-id=808
| 5808 Babel' || || Isaac Babel (1894–1940), Russian writer and dramatist. Named on the commemoration of his 100th anniversary of his birth ||
|-id=809
| 5809 Kulibin || || Ivan Petrovich Kulibin, Russian engineer ||
|-id=811
| 5811 Keck || 1988 KC || Howard B. Keck, chairman and president emeritus of the W. M. Keck Foundation. Under Howard Keck's leadership, the Foundation provided the grants to build the giant twin telescopes of the W. M. Keck Observatory. This minor planet is being named on the occasion of the dedication of the second Keck Telescope on 1996 May 8. ||
|-id=812
| 5812 Jayewinkler || || Jaye Scott Winkler, a friend of American discoverer Andrew J. Noymer ||
|-id=813
| 5813 Eizaburo || 1988 VL || Eizaburo Nishibori, Japanese scientist, alpinist and technologist. ||
|-id=815
| 5815 Shinsengumi || 1989 AH || The Shinsengumi, Japanese group of samurai warriors ||
|-id=816
| 5816 Potsdam || || Potsdam, largest city and capital of the German state of Brandenburg, where the Potsdam Observatory is located ||
|-id=817
| 5817 Robertfrazer || 1989 RZ || Robert E. Frazer (born 1918), longtime friend and colleague of the discoverer. ||
|-id=819
| 5819 Lauretta || || Dante Lauretta, American cosmochemist and meteoriticist at the University of Arizona ||
|-id=820
| 5820 Babelsberg || || Babelsberg, the largest district of the city of Potsdam in Germany, where the Babelsberg Observatory is located ||
|-id=821
| 5821 Yukiomaeda || 1989 VV || Yukio Maeda (born 1948), well-known Japanese amateur astronomer and space engineer at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science ||
|-id=822
| 5822 Masakichi || 1989 WL || Masakichi Hioki (born 1929), father of Japanese co-discover Tsutomu Hioki ||
|-id=823
| 5823 Oryo || 1989 YH || Oryo Narasaki (1842–1913), wife of Japanese samurai hero Sakamoto Ryōma ||
|-id=824
| 5824 Inagaki || 1989 YM || Minoru Inagaki (born 1958), Japanese classical guitarist ||
|-id=825
| 5825 Rakuyou || || Named for the Kyoto city Rakuyou technical high school, originally established in 1894 as Kyoto city dyeing and weaving school. ||
|-id=826
| 5826 Bradstreet || 1990 DB || David Bradstreet (born 1954), Chair of the Astronomy Department at Eastern University (St. Davids, PA). ||
|-id=827
| 5827 Letunov || || Yurij Aleksandrovich Letunov (1926–1984), a Russian journalist and radio commentator. ||
|-id=829
| 5829 Ishidagoro || || Gorō Ishida (1924–1992), Japanese astronomer ||
|-id=830
| 5830 Simohiro || 1991 EG || Hirofumi or Hiroshi Shimoda, Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=831
| 5831 Dizzy || 1991 JG || John Birks "Dizzy" Gillespie, American trumpeter, co-inventor of bebop ||
|-id=832
| 5832 Martaprincipe || || Marta Carusi and Raffaele "Principe" Ranucci were married in Nov. 2000. The name was suggested by A. Carusi. ||
|-id=833
| 5833 Peterson || 1991 PQ || Colin A. Peterson (born 1977), a research support specialist at Cornell University. ||
|-id=834
| 5834 Kasai || || Kiyoshi Kasai (born 1947) was principal flutist with the Symphony Orchestra Basel (Switzerland). He is also an amateur astronomer and has discovered more than 80 new variable stars. ||
|-id=835
| 5835 Mainfranken || || Lower Franconia, district of Franconia in northern Bavaria, Germany. It is often called "Mainfranken" as the Main River runs through it. ||
|-id=837
| 5837 Hedin || 2548 P-L || Sven Anders Hedin (1865–1952), Swedish geographer and explorer ||
|-id=838
| 5838 Hamsun || 2170 T-2 || Knut Hamsun (1859–1952), Norwegian author, winner of the 1920 Nobel Prize for literature ||
|-id=839
| 5839 GOI || || The Vavilov State Optical Institute (formerly "Gosudarstvennyj Opticheskij Institut" or GOI), founded in 1918 on the initiative of its first director and physicist-optician Dmitrij Sergeevich Rozhdestvenskij (1876–1940) † ||
|-id=840
| 5840 Raybrown || 1978 ON || Raymond Matthews ("Ray") Brown, American jazz bassist, who played in Dizzy Gillespie's band and later with the Oscar Peterson Trio, husband and musical director of Ella Fitzgerald ||
|-id=841
| 5841 Stone || 1982 ST || Prof. Ed Stone is the former Director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (1991–2001) and the project scientist for the Voyager Mission at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory since 1972. ||
|-id=842
| 5842 Cancelli || || Ferdinando Cancelli (born 1969) is a doctor whose speciality is palliative medicine. He is deeply involved in ethical issues concerning the end of life and in the care of terminally ill persons. ||
|-id=845
| 5845 Davidbrewster || 1988 QP || David Brewster (1781–1868), a Scottish scientist, a populariser of science and a founder of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. ||
|-id=846
| 5846 Hessen || || Hesse, a German federal state ||
|-id=847
| 5847 Wakiya || 1989 YB || Nanayo Wakiya, member of Japan Planetarium Laboratory ||
|-id=848
| 5848 Harutoriko || || Lake Harutori, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=849
| 5849 Bhanji || || Alaudin Bhanji (born 1951) is a JPL engineer and Project Manager for NASA's Deep Space Network (DSN). He has ensured that the DSN's capabilities continue to enable communications with spacecraft throughout the solar system as well as providing radar characterizations of solar system bodies, including numerous asteroids. ||
|-id=850
| 5850 Masaharu || 1990 XM || Masaharu Suzuki, member of Goto Optical Mfg. Co. ||
|-id=851
| 5851 Inagawa || || Inagawa, a Japanese town in the Hyōgo Prefecture ||
|-id=852
| 5852 Nanette || 1991 HO || Nanette and Mark Vigil, daughter and son-in-law of Canadian co-discoverer David H. Levy ||
|-id=855
| 5855 Yukitsuna || || Minamoto no Yukitsuna, Japanese general in the late Heian period, who occupied the provinces of Settsu and Kawachi ||
|-id=856
| 5856 Peluk || || Peter-Lukas Graf (born 1929) is a Swiss musician, flutist and conductor, mainly distinguished as soloist, teacher and author. ||
|-id=857
| 5857 Neglinka || || The Neglinnaya River ("Neglinka"), a tributary of the Moskva River in Moscow, Russia ||
|-id=858
| 5858 Borovitskia || || Kremlin Hill (formerly "Borovitsky Hill"), one of the seven hills of Moscow, where the first buildings of the ancient settlement were erected, and now the location of the Red Square ||
|-id=859
| 5859 Ostozhenka || || Ostozhenka Street in the Khamovniki District of the Russian city of Moscow, built on a former hayfield and now part of The Golden Mile ||
|-id=860
| 5860 Deankoontz || || Dean Ray Koontz (born 1945) is a contemporary American author. ||
|-id=861
| 5861 Glynjones || 1982 RW || Kenneth Glyn Jones (1915–1995), British astronomer and historian ||
|-id=862
| 5862 Sakanoue || 1983 AB || Tsutomu Sakanoue (born 1921), a Japanese meteorologist and amateur astronomer ||
|-id=863
| 5863 Tara || 1983 RB || Tara, goddess in Hinduism ||
|-id=864
| 5864 Montgolfier || || The Montgolfier brothers, French aeronauts ||
|-id=865
| 5865 Qualytemocrina || 1984 QQ || The International Comet Quarterly, an astronomical journal and international archive of photometric data on comets ||
|-id=866
| 5866 Sachsen || || Saxony (), a state in Germany ||
|-id=868
| 5868 Ohta || 1988 TQ || Kentarō Ohta, member of Goto Optical Mfg. Co. ||
|-id=869
| 5869 Tanith || || Tanit, chief deity of Carthage ||
|-id=870
| 5870 Baltimore || || Baltimore, Maryland, USA ||
|-id=871
| 5871 Bobbell || || Robert L. Bell, friend and associate of the discoverer's husband. ||
|-id=872
| 5872 Sugano || 1989 SL || Matsuo Sugano (born 1939), the first discoverer of comet C/1983 J1 ||
|-id=873
| 5873 Archilochos || || Archilochos, Ancient Greek poet ||
|-id=875
| 5875 Kuga || 1989 XO || Naoto or Naohito (or Tadahito) Kuga, member of Goto Optical Mfg. Co. ||
|-id=877
| 5877 Toshimaihara || 1990 FP || Toshinori Maihara (born 1942), a professor at Kyoto University and leading infrared astronomer in Japan ||
|-id=878
| 5878 Charlene || || Charlene Marie Anderson, Associate Director of the Planetary Society ||
|-id=879
| 5879 Almeria || || Almeria, the Spanish city and province where the Calar Alto Observatory of the German–Spanish Astronomical Centre is located ||
|-id=881
| 5881 Akashi || || Akashi, Hyōgo, a city facing the Setouchi Inland Sea, Japan. ||
|-id=883
| 5883 Josephblack || || Joseph Black (1728–1799), a Scottish scientist. ||
|-id=884
| 5884 Dolezal || 6045 P-L || Erich Dolezal (1902–1990), Austrian writer and popularizer of astronomy and space science, co-founder of the "Austrian Society for Space Research" ||
|-id=885
| 5885 Apeldoorn || 3137 T-2 || Ben Apeldoorn (born 1944), Dutch amateur astronomer and science publicist, on the occasion of his 50th birthday ||
|-id=886
| 5886 Rutger || 1975 LR || Lyle Lee Rutger (born 1949), American leader of the Nuclear Launch Approval office of the Department of Energy for NASA's New Horizons Pluto-Kuiper Belt mission ||
|-id=887
| 5887 Yauza || || The Yauza River, a tributary of the Moskva River in Moscow ||
|-id=888
| 5888 Ruders || || Poul Ruders (born 1949), a Danish composer ||
|-id=889
| 5889 Mickiewicz || || Adam Mickiewicz, poet and playwright ||
|-id=890
| 5890 Carlsberg || 1979 KG || The Carlsberg Foundation, established by philanthropist J. C. Jacobsen in 1876, who was also the founder of the first Carlsberg Brewery ||
|-id=891
| 5891 Gehrig || 1981 SM || Lou Gehrig, American baseball player ||
|-id=892
| 5892 Milesdavis || || Miles Dewey Davis III, American jazz trumpeter, bandleader and composer ||
|-id=893
| 5893 Coltrane || 1982 EF || John William Coltrane, American jazz saxophonist and composer ||
|-id=894
| 5894 Telč || || Telč, Czech Republic ||
|-id=895
| 5895 Žbirka || || Miroslav Žbirka (born 1952) is a Slovak singer and songwriter. Before going solo, he played in the bands Modus and Limit. His songs in Slovak, Czech and English have greatly enriched the Czech and Slovak pop music scene. He is a lifelong fan of the Beatles. The name was suggested by S. Kürti. ||
|-id=896
| 5896 Narrenschiff || || Named on the occasion of the quincentenary of the publication of the Narrenschiff, immortal satiric poem by Sebastian Brant, German writer and humanist ||
|-id=897
| 5897 Novotná || || Jarmila Novotná-Daubková (1907–1994), Czech opera singer ||
|-id=899
| 5899 Jedicke || 1986 AH || The Jedicke family: Peter Jedicke (born 1955), Robert Jedicke (born 1963), and June Jedicke-Zehr (born 1966), Canadian astronomers Src ||
|-id=900
| 5900 Jensen || 1986 TL || Poul Jensen, Danish astronomer and a discoverer of minor planets. He served in the Meridian Circle Department at the Brorfelde Observatory for 35 years, and his wife, Bodil Jensen. During the past ten years Poul also took part in the minor planet program carried out with the Schmidt telescope. Name proposed by K. Augustesen and H. J. Fogh Olsen. ||
|}
5901–6000
|-id=902
| 5902 Talima || || Tatiana Alimovna Damir, friend of the discoverer, daughter of Alim Matveevich Damir (5717) and wife of Sergej Petrovich Kapitsa (5094) ||
|-id=904
| 5904 Württemberg || || Württemberg, Germany ||
|-id=905
| 5905 Johnson || || Lindley N. Johnson, American astronomer and instrumental for the NEAT program ||
|-id=907
| 5907 Rhigmus || || Rhigmus, son of Peires from Thracea and a Trojan warrior in Greek mythology. Rhigmus was speared by Achilles while riding in his chariot. ||
|-id=908
| 5908 Aichi || 1989 UF || Aichi Prefecture, Japan. ||
|-id=909
| 5909 Nagoya || 1989 UT || Nagoya, Aichi, Japan. ||
|-id=910
| 5910 Zátopek || || Emil Zátopek, Czech Olympic long-distance runner ||
|-id=912
| 5912 Oyatoshiyuki || 1989 YR || Toshiyuki Oya, Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=914
| 5914 Kathywhaler || 1990 WK || Kathryn Anne Whaler (born 1956), Scottish professor of geophysics, Royal Astronomical Society president 2004–2006 ||
|-id=915
| 5915 Yoshihiro || 1991 EU || Yoshihiro Yamada (born 1946), Japanese astronomy educator ||
|-id=916
| 5916 van der Woude || || Jurrie van der Woude, Dutch-born former Public Affairs Officer and Image Coordinator at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ||
|-id=917
| 5917 Chibasai || 1991 NG || The Chiba Science Association, a non-profit astronomy organization in Chiba, Japan ||
|-id=919
| 5919 Patrickmartin || || Patrick Martin (born 1967), a research associate at Cornell University. ||
|-id=922
| 5922 Shouichi || 1992 UV || Shouichi Satō, Japanese electric engineer. ||
|-id=923
| 5923 Liedeke || || Liedeke Gehrels-de Stoppelaar, wife of astronomer Tom Gehrels † ||
|-id=924
| 5924 Teruo || || Teruo Saegusa, Japanese mountain climber ||
|-id=926
| 5926 Schönfeld || 1929 PB || Eduard Schönfeld (1828–1891), a German astronomer and director at the Mannheim and Bonn observatories who participated in the Bonner Durchmusterung ||
|-id=927
| 5927 Krogh || 1938 HA || Fred T. Krogh (born 1937), an American mathematician. ||
|-id=928
| 5928 Pindarus || || Pindar (c. 518–438 BC), Greek lyric poet ||
|-id=929
| 5929 Manzano || 1974 XT || José Roberto Manzano (1928–1999), Argentine astronomer and physicist ||
|-id=930
| 5930 Zhiganov || || Näcip Cihanov (Nazib Gayazovich Zhiganov; 1911–1988), a Soviet Tartar composer and founder of the Tatarian professional musical school ||
|-id=931
| 5931 Zhvanetskij || || Mikhail Zhvanetsky (born 1934), Russian writer, satirist and performer ||
|-id=932
| 5932 Prutkov || || Kozma Prutkov, a fictional author and the collective pen-name of several satirical Russian poets during the Russian Empire in the 1850s and 1860s ||
|-id=933
| 5933 Kemurdzhian || 1976 QN || Alexander Kemurdzhian (1921–2003), Soviet designer of Lunokhod moon rover ||
|-id=934
| 5934 Mats || 1976 SJ || Mats Lindgren, Swedish astronomer at Uppsala Astronomical Observatory ||
|-id=935
| 5935 Ostankino || || Ostankino, district of the city of Moscow in Russia ||
|-id=936
| 5936 Khadzhinov || || Leonid Petrovich Khadzhinov (born 1927), a Ukrainian electrical engineer ||
|-id=937
| 5937 Lodén || 1979 XQ || Kerstin Lodén and Lars Olof Lodén, Swedish astronomers at Stockholm Observatory ||
|-id=938
| 5938 Keller || || Horst Uwe Keller, German physicist at the Max Planck Institute in Lindau ||
|-id=939
| 5939 Toshimayeda || || Toshiko Mayeda, Japanese meteoriticist ||
|-id=940
| 5940 Feliksobolev || || Feliks Mikhailovich Sobolev (1931–1984), Ukrainian film producer ||
|-id=941
| 5941 Valencia || || Valencia, Spain ||
|-id=942
| 5942 Denzilrobert || || Denzil Marley (born 1918) and Robert Behymer (born 1926), fathers of the discoverers. ||
|-id=943
| 5943 Lovi || 1984 EG || George Lovi (1939–1993), Hungarian-born astronomical writer and cartographer ||
|-id=944
| 5944 Utesov || || Leonid Utyosov, Russian singer, musician, actor, founder and artistic leader of the first Russian theatricalized jazz band (on the occasion of the one-hundredth anniversary his birth) ||
|-id=945
| 5945 Roachapproach || || Steve Roach (born 1955), American musician and composer of 'space music' Src ||
|-id=946
| 5946 Hrozný || || Bedřich Hrozný, Czech archeologist, orientalist and linguist, decipherer of Hittite ||
|-id=947
| 5947 Bonnie || 1985 FD || Bonnie Gail Farquhar (1936–1993), late wife of American engineer Robert W. Farquhar, a spaceflight mission director at NASA ||
|-id=948
| 5948 Longo || 1985 JL || Giuseppe Longo (born 1920), Italian astronomer and physicist at the University of Bologna ||
|-id=950
| 5950 Leukippos || || Leucippus, Ancient Greek philosopher ||
|-id=951
| 5951 Alicemonet || || Alice Kay Monet (Alice Kay Babcock; born 1954), American astronomer at the United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station. She is married to David Monet (see below) ||
|-id=952
| 5952 Davemonet || 1987 EV || David Gilbert Monet (born 1951), American astronomer at the United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station and husband of Alice Monet (see above) ||
|-id=953
| 5953 Shelton || 1987 HS || Ian Shelton (born 1957), Canadian astronomer known for the discovery of the bright supernova SN 1987A ||
|-id=954
| 5954 Epikouros || || Epicurus, Ancient Greek philosopher ||
|-id=955
| 5955 Khromchenko || || Vladimir Anatolievich Khromchenko, a music teacher at Yalta and a talented designer who constructed the first home-built organ in Ukraine. ||
|-id=956
| 5956 d'Alembert || || Jean Le Rond d'Alembert, French philosopher and mathematician ||
|-id=957
| 5957 Irina || 1988 JN || Victorovna Farquhar, wife of American engineer Robert W. Farquhar, a spaceflight mission director at NASA ||
|-id=958
| 5958 Barrande || || Joachim Barrande, French palaeontologist ||
|-id=959
| 5959 Shaklan || || Stuart B. Shaklan, an optical engineer and instrumental for the NEAT program ||
|-id=960
| 5960 Wakkanai || 1989 US || Wakkanai, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=961
| 5961 Watt || || James Watt (1736–1819), a Scottish engineer whose improvements to the steam engine led to the rapid advances of the industrial revolution. ||
|-id=962
| 5962 Shikokutenkyo || 1990 HK || Shikoku Ten-mon Kyōkai, Japanese name for the Astronomical Society of Shikoku Island ||
|-id=966
| 5966 Tomeko || || Tomeko Goto (1899–?), wife of Seizo Goto, Japanese former president of Goto Optical Laboratory (see #969) ||
|-id=967
| 5967 Edithlevy || || Edith Pailet Levy (born 1918), American-Canadian geneticist, and mother of astronomer David H. Levy ||
|-id=968
| 5968 Trauger || 1991 FC || John T. Trauger, American physicist, Senior Research Scientist at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, who was the principal investigator for the Wide Field/Planetary Camera II on the Hubble Space Telescope ||
|-id=969
| 5969 Ryuichiro || 1991 FT || Ryuichiro Goto (born 1938), Japanese current president of Goto Optical Laboratory ||
|-id=970
| 5970 Ohdohrikouen || || Odori Park, Sapporo, Japan ||
|-id=971
| 5971 Tickell || || Crispin Tickell (born 1930), British diplomat, who chaired the board of the Climate Institute of Washington (1990–2002) and the Government Panel on Sustainable Development (1994–2000), and who also served on the UK government's Task Force on Near-Earth Objects ||
|-id=972
| 5972 Harryatkinson || || Harry Atkinson (1929–2018), New Zealand-born British physicist, head of astronomy and space for the Science Research Council (1972–1978), chair of the European Space Agency Council (1984–1987), and chair of the UK Task Force on Near-Earth Objects in 2000 ||
|-id=973
| 5973 Takimoto || 1991 QC || Daisuke Takimoto, Japanese activist in the nuclear-power phase-out movement. ||
|-id=975
| 5975 Otakemayumi || 1992 SG || Mayumi Ōtake, music composer of Japanese planetarium ||
|-id=976
| 5976 Kalatajean || || Jean Marie Kalata, an American social science analyst at the Smithsonian Institution. Named on the occasion of the institution's sesquicentennial. ||
|-id=978
| 5978 Kaminokuni || 1992 WT || Kaminokuni, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=981
| 5981 Kresilas || 2140 P-L || Kresilas, Ancient Greek sculptor ||
|-id=982
| 5982 Polykletus || 4862 T-1 || Polykleitos (c. 480–423 BC), ancient Greek sculptor in bronze ||
|-id=983
| 5983 Praxiteles || 2285 T-2 || Praxiteles, Ancient Greek sculptor ||
|-id=984
| 5984 Lysippus || 4045 T-3 || Lysippos, Ancient Greek sculptor ||
|-id=986
| 5986 Xenophon || 1969 TA || Xenophon, the Athenian nobleman, pupil and interpreter of Socrates, historian, agriculturist, and military officer who lived from about 440 to 354 B.C. ||
|-id=987
| 5987 Liviogratton || 1975 LQ || Livio Gratton (1910–1991), Italo-Argentine astrophysicist, director of Astronomical Observatory of Córdoba and the first director of the Institute of Mathematics, Astronomy and Physics of the Córdoba National University ||
|-id=988
| 5988 Gorodnitskij || || Aleksandr Moiseevich Gorodnitskij (born 1933), Soviet geophysicist, oceanologist, and mineralogist, poet and songwriter ||
|-id=989
| 5989 Sorin || || Sergej Ivanovich Sorin (1916–1995), Soviet astronomer ||
|-id=990
| 5990 Panticapaeon || 1977 EO || Panticapæon or Panticapaeum, ancient Greek colony, now Kerch, Ukrainian seaport at the eastern extremity of the Crimean Peninsula ||
|-id=991
| 5991 Ivavladis || || Vladislav Ivanov (born 1936), Russian engineer ||
|-id=992
| 5992 Nittler || 1981 DZ || Larry Nittler (born 1969), American meteoriticist ||
|-id=993
| 5993 Tammydickinson || || Tamara Dickinson (born 1959), American meteoriticist ||
|-id=994
| 5994 Yakubovich || || Leonid Yakubovich (born 1945), Russian writer and television host ||
|-id=995
| 5995 Saint-Aignan || 1982 DK || Charles P. de Saint-Aignan (born 1977), American astronomer and software engineer who has discovered several minor planets ||
|-id=996
| 5996 Julioangel || 1983 NR || Julio Ángel Fernández (born 1946), Uruguayan astronomer ||
|-id=997
| 5997 Dirac || 1983 TH || Paul Dirac (1902–1984), British physicist and Nobelist ||
|-id=998
| 5998 Sitenský || || Ladislav Sitenský (1919–2009), Czech landscape photographer ||
|-id=999
| 5999 Plescia || 1987 HA || Jeffrey B. Plescia, American geophysicist and planetary geologist, researcher of terrestrial impact craters at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ||
|-id=000
| 6000 United Nations || 1987 UN || The United Nations. The Asteroid was named by vote of IAU Commission 20 at its 1994 meeting in The Hague on the recommendation of the Minor Planet Names Committee. ||
|}
References
005001-006000 |
11885652 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical%20debt | Technical debt | In software development, technical debt (also known as design debt or code debt) is the implied cost of additional rework caused by choosing an easy (limited) solution now instead of using a better approach that would take longer.
Analogous with monetary debt, if technical debt is not repaid, it can accumulate "interest", making it harder to implement changes. Unaddressed technical debt increases software entropy and cost of further rework. Similarly to monetary debt, technical debt is not necessarily a bad thing, and sometimes (e.g. as a proof-of-concept) is required to move projects forward. On the other hand, some experts claim that the "technical debt" metaphor tends to minimize the ramifications, which results in insufficient prioritization of the necessary work to correct it.
As a change is started on a codebase, there is often the need to make other coordinated changes in other parts of the codebase or documentation. Changes required that are not completed are considered debt, and until paid, will incur interest on top of interest, making it cumbersome to build a project. Although the term is used in software development primarily, it can also be applied to other professions.
Causes
Common causes of technical debt include:
Ongoing development, long series of project enhancements over time renders old solutions sub-optimal.
Insufficient up-front definition, where requirements are still being defined during development, development starts before any design takes place. This is done to save time but often has to be reworked later.
Business pressures, where the business considers getting something released sooner before the necessary changes are complete, builds up technical debt involving those uncompleted changes.
Lack of process or understanding, where businesses are blind to the concept of technical debt, and make decisions without considering the implications.
Tightly-coupled components, where functions are not modular, the software is not flexible enough to adapt to changes in business needs.
Lack of a test suite, which encourages quick and risky band-aid bug fixes.
Lack of software documentation, where code is created without supporting documentation. The work to create documentation represents debt.
Lack of collaboration, where knowledge isn't shared around the organization and business efficiency suffers, or junior developers are not properly mentored.
Parallel development on multiple branches accrues technical debt because of the work required to merge the changes into a single source base. The more changes done in isolation, the more debt.
Delayed refactoring; As the requirements for a project evolve, it may become clear that parts of the code have become inefficient or difficult to edit and must be refactored in order to support future requirements. The longer refactoring is delayed, and the more code is added, the bigger the debt.
Lack of alignment to standards, where industry standard features, frameworks, and technologies are ignored. Eventually integration with standards will come, and doing so sooner will cost less (similar to "delayed refactoring").
Lack of knowledge, when the developer doesn't know how to write elegant code.
Lack of ownership, when outsourced software efforts result in in-house engineering being required to refactor or rewrite outsourced code.
Poor technological leadership, where poorly thought out commands are handed down the chain of command.
Last minute specification changes. These have potential to percolate throughout a project, but there is insufficient time or budget to document and test the changes.
Service or repay the technical debt
Kenny Rubin uses the following status categories:
Happened-upon technical debt—debt that the development team was unaware existed until it was exposed during the normal course of performing work on the product. For example, the team is adding a new feature to the product and in doing so it realizes that a work-around had been built into the code years before by someone who has long since departed.
Known technical debt—debt that is known to the development team and has been made visible using one of the previously discussed approaches.
Targeted technical debt—debt that is known and has been targeted for servicing by the development team.
Consequences
"Interest payments" are caused by both the necessary local maintenance and the absence of maintenance by other users of the project. Ongoing development in the upstream project can increase the cost of "paying off the debt" in the future. One pays off the debt by simply completing the uncompleted work.
The buildup of technical debt is a major cause for projects to miss deadlines. It is difficult to estimate exactly how much work is necessary to pay off the debt. For each change that is initiated, an uncertain amount of uncompleted work is committed to the project. The deadline is missed when the project realizes that there is more uncompleted work (debt) than there is time to complete it in. To have predictable release schedules, a development team should limit the amount of work in progress in order to keep the amount of uncompleted work (or debt) small at all times.
If enough work is completed on a project to not present a barrier to submission, then a project will be released which still carries a substantial amount of technical debt. If this software reaches production, then the risks of implementing any future refactors which might address the technical debt increase dramatically. Modifying production code carries the risk of outages, actual financial losses and possibly legal repercussions if contracts involve service-level agreements (SLA). For this reason we can view the carrying of technical debt to production almost as if it were an increase in interest rate and the only time this decreases is when deployments are turned down and retired.
While Manny Lehman's Law already indicated that evolving programs continually add to their complexity and deteriorating structure unless work is done to maintain them, Ward Cunningham first drew the comparison between technical complexity and debt in a 1992 experience report:
In his 2004 text, Refactoring to Patterns, Joshua Kerievsky presents a comparable argument concerning the costs associated with architectural negligence, which he describes as "design debt".
Activities that might be postponed include documentation, writing tests, attending to TODO comments and tackling compiler and static code analysis warnings. Other instances of technical debt include knowledge that isn't shared around the organization and code that is too confusing to be modified easily.
Writing about PHP development in 2014, Junade Ali said:
Grady Booch compares how evolving cities is similar to evolving software-intensive systems and how lack of refactoring can lead to technical debt.
In open source software, postponing sending local changes to the upstream project is a form of technical debt.
See also
Code smell (symptoms of inferior code quality that can contribute to technical debt)
Big ball of mud
Spaghetti code
Software rot
Shotgun surgery
Bus factor
Escalation of commitment
Software entropy
SQALE
Sunk cost
TODO, FIXME, XXX
Overengineering
References
External links
Ward Explains Debt Metaphor, video from Ward Cunningham
OnTechnicalDebt The online community for discussing technical debt
Experts interviews on Technical Debt: Ward Cunningham, Philippe KRUCHTEN, Ipek OZKAYA, Jean-Louis LETOUZEY
Steve McConnell discusses technical debt
TechnicalDebt from Martin Fowler Bliki
Averting a "Technical Debt" Crisis by Doug Knesek
"Get out of Technical Debt Now!", a talk by Andy Lester
Lehman's Law
Managing Technical Debt Webinar by Steve McConnell
Boundy, David, Software cancer: the seven early warning signs or here, ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes, Vol. 18 No. 2 (April 1993), Association for Computing Machinery, New York, New York, US
Technical debt: investeer en voorkom faillissement by Colin Spoel
Technical debts: Everything you need to know
What is technical debt? from DeepSource blog
Anti-patterns
Metaphors
Software architecture
Software engineering terminology
Software maintenance |
1124109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glider%20%28Conway%27s%20Life%29 | Glider (Conway's Life) | The glider is a pattern that travels across the board in Conway's Game of Life. It was first discovered by Richard K. Guy in 1969, while John Conway's group was attempting to track the evolution of the R-pentomino. Gliders are the smallest spaceships, and they travel diagonally at a speed of one cell every four generations, or . The glider is often produced from randomly generated starting configurations. John Conway remarked that he wished he hadn't called it the glider. The game was developed before the widespread use of interactive computers, and after seeing it animated, he feels the glider looks more like an ant walking across the plane.
Importance
Gliders are important to the Game of Life because they are easily produced, can be collided with each other to form more complicated objects, and can be used to transmit information over long distances. Instances of this second advantage are called glider syntheses. For instance, eight gliders can be positioned so that they collide to form a Gosper glider gun. Glider collisions designed to result in certain patterns are also called glider syntheses.
Patterns such as blocks, beehives, blinkers, traffic lights, even the uncommon Eater, can be synthesized with just two gliders. It takes three gliders to build the three other basic spaceships, and even the pentadecathlon oscillator.
Some patterns require a very large number (sometimes hundreds) of glider collisions; some oscillators, exotic spaceships, puffer trains, guns, etc. Whether the construction of an exotic pattern from gliders can possibly mean it can occur naturally, is still conjecture.
Gliders can also be collided with other patterns with interesting results. For example, if two gliders are shot at a block in just the right way, the block moves closer to the source of the gliders. If three gliders are shot in just the right way, the block moves farther away. This "sliding block memory" can be used to simulate a counter, which would be modified by firing gliders at it. It is possible to construct logic gates such as AND, OR and NOT using gliders. One may also build a pattern that acts like a finite state machine connected to two counters. This has the same computational power as a universal Turing machine, so, using the glider, the Game of Life is theoretically as powerful as any computer with unlimited memory and no time constraints: it is Turing complete.
Hacker emblem
Eric S. Raymond has proposed the glider as an emblem to represent the hacker subculture, as the Game of Life appeals to hackers, and the concept of the glider was "born at almost the same time as the Internet and Unix". The emblem is in use in various places within the subculture.
References
External links
Glider at the LifeWiki
The Glider: Proposal for a Hacker Emblem
Cellular automaton patterns |
20819599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiades%20%28supercomputer%29 | Pleiades (supercomputer) | Pleiades () is a petascale supercomputer housed at the NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS) facility at NASA's Ames Research Center located at Moffett Field near Mountain View, California. It is maintained by NASA and partners Hewlett Packard Enterprise (formerly Silicon Graphics International) and Intel.
As of November 2019 it is ranked the 32nd most powerful computer on the TOP500 list with a LINPACK rating of 5.95 petaflops (5.95 quadrillion floating point operations per second) and a peak performance of 7.09 petaflops from its most recent hardware upgrade. The system serves as NASA's largest supercomputing resource, supporting missions in aeronautics, human spaceflight, astrophysics, and Earth science.
History
Built in 2008 and named for the Pleiades open star cluster, the supercomputer debuted as the third most powerful supercomputer in the world at 487 teraflops. It originally contained 100 SGI Altix ICE 8200EX racks with 12,800 Intel Xeon quad-core E5472 Harpertown processors connected with more than 20 miles of InfiniBand double data rate (DDR) cabling.
With the addition of ten more racks of quad-core X5570 Nehalem processors in 2009, Pleiades ranked sixth on the November 2009 TOP500 with 14,080 processors running at 544 teraflops. In January 2010, the scientists and engineers at NAS successfully completed a "live integration" of another ICE 8200 rack by connecting the new rack's InfiniBand dual port fabric via 44 fibre cables while the supercomputer was still running a full workload, saving 2 million hours in productivity that would otherwise have been lost.
Another expansion in 2010 added 32 new SGI Altix ICE 8400 racks with Intel Xeon six-core X5670 Westmere processors, bringing up to 18,432 processors (81,920 cores in 144 racks) at a theoretical peak of 973 teraflops and a LINPACK rating of 773 teraflops. NASA also put an emphasis on keeping Pleiades energy efficient, increasing the power efficiency with each expansion so that in 2010 it was three times more power-efficient than the original 2008 components, which were the most power-efficient at the time. The integration of the six-core Westmere nodes also required new quad data rate (QDR) and hybrid DDR/QDR InfiniBand cabling, making the world's largest InfiniBand interconnect network with more than 65 miles of cable.
After another 14 ICE 8400 racks containing Westmere processors were added in 2011, Pleiades ranked seventh on the TOP500 list in June of that year at a LINPACK rating of 1.09 petaflops, or 1.09 quadrillion floating point operations per second.
InfiniBand DDR and QDR fiber cables are used to connect the all of nodes to each other, as well as to the mass storage systems at NAS and the hyperwall visualization system, creating a network made up of more than 65 miles of InfiniBand fabric, the largest of its kind in the world. Pleiades is built in a partial 11-D hypercube topology, where each node has eleven connections to eleven other nodes, with some making up to twelve connections to form a 12-D hypercube.
In 2012, NASA and partners SGI and Intel began working on the integration of 24 new Altix ICE X racks with Intel Xeon eight-core E5-2760 Sandy Bridge processors to replace 27 of the original Alitx 8200 racks containing quad-core Harpertown processors. With a total of 126,720 processor cores and over 233 terabytes of RAM across 182 racks, the expansion increased Pleiades' available computing capacity 40 percent. Each new Sandy Bridge node has four networking links using fourteen data rate (FDR) InfiniBand cable for a total transfer bandwidth of 56 gigabits (about 7 gigabytes) per second.
In early 2013, work began on a larger hardware refresh for Pleiades, ultimately removing all of the original 4-core Harpertown processors and adding 46 SGI ICE X racks with 10-core Intel Xeon E5-2680V2 (Ivy Bridge) processors. When installation was complete in August 2013, the system's overall peak performance increased 62% from 1.78 petaflops to 2.87 petaflops. The system was slowly upgraded again between January and April 2014, adding another 29 racks of Ivy Bridge nodes and increasing the system's theoretical computational capability to 3.59 petaflops. To make room for the expansion, all of the system's remaining Nehalem nodes and 12 Westmere nodes were removed.
In late 2014, more Westmere nodes were removed to make room for new Intel Xeon Haswell processors, increasing the theoretical processing power by one petaflop to 4.49 petaflops. In January 2015, additional Haswell nodes were installed and released to users, giving Pleiades a new peak theoretical processing capacity of 5.35 petaflops. An upgrade, completed in June 2016, replaced all remaining racks containing nodes with six-core Intel Xeon X5670 (Westmere) processors with racks containing nodes using 14-core Intel Xeon E5-2680v4 (Broadwell) processors. This improved the theoretical peak performance to 7.25 petaflops.
Role at NASA
Pleiades is part of NASA's High-End Computing Capability (HECC) Project and represents NASA's state-of-the-art technology for meeting the agency's supercomputing requirements, enabling NASA scientists and engineers to conduct high-fidelity modeling and simulation for NASA missions in Earth studies, space science, aeronautics research, as well as human and robotic space exploration.
Some of the scientific and engineering projects run on Pleiades include:
The Kepler Mission, a space observatory launched in March 2009 to locate Earth-like planets, monitors a section of space containing more than 200,000 stars and takes high-resolution images every 30 minutes. After the operations center gathers this data, it is pipelined to Pleiades in order to calculate the size, orbit, and location of the planets surrounding these stars. As of February 2012, the Kepler mission has discovered 1,235 planets, 5 of which are approximately Earth-sized and orbit within the "habitable zone" where water can exist in all three forms (solid, liquid, gas). After setbacks following the failure of two of Kepler's four reaction wheels, responsible for keeping the spacecraft pointed in the correct direction, in 2013, the Kepler team moved the entire data pipeline to Pleiades, which continues to run light curve analyses from the existing Kepler data.
Research and development of next generation space launch vehicles is done on Pleiades using cutting-edge analysis tools and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling and simulation in order to create more efficient and affordable space launch system and vehicle designs. Research has also been done on reducing noise created by the landing gear of aircraft using CFD code application to detect where the sources of noise are within the structures.
Astrophysics research into the formation of galaxies is run on Pleiades to create simulations of how our own Milky Way Galaxy was formed and what forces might have caused it to form in its signature disk-shape. Pleiades has also been the supercomputing resource for dark matter research and simulation, helping to discover gravitationally bound "clumps" of dark matter within galaxies in one of the largest simulations ever done, in terms of particle numbers.
Visualization of the Earth's ocean currents using a NASA-built data synthesis model for the Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean (ECCO) Project between MIT and the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. According to NASA, the "ECCO model-data syntheses are being used to quantify the ocean's role in the global carbon cycle, to understand the recent evolution of the polar oceans, to monitor time-evolving heat, water, and chemical exchanges within and between different components of the Earth system, and for many other science applications."
Gallery
In popular culture
In the 2015 film The Martian, astrodynamicist Rich Purnell uses the Pleiades supercomputer to verify calculations for a gravity assist maneuver for a spacecraft, in order to rescue an astronaut stranded on Mars. Unlike what is shown in the movie, one need not be physically present inside the racks to run the computations; to submit jobs a user can connect from a remote location via ssh, while employing a SecurID.
References
External links
NASA Pleiades homepage
NASA Advanced Supercomputing Division homepage
NASA's HECC Project homepage
NASA homepage
Ames Research Center
NASA supercomputers
Petascale computers
One-of-a-kind computers
SGI supercomputers
X86 supercomputers |
191866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RADIUS | RADIUS | Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) is a networking protocol that provides centralized authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA) management for users who connect and use a network service. RADIUS was developed by Livingston Enterprises in 1991 as an access server authentication and accounting protocol. It was later brought into IEEE 802 and IETF standards.
RADIUS is a client/server protocol that runs in the application layer, and can use either TCP or UDP. Network access servers, which control access to a network, usually contain a RADIUS client component that communicates with the RADIUS server. RADIUS is often the back-end of choice for 802.1X authentication. A RADIUS server is usually a background process running on UNIX or Microsoft Windows.
Protocol components
RADIUS is an AAA (authentication, authorization, and accounting) protocol that manages network access. RADIUS uses two types of packets to manage the full AAA process: Access-Request, which manages authentication and authorization; and Accounting-Request, which manages accounting. Authentication and authorization are defined in RFC 2865 while accounting is described by RFC 2866.
Authentication and authorization
The user or machine sends a request to a Network Access Server (NAS) to gain access to a particular network resource using access credentials. The credentials are passed to the NAS device via the link-layer protocol—for example, Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) in the case of many dialup or DSL providers or posted in an HTTPS secure web form.
In turn, the NAS sends a RADIUS Access Request message to the RADIUS server, requesting authorization to grant access via the RADIUS protocol.
This request includes access credentials, typically in the form of username and password or security certificate provided by the user. Additionally, the request may contain other information which the NAS knows about the user, such as its network address or phone number, and information regarding the user's physical point of attachment to the NAS.
The RADIUS server checks that the information is correct using authentication schemes such as PAP, CHAP or EAP. The user's proof of identification is verified, along with, optionally, other information related to the request, such as the user's network address or phone number, account status, and specific network service access privileges. Historically, RADIUS servers checked the user's information against a locally stored flat file database. Modern RADIUS servers can do this, or can refer to external sources—commonly SQL, Kerberos, LDAP, or Active Directory servers—to verify the user's credentials.
The RADIUS server then returns one of three responses to the NAS: 1) Access Reject, 2) Access Challenge, or 3) Access Accept.
Access Reject The user is unconditionally denied access to all requested network resources. Reasons may include failure to provide proof of identification or an unknown or inactive user account.
Access Challenge Requests additional information from the user such as a secondary password, PIN, token, or card. Access Challenge is also used in more complex authentication dialogs where a secure tunnel is established between the user machine and the Radius Server in a way that the access credentials are hidden from the NAS.
Access Accept The user is granted access. Once the user is authenticated, the RADIUS server will often check that the user is authorized to use the network service requested. A given user may be allowed to use a company's wireless network, but not its VPN service, for example. Again, this information may be stored locally on the RADIUS server, or may be looked up in an external source such as LDAP or Active Directory.
Each of these three RADIUS responses may include a Reply-Message attribute which may give a reason for the rejection, the prompt for the challenge, or a welcome message for the accept. The text in the attribute can be passed on to the user in a return web page.
Authorization attributes are conveyed to the NAS stipulating terms of access to be granted. For example, the following authorization attributes may be included in an Access-Accept:
The specific IP address to be assigned to the user
The address pool from which the user's IP address should be chosen
The maximum length of time that the user may remain connected
An access list, priority queue or other restrictions on a user's access
L2TP parameters
VLAN parameters
Quality of Service (QoS) parameters
When a client is configured to use RADIUS, any user of the client presents authentication information to the client. This might be with a customizable login prompt, where the user is expected to enter their username and password. Alternatively, the user might use a link framing protocol such as the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), which has authentication packets which carry this information.
Once the client has obtained such information, it may choose to authenticate using RADIUS. To do so, the client creates an "Access- Request" containing such Attributes as the user's name, the user's password, the ID of the client and the port ID which the user is accessing. When a password is present, it is hidden using a method based on the RSA Message Digest Algorithm MD5.
Accounting
Accounting is described in RFC 2866.
When network access is granted to the user by the NAS, an Accounting Start (a RADIUS Accounting Request packet containing an Acct-Status-Type attribute with the value "start") is sent by the NAS to the RADIUS server to signal the start of the user's network access. "Start" records typically contain the user's identification, network address, point of attachment and a unique session identifier.
Periodically, Interim Update records (a RADIUS Accounting Request packet containing an Acct-Status-Type attribute with the value "interim-update") may be sent by the NAS to the RADIUS server, to update it on the status of an active session. "Interim" records typically convey the current session duration and information on current data usage.
Finally, when the user's network access is closed, the NAS issues a final Accounting Stop record (a RADIUS Accounting Request packet containing an Acct-Status-Type attribute with the value "stop") to the RADIUS server, providing information on the final usage in terms of time, packets transferred, data transferred, reason for disconnect and other information related to the user's network access.
Typically, the client sends Accounting-Request packets until it receives an Accounting-Response acknowledgement, using some retry interval.
The primary purpose of this data is that the user can be billed accordingly; the data is also commonly used for statistical purposes and for general network monitoring.
Roaming
RADIUS is commonly used to facilitate roaming between ISPs, including by:
Companies which provide a single global set of credentials that are usable on many public networks;
Independent, but collaborating, institutions issuing their own credentials to their own users, that allow a visitor from one to another to be authenticated by their home institution, such as in eduroam.
RADIUS facilitates this by the use of realms, which identify where the RADIUS server should forward the AAA requests for processing.
Realms
A realm is commonly appended to a user's user name and delimited with an '@' sign, resembling an email address domain name. This is known as postfix notation for the realm. Another common usage is prefix notation, which involves prepending the realm to the username and using '\' as a delimiter.
Modern RADIUS servers allow any character to be used as a realm delimiter, although in practice '@' and '\' are usually used.
Realms can also be compounded using both prefix and postfix notation, to allow for complicated roaming scenarios; for example, somedomain.com\[email protected] could be a valid username with two realms.
Although realms often resemble domains, it is important to note that realms are in fact arbitrary text and need not contain real domain names. Realm formats are standardized in RFC 4282, which defines a Network Access Identifier (NAI) in the form of 'user@realm'. In that specification, the 'realm' portion is required to be a domain name. However, this practice is not always followed. RFC 7542 replaced RFC 4282 in May 2015.
Proxy operations
When a RADIUS server receives an AAA request for a user name containing a realm, the server will reference a table of configured realms. If the realm is known, the server will then proxy the request to the configured home server for that domain. The behavior of the proxying server regarding the removal of the realm from the request ("stripping") is configuration-dependent on most servers. In addition, the proxying server can be configured to add, remove or rewrite AAA requests when they are proxied over time again.
Proxy Chaining is possible in RADIUS and authentication/authorization and accounting packets are usually routed between a NAS Device and a Home server through a series of proxies. Some of advantages of using proxy chains include scalability improvements, policy implementations and capability adjustments. But in roaming scenarios, the NAS, Proxies and Home Server could be typically managed by different administrative entities. Hence, the trust factor among the proxies gains more significance under such Inter-domain applications. Further, the absence of end to end security in RADIUS adds to the criticality of trust among the Proxies involved. Proxy Chains are explained in RFC 2607.
Security
Roaming with RADIUS exposes the users to various security and privacy concerns. More generally, some roaming partners establish a secure tunnel between the RADIUS servers to ensure that users' credentials cannot be intercepted while being proxied across the internet. This is a concern as the MD5 hash built into RADIUS is considered insecure.
Packet structure
RADIUS is transported over UDP/IP on ports 1812 and 1813.
The RADIUS packet data format is shown to the right. The fields are transmitted from left to right, starting with the code, the identifier, the length, the authenticator and the attributes.
Assigned RADIUS Codes (decimal) include the following:
The Identifier field aids in matching requests and replies.
The Length field indicates the length of the entire RADIUS packet including the Code, Identifier, Length, Authenticator and optional Attribute fields.
The Authenticator is used to authenticate the reply from the RADIUS server, and is used in encrypting passwords; its length is 16 bytes.
Attribute value pairs
The RADIUS Attribute Value Pairs (AVP) carry data in both the request and the response for the authentication, authorization, and accounting transactions. The length of the radius packet is used to determine the end of the AVPs.
Vendor-specific attributes
RADIUS is extensible; many vendors of RADIUS hardware and software implement their own variants using Vendor-Specific Attributes (VSAs). Microsoft has published some of their VSAs. VSA definitions from many other companies remain proprietary and/or ad hoc, nonetheless many VSA dictionaries can be found by downloading the source code of open source RADIUS implementations, for example FreeRADIUS.
Security
The RADIUS protocol transmits obfuscated passwords using a shared secret and the MD5 hashing algorithm. As this particular implementation provides only weak protection of the user's credentials, additional protection, such as IPsec tunnels or physically secured data-center networks, should be used to further protect the RADIUS traffic between the NAS device and the RADIUS server. Additionally, the user's security credentials are the only part protected by RADIUS itself, yet other user-specific attributes such as tunnel-group IDs or VLAN memberships passed over RADIUS may be considered sensitive (helpful to an attacker) or private (sufficient to identify the individual client) information as well. The RadSec protocol claims to solve aforementioned security issues.
History
As more dial-up customers used the NSFnet a request for proposal was sent out by Merit Network in 1991 to consolidate their various proprietary authentication, authorization and accounting systems. Among the early respondents was Livingston Enterprises and an early version of the RADIUS was written after a meeting. The early RADIUS server was installed on a UNIX operating system. Livingston Enterprises was acquired by Lucent and together with Merit steps were taken to gain industry acceptance for RADIUS as a protocol. Both companies offered a RADIUS server at no charge. RADIUS was in 1997 published as RFC 2058 and RFC 2059, current versions are RFC 2865 and RFC 2866.
The original RADIUS standard specified that RADIUS is stateless and should run over the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). For authentication it was envisaged that RADIUS should support the Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) and the Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) over the Point-to-Point Protocol. Passwords are hidden by taking the MD5 hash of the packet and a shared secret, and then XORing that hash with the password. The original RADIUS also provided more than 50 attribute-value pairs, with the possibility for vendors to configure their own pairs.
The choice of the hop-by-hop security model, rather than end-to-end encryption, meant that if several proxy RADIUS servers are in use, every server must examine, perform logic on and pass on all data in a request. This exposes data such as passwords and certificates at every hop. RADIUS servers also did not have the ability to stop access to resources once an authorisation had been issued. Subsequent standards such as RFC 3576 and its successor RFC 5176 allowed for RADIUS servers to dynamically change a users authorization, or to disconnect a user entirely.
Now, several commercial and open-source RADIUS servers exist. Features can vary, but most can look up the users in text files, LDAP servers, various databases, etc. Accounting records can be written to text files, various databases, forwarded to external servers, etc. SNMP is often used for remote monitoring and keep-alive checking of a RADIUS server. RADIUS proxy servers are used for centralized administration and can rewrite RADIUS packets on the fly for security reasons, or to convert between vendor dialects.
The Diameter protocol was intended as the replacement for RADIUS. While both are Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting (AAA) protocols, the use-cases for the two protocols have since diverged. Diameter is largely used in the 3G space. RADIUS is used elsewhere. One of the largest barriers to having Diameter replace RADIUS is that switches and Access Points typically implement RADIUS, but not Diameter. Diameter uses SCTP or TCP while RADIUS typically uses UDP as the transport layer. As of 2012, RADIUS can also use TCP as the transport layer with TLS for security.
Standards documentation
The RADIUS protocol is currently defined in the following IETF RFC documents.
See also
Security Assertion Markup Language
TACACS
References
Bibliography
External links
Radius Types
An Analysis of the RADIUS Authentication Protocol
Decoding a Sniffer-trace of RADIUS Transaction
Using Wireshark to debug RADIUS
Internet protocols
Internet Standards
Application layer protocols
Computer access control protocols
Network protocols |
4851413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast%20Protection%20Discussion%20Group | Broadcast Protection Discussion Group | The Broadcast Protection Discussion Group (BPDG) is a working group of content providers, television broadcasters, consumer electronics manufacturers, information technology companies, interested individuals and consumer activists. The group was formed specifically for the purpose of evaluating the suitability of the broadcast flag for preventing unauthorized redistribution (including unauthorized redistribution over the Internet of unencrypted digital terrestrial broadcast television (DTV)) and to determine whether there was substantial support for the broadcast flag. The group completed its mission with the release of the BPDG Report.
The BPDG has reached a consensus on the use of a technical broadcast flag standard for digital broadcast copy protection. The broadcast flag is an electronic marker embedded in over-the-air digital broadcast signals that would block or limit the ability of consumer electronics devices to make copies of the programs. The broadcast flag would also prevent the redistribution of such programs over the Internet. Despite reaching a consensus on this standard, the BPDG did not reach any agreement concerning how to implement the use of the flag or enforce it.
Digital TV programs protection using broadcast flags
The group proposed that digital TV programs be embedded with a "broadcast flag." All digital devices would be required to recognize the flag, which would prevent the protected content from being distributed on the Internet. The report states, "The proposed technical solution does not interfere with the ability of consumers to both make copies of DTV content, and to exchange such content among devices connected within a digital home network."
BPDG publications
After several meetings, the BPDG has published some reports in order to enforce the idea of the broadcast flag. Those publications are:
BPDG Final Reportl
Summary of EFF Report on BPDG
Full EFF Report on BPDG
Table A
What is EFF?
The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) is a nonprofit group of passionate people-—lawyers, technologists, volunteers, and visionaries-—working to protect digital rights.
Blending the expertise of lawyers, policy analysts, activists, and technologists, EFF achieves significant victories on behalf of consumers and the general public. EFF fights for freedom primarily in the courts, bringing and defending lawsuits even when that means taking on the US government or large corporations. By mobilizing more than 50,000 concerned citizens through our Action Center, EFF beats back bad legislation. In addition to advising policymakers, EFF educates the press and public. Sometimes just defending technologies is not enough, so EFF also supports the development of freedom-enhancing inventions.
Policy group is not a CPTWG sub-group?
Several CPTWG (Copy Protection Technical Working Group) participants indicated at CPTWG's June 5 meeting that the "parallel group" or "policy group" is "not a sub-group of CPTWG or "not part of CPTWG".
Broadcast flag is not a watermark
Some recent press coverage of BPDG refers to the BPDG proposal as recommending a watermark in digital TV broadcasts. This is a misperception of the nature of the broadcast flag. (There is a distinct proposal called the broadcast watermark which was not discussed extensively within BPDG and is not part of the BPDG's published recommendations.)
A watermark is commingled directly with the signal it marks, and thereby alters the signal (ideally, in an imperceptible way). By contrast, the broadcast flag exists side-by-side with video content it marks.
Terms to describe the broadcast flag, rather than watermark, might include "bit", "indicator", "flag", "descriptor", "tag", "header field", or "notice". But use of "watermark" is sure to generate confusion, especially because watermark proposals distinct from BPDG do exist. Watermarking is likely to be a big issue soon in a public forum—but not as a part of BPDG's proposal.
Misconceptions about BPDG
An article by John Dvorak seems to contain a misconception: that the result of BPDG's work will be the obsolescence of current digital TV receivers. As Dvorak writes:
"it appears that the new copy-protection schemes being dreamed up by Hollywood will make every single HDTV set sold to date obsolete. And buyers of new sets are not being told about this situation in a dubious attempt to dump very expensive inventory."
What happened was that the Hollywood folks, who are just freaked over the possibility that we'll be copying HDTV movies, have promoted copy protection that requires the decode circuit to be built into the display, not into the set-top box. This requires the set-top box to send a signal to a connector that new HDTV sets will have. If you're thinking of buying an HDTV, don't, unless it has this connector and circuit-whenever they are finalized."
One view is that Dvorak has got the situation backwards. Old equipment will continue to work. This is because BPDG is not planning to encrypt broadcasts at all—merely to cause them to include a "broadcast flag", and to obtain legislation forcing all manufacturers to comply with its rules.
The result of this would be that old equipment would be better and more useful than new equipment. Not only would it work properly, but it wouldn't have been crippled by having to comply with the Compliance and Robustness Rules. This is to say that old equipment would be more functional, not less functional, than new equipment.
Alphabet soup
"BPDG wants the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to mandate Digital Rights Management (DRM) for ATSC DTB receivers
In the body of this article, there are expansions for about 80 of the most common acronyms used in discussions about this issue. (The acronyms expanded include every acronym which appears in the BPDG's Draft Compliance and Robustness Rules, among others.)
Of course, this it not enough to appreciate the context behind these acronyms. For example, knowing that PCMCIA stands for Personal Computer Memory Card International Association gives no clue that the Association in question published a standard for tiny removable cards used in laptops. Hearing that 8VSB means "8-level vestigial side band" explains nothing about 8VSB's role in digital television broadcasting (that is DTB for the initiated).
The following list contains some of the most important acronyms related to this subject:
4C 4 companies
5C 5 companies
8/VSB 8 level vestigial side band
AC3 audio code 3
ADC analog to digital converter, analog to digital conversion
AGP accelerated graphics port
AHRA audio home recording act
ASIC application-specific integrated circuit
ATSC advanced television systems committee
BF broadcast flag
BPDG broadcast protection discussion group
BW broadcast watermark
CA conditional access
CBDTPA consumer broadband and digital television promotion act
CE consumer electronics
CEA consumer electronics association
CIG computer industry group
CMI copyright management information
CP copy protection, content protection
CPRM content protection for recordable media
CPTWG copy protection technical working group
CRT cathode ray tube
CSS content scramble system
D-VHS digital VHS
DAC digital to analog converter, digital to analog conversion
DMCA digital millennium copyright act
DRM digital rights management
DT digital terrestrial
DTB digital terrestrial broadcasting, digital terrestrial broadcast
DTCP digital transmission content protection
DTLA digital transmission licensing administrator
DTV digital television
DVD digital versatile disc
DVDCCA DVD copy control association
DVI digital video interface
ECM entitlement control message
EEPROM electrically erasable programmable read-only memory
EFF electronic frontier foundation
EIT event information table
EPN encryption plus non-assertion
FCC federal communications commission
FPGA field-programmable gate array
HD high definition
HDCP high-bandwidth digital content protection
HDTV high-definition television
HRRC home recording rights coalition
IEC international electrotechnical commission
IF intermediate frequency
ISO International Organization for Standardization
IP intellectual property
IP internet protocol
IT information technology
LAN local-area network
LMI license management incorporated
MEI Matsushita Electrical Industrial Corporation
MPAA motion picture association of America
MPEG motion picture experts group
NAB national association of broadcasters
NCTA national cable and telecommunications association
NTSC national television standards committee
OOB out of band
OTA over the air
PAL phase alternating line
PC personal computer
PC printed circuit
PCI peripheral component interconnect
PCM pulse code modulation
PCMCIA personal computer memory card international association
PMT program map table
POD point of deployment
PSIP program and system information protocol
PVR personal video recorder
QAM quadrature amplitude modulation
RC redistribution control [descriptor]
RD redistribution descriptor
RF radiofrequency
SCMS serial copy management system
SCR software-controlled radio
SD standard definition
SDR software-defined radio
SI system information
SPDIF Sony/philips digital interface
SSSCA security systems standards and certification act
STB set-top box
TPM technological protection measure
TS transport stream
TSP transport stream processor, transport stream processing
TV television
VCR videocassette recorder
VHDL vhsic hardware description language
VOD video on demand
What is Table A?
Many of the practical consequences of the BPDG proposal for consumers (and for competition in the marketplace) lie in a yet-to-be-written appendix to the specification. This appendix, called Table A, enumerates the kinds of digital outputs which are allowed on devices which can receive digital television signals.
The idea is that a device which receives a TV program with the broadcast flag set is not allowed to output the content of that program in digital form, except via a technology specifically mentioned on Table A.
This raises three questions: first, why should this be so? (What's wrong with letting device manufacturers choose for themselves what kinds of outputs their devices will have? If consumers want a particular kind of output, why shouldn't they have it? Why should legislation determine the capabilities of future digital televisions?) Second, what technologies will be permitted? Third, how is that decision going to be made?
The first question goes to the heart of the BPDG proposal and is addressed elsewhere (at least, by skeptics of BPDG; there has not been much in the way of a public defense of this mandate, which is being represented as a fait accompli in most circles).
The second and third questions are empirical matters. An earlier draft of the BPDG Compliance and Robustness Rules divided Table A into Authorized Digital Outputs and Authorized Digital Removable Media Recording Methods. The two Authorized Outputs mentioned were Digital Transmission Content Protection (DTCP) and High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection (HDCP); the two Recording Methods mentioned were Content Protection for Recordable Media (CPRM) and D-VHS.
DTCP is a copy-control scheme for digital video devised by five companies (called the "5C consortium"). HDCP is a similar copy-control scheme devices by only four companies (the "4C consortium"). Both of these schemes restrict what a consumer can do with digital video; both require a license if a device manufacturer is going to be able to implement them; both constrain the functionality of products in which they are incorporated. Both cost money to implement—the licenses are not free. DTCP encrypts video transmitted over a digital bus called IEEE 1394 (or "FireWire"). HDCP encrypts video transmitted over a different—and video-specific—bus called Digital Visual Interface ("DVI"). The encryption, in both cases, is meant to "protect" the content against the consumer, and to restrict playback of the content to "authorized", licensed devices.
Content Protection for Recordable Media (CPRM) is an encryption scheme for recordable media which is also meant to prevent media from being played back in devices other than those licensed by the 4C consortium. D-VHS is a new digital videotape spec which—you guessed it—also prevents media from being played back, except in licensed devices.
So here the suggestion was that four particular copy-control technologies, all closed standards and all of which have "compliance and robustness rules" of their own, were to be permitted as outputs from digital television receivers; all other video standards, and all other recording media, were to be banned by default.
Since the BPDG was formed by companies from the 5C and 4C consortia, it is difficult to imagine that it would recommend that their technologies not be permitted. Subsequently, the specific technology list was removed from Table A; the current discussion draft from BPDG does not contain any specific technologies at all, though it still bans "unauthorized" technologies by default. But now Table A has been left blank, and a discussion has begun about a proper procedure for choosing technologies to be added. (This shift took place as a result of a discussion at the last BPDG in-person meeting in Los Angeles.)
All current proposals for filling in Table A seem to involve agreement by some number of major movie studios—that is, members of the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) -- and, perhaps, agreement by some number of major electronics companies or other corporations. No agreement has been reached within BPDG, but various "vehicles" or "methods" for approving technologies have been suggested. These typically employ a formula such as "n% of Major Studios and m% of manufacturers". No studio proposal, has yet contemplated the possibility that technologies could be approved without any Hollywood sign-off. Thus, the discussion appears to be centered on choosing values for the percentages to be plugged into these formulas.
See also
Watermarking
Bandera de transmisión
References
External links
Broadcast Protection Discussion Group home page
EFF home page
Communications and media organizations based in the United States
Organizations established in 1977
1977 establishments in the United States |
7468179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotation%20mark | Quotation mark | Quotation marks (also known as quotes, quote marks, speech marks, inverted commas, or talking marks) are punctuation marks used in pairs in various writing systems to set off direct speech, a quotation, or a phrase. The pair consists of an opening quotation mark and a closing quotation mark, which may or may not be the same character.
Quotation marks have a variety of forms in different languages and in different media.
History
The single quotation mark is traced to Ancient Greek practice, adopted and adapted by monastic copyists. Isidore of Seville, in his seventh century encyclopedia, , described their use of the Greek diplé (a chevron):
[13] ⟩ Diplé. Our copyists place this sign in the books of the people of the Church, to separate or to indicate the quotations drawn from the Holy Scriptures.
The double quotation mark derives from a marginal notation used in fifteenth-century manuscript annotations to indicate a passage of particular importance (not necessarily a quotation); the notation was placed in the outside margin of the page and was repeated alongside each line of the passage. In his edition of the works of Aristotle, which appeared in 1483 or 1484, the Milanese Renaissance humanist Francesco Filelfo marked literal and appropriate quotes with oblique double dashes on the left margin of each line. Until then, literal quotations had been highlighted or not at the author's discretion. Non-verbal loans were marked on the edge. After the publication of Filelfo's edition, the quotation marks for literal quotations prevailed. During the seventeenth century this treatment became specific to quoted material, and it grew common, especially in Britain, to print quotation marks (now in the modern opening and closing forms) at the beginning and end of the quotation as well as in the margin; the French usage (see under Specific language features below) is a remnant of this. In most other languages, including English, the marginal marks dropped out of use in the last years of the eighteenth century. The usage of a pair of marks, opening and closing, at the level of lower case letters was generalized.
By the nineteenth century, the design and usage began to be specific to each region. In Western Europe the custom became to use the quotation mark pairs with the convexity of each mark aimed outward. In Britain those marks were elevated to the same height as the top of capital letters: .
In France, by the end of the nineteenth century, the marks were modified to an angular shape: . Some authors claim that the reason for this was a practical one, in order to get a character that was clearly distinguishable from the apostrophes, the commas, and the parentheses. Also, in other scripts, the angular quotation marks are distinguishable from other punctuation characters: the Greek breathing marks, the Armenian emphasis and apostrophe, the Arabic comma, the decimal separator, the thousands separator, etc. Other authors claim that the reason for this was an aesthetic one. The elevated quotation marks created an extra white space before and after the word, which was considered aesthetically unpleasing, while the in-line quotation marks helped to maintain the typographical color, since the quotation marks had the same height and were aligned with the lower case letters. Nevertheless, while other languages do not insert a space between the quotation marks and the word(s), the French usage does insert them, even if it is a narrow space.
The curved quotation marks ("66-99") usage, , was exported to some non-Latin scripts, notably where there was some English influence, for instance in Native American scripts and Indic scripts. On the other hand, Greek, Cyrillic, Arabic and Ethiopic adopted the French "angular" quotation marks, . The Far East angle bracket quotation marks, , are also a development of the in-line angular quotation marks.
In Central Europe, the practice was to use the quotation mark pairs with the convexity aimed inward. The German tradition preferred the curved quotation marks, the first one at the level of the commas, the second one at the level of the apostrophes: . Alternatively, these marks could be angular and in-line with lower case letters, but still pointing inward: . Some neighboring regions adopted the German curved marks tradition with lower–upper alignment, while some adopted a variant with the convexity of the closing mark aimed rightward like the opening one, .
Sweden (and Finland) choose a convention where the convexity of both marks was aimed to the right but lined up both at the top level: .
In Eastern Europe, there was hesitation between the French tradition and the German tradition . The French tradition prevailed in Eastern Europe (Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus), whereas the German tradition, or its modified version with the convexity of the closing mark aimed rightward, has become dominant in Southeastern Europe, e.g. in the Balkan countries.
The reemergence of single quotation marks around 1800 came about as a means of indicating a secondary level of quotation. In some languages using the angular quotation marks, the usage of the single guillemet, , became obsolete, being replaced by double curved ones: , though the single ones still survive, for instance, in Switzerland. In Russia, the Ukraine and Belarus, the curved quotation marks, , are used as a secondary level when the angular marks, are used as a primary level.
In English
In English writing, quotation marks are placed in pairs around a word or phrase to indicate:
Quotation or direct speech:
Mention in another work of the title of a short or subsidiary work, such as a chapter or an episode: .
Scare quotes, used to mean "so-called" or to express irony: .
In American writing, quotation marks are normally the double kind (the primary style). If quotation marks are used inside another pair of quotation marks, then single quotation marks are used. For example: If another set of quotation marks is nested inside single quotation marks, double quotation marks are used again, and they continue to alternate as necessary (though this is rarely done).
British publishing is regarded as more flexible about whether double or single quotation marks should be used. A tendency to use single quotation marks in British writing is thought to have arisen after the mid-19th century invention of steam-powered presses and the consequent rise of London and New York as distinct, industrialized publishing centers whose publishing houses adhered to separate norms. The King's English in 1908 noted that the prevailing British practice was to use double marks for most purposes, and single ones for quotations within quotations. Different media now follow different conventions in the United Kingdom.
Different varieties and styles of English have different conventions regarding whether terminal punctuation should be written inside or outside the quotation marks. North American printing usually puts full stops and commas (but not colons, semicolons, exclamation or question marks) inside the closing quotation mark, whether it is part of the original quoted material or not. Styles elsewhere vary widely and have different rationales for placing it inside or outside, often a matter of house style.
Regarding their appearance, there are two types of quotation marks:
and are known as neutral, vertical, straight, typewriter, dumb, or ASCII quotation marks. The left and right marks are identical. These are found on typical English typewriters and computer keyboards, although they are sometimes automatically converted to the other type by software.
and are known as typographic, curly, curved, book, or smart quotation marks. (The doubled ones are more informally known as "66 and 99".) The beginning marks are commas raised to the top of the line and rotated 180 degrees. The ending marks are commas raised to the top of the line. Curved quotation marks are used mainly in manuscript, printing, and typesetting. Type cases (of any language) generally have the curved quotation mark metal types for the respective language, and may lack the vertical quotation mark metal types. Because most computer keyboards lack keys to enter typographic quotation marks directly, much that is written using word-processing programs has vertical quotation marks. The "smart quotes" feature in some computer software can convert vertical quotation marks to curly ones, although sometimes imperfectly.
The closing single quotation mark is identical in form to the apostrophe and similar to the prime symbol. The double quotation mark is identical to the ditto mark in English-language usage. It is also similar to—and often used to represent—the double prime symbol. These all serve different purposes.
Summary table
Other languages have similar conventions to English, but use different symbols or different placement.
Specific language features
Bulgarian
Contemporary Bulgarian employs em dash or quotation horizontal bar ( followed by a space characer) at the beginning of each direct-speech segment by a different character in order to mark direct speech in prose and in most journalistic question and answer interviews; in such cases, the use of standard quotation marks is left for in-text citations or to mark the names of institutions, companies, and sometimes also brand or model names.
Air quotes are also widely used in face-to-face communication in contemporary Bulgarian but usually resemble " ... " (secondary: ' ... ') unlike written Bulgarian quotation marks.
Dutch
The standard form in the preceding table is taught in schools and used in handwriting. Most large newspapers have kept these low-high quotation marks, and ; otherwise, the alternative form with single or double English-style quotes is now often the only form seen in printed matter. Neutral (straight) quotation marks, and , are used widely, especially in texts typed on computers and on websites.
Although not generally common in the Netherlands any more, double angle (guillemet) quotation marks are still sometimes used in Belgium. Examples include the Flemish HUMO magazine and the Metro newspaper in Brussels.
German
The symbol used as the left (typographical) quote in English is used as the right quote in Germany and Austria and a "low double comma" (not used in English) is used for the left quote. Its single quote form looks like a comma.
Some fonts, e.g. Verdana, were not designed with the flexibility to use an English left quote as a German right quote. Such fonts are therefore typographically incompatible with this German usage.
Double quotes are standard for denoting speech in German.
(Andreas asked me: "Have you read the 'EU Expansion' article?")
This style of quoting is also used in Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Estonian, Georgian, Icelandic, Latvian, Lithuanian, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Slovene and in Ukrainian.
Sometimes, especially in novels, guillemets (angle quotation mark sets) are used in Germany and Austria (albeit in reversed order compared to French):
Andreas asked me: "Have you read the 'EU Expansion' article?"
In Switzerland, the French-style angle quotation mark sets are also used for German printed text: «A ‹B›?»
Andreas asked me: 'Have you read the "EU Expansion" article?'
Finnish and Swedish
In Finnish and Swedish, right quotes, called citation marks, , are used to mark both the beginning and the end of a quote. Double right-pointing angular quotes, , can also be used.
Alternatively, an en-dash followed by a (non-breaking) space can be used to denote the beginning of quoted speech, in which case the end of the quotation is not specifically denoted (see section Quotation dash below). A line-break should not be allowed between the en-dash and the first word of the quotation.
French
French uses angle quotation marks (guillemets, or duck-foot quotes), adding a 'quarter-em space' within the quotes. Many people now use the non-breaking space, because the difference between a non-breaking space and a four-per-em is virtually imperceptible (but also because the Unicode quarter-em space is breakable), and the quarter-em glyph is omitted from many fonts. Even more commonly, many people just put a normal (breaking) space between the quotation marks because the non-breaking space cannot be accessed easily from the keyboard; furthermore, many are simply not aware of this typographical refinement. Using the wrong type of space often results in a quotation mark appearing alone at the beginning of a line, since the quotation mark is treated as an independent word.
“Would you like a sandwich, Henri?”
Sometimes, for instance on several French news sites such as Libération, Les Échos or Le Figaro, no space is used around the quotation marks. This parallels normal usage in other languages, e.g. Catalan, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, or in German, French and Italian as written in Switzerland:
(Swiss Standard German)
“This is a quote.”
Initially, the French guillemet characters were not angle shaped but also used the comma (6/9) shape. They were different from English quotes because they were standing (like today's guillemets) on the baseline (like lowercase letters), and not above it (like apostrophes and English quotation marks) or hanging down from it (like commas). At the beginning of the nineteenth century, this shape evolved to look like small parentheses . The angle shape appeared later to increase the distinction and avoid confusions with apostrophes, commas and parentheses in handwritten manuscripts submitted to publishers. Unicode currently does not provide alternate codes for these 6/9 guillemets on the baseline, as they are considered to be form variants of guillemets, implemented in older French typography (such as the Didot font design). Also there was not necessarily any distinction of shape between the opening and closing guillemets, with both types pointing to the right (like today's French closing guillemets).
They must be used with non-breaking spaces, preferably narrow, if available, i.e. U+202F which is present in all up-to-date general-purpose fonts, but still missing in some computer fonts from the early years of Unicode, due to the belated encoding of U+202F (1999) after the flaw of not giving U+2008 non-breakable property as it was given to the related U+2007 .
Legacy support of narrow non-breakable spaces was done at rendering level only, without interoperability as provided by Unicode support. High-end renderers as found in Desktop Publishing software should therefore be able to render this space using the same glyph as the breaking thin space U+2009, handling the non-breaking property internally in the text renderer/layout engine, because line-breaking properties are never defined in fonts themselves; such renderers should also be able to infer any width of space, and make them available as application controls, as is done with justifying/non-justifying.
In old-style printed books, when quotations span multiple lines of text (including multiple paragraphs), an additional closing quotation sign is traditionally used at the beginning of each line continuing a quotation; any right-pointing guillemet at the beginning of a line does not close the current quotation. This convention has been consistently used since the beginning of the 19th century by most book printers, but is no longer in use today. Such insertion of continuation quotation marks occurred even if there is a word hyphenation break. Given this feature has been obsoleted, there is no support for automatic insertion of these continuation guillemets in HTML or CSS, nor in word-processors. Old-style typesetting is emulated by breaking up the final layout with manual line breaks, and inserting the quotation marks at line start, much like pointy brackets before quoted plain text e-mail:
Unlike English, French does not set off unquoted material within a quotation by using a second set of quotation marks. Compare:
“This is a great day for Montrealers, the minister maintained. These investments will stimulate economic growth.”
For clarity, some newspapers put the quoted material in italics:
The French Imprimerie nationale (cf. Lexique des règles typographiques en usage à l'Imprimerie nationale, presses de l'Imprimerie nationale, Paris, 2002) does not use different quotation marks for nesting quotes:
"His 'explanation' is just a lie", the deputy protested.
In this case, when there should be two adjacent opening or closing marks, only one is written:
He answered: "It's only a 'gizmo'."
The use of English quotation marks is increasing in French and usually follows English rules, for instance in situations when the keyboard or the software context doesn't allow the use of guillemets. The French news site L'Humanité uses straight quotation marks along with angle ones.
English quotes are also used sometimes for nested quotations:
"His 'explanation' is just a lie", the deputy protested.
But the most frequent convention used in printed books for nested quotations is to style them in italics. Single quotation marks are much more rarely used, and multiple levels of quotations using the same marks is often considered confusing for readers:
Further, running speech does not use quotation marks beyond the first sentence, as changes in speaker are indicated by a dash, as opposed to the English use of closing and re-opening the quotation. (For other languages employing dashes, see section Quotation dash below.) The dashes may be used entirely without quotation marks as well. In general, quotation marks are extended to encompass as much speech as possible, including not just nonverbal text such as "he said" (as previously noted), but also as long as the conversion extends. The quotation marks end at the last spoken text rather than extending to the end of paragraphs when the final part is not spoken.
(Dumas, Les trois mousquetaires)
"I am not speaking to you, sir", he said.
"But I am speaking to you!" cried the young man, exasperated by this combination of insolence and good manners, of protocol and disdain.
Greek
Greek uses angled quotation marks ( – isagogiká):
and the quotation dash ( – pávla):
which translate to:
"Is he serious?" he asked Maria.
"Yes, certainly," she replied.
A closing quotation mark, , is added to the beginning of each new quoted paragraph.
When quotations are nested, double and then single quotation marks are used: .
Hungarian
According to current recommendation by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences the main Hungarian quotation marks are comma-shaped double quotation marks set on the base-line at the beginning of the quote and at apostrophe-height at the end of it for first level, (), reversed »French quotes« without space (the German tradition) for the second level, and thus the following nested quotation pattern emerges:
... and with third level:
In Hungarian linguistic tradition the meaning of a word is signified by uniform (unpaired) apostrophe-shaped quotation marks:
A quotation dash is also used, and is predominant in belletristic literature.
.
Polish
According to current PN-83/P-55366 standard from 1983 (but not dictionaries, see below), Typesetting rules for composing Polish text (Zasady składania tekstów w języku polskim) one can use either „ordinary Polish quotes” or «French quotes» (without space) for first level, and ‚single Polish quotes’ or «French quotes» for second level, which gives three styles of nested quotes:
There is no space on the internal side of quote marks, with the exception of firet (≈ em) space between two quotation marks when there are no other characters between them (e.g. ,„ and ’”).
The above rules have not changed since at least the previous BN-76/7440-02 standard from 1976 and are probably much older.
The rules on the use of guillemets conflict with the Polish punctuation standard as given by dictionaries, including the Wielki Słownik Ortograficzny PWN recommended by the Polish Language Council. The PWN rules state:
In Polish books and publications, this style for use of guillemets (also known as »German quotes«) is used almost exclusively. In addition to being standard for second level quotes, guillemet quotes are sometimes used as first level quotes in headings and titles but almost never in ordinary text in paragraphs.
Another style of quoting is to use an em-dash to open a quote; this is used almost exclusively to quote dialogues, and is virtually the only convention used in works of fiction.
Mag skłonił się. Biały kot śpiący obok paleniska ocknął się nagle i spojrzał na niego badawczo.
— Jak się nazywa ta wieś, panie? — zapytał przybysz. Kowal wzruszył ramionami.
— Głupi Osioł.
— Głupi...?
— Osioł — powtórzył kowal takim tonem, jakby wyzywał gościa, żeby spróbował sobie z niego zażartować. Mag zamyślił się.
— Ta nazwa ma pewnie swoją historię — stwierdził w końcu. — W innych okolicznościach chętnie bym jej wysłuchał. Ale chciałbym porozmawiać z tobą, kowalu, o twoim synu.
The wizard bowed. A white cat that had been sleeping by the furnace woke up and watched him carefully.
“What is the name of this place, sir?” said the wizard.
The blacksmith shrugged.
“Stupid Donkey,” he said. [original English version is "Bad Ass", but that's not a common phrase in Polish]
“Stupid—?”
“Donkey,” repeated the blacksmith, his tone defying anyone to make something of it.
The wizard considered this.
“A name with a story behind it,” he said at last, “which were circumstances otherwise I would be pleased to hear. But I would like to speak to you, smith, about your son.”
(Terry Pratchett, Equal Rites)
An en-dash is sometimes used in place of the em-dash, especially so in newspaper texts.
Portuguese
Neither the Portuguese language regulator nor the Brazilian prescribe what is the shape for quotation marks, they only prescribe when and how they should be used.
In Portugal, the angular quotation marks (ex. «quote») are traditionally used. They are the Latin tradition quotation marks, used normally by typographers. It is that also the chosen representation for displaying quotation marks in reference sources, and it is also the chosen representation from some sites dedicated to the Portuguese Language.
The Código de Redação for Portuguese-language documents published in the European Union prescribes three levels of quotation marks representation, :
E estava escrito «Alguém perguntou “Quem foi que gritou ‘Meu Deus!’?”.» na folha de papel.
And it was written “Someone asked ‘Who shouted “My God”!’?”. on the sheet of paper.
in black: main sentence which contains the quotations;
in green: 1st level quotation;
in red: 2nd level quotation;
in blue: 3rd level quotation;
The usage of English-style (ex. "quote" and 'quote') marks is growing in Portugal. That is probably due to the omnipresence of the English language and to the corresponding inability of some machines (mobile phones, cash registers, specific printers, calculators, etc.) to display the angular quotation marks.
In Brazil, angular quotation marks are rare, and curved quotation marks (“quote” and ‘quote’) are almost always used. This can be verified by the difference between a Portuguese keyboard (which possesses a specific key for « and for ») and a Brazilian keyboard.
The Portuguese-speaking African countries tend to follow Portugal's conventions, not the Brazilian ones.
Other usages of quotation marks ( for double, for single) are obsolete..
Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian
In Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian, angled quotation marks are used without spaces. In case of quoted material inside a quotation, rules and most noted style manuals prescribe the use of different kinds of quotation marks. Russian rules allow using the same quotation marks for quoted material inside a quotation, and if inner and outer quotation marks fall together, then one of them should be omitted.
Right:
(Pushkin wrote to Delvig: "Waiting for 'Gypsies', and publish at once.")
Permissible, when it is technically impossible to use different quotation marks:
("My 'Gypsies' are not selling at all", Pushkin complained.)
It is common to use quotation dashes for dialogue, as well as within quotations for the reporting clause. For more details, see the Russian Wikipedia article on this topic.
"Who's there?"
"It's me, postman Pechkin," was the reply. "I've brought news about your boy."
Spanish
Spanish uses angled quotation marks ( or ) as well, but always without the spaces.
"This is an example of how a literal quotation is usually written in Spanish".
And, when quotations are nested in more levels than inner and outer quotation, the system is:
"Antonio told me, 'What a piece of "junk" Julián has purchased for himself'."
The use of English quotation marks is increasing in Spanish, and the El País style guide, which is widely followed in Spain, recommends them. Hispanic Americans often use them, owing to influence from the United States.
Chinese, Japanese and Korean
Corner brackets are well-suited for Chinese, Japanese, and Korean languages which are written in both vertical and horizontal orientations. China, South Korea, and Japan all use corner brackets when writing vertically. Usage differs when writing horizontally:
In Japan, corner brackets are used.
In South Korea, corner brackets and English-style quotes are used.
In North Korea, angle quotes are used.
In Mainland China, English-style quotes (full width “”) are official and prevalent; corner brackets are rare today. The Unicode codepoints used are the English quotes (rendered as fullwidth by the font), not the fullwidth forms.
In Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau, where Traditional Chinese is used, corner brackets are prevalent, although English-style quotes are also used.
In the Chinese language, double angle brackets are placed around titles of books, documents, movies, pieces of art or music, magazines, newspapers, laws, etc. When nested, single angle brackets are used inside double angle brackets. With some exceptions, this usage parallels the usage of italics in English:
「你看過《三國演義》嗎？」他問我。
"Have you read Romance of the Three Kingdoms?", he asked me.
White corner brackets are used to mark quote-within-quote segments in case corner brackets are used.
Quotation dash
Another typographical style is to omit quotation marks for lines of dialogue, replacing them with an initial dash, as in lines from James Joyce's Ulysses:
― O saints above! Miss Douce said, sighed above her jumping rose. I wished I hadn't laughed so much. I feel all wet.
― O Miss Douce! Miss Kennedy protested. You horrid thing!
This style is particularly common in Bulgarian, French, Greek, Hungarian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, Turkish, and Vietnamese. James Joyce always insisted on this style, although his publishers did not always respect his preference. Alan Paton used this style in Cry, the Beloved Country (and no quotation marks at all in some of his later work). Charles Frazier used this style for his novel Cold Mountain as well. Details for individual languages are given above.
The dash is often combined with ordinary quotation marks. For example, in French, a guillemet may be used to initiate running speech, with a dash to indicate each change in speaker and a closing guillemet to mark the end of the quotation.
Dashes are also used in many modern English novels, especially those written in nonstandard dialects. Some examples include:
James Joyce's prose
William Gaddis' prose
Trainspotting by Irvine Welsh
M/F by Anthony Burgess
The Book of Dave by Will Self, which alternates between standard English chapters, with standard quotation marks, and dialect chapters, with quotation dashes
A Scanner Darkly by Philip K. Dick (not written in dialect)
The Ægypt Sequence by John Crowley, in extracts from the fictional writings of the character Fellowes Kraft, a historical novelist. According to another character, Kraft used dashes to indicate imaginary dialogue that was not documented in the original sources.
The Van by Roddy Doyle
You Shall Know Our Velocity by Dave Eggers, in which spoken dialogues are written with the typical English quotation marks, but dialogues imagined by the main character (which feature prominently) are written with quotation dashes
A Winter in the Hills by John Wain in which conversations in English are indicated by ordinary quotation marks and in Welsh by quotation dashes
In Italian, Catalan, Portuguese, Spanish, Ukrainian, Russian, Polish, Bulgarian, Georgian, Romanian, Lithuanian and Hungarian, the reporting clause in the middle of a quotation is separated with two additional dashes (also note that the initial quotation dash is followed by a single whitespace character as well as the fact that the additional quotation dashes for the middle main clause after the initial quotation dash are all with a single whitespace character on both of their sides):
"Oh dear!" exclaimed Levin. "I think it is nine years since I went to communion! I haven't thought about it."
"You are a good one!" remarked Oblonsky, laughing. "And you call me a Nihilist! But it won't do, you know; you must confess and receive the sacrament."
from Leo Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina (Louise and Aylmer Maude translation)
– Nem hagyják magukat, mozgásban maradnak – mondta Ron. – Ahogy mi is.
"Well, they keep on the move, don't they?" said Ron. "Like us."
From J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows and its Hungarian translation by Tóth Tamás Boldizsár.
In Finnish, on the other hand, a second dash is added when the quote continues after a reporting clause:
– Et sinä ole paljon minkään näköinen, sanoi Korkala melkein surullisesti, – mutta ei auta.
"You don't seem to be anything special," said Korkala almost sadly, "but there's no help to it."
– Frakki, älähti Huikari. – Missä on frakki?
– Räätälissä, sanoi Joonas rauhallisesti.
"Tailcoat", yelped Huikari. "Where is the tailcoat?"
"At the tailor's", said Joonas calmly.
The Unicode standard introduced a separate character to be used as a quotation dash. It may be the same length as an em-dash, which is often used instead. Some software will insert a line break after an em-dash, but not after a quotation dash. Both are displayed in the following table.
Electronic documents
Different typefaces, character encodings and computer languages use various encodings and glyphs for quotation marks.
Typewriters and early computers
'Ambidextrous' or 'straight' quotation marks were introduced on typewriters to reduce the number of keys on the keyboard, and were inherited by computer keyboards and character sets. Some early computer systems had character sets with curved opening and closing quotes. The ASCII character set, which has been used on a wide variety of computers since the 1960s, only contains a straight single quote () and double quote ().
Many systems, such as the personal computers of the 1980s and early 1990s, actually drew these ASCII quotes like closing quotes on-screen and in printouts, so text would appear like this (approximately):
These same systems often drew the (free standing) grave accent (, U+0060) as an 'open quote' glyph (usually a mirror image so it still sloped in the direction of a grave accent). Using this character as the opening quote gave a typographic approximation of curved single quotes. Nothing similar was available for the double quote, so many people resorted to using two single quotes for double quotes, which would look approximately like the following:
The typesetting application TeX uses this convention for input files. The following is an example of TeX input which yields proper curly quotation marks.
The Unicode standard added codepoints for slanted or curved quotes ( and , described further below), shown here for comparison:
The Unicode mapping for PostScript Standard Encoding preserves the typographic approximation convention by mapping its equivalent of ASCII grave and single-quote to the Unicode curly quotation mark characters.
Keyboard layouts
Typographical quotation marks are almost absent on keyboards.
In typewriter keyboards, the curved quotation marks were not implemented. Instead, to save space, the straight quotation marks were invented as a compromise. Even in countries that did not use curved quotation marks, angular quotation marks were not implemented either.
Computer keyboards followed the steps of typewriter keyboards. Most computer keyboards do not have specific keys for curved quotation marks or angled quotation marks. This may also have to do with computer character sets:
IBM character sets generally do not have curved quotation mark characters, therefore, keys for the curved quotation marks are absent in most IBM computer keyboards.
Microsoft followed the example of IBM in its character set and keyboard design. Curved quotation marks were implemented later in Windows character sets, but most Microsoft computer keyboards do not have a dedicated key for the curved quotation mark characters. On keyboards with the key or both the key and the numeric keypad, they are accessible through a series of keystrokes that involve these keys. Also, techniques using their Unicode code points are available; see Unicode input.
Macintosh character sets have always had curved quotation marks available. Nevertheless, these are mostly accessible through a series of keystrokes, involving the key.
In languages that use the curved “...” quotation marks, they are available in:
none
In languages that use the angular «...» quotation marks, they are available in:
Macintosh Arabic keyboard;
Armenian keyboard
Canadian keyboard
French BÉPO keyboard
Greek keyboard
Khmer keyboard
Latvian ergonomic keyboard
Pashto keyboard
Persian keyboard
Portuguese keyboard
Syriac keyboard
Uyghur keyboard
In languages that use the corner bracket 「...」 quotation marks, they are available in:
Japanese keyboard
In languages that use the angle bracket 《...》 they are available in:
Mongolian keyboard
New Tai Lue keyboard
In languages that use the curved „...“ quotation marks, they are available in:
Bulgarian keyboard
Georgian keyboard
Macedonian keyboard
In languages that use the curved „...” quotation marks, they are available in:
Romanian Standard SR 13392:2004 keyboard
In languages that use the curved ”...” quotation marks, they are available in:
none
Curved quotes within and across applications
Historically, support for curved quotes was a problem in information technology, primarily because the widely used ASCII character set did not include a representation for them.
The term "smart quotes", , is from the name in several word processors of a function aimed this problem: automatically converting straight quotes typed by the user into curved quotes, the feature attempts to be "smart" enough to determine whether the punctuation marked opening or closing. Since curved quotes are the typographically correct ones, word processors have traditionally offered curved quotes to users (at minimum as available characters). Before Unicode was widely accepted and supported, this meant representing the curved quotes in whatever 8-bit encoding the software and underlying operating system was using. The character sets for Windows and Macintosh used two different pairs of values for curved quotes, while ISO 8859-1 (historically the default character set for the Unixes and older Linux systems) has no curved quotes, making cross-platform and -application compatibility difficult.
Performance by these "smart quotes" features was far from perfect overall (variance potential by e.g. subject matter, formatting/style convention, user typing habits). As many word processors (including Microsoft Word and OpenOffice.org) have the function enabled by default, users may not have realized that the ASCII-compatible straight quotes they were typing on their keyboards ended up as something different (conversely users could incorrectly assume its functioning in other applications, e.g. composing emails).
The curved apostrophe is the same character as the closing single quote. "Smart quotes" features wrongly convert initial apostrophes (as in 'tis, 'em, 'til, and '89) into opening single quotes. (An example of this error appears in the advertisements for the television show 'Til Death). The two very different functions of this character can cause confusion, particularly in British styles, in which single quotes are the standard primary.
Unicode support has since become the norm for operating systems. Thus, in at least some cases, transferring content containing curved quotes (or any other non-ASCII characters) from a word processor to another application or platform has been less troublesome, provided all steps in the process (including the clipboard if applicable) are Unicode-aware. But there are still applications which still use the older character sets, or output data using them, and thus problems still occur.
There are other considerations for including curved quotes in the widely used markup languages HTML, XML, and SGML. If the encoding of the document supports direct representation of the characters, they can be used, but doing so can cause difficulties if the document needs to be edited by someone who is using an editor that cannot support the encoding. For example, many simple text editors only handle a few encodings or assume that the encoding of any file opened is a platform default, so the quote characters may appear as the generic replacement character or "mojibake" (gibberish). HTML includes a set of entities for curved quotes: ‘ (left single), ’ (right single or apostrophe), ‚ (low 9 single), “ (left double), ” (right double), and „ (low 9 double). XML does not define these by default, but specifications based on it can do so, and XHTML does. In addition, while the HTML 4, XHTML and XML specifications allow specifying numeric character references in either hexadecimal or decimal, SGML and older versions of HTML (and many old implementations) only support decimal references. Thus, to represent curly quotes in XML and SGML, it is safest to use the decimal numeric character references. That is, to represent the double curly quotes use “ and ”, and to represent single curly quotes use ‘ and ’. Both numeric and named references function correctly in almost every modern browser. While using numeric references can make a page more compatible with outdated browsers, using named references are safer for systems that handle multiple character encodings (i.e. RSS aggregators and search results).
In Windows file and folder names, the straight double quotation mark is prohibited, as it is a reserved character. The curved quotation marks, as well as the straight single quotation mark, are permitted.
Usenet and email
The style of quoting known as Usenet quoting uses the greater-than sign, prepended to a line of text to mark it as a quote. This convention was later standardized in RFC 3676, and was adopted subsequently by many email clients when automatically including quoted text from previous messages (in plain text mode).
Unicode code point table
In Unicode, 30 characters are marked Quotation Mark=Yes by character property. They all have general category "Punctuation", and a subcategory Open, Close, Initial, Final or Other (Ps, Pe, Pi, Pf, Po). Several other Unicode characters with quotation mark semantics lack the character property.
Explanatory notes
References
External links
"Curling Quotes in HTML, SGML, and XML", David A Wheeler (2017)
"ASCII and Unicode quotation marks" by Markus Kuhn (1999) – includes detailed discussion of the ASCII 'backquote' problem
The Gallery of "Misused" Quotation Marks
"Commonly confused characters", Greg's References Pages, Greg Baker (2016)
"Smart Quotes", David Dunham (2006)
"How to type “smart quotes” (U+201C, U+201D)", on Unix/Linux, at Stack Exchange
Index of quotation-marks-related material at the EnglishGrammar website
"Œuvrez les guillemets" , Pauline Morfouace (2002) – French quotation mark typography
Punctuation
Typographical symbols |
9372970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale%20Fuller | Dale Fuller | Dale Fuller is one of Silicon Valley’s first-generation software executives, entrepreneurs and developers. He took WhoWhere? Inc. public, led Apple’s PowerBook division to profitability and served as chief executive officer and president of Borland Software Corporation. Fuller is chairman and has served as president and chief executive officer at MokaFive Inc.
Career
During his early career, Fuller worked for Canon, Motorola, Texas Instruments and NEC Technologies Inc. From 1987 to 1991, he worked in the business development group at Apple.
From 1994 to 1996, Fuller was Vice President and general manager for Portable Computer Systems of NEC, moving NEC's notebook computers into the top tier of portable systems and manufacturers. During his time there, he extended the company’s leadership in marketplace development and deployment.
In 1996, Fuller returned to Apple as vice president and general manager of the company’s PowerBook division. He restructured and returned the troubled PowerBook division to profitability.
In 1997 Fuller helped grow WhoWhere.com, angelfire.com, and Mailcity, which was purchased by Lycos in 1998. In 1999, Fuller served as interim president and CEO of Borland Software Corporation, also known as Inprise. The position became permanent in 2000. Fuller was fired from Borland in 2005 following a weak quarterly performance. McAfee Inc. named Fuller interim president and CEO in January 2006. Fuller took over from George Samenuk and Kevin Weiss following an internal probe into options backdating practices from the company’s initial public offering in 1996 through 2003. Fuller held that position until July 2007.
In 2008, Fuller became MokaFive’s president and CEO.
In 2018, Fuller joined the Board of Directors for ComScore [SCOR] and Symantec [SYMC].
Credentials
Bachelor of Science, Computer Science, Pacific College in 1980
Executive Certificate of Business Administration, Stanford University, Advance Management College in 1994
Honorary doctorate, St. Petersburg State University, Russia
Chairman, Let Them Hear Foundation
Member, Advisory Board of Essential Solutions Inc.
Advisory Board of SeeControl Inc.
American Association of Artificial Intelligence
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Mentor, Bootup Labs, Inc.
Former directorships
Pacific Edge Software Inc.
Medrium Inc.
MailFrontier Inc.
Guidance Software Inc.
Krugle Inc.
Phoenix Technologies Ltd.
Borland Software Corporation
Software & Industry Information Association
McAfee Inc.,
SeeControl Inc.
Webgistix Inc.
Zoran Corporation
Moka5
Quantum Corporation
AVG Technologies CZ
Soothe, Inc
Current directorships
Prosites, Inc
MobiSocial
ComScore
Symantec
References
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Canon (company) people
Motorola employees
NEC people
Texas Instruments people
Apple Inc. people
McAfee
NortonLifeLock people
Borland employees
Stanford University alumni |
19541494 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud%20computing | Cloud computing | Cloud computing is the on-demand availability of computer system resources, especially data storage (cloud storage) and computing power, without direct active management by the user. Large clouds often have functions distributed over multiple locations, each location being a data center. Cloud computing relies on sharing of resources to achieve coherence and typically using a "pay-as-you-go" model which can help in reducing capital expenses but may also lead to unexpected operating expenses for unaware users.
Value proposition
Advocates of public and hybrid clouds note that cloud computing allows companies to avoid or minimize up-front IT infrastructure costs. Proponents also claim that cloud computing allows enterprises to get their applications up and running faster, with improved manageability and less maintenance, and that it enables IT teams to more rapidly adjust resources to meet fluctuating and unpredictable demand, providing the burst computing capability: high computing power at certain periods of peak demand.
History
References to the phrase "cloud computing" appeared as early as 1996, with the first known mention in a Compaq internal document.
The cloud symbol was used to represent networks of computing equipment in the original ARPANET by as early as 1977, and the CSNET by 1981—both predecessors to the Internet itself. The word cloud was used as a metaphor for the Internet and a standardized cloud-like shape was used to denote a network on telephony schematics. With this simplification, the implication is that the specifics of how the endpoints of a network are connected are not relevant to understanding the diagram.
The term cloud was used to refer to platforms for distributed computing as early as 1993, when Apple spin-off General Magic and AT&T used it in describing their (paired) Telescript and PersonaLink technologies. In Wired's April 1994 feature "Bill and Andy's Excellent Adventure II", Andy Hertzfeld commented on Telescript, General Magic's distributed programming language:
Early history
During the 1960s, the initial concepts of time-sharing became popularized via RJE (Remote Job Entry); this terminology was mostly associated with large vendors such as IBM and DEC. Full-time-sharing solutions were available by the early 1970s on such platforms as Multics (on GE hardware), Cambridge CTSS, and the earliest UNIX ports (on DEC hardware). Yet, the "data center" model where users submitted jobs to operators to run on IBM's mainframes was overwhelmingly predominant.
In the 1990s, telecommunications companies, who previously offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits, began offering virtual private network (VPN) services with comparable quality of service, but at a lower cost. By switching traffic as they saw fit to balance server use, they could use overall network bandwidth more effectively. They began to use the cloud symbol to denote the demarcation point between what the provider was responsible for and what users were responsible for. Cloud computing extended this boundary to cover all servers as well as the network infrastructure. As computers became more diffused, scientists and technologists explored ways to make large-scale computing power available to more users through time-sharing. They experimented with algorithms to optimize the infrastructure, platform, and applications to prioritize CPUs and increase efficiency for end users.
The use of the cloud metaphor for virtualized services dates at least to General Magic in 1994, where it was used to describe the universe of "places" that mobile agents in the Telescript environment could go. As described by
Andy Hertzfeld:
The use of the cloud metaphor is credited to General Magic communications employee David Hoffman, based on long-standing use in networking and telecom. In addition to use by General Magic itself, it was also used in promoting AT&T's associated PersonaLink Services.
2000s
In July 2002, Amazon created subsidiary Amazon Web Services, with the goal to "enable developers to build innovative and entrepreneurial applications on their own." In March 2006 Amazon introduced its Simple Storage Service (S3), followed by Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) in August of the same year. These products pioneered the usage of server virtualization to deliver IaaS at a cheaper and on-demand pricing basis.
In April 2008, Google released the beta version of Google App Engine. The App Engine was a PaaS (one of the first of its kind) which provided fully maintained infrastructure and a deployment platform for users to create web applications using common languages/technologies such as Python, Node.js and PHP. The goal was to eliminate the need for some administrative tasks typical of an IaaS model, while creating a platform where users could easily deploy such applications and scale them to demand.
In early 2008, NASA's Nebula, enhanced in the RESERVOIR European Commission-funded project, became the first open-source software for deploying private and hybrid clouds, and for the federation of clouds.
By mid-2008, Gartner saw an opportunity for cloud computing "to shape the relationship among consumers of IT services, those who use IT services and those who sell them" and observed that "organizations are switching from company-owned hardware and software assets to per-use service-based models" so that the "projected shift to computing ... will result in dramatic growth in IT products in some areas and significant reductions in other areas."
In 2008, the U.S. National Science Foundation began the Cluster Exploratory program to fund academic research using Google-IBM cluster technology to analyze massive amounts of data.
In 2009, the government of France announced Project Andromède to create a "sovereign cloud" or national cloud computing, with the government to spend €285 million. The initiative failed badly and Cloudwatt was shut down on 1 February 2020.
2010s
In February 2010, Microsoft released Microsoft Azure, which was announced in October 2008.
In July 2010, Rackspace Hosting and NASA jointly launched an open-source cloud-software initiative known as OpenStack. The OpenStack project intended to help organizations offering cloud-computing services running on standard hardware. The early code came from NASA's Nebula platform as well as from Rackspace's Cloud Files platform. As an open-source offering and along with other open-source solutions such as CloudStack, Ganeti, and OpenNebula, it has attracted attention by several key communities. Several studies aim at comparing these open source offerings based on a set of criteria.
On March 1, 2011, IBM announced the IBM SmartCloud framework to support Smarter Planet. Among the various components of the Smarter Computing foundation, cloud computing is a critical part. On June 7, 2012, Oracle announced the Oracle Cloud. This cloud offering is poised to be the first to provide users with access to an integrated set of IT solutions, including the Applications (SaaS), Platform (PaaS), and Infrastructure (IaaS) layers.
In May 2012, Google Compute Engine was released in preview, before being rolled out into General Availability in December 2013.
In 2019, Linux was the most common OS used on Microsoft Azure. In December 2019, Amazon announced AWS Outposts, which is a fully managed service that extends AWS infrastructure, AWS services, APIs, and tools to virtually any customer datacenter, co-location space, or on-premises facility for a truly consistent hybrid experience
Similar concepts
The goal of cloud computing is to allow users to take benefit from all of these technologies, without the need for deep knowledge about or expertise with each one of them. The cloud aims to cut costs and helps the users focus on their core business instead of being impeded by IT obstacles. The main enabling technology for cloud computing is virtualization. Virtualization software separates a physical computing device into one or more "virtual" devices, each of which can be easily used and managed to perform computing tasks. With operating system–level virtualization essentially creating a scalable system of multiple independent computing devices, idle computing resources can be allocated and used more efficiently. Virtualization provides the agility required to speed up IT operations and reduces cost by increasing infrastructure utilization. Autonomic computing automates the process through which the user can provision resources on-demand. By minimizing user involvement, automation speeds up the process, reduces labor costs and reduces the possibility of human errors.
Cloud computing uses concepts from utility computing to provide metrics for the services used. Cloud computing attempts to address QoS (quality of service) and reliability problems of other grid computing models.
Cloud computing shares characteristics with:
Client–server model—Client–server computing refers broadly to any distributed application that distinguishes between service providers (servers) and service requestors (clients).
Computer bureau—A service bureau providing computer services, particularly from the 1960s to 1980s.
Grid computing—A form of distributed and parallel computing, whereby a 'super and virtual computer' is composed of a cluster of networked, loosely coupled computers acting in concert to perform very large tasks.
Fog computing—Distributed computing paradigm that provides data, compute, storage and application services closer to the client or near-user edge devices, such as network routers. Furthermore, fog computing handles data at the network level, on smart devices and on the end-user client-side (e.g. mobile devices), instead of sending data to a remote location for processing.
Mainframe computer—Powerful computers used mainly by large organizations for critical applications, typically bulk data processing such as census; industry and consumer statistics; police and secret intelligence services; enterprise resource planning; and financial transaction processing.
Utility computing—The "packaging of computing resources, such as computation and storage, as a metered service similar to a traditional public utility, such as electricity."
Peer-to-peer—A distributed architecture without the need for central coordination. Participants are both suppliers and consumers of resources (in contrast to the traditional client-server model).
Green computing—Study and practice of environmentally sustainable computing or IT.
Cloud sandbox—A live, isolated computer environment in which a program, code or file can run without affecting the application in which it runs.
Characteristics
Cloud computing exhibits the following key characteristics:
Agility for organizations may be improved, as cloud computing may increase users' flexibility with re-provisioning, adding, or expanding technological infrastructure resources.
Cost reductions are claimed by cloud providers. A public-cloud delivery model converts capital expenditures (e.g., buying servers) to operational expenditure. This purportedly lowers barriers to entry, as infrastructure is typically provided by a third party and need not be purchased for one-time or infrequent intensive computing tasks. Pricing on a utility computing basis is "fine-grained", with usage-based billing options. As well, less in-house IT skills are required for implementation of projects that use cloud computing. The e-FISCAL project's state-of-the-art repository contains several articles looking into cost aspects in more detail, most of them concluding that costs savings depend on the type of activities supported and the type of infrastructure available in-house.
Device and location independence enable users to access systems using a web browser regardless of their location or what device they use (e.g., PC, mobile phone). As infrastructure is off-site (typically provided by a third-party) and accessed via the Internet, users can connect to it from anywhere.
Maintenance of cloud environment is easier because the data is hosted on an outside server maintained by a provider without the need to invest in data center hardware. IT maintenance of cloud computing is managed and updated by the cloud provider's IT maintenance team that reduces cloud computing costs compared with the on-premises data centers.
Multitenancy enables sharing of resources and costs across a large pool of users thus allowing for:
centralization of infrastructure in locations with lower costs (such as real estate, electricity, etc.)
peak-load capacity increases (users need not engineer and pay for the resources and equipment to meet their highest possible load-levels)
utilisation and efficiency improvements for systems that are often only 10–20% utilised.
Performance is monitored by IT experts from the service provider, and consistent and loosely coupled architectures are constructed using web services as the system interface.
Productivity may be increased when multiple users can work on the same data simultaneously, rather than waiting for it to be saved and emailed. Time may be saved as information does not need to be re-entered when fields are matched, nor do users need to install application software upgrades to their computer.
Availability improves with the use of multiple redundant sites, which makes well-designed cloud computing suitable for business continuity and disaster recovery.
Scalability and elasticity via dynamic ("on-demand") provisioning of resources on a fine-grained, self-service basis in near real-time (Note, the VM startup time varies by VM type, location, OS and cloud providers), without users having to engineer for peak loads. This gives the ability to scale up when the usage need increases or down if resources are not being used. The time-efficient benefit of cloud scalability also means faster time to market, more business flexibility, and adaptability, as adding new resources doesn’t take as much time as it used to. Emerging approaches for managing elasticity include the use of machine learning techniques to propose efficient elasticity models.
Security can improve due to centralization of data, increased security-focused resources, etc., but concerns can persist about loss of control over certain sensitive data, and the lack of security for stored kernels. Security is often as good as or better than other traditional systems, in part because service providers are able to devote resources to solving security issues that many customers cannot afford to tackle or which they lack the technical skills to address. However, the complexity of security is greatly increased when data is distributed over a wider area or over a greater number of devices, as well as in multi-tenant systems shared by unrelated users. In addition, user access to security audit logs may be difficult or impossible. Private cloud installations are in part motivated by users' desire to retain control over the infrastructure and avoid losing control of information security.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology's definition of cloud computing identifies "five essential characteristics":
Service models
Though service-oriented architecture advocates "Everything as a service" (with the acronyms EaaS or XaaS, or simply aas), cloud-computing providers offer their "services" according to different models, of which the three standard models per NIST are Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). These models offer increasing abstraction; they are thus often portrayed as layers in a stack: infrastructure-, platform- and software-as-a-service, but these need not be related. For example, one can provide SaaS implemented on physical machines (bare metal), without using underlying PaaS or IaaS layers, and conversely one can run a program on IaaS and access it directly, without wrapping it as SaaS.
Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)
"Infrastructure as a service" (IaaS) refers to online services that provide high-level APIs used to abstract various low-level details of underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources, location, data partitioning, scaling, security, backup, etc. A hypervisor runs the virtual machines as guests. Pools of hypervisors within the cloud operational system can support large numbers of virtual machines and the ability to scale services up and down according to customers' varying requirements. Linux containers run in isolated partitions of a single Linux kernel running directly on the physical hardware. Linux cgroups and namespaces are the underlying Linux kernel technologies used to isolate, secure and manage the containers. Containerisation offers higher performance than virtualization because there is no hypervisor overhead. IaaS clouds often offer additional resources such as a virtual-machine disk-image library, raw block storage, file or object storage, firewalls, load balancers, IP addresses, virtual local area networks (VLANs), and software bundles.
The NIST's definition of cloud computing describes IaaS as "where the consumer is able to deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include operating systems and applications. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over operating systems, storage, and deployed applications; and possibly limited control of select networking components (e.g., host firewalls)."
IaaS-cloud providers supply these resources on-demand from their large pools of equipment installed in data centers. For wide-area connectivity, customers can use either the Internet or carrier clouds (dedicated virtual private networks). To deploy their applications, cloud users install operating-system images and their application software on the cloud infrastructure. In this model, the cloud user patches and maintains the operating systems and the application software. Cloud providers typically bill IaaS services on a utility computing basis: cost reflects the amount of resources allocated and consumed.
Platform as a service (PaaS)
The NIST's definition of cloud computing defines Platform as a Service as:
PaaS vendors offer a development environment to application developers. The provider typically develops toolkit and standards for development and channels for distribution and payment. In the PaaS models, cloud providers deliver a computing platform, typically including operating system, programming-language execution environment, database, and web server. Application developers develop and run their software on a cloud platform instead of directly buying and managing the underlying hardware and software layers. With some PaaS, the underlying computer and storage resources scale automatically to match application demand so that the cloud user does not have to allocate resources manually.
Some integration and data management providers also use specialized applications of PaaS as delivery models for data. Examples include iPaaS (Integration Platform as a Service) and dPaaS (Data Platform as a Service). iPaaS enables customers to develop, execute and govern integration flows. Under the iPaaS integration model, customers drive the development and deployment of integrations without installing or managing any hardware or middleware. dPaaS delivers integration—and data-management—products as a fully managed service. Under the dPaaS model, the PaaS provider, not the customer, manages the development and execution of programs by building data applications for the customer. dPaaS users access data through data-visualization tools.
Software as a service (SaaS)
The NIST's definition of cloud computing defines Software as a Service as:
In the software as a service (SaaS) model, users gain access to application software and databases. Cloud providers manage the infrastructure and platforms that run the applications. SaaS is sometimes referred to as "on-demand software" and is usually priced on a pay-per-use basis or using a subscription fee. In the SaaS model, cloud providers install and operate application software in the cloud and cloud users access the software from cloud clients. Cloud users do not manage the cloud infrastructure and platform where the application runs. This eliminates the need to install and run the application on the cloud user's own computers, which simplifies maintenance and support. Cloud applications differ from other applications in their scalability—which can be achieved by cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines at run-time to meet changing work demand. Load balancers distribute the work over the set of virtual machines. This process is transparent to the cloud user, who sees only a single access-point. To accommodate a large number of cloud users, cloud applications can be multitenant, meaning that any machine may serve more than one cloud-user organization.
The pricing model for SaaS applications is typically a monthly or yearly flat fee per user, so prices become scalable and adjustable if users are added or removed at any point. It may also be free. Proponents claim that SaaS gives a business the potential to reduce IT operational costs by outsourcing hardware and software maintenance and support to the cloud provider. This enables the business to reallocate IT operations costs away from hardware/software spending and from personnel expenses, towards meeting other goals. In addition, with applications hosted centrally, updates can be released without the need for users to install new software. One drawback of SaaS comes with storing the users' data on the cloud provider's server. As a result, there could be unauthorized access to the data. Examples of applications offered as SaaS are games and productivity software like Google Docs and Word Online. SaaS applications may be integrated with cloud storage or File hosting services, which is the case with Google Docs being integrated with Google Drive and Word Online being integrated with Onedrive.
Mobile "backend" as a service (MBaaS)
In the mobile "backend" as a service (m) model, also known as backend as a service (BaaS), web app and mobile app developers are provided with a way to link their applications to cloud storage and cloud computing services with application programming interfaces (APIs) exposed to their applications and custom software development kits (SDKs). Services include user management, push notifications, integration with social networking services and more. This is a relatively recent model in cloud computing, with most BaaS startups dating from 2011 or later but trends indicate that these services are gaining significant mainstream traction with enterprise consumers.
Serverless computing or Function-as-a-Service (FaaS)
Serverless computing is a cloud computing code execution model in which the cloud provider fully manages starting and stopping virtual machines as necessary to serve requests, and requests are billed by an abstract measure of the resources required to satisfy the request, rather than per virtual machine, per hour. Despite the name, it does not actually involve running code without servers. Serverless computing is so named because the business or person that owns the system does not have to purchase, rent or provide servers or virtual machines for the back-end code to run on.
Function as a service (FaaS) is a service-hosted remote procedure call that leverages serverless computing to enable the deployment of individual functions in the cloud that run in response to events. FaaS is considered by some to come under the umbrella of serverless computing, while some others use the terms interchangeably.
Deployment models
Private cloud
Private cloud is cloud infrastructure operated solely for a single organization, whether managed internally or by a third party, and hosted either internally or externally. Undertaking a private cloud project requires significant engagement to virtualize the business environment, and requires the organization to reevaluate decisions about existing resources. It can improve business, but every step in the project raises security issues that must be addressed to prevent serious vulnerabilities. Self-run data centers are generally capital intensive. They have a significant physical footprint, requiring allocations of space, hardware, and environmental controls. These assets have to be refreshed periodically, resulting in additional capital expenditures. They have attracted criticism because users "still have to buy, build, and manage them" and thus do not benefit from less hands-on management, essentially "[lacking] the economic model that makes cloud computing such an intriguing concept".
Public cloud
Cloud services are considered "public" when they are delivered over the public Internet, and they may be offered as a paid subscription, or free of charge. Architecturally, there are few differences between public- and private-cloud services, but security concerns increase substantially when services (applications, storage, and other resources) are shared by multiple customers. Most public-cloud providers offer direct-connection services that allow customers to securely link their legacy data centers to their cloud-resident applications.
Several factors like the functionality of the solutions, cost, integrational and organizational aspects as well as safety & security are influencing the decision of enterprises and organizations to choose a public cloud or on-premises solution.
Hybrid cloud
Hybrid cloud is a composition of a public cloud and a private environment, such as a private cloud or on-premises resources, that remain distinct entities but are bound together, offering the benefits of multiple deployment models. Hybrid cloud can also mean the ability to connect collocation, managed and/or dedicated services with cloud resources. Gartner defines a hybrid cloud service as a cloud computing service that is composed of some combination of private, public and community cloud services, from different service providers. A hybrid cloud service crosses isolation and provider boundaries so that it can't be simply put in one category of private, public, or community cloud service. It allows one to extend either the capacity or the capability of a cloud service, by aggregation, integration or customization with another cloud service.
Varied use cases for hybrid cloud composition exist. For example, an organization may store sensitive client data in house on a private cloud application, but interconnect that application to a business intelligence application provided on a public cloud as a software service. This example of hybrid cloud extends the capabilities of the enterprise to deliver a specific business service through the addition of externally available public cloud services. Hybrid cloud adoption depends on a number of factors such as data security and compliance requirements, level of control needed over data, and the applications an organization uses.
Another example of hybrid cloud is one where IT organizations use public cloud computing resources to meet temporary capacity needs that can not be met by the private cloud. This capability enables hybrid clouds to employ cloud bursting for scaling across clouds. Cloud bursting is an application deployment model in which an application runs in a private cloud or data center and "bursts" to a public cloud when the demand for computing capacity increases. A primary advantage of cloud bursting and a hybrid cloud model is that an organization pays for extra compute resources only when they are needed. Cloud bursting enables data centers to create an in-house IT infrastructure that supports average workloads, and use cloud resources from public or private clouds, during spikes in processing demands. The specialized model of hybrid cloud, which is built atop heterogeneous hardware, is called "Cross-platform Hybrid Cloud". A cross-platform hybrid cloud is usually powered by different CPU architectures, for example, x86-64 and ARM, underneath. Users can transparently deploy and scale applications without knowledge of the cloud's hardware diversity. This kind of cloud emerges from the rise of ARM-based system-on-chip for server-class computing.
Hybrid cloud infrastructure essentially serves to eliminate limitations inherent to the multi-access relay characteristics of private cloud networking. The advantages include enhanced runtime flexibility and adaptive memory processing unique to virtualized interface models.
Others
Community cloud
Community cloud shares infrastructure between several organizations from a specific community with common concerns (security, compliance, jurisdiction, etc.), whether managed internally or by a third-party, and either hosted internally or externally. The costs are spread over fewer users than a public cloud (but more than a private cloud), so only some of the cost savings potential of cloud computing are realized.
Distributed cloud
A cloud computing platform can be assembled from a distributed set of machines in different locations, connected to a single network or hub service. It is possible to distinguish between two types of distributed clouds: public-resource computing and volunteer cloud.
Public-resource computing—This type of distributed cloud results from an expansive definition of cloud computing, because they are more akin to distributed computing than cloud computing. Nonetheless, it is considered a sub-class of cloud computing.
Volunteer cloud—Volunteer cloud computing is characterized as the intersection of public-resource computing and cloud computing, where a cloud computing infrastructure is built using volunteered resources. Many challenges arise from this type of infrastructure, because of the volatility of the resources used to build it and the dynamic environment it operates in. It can also be called peer-to-peer clouds, or ad-hoc clouds. An interesting effort in such direction is Cloud@Home, it aims to implement a cloud computing infrastructure using volunteered resources providing a business-model to incentivize contributions through financial restitution.
Multicloud
Multicloud is the use of multiple cloud computing services in a single heterogeneous architecture to reduce reliance on single vendors, increase flexibility through choice, mitigate against disasters, etc. It differs from hybrid cloud in that it refers to multiple cloud services, rather than multiple deployment modes (public, private, legacy).
Poly cloud
Poly cloud refers to the use of multiple public clouds for the purpose of leveraging specific services that each provider offers. It differs from Multi cloud in that it is not designed to increase flexibility or mitigate against failures but is rather used to allow an organization to achieve more that could be done with a single provider.
Big data cloud
The issues of transferring large amounts of data to the cloud as well as data security once the data is in the cloud initially hampered adoption of cloud for big data, but now that much data originates in the cloud and with the advent of bare-metal servers, the cloud has become a solution for use cases including business analytics and geospatial analysis.
HPC cloud
HPC cloud refers to the use of cloud computing services and infrastructure to execute high-performance computing (HPC) applications. These applications consume considerable amount of computing power and memory and are traditionally executed on clusters of computers. In 2016 a handful of companies, including R-HPC, Amazon Web Services, Univa, Silicon Graphics International, Sabalcore, Gomput, and Penguin Computing offered a high performance computing cloud. The Penguin On Demand (POD) cloud was one of the first non-virtualized remote HPC services offered on a pay-as-you-go basis. Penguin Computing launched its HPC cloud in 2016 as alternative to Amazon's EC2 Elastic Compute Cloud, which uses virtualized computing nodes.
Architecture
Cloud architecture, the systems architecture of the software systems involved in the delivery of cloud computing, typically involves multiple cloud components communicating with each other over a loose coupling mechanism such as a messaging queue. Elastic provision implies intelligence in the use of tight or loose coupling as applied to mechanisms such as these and others.
Cloud engineering
Cloud engineering is the application of engineering disciplines of cloud computing. It brings a systematic approach to the high-level concerns of commercialization, standardization and governance in conceiving, developing, operating and maintaining cloud computing systems. It is a multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions from diverse areas such as systems, software, web, performance, information technology engineering, security, platform, risk, and quality engineering.
Security and privacy
Cloud computing poses privacy concerns because the service provider can access the data that is in the cloud at any time. It could accidentally or deliberately alter or delete information. Many cloud providers can share information with third parties if necessary for purposes of law and order without a warrant. That is permitted in their privacy policies, which users must agree to before they start using cloud services. Solutions to privacy include policy and legislation as well as end-users' choices for how data is stored. Users can encrypt data that is processed or stored within the cloud to prevent unauthorized access. Identity management systems can also provide practical solutions to privacy concerns in cloud computing. These systems distinguish between authorized and unauthorized users and determine the amount of data that is accessible to each entity. The systems work by creating and describing identities, recording activities, and getting rid of unused identities.
According to the Cloud Security Alliance, the top three threats in the cloud are Insecure Interfaces and APIs, Data Loss & Leakage, and Hardware Failure—which accounted for 29%, 25% and 10% of all cloud security outages respectively. Together, these form shared technology vulnerabilities. In a cloud provider platform being shared by different users, there may be a possibility that information belonging to different customers resides on the same data server. Additionally, Eugene Schultz, chief technology officer at Emagined Security, said that hackers are spending substantial time and effort looking for ways to penetrate the cloud. "There are some real Achilles' heels in the cloud infrastructure that are making big holes for the bad guys to get into". Because data from hundreds or thousands of companies can be stored on large cloud servers, hackers can theoretically gain control of huge stores of information through a single attack—a process he called "hyperjacking". Some examples of this include the Dropbox security breach, and iCloud 2014 leak. Dropbox had been breached in October 2014, having over 7 million of its users passwords stolen by hackers in an effort to get monetary value from it by Bitcoins (BTC). By having these passwords, they are able to read private data as well as have this data be indexed by search engines (making the information public).
There is the problem of legal ownership of the data (If a user stores some data in the cloud, can the cloud provider profit from it?). Many Terms of Service agreements are silent on the question of ownership. Physical control of the computer equipment (private cloud) is more secure than having the equipment off-site and under someone else's control (public cloud). This delivers great incentive to public cloud computing service providers to prioritize building and maintaining strong management of secure services. Some small businesses that don't have expertise in IT security could find that it's more secure for them to use a public cloud. There is the risk that end users do not understand the issues involved when signing on to a cloud service (persons sometimes don't read the many pages of the terms of service agreement, and just click "Accept" without reading). This is important now that cloud computing is becoming popular and required for some services to work, for example for an intelligent personal assistant (Apple's Siri or Google Now). Fundamentally, private cloud is seen as more secure with higher levels of control for the owner, however public cloud is seen to be more flexible and requires less time and money investment from the user.
Limitations and disadvantages
According to Bruce Schneier, "The downside is that you will have limited customization options. Cloud computing is cheaper because of economics of scale, and—like any outsourced task—you tend to get what you want. A restaurant with a limited menu is cheaper than a personal chef who can cook anything you want. Fewer options at a much cheaper price: it's a feature, not a bug." He also suggests that "the cloud provider might not meet your legal needs" and that businesses need to weigh the benefits of cloud computing against the risks.
In cloud computing, the control of the back end infrastructure is limited to the cloud vendor only. Cloud providers often decide on the management policies, which moderates what the cloud users are able to do with their deployment. Cloud users are also limited to the control and management of their applications, data and services. This includes data caps, which are placed on cloud users by the cloud vendor allocating a certain amount of bandwidth for each customer and are often shared among other cloud users.
Privacy and confidentiality are big concerns in some activities. For instance, sworn translators working under the stipulations of an NDA, might face problems regarding sensitive data that are not encrypted. Due to the use of the internet, confidential information such as employee data and user data can be easily available to third-party organisations and people in Cloud Computing.
Cloud computing is beneficial to many enterprises; it lowers costs and allows them to focus on competence instead of on matters of IT and infrastructure. Nevertheless, cloud computing has proven to have some limitations and disadvantages, especially for smaller business operations, particularly regarding security and downtime. Technical outages are inevitable and occur sometimes when cloud service providers (CSPs) become overwhelmed in the process of serving their clients. This may result in temporary business suspension. Since this technology's systems rely on the Internet, an individual cannot access their applications, server, or data from the cloud during an outage.
Emerging trends
Cloud computing is still a subject of research. A driving factor in the evolution of cloud computing has been chief technology officers seeking to minimize risk of internal outages and mitigate the complexity of housing network and computing hardware in-house. They are also looking to share information to workers located in diverse areas in near and real-time, to enable teams to work seamlessly, no matter where they are located. Since the global pandemic of 2020, it is said that cloud technology jumped ahead in popularity due to the level of security of data and the flexibility of working options for all employees, notably remote workers. For example, Zoom grew over 160% in 2020 alone.
Digital forensics in the cloud
The issue of carrying out investigations where the cloud storage devices cannot be physically accessed has generated a number of changes to the way that digital evidence is located and collected. New process models have been developed to formalize collection.
In some scenarios existing digital forensics tools can be employed to access cloud storage as networked drives (although this is a slow process generating a large amount of internet traffic).
An alternative approach is to deploy a tool that processes in the cloud itself.
For organizations using Office 365 with an 'E5' subscription, there is the option to use Microsoft's built-in e-discovery resources, although these do not provide all the functionality that is typically required for a forensic process.
See also
Block-level storage
:Category:Cloud computing providers
:Category:Cloud platforms
Communication protocol
Communications system
Cloud collaboration
Cloud native computing
Cloud computing security
Cloud computing comparison
Cloud management
Cloud research
Cloud robotics
Cloud gaming
Cloud storage
Cloudlet
Computer cluster
Cooperative storage cloud
Dew computing
Data cluster
Directory
Distributed data store
Distributed database
Distributed computing
Distributed networking
Decentralized computing
Edge computing
Edge device
eScience
File system
Clustered file system
Distributed file system
Distributed file system for cloud
Fog computing
Fog robotics
Grid computing
In-memory database
In-memory processing
Internet of things
Microservices
Mobile cloud computing
Mobile edge computing
Peer-to-peer
Personal cloud
Robot as a service
As a service
Service-oriented architecture
Time-sharing
Ubiquitous computing
VDI
Virtual private cloud
Web computing
References
Further reading
Weisser, Alexander (2020). International Taxation of Cloud Computing. Editions Juridiques Libres, ISBN 978-2-88954-030-3.
Mell, P. (2011, September 31). The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing. Retrieved November 1, 2015, from National Institute of Standards and Technology website
External links
Cloud infrastructure |
36260333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChatON | ChatON | ChatON was a global mobile communication service introduced by Samsung Electronics in September 2011. ChatON served more than 120 countries in 62 languages. ChatON was available on Android, iOS, BlackBerry, Windows Phone (Samsung Zone), Windows Mobile (Korea), and Bada smartphones. Additionally, a web client was offered for access to the service via web browsers. Users could invite and register buddies via Facebook and Twitter as well as share ChatON content on Facebook. Among ChatON's unique features were allowing users to create Animation messages, Broadcast to send personal notices in a group chat room, and the Trunk which stores media files shared in chats. When a user logs in ChatON, the user's buddy list is available on any connected device.
ChatON was viewed as an alternative to WhatsApp.
History
ChatON was introduced at IFA on August 29, 2011, in Berlin, Germany, with initial service for iOS, Android, Blackberry, and Samsung phones. Support was expanded to include Android tablets, Windows Phone, and Bada phones. The ChatON mobile application could be downloaded from Samsung Apps & Google Play for Android, Apple AppStore for iOS, App World for Blackberry, and Microsoft Market for Windows Mobile.
On March 31, 2015, the ChatON service was discontinued in all markets.
Devices
ChatON was installed by default on Samsung Galaxy smartphones and tablet PCs, such as Galaxy Pocket 2 and Galaxy Young 2 and Galaxy S Duos 3, Galaxy Gear, Galaxy Star 2, S5 Mini, and S5, and Galaxy Camera. It was also available on other devices depending on the installed operating system.
Operating system support
For mobile devices, ChatON was available on Android (v2.2 or higher), Bada (v2.0 or higher), iOS (v4.3 or higher), BlackBerry (touch devices with v6.0 or higher, non-touch devices with v5.0 or higher), and Windows Mobile (v6.5 only for Omnia 2, and v7.0 for devices made by Samsung).
For Windows PC, ChatON runs on PCs with Windows XP or higher. For Macs, it runs on OS X 10.6 or higher.
Web version
ChatON offered a website client to enable users without a supported smartphone platform to chat via desktop and mobile web browsers. Multiple windows on PC screen, which is wider than mobile, facilitated chat with buddies and share contents. Usage of the web client was tied to a Samsung account instead of a phone number, and buddy lists from mobile accounts could be imported to the web client. Users received the same messages regardless of version while they maintained their web and mobile version's profiles independently. If a user deleted his account, his or her devices that were connected through the account are initialized and all data of chat room and server was deleted.
Features
The ChatON service has been discontinued by Samsung since 2015. When it was still available, it provided services such as voice/video chatting, translation, PostON, Anicon, Animessage, SMS/MMS exchanging feature, as well as basic services such as buddy registration, chatting and multimedia sharing.
Buddies: Buddies are automatically added based on the user's contact list. A phone number is registered as a buddy on ChatON. Only ChatON users are added as a buddy.
Translation: Translation service is provided in 1:1 chat rooms. Korean, English, Chinese, Japanese is cross-translated to each other, and German, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese is translated into English or English translated into these languages. Users can set translation service by pushing the menu button in chat room or translate directly into any language they want by long pressing a message bubble. Receivers see translated messages only, and senders see original and translated messages altogether. This service is available on Galaxy S4 and the other devices that have S Translator.
Anicons: Anicons, or animated icons, are the ChatON version of stickers. Unlike other apps, all ChatON stickers are animated. Anicons are available in the ChatON Shop. Many anicons feature fun characters to help express different emotions and situations to buddies. As of May 2013, 127 sets of Anicon are available to download for free.
Animessage: Users can make and send short animations with background, text, image, hand writing and stamps. Various background templates and stamps are available to download. An animation that plays images and texts are sent to a receiver in the order of compiling. It is also sent as a stationary image.
Group Chat: One-on-One and group chat are available. A group chat room is created if a user invites buddies during 1:1 chatting. A 1:1 chat room is created if a user sends a whisper during group chatting, and if the receiver answers to the whisper. Whisper is different from group chat in that a user is able to send a message individually to someone joined in the group chat. Also, users can set push alarms for every chat room.
Multimedia Messaging: Various multimedia such as text, image, video, voice message, location, contact and calendars can be shared. JPEG and PNG formats are available for image files, and MP4, 3GP, MOV formats for video files. MOV files were not supported on Android, Bada, and BlackBerry devices.
Video Calls: Users can use video chat using front and back cameras together. Both a user's face and the scene the user is seeing are shown simultaneously. A user can share his mobile screen with other buddies by pushing the share screen button during a video chat. Other buddies who participate in group chat are also available to control the shared screen remotely. A user can put moving emoticons on his face, overlay cartoon view and theme view, such as the mustache frame, during a video chat.
Theme Customization: On Android (ChatON 3.0 or later) and Bada devices, users can download various font styles for free and apply them in the chat room. There are 22 font styles according to four language categories; Korean, Chinese, Latin, Arabic. If a user types '#' before all sentences of message, text size is increased when it is sent.
SMS/MMS Integration: Users can exchange SMS/MMS through ChatON and users don't have to turn ChatON off to send a message to a non-ChatON user. ChatON users can send a message directly through ChatON to all of his or her buddies whose numbers are registered. Also, the user can have a more expressive dialogue with ChatON's Anicons and Emoticons which can be sent through MMS.
Multimedia Files: Multimedia files such as images and videos that are shared in chat room are automatically saved in the Trunk. All participants in the chat room can access those saved files. The files are shown as thumbnails and sorted in order of recent comments or updates. If chatting members tap a file, then it moves to the detail view and they can leave comments on it. They can also share it on Facebook.
PostON: In the ChatON profile page, users can post short messages or comments. Even if a buddy is not connected with ChatON, users can post under the profile. Users can send up to 140 texts, but not images or videos.
LIVEpartner: LIVEpartners related to life, travel, fashion, cars and news deliver news if a user adds them as buddies. These service providers provide more details about the news on their external sites. As of May 2013, there were 52 LIVEpartners available.
An API is available from Samsung for developing software that communicates with ChatON over an HTTPS connection.
See also
Comparison of cross-platform instant messaging clients
Comparison of instant messaging protocols
Comparison of Internet Relay Chat clients
Comparison of LAN messengers
Comparison of VoIP software
List of SIP software
List of video telecommunication services and product brands
References
External links
Samsung software
Instant messaging clients
Communication software
Cross-platform software
Android (operating system) software
BlackBerry software
IOS software
Windows Phone software
Discontinued software |
34505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z-machine | Z-machine | The Z-machine is a virtual machine that was developed by Joel Berez and Marc Blank in 1979 and used by Infocom for its text adventure games. Infocom compiled game code to files containing Z-machine instructions (called story files or Z-code files) and could therefore port its text adventures to a new platform simply by writing a Z-machine implementation for that platform. With the large number of incompatible home computer systems in use at the time, this was an important advantage over using native code or developing a compiler for each system.
History
The "Z" of Z-machine stands for Zork, Infocom's first adventure game. Z-code files usually have names ending in .z1, .z2, .z3, .z4, .z5, .z6, .z7, or .z8, where the number is the version number of the Z-machine on which the file is intended to be run, as given by the first byte of the story file.
This is a modern convention, however. Infocom itself used extensions of .dat (Data) and .zip (ZIP = Z-machine Interpreter Program), but the latter clashed with the widespread use of .zip for PKZIP-compatible archive files starting in the 1990s, after Activision closed Infocom. Infocom produced six versions of the Z-machine. Files using versions 1 and 2 are very rare. Only two version 1 files are known to have been released by Infocom and only two of version 2. Version 3 covers the majority of Infocom's released games. Later versions had more capabilities, culminating in some graphic support in version 6.
The compiler (called Zilch) that Infocom used to produce its story files has never been released, although documentation of the language used (, a Lisp-family language similar to MDL) still exists, and an open-source replacement has been written. After Mediagenic moved Infocom to California in 1989, Computer Gaming World stated that "ZIL ... is functionally dead", and reported rumors of a "completely new parser that may never be used". In May 1993, Graham Nelson released the first version of his Inform compiler, which also generates Z-machine story files as its output, even though the Inform source language is quite different from ZIL.
Inform has become popular in the interactive fiction community. A large proportion of interactive fiction is in the form of Z-machine story files. Demand for the ability to create larger game files led Nelson to specify versions 7 and 8 of the Z-machine, though version 7 is rarely used. Because of the way addresses are handled, a version 3 story file can be up to 128K in length, a version 5 story can be up to 256K in length, and a version 8 story can be up to 512k in length. Though these sizes may seem small by today's computing standards, for text-only adventures, these are large enough for elaborate games.
During the 1990s, Nelson drew up a Z-Machine Standard based on detailed studies of the existing Infocom files.
Interpreters
Interpreters for Z-code files are available on a wide variety of platforms. The Inform website lists links to freely available interpreters for 15 desktop operating systems (including 8-bit microcomputers from the 1980s such as the Apple II, TRS-80, and ZX Spectrum, and grouping "Unix" and "Windows" as one each), 10 mobile operating systems (including Palm OS and the Game Boy), and four interpreter platforms (Emacs, Java, JavaScript, and Scratch). According to Nelson, it is "possibly the most portable virtual machine ever created".
Popular interpreters include Nitfol and Frotz. Nitfol makes use of the Glk API, and supports versions 1 through 8 of the Z-machine, including the version 6 graphical Z-machine. Save files are stored in the standard Quetzal save format. Binary files are available for several different operating systems, including the classic Mac OS, Unix-like systems, DOS, and Windows.
Frotz was written in C by Stefan Jokisch in 1995 for DOS. Over time it was ported to other platforms, such as Unix-like systems, RISC OS, and iOS. Sound effects and graphics were supported to varying degrees. By 2002, development stalled and the program was picked up by David Griffith. The code base was split between virtual machine and user interface portions in such a way that the virtual machine became independent from any user interface. This allowed more variety in porting Frotz. One of the stranger ports is also one of the simplest: an instant messaging bot is wrapped around a version of Frotz with the minimum IO functionality creating a bot with which one can play most Z-machine games using an instant messaging client.
Another popular client for macOS and other Unix-like systems is Zoom. It supports the same Quetzal save-format, but the packaging of the file-structure is different.
See also
Glulx – Similar to the Z-machine, but relieves several legacy limitations
Inform – A computer language that can produce Z-machine programs
SCUMM – Script Creation Utility for Maniac Mansion by LucasArts, a graphical system similar to Z-machine
TADS – Like Glulx, made to address some of its limitations
Motorola 68000 series – The base architecture used for virtual machines in Magnetic Scrolls' adventure games
References
External links
The Z-Machine standards document
(PDF) is the Infocom ZIL manual from 1989
(PDF) the Z-Language Interpreter Program (Infocom Internal Document) from 1989
Interpreters
How to Fit a Large Program Into a Small Machine describes the creation and design of the Z-machine
Interactive fiction
Virtual machines
Text adventure game engines
Infocom |
1141367 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On2%20Technologies | On2 Technologies | On2 Technologies, formerly known as The Duck Corporation, was a small publicly traded company (on the American Stock Exchange), founded in New York City in 1992 and headquartered in Clifton Park, New York, that designed video codec technology. It created a series of video codecs called TrueMotion (including TrueMotion S, TrueMotion 2, TrueMotion RT 2.0, TrueMotion VP3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8).
In February 2010, On2 Technologies was acquired by Google for an estimated $124.6 million. On2's VP8 technology became the core of Google's WebM video file format.
History
While known by the name The Duck Corporation, they developed TrueMotion S, a codec that was used by some games for full motion video (FMV) sequences during the 1990s. The original office of the Duck Corporation was founded in New York City by Daniel B. Miller, Victor Yurkovsky, and Stan Marder. In 1994 Duck opened its first "satellite" engineering office in Colonie, NY under the management of Eric Ameres. Miller became CEO of newly renamed On2 Technologies until Doug McIntyre was hired in late 2000, when Miller resumed his role as CTO. CEO's after McIntyre included Bill Joll and Matt Frost.
After Miller's departure in 2003, newly promoted CTO Eric Ameres moved the primary engineering office to upstate NY's capital region. Ameres later departed in 2007 to pursue other research as part of the opening of the Experimental Media and Performing Arts Center (EMPAC) at his alma mater, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI). After Ameres' departure in 2007 Paul Wilkins served as co-CTO with Jim Bankoski. Wilkins was founder of "Metavisual" which was acquired by On2 in 1999 to bring the VP3 codec to market. The VP3 codec became the basis of On2's future codecs as well as the basis of the open source Theora video codec.
In 1995, The Duck Corporation raised $1.5 million in venture funding from Edelson Technology Partners.
In 1997, they raised an additional $5.5 million in a venture round primarily financed by Citigroup Ventures.
In 1999, The Duck Corporation merged with Applied Capital Funding, Inc., a public company on the American Stock Exchange. The merged entity was first renamed On2.Com and then On2 Technologies, trading on the AMEX as ONT. ONT's price peaked at a little over $40 per share, briefly giving the company a market cap in excess of $1 billion.
On April 4, 2000, On2 buys Quickband, Inc. ("Quickband"), a wholly owned subsidiary of the company, acquired substantially all of the assets of DVD Mags, Inc. ("DVD Mags"), a California corporation in the business of aggregating and producing short-form entertainment content for distribution across digital and traditional channels (the "Quickband Acquisition"). The Quickband Acquisition was effected pursuant to an Asset Purchase Agreement ("Purchase Agreement") dated as of March 9, 2000 by and among the company, Quickband and DVD Mags.
On November 3, 2000, On2 acquired the game engine development company Eight Cylinders Studios.
In May 2007, On2 announced an agreement to acquire Finnish Hantro Products, a provider of video codecs for chips for wireless devices. The acquisition was finalized on November 1, 2007.
In November 2008, On2 announced that it would partner with Zencoder to create Flix Cloud, a high-capacity online video encoding service using Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2). Flix Cloud launched in April 2009.
Acquisition by Google
On 5 August 2009, Google offered to acquire On2 Technologies for $106.5 million in Google stock. On 7 January 2010, Google increased its offer to $133.9 million, and on February 17, 2010, the stockholders of On2 Technologies voted to accept the offer. On 19 February 2010, the transaction was completed, valued at approximately $124.6 million.
After this purchase, the following message was posted on the on2.com website: "The On2 products Flix Pro, Flix Standard, Flix Exporter, Flix PowerPlayers, Flix Live, Flix DirectShow SDK, Flix Publisher and Flix Engine are no longer for sale."
Technology
TrueMotion S
According to the company itself, development started in the early 1990s. The first versions of the codec were mainly targeted at and used for full motion video scenes in computer games. One of the codec's competitive advantages in this field was that, unlike MPEG, it does not require a separate decoder, thus reducing costs to game publishers. At the time, MPEG's dominance was nearly secured, especially with hardware-implementations of the codec, meant to run on special hardware boards only.
This was the first version in the TrueMotion series of proprietary lossy video compression formats and video codec. This format compressed frame in either a 32-bit or 16-bit RGB color space with a FourCC of DUCK (or TMOT for a version of TrueMotion S that was licensed by Horizon Technologies). It is usually put in an AVI container. The filename extension varies from game to game. Some leave it with .avi, other games use .bin or .duc. Gaming consoles which were licensed to use the codec include the Sega Saturn, Sega 32X, and 3DO Interactive Multiplayer. Simon & Schuster first person games such as Star Trek: Borg also used the compression format. Some of the files can be played back with a video player that uses the libavcodec library, such as MPlayer.
In 1995, Horizons Technology Inc. began shipping the TrueMotion-S Compressor software for Macintosh and MS Windows. TrueMotion-S was originally developed by the Duck Corp. for applications such as the Sega game box.
In 1996, the main competitors for TrueMotion S software codec were Cinepak and Indeo in games for first-generation CD-ROM based game consoles.
TrueMotion RT
The “real time” version in the series was released in 1996. It was meant for real time capturing and processing of digital video.
TrueMotion 2
The second version in this series only supported a 24-bit RGB color space optimized for Windows rendering which orders components as BGR with a FourCC of TM20. Used for Final Fantasy VII and Star Trek: Klingon.
In 1997, Microsoft Corp. licensed The Duck Corp.'s TrueMotion 2.0 video codec technology to bring TV-quality video to the PC platform.
DK ADPCM Audio 3/4
There are two obsolete versions for associated ADPCM audio compression.
TrueMotion VP3/4
On June 1, 2000, brought version 3.1; August 16, 2000 version 3.2. The third version in the series switched to using a planar Y'CbCr 4:2:0 color space.
In late 2001, On2 released their VP3(.2) compression technology into the open-source community including their patents on the technology. The technology lives on in the form of Theora. The Xiph.Org Foundation created its codec Theora as a fork of the codebase of VP3.2. The forked version added 4:2:2 and 4:4:4 sub sampling for better color quality options.
In April 2001 VP4 was published, which brought an improved encoder for the same bitstream format.
TrueMotion VP5/6
A preview version of VP5 was published on February 21, 2002, with production version being available as of May 1, 2002. The production version of VP5 codec was released in May 2002.
When the codec was in beta, to preview its quality, On2 created a plug-in for RealPlayer. Lately the final version of the codec was ready. The VP5 codec was limited, when the VP6 came out.
The sixth version like VP3 and VP4 kept the same bitstream as VP5 and added an optional alpha channel to the color space.
In April 2003 AOL has bought broad licensing rights for VP5 and VP6 codecs. More recently, On2 licensed its technology to AOL for use in an IP-based video telephony product, to Tencent Holdings of China for use in its instant messaging products, and to Saver Corporation of Japan to enable new Flash 8 mobile video applications.
On May 12, 2003, On2 announced the release of VP6. Revised versions 6.1 and 6.2 followed later that year.
Since October 2003 it may be used free of charge for personal use.
In late 2003, On2 announced that its VP5 and VP6 codecs were selected by Beijing E-World as a video coding method to be used in a Chinese-developed competitor to the DVD format called the EVD (Enhanced Versatile Disc) format. Then in April 2004, On2 announced that its business relationship with E-World had soured, and that On2 would file multiple breach of contract claims against E-World in arbitration proceedings. The arbitrator reached a conclusion on March 10, 2005, according to SEC filings by On2 on March 14, 2005. The arbitrator dismissed each of On2's claims and ruled that E-World owed nothing to On2 and had not breached the contract. It seems unlikely that On2 will ultimately get any significant payback from the EVD initiative, although some contract relationship remains in effect.
A number of less highly visible deals with other customers and partners seem to have worked out more amicably than the Chinese DVD project. Recent announcements have related to deals with Apex Datacom, IWAPI Inc., Vividas, Digital Witness, XM Satellite Radio, PowerLinx, and LeapFrog Enterprises. In particular, the company indicated that it expected to recognize some revenue from the Leapfrog deal in the third quarter of 2005 and also made optimistic statements about the future with XM Satellite Radio.
In 2004, On2's VP6 was selected for use as the Macromedia Flash Video 8 codec. This apparently stems from a deal made in the second quarter of 2004 with revenue in that quarter of $1.4 million for the licensing agreement. In related news, On2 announced on April 5, 2005, that it had acquired the Flix Flash video encoder technology from Wildform, Inc. On2 added support for Flash 8 video output to the Flix 8 product line that they released on September 13, 2005.
TrueMotion VP7
The seventh version changed the bitstream from previous versions for better coding efficiency and was released in March 2005; since July it may be used free of charge for personal use.
It is a codec with both VFW and DirectShow support that On2 Technologies claims has better compression than leading competitive codecs such as MPEG-4 AVC (H.264) and VC-1.
On2 Technologies announced TrueMotion VP7 in January 2005. The public release of VP7 codec software was available in March 2005.
On March 9, 2005, On2 announced a new codec, VP7. On2 claimed that VP7 is superior to the H.264/AVC standard, based on claims of comparative technical capabilities and licensing costs. This claim has been disputed by a developer of x264, a popular H.264 encoder.
In April 2005, On2 Technologies licensed On2 Video Codecs (including VP6 and VP7) for Macromedia Flash.
On December 1, 2005, Skype announced that they had licensed current and future versions of its video compression software and had integrated it into the beta version of Skype 2.0 for point-to-point video conferencing Skype protocol. No financial terms were disclosed relating to the deal.
On August 13, 2007, On2 announced the addition of H.264 support to its On2 Flix product line.
Move Networks also used the VP7 codec in its Move Media Player plugin for Firefox and Internet Explorer, used by ABC and Fox for its streaming of full network shows.
TrueMotion VP8
VP8 was published in 2008 and marked the transfer of formats to Google with their acquisition of On2 and was open sourced on May 19, 2010. The VP8 codec was licensed under a BSD license.
References
External links
On2 Technologies
Horizons Technology ships the Windows version of its TrueMotion-S software-only video compressor (1995-10-26)
Horizon Technology's TrueMotion-S Codec, (1996), Robert Currier
Horizons Technology signs new international distributors for TrueMotion-S software-only video (June 21, 1995)
Duck TrueMotion 1 - on MultimediaWiki
TrueMotion VP7 White Paper
Specification
Google acquisitions
Software companies based in New York (state)
Video codecs
American companies established in 1992
Software companies established in 1992
1992 establishments in New York City
Software companies of the United States
2010 mergers and acquisitions |
6891685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roadrunner%20%28supercomputer%29 | Roadrunner (supercomputer) | Roadrunner was a supercomputer built by IBM for the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, USA. The US$100-million Roadrunner was designed for a peak performance of 1.7 petaflops. It achieved 1.026 petaflops on May 25, 2008, to become the world's first TOP500 LINPACK sustained 1.0 petaflops system.
In November 2008, it reached a top performance of 1.456 petaFLOPS, retaining its top spot in the TOP500 list. It was also the fourth-most energy-efficient supercomputer in the world on the Supermicro Green500 list, with an operational rate of 444.94 megaflops per watt of power used. The hybrid Roadrunner design was then reused for several other energy efficient supercomputers. Roadrunner was decommissioned by Los Alamos on March 31, 2013. In its place, Los Alamos commissioned a supercomputer called Cielo, which was installed in 2010.
Overview
IBM built the computer for the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA). It was a hybrid design with 12,960 IBM PowerXCell 8i and 6,480 AMD Opteron dual-core processors in specially designed blade servers connected by InfiniBand. The Roadrunner used Red Hat Enterprise Linux along with Fedora as its operating systems, and was managed with xCAT distributed computing software. It also used the Open MPI Message Passing Interface implementation.
Roadrunner occupied approximately 296 server racks which covered and became operational in 2008. It was decommissioned March 31, 2013. The DOE used the computer for simulating how nuclear materials age in order to predict whether the USA's aging arsenal of nuclear weapons are both safe and reliable. Other uses for the Roadrunner included the science, financial, automotive, and aerospace industries.
Hybrid design
Roadrunner differed from other contemporary supercomputers because it continued the hybrid approach to supercomputer design introduced by Seymour Cray in 1964 with the Control Data Corporation CDC 6600 and continued with the order of magnitude faster CDC 7600 in 1969. However, in this architecture the peripheral processors were used only for operating system functions and all applications ran in the one central processor. Most previous supercomputers had only used one processor architecture, since it was thought to be easier to design and program for. To realize the full potential of Roadrunner, all software had to be written specially for this hybrid architecture. The hybrid design consisted of dual-core Opteron server processors manufactured by AMD using the standard AMD64 architecture. Attached to each Opteron core is an IBM-designed and -fabricated PowerXCell 8i processor. As a supercomputer, the Roadrunner was considered an Opteron cluster with Cell accelerators, as each node consists of a Cell attached to an Opteron core and the Opterons to each other.
Development
Roadrunner was in development from 2002 and went online in 2006. Due to its novel design and complexity it was constructed in three phases and became fully operational in 2008. Its predecessor was a machine also developed at Los Alamos named Dark Horse. This machine was one of the earliest hybrid architecture systems originally based on ARM and then moved to the Cell processor. It was entirely a 3D design, its design integrated 3D memory, networking, processors and a number of other technologies.
Phase 1
The first phase of the Roadrunner was building a standard Opteron based cluster, while evaluating the feasibility to further construct and program the future hybrid version. This Phase 1 Roadrunner reached 71 teraflops and was in full operation at Los Alamos National Laboratory in 2006.
Phase 2
Phase 2 known as AAIS (Advanced Architecture Initial System) included building a small hybrid version of the finished system using an older version of the Cell processor. This phase was used to build prototype applications for the hybrid architecture. It went online in January 2007.
Phase 3
The goal of Phase 3 was to reach sustained performance in excess of 1 petaflops. Additional Opteron nodes and new PowerXCell processors were added to the design. These PowerXCell processors are five times as powerful as the Cell processors used in Phase 2. It was built to full scale at IBM’s Poughkeepsie, New York facility, where it broke the 1 petaflops barrier during its fourth attempt on May 25, 2008. The complete system was moved to its permanent location in New Mexico in the summer of 2008.
Technical specifications
Processors
Roadrunner used two different models of processors. The first is the AMD Opteron 2210, running at 1.8 GHz. Opterons are used both in the computational nodes feeding the Cells with useful data and in the system operations and communication nodes passing data between computing nodes and helping the operators running the system. Roadrunner has a total of 6,912 Opteron processors with 6,480 used for computation and 432 for operation. The Opterons are connected together by HyperTransport links. Each Opteron has two cores for a total 13,824 cores.
The second processor is the IBM PowerXCell 8i, running at 3.2 GHz. These processors have one general purpose core (PPE), and eight special performance cores (SPE) for floating point operations. Roadrunner has a total of 12,960 PowerXCell processors, with 12,960 PPE cores and 103,680 SPE cores, for a total of 116,640 cores.
TriBlade
Logically, a TriBlade consists of two dual-core Opterons with 16 GB RAM and four PowerXCell 8i CPUs with 16 GB Cell RAM.
Physically, a TriBlade consists of one LS21 Opteron blade, an expansion blade, and two QS22 Cell blades. The LS21 has two 1.8 GHz dual-core Opterons with 16 GB memory for the whole blade, providing 8GB for each CPU. Each QS22 has two PowerXCell 8i CPUs, running at 3.2 GHz and 8 GB memory, which makes 4 GB for each CPU. The expansion blade connects the two QS22 via four PCIe x8 links to the LS21, two links for each QS22. It also provides outside connectivity via an InfiniBand 4x DDR adapter. This makes a total width of four slots for a single TriBlade. Three TriBlades fit into one BladeCenter H chassis. The expansion blade is connected to the Opteron blade via HyperTransport.
Connected Unit (CU)
A Connected Unit is 60 BladeCenter H full of TriBlades, that is 180 TriBlades. All TriBlades are connected to a 288-port Voltaire ISR2012 Infiniband switch. Each CU also has access to the Panasas file system through twelve System x3755 servers.
CU system information:
360 dual-core Opterons with 2.88 TiB RAM.
720 PowerXCell 8i cores with 2.88 TiB RAM.
12 System x3755 with dual 10-GBit Ethernet each.
288-port Voltaire ISR2012 switch with 192 Infiniband 4x DDR links (180 TriBlades and twelve I/O nodes).
Roadrunner cluster
The final cluster is made up of 18 connected units, which are connected via eight additional (second-stage) Infiniband ISR2012 switches. Each CU is connected through twelve uplinks for each second-stage switch, which makes a total of 96 uplink connections.
Overall system information:
6,480 Opteron processors with 51.8 TiB RAM (in 3,240 LS21 blades)
12,960 Cell processors with 51.8 TiB RAM (in 6,480 QS22 blades)
216 System x3755 I/O nodes
26 288-port ISR2012 Infiniband 4x DDR switches
296 racks
2.345 MW power
Shutdown
IBM Roadrunner was shut down on March 31, 2013. While the supercomputer was one of the fastest in the world, its energy efficiency was relatively low. Roadrunner delivered 444 megaflops per watt vs the 886 megaflops per watt of a comparable supercomputer. Before the supercomputer is dismantled, researchers will spend one month performing memory and data routing experiments that will aid in designing future supercomputers.
After IBM Roadrunner is dismantled, the electronics will be shredded. Los Alamos will perform the majority of the supercomputer's destruction, citing the classified nature of its calculations. Some of its parts will be retained for historical purposes.
See also
Central processing unit
Computer architecture
Computer science
Computing
Multi-core processor
References
External links
World's Fastest Computer
2008 in science
2013 in science
Cell BE architecture
IBM supercomputers
One-of-a-kind computers
Petascale computers
Los Alamos National Laboratory
64-bit computers |
22570875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Odyssey%20%281968%20miniseries%29 | The Odyssey (1968 miniseries) | The Odyssey () is an eight-episodes European TV miniseries broadcast on RAI (Italian state TV) in 1968 and based on Homer's Odyssey. An Italian, Yugoslavian, German and French (Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française) coproduction, it was directed by Franco Rossi, assisted by Piero Schivazappa and Mario Bava; the cast includes Bekim Fehmiu as Odysseus and Irene Papas as Penelope, Samson Burke as the Cyclops, as well as Barbara Bach as Nausicaa, and Gérard Herter. Several critics consider the series to be a masterful representation of the ancient world.
Plot
First episode: Telemaco and Penelope
Athena, happy that King Ulysses is close to returning to his native island Ithaca, located to the west of Greece, under the guise of King Mentes, arrives in Ithaca to make sure that Ulysses' return is pleasant. Unfortunately it is not so: although welcomed with respect by the twenty year old Prince Telemachus, Mentes discovers that the palace of the king of Ithaca is besieged by numerous arrogant nobles of the region, the suitors, who anxiously wait for Queen Penelope to decide to take a new husband between them, supposing that Ulysses died since twenty years have passed since his departure for Troy, looting without reserve the cellar and the pantry of the palace. Penelope tries to take time by declaring to the processors that she must weave a canvas in honor of her father-in-law Laertes, but with this pretext every night she undoes it and starts it again the next morning.
Telemachus, at the suggestion of Mentes (who disappears as he came), announces a town meeting to be able to know who is on his side to be able to chase away the suitors and who is willing to follow him on the land to ask for information about Ulysses to King Nestor, the oldest commander who participated in the war. The suitors also arrive at the assembly, claiming to be right in the king's long absence and the fact that Penelope is spending too much time weaving the web. To these answers, the people of Ithaca are silent and dare not oppose, yet the soothsayer Egizio, noting a hawk perched on the battlements of the palace, sees the success of Telemachus' journey, but is derided by the suitors. The next morning, Telemachus is joined by his father's friend and adviser Mentor (again Athena in disguise) who gives him a boat and sailors to get to Pylos, by Nestor. Before leaving, Telemachus asks the nurse Eurycleia not to say anything to Penelope. During the night, Melantho, a young female servant of the palace who is a lover of Eurymachus, one of the suitors, betrays Penelope by revealing to the suitors what Penelope does to her canvas at night. Discovered, Penelope is forced to finish the shroud without apology.
The next day, the suitors noticed the absence of Telemachus and discovered, threatening a boat seller, that he really started to look for news about his father. Concerned that his research is successful, Antinous, chief of staff, suggests an ambush by Telemachus. Arriving in Pylos in the middle of a sacrificial ceremony at Poseidon, Telemachus joins the king after the ceremony. Nestor tells Telemachus of the evening before he returns from Troy: there were those who, like Ulysses, wanted to punish the allies of the Trojans and those like Menelaus who wanted to go home; after several discussions, the Achaean fleet separated and Nestor no longer knew about Ulysses, so he advised Telemachus to go to Sparta, to Menelaus, with his son Pisistratus, who would guide him. Medon, the wine bearer, on hearing the suitors, runs to warn Penelope who, after a moment of anger at Eurycleia for not having told her anything, prays for the safety of her son.
At night, Penelope receives in a dream Athena's visit, under the guise of her sister Iftime, who assures her that the gods watch over her son and also about Ulysses. Finally the figure of Ulysses is presented: a lonely man at the head of a miserable raft at the mercy of the waves that move him away from his final destination.
Second episode: Ulysses, Nausicaa and Calypso
At the beginning of the second episode there is a discussion between Zeus and Athena in which the two agree that Poseidon has tortured Ulysses enough and that it is time for his suffering to end. Ulysses is shipwrecked on an island and, having found a refuge, wanders into a grove of trees and asleep on a bed of fallen leaves. The island in which Ulysses arrived is Scheria, governed by the Phaeacians, and Athena arrives in a dream to the young princess Nausicaa, in the guise of a distant friend and enters the dreams of the girl, telling her that she should prepare herself for her now near marriage and go with the maids to the mouth of the river to do the laundry. The next day Nausicaa goes to the mouth and after doing the laundry, the princess starts to play with the maids, when she sees in the bushes a dirty man, naked and caked with salt and leaves with which he slept on. All the girls run away except for Nausicaa, who is staring in astonishment at the desperate man. Ulysses also remains somewhat captivated by the beauty of the girl and compares her to a goddess, then begging her to take him with her to the palace to clean up the debris of the waters.
As ordered by the goddess and also by her heart, Nausicaa has him washed and dressed by the maids, but she asks that, out of discretion, he did not follow her to the palace, or the young people would believe she had chosen him as a husband. Accepting the wishes of the girl, Ulysses goes alone to the city, while an internal voice (Athena) suggests to him how to behave in front of the sovereigns: Alcinous and Arete. The nobles and monarchs of the palace, suspicious of all the foreigners who come to their land, fill him with questions, only to apologize for their abrupt and gruff interrogation, after they recognize in the hero a good man with nothing to hide. In reality, in order not to cause a stir, Ulysses pretends to be a shipwrecked traveler in search of protection. Alcinous tells that long ago his people, ruled by his grandfather, resided in the Land of the Cyclops, monstrous and violent beings, who continually threatened their lives; so they decided to move with the help of the gods to a new island, paying the price of being isolated and unknown to any traveler, except Ulysses.
Hosted in the palace, Ulysses knows that the Phaeacians are peaceful and that they know how to build boats that never sink and never get lost, but have stopped building them worried by a prophecy: Poseidon, their protector, would have punished the Phaeacians by destroying the crew of the ship that will accompany an enemy on board. Ulysses, meanwhile, spends a lot of time with Nausicaa, telling her that until a few weeks ago he had been a prisoner in Ogygia for seven years, an islet in which the beautiful nymph Calypso is exiled, to whom Ulysses mentally resisted, until ordered by the gods, she didn't allow him to go on a raft.
A few days later, Odysseus is invited to see the games that will decree a husband for Nausicaa. The champion, therefore, asks the guest to participate in the sword contests, but Ulysses refuses, in order not to be recognised, at least until the athletes question his strength, making Ulysses so angry that not only he beats all the participants, but also risks to kill one. Sorry, Ulysses asks Alcinous for forgiveness, but he demands to know his name rather than to hear his apologies.
Third episode: the fall of Troy and the island of the Lotus-eaters
For the victory of the athletes, the blind aedus Demodocus tells everybody the history of the last thing he saw before losing his sight: the fall of Troy. Ten years had passed since the beginning of the war, but neither of the two factions gave up, until one day, on the shores of Ilium, the Trojans found the achaean camp deserted and a gigantic wooden horse on the beach. While Priam and many other citizens interpreted it as an offer of the Achaeans to Poseidon to secure a safe journey, the priest Laocoön understands that it is a trap, or an offer asking that the god destroy the city. The priest is so sure of what he said that he thrust a spear in the belly, almost piercing Ulysses and the others hidden inside. On the verge of burning it, Priam stops Laocoön and orders for the horse to be brought inside the city to repent the offense made to the god. Ulysses' plan works: with the horse inside the walls, the Acheans come out of the sculpture, warn the hidden companions and Troy is conquered. The tragedy is unstoppable and on that same night, after having feasted and celebrated, the Trojans are wiped out by the Greeks; this is the destiny also of Priam, of Deiphobus, the new husband of Helen, and of Astianax, the baby son of Hector and Andromache, who is forcefully taken from his cradle and thrown out of the walls by Neoptolemus, the cruel son of Achilles. Remembering these atrocities, Ulysses starts to cry softly, shaken by violent shivers, and Demodocus, after realising it, recognize him under the shock of all people.
Meanwhile, Telemachus and Pisistratus arrive in Sparta, where Menelaus and Helen have just returned from their journey, unlike Ulysses. The sovereigns welcome Telemachus who, contrary to his expectations, finds himself in front of two sad spouses, severely tested by the fatigue of the war and the fate of the survivors. Agamemnon, says the king, died killed by his wife Clytemnestra, and many met the same death in their homes. The ruler says that the last time he heard about Ulysses, he heard from Proteus, who also told him how to go home. In order to calm the spirits, Elena drugs the wine of her husband and of the guests to relieve their pain and tells of the time she saw Ulysses before Troy was conquered: after being beaten to death by his friend Diomedes to appear as a beggar, he had entered the city presenting himself as a Phrygian soldier attacked by his drunken comrades. The priestess Cassandra, famous for her misfortune to predict future events but without ever being believed, immediately believes him and confides in him that she knows that her city is destined to lose, if the Palladium of Athena were to be stolen from the temple. After Cassandra goes away, Helen arrives, who has become the widow of Paris. who immediately recognizes Ulysses, although battered and bleeding, cursing his coming. Ulysses, furious, threaten her of playing the double-cross and unnecessarily wasting time in that palace, since the entire army of Greece is fighting for her; he finally leaves her, warning her against her husband Menelaus.
Now discovered, Ulysses tells the Phaeacians the misadventures that cost him his return home, his fleet and his companions. Departing from Troy with 12 ships and many companions, he first loses 6 men for each of his ships in the land of the Cicones, allies of the Trojans. Later he loses 11 of his 12 ships in the land of the Laestrygonians, giants that sink ships that have entered the port; only the ship of Ulysses is saved, who for precaution had kept it out of the port. With the only surviving ship, Ulysses lands on the Mediterranean coast of Africa, inhabited by strange people called Lotophagi, or eaters of an aphrodisiac flower called Lotus. Three companions are sent scouting, but after several hours they never return. Worried, Ulysses goes to look for them and arrives in an immense garden with poor houses. All the inhabitants smile and rave about laughing, and among them there are also the three friends of Ulysses. They have completely lost their memory because they ate the dust obtained from the crushing of the flowers of that field, the Lotus, and now they don't want to leave the island. Even when Ulysses tries to remind them of their wives, children and loved homes, the drunken companions do not express the slightest consideration and continue to devour the lotus with a laugh. Then Ulysses takes them all and binds them on the ship, to continue the journey.
Having landed on another island, Ulysses and twelve of his companions go to get supplies and so they go hunting until, following enormous human footsteps, they discover a huge and rough cave. Intrigued, the sailors enter and discover a huge deposit of cheese, milk and ricotta, and utensils belonging to a giant: the bowls that contain the food are huge, and so are an ax and the bed. However, Ulysses, deaf to the insistence of his companions who would like to leave after having taken the cheese, believes he can establish a dialogue with the inhabitant whose skills in making knots and producing good ricotta he appreciates. In any case, there is no more time to escape because the animals of the flock arrive in the cave.
Fourth episode: Polyphemus and the gift of Aeolus
The cave is inhabited by a monstrous giant with feral habits named Polyphemus. The cyclops is horrible to behold, full of hair like a beast and with a single eye in the middle of the forehead. The companions fall to the ground in terror as soon as they see him blocking the entrance to the cave with a huge boulder and asking them in a booming voice to introduce themselves. Ulysses, trying to protect his friends, asks Polyphemus for hospitality, since they need food, and to respect the laws of the powerful and vengeful god in regard to visitors Zeus. Polyphemus bursts into a thunderous and terrifying laugh, declaring that he is the son of Poseidon and therefore above any law and that he does not have to obey anyone, not even the other gods. The men run away terrified, but Polyphemus takes one and crushes it in his hand; then he grabs another, fainted from shock, and dashes him violently against a stone, and then eats them both. Ulysses would like to kill him, immediately after he has gone to bed, but is held back by his friends, including his good cousin Eurilochus. If Ulysses had killed the Cyclops while asleep, then no one would have had the strength to remove the gigantic boulder from the entrance, and so the hero is forced to wait the end of the night. The next day, however, he gets an idea and orders his companions to take a large olive branch and sharpen it, while the Cyclops goes out to graze the herd. Subsequently Ulysses draws lots for the companions who should distract the Cyclops, while he hides the trunk. Unfortunately the chosen ones are not fast enough and Polyphemus devours them too.
All the prisoners are about to lose hope, were it not for the astute Ulysses, who decides to make the Cyclops drink the wine he had brought with him from the ship as a gift for the inhabitants of that land, a very special wine, so concentrated that to be drunk normally it should be diluted with as many as 20 measures of water. Having filled a large bowl, Ulysses barely grabs it with both arms and hands it to Polyphemus, who, although suspicious of the new drink, tastes it, immediately becoming crazy for it and demands more. Ulysses, wanting to get him drunk, brings him another full bowl, which Polyphemus empties. Ulysses, at the request of Polyphemus to reveal his name, replies that he is called "Nobody"; whereupon the Cyclops laughs and says that as a reward he will eat him last. Ulysses, without wasting time, after the Cyclops has fallen asleep dead drunk, calls to him his friends who heat the tip of the tree trunk: the prisoners intend to blind Polyphemus so that he can make them escape by opening the entrance. The companions, including Ulysses, take the smoking trunk and approach the bed of Polyphemus, climbing on it and positioning themselves directly behind the monster's head to better implant the trunk. With a shout of encouragement Ulysses and his companions thrust the pole, but the cry of pain of Polyphemus is so chilling and resounding that it makes them all fall to the ground, while the Cyclops, waving his hands, creates a great disorder and noise in the cave. He also calls screaming at his Cyclops neighbours who, rushing up outside the cave, ask what or who is doing him harm. To the answer "Nobody wants to kill me!" the other Cyclops tell Polyphemus that they can do nothing and that he must pray to Poseidon and abandon him.
After a night of constant and agonizing cries, Polyphemus the next morning opens the cave door to let the sheep and goats out to graze. The companions tie themselves to the bellies of the sheep joined in groups of three bound with ropes, clinging to the bellies of the middle animal, except Ulysses who clings under the fleece of the ram of the herd, so as not to be recognized by the Cyclops, who touches the sheep one by one on the back and sides but never thinking to feel them underneath. The ram comes out last and Polyphemus, after having said words of affection towards the head of the herd, pronounces a curse against Ulysses calling his father Poseidon to him. While his companions hurry to get back on the boat, Ulysses prefers to stay on earth for a moment longer to mock Polyphemus by telling him his real name, that it was Ulysses, the king of Ithaca, who blinded him. Polyphemus, mad with rage, climbs a ledge, cursing him and throwing various boulders against the ship, begging his father to wreck the enemy's boat. And in fact, shortly after leaving, Ulysses will be forced to land on the island of Aeolus, the god master of the wind, due to bad sea conditions.
Continuing the story, Ulysses arrives on the island of Aeolus and decides to venture alone. Entering a palace, Ulysses enters a huge and opulent banquet room filled with blue steam and "erotes" (flutist kids) playing various instruments and distributing wine. At the end of the room there was a large table full of all kinds of good things, with Aeolus seated in the center and his family at his sides: his wife Cyane, and their sons and daughters, whom he had married to each other to keep the family together. Aeolus is very old and stout with silver hair, and asks the hero to eat with them, telling of his exploits of the Trojan war. Ulysses will stay to eat for several months, telling and repeating his stories about him several times, until he asks the god to let him go. Aeolus agrees and moreover decides to give him all the winds of Boreas and Leveche that dominate the world. First, however, he asks Ulysses if any gods persecute him, in which case he could not have given him his gift; Ulysses lies, keeping silent about the fact that Poseidon, after the episode of Polyphemus, is hostile to him. Aeolus, then, gathers all the winds and encloses them in a large sack made with the tanned skin of a ram, and gives them to Ulysses as long as he never opens the jar so as not to trigger a natural cataclysm. Ulysses promises and goes to the ship, to resume the voyage; thanks to the winds he would have reached Ithaca much earlier than expected. But the companions, intrigued by the sack, believing that it contained riches, one day, just as the coasts of the much desired island are beginning to be glimpsed, open the bag while Ulysses was sleeping exhausted, being tossed back and forth across the Mediterranean Sea. Ulysses stops to reflect on his misfortunes, while the queen comments that after all he deserves all his troubles for not being vigilant and for having set himself against the gods, visiting unknown lands and disobeying the orders of friends with deception.
Fifth episode: the island of Circe and the descent to the Underworld
Having landed on a new and unknown island, Ulysses together with his unfortunate companions decide to visit it to see if it was inhabited by beasts or bloodthirsty men. He divides the expedition into two groups: one commanded by Eurilochus and the other by himself. Entering the thick wood, however, the group of fillet is attacked by no one knows what and people are transformed into pigs. Meanwhile Ulysses meets a shepherd boy, actually Hermes, who tells him the sad fate of the other group. Ulysses would like to rush to their aid, but the god stops him, telling him that this is a spell of the sorceress Circe, mistress of the island, and that to free his friends he must first of all eat a sacred flower. After that the hero would have presented himself to the sorceress and would have been led to her abode; Circe would certainly deceived him, by giving him a potion to drink, but Ulysses would have remained immune and would be seized by a terrible desire to stab the sorceress, but restraining himself.
Ulysses hears this prophecy and goes into the garden where he meets a woman, beautiful and terrible at the same time, who subjects him to riddles and tests, but Ulysses, protected by Hermes, solves them all. Circe, realizing that this man is different from all her other victims, decides to take him home to make him drink some wine. Suddenly Ulysses finds himself in a strange abode full of climbing plants and cages containing animals and birds of all kinds, all prisoners of the sorceress, but he is immediately invited to sit by Circe who offers him a golden cup. Ulysses, knowing that he is immune to her poison, drinks it all in one gulp, yet suffering greatly from her poison. Meanwhile Circe laughs heartily, thinking that soon the unfortunate person would turn into a pig too, but suddenly she goes pale and begins to become terribly ugly: she has realized that her powers are ineffective on the hero. Ulysses, angrier than ever, rushes with the sword drawn to the sorceress, but then remembers the prophecy and does not kill her, but he orders her to take him to her friends. Circe, suddenly returned beautiful and more docile than ever, takes him to a stable where pigs grunt desperately and turns them back into the people they were before. However, due to the sudden metamorphosis, the companions find themselves confused and do not even recognize Ulysses, running away every time he tries to talk to them. Circe then takes the opportunity to hold back the hero a little longer, since the effect of the magic on his companions would disappear in a few days, and she spends passionate nights of love with him.
Circe, to ensure that the hero decides to stay with her forever, makes him drink a magic potion that makes him forget his beloved island, and makes him invisible in front of his companions. With Circe, Ulysses will spend a full year, and only the intervention of his companions, tired of living on the ship doing nothing, will bring the hero back to reason. Ulysses asks Circe to be let go once and for all and she, albeit reluctantly, accepts, but before leaving she confides him some secrets and above all orders him to go to the Underworld. Indeed, since many of the gods are hostile to him, Ulysses has a very uncertain and dangerous destiny when he sails on the sea, and so he needs the prophecies of the blind diviner Tiresias, who died at the venerable age of over 700 years, so that he can sail peacefully to in Ithaca.
Ulysses, as Circe had told him, walks through the woods of the island, until he reaches a dark cave dug into the earth. The dark place where Ulysses will find himself is bleak, lifeless and full of fog. The hero is afraid because to him it seems like an intricate labyrinth full of columns and dead caves and above all he does not see a living soul. Indeed, Circe had advised him to take a black young goat with him to slaughter, so that the souls of the deceased could appear and approach, with the hope that among them there was also Tiresias. Ulysses performs the rite and immediately a group of mournful, weeping and sighing people appears, covered by heavy gray cloaks that leave only their faces uncovered. All of them come dangerously close to the victim's blood to drink it, but Ulysses drives them away with his sword: only Tiresias should have quenched his thirst. The group disappears and the soothsayer finally appears: he is white-haired, with a long beard and communicates only by speaking in a whisper, and Ulysses invites him to drink. When Tiresias gets up from the ground, his figure appears even more ghostly, as he drips kid's blood from his mouth and he begins to communicate his future journey to Ulysses. He will still have to face many dangers and only in the tenth year after the destruction of Troy Ulysses will be able to embrace his family again, but he will not stay in Ithaca for long because, driven by his desire for knowledge, he will make another journey which will be the last of his life.
Ulysses does not understand everything and leaves Tiresias to feed on the goat again, to venture deeper into the Underworld. He sees a soul: it is that of Agamemnon who reveals to him that he was stabbed in treason together with the concubine Cassandra by his wife Clytemnestra. The woman was still upset by the ancient sacrifice of her daughter Iphigenia at the behest of her father, since the gods did not allow him departure for Troy, and she now had one more reason to slaughter Agamemnon: his betrayal with the Trojan prophetess. Agamemnon warns the hero when he returns to Ithaca: no woman is faithful to her husband and above all she will try to kill him after so many years away, and this could also happen with Penelope and Telemachus. Agamemnon's weeping soul goes away and Ulysses, more shocked than ever, meets another one: the spirit of the brave Achilles, who died at the hands of the god Apollo and the arrows of Paris. Achilles appears more lugubrious than Agamemnon and confides in Ulysses that he would rather be a slave to the most vile and cruel master in the world than be forced to rule the dead in Hades. The last spirit that Ulysses will meet in the Underworld will be the mother Anticlea. Ulysses asks her how she died and she, crying, communicates that she passed away waiting for the arrival of her son in Ithaca. Then Ulysses realizes the atrocity and uselessness of the war fought for so many years in Troy to take back the bride of a betrayed king, and to have wasted time in continuous journeys in the Mediterranean, without realizing that the loved ones died of despair waiting for him to Ithaca; and remembering this, he weeps bitterly at the feet of the spirit. His mother invites him not to despair and to hurry on his return to the island because if he is still late, his father Laertes, who had long since retired to live like a filthy hermit among animals, will soon die of a broken heart, too.
Ulysses also becomes aware of the abuses of the suitors who infest his palace by undermining Penelope's innocence, and hearing these words is seized by a wave of anger, but first tries to hug in vain his mother's knees, who disappears every time she is touched. Going towards the exit, Ulysses sees another soul: it is his friend Elpenor, who died a few moments ago due to his intoxicated state. In fact the companions, on the world of the living on the island of Circe, had given themselves to mad joy to drive away the worries and Elpenor, who had drunk too much, had fallen from a ledge breaking his neck. Ulysses promises to the soul that he will have a worthy burial once he gets back up and so he will do, burying him right on the island's beach, shouting his name together as many times as enough to reach the ears of the distant mother.
Circe communicates terrible things to Ulysses about his next travels: the first trial to face is the crossing of the rock of the fearsome sirens, then he will have to overcome the gorge of Scylla and Charybdis. It is believed that this was only overcome by Jason with the Argonauts thanks to the help of a god, an epic feat narrated by Apollonius Rhodius in the Argonautica. The last effort of Ulysses will be the stop on the island of the Trident, where there are grazing cows sacred to the god Helios, or the Sun, inviolable if one did not want to loom in the wrath of the divine master. Circe confides all these things to Ulysses and then vanishes, leaving him confused and amazed. The hero communicates the stages to his companions and invites them to leave, but something has changed in them: they are slowly losing faith in their leader.
Sixth episode: the Sirens, Scylla and Charybdis, the island of the Sun and the return to Ithaca
Encouraged his companions to embark to return to Ithaca, Ulysses resumes his journey, immediately approaching the rock of the sirens. These are beings not visible to man, although the legend wants them with the bodies of rapacious birds and the heads of beautiful women, and they have the power to enchant travelers with their voice, to finally make them smash with the boat on the rock. The companions believe that Ulysses has gone mad, as he wants to cover their ears with wax so that they do not hear the voice. Ulysses, to show them that he is perfectly lucid, is tied by Eurilochus to the mainmast, recommending him to hold tighter if he begged to untie him. The ship has now reached the rock and while skirting it, Ulysses glimpses the bones of the unfortunate sailors victims of the Sirens and finally begins to hear their voices that penetrate his mind, obscuring it. The voices insistently invite Ulysses to land on the island so that he can end his days in joy and carefree after so many years of fighting and living in pain. But Eurilochus holds him tight and so Ulysses, severely tested by the power of the Sirens, manages to overcome the rock with his companions.
The second stage is the crossing of a narrow gorge between two huge rocks: Scylla and Charybdis. However, Ulysses, believing he was wasting too much time in the crossing and not getting out of it alive, took another longer route that brought him to the island of the Trident, consecrated to the god Helios (the Sun) for the cows grazing the grass.
The ship lands on the beach and immediately a great calm falls on the area, preventing the companions from resuming the journey soon. In fact, Ulysses was reluctantly forced by his friends Heraclius, Eurilochus, Polites and Filetor, who no longer had faith in their commander; now sailors can only hope for the food they own and the prey to fish. Ulysses no longer knows what to do because Circe's prophecy had told him that if anyone dared to kill a single cow, the entire fleet would be annihilated by the gods. The hero does everything to prevent his companions, now exhausted for weeks by hunger and lack of food, from doing it, but one day when he climbs a cliff to implore Zeus, a misfortune occurs. Eurilochus has a heifer killed and feasts with the others all night; Ulysses does not even scold him because he already knows that the fate of those unfortunates is sealed. In fact, after leaving the island due to the sudden return of the wind, a terrible storm unleashed by Poseidon arrives and wrecks the ship with his companions. Only Ulysses is saved on a beam and is tossed for seven days in the sea until he arrives on the island of Calypso.
After the sad tale of all his misadventures, Ulysses asks King Alcinous for a new ship and a crew to reach the now nearby Ithaca and the good king grants it to him. Arriving on the beloved island, Ulysses, since he hadn't seen it for twenty years, no longer recognizes anything about his homeland and immediately asks a shepherd for information about the place. The boy is none other than his protector Athena who, to put him to the test, asks him who he is. Ulysses, keeping his personal details hidden, tells him that he is an unfortunate sailor from Egypt and Athena praises him for his shrewdness, transforming him into an old beggar so that he is not immediately recognized by the inhabitants and family members, so that he can better plan his revenge. . When the boy is gone, Ulysses arrives in the house of Eumaeus, the pig keeper and most trusted servant of Ulysses, who welcomes him amicably as tradition dictates to any guest, obviously not recognizing him. Ulysses is amazed by the goodness of the man and begins to ask questions about the fate of that unfortunate fighter who left for Troy and never returned home, leaving his wife and son desperate, who went in search of him. Eumaeus tells everything in detail and Ulysses, although tempted to show him who he really is, does not.
Meanwhile Telemachus returns to the island of Pylos from Sparta, more disheartened than ever, and lets the soothsayer Theoclimenus on board, convinced that he can tell him something about his father; by now Telemachus is willing to do anything and is ready to believe anyone's testimony. And in fact, getting that man on board proves to be an excellent action for Telemachus because Theoclimenus advises him to reverse the route to Ithaca, not passing through the Strait of Samos, since a snare of suitors was waiting there. Telemachus arrives safely in Ithaca and goes at night to the house of Eumaeus where Ulysses is also waiting for him. Then the goddess Athena appears to the hero and tells him that now he can finally reveal himself to his trusted family members and the night ends with a tender and moving embrace between Ulysses and his son weeping with joy. The following day the three plan the way to enter the court, relying on the help of Eumaeus and Penelope, while the ship returns to the port with the suitors, more angry than ever for the failed coup.
Penelope is worried about her son's fate, but is reassured when she sees him appear safe and sound on the doorstep with Theoclimenus, and invites them to wash themselves and then eat. Refreshed, Telemachus approaches her mother, gently resting his head on her knee, and asks her what Ulysses was like before her birth. Happy, Penelope remembers when her husband, poorer than ever, came to her house to ask for her hand, although chased away by her future father-in-law. He, knowing that Penelope loved him secretly, went towards her chariot and the girl had chased him, begging him to let her up. The father, beside himself with rage, stood in front of the chariot, but Ulysses overtook him anyway, avoiding him and married Penelope. The episode ends with Theoclimenus who foretells the arrival of Ulysses in a few days and Eumaeus who leads his master Ulysses, always dressed as a beggar, to the court.
Seventh episode: Ulysses beggar at the court and the eve of the final competition
Ulysses is accompanied by Eumaeus to the palace, but first he stops in front of an old and decrepit dog: it is Argos, the dog loved by Ulysses, now dying, who recognizes his master, even after twenty years of absence, and finally dies happy. At the prompting of Athena, in his beggar's disguise, he approaches the suitors for alms. The welcome of the suitors is rude and cruel: they mock and insult him, not knowing what fate awaits them in a few days. The episode is one of the most characteristic of the entire work because there is a continuous connection of the narrative that passes both through the mouth of a male voiceover (as happened in the other episodes) and into the lips of muses in the guise of handmaids. Telemachus cannot endure for long the abuses of the suitors against his father who is even beaten by Antinous, leader of the suitors, when he approaches the latter for alms. As if that were not enough, the corpulent Arnaeus (known as Irus) also arrives at the court, who boasts of being the strongest of all beggars and bullies Ulysses, fearing that the latter wants to steal his place. The suitors propose to make them fight by giving away a choice piece of roast meat and they head into the courtyard. At first it seems that Arnaeus is about to win but then the bully's blows awaken an ancient wrath in Ulysses' chest, who knocks him down with a single well-aimed blow on the jaw. Bleeding and staggering, Arnaeus falls to the ground and Ulysses places him in front of a column, with a stern warning not to challenge him any further or suffer a worse fate.
He is later summoned to meet with Penelope, to speak with the queen in private. Penelope is intrigued by that stranger and she would like to know more about him. However, Ulysses lies anyway and tells her that he is Aethon, brother of the Cretan king Idomeneus, sons of Minos. However, he claims to have known Ulysses, describing in every detail his cloak with the golden buckle depicting a dog tearing a deer. Penelope is amazed and even deludes herself to recognize her beggar as her husband, but Ulysses controls his emotions by reminding her that he is only a Minoan warrior who fell from grace after the Trojan War.
Eurycleia, the oldest and wisest handmaid in the palace, is called to wash the beggar's feet and, going up to the knee, she recognizes a scar. This is the wound inflicted on the hero by a wild boar many years earlier during a hunting trip. The nurse has finally recognized her master, but he covers her mouth, fearing that she may, even if unwilling, ruin all her plans for revenge. Eurycleia is sworn to silence and Ulysses goes to the stables where a young cowherd is feeding a bullock: it is Philoetius, hired by Ulysses when he was a ten-year-old boy; not even he recognizes his master. Eumaeus, knowing everything, is equally silent.
The day long awaited by suitors is approaching, that is the one in which Penelope will decide who will be the new husband and king of Ithaca; indeed, the rude suitors had not yet brought gifts for the queen and she, to buy time, had demanded that they bring them to her. On the same day as the delivery of the gifts, Penelope had ordered that a competition be organized with the bow of Ulysses and her winner would become her new husband. Both Ulysses and Penelope pass the night before the appointed day sleepless; the first is strongly tempted to reveal himself to the bride, the other has a vision. Indeed, she imagines a large group of geese being mowed down by the arrival of a large eagle and she fears for joy and fear for the true arrival of her beloved husband.
The fateful day arrives and Penelope goes to take Ulysses' bow. It was believed that no one except the hero was able to stretch it, because the master had made it from the horns of an ox sacred to the gods and smeared it with grease every time before using it and always lifted the rope when he didn't need it. Telemachus also wants to register for the competition, to prevent one of the suitors from winning and holds the bow, but he is unable to pull the string. While Antinous prepares for the deed, he sees the beggar Ulysses placing side by side on a horizontal beam twelve axes with a large hole in the middle of the blade, so that there was a single and perfect invisible line between the holes of each blade.
Eight episode: victory of Ulysses and the recognition of Penelope
Antinous tries to draw the bow but it is impossible for him; the other suitors are also unsuccessful. Then Ulysses, in his beggar disguise, asks humbly to be able to try to thread the bow. All the suitors mock him for daring to be their equal, but Penelope steps in and gives him permission to do so. Ulysses skillfully draws the bow, shooting the arrow and making it pass through all the holes in the shutters. He then turns towards Antinous and kills him with an arrow to the side. The suitors are in a shock at his deed, then Ulysses strips off his rags and reveals himself to them, sending them in a panic. Eurymachus, the second foremost of the suitors, lays the blame on Antinous for being the instigator of wasting the palace resources and offers recompensation for everything they had consumed but Ulysses rejects his proposition and proceeds to shoot him and the other suitors. They begin to panic and try to escape his wrath but they are unable to, for the doors had been locked beforehand on Ulysses' orders. They do not even have a weapon to defend themselves: all of these had been sneaked away by Telemachus and Eumaeus the previous night. With the help of Telemachus and the loyal servants Eumaeus the swineherd and Philoetius the cowherd, Ulysses slaughters all suitors. Not even one is saved, and the maids who had betrayed the trust of Queen Penelope by consorting with the suitors are made to clean up the blood and gore and dispose of the bodies of the dead suitors before being punished themselves for their disloyalty by hanging.
Finally Ulysses has taken his revenge and is waiting for nothing but to go to the room of Penelope, who has witnessed terrified and amazed at the carnage. The woman is not yet fully convinced that the warrior is Ulysses, however she lets him into the room. The recognition occurs when Penelope proposes to move the nuptial bed, to which Ulysses replies that this is impossible, because that bed had been built by himself by carving it from a huge tree trunk, around which he had then built his palace. Penelope then has no more doubts and she embraces the groom crying and laughing with joy. Ulysses, moved by her, tells her all her misfortunes and with her he spends a long and happy night of love; in fact the Aurora prolongs the night by passing several days. The final part of the episode tells of the pacification, through the intercession of Mentor and Athena, between Ulysses and the relatives of the suitors, who are seeking vengeance for their deaths. When the clash between the two parties in the fields near Laertes' hut (where Ulysses had gone with his family) seems inevitable, at the urging of Mentor and Athena, Ulysses first lays down his arms, kneeling in a sense of respect for the relatives of the young dead, then the same is done by the father who led the opposing party, thus sanctioning the pacification.
Cast
Bekim Fehmiu: Odysseus (Ulisse)
Irene Papas: Penelope
Renaud Verley: Telemachus (Telemaco)
Roy Purcell: Alcinous (Alcinoo)
Marina Berti: Arete
Scilla Gabel: Helen (Elena)
Barbara Bach: Nausicaa
Juliette Mayniel: Circe
Kyra Bester: Calypso (Calipso)
Michèle Breton: Athena (Atena)
Constantin Nepo: Antinous (Antinoo)
Ivica Pajer: Eurylochus (Euriloco)
Samson Burke: Polyphemus (Polifemo)
Fausto Tozzi: Menelaus (Menelao)
Jaspar Von Oertzen: Nestor (Nestore)
Franco Balducci: Mentor (Mentore)
Husein Cokic: Eumaeus (Eumeo)
Branko Kovacic: Laertes (Laerte)
Vladimir Leib: Aeolus (Eolo)
Karl-Otto Alberty: Eurymachus (Eurimaco)
Maurizio Tocchi: Leocritus (Leocrito)
Ilija Ivezić: Ctesippus (Ctesippo)
Petar Buntic: Filetor (Filettore)
Duje Novakovic: Elpenor (Elpenore)
Sime Jagarinac: Heraclius (Eraclio)
Petar Dobric: Polites (Polite)
Franco Fantasia: Mentes (Mente)
Voyo Goric: Philetius (Filezio)
Luciano Rossi: Theoclymenus (Teoclimeno)
Giulio Donnini: Tiresias (Tiresia)
Bianca Doria: Anticlea
Sergio Ferrero: Pisistratus (Pisistrato)
Enzo Fiermonte: Demodocus (Demodoco)
Stefanella Giovannini: Cassandra
Peter Hinwood: Hermes (Ermete/Hermes)
Miodrag Loncar: Irus (Iro)
Hrvoje Svob: Phemius (Femio)
Giulio Cesare Tomei: Priam (Priamo)
Rolf Boysen: Agamemnon (Agamennone)
Gérard Herter: Laocoön (Laocoonte)
Nona Medici: Iftime
Mimmo Palmara: Achilles (Achille)
Giancarlo Prete: Euryades (Euriade)
Andrea Saric: Melantho (Melanto)
Orso Maria Guerrini: Leodes (Leode)
Ada Morotti: Cyane (Ciane)
Laura Nucci: Antinoo's Mother
Production
The miniseries was produced principally for broadcasting on the state televisions of Italy, Germany and France. There are 8 episodes in the original version, running a total of 446 minutes. Each episode is preceded by an introduction in which poet Giuseppe Ungaretti read some verses of the original poem.
Special effects were designed by Mario Bava (who outright directed the Polyphemus episode) and Carlo Rambaldi.
The exteriors were shot entirely in Yugoslavia, which offered a scenery that was very similar to the lands of Ancient Greece.
Release
The show ran on television in Europe between 1968 and 1970. In Italy alone, the episodes had an audience of over 16 million viewers. The entire television series was dubbed into English, ran several times on the TVO network in Ontario, Canada, and was broadcast in the USA by CBS years later in 1978. An abridged theatrical version (running only 110 minutes) was released to European theatres as well, also available in English. However, the English dub was later lost. There are DVD editions however still available in Italian and German.
Reception
The adaptation is considered by some to be the most faithful rendering of Homer's epic on screen, by including most of the characters and events, as well as by attempting to fill with graphic details.
References
External links
IMDB page
Pictures
The Odyssey on RaiPlay.
1960s Italian television miniseries
1968 Italian television series debuts
1968 Italian television series endings
1960s French television miniseries
1968 French television series debuts
1968 French television series endings
French drama television series
Italian drama television series
German drama television series
Television series set in ancient Greece
Television series based on classical mythology
Films directed by Franco Rossi
Films based on the Odyssey
Films directed by Piero Schivazappa
Films set in the Mediterranean Sea
Television shows based on the Odyssey
Agamemnon
Television miniseries |
467886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20inspection | Software inspection | Inspection in software engineering, refers to peer review of any work product by trained individuals who look for defects using a well defined process. An inspection might also be referred to as a Fagan inspection after Michael Fagan, the creator of a very popular software inspection process.
Introduction
An inspection is one of the most common sorts of review practices found in software projects. The goal of the inspection is to identify defects. Commonly inspected work products include software requirements specifications and test plans. In an inspection, a work product is selected for review and a team is gathered for an inspection meeting to review the work product. A moderator is chosen to moderate the meeting. Each inspector prepares for the meeting by reading the work product and noting each defect. In an inspection, a defect is any part of the work product that will keep an inspector from approving it. For example, if the team is inspecting a software requirements specification, each defect will be text in the document which an inspector disagrees with.
Inspection process
The inspection process was developed in the mid-1970s and it has later been extended and modified.
The process should have entry criteria that determine if the inspection process is ready to begin. This prevents unfinished work products from entering the inspection process. The entry criteria might be a checklist including items such as "The document has been spell-checked".
The stages in the inspections process are: Planning, Overview meeting, Preparation, Inspection meeting, Rework and Follow-up. The Preparation, Inspection meeting and Rework stages might be iterated.
Planning: The inspection is planned by the moderator.
Overview meeting: The author describes the background of the work product.
Preparation: Each inspector examines the work product to identify possible defects.
Inspection meeting: During this meeting the reader reads through the work product, part by part and the inspectors point out the defects for every part.
Rework: The author makes changes to the work product according to the action plans from the inspection meeting.
Follow-up: The changes by the author are checked to make sure everything is correct.
The process is ended by the moderator when it satisfies some predefined exit criteria.
The term inspection refers to one of the most important elements of the entire process that surrounds the execution and successful completion of a software engineering project.
Inspection roles
During an inspection the following roles are used.
Author: The person who created the work product being inspected.
Moderator: This is the leader of the inspection. The moderator plans the inspection and coordinates it.
Reader: The person reading through the documents, one item at a time. The other inspectors then point out defects.
Recorder/Scribe: The person that documents the defects that are found during the inspection.
Inspector: The person that examines the work product to identify possible defects.
Related inspection types
Code review
A code review can be done as a special kind of inspection in which the team examines a sample of code and fixes any defects in it. In a code review, a defect is a block of code which does not properly implement its requirements, which does not function as the programmer intended, or which is not incorrect but could be improved (for example, it could be made more readable or its performance could be improved). In addition to helping teams find and fix bugs, code reviews are useful both for cross-training programmers on the code being reviewed and for helping junior developers learn new programming techniques.
Peer reviews
Peer reviews are considered an industry best-practice for detecting software defects early and learning about software artifacts. Peer Reviews are composed of software walkthroughs and software inspections and are integral to software product engineering activities. A collection of coordinated knowledge, skills, and behaviors facilitates the best possible practice of Peer Reviews. The elements of Peer Reviews include the structured review process, standard of excellence product checklists, defined roles of participants, and the forms and reports.
Software inspections are the most rigorous form of Peer Reviews and fully utilize these elements in detecting defects. Software walkthroughs draw selectively upon the elements in assisting the producer to obtain the deepest understanding of an artifact and reaching a consensus among participants. Measured results reveal that Peer Reviews produce an attractive return on investment obtained through accelerated learning and early defect detection. For best results, Peer Reviews are rolled out within an organization through a defined program of preparing a policy and procedure, training practitioners and managers, defining measurements and populating a database structure, and sustaining the roll out infrastructure.
See also
Software engineering
List of software engineering topics
Capability Maturity Model (CMM)
References
Software review |
66805471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web%20compatibility%20issues%20in%20South%20Korea | Web compatibility issues in South Korea | Many South Korean websites have web compatibility issues, due to the non-standard technology that they use. Often this technology works only with Microsoft's Internet Explorer (IE), some smartphones (iPhone, Android, etc.), and tablets. Following the revision of the Electronic Signatures Act in January 2021, Microsoft's phased outage policy for IE and the increased use of other web browsers that have solved this compatibility problem in a more standard way.
Problem
Government offices and banks have been criticized for forcing the usage of Internet Explorer’s Active X. For example, Civil Service 24, a comprehensive civil service portal site provided by the Korean government, requires ActiveX. Some government sites require lower security levels for web browsers. South Korea's compatibility problem is what Former President Park Geun-Hye pointed out as a concern during the regulatory reform debate.
In particular, customers are directed to international direct-purchase sites to avoid downloading ActiveX or going through an additional 10 steps to complete a transaction. This is because, unlike South Korea, international websites allow customers to pay with one or two clicks.
South Korea is the only country in the world that requires Internet Explorer and requires that online purchases use ActiveX and public certificates. This disrupts domestic shopping malls’ websites. These issues led the country to be criticized as a "message disease" that hinders online shopping.
Phenomenon
Example of a misaligned layout:
Attempting to use Internet Explorer only sites with other web browsers produces:
Layout destruction - page layout is disorganized or certain parts are not displayed.
Click Inactive - buttons do not respond.
Unable to log in: Log in fails.
IE-only sites display a notification message that the site is only available on Internet Explorer.
Cause
E-commerce encryption technology
The problem began with e-commerce encryption technology. Until 2000, the U.S. government allowed the U.S. version of Internet Explorer to access SSL security, a 128-bit high-level encryption technology but banned Internet Explorer for export from more than 40 bits of security access. In the late 1990s, the Korea Information Security Agency developed its own 128-bit symmetric key block encryption algorithm SEED and used ActiveX to mount it in web browsers. This soon became a domestic standard, and the Financial Supervisory Service used the technology as a security screening standard. ActiveX spread rapidly in Korea. However, since the 2000s, the export restriction was lifted, recognizing SSL as a royalty-free international standard. Most web browsers and national e-commerce systems adopted this technology, while Korea used SEED as ActiveX.
Increased Internet Explorer utilization
In the early 2000s, Netscape, IE's only competitor, failed, and Microsoft's "insert operation" led to the virtual success of the Windows operating system. In Korea, the number of people buying PCs and the Internet at home increased sharply, and Internet Explorer gained share. Most websites depend on Internet Explorer, and ActiveX began to be abused because many web programmers were mass-produced through information service education in Korea around 2000 when ActiveX was widely taught.
Vicious circle
While Internet Explorer's global market share peaked in 2004, Firefox was released by Netscape. As rumors spread through blogs and media that Firefox was superior to Internet Explorer, Firefox gained share. This raised interest in browsers such as Safari, Opera, and Chrome. Firefox and Google Chrome to increased around 25%, respectively, while Internet Explorer fell to 40%, and continued to fall.
In South Korea, these browsers also gained share, but many sites continued to support only Internet Explorer. As of August 2011, South Korea's Internet Explorer market share was over 90%.
Makeshift
User Makeshift User Temporary
Windows Firefox can use Internet Explorer's engine by installing "IETAB" (Finding the Past). However, this approach was unstable.
Non-Windows operating systems, such as Linux and OS X, have a method of installing Windows on virtual machines such as VirtualBox and then running Internet Explorer in guest windows. IEs4Linux on the Wine is another workaround, although this was also unstable.
E-Government
On April 29, 2008, the Ministry of Public Administration and Security of the Republic of Korea finalized and announced the enactment of the "E-Government Web Standards Compliance Guidelines" that define minimum protocols that the government should reflect when establishing e-Government systems. To make this a more effective guideline, the "E-government Web Compatibility Guidelines" were enacted and announced as of August 19, 2009, adopting the principle of ensuring compatibility with at least three browsers, absent technical constraints.
Improvement movement
As of 2010, various solutions have been devised, but the abolition of the public certificate, the core of the problem, is still far from being implemented. In December 2017, the South Korean government decided to abolish ActiveX from the year-end tax settlement, but the exe file must still be installed.
Free Bank Movement
The Free Bank movement, launched by Kwak Dong-soo in 2003, carried out civic action promising to open 10 billion won in accounts at banks that provided Internet banking services for underprivileged non-Windows and non-IE users. 2200 people donated 16 billion won, but no bank participated in the financial sector regulation and the number of users was small at that time. However, after Shinhan Bank developed and provided Internet banking solutions for Macintosh, the Free Bank movement ended.
Web Standard Project
Mozilla Korea Community established the Web Standard Forum in 2004 and continued various discussions and promotional activities to improve it. The anti-Activity X campaign was led by Yoon Seok-chan, and the web standard guide was provided free of charge. In August 2005, the focus was mainly on browser compatibility with web page layouts, including web standards centered on Korean Web standard technology communities, recommending the elimination of DOM errors, and replacing existing table layouts with CSS.
Open Web
The Open Web was established in 2006 by Professor Kim Ki-chang of Korea University School of Law, calling for improvements to the web standards and support for users who do not use Microsoft products. The Financial Supervisory Commission said this is due to security issues, but people argued that ActiveX is outdated given general-purpose encryption technologies such as SSL. The KCC recommended the removal of ActiveX.
IE6 Exclusion Movement
Internet Explorer 6 (IE6) was released in 2001. It had a 20% share in the world market and 50% in South Korea as of 2009. As a result, many companies create websites compatible with IE6. To reduce thie negative impact of this limitation, many parts of the world are campaigning to remove Internet Explorer 6, through movements like IE6 No More, IE6 Must Die, and IE6 Countdown. In South Korea, portals display a message at the top of the screen that recommends upgrading to IE7 and IE8.
Due to this IE6 Exclusion campaign, IE6's market share fell to less than 2% in South Korea as of January 2014 and to less than 5% in the global market along with the end of Windows XP support in April 2014, and the adoption of smartphones.
Improvements in some websites
Internet bookstore Aladdin reorganized its website to support other browsers. The National Tax Service reorganized its website to meet the web standard in January 2010, and the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism strengthened web accessibility to obtain web accessibility quality marks. Yuhan-Kimberly won the web accessibility award by expanding accessibility, and The Ministry of Public Administration and Security conducted a survey of 1,000 companies and institutions on web standards. On July 9, 2010, Woori Bank launched its open banking service, which implements the Internet banking system with general-purpose technologies available on all platforms; this slowly inspired other companies to enlarge compatibility. Kookmin Bank followed Woori Bank in January 2011, and Industrial Bank of Korea released IBK Open Web Banking in February 2011.
Smartphones
In March 2010, the Ministry of Public Administration and Security abolished the regulation that only public certificates are recognized as security programs during financial transactions. This allows banking on smartphones that do not run ActiveX. However, the Financial Services Commission said it had not considered revising the Enforcement Decree of the Electronic Financial Transactions Act.
Korea Communications Commission
In March 2011, the Korea Communications Commission (KCC) announced a plan to improve the Internet usage environment, focusing on alternative technologies, diversification of web browser usage, and upgrading the web environment.
The Mozilla Korea Community proposed the W3C Web Cryptography API for web standards-based HTML5 encryption and certificate functionality.
In January 2012, KCC announced that plans to investigate and announce the status of ActiveX on a quarterly basis for 100 major websites and open them to web developers or web service providers. In April the Ministry of Public Administration and Security (PAS) and KCC reported that 168 sites, or 84% of the 200 major public-private sites in South Korea, were using ActiveX technology. The private sector used ActiveX the most in payment and certification (41.1%), while administrative agencies use ActiveX the most in security (40%).
In July 2012, PAS and KCC reported that supported three or more types of web browsers, using ActiveX only in Internet Explorer and alternative technologies in other web browsers. As a result, 73% of the top 100 websites of government administrative agencies provide alternative technologies, that are available in more than three web browsers.
In July 2012 KCC announced a plan to promote the spread of HTML5.
As of 2018, W3C's WebCrypto has been used as the basis for security technologies such as public certificates based on HTML5 in e-government services and banking. This ensures diversity in operating systems and web browsers.
References
Content in this edit is translated from the existing Korean Wikipedia article at 대한민국의 웹 호환성 문제]] see its history for attribution.
Internet in South Korea |
9597906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco%20P.%20Preparata | Franco P. Preparata | Franco P. Preparata is a computer scientist, the An Wang Professor, Emeritus, of Computer Science at Brown University.
He is best known for his 1985 book "Computational Geometry: An Introduction" into which he blended salient parts of M. I. Shamos' doctoral thesis (Shamos appears as a co-author of the book). This book, which represents a snapshot of the disciplines as of 1985, has been for many years the standard textbook in the field, and has been translated into four foreign Languages (Russian, Japanese, Chinese, and Polish). He has made several contributions to the computational geometry, the most recent being the notion of "algorithmic degree" as a key feature to control robust implementations of geometric algorithms.
In addition, Preparata has worked in many other areas of, or closely related to, computer science.
His initial work was in coding theory, where he (independently and simultaneously) contributed the Berlekamp-Preparata codes (optimal convolution codes for burst-error correction) and the Preparata codes, the first known systematic class of nonlinear binary codes, with higher information content than corresponding linear BCH codes of the same length. Thirty years later these codes have been found relevant to quantum coding theory.
In 1967, he substantially contributed to a model of system-level fault diagnosis, known today as the PMC (Preparata-Metze-Chien) model, which is a main issue in the design of highly dependable processing systems. This model is still the object of intense research today (as attested by the literature).
Over the years, he was also active in research in parallel computation and VLSI theory. His 1979 paper (with Jean Vuillemin), still highly cited, presented the cube-connected-cycles (CCC), a parallel architecture that optimally emulates the hypercube interconnection. This interconnection was closely reflected in the architecture of the CM2 of Thinking Machines Inc., the first massive-parallel system in the VLSI era. His 1991 paper with Zhou and Kang on interconnection delays in VLSI was awarded the 1993 "Darlington Best Paper Award" by the IEEE Circuits and Systems Society. In the late nineties, (in joint work with G. Bilardi) he confronted the problem of the physical limitations (space and speed) of parallel computation, and formulated the conclusion that mesh connections are ultimately the only scalable massively parallel architectures.
More recently the focus of his research has been Computational Biology. Among other results, he contributed (with Eli Upfal) a novel approach to DNA Sequencing by Hybridization, achieving sequencing lengths that are the square of what was previously known, which has attracted media coverage.
The unifying character of these results in diverse research areas is the methodological approach, based on the construction of precise mathematical models and the use of sophisticated mathematical techniques.
Preparata was born in Italy in December, 1935. He received a doctorate from the University of Rome, Italy in 1959. After a postdoctorate at CNR and several years of working in industry, he joined the faculty of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1965, where he achieved the rank of Professor in 1970. He stayed at the UIUC for many years, advising 16 Ph.D. students there. He received his Italian Libera Docenza in 1969. In 1991, Preparata moved from Illinois to Brown University where he has remained active in research, teaching, and student advising until his retirement at the end of 2013. He is the author (or co-author) of three books and nearly 250 articles. In 1997, the University of Padova awarded Preparata an honorary doctorate in Information Engineering. Preparata is an IEEE Fellow (1978),an ACM Fellow (1993), and was a Fellow of the Japan Society for the Advancement of Science.
Selected bibliography
Franco P. Preparata, Raymond T. Yeh, Introduction to Discrete Structures for Computer Science and Engineering (Addison-Wesley series in computer science and information processing), 1973,
See also
Preparata code
Notes
External links
Preparata's home page and curriculum vitae at Brown.
Franco Fest 2006, a conference held in honor of Preparata's 70th birthday.
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Fellow Members of the IEEE
Italian computer scientists
American computer scientists
Theoretical computer scientists
Researchers in geometric algorithms
1935 births
Living people
Brown University faculty
Italian engineers |
18985040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data | Data | Data (; ) are individual facts, statistics, or items of information, often numeric. In a more technical sense, data are a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables about one or more persons or objects, while a datum (singular of data) is a single value of a single variable.
Although the terms "data" and "information" are often used interchangeably, this term has distinct meanings. In some popular publications, data are sometimes said to be transformed into information when they are viewed in context or in post-analysis. However, in academic treatments of the subject data are simply units of information. Data are used in scientific research, businesses management (e.g., sales data, revenue, profits, stock price), finance, governance (e.g., crime rates, unemployment rates, literacy rates), and in virtually every other form of human organizational activity (e.g., censuses of the number of homeless people by non-profit organizations).
Data are measured, collected, reported, and analyzed, and used to create data visualizations such as graphs, tables or images. Data as a general concept refers to the fact that some existing information or knowledge is represented or coded in some form suitable for better usage or processing. Raw data ("unprocessed data") is a collection of numbers or characters before it has been "cleaned" and corrected by researchers. Raw data needs to be corrected to remove outliers or obvious instrument or data entry errors (e.g., a thermometer reading from an outdoor Arctic location recording a tropical temperature). Data processing commonly occurs by stages, and the "processed data" from one stage may be considered the "raw data" of the next stage. Field data is raw data that is collected in an uncontrolled "in situ" environment. Experimental data is data that is generated within the context of a scientific investigation by observation and recording.
Data has been described as the new oil of the digital economy.
Etymology and terminology
The first English use of the word "data" is from the 1640s. The word "data" was first used to mean "transmissible and storable computer information" in 1946. The expression "data processing" was first used in 1954.
The Latin word data is the plural of ' datum', "(thing) given," neuter past participle of dare "to give". In English the word data may be used as a plural noun in this sense, with some writers—usually, those working in natural sciences, life sciences, and social sciences—using datum in the singular and data for plural, especially in the 20th century and in many cases also the 21st (for example, APA style as of the 7th edition still requires "data" to be plural.). However, in everyday language and much of the usage of software development and computer science, "data" is most commonly used in the singular as a mass noun (like "sand" or "rain"). The term big data takes the singular.
Meaning
Data, information, knowledge, and wisdom are closely related concepts, but each has its role concerning the other, and each term has its meaning. According to a common view, data are collected and analyzed; data only becomes information suitable for making decisions once it has been analyzed in some fashion. One can say that the extent to which a set of data is informative to someone depends on the extent to which it is unexpected by that person. The amount of information contained in a data stream may be characterized by its Shannon entropy.
Knowledge is the understanding based on extensive experience dealing with information on a subject. For example, the height of Mount Everest is generally considered data. The height can be measured precisely with an altimeter and entered into a database. This data may be included in a book along with other data on Mount Everest to describe the mountain in a manner useful for those who wish to decide on the best method to climb it. An understanding based on experience climbing mountains that could advise persons on the way to reach Mount Everest's peak may be seen as "knowledge". The practical climbing of Mount Everest's peak based on this knowledge may be seen as "wisdom". In other words, wisdom refers to the practical application of a person's knowledge in those circumstances where good may result. Thus wisdom complements and completes the series "data", "information" and "knowledge" of increasingly abstract concepts.
Data are often assumed to be the least abstract concept, information the next least, and knowledge the most abstract. In this view, data becomes information by interpretation; e.g., the height of Mount Everest is generally considered "data", a book on Mount Everest geological characteristics may be considered "information", and a climber's guidebook containing practical information on the best way to reach Mount Everest's peak may be considered "knowledge". "Information" bears a diversity of meanings that ranges from everyday usage to technical use. This view, however, has also been argued to reverse how data emerges from information, and information from knowledge. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation. Beynon-Davies uses the concept of a sign to differentiate between data and information; data are a series of symbols, while information occurs when the symbols are used to refer to something.
Before the development of computing devices and machines, people had to manually collect data and impose patterns on it. Since the development of computing devices and machines, these devices can also collect data. In the 2010s, computers are widely used in many fields to collect data and sort or process it, in disciplines ranging from marketing, analysis of social services usage by citizens to scientific research. These patterns in data are seen as information that can be used to enhance knowledge. These patterns may be interpreted as "truth" (though "truth" can be a subjective concept) and may be authorized as aesthetic and ethical criteria in some disciplines or cultures. Events that leave behind perceivable physical or virtual remains can be traced back through data. Marks are no longer considered data once the link between the mark and observation is broken.
Mechanical computing devices are classified according to how they represent data. An analog computer represents a datum as a voltage, distance, position, or other physical quantity. A digital computer represents a piece of data as a sequence of symbols drawn from a fixed alphabet. The most common digital computers use a binary alphabet, that is, an alphabet of two characters typically denoted "0" and "1". More familiar representations, such as numbers or letters, are then constructed from the binary alphabet. Some special forms of data are distinguished. A computer program is a collection of data, which can be interpreted as instructions. Most computer languages make a distinction between programs and the other data on which programs operate, but in some languages, notably Lisp and similar languages, programs are essentially indistinguishable from other data. It is also useful to distinguish metadata, that is, a description of other data. A similar yet earlier term for metadata is "ancillary data." The prototypical example of metadata is the library catalog, which is a description of the contents of books.
Data documents
Whenever data needs to be registered, data exists in the form of a data documents. Kinds of data documents include:
data repository
data study
data set
software
data paper
database
data handbook
data journal
Some of these data documents (data repositories, data studies, data sets, and software) are indexed in Data Citation Indexes, while data papers are indexed in traditional bibliographic databases, e.g., Science Citation Index. See further.
Data collection
Gathering data can be accomplished through a primary source (the researcher is the first person to obtain the data) or a secondary source (the researcher obtains the data that has already been collected by other sources, such as data disseminated in a scientific journal). Data analysis methodologies vary and include data triangulation and data percolation. The latter offers an articulate method of collecting, classifying, and analyzing data using five possible angles of analysis (at least three) to maximize
the research's objectivity and permit an understanding of the phenomena under investigation as complete as possible: qualitative and quantitative methods, literature reviews
(including scholarly articles), interviews with experts, and computer simulation. The data are thereafter "percolated" using a series of pre-determined steps so as to extract
the most relevant information.
In other fields
Although data are also increasingly used in other fields, it has been suggested that the highly interpretive nature of them might be at odds with the ethos of data as "given". Peter Checkland introduced the term capta (from the Latin capere, “to take”) to distinguish between an immense number of possible data and a sub-set of them, to which attention is oriented. Johanna Drucker has argued that since the humanities affirm knowledge production as "situated, partial, and constitutive," using data may introduce assumptions that are counterproductive, for example that phenomena are discrete or are observer-independent. The term capta, which emphasizes the act of observation as constitutive, is offered as an alternative to data for visual representations in the humanities.
See also
Biological data
Computer memory
Data acquisition
Data analysis
Data bank
Data cable
Data curation
Dark data
Data domain
Data element
Data farming
Data governance
Data integrity
Data maintenance
Data management
Data mining
Data modeling
Data point
Data visualization
Computer data processing
Data preservation
Data publication
Data protection
Data remanence
Data science
Data set
Data structure
Data warehouse
Database
Datasheet
Environmental data rescue
Fieldwork
Information engineering
Machine learning
Open data
Scientific data archiving
Statistics
Secondary Data
References
External links
Data is a singular noun (a detailed assessment)
Statistical data
Data management |
47499299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDIV | HDIV | HDIV is a Web Application Security Framework that controls the information flow between the server and the client avoiding many of the most important web risks. HDIV extends web applications behaviour by adding security functionalities, maintaining the API and the framework specification. This implies that HDIV may be used in applications developed in Spring MVC, Grails, JSTL, Struts 1, Struts 2, JavaServer Faces, Symfony in a transparent way to the programmer and without adding any complexity to the application development.
OWASP Top 10
A1 (Injection) : Injection flaws, such as SQL Injection occur when malicious data is sent to an interpreter as part of a command or query. The attacker's malicious data tricks the interpreter into executing unintended commands and may be used to create, modify,access and delete data without proper authorization. Hdiv minimizes the existence of these vulnerabilities thanks to the web information flow control system that avoids injection vulnerabilities. This architecture minimizes the risk to just the new data generated legally from editable form elements. It is important to note that even if using prepared statements, as long as the query is based on untrusted data generated previously at server side (for instance the identification ID of an item within a list) it is possible to exploit an SQL injection risk. Hdiv also implements an internal system that detects SQL Injection risks within source-code.
A2 (Broken authentication and session management) : Application functions related to authentication and session management are often not implemented correctly. This allows attackers to compromise passwords, keys, session tokens, or to exploit other implementation flaws and assume other users’ identities. Hdiv does not create a parallel authentication system delegating this responsibility to application servers.
A3 (XSS) : XSS flaws occur whenever an application takes untrusted data and sends it to a web browser without proper validation or escaping. XSS allows attackers to execute scripts in the victim's browser which can hijack user sessions, deface web sites, or redirect the user to malicious sites. Hdiv minimizes the existence of untrusted data thanks to the web information flow control system implement by Hdiv, minimizing the risk to the new data generated legally from editable form elements. In addition to that Hdiv implements an internal system that detects XSS risks within source-code.
A4 (Insecure direct object reference) : A direct object reference occurs when a developer exposes a reference to an internal implementation object, such as a file, directory, or database key. Without an access control check or other protection, attackers can manipulate these references to access unauthorized data. The source of the problem of this risk is based on the manipulation or updating of the data generated previously at server side. For instance a list is sent to the client with an ID for each item. The client manipulated the ID and try to access to a forbidden id. Hdiv web information flow control system control all the data generated at server side ensuring the integrity of the data generated at serve side. In addition to that and optionally is possible to ensure the confidentiality of the data generated at server side avoiding the exposition of critical (such as credit cards, etc.).
A5 (security misconfiguration) : Good security requires having a secure configuration defined and deployed for the application, frameworks, application server, web server, database server, and platform. Secure settings should be defined, implemented, and maintained, as defaults are often insecure. Additionally, software should be kept up to date. Current application security architectures does not follow security by default approach, on the contrary, the programmers must apply security configuration to avoid the access to private or confidential resources. Thanks to the information flow control system implemented by Hdiv all the resources (links and forms) exposed by the application are controlled by Hdiv and doesn't allow to break the original contract offered by the server. In other words, even when the programmer doesn't use access control systems or ACL (Java EE or Spring Security) Hdiv is able to know which resource is accessible by each user.
A6 (Sensitive data exposure) : Many web applications do not properly protect sensitive data, such as credit cards, tax IDs, and authentication credentials. Attackers may steal or modify such weakly protected data to conduct credit card fraud, identity theft, or other crimes. Sensitive data deserves extra protection such as encryption at rest or in transit, as well as special precautions when exchanged with the browser. Hdiv offers a confidentially property to all data generated at server side. That is to say, Hdiv replace original parameter values generated at server side by relative values (0,1,2,4, etc.) that avoid exposing critical data to the client side.
A7 (Missing function level access control) : Most web applications verify function level access rights before making that functionality visible in the UI. However, applications need to perform the same access control checks on the server when each function is accessed. If requests are not verified, attackers will be able to forge requests in order to access functionality without proper authorization. Current application security architectures doesn't follow security by default approach, on the contrary, the programmers must apply security controls to avoid the access to private or confidential resources. Thanks to the information flow control system implemented by Hdiv all the resources (links and forms) exposed by the application are controlled by Hdiv and does not allow breaking the original contract offered by the server. In other words, even when the programmer doesn't use access control systems or ACL (Java EE or Spring Security) Hdiv is able to know which resource is accessible by each user.
A8 (CSRF) : A CSRF attack forces a logged-on victim's browser to send a forged HTTP request, including the victim's session cookie and any other automatically included authentication information, to a vulnerable web application. This allows the attacker to force the victim's browser to generate requests the vulnerable application thinks are legitimate requests from the victim. Hdiv adds random tokens to each link or form existing within the application. It makes extremely difficult to implement an CSRF attack because the attacker does not know which is the value. In order to offer an extreme security level Hdiv does not use a random token per session and creates a new token for each requested page. Even the token used by links and forms within the same page are different avoiding the reuse of link tokens to exploit a web form. One token is created for data retrieval requests (GET, HEAD, TRACE and OPTIONS HTTP methods) and another for data modification (POST, PATCH, PUT and DELETE methods).
A9 (using components with known vulnerabilities) : Components, such as libraries, frameworks, and other software modules, almost always run with full privileges. If a vulnerable component is exploited, such an attack can facilitate serious data loss or server takeover. Applications using components with known vulnerabilities may undermine application defenses and enable a range of possible attacks and impacts. Although Hdiv can't update the base software of web applications and is advisable to update the software versions to the latest, the web information flow control system implemented by Hdiv avoid and makes more difficult to exploit many or known and unknown of the vulnerabilities of base software. In other words, in many cases (see: Struts cancel vulnerability), the risks are based on an unexpected use of a web application. Hdiv doesn't allow to break the original contract and thanks to this property it is more difficult to exploit existing risks.
A10 (Unvalidated redirects and forwards) : Web applications frequently redirect and forward users to other pages and websites, and use untrusted data to determine the destination pages. Without proper validation, attackers can redirect victims to phishing or malware sites, or use forwards to access unauthorized pages. This vulnerability is mainly related with the manipulation of readonly data or data generated previously at server side. Hdiv controls all the data server by the server and does not allow the redirection to malicious web sites.
See also
Application security
OWASP
Resources
Securing Grails Applications by Burt Beckwith (SpringSource)
Spring MVC 3.1 Update & Hdiv Integration by Rossen Stoyanchev (SpringSource)
Spring MVC form validation with Hdiv by Lucky Ryan
References
External links
Official website
Computer security |
11292706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demos%20Commander | Demos Commander | Demos Commander (deco) is an orthodox file manager for Unix-like systems and a clone of Norton Commander. The project started by Sergey Vakulenko in 1989 while working at the DEMOS ISP (thus the name Demos Commander: deco) and is considered one of the first orthodox file managers for the Unix-like systems.
Interface
Demos Commander is a text-mode application. The main interface consists of two panels, which display the file system. It is used in a similar way to many other programs run in the Unix shell. Arrow keys control file selection, the insert key is used to select files (but not directories), and the function keys perform operations such as renaming, editing and copying files. Unlike many full-screen programs that run in console, Demos Commander is not capable of resizing itself when the console changes resolution (for example, when an xterm window is resized) nor able to support any other console resolution than 80×24.
Small footprint
While lacking features found in more elaborate OFM programs, Demos Commander is suited for rescue-disk setups and for very limited systems (such as 486-based systems) because of its small memory footprint (less than 1 MiB), small binary size (a few hundred KiB) and close to zero dependencies (only ncurses is required).
Current development
Demos Commander appears to no longer be under active development, with the last version released in 2001 in source code form and a User's Manual for version 3.2.2 in 1993.
See also
Orthodox file manager
Midnight Commander
Norton Commander
Comparison of file managers
References
External links
Current Demos Commander home page
Orthodox file managers
Termcap |
334423 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AX.25 | AX.25 | AX.25 (Amateur X.25) is a data link layer protocol originally derived from layer 2 of the X.25 protocol suite and designed for use by amateur radio operators. It is used extensively on amateur packet radio networks.
AX.25 v2.0 and later occupies the data link layer, the second layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for establishing link-layer connections, transferring data encapsulated in frames between nodes, and detecting errors introduced by the communications channel. As AX.25 is a pre-OSI-model protocol, the original specification was not written to cleanly separate into OSI layers. This was rectified with version 2.0 (1984), which assumes compliance with OSI level 2.
AX.25 v2.2 (1998) added improvements to improve efficiency, especially at higher data rates. Stations can automatically negotiate payload sizes larger than the previous limitation of 256 bytes. Extended sequence numbers (7 vs. 3 bits) allow a larger window size, the number of frames that can be sent before waiting for acknowledgement. "Selective Reject" allows only the missing frames to be resent, rather than having to wastefully resend frames that have already been received successfully. Despite all these advantages, few implementations have been updated to include these improvements published more than 20 years ago. The only known complete implementation of v2.2, at this time (2020), is the Dire Wolf software TNC.
AX.25 is commonly used as the data link layer for network layer such as IPv4, with TCP used on top of that. AX.25 supports a limited form of source routing. Although it is possible to build AX.25 switches similar to the way Ethernet switches work, this has not yet been accomplished.
Specification
AX.25 does not define a physical layer implementation. In practice 1200 baud Bell 202 tones and 9600 baud G3RUH DFSK are almost exclusively used on VHF and UHF. On HF the standard transmission mode is 300 baud Bell 103 tones, although very little use of AX.25 on HF exists today. At the physical layer, AX.25 defines only a "physical layer state machine" and some timers related to transmitter and receiver switching delays.
At the link layer, AX.25 uses HDLC frame syntax and procedures. (ISO 3309) frames are transmitted with NRZI encoding. HDLC specifies the syntax, but not the semantics, of the variable-length address field of the frame. AX.25 specifies that this field is subdivided into multiple addresses: a source address, zero or more repeater addresses, and a destination address, with embedded control fields for use by the repeaters. To simplify compliance with amateur radio rules, these addresses derive from the station call signs of the source, destination and repeater stations.
Media access control follows the Carrier sense multiple access approach with collision recovery (CSMA/CR).
AX.25 supports both virtual-circuit connected and datagram-style connectionless modes of operation. The latter is used to great effect by the Automatic Packet Reporting System (APRS).
A simple source routing mechanism using digipeaters is available at the datalink level. Digipeaters act as simplex repeaters, receiving, decoding and retransmitting packets from local stations. They allow multi-hop connections to be established between two stations unable to communicate directly. The digipeaters use and modify the information in the frame's address field to perform this function.
The AX.25 specification defines a complete, albeit point to point only network layer protocol, but this has seen little use outside of keyboard-to-keyboard or keyboard-to-BBS connections. NET/ROM, ROSE, and TexNet exist to provide routing between nodes. In principle, a variety of layer 3 protocols can be used with AX.25, including the ubiquitous Internet protocol. This approach is used by AMPRNet, which is an amateur radio TCP/IP network using AX.25 UI-frames at the datalink layer.
Implementations
Traditionally, amateur radio operators have connected to AX.25 networks through the use of a terminal node controller, which contains a microprocessor and an implementation of the protocol in firmware. These devices allow network resources to be accessed using only a dumb terminal and a transceiver.
AX.25 has also been implemented on personal computers. For example, the Linux kernel includes native support for AX.25. The computer connects to a transceiver via its audio interface or via a simple modem. The computers can also interconnect to other computers or be bridged or routed to TNCs and transceivers located elsewhere using BPQ over Ethernet framing, which is also natively supported by the Linux kernel to facilitate more modern setups with the actual transceivers directly placed under or in the antenna mast, creating a 'low loss', shorter RF wiring need, and replacing expensive and long and thick coax cables and amplifiers with cheap fiber (RFI (both ways)/EMP/lightning resistant) or copper Ethernet wiring. BPQ Ethernet framing allows to connect entire stacks of TNC+transceiver pairs to any existing network of computers which then can all access all radio links offered simultaneously (transparently bridged), communicate with each other internally over AX.25, or with filtered routing select specific TNCs/radio frequencies.
Note that the Linux kernel AX.25 implementation does contain some bugs, mainly in disconnecting sessions (this bug appears to have slipped in over time due to maintenance by some people using it exclusively for APRS and not in virtual channel connected mode), and for example TAP interfaces not supporting the full 7 bytes of call sign string length as some interface drivers expect a 6 byte HW address (MAC), not an up-to-7 byte one like AX.25 use requires.
Dire Wolf is a free open source replacement for the 1980s style TNC. It contains DSP software modems and a complete implementation of AX25 v2.2 plus FX.25 forward error correction. It can function as a digital repeater, GPS tracker, and APRS Internet Gateway (IGate) without any additional software.
KISS-mode framing
See full article at KISS (TNC)
AX.25 is often used with a TNC that implements the KISS framing as a low-cost alternative to using expensive and uncommon HDLC controller cards.
The KISS framing is not part of the AX.25 protocol itself nor is it sent over the air. It merely serves to encapsulate the protocol frames in a way that can successfully pass over a serial link to the TNC. The KISS framing is derived from SLIP, and makes many of the same assumptions, such as there only being two "endpoints" involved in the conversation. With SLIP, these were the two SLIP-connected hosts; with KISS, it is assumed that the KISS framing link is over serial with only the host computer and the TNC involved. Among other things, this makes it awkward to address multiple TNCs without having multiple (serial) data channels.
Alternatives to KISS do exist that address these limitations, such as 6PACK.
Applications
AX.25 has most frequently been used to establish direct, point-to-point links between packet radio stations, without any additional network layers. This is sufficient for keyboard-to-keyboard contacts between stations and for accessing local bulletin board systems and DX clusters.
In recent years, APRS has become a popular application.
For tunneling of AX.25 packets over IP, AXIP and AXUDP are used to encapsulate AX.25 into IP or UDP packets.
Limitations
At the speeds commonly used to transmit packet radio data (rarely higher than 9,600 bit/s, and typically 1,200 bit/s), the use of additional network layers with AX.25 is impractical due to the data overhead involved. This is not a limitation of AX.25 per se, but places constraints on the sophistication of applications designed to use it.
HDLC protocols identify each frame by an address. The AX.25 implementation of HDLC includes sender and destination station call-sign plus four-bit Secondary Station Identifier (SSID) value in range 0 through 15 in the frame address.
At ITU WARC2003 the radio amateur station callsign specification was amended so that the earlier maximum length of six characters was raised to seven characters. However AX.25 has a built-in hard limit of six characters, which means a seven-character callsign cannot be used in an AX.25 network.
AX.25 lacks an explicit port (or SAP); the SSID often assumes this role. Thus there can be only one service per AX.25 station SSID address, which is often kludged around with varying degrees of success.
Some amateurs, notably Phil Karn KA9Q, have argued that AX.25 is not well-suited to operation over noisy, limited-bandwidth radio links, citing its lack of forward error correction (FEC) and automatic data compression. However, a viable widely adopted successor to AX.25 has yet to emerge. Likely reasons may include:
a large existing deployment of recycled narrowband FM radios and especially existing APRS applications,
easy availability of cheap, low-power FM transmitters, especially for the 430 MHz UHF band, to match existing legacy radio gear,
new radio level modulations would need different radio gear than what is currently in use and the resulting system would be incompatible with the existing one thus requiring a large initial investment in new radio gear,
adoption of newer line codings potentially including forward error correction takes more effort than the 1,200 bit/s AFSK of Bell 202. Previously sufficient small 8-bit microprocessors with 128 bytes of RAM would not be enough, and new ones might cost US$30 instead of US$3. Phil Karn did demo decoding of this new modulation of his by running it on a Pentium II machine some 10 years later, mid-level embedded microprocessors are capable enough to do the same with under US$50 system cost.
Despite these limitations, an extension to the AX.25 protocol, supporting forward error correction, has been created by the TAPR. This extension is called FX.25.
Small gadget transmitters do not need to know what is being transmitted. There is only a need to monitor channel occupation by radio receiver RSSI (Received Signal Strength Indication) to know when not to send. Transmitting interleaved Reed-Solomon FEC signal in some smart modulation needs a lot fewer resources than reception of the same signal, thus a sufficient microprocessor might cost just US$5 instead of US$30 and a system cost might stay below US$50, transmitter included. However, in recent years, the ability to receive as well as send using cheap microcontrollers (such as the Atmel AVR or the Motorola 68HC08 families) has been demonstrated.
It seems, however, that any new system that is not compatible with the current Bell 202 modulation is unlikely to be widely adopted. The current modulation seems to fulfill sufficient need that little motivation exists to move to a superior design, especially if the new design requires significant hardware purchases.
Most recently, a wholly new protocol with forward error correction has been created by Nino Carillo, KK4HEJ, called Improved Layer 2 Protocol (IL2P).
See also
Packet radio
Automatic Packet Reporting System (APRS)
FX.25 Forward Error Correction
Improved Layer 2 Protocol (IL2P)
References
Further reading
AMPRNet a project to construct a global, radio-based network using TCP/IP over AX.25 links
Linux-AX25.org a site dedicated to packet radio on Linux
AX.25 Layer 2 a web site established to be a concise repository for AX.25 layer 2 design activities
APRS Bob Bruninga's official APRS website
TARPN Tadd Torborg KA2DEW - Terrestrial Amateur Radio Packet Network site
AX.25 Specification
Packet radio
Link protocols
X.25 |
33031763 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DipTrace | DipTrace | DipTrace is a software suite for electronic design automation (EDA) to create schematic diagrams and printed circuit board layouts. DipTrace has four modules: schematic capture editor, PCB layout editor with built-in shape-based autorouter and 3D preview, component editor, and pattern editor.
Features
Simple user interface
Multi-sheet and hierarchical schematics
High-speed and differential signal routing
Smart manual routing modes
Wide import/export capabilities
High-speed shape-based autorouter
Advanced verifications with real-time DRC
Real-time 3D PCB preview
Export of PCB to STEP 3D file format
ODB++ and Gerber (including Gerber X2) manufacturing outputs
3D preview
This module includes real-time 3D preview & export feature. It shows the model of the manufactured printed circuit board with all components installed. Rotate board in three axes, zoom in and out in real time, change colors of the board, copper areas, solder mask, silkscreen, and background. 3D preview works on all stages of the design.
Export
Board can be exported to STEP or VRML 2.0 formats for mechanical CAD modeling. More than 7500 3D models of PCB packages are supplied for free. Externally designed 3D models in *.wrl, *.step, *.iges, and *.3ds formats can be uploaded and attached to patterns in Pattern Editor or PCB Layout.
Modules
DipTrace has a launcher application with five buttons that help users easily start each DipTrace module:
Schematic Capture
PCB Layout
Component Editor
Pattern Editor
Get Started with Video Guide (link to video and PDF tutorial webpage)
Schematic capture
Advanced circuit design tool with support of multi-sheet and multi-level hierarchical schematics that delivers a number of features for visual and logical pin connections. Cross-module management ensures that principal circuits can be easily converted into a PCB, back-annotated, or imported/exported from/to other EDA software, CAD formats and net-lists. DipTrace Schematic has ERC verification and Spice export for external simulation.
PCB layout
Engineering tool for board design with smart manual routing, differential pairs, length-matching tools, shape-based autorouter, advanced verification, layer stackup manager, and wide import/export capabilities. Design requirements are defined by net classes, class-to-class rules, and detailed settings by object types for each class or layer. When routing with real-time DRC, the program reports errors on the fly before actually making them. DRC also checks length and phase tolerances for differential pairs and controls signal synchronization for nets and buses (including layer stackup and bonding wire induced signal delays). The board can be previewed in 3D and exported to STEP format for mechanical CAD modeling. Design rule check with in-depth detailing and net connectivity verification procedures are available.
Component editor
Manage component libraries and create single- or multi-part components by selecting a template and its dimensions, defining visual and electrical pin parameters, setting up a Spice model, and attaching pattern with a 3D model to finalize component creation. BSDL import, bulk pin naming, and pin manager tools for pins and buses. Importing libraries from different EDA formats. More than 140000 components in standard libraries.
Pattern editor
Draw patterns with various types of shapes, pads, holes, and dimensions. Circle, lines (headers, DIP), square (QFP), matrix (BGA), rectangle (RQFP), and zig-zag standard templates. Creation of pattern is basically selecting a template, entering a couple of vital parameters, drawing the silkscreen, and launching automatic pad renumbering. Custom templates can be created for non-standard patterns. DXF import makes creating complex layouts easier.
Pricing
Note: Non-profit hobbyists can request a free "Lite" upgrade. †
Note: Unlimited plane layers (power, ground) for all editions, which means 2 signal layers editions can create 4-layer boards. ‡
Free versions
A version of DipTrace is freely available with all the functionality of the full package except that it is limited to 300 pins and non-commercial use or 500 pins (non-commercial use, contact for free upgrade) and two signal layers. Power and ground plane layers do not count as signal layers, so the free versions can create four-layer boards with full power and ground planes. No board size restrictions.
Version history
Version 4.2
Released November 2, 2021
New XML format for component and pattern libraries
Environment Variables in all paths
Edge rails for a single board option.
Radial / Polar placement of design objects in PCB Layout and Pattern Editor
Side and isometric view buttons in 3D preview dialogs
Version 4.1
Released February 3, 2021
Improved panelizing
Improved BOM
Improved pick and place
Import/Export improvements
Raster pictures in PCB
Version 4.0
Released May 20, 2020
Arc trace routing
Teardrop connections to pads and T-junctions
`IPC-7351 libraries & patterns
Round rectangle & D-shape pads
Courtyard layer
Component outline layer
Similar pad numbers are allowed
Three methods to create 3D models
Obround shapes instead of ellipses
Etch text or picture/logo in copper pour
Version 3.3
Released October 22, 2018
Version 3.2
Released October 26, 2017
Length matching rules.
Real-time length comparison table.
Layer stackup table.
Using layer stackup and pad signal delay for trace length and differential pair phase calculation.
Meander tool for any trace, easy resizing and moving of meanders.
DRC same net clearance check (Trace to Trace, SMD to Pad, SMD to Via, SMD to SMD).
Altium ASCII import (Schematic, PCB, libraries).
Eagle XML import (Schematic, PCB, libraries).
Version 3.1
Released May 29, 2017
Version 3.0
Released March 10, 2016
Differential pairs: define differential pair and its rules; automatic or manual defining of paired pads; paired routing and editing of differential pair; single-track differential pair routing and editing; phase tune tool (place custom / regular size meanders); real-time control of phase and length tolerance; differential pair manager; support of differential pairs for external autorouters, recognition of paired traces.
Custom user-defined keyboard shortcuts for tools and dialogs.
ODB++ (version 7.0) manufacturing output.
Gerber X2 manufacturing output.
DRC rule details (easy editing of routing constraints).
Tree view of 3D models in All Models list, sorted by categories (folders).
Overall speed and memory optimization for large designs.
Optimized UI fonts.
8143 new components.
5694 new STEP models for 3D.
Community
Some hobby and educational groups such as the PICAXE forum members have developed libraries specific to the PICAXE range of microcontroller as produced by Revolution Education including many of the frequently used associated integrated circuits. PICAXE related libraries can be found in the net.
In January 2011, Parallax switched from EAGLE to DipTrace for developing its printed circuit boards.
See also
Comparison of EDA software
List of free electronics circuit simulators
References
External links
multilanguage (English, French, Italian, Turkish, Ukrainian, Russian)
DipTrace at Seattle Robotics Society meeting
DipTrace at Nuts and Volts - October 2006
DipTrace review at CNet
Electronic design automation software |
261670 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March%20Hare | March Hare | The March Hare (called Haigha in Through the Looking-Glass) is a character most famous for appearing in the tea party scene in Lewis Carroll's 1865 book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.
The main character, Alice, hypothesizes,
"The March Hare will be much the most interesting, and perhaps as this is May it won't be raving mad – at least not so mad as it was in March."
"Mad as a March hare" is a common British English phrase, both now and in Carroll's time, and appears in John Heywood's collection of proverbs published in 1546. It is reported in The Annotated Alice by Martin Gardner that this proverb is based on popular belief about hares' behaviour at the beginning of the long breeding season, which lasts from February to September in Britain. Early in the season, unreceptive females often use their forelegs to repel overenthusiastic males. It used to be incorrectly believed that these bouts were between males fighting for breeding supremacy.
Like the character's friend, the Hatter, the March Hare feels compelled to always behave as though it is tea-time because the Hatter supposedly "murdered the time" whilst singing for the Queen of Hearts. Sir John Tenniel's illustration also shows him with straw on his head, a common way to depict madness in Victorian times. The March Hare later appears at the trial for the Knave of Hearts, and for a final time as "Haigha" (which is pronounced to rhyme with "mayor", according to Carroll, and a homophone of "hare" in a non-rhotic accent), the personal messenger to the White King in Through the Looking-Glass (Alice either does not recognize him as the March Hare of her earlier dream, or chooses not to comment about this).
Major depictions
Alice in Verse
The major departure from Carroll's original here is that instead of appearing a jittery witness, the March Hare is cast as the Prosecutor. After the charge is read, the Hare addresses the court with an opening statement that more or less vindicates the accused, before turning his accusing eye upon the court itself for failing to serve tea with the evidence (the tarts).
Disney animated film
Disney's Alice in Wonderland, an animated film, depicted the March Hare at the tea party as being deliriously confused. He repeatedly offers Alice a cup of tea, but distractedly pulls the cup out of her reach or takes it from her hands just as she is about to drink. He was voiced by Jerry Colonna, after whom his appearance and personality were modelled. He was animated by Ward Kimball.
This version of the character was also a semi-regular on Bonkers and one of the guests in House of Mouse, often seen seated with the Mad Hatter. During these appearances, the March Hare was voiced by Jesse Corti and Maurice LaMarche.
The March Hare also appears in the "Mad T Party" in Disney's California Adventure park. He is based on the 2010 film's Thackery Earwicket interpretation, and plays bass guitar. He is often found hopping around with Mallymkun the Dormouse on stage.
Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland
The March Hare appears in the 2010 Disney film Alice in Wonderland, voiced by Paul Whitehouse. His full name is Thackery Earwicket; this, however, is not mentioned in the film. In the movie, the March Hare behaves as if constantly nerve-wracked and completely delirious. He is a cook in the film, and the way he eccentrically throws dishes and pots suggests he is an amalgam of both the March Hare and the cook from Lewis Carroll's original book. The March Hare has a strong Scottish accent in this movie, while his friend the Mad Hatter (played by Johnny Depp) switches into a Scottish accent as well whenever his emotions are strained. He is first seen in the "Tea Party" scene, which takes place at his "Hare House" windmill. Thackery hosts a tea party, which he shares with Tarrant Hightopp the Mad Hatter, Mallymkun the Dormouse, and Chess the Cheshire Cat. He appears a second time in the White Queen's kitchen, frantically cooking and throwing dishes. His third appearance is at the Frabjous Day scene, in which he stands with the other characters wielding a ladle as his weapon, nervous and somewhat ready to go to battle. Burton stated that because Whitehouse is a great comedic actor, a lot of his lines came from improvisation.
In popular culture
The March Hare was played by Charlie Ruggles in Alice in Wonderland.
In SyFy's TV Miniseries Alice, the March Hare is represented by the character Mad March.
The March Hare is featured as the primary antagonist in the Once Upon a Time story "Tea Party in March" in the graphic novel Once Upon a Time: Out of the Past.
In the song entitled "We Have Heaven" by the British rock group Yes, a lyric mantra is sung from beginning to end saying "Tell the Moon Dog, tell the March Hare...".
In the game American McGee's Alice, the March Hare is portrayed as a victim of the Mad Hatter's insane experimentation. Both the Hare and the Dormouse have become clockwork cyborgs. He also appears in the sequel, Alice: Madness Returns where he and the Dormouse betray the Hatter to aid in the Dollmaker's plans by constructing the Infernal Train.
In the video game adaptation of Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland, Thackery Earwicket is a playable character. He uses his telekinesis to defeat the Bandersnatch.
In the manga Alice in the Country of Hearts the March Hare is called Elliot March and is Blood Dupre's (the Hatter's) right-hand man. He isn't specifically crazy or mad, but has a quite violent attitude, almost killing Alice with his long-barrelled gun before being stopped by Blood.
In the manga Pandora Hearts, the March Hare is a "Chain" whose "Contractor" is Reim Lunettes. It has the ability to fake death, which helps Reim to escape his attackers and proved to be so realistic that even his comrades have believed him really dead.
References
Leporidae in literature
Fictional Leporidae
Fictional cyborgs
Fictional anthropomorphic characters
Lewis Carroll characters
Male characters in film
Male characters in literature
Literary characters introduced in 1865 |
48627747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HomeSeer | HomeSeer | HomeSeer Technologies LLC is a technology company based in Bedford, New Hampshire, in the United States. HomeSeer makes home automation controllers and software, designed to integrate lighting, HVAC, security, AV and other subsystems in most homes. Additionally, the company maintains an online store of compatible home automation products and a free online community forum for users and dealers.
History
1999-2004
HomeSeer was founded in 1999 by company president Richard Helmke. At the time, Helmke was employed as Software Project Leader for Cabletron (later becoming Enterasys) in Rochester, New Hampshire. Helmke developed an interest in home automation and set about to find a software program that would fit his needs. After trying several programs, Helmke elected to create his own program (initially named AutoHome), and launched that effort, as a part-time pursuit, under the company name "Keware". Shortly after release, Keware was renamed HomeSeer and AutoHome was renamed HomeSeer v1 or HS1 for short. At first, the software was compatible with X10 light switches, plug-in modules and controllers. Over time, support was added for additional products such as the ADI Ocelot, JDS Stargate controller and WGL W800 wireless receivers. An open API coupled with a freely available SDK was added to encourage 3rd party development of plug-in (drivers) for support of additional technologies and products. HS1 included support for remote internet access and voice control using Microsoft speech technology (SAPI). As sales of HS1 increased, a message board forum was implemented to provide community-based support for HS1 users.
In 2002, Helmke left his position at Enterasys to focus solely on HomeSeer.
In 2003, driver support was added to HS1 for Z-Wave, a wireless mesh network technology. At that time, the technology was in its infancy with only a handful of lighting products available from Advanced Control Technologies and Sylvania. As of 2015, the Z-Wave Alliance reported there were more than 1,400 Z-Wave certified products including light switches, thermostats, door locks, water valves, garage door controllers, sensors and other products.
In 2004, HomeSeer released its first hardware product, the ZU0100-001 Z-Wave USB interface. This product functioned as a Z-Wave transceiver to allow HS1 software to communicate with wireless Z-Wave devices.
2005-2010
August 2005 marked the release of HS2 software. The new version was designed as a web application to allow for remote set up and configuration, as well as remote control. A professional version (HSPRO) targeting custom installers and featuring advanced Z-Wave support with pre-licensed plug-ins, was also released. In December, the company's first hardware controller (PRO-100) was released. The PRO-100 was a fan-less design with DOM storage that included an embedded installation of HSPRO software.
In 2006, HomeSeer released the Z-Troller, a handheld Z-Wave network controller that doubled as a Z-Wave interface. Since Z-Troller was both a network controller and interface, it supported advanced features such as network optimization and network backup and restore. In October, the PRO-100 was upgraded to a faster Series II model.
In 2007, HomeSeer released the HSM100, a battery operated Z-Wave 'multi-sensor' with built-in sensors for motion, temperature and light level. The HSM100 was well suited for home automation events that relied on some combination of its sensor data. HomeSeer's HomeTroller was also released in 2007 to provide functionality similar to the PRO-100 but at a lower price point. Unlike the PRO-100, the original HomeTroller was equipped with a conventional mechanical hard drive, active cooling (with fans) and embedded HS2 software. Subsequent versions were released with passive cooling (no fans) and with DOM, SD Card or SSD storage to improve reliability.
In 2009, HomeSeer released its first mobile app, a software program called HSTouch. Originally developed for Apple's iOS platform, HSTouch gave HomeSeer users the ability to monitor and control their homes with their iPhones and iPods. A companion program, HSTouch Designer, was also released for those who wished to customize the mobile app with their own screen designs and graphics.
In 2010, HomeSeer released its Android version of HSTouch mobile app. In September, HomeTroller was upgraded to the S3 model.
2011-2013
In 2011, HomeSeer released the HomeTroller-SE as its new entry level controller. The -SE model featured a less powerful CPU and fewer features than the standard HomeTroller model but at approximately half the cost. An even lower cost HomeTroller-Mini was also in the works with a prototype unit debuting at CES 2011. However, the HomeTroller-Mini design was later abandoned before release because of parts availability and cost issues.
In 2013, HomeSeer released HS3, a significant upgrade to the HS2 version. HS3 included an all-new JQuery web GUI, redesigned automation 'engine', multi-network Z-Wave support and new counter and timer features. A professional version, HS3PRO, was also released to service the dealer channel.
HomeSeer's HomeTroller Zee was also released in 2013. The Zee was based on the Raspberry Pi1 model B computer, included HS3 software and was bundled with an Aeon Labs Z-Stick Z-Wave interface. HomeTroller Zee replaced the HomeTroller-SE as the company's entry level home controller.
2014
In January 2014, HomeSeer introduced voice programming and automatic camera support for their controllers. Voice programming allowed users to create automation events solely by voice using any Android mobile device. Automatic camera support was designed to automatically detect and configure settings for Foscam brand IP cameras. This allowed the cameras to be viewed with the HSTouch mobile app.
In March, HomeSeer released the model WFTT07 Control Pad free-standing 7" Android tabletop touchscreen embedded with their HSTouch mobile app. The unit was designed to function as a WiFi connected control portal for HomeSeer controllers.
In April, HomeSeer launched MyHomeSeer-Remote (MyHS) remote access web service for HS3. MyHS simplified the process of enabling remote access to HomeSeer systems by eliminating the need to adjust router settings or use DDNS technology. MyHS was also designed to optimize connection performance in the home by automatically providing a direct LAN connection for users attempting to access their systems on the local sub-net.
In September, HomeSeer released their HomeTroller-SEL to replace the HomeTroller-SE as the company's mid-level controller. Compared to the WindowsXP-based SE, the new SEL model included a faster CPU, twice the RAM and SSD storage, all running on a Debian distribution of Linux.
Also in September, HomeSeer released their A2Z-Link Z-Wave bridge module and the HSM200 Z-Wave multi-sensor.
The A2Z-Link module was similar in design to the HomeTroller Zee but also included a newly developed protocol to allow other controller manufacturers to communicate with Z-Wave devices using simple JSON or ASCII commands. A2Z-Link was conceived as an OEM product; not intended for direct to consumer sales.
The new HSM200 was line-powered, allowing the unit to function as a Z-Wave repeater. HSM200 also included an RGB LED indicator that could be controlled by HomeSeer systems to change colors when things happened in the home.
In November, the HomeTroller S6 becomes HomeSeer's new flagship home controller, replacing the PRO-100.
2015
In January 2015, HomeSeer released the Z-NET, an IP-enabled remote Z-Wave interface for use with its HS3-based systems. Since Z-NET works over a network connection, it can be placed nearly anywhere in the home and may also be used in outbuildings, vacation homes or other secondary residences.
In April, HomeSeer launched its IFTTT channel. IFTTT is a web service that allows users to create recipes that connect products, services and apps from more than 200 different companies around the world. The principal benefit of launching the channel is that it provides web-based integration for products, services and apps for which there are no native HomeSeer drivers (plug-ins). For example, a HomeSeer/IFTTT user could activate the ESPN sports network IFTTT channel and create a recipe to launch a HomeSeer event to turn on their TV and speak an alert when a sporting event begins.
In May, HomeSeer released its HomeTroller Zee S2 controller, based on the Raspberry Pi2 computer. Compared to the original Zee, the S2 model included a faster CPU, had twice the RAM and it included an internal Sigma 500 series Z-Wave module for native Z-Wave support. At the same time, several HomeSeer products underwent and achieved Z-Wave Plus certification. These products included HS3 software, HomeTroller Zee S2, HomeTroller-SEL, HomeTroller S6, Z-NET, SmartStick+ and A2Z-Link.
In December, HomeSeer released its Skill (app) for the Amazon Echo. The Skill allows HomeSeer users to control their systems by voice using the Amazon Echo.
2016
In March 2016, HomeSeer released a line of Z-Wave Plus lighting products. The line included the HS-WS100+ wall switch, HS-WD100+ wall dimmer, HS-WA100+ wall accessory (for 3-way circuits), HS-PD100+ lamp module, HS-PA100+ appliance module and HS-DTA19+ smart light bulb. In September, a Z-Wave motorized water valve was released. Model HS-WV100+ was offered in 3 valve sizes; 3/4", 1" and 1.25". Support for Amazon's Alexa technology was also added to allow Alexa devices to control HomeSeer system devices and events.
2017
In 2017, HomeSeer released three battery operated Z-Wave sensors. HS-DS100+ (door/window sensor) was released in January and HS-MS100+ (PIR sensor) and HS-LS100+ (water sensor) were both released in December. Support for Google Home was also added to allow Google Home devices to control HomeSeer system devices and events. In May, Z-Flash was released as a commercial software tool, designed to update firmware in Z-Wave products.
Compatible Technologies & Products
Software is at the core of every system produced by HomeSeer. The HS series (HS1-HS4) is licensed as a stand-alone product for users who wish to run it on their own personal computers. Its also pre-installed onto HomeTroller controllers, for users who prefer a more fully configured solution. HS series systems are connected to the users home network and may be programmed with any web browser in a typical installation. Once programming is complete, the HS3 system will carry out automation functions unattended. If desired, the HSTouch mobile app may be used to monitor and manually control the products in the home. HomeSeer's MyHS web service is designed to provide remote internet access only and is not required for processing of automation events in the home.
HomeSeer systems are designed to integrate with the following technologies and products using a mixture of native and 3rd-party drivers (plug-ins):
Compatible technologies
Z-Wave
Zigbee
Insteon
UPB
X10
PLCBUS
IFTTT
Amazon Echo
Google Home
A complete listing of compatible technologies may be found on HomeSeer's website.
Compatible products
Light switches and plug-in modules
Thermostats
Door Locks
Garage door controllers
Water valves
Security systems
TVs, Audio/Video receivers and related products
IP Video Cameras
Environmental & security sensors
A complete listing of compatible products may be found on HomeSeer's website.
Recognition, awards and reviews
References
External links
Automation software
Software companies based in New Hampshire
Bedford, New Hampshire
1999 establishments in New Hampshire
Home automation companies |
4772416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A1%20motorway%20%28Slovenia%29 | A1 motorway (Slovenia) | The A1 motorway (), also known as Slovenika, is long, connecting Šentilj (at the Austrian border) and Koper/Capodistria (on the shores of the Adriatic Sea). It connects several of the largest metropolitan areas of the country, including Maribor, Celje and Ljubljana, all the way to the Slovenian Littoral and port town of Koper.
Construction began in 1970 and the first section was finished in 1972, connecting Vrhnika and Postojna. Everyday operation of this initial stretch started on 29 December 1972.
The connection to Koper was finished on 23 November 2004. The second-to-last part, from Trojane to Blagovica, was opened on 12 August 2005. It was also the most expensive, having eight viaducts and two tunnels despite being only 11 km long. The final section, the eastern Maribor bypass, opened on 14 August 2009.
Route description
The A1 motorway provides connection of Slovenia and Austria (only other motorway with border crossing to Austria being A2 motorway and was from the very start important route, because it connected three largest cities in Slovenia - Ljubljana, Maribor and Celje. On the other hand it also connected all those cities with Slovenian coast and provided better conditions for transit to Port of Koper. As of 2013 it is also the only motorway that is connected to all the other motorways in Slovenia.
As of 2013 motorway always has at least two traffic lanes in each direction and is rarely without emergency lane. On some parts it has three traffic lanes in one direction and two in another (usually the additional is for slow vehicles). Only Tunnel Golovec has three lanes in each direction. It was also planned that some other parts of highway will get additional lanes but most of plans were postponed due to lack of money.
Toll
Until July 1, 2008 all vehicles had to stop at tollgates and pay a toll. Since that date vignettes are required for all vehicles up to 3.5 tons, while heavier vehicles must still pay the toll at a tollgate. Tollgates are being rearranged so that two traffic lanes for lighter vehicles (with vignettes) are no longer divided by tollgates and vehicles can drive through at 60 kilometres per hour (37 miles per hour). Where tollgates are still standing as they were before July 1, 2008, the speed limit is 40 kilometres per hour (25 miles per hour). Since 2018, heavy vehicles need to pay toll with an electronic on-board unit attached on the windscreen and tollgates are not needed anymore.
There are six toll stations for heavier vehicles Pesnica, Tepanje, Vransko, Kompolje, Log and Videž. For R3 group it ranges from €3.40 to €19.60, together €47.10 at daytime (6 AM-10 PM) and from €3.00 to €17.60, together €42.30 at night (10 PM-6 AM). For R4 group it ranges from €4.90 to €28.30, together €68.20 at daytime (6 AM-10 PM) and from €4.40 to €25.50, together €61.40 at night (10 PM-6 AM).
Notable structures
When most parts of motorway were already done, there came two parts that were something special, meaning tunnels near Trojane with most notable being Tunnel Trojane with length of almost 3 kilometres and thus second longest tunnel in Slovenia (the longest being Karavanke Tunnel) and viaduct Črni Kal, the longest viaduct in Slovenia, being longer than 1 kilometer and also 95 metres high.
Junction list
Tunnels
The motorway includes ten tunnels, two galleries and one covered cut:
Gallery Dragučova right and left
Vodole right , Vodole left
Covered cut Malečnik right and left
Golo rebro right , Golo rebro left
Pletovarje right , Pletovarje left
Ločica right , Ločica left
Jasovnik right , Jasovnik left
Trojane right , Trojane left
Podmilj right , Podmilj left
Gallery Strmec right and left
Golovec right , Golovec left
Kastelec right , Kastelec left
Dekani right , Dekani left
Bridges
Motorway A1 has 101 viaducts, 109 bridges, 129 overpass in 117 underpass.
Some of the largest viaduct in the A1 (span greater than ):
Kresnica right and left
Pekel right and left
Preloge right and left
Škedenj I. right and left
Ločica right and left
Šentožbolt right and left
Petelinjek right and left
Blagovica right and left
Verd right and left
Ravbarkomanda right and left
Črni kal right and left
Bivje right and left
The Črni Kal Viaduct is the longest viaduct in Slovenia.
References
Highways in Slovenia |
17728314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ton%20Roosendaal | Ton Roosendaal | Ton Roosendaal (; born 20 March 1960) is a Dutch software developer and film producer. He is known as the original creator of the open-source 3D creation suite Blender and Traces (an Amiga ray tracer which was the forerunner of Blender). He is also known as the founder and chairman of the Blender Foundation, and for pioneering large scale open-content projects. In 2007, he established the Blender Institute in Amsterdam, where he works on coordinating Blender development, publishing manuals and DVD training, and organizing 3D animation and game projects.
Early years
Roosendaal studied Industrial Design in Eindhoven, before founding the animation studio "NeoGeo" in 1989. It quickly became the largest 3D animation studio in the Netherlands. At NeoGeo, Roosendaal was responsible for software development, in 1989 he wrote a ray tracer called Traces for Amiga and in 1995 he decided to start the development of an in-house software tool for 3D animation, based on the Traces and tools that NeoGeo had already written. This tool was later named "Blender". In January 1998, a free version of Blender was released on the internet, followed by versions for Linux and FreeBSD in April. Shortly after that, NeoGeo was taken over by another company in parts. This was when Ton Roosendaal and Frank van Beek decided to found a company called Not a Number (NaN) to further market and develop Blender. NaN's business model involved providing commercial products and services around Blender. In 2000 the company secured growth financing by several investment companies. The target of this was to create a free creation tool for interactive 3D (online) content, and commercial versions of the software for distribution and publishing. Roosendaal moved to Amsterdam in 2002.
Due to low sales and the ongoing difficult economic climate, the NaN investors decided to shut down all operations in January/February 2002, signalling the end of Blender development. However, in May 2002, with support from the community of users, and Blender customers, Ton Roosendaal founded the non-profit Blender Foundation.
Blender Foundation
The Blender Foundation's first goal was to find a way to continue developing and promoting Blender as a community based open source project. In July 2002, NaN investors agreed on a plan to attempt to publish Blender under an open-source license using the Street Performer Protocol. The "Free Blender" campaign sought to raise 100,000 EUR as a one-time fee so that the NaN investors would agree on open sourcing Blender. The campaign reached this goal in only seven weeks. On Sunday 13 October 2002, Blender was therefore released under the terms of the GNU General Public License. After this success, Ton Roosendaal began to coordinate the development of Blender by volunteers as chairman of the Blender Foundation.
With Blender originating as an in-house creation tool, feedback from the use of the tool has fed into its ongoing development. In the first two and a half years of open source development, it was especially this unique attribute of the Blender project that has proved to be difficult to organize and maintain. Instead of funding the project directly by bringing together software developers, the Blender Foundation decided to start a project with the best artists within the Blender community and challenge them to make a 3D animated movie short. The goal of the project was to simultaneously prove that Blender can be used to create a professional quality animation, and to help the development of Blender itself.
On 16 July 2009, Roosendaal was awarded an honorary doctorate in Technology at the Leeds Metropolitan University for his work on Blender.
On 2 February 2019, Ton Roosendaal and the Blender Open Source Software received the Ub Iwerks Award at the 46th Annual Annie Awards from juried.
Open-content projects
In 2005, work on Project Orange began. The result of the project was the world's first widely recognized open movie, Elephants Dream. The movie and all assets used during production were published under the open Creative Commons Attribution license.
Because of the success of the first open movie project, Ton Roosendaal established the "Blender Institute" in summer 2007. It is now the permanent office and studio of the Blender Foundation, and is mainly used as an office for the full-time employees of the Blender Foundation and to coordinate and realize the Open Projects related to 3D movies, games and visual effects.
In April 2008 Project Peach, the open movie Big Buck Bunny, was completed in the Blender Institute. In September 2008 the open game Yo Frankie! was released.
The third open movie, Project Durian, also known as Sintel was released on 30 September 2010. On 10 January 2011 he announced a fourth project, titled Tears of Steel, released in 2012, and Project Gooseberry, entitled Cosmos Laundromat, released in Summer 2015.
References
External links
Blender.org
Interview on Blender Guru
Interview on Creative Commons
Interview at Winter Camp
1960 births
Blender Foundation
Dutch computer programmers
Eindhoven University of Technology alumni
Living people |
42100545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary%20of%20operating%20systems%20terms | Glossary of operating systems terms | This page is a glossary of Operating systems terminology.
A
access token: In Microsoft Windows operating systems, an access token contains the security credentials for a login session and identifies the user, the user's groups, the user's privileges, and, in some cases, a particular application.
B
binary semaphore: See semaphore.
booting: In computing, booting (also known as booting up) is the initial set of operations that a computer performs after electrical power is switched on or when the computer is reset. This can take tens of seconds and typically involves performing a power-on self-test, locating and initializing peripheral devices, and then finding, loading and starting the operating system.
C
cache: In computer science, a cache is a component that transparently stores data so that future requests for that data can be served faster. The data that is stored within a cache might be values that have been computed earlier or duplicates of original values that are stored elsewhere.
cloud: Cloud computing operating systems are recent, and were not mentioned in Gagne's 8th Edition (2009). In contrast, by Gagne's 9th (2012), cloud o/s received 3 pages of coverage (41, 42, 716). Doeppner (2011) mentions them (p. 3), but only to prove that operating systems "are not a solved problem" and that even if the day of the dedicated PC is waning, cloud computing has created an entirely new opportunity for o/s development ala sharing, networks, memory, parallelism, etc. Gagne (2012) adds that in addition to numerous traditional o/s's at cloud warehouses, Virtual machine o/s (VMMs), Eucalyptus, Vware, vCloud Director and others are being developed specifically for cloud management with numerous traditional o/s features (security, threads, file and memory management, guis, etc.) (p. 42). Microsoft's investment in cloud aspects of o/s tend to support that argument.
concurrency
D
daemon: Operating systems often start daemons at boot time and serve the function of responding to network requests, hardware activity, or other programs by performing some task. Daemons can also configure hardware (like udevd on some Linux systems), run scheduled tasks (like cron), and perform a variety of other tasks.
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
kernel: In computing, the kernel is a computer program that manages input/output requests from software and translates them into data processing instructions for the central processing unit and other electronic components of a computer. The kernel is a fundamental part of a modern computer's operating system.
L
lock: In computer science, a lock or mutex (from mutual exclusion) is a synchronization mechanism for enforcing limits on access to a resource in an environment where there are many threads of execution. A lock is designed to enforce a mutual exclusion concurrency control policy.
M
mutual exclusion: Mutual exclusion is to allow only one process at a time to access the same critical section (a part of code which accesses the critical resource). This helps prevent race conditions.
mutex: See lock.
N
O
P
paging daemon: See daemon.
process
Q
R
S
semaphore: In computer science, particularly in operating systems, a semaphore is a variable or abstract data type that is used for controlling access, by multiple processes, to a common resource in a parallel programming or a multi user environment.
T
thread: In computer science, a thread of execution is the smallest sequence of programmed instructions that can be managed independently by an operating system scheduler. The scheduler itself is a light-weight process. The implementation of threads and processes differs from one operating system to another, but in most cases, a thread is contained inside a process.
templating: In an o/s context, templating refers to creating a single virtual machine image as a guest operating system, then saving it as a tool for multiple running virtual machines (Gagne, 2012, p. 716). The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses.
U
V
W
Z
References
External links
IBM's Glossary of Z/OS terms at IBM.com
Operating Systems Glossary at Whatis.com
Itanium architecture specification at Intel.com
Linux Journalling Flash File System (JFFS) at Sourceware.org
See also
List of technology terms
Comparison of operating systems
List of important publications in operating systems
List of operating systems
Timeline of operating systems
Operating systems
Lists of computer terms |
34172216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ii%20%28IRC%20client%29 | Ii (IRC client) | IRC It, or ii is a free and open-source Unix IRC client written in C by the suckless.org community.
From the readme:
ii is a minimalist FIFO and filesystem-based IRC client. It creates an irc directory tree with server, channel and nickname directories. In every directory a FIFO in file and a normal out file is created. The in file is used to communicate with the servers and the out files contain the server messages. For every channel and every nickname there are related in and out files created. This allows IRC communication from command line and adheres to the Unix philosophy.
ii is described as a client "even more plain" than the usual CLI-based clients, which are "commonly thought to be the most basic". It consists of less than 500 lines of sourcecode. Its core command set includes "joining and parting, changing nickname and setting topics."
Author Tobias Schlitt called ii "fantastic" and his "tool of the year", which "simply uses the file system to structure IRC connections, channels and queries and offers FIFOs to communicate with the server. It allows you to write IRC bots in bash (or any other language that allows file access)".
See also
Comparison of Internet Relay Chat clients
References
External links
Internet Relay Chat clients
Free Internet Relay Chat clients
Unix Internet Relay Chat clients
Software using the MIT license |
22393474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input/output | Input/output | In computing, input/output (I/O, or informally io or IO) is the communication between an information processing system, such as a computer, and the outside world, possibly a human or another information processing system. Inputs are the signals or data received by the system and outputs are the signals or data sent from it. The term can also be used as part of an action; to "perform I/O" is to perform an input or output operation.
are the pieces of hardware used by a human (or other system) to communicate with a computer. For instance, a keyboard or computer mouse is an input device for a computer, while monitors and printers are output devices. Devices for communication between computers, such as modems and network cards, typically perform both input and output operations.
The designation of a device as either input or output depends on perspective. Mice and keyboards take physical movements that the human user outputs and convert them into input signals that a computer can understand; the output from these devices is the computer's input. Similarly, printers and monitors take signals that computers output as input, and they convert these signals into a representation that human users can understand. From the human user's perspective, the process of reading or seeing these representations is receiving output; this type of interaction between computers and humans is studied in the field of human–computer interaction. A further complication is that a device traditionally considered an input device, e.g., card reader, keyboard, may accept control commands to, e.g., select stacker, display keyboard lights, while a device traditionally considered as an output device may provide status data, e.g., low toner, out of paper, paper jam.
In computer architecture, the combination of the CPU and main memory, to which the CPU can read or write directly using individual instructions, is considered the brain of a computer. Any transfer of information to or from the CPU/memory combo, for example by reading data from a disk drive, is considered I/O. The CPU and its supporting circuitry may provide memory-mapped I/O that is used in low-level computer programming, such as in the implementation of device drivers, or may provide access to I/O channels. An I/O algorithm is one designed to exploit locality and perform efficiently when exchanging data with a secondary storage device, such as a disk drive.
Interface
An I/O interface is required whenever the I/O device is driven by a processor. Typically a CPU communicates with devices via a bus. The interface must have the necessary logic to interpret the device address generated by the processor. Handshaking should be implemented by the interface using appropriate commands (like BUSY, READY, and WAIT), and the processor can communicate with an I/O device through the interface. If different data formats are being exchanged, the interface must be able to convert serial data to parallel form and vice versa. Because it would be a waste for a processor to be idle while it waits for data from an input device there must be provision for generating interrupts and the corresponding type numbers for further processing by the processor if required.
A computer that uses memory-mapped I/O accesses hardware by reading and writing to specific memory locations, using the same assembly language instructions that computer would normally use to access memory. An alternative method is via instruction-based I/O which requires that a CPU have specialized instructions for I/O. Both input and output devices have a data processing rate that can vary greatly. With some devices able to exchange data at very high speeds direct access to memory (DMA) without the continuous aid of a CPU is required.
Higher-level implementation
Higher-level operating system and programming facilities employ separate, more abstract I/O concepts and primitives. For example, most operating systems provide application programs with the concept of files. The C and C++ programming languages, and operating systems in the Unix family, traditionally abstract files and devices as streams, which can be read or written, or sometimes both. The C standard library provides functions for manipulating streams for input and output.
In the context of the ALGOL 68 programming language, the input and output facilities are collectively referred to as transput. The ALGOL 68 transput library recognizes the following standard files/devices: stand in, stand out, stand errors and stand back.
An alternative to special primitive functions is the I/O monad, which permits programs to just describe I/O, and the actions are carried out outside the program. This is notable because the functions would introduce side-effects to any programming language, but this allows purely functional programming to be practical.
Channel I/O
Channel I/O requires the use of instructions that are specifically designed to perform I/O operations. The I/O instructions address the channel or the channel and device; the channel asynchronously accesses all other required addressing and control information. This is similar to DMA, but more flexible.
Port-mapped I/O
Port-mapped I/O also requires the use of special I/O instructions. Typically one or more ports are assigned to the device, each with a special purpose. The port numbers are in a separate address space from that used by normal instructions.
Direct memory access
Direct memory access (DMA) is a means for devices to transfer large chunks of data to and from memory independently of the CPU.
See also
Input device
Output device
Asynchronous I/O
I/O bound
References
External links |
22037508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EFileCabinet | EFileCabinet | eFileCabinet is a company headquartered in Lehi, Utah, selling proprietary software to manage and store documents, content, and records, either on-site or in the cloud.
It was founded in 2001 by James Blaylock to serve clients in the accounting industry where Blaylock worked before founding the company. It has since expanded to service many other industries, including construction, banking, healthcare, insurance, law, manufacturing, retail, oil & gas, transportation, and education. As of January 2016, eFileCabinet had over 160,000 users.
History
eFileCabinet software began as an internal product designed to store digital records at founder James Blaylock's accounting firm. Word spread about Blaylock's new software, generating demand for the software among other accounting firms. In response to this demand, Blaylock founded eFileCabinet in 2001 to build upon, improve, and market the software.
On July 21, 2007, Matt Peterson replaced James Blaylock as president and CEO of the company. Peterson had served as chief operating officer since joining the company in January 2007. Blaylock moved to serve as chairman of the board.
In 2008, eFileCabinet received $1 million in venture capital from Canopy Ventures, an early-stage venture capital firm. This allowed eFileCabinet to expand from servicing only accounting firms to various other industries, including government, healthcare, finance, and insurance. In June 2015, the company received a combined $14 million in Series B venture capital funding from California-based venture capital firm Allegis Capital and Signal Peak Ventures in Utah, bringing the company's total funding to $26.05 million.
Products
eFileCabinet provides a suite of proprietary software products and services in the form of paperless document management.
In 2016, eFileCabinet opted out of Microsoft Silverlight as its framework of choice for its products, using HTML 5 instead to increase integration with the company's web sharing portal, SecureDrawer, and other third-party software like Sage, Foxit, Caselle, and QuickBooks. eFileCabinet also released the SideKick (a supporting application for the eFileCabinet software) in 2016. eFileCabinet also released an updated version of Enterprise Access (a satellite/remote access tool for larger organizations), and zonal optical character recognition (OCR), which enables users to scan and read specific portions of documents. eFileCabinet also released software in 2016 that is Mac OS X compatible. Below is a list of the three main products, including their main functions:
1) eFileCabinet Desktop 2016: An on-premise document management solution
2) eFileCabinet Online 2016: A cloud-based document management solution
3) SecureDrawer: A web and client sharing portal for exchanging sensitive information
4) The eFileCabinet SideKick: A connector of eFileCabinet software and the desktop that comes with a computer's operating system
5) Enterprise Access: A satellite/remote access tool for organizations with multiple branches, and or office locations
6) Rubex: The latest iteration of the eFileCabinet Online document management solution, which includes the file-sharing functionality of SecureDrawer within the interface.
See also
Document management system
Records Management
Business process management
Document imaging
Enterprise content management
Cloud software
Paperless office
References
Further reading
U.S. Tax Season: What Accountants Should Take to the Trenches to Survive and Thrive
"10 Ways Document Management Saves the World's Workforce" HR.com
Companies based in Utah
Software companies based in Utah
Business software companies
Companies established in 2001
Document management systems
2001 establishments in Utah
Software companies of the United States |
365438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caldera%20International | Caldera International | Caldera International, earlier Caldera Systems, was an American software company that existed from 1998 to 2002 and developed and sold Linux- and Unix-based operating system products.
Caldera Systems was created in August 1998 as a spinoff of Caldera, Inc., with Ransom Love as its CEO. It focused on selling Caldera OpenLinux, a high-end Linux distribution aimed at business customers that included features it developed, such as an easy-to-use, graphical installer and graphical and web-based system administration tools, as well as features from bundled proprietary software. Caldera Systems was also active in the Java language and software platform on Linux community.
In March 2000, Caldera Systems staged a successful IPO of its stock, although the stock price did not reach the stratospheric heights of its chief competitor Red Hat and some other companies during the "Linux mania" of 1999.
In August 2000, Caldera Systems announced the purchase of Unix technology and services from the Santa Cruz Operation (SCO). The much larger, merged company changed its name to Caldera International when the deal closed in May 2001. Caldera International sought to shape SCO's UnixWare product (renamed Open UNIX) to present a unified view of Unix and Linux that could satisfy high-end business needs and take advantage of SCO's large reseller channel. The Volution suite of higher-layer solutions for system management, mail and messaging, and authentication also had the same goal. Caldera International was part of the United Linux effort of Linux companies seeking to form a common distribution that could compete with Red Hat.
In the end none of these efforts succeeded in the marketplace, and Caldera Systems/International lost large amounts of money in all four years of its existence. Under severe financial pressure, in June 2002 Love was replaced as CEO by Darl McBride, who soon adopted the corporate name The SCO Group and took that entity in a completely different business direction.
Caldera Systems
Background and formation
Caldera, Inc., based in Utah, was founded in 1994 by Bryan Wayne Sparks and Ransom H. Love, receiving start-up funding from Ray Noorda's Canopy Group. Its main product was Caldera Network Desktop (CND), a Linux distribution mainly targeted at business customers and containing some proprietary additions. Caldera, Inc. later purchased the German LST Software GmbH and its LST Power Linux distribution, which was made the basis of their following product Caldera OpenLinux (COL).
Caldera, Inc. inherited a lawsuit against Microsoft when it purchased DR-DOS from Novell in 1996. This Caldera v. Microsoft action related to Caldera's claims of monopolization, illegal tying, exclusive dealing, and tortious interference by Microsoft.
On September 2, 1998, Caldera, Inc. announced the creation of two Utah-based wholly owned subsidiaries, Caldera Systems, Inc. and Caldera Thin Clients, Inc., in order to split up tasks and directions.
Caldera Systems, whose actual incorporation date had been August 21, 1998, took over the Linux business, including development, training, services, and support, while Caldera Thin Clients (which changed its name to Lineo the following year) took over the DOS and embedded business. The shell company Caldera, Inc., remained responsible for the lawsuit only.
"Linux for Business"
Caldera Systems was headquartered in Orem, Utah, and was headed by co-founder Ransom Love as President and CEO. Caldera Deutschland GmbH, based in Erlangen, Germany, served as their Linux development center. Drew Spencer joined in 1999 and became the company's Chief Technology Officer.
The company targeted the Linux-based software business with its Linux distribution named Caldera OpenLinux, and the Caldera Systems business plan stressed the importance of corporate training, support, and services.
Towards this end they created a professional certification program for Linux as well as for the KDE desktop that the Caldera Systems distribution used. In doing so they worked with the Linux Professional Institute in developing class materials and created a series of Authorized Linux Education Centers around the globe that would train successful students towards doing well in Linux Professional Institute Certification Programs. Beginning courses trained on several difficult Linux distributions as well as Caldera OpenLinux, while more advanced courses focused on OpenLinux only (the name OpenLinux tended to annoy other Linux distributions, suggesting as it did that the others were not open).
The early leader in the Linux as a business race was Red Hat Software, which attracted equity investments from several major technology companies in early 1999. Red Hat also tended to get the most media attention. Besides Red Hat and Caldera, other well-known companies selling Linux distributions included SuSE, Turbolinux, and Mandrake Soft. But no company at the time had been successful in building a profitable business around open source software.
Caldera Systems focused on a high-end Linux product and its Linux distribution became rich with features with bundled proprietary software. For instance, the company offered NetWare for Linux, which included a full-blown NetWare implementation from Novell.
They licensed Sun Microsystems's Wabi to allow people to run Windows applications under Linux. Additionally, they shipped with Linux versions of WordPerfect from Corel as well as productivity applications from Applixware. Since many of their customers used a dual boot setup, Caldera shipped with PowerQuest's PartitionMagic to allow their customers to non-destructively repartition their hard disks.
This approach led to a debate about the purity of Linux-based products. Red Hat CEO Bob Young said in 1999, "One where you might see a problem is Caldera, because they see part of their value added in proprietary tools they have licensed from third parties." In response, a Caldera Systems executive expressed the company's philosophy: "We have produced a product that combines the best of open-source and commercial packages; we are doing Linux for business. We do add to it commercial packages that allow business users to easily integrate it."
Caldera OpenLinux was also available on a retail basis, in the form of a CD-ROM for installing Linux on an IBM PC compatible machine that sold for .
OpenLinux 2.2, released in April 1999, was seen as significantly improved from the previous year's 1.3 release, especially in terms of it having a fully graphical and easy-to-use installation feature.
Ease of installation was an important criteria in selecting a Linux distribution, and Caldera Deutschland had created this first fully graphical installer for Linux, called Lizard, starting in November 1998. Several years later it was still receiving praise from reviewers. The installer could even be started from a Microsoft Windows partition.
Industry writer Hal Plotkin praised Caldera as a product development company and noted that OpenLinux won several industry awards, including 1999 product of the year from Linux Journal.
Other products and projects
In addition to other people's applications, Caldera Systems created many Linux extensions to fill voids where no other commercial company was.
Caldera Systems created a full-featured GUI system administration tool called Caldera Open Administration System (COAS) that was deployed during 1999. The tool was a unified, easy to use administration tool with a modular design and goals of scalability and broad scope applicability, and was expressly designed to be usable on other Linux distributions in addition to Caldera Systems'.
Following that, Caldera Systems sponsored the development of browser-based Unix system administration via the webmin project between 1999 and 2001. It became the first Linux distribution to include Webmin as the standard tool for system administration.
Caldera Systems was a leader in the adoption of the Java language and software platform on Linux. The Blackdown Java project, which first produced working Java ports for Linux systems, was featured on Caldera OpenLinux.
In 2000, Caldera Systems was one of the companies elected to the inaugural JCP Executive Committee for Java SE/EE, which guided the evolution of Java language and software platform through the Java Community Process. Caldera Systems' role on the Executive Committee included representing the Linux and open source communities.
The company was re-elected to its seat on the Executive Committee after it became Caldera International, and represented Java usage on SCO Unix platforms as well.
Work to improve just-in-time compilation under the Sun "Classic JVM" for SCO Unix platforms that begun under SCO was completed with Caldera International.
Caldera Systems was also involved in several Java Specification Requests, including being the specification lead for JSR 140, Service Location Protocol API for Java, and participating in the JSR 48 WBEM Services Specification.
Investments and IPO
Caldera Systems had not been profitable; for the company's 1998 fiscal year, ending on October 31, it had a loss of $7.9 million on revenue of $1.05 million, and for its 1999 fiscal year, it had a loss of $9.3 million on revenue of $3.05 million.
However, the industry saw promise in Linux as a solution for businesses, and in the latter half of 1999 a "Linux hysteria" had erupted in the stock market, with first Red Hat in August 1999 and then Cobalt Networks and VA Linux in November and December 1999 having experienced huge jumps in value during their first day each of trading.
On January 10, 2000, three things happened, all of which were coincidental.
A settlement to the Caldera v. Microsoft suit over DR-DOS was announced, with Microsoft paying former parent company Caldera, Inc. an amount estimated at $275 million (which turned out to be $280 million).
Caldera Systems received a $30 million private equity investment from a group of companies that included Sun Microsystems, Novell, Citrix, Santa Cruz Operation, Chicago Venture Partners, and Egan-Managed Capital, with the goal to "fund operations and accelerate the growth and acceptance of Linux." Also, Caldera Systems announced that it would be filing to have an initial public offering. Ransom Love said that the Microsoft settlement would not benefit Caldera Systems other than that Caldera, Inc. would relinquish the name "Caldera", which would address existing industry confusion between the two. Reports at the time also indicated that the settlement would not directly benefit Caldera Systems, but that Caldera Systems could get an intangible benefit from a name association with a company that had bested an industry giant. Love also said that the timing between the funding round, work for which had begun six months earlier, and the IPO announcement was "unfortunate, and completely coincidental".
Caldera Systems reincorporated in Delaware on March 6, 2000.
By this point it was well positioned in some respects, such as having a strong relationship with Sun and receiving good product reviews within the industry. But it suffered from a lack of public awareness; as IDC analyst Dan Kusnetzky said, "They have a wonderful demo, and the product looks very good. But if you asked people on the street about Caldera they would probably think you are talking about a volcano in Hawaii."
The company then staged an IPO of its common stock, with the symbol CALD. On the first day of trading, March 21, 2000, Caldera Systems' shares doubled in value, going from an initial price of $14 to close at $29 7/16, with heavy trading been seen and an intra-day high of $33.
The IPO raised $70 million for the company and gave it a market capitalization of $1.1 billion.
While the launch was successful on its own terms, analysts saw signs that the Linux mania was finally cooling, abetted by Red Hat and VA Linux having seen their values steadily decrease since their spectacular starts. So, while some observers viewed the IPO as a success, others viewed it as a disappointment. Red Hat continued to dominate in North America, with an over 50 percent share of the Linux market.
Caldera International
Acquisition of SCO UNIX
On August 2, 2000, following several months of negotiations, Santa Cruz Operation announced that it would sell its Server Software and Services Divisions, including UnixWare – its most technically advanced proprietary Unix operating systems for Intel commodity hardware – to Caldera Systems.
(The agreement was phrased in terms of Caldera Holding, Inc., a typical Newco in such transactions.) The annual SCO Forum conference of developers and resellers at the University of California, Santa Cruz, held later that month, had its name shortened to just "Forum".
The deal was complex, involving cash, stock, and loans, and difficult to evaluate monetarily, but based on the price of Caldera Systems stock at the time it was worth around $110–114 million. SCO was much the bigger company, with 900 employees to Caldera Systems' 120. But SCO had been in distress; in part due to the advent of Linux, a series of previously good financial results had gone sour for the company as 1999 turned into 2000. As Forbes magazine stated, "Questions remain about execution, but the deal is at least a temporary life preserver for SCO, whose flagship UnixWare server software was in danger of eventually becoming irrelevant in the face of Linux."
As Caldera Systems saw it, Unix and Linux were complementary rather than competitive technologies, especially in the sense that SCO Unix represented a good back-office and database solution while Linux specialized in networking.
The deal gave Caldera Systems access to partnerships with Compaq Computer and IBM, both of which resold UnixWare, and also meant Caldera Systems would become the world's largest vendor of Unix licenses. SCO also had thousands of business applications running on it targeted to vertical markets. In addition, Caldera Systems saw SCO's role as one of the OS companies involved in Project Monterey as a means to develop a 64-bit computing strategy.
But a primary reason for the acquisition was to get SCO's -strong reseller channel. Caldera Systems had been emphasizing trying to get into much the same VAR channel business that SCO was in, using the argument that resellers could find larger margins with free software than by selling Microsoft's Windows NT. But it had been a difficult sell against SCO; even when Linux outperformed SCO Unix, the idea of switching vendors and support organizations made resellers reluctant to make the move.
So combining these channels was seen as a solution to this problem. As the president of iXorg, a reseller organization focused on SCO, stated, "The real value that Caldera will get from the deal is not the Unix name, not the [SCO] customer base, not even the technologies. It is the reseller channel." Skeptics noted, however, that many of those listed resellers were probably not that active anymore, especially in light of SCO's recent struggles (it had reported a $19 million quarterly loss a week before the acquisition announcement).
Traditional SCO users were leery of the move, but Love tried to reassure them that the SCO Unix operating systems would continue on: "Why would we buy it to destroy what we buy? That wouldn't make any sense."
There were hurdles to be overcome, including a fair amount of enmity for SCO within the Linux community.
A major question became whether Caldera Systems would make the SCO-acquired Unix source code open source. Ransom Love initially said, "While we're having to look carefully at the licensing, we're going to open up the [UnixWare] source as much as possible, and at least some of it will be under" the GNU Public Licence. But there was pushback on the idea from the UnixWare staff in New Jersey, and in addition the license issues involved proved formidable. Love later said, "at first we wanted to open-source all of Unix's code, but we quickly found that even though we owned it, it was, and still is, full of other companies' copyrights. The challenge was that there were a lot of business entities that didn't want this to happen. Intel was the biggest opposition."
Instead, there was a focus on SCO's Linux Kernel Personality (LKP), a layer that conformed to the Linux Standard Base specification which would allow applications built for Linux to run on SCO's UnixWare. This was seen as both a way to capture more applications for Unix, and as a way to increase the performance of high-end applications. The latter factor was because SCO UnixWare had an advantage over Linux at the time in terms of support for 16- and 32-way symmetric multiprocessing, UnixWare NonStop Clusters, and some other high-end operating system capabilities. Indeed, one SCO product manager said that some Linux applications could run several times faster under UnixWare with LKP than they could under native Linux.
The SCO acquisition was originally scheduled to close in October 2000, but got delayed due to concerns from the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) regarding the details of the merger. However, the two companies' support organizations did get combined during this time. In addition, there was confusion among the SCO customer base about the fate of its other operating system, SCO OpenServer. So in February 2001, the deal was renegotiated to include OpenServer in what was sold to Caldera Systems, although a percentage of OpenServer revenue would still go back to SCO. The monetary terms of the deal were adjusted as well, with Caldera Systems paying SCO more cash than in the original agreement. Analysts were skeptical that these multiple operating systems could be managed without considerable difficulties being encountered.
Financial pressure on the company continued; for fiscal 2000, ending on October 31, Caldera Systems lost $39.2 million on revenue of $4.3 million.
"Unifying Unix with Linux for Business"
The merger was originally being done under the name of the holding company Caldera, Inc.,
Then on March 26, 2001, during the CeBIT conference in Germany, Caldera Systems announced that it would be changing its name to Caldera International once the SCO acquisition was complete.
By this point, the length and difficulty of the acquisition process had alienated some longtime SCO customers and partners.
The acquisition closed on May 7, 2001, and the new Caldera International name became effective.
The merged company had major offices in not just Utah, but also Santa Cruz, California, Murray Hill, New Jersey, and Watford, England, as well as smaller facilities in 16 additional countries.
Thus included in late May 2001, Caldera International, with investments of Fujitsu and Hitachi, opening the Caldera K.K. () subsidiary, directed by Makoto Asoh, who had previously run Nihon SCO, in Tokyo, Japan, which had been one of two SCO subsidiaries in that country.
Overall, SCO had an infrastructure presence of some kind in 80 countries, whereas Caldera Systems had always been largely domestic, thus in part the rationale for the name change.
"Unifying Unix with Linux for Business" became the company's new marketing slogan. In light of that, the company began the Caldera Developer Network, which was intended to give developers of all kinds "early access to UNIX and Linux technologies, allowing them to develop on UNIX, on Linux or on a combined UNIX and Linux platform."
Caldera International's initial release of UnixWare was renamed Open UNIX 8. This release was what would have been UnixWare 7.1.2. While it may have been done to make the branding more consistent with OpenLinux and Open Server, it confused people as well as build and installation scripts that tested for system name. Later, the newly renamed SCO Group reverted to the previous UnixWare brand and version release numbering, releasing UnixWare 7.1.3.
In terms of the question of making some of UnixWare open source, in August 2001 Caldera International did announce that it was placing the code for the regular expression parser and the grep and awk commands, as well for the AIM Multiuser Benchmark, under the GNU General Public License. It also said it would begin an "Open Access to Open UNIX 8" program to allow developer partners to read-only viewing of unencumbered parts of the source base.
But overall, Caldera International found itself in a classic business problem where the interests of the existing business conflicted with their growth model. SCO Unix was mature and sold itself (mainly to repeat customers and replicated sites). The VAR relationship was even more problematic. Even though the reseller organizations had been combined, in reality the prior SCO resellers made much more from each SCO Unix sale than from sales of Caldera OpenLinux, so they were not anxious to move existing customers from Unix to Linux. And even those that were supportive of Linux, did not necessarily see a strong value add for Caldera International products and could often sell Red Hat Enterprise Linux instead.
Volution
The Volution program was created out of the desire to create a layer of functionality on top of Linux, and Open UNIX 8 Linux Kernel Personality, that would add value to the operating systems offerings. It would end up having four main components: Volution Manager, Volution Messaging Server, Volution Online, and Volution Authentication Server, with an effort to build a common console for a unified user experience. As Ransom Love said, "Volution is a complex and extensive platform".
In January 2001, Caldera Systems first shipped Volution Manager, a browser-based systems administration solution. Intended for service providers and corporate accounts, it was based around OpenLDAP and Novell eDirectory. It featured some sophisticated functionality, but its initial user interface was limited in some ways and the product was costly.
Caldera Systems made a deal in February 2001 with Acrylis, Inc., a company based in Chelmsford, Massachusetts, to offer Acrylis's subscription-based service that allowed system administrators to test and then update Linux systems over a network. The service also delivered alerts to customers regarding the necessity for upgrades. The effort was an attempt to compete with the Red Hat Network service and gain a source of recurring revenue. Then in May 2001, Caldera International bought the WhatifLinux technology and assets outright from Acrylis, and changed the name of the service to Volution Online.
Caldera Systems had earlier begun work on a Linux equivalent to the Microsoft Exchange Server that was aimed at the small to medium business market. This would eventually become the Volution Messaging Server, which was released in late 2001 for use on Caldera OpenLinux and Open UNIX 8 with LKP. It offered shared calendaring and scheduling options, SSL support for e-mail, simple configuration, and integration with Microsoft Outlook. However, there were already a number of mail servers available for Linux and none of them had taken off in the business market.
Caldera Systems, and then Caldera International, had substantial experience with Web-Based Enterprise Management (WBEM), and its OpenWBEM implementation won the Best Open Source Project Award at LinuxWorld Conference and Expo in February 2002. That, combined with experience in the Kerberos authentication protocol and the difficulties of Windows–Unix integration, led Caldera International into research and development of an overall authentication solution that would find its place among Microsoft Active Directory, LDAP, Kerberos, and WBEM. The product of this work was the Volution Authentication Server, which allowed the management of Unix and Linux authentication via Active Directory.
United Linux and continued decline
When Caldera OpenLinux 3.1 Workstation was released in June 2001, it was with the requirement for per-seat licensing.
This was part of what continued to bring criticism of Caldera in the some quarters of the open source and free software communities; Free Software Foundation founder Richard Stallman subsequently said of Ransom Love, "He's only a parasite", to which Love took umbrage, responding, "Did Richard Stallman ever invest £50m in Linux? We did. I have been involved in the Linux community since my time at Novell in 1994. … I am not a greedy capitalist. I am only a businessman. … You can't call our business model parasitic. We add value to Linux, so it can become successful. … I know that the open source movement has no clue about marketing, they underestimate it."
United Linux was an attempt by a consortium of Linux companies to create a common base distribution for enterprise use and minimize duplication of engineering effort. and form an effective competitor to Red Hat. The founding members of United Linux were SuSE, Turbolinux, Conectiva, and Caldera International. The consortium was announced on May 30, 2002. The UnitedLinux distribution would be based mostly SuSE Enterprise Linux rather than Caldera OpenLinux. The Caldera product name was changed to "Caldera OpenLinux powered by United Linux", which as one Network World writer observed, was "certainly never going to become a catchphrase." UnitedLinux did attract some major hardware vendors in support, such as Hewlett-Packard, Intel, and AMD, with the goal of creating a uniform Linux distribution by the end of 2002.
However, as CNET technology reporter Stephen Shankland wrote at the time, "UnitedLinux is widely viewed as an effort by second-tier Linux companies to gain the critical mass held by Linux leader Red Hat, but industry watchers are skeptical it will triumph." Other users saw the venture as more of a marketing move by a group of companies that were in difficulty. Intimations that UnitedLinux would also feature per-seat licensing were unpopular in the broader Linux community, and SuSE for their part said they had no such plans.
Overall, the fortunes of Caldera International had been steadily declining, the SCO–Caldera combined total revenue having decreased from $170 million in 1999 to $70 million in 2001. The company was consistently reporting losses; for the third quarter of its fiscal year in 2001, for instance, it reported a net loss of $18.8 million against revenue of only $18.9 million. In the following quarter they took a large write-down of the assets acquired from SCO, as they could no longer be accounted for as having the value they were originally thought to possess.
For the fiscal year ending on October 31, 2001, Caldera International reported a loss of $131.4 million based on revenues of $40.4 million (the loss included a total amount of write-down and other non-cash and restructuring charges of $98.6 million).
The Linux side of Caldera International was bleeding funds; it was spending $4 for each $1 it received in revenue.
The only Linux distributor company that was doing even passably well at the time was Red Hat.
Caldera International's UnixWare and OpenServer business continued to be focused on small and medium-sized businesses and replicated sites, the latter largely being represented by retail or franchise-based companies such as CVS Pharmacy, Kmart, Pizza Hut, Pep Boys, Nasdaq, and others. A typical deployment scenario was that of McDonald's, which had a server running SCO OpenServer in each store that collected data from point-of-sale devices and relayed it to corporate headquarters while also providing access to corporate applications. An example of Linux Kernel Personality being used was Shoppers Drug Mart, which used it to run a SilverStream Software application server on UnixWare.
In part Caldera International's problems were due to the economic environment surrounding the collapse of the dot-com bubble; investors were very reluctant to put additional monies into unprofitable start-up companies.
The additional effects of the early 2000s recession were especially difficult for high-tech companies, with information technology spending slowing to a near halt. Overall the SCO side of the business often saw customers making do with what they had rather than buying anything new.
The Caldera stock price was well under a dollar and NASDAQ was threatening to delist it. Financial analysts stopped their coverage of the company. On March 14, 2002, Caldera engaged in a 1-for-4 reverse stock split in order to get the stock price back over a dollar and avoid delisting.
Also in March 2002, Caldera International moved its headquarters from Orem to Lindon, Utah.
Several rounds of layoffs took place during this time.
There was one in April 2001 that resulted in 32 employees losing their jobs.
In September 2001 there was a layoff of 8 percent of the company's workforce, reducing it from 618 to 567 employees.
A localized layoff hit the Santa Cruz office in April 2002.
An especially broad, 15 percent layoff in May 2002 affected all areas of the company, with 73 people being let go and around 400 employees remaining. Offices in Chelmsford, Massachusetts and Erlangen, Germany were closed, representing what had been the development sites for Volution Online and the original Caldera OpenLinux. At the same time, the company's CTO, Drew Spencer, also departed. Plans to continue the company's annual Forum conference for the international SCO Unix community in Santa Cruz were scrapped, with instead a GeoForum event announced that would be held in multiple locations around the world and in Las Vegas, Nevada in the United States.
Despite having earlier done the reverse stock split, as well as a stock buyback, in late June 2002 Caldera International received another delisting notice from NASDAQ. The company had less than four months' cash for operations. As Wired magazine later wrote, the company "faced a nearly hopeless situation."
Change of management, name, and direction
On June 27, 2002, Caldera International had a change in management, with Darl McBride, formerly an executive with Novell, FranklinCovey, and several start-ups, taking over as CEO from Ransom Love.
At the same time, Caldera International said it would buy back its stock owned by Tarantella, Inc. and MTI Technology, thereby relieving itself of the obligation to pay a percentage of OpenServer revenue past a certain point to Tarantella.
Love became head of Caldera International's role in the United Linux effort. IDC analyst Dan Kusnetzky said that while the United Linux role was important, the removal of Love from the CEO post could be seen as "moving him away from the controls at Caldera to let someone else take over."
Changes under McBride happened quickly. On August 26, 2002, it was announced that Caldera International was changing its name back to SCO, in the form of the new name The SCO Group. (The final legal aspects of the name change did not become complete until May 2003.) This reflected recognition of the reality that almost all of the company's revenue was coming from Unix, not Linux, products.
The product name Caldera OpenLinux became "SCO Linux powered by UnitedLinux" and all other Caldera branded names were changed as well.
The Volution Messaging Server product was retained and renamed SCOoffice Server, but the other Volution products were split off under the names Volution Technologies, Center 7, and finally Vintela.
From the start of his time as CEO, McBride had considered the possibility of claiming ownership of some of the code within Linux. Love had told him, "Don't do it. You don't want to take on the entire Linux community."
But by October 2002, McBride had created an internal organization "to formalize the licensing of our intellectual property". Within a few months after that, SCO had begun issuing proclamations and lawsuits based upon its belief that its Unix intellectual property had been incorporated into Linux in an unlawful and uncompensated manor, and had stopped selling its own Linux product. The SCO–Linux disputes were fully underway, and SCO would soon become, as Businessweek headlined, "The Most Hated Company In Tech".
Interviewed later in 2003, Ransom Love – by then no longer in the Linux business either – said that SCO might have a legitimate argument regarding some specific contractual issues, but that lawsuits were rarely helpful and that "Fundamentally, I would not have pursued SCO's path."
Legacy
Caldera played an important role in Linux history by establishing what would be necessary to create a mainstream, business-oriented system, with stability and support, out of the Linux kernel.
Along with Red Hat and SuSE, it was the most important of the commercial Linux distributions.
And as Glyn Moody wrote in Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution, Caldera Systems' announcement in 2000 that it was buying SCO Unix – and with it code that dated back through Unix System Laboratories and AT&T before that – was the final marker for the ascendency of Linux over the Unix old guard: "The hackers had triumphed over the establishment."
But from a business perspective, the Caldera Systems acquisition of SCO Unix has been treated less kindly in retrospect. In 2016, ZDNet ranked it ninth on its list of the worst technology mergers and acquisitions of all time. In any case, the one true success story to come out of business-oriented Linux distributions was Red Hat, who at the time maintained they were competing against Microsoft, not Caldera Systems or the other distributions, and which set several marks for revenue for an open-source oriented business before being acquired by IBM in 2018 for $34 billion.
Perhaps the most successful technology venture to come out of Caldera International was the Volution Authentication Server, which under the Vintela name achieved considerable success. Vintela itself was bought by Quest Software for $56.5 million in 2005, and the Vintela software became a core part of that company's One Identity product.
As Dave Wilson, CEO of Vintela, later said, "Caldera Systems … played a major role in establishing Linux as a serious technology in our industry, and the people who worked for Caldera Systems are very proud of their achievements. Many of those people continue to drive innovation [at a variety of other companies]."
Products
Caldera OpenLinux, a Linux distribution with added non-free components
UnixWare, a UNIX operating system. UnixWare 2.x and below were direct descendants of Unix System V Release 4.2 and was originally developed by AT&T, Univel, Novell and later on The Santa Cruz Operation. UnixWare 7 was sold as a UNIX OS combining UnixWare 2 and OpenServer 5 and was based on System V Release 5. UnixWare 7.1.2 was branded OpenUNIX 8, but later releases returned to the UnixWare 7.1.x name and version numbering.
SCO OpenServer, another UNIX operating system, which was originally developed by The Santa Cruz Operation. SCO OpenServer 5 was a descendant of SCO UNIX, which is in turn a descendant of XENIX. OpenServer 6 is, in fact, an OpenServer compatibility environment running on a modern SVR5 based UNIX kernel.
Smallfoot, technology consisting of an operating system and a toolkit to create point of sale applications
Volution Manager, a browser-based systems administration solution
Volution Online, a subscription-based service for testing and then updating Linux systems over a network
Volution Messaging Server, a bundled mail and messaging solution for Linux and Unix servers
Volution Authentication Server, technology to allow the management of Linux and Unix authentication via Microsoft servers
References
External links
Caldera Systems, Inc. (archived web site calderasystems.com from 1999-01-17 to 2001-04-05 and caldera.com from 2000-02-29 to 2000-12-17), Caldera Holdings (archived web site caldera.com from 2001-01-18 to 2001-03-02), Caldera International, Inc. (archived web site caldera.com from 2001-03-30 to 2002-08-25) and The SCO Group (archived web site caldera.com from 2002-09-14 to 2004-09-01 and sco.com from 2001-05-08)
LST Software GmbH (archived web site lst.de from 1997-01-11 to 1997-12-11), Caldera Deutschland GmbH (archived web site lst.de from 1998-12-01 to 2000-01-02 and caldera.de from 2000-04-13 to 2001) and LST - Verein zur Förderung freier Software (archived web site lst.de from 2001-03-31)
Caldera (company)
Defunct software companies of the United States
Defunct companies based in Utah
Software companies established in 1998
Software companies disestablished in 2002
1998 establishments in Utah
2002 disestablishments in Utah
2000 initial public offerings
2001 mergers and acquisitions
Linux companies
Free software companies
Unix history
American companies established in 1998
American companies disestablished in 2002 |
899183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolith%20%28Space%20Odyssey%29 | Monolith (Space Odyssey) | In Arthur C. Clarke's Space Odyssey series, Monoliths are machines built by an unseen extraterrestrial species whom Clarke dubbed the Firstborn and whom he suggests are the earliest highly intelligent species to evolve in the Milky Way.
In the series of novels (and the films based on these), three Monoliths are discovered in the Solar System by Australopithecines and their human descendants. The response of the characters to their discovery drives the plot of the series. It also influences the fictional history of the series, particularly by encouraging humanity to progress with technological development.
The first Monolith appears at the beginning of the story, set four million years before the present era. It is discovered by a group of Australopithecines and somehow triggers a considerable shift in evolution, starting with the ability to use tools and weaponry. It is later revealed that thousands of other Monoliths exist elsewhere in the galaxy.
Origins
The species that built the Monoliths is never described in detail, but some knowledge of its existence is given to Dave Bowman after he is transported by the star-gate to the "cosmic zoo", as detailed in the 1968 novel 2001: A Space Odyssey and its 1982 sequel, 2010: Odyssey Two. The existence of this species is only hypothesized by the rest of humanity, but it is obvious because the Monolith was immediately identified as an artifact of non-human origin.
The species that built the Monoliths developed interstellar travel millions or perhaps billions of years before the present time. In the novels, Clarke refers to them as the "Firstborn", since they were quite possibly the first sapient species to possess a significant capability of interstellar travel. Members of this species explored the universe in the search of knowledge, especially knowledge about other intelligent species.
While these early explorers discovered that life was quite common, they observed that intelligent life was often stunted in its development, or else died out prematurely. Hence, they set about fostering it. Though not at all morphologically similar to humans, the Firstborn were nonetheless creatures of "flesh and blood", and like humans, were originally mortal.
However, the evolutionary development projects they began would by their nature require very long time-spans to complete, far longer than the lives of their creators. Therefore, the aliens created increasingly complex automated machines to oversee and carry out their projects over the eons. When they encountered a living world that had features in favor of the evolution of intelligent life, they left behind the Monoliths as remote observers that were also capable of taking a variety of actions according to the wishes of their creators. One such planet, encountered when it was still quite young, was Earth. They also observed Jupiter and its watery moon, Europa. The decaying ecology of Mars was also visited, but passed over in favor of more fruitful locations like Earth. The Firstborn left behind three Monoliths to observe and enact their plan to encourage hominids to pursue technology and space travel.
As described in Clarke's novel, the Firstborn discovered later how to transfer their consciousness onto computers, and thus they became thinking machines. In the end, they surpassed even this achievement, and were able to transfer entirely from physical to noncorporeal forms — the "Lords of the Galaxy" — immortal and capable of travelling at great speeds. The Firstborn had abandoned physical form, but their creations, the Monoliths, remained, and these continued to carry out their original assignments.
Tycho Magnetic Anomalies
The term "Tycho Magnetic Anomaly" is something of a misnomer when referring to "TMA-0" and "TMA-2", since neither of these is found on the Moon (let alone in Tycho Crater) and neither one of them emits any significant magnetic field, as described in the novel 2010: Odyssey Two. (The characters in some of the novels do refer to this anomalous nomenclature quizzically.) In the novel, the Russian crewmen of the spaceship Alexei Leonov refer to TMA-2 as "Zagadka" (from the Russian word for "enigma", "mystery", or "riddle").
Tycho Magnetic Anomaly-1
The name Tycho Magnetic Anomaly-1 (also known as TMA-1) refers to the strong magnetic field found somewhere in the lunar Crater Tycho by an American scientific satellite. Astronauts find that this magnetic anomaly is caused by an alien Monolith buried about 15 meters below the surface. In the novel, when the Monolith is excavated and examined, it is found to be a black cuboid whose sides extend in the precise ratio of 1 : 4 : 9 (12 : 22 : 32). Its measurements are given in the novel as ; actually a ratio of 1:4:8.8. The monolith is sitting on a platform of the same material above undisturbed rock. Clarke suggests that the sequence or ratio extends past the three known spatial dimensions into much higher dimensions.
TMA-1 was dug up during the lunar night but, after sunrise and its exposure to direct sunlight, TMA-1 emits a single powerful burst of radio waves – aimed at Iapetus (a moon of Saturn) in the novel or Jupiter in the motion picture. (The subsequent novels follow the continuity of the film, placing all of the activity around Jupiter.) Its powerful magnetic field disappears immediately. In the novel, some scientists speculate that its magnetic field came from large electric currents, circulating in a system of superconductors for millions of years as an energy-storage mechanism. All of that electric power was expended in the one radio signal aimed at what would be discovered to be TMA-2.
Tycho Magnetic Anomaly-2
An identical (except in size) object was found later, orbiting Jupiter (on a moon of Saturn in the 2001 novel, although this was changed to Jupiter in the sequel, 2010: Odyssey Two). This object was dubbed "TMA-2", a term that the book calls "doubly inappropriate": it had no magnetic field, and was millions of miles from Tycho. (TMA-2 was often referred to as "Big Brother" due to David Bowman's comments on its larger size.) TMA-2 acted as a Star Gate and transported Dave Bowman across the galaxy in 2001 and brought his consciousness back again in 2010, at which time it duplicated itself over a million times to transform Jupiter into a star. Afterwards, TMA-2 became the home for the digitized minds of Bowman and HAL and supposedly moved to Europa to watch over the evolution of life there. In 2061: Odyssey Three, it is implied that TMA-2 is the monolith found resting on its side on Europa because it has the same size (2 kilometers long) and contains the digitized minds of Dave Bowman and HAL; however, no character refers to it as TMA-2 or Big Brother, instead christening it "The Great Wall". In 3001: The Final Odyssey, the author changes the description of the Europan monolith to be 20 kilometers long, so it is unclear whether TMA-2 changed size or it is actually a different monolith. In any case, HAL and Bowman infect that monolith with a computer virus after it is learned that its superiors are sending an order to destroy humanity. As a result of the virus, TMA-0, TMA-1, and TMA-2/The Great Wall disappear from the Solar System.
Tycho Magnetic Anomaly-0
In the year 2513, the first Monolith to be encountered by humankind's prehistoric evolutionary predecessors (the ones featured in the first novel) was found in Olduvai Gorge, buried in ancient rock, and was retroactively dubbed "TMA-0".
Other Monoliths
Other than the Monoliths bearing TMA labels, there are many other Monoliths that are seen in the series. In two instances, millions of Monoliths are generated for a limited time purpose. In the first, in 2010: Odyssey Two, millions of Monoliths are generated to transform Jupiter into a star, subsequently named Lucifer. In the second, in 3001: The Final Odyssey, millions of monoliths are generated to block both the Earth and human-settled Ganymede from their primary star in an attempt to destroy the humans. Other specific monoliths are described below.
The Great Wall
A large Monolith is found resting on its side on Europa in the 2061 novel. It is nicknamed the Great Wall after the Great Wall of China due to its horizontal orientation. It is believed to be watching over the Europans in a manner similar to what TMA-0 did on Earth in the first book. The 2061 novel implies that this Monolith is TMA-2 from the previous novel, but the characters never refer to it as TMA-2 or "Big Brother." It is described as being the same size as TMA-2 and is the home to the digitized minds of Bowman and HAL just as TMA-2 was at the end of the last novel. However, the 3001 novel changes the description of the Great Wall to be 20 kilometers long, so it is unclear whether this monolith is the same as TMA-2 or not. In 2061, Bowman and HAL describe how it was knocked on its side and possibly damaged by the impact of Mount Zeus, a vast diamond shard from Jupiter's core that struck Europa's surface some time following Jupiter's transformation. But in 3001, the monolith on its side is described as having a purpose to protect the evolving Europans. (Arthur C. Clarke admitted to changing some concepts each time he wrote another sequel novel so it is not possible to fully reconcile TMA-2 and The Great Wall.)
Minilith
A small Monolith appears before Heywood Floyd in 2061 on board the Galaxy spacecraft. He nicknames it "Minilith" for its small size compared to other observed Monoliths. At the end of the book it is explained that Halman used the Minilith to replicate Heywood Floyd's consciousness to help him uncover the Monolith's operations.
Superior Monolith
In the 3001 novel, it is realized that back in the early 22nd century, TMA-2 broadcast a status report message to a point 450 light years away and is just now receiving instructions in return. Although unseen, this is assumed to be another monolith which is in charge of the monoliths in the Solar System. In other words, TMA-2 was reporting to its Superior.
Appearance and capabilities
In the movies, all the Monoliths are black, extremely flat, non-reflective rectangular solids. In the first novel, the monolith on the African savannah was transparent and "it was not easy to see except when the morning sun glinted on its edges", but became less transparent when active and was described as a crystal. Also, the final monolith is described as a transparent crystal that becomes less transparent when active.
In the novels and in the films, the dimensions of the monoliths are in the precise ratio of 1 : 4 : 9 (the squares of the first three positive integers). These dimensions are the main source of debate about the simple external design of the Monoliths. It is suggested in the 2001 novel that this number series does not stop at three dimensions.
The Monoliths come in several different sizes: TMA-0 and TMA-1 are both about 11 feet long, TMA-2 is two kilometers long, and the "minilith" is smaller than TMA-1. The Great Wall Monolith is described as being two kilometers long in the 2061 novel but 20 kilometers long in the 3001 novel. Monoliths may be able to assume any size, because in 2010: Odyssey Two, the Star Child, created from the astronaut Dave Bowman, cryptically notes that the Monolith is actually one size – "as large as necessary".
The Monoliths are extremely long-lived and reliable machines, able to survive for millions of years buried in the ground or resisting meteorite impacts and radiation in space with no apparent damage. The two Monoliths recovered and examined by humans are virtually indestructible and impenetrable, resisting all attempts to analyze their composition or internal structure right up to the end of the series. Dr. Heywood Floyd proposes they have some sort of force shield, an impression he gets from touching it; this hypothesis is later accepted as probable because the Monoliths resist destructive testing beyond the theoretical limits of material strength. However, they are not completely indestructible: The Great Wall Monolith (perhaps the same as TMA-2) was knocked on its side and suffered from damage caused by a giant meteorite of solid diamond that collided with Europa in 2061: Odyssey Three. In the final book, 3001: The Final Odyssey, all three Monoliths known to humankind are deactivated by being infected with a powerful computer virus.
While it is unclear what the composition of the Monoliths is, they clearly have mass, which is about the only observation that can be made. In the novel 2010, the crewmen of the spaceship Alexei Leonov measure the mass of TMA-2 and find that it has a density slightly higher than that of air. The masses of TMA-0 and TMA-1 are never revealed by Clarke.
In 2001, TMA-2 opens up a stargate that takes Dave Bowman on a trip across the universe at faster-than-light speeds, and with as much acceleration as the creators of the stargate wish. In 2010 and again in 3001, TMA-2 teleports itself.
TMA-2 replicates itself by a form of symmetrical binary fission and exponential growth to create thousands or millions of identical Monoliths in just a matter of days. In 2010, the many units act to increase the density of Jupiter until stellar ignition is carried out, converting the planet into a miniature star. In 3001, millions of copies of TMA-2 assemble themselves into two megastructure disks that attempt to block the Sun from Earth and Lucifer from its colonies in the Jovian system.
The Monoliths are clearly described in the novels as controlled by an internal computer, like Von Neumann machines. In 2061, the consciousness of Dave Bowman, HAL-9000, and Dr. Floyd become incorporated as computer programs in TMA-2 as their new home. TMA-2 then observes the development of the Europans and guards them from any interplanetary (i.e. human) interference.
Both TMA-1 and TMA-2 produce occasional, powerful, directional radio transmissions. TMA-2 sends a radio transmission towards a star system about 450 light years away in the 22nd century. However, only TMA-1 ever exhibited any strong magnetic fields.
Actions
The TMA-2 Monolith had judged that it would be desirable to nurture the primitive Europans by preventing the eventual freezing of their moon, and to keep humanity separated from them. TMA-2 thus converted Jupiter into a new star (dubbed "Lucifer", meaning "light-bringer") to warm Europa into more habitable conditions – at the cost of exterminating the Jovians, ocean-like creatures who swam through the upper atmosphere of Jupiter. The Jovians were judged too primitive, as due to their environment they had no hope of ever developing to become an advanced civilization.
TMA-2 also apparently decided, in the early 21st century, that humanity was a failed species and that it was possibly necessary to destroy them. Apparently the TMA-2 Monolith was allowed to destroy primitive species at its own discretion, but needed the authorisation of a "superior" to destroy an advanced spaceflight-capable civilisation such as humanity. This "superior" was a Monolith located in a distant star system, but even the Monoliths were limited by the speed of light in their interstellar communications. Thus it took 450 years for the message sent by TMA-2 to reach its "superior", which then sent a message giving permission to destroy humanity, which took another 450 years to return to the Sol system in the year 3001. Due to the efforts of Frank Poole and the Europa team on Earth, the ascended Dave Bowman and AI HAL (now fused as one being "Halman" in the Monolith's computational matrix) were able to introduce a subtle computer virus into TMA-2 which destroyed it before it could render the human race extinct.
The Firstborn did not appear to have abandoned all interest in the evolutionary experiments overseen by the ancient Monoliths. The Monoliths' communications are said to be limited by the speed of light, but Dave Bowman is sent on an interstellar journey at the end of 2001: A Space Odyssey, and Bowman is apparently transformed into the Star Child, not by the Monoliths, but by the Firstborn (both Kubrick and Clarke have similarly stated that Bowman was transformed by non-corporeal aliens, not the Monoliths). They also subsequently transform HAL in 2010, to give Bowman a companion. The epilogue to 3001: The Final Odyssey reveals that the Firstborn had been monitoring humanity's final confrontation with the Monoliths in the Sol system, but chose not to intervene. Unlike the TMA-2 Monolith, whose judgment of humanity was based on its social progress by the year 2001, the Firstborn considered the more peaceful and responsible humanity of the year 3001 worthy of survival, or at least not a threat to the Europans. Their assessment seems to prove true, as subsequently Frank Poole and the other humans land on Europa and attempt to start peaceful relations with the primitive native Europans.
Design
The first design for the Monolith for the 2001 film was a tetrahedral pyramid. This was taken from the 1951 short story "The Sentinel" that the first story was based on.
A London firm was approached to provide a plexiglass pyramid, and due to construction constraints they recommended a flat slab shape. Kubrick approved, but was disappointed with the glassy appearance of the prop on set, leading art director Anthony Masters to suggest making the monolith black. The rejected acrylic monolith can be seen in St Katherine Dock, London, where it was hung in 1977 to commemorate the Queen's silver jubilee.
Replicas
Replicas have been displayed in some places as a tribute to the movie.
During the Dutch hacker conference HAL (2001), a replica of the monolith was erected.
In 2016 a replica appeared at NASA Ames Research Center.
In June 2020, a 4.5 meters tall wood-made replica was found in the main courtyard of ENS.
On 5 December 2021, a similar shaped object, referred to as a "mystery house", was reported to have been viewed on the Moon by the Chinese lunar rover, Yutu-2.
See also
References
Space Odyssey
Fictional technology
Evolution in popular culture |
68564625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office%20of%20the%20National%20Cyber%20Director | Office of the National Cyber Director | The Office of the National Cyber Director is an agency in the United States Government statutorily responsible for advising the President of the United States on matters related to cybersecurity. It was established in 2021.
History
The position of National Cyber Director was established under the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2021 on the recommendation of the Cyberspace Solarium Commission, a congressionally-authorized panel convened in 2019 and chaired by United States Senator Angus King and Representative Mike Gallagher. Situated within the Executive Office of the President of the United States, it is statutorily charged with "programs and policies intended to improve the cybersecurity posture of the United States, ... diplomatic and other efforts to develop norms and international consensus around responsible state behavior in cyberspace" and other matters related to cybersecurity.
Authorizing legislation for the office permitted the hiring of up to 75 staff, however, failed to appropriate any funds to do so. By August 2021, the White House was able to identify $250,000 in contingency funding to hire a few personnel to support inaugural director Chris Inglis.
List of National Cyber Directors
See also
Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency
References
Executive Office of the President of the United States |
37138290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development%20testing | Development testing | Development testing is a software development process that involves synchronized application of a broad spectrum of defect prevention and detection strategies in order to reduce software development risks, time, and costs.
Depending on the organization's expectations for software development, development testing might include static code analysis, data flow analysis, metrics analysis, peer code reviews, unit testing, code coverage analysis, traceability, and other software verification practices.
Overview
Development testing is performed by the software developer or engineer during the construction phase of the software development lifecycle.
Rather than replace traditional QA focuses, it augments it. Development testing aims to eliminate construction errors before code is promoted to QA; this strategy is intended to increase the quality of the resulting software as well as the efficiency of the overall development and QA process.
Purposes and benefits
Development testing is applied for the following main purposes:
Quality assurance—To improve the overall development and test process by building quality and security into the software (rather than trying to test defects/vulnerabilities out).
Industry or Regulatory Compliance—To achieve compliance with industry or regulatory compliance initiatives (e.g.., FDA, IEC 62304, DO-178B, DO-178C, ISO 26262, IEC 61508, etc.) that commonly require strict risk reduction as well as bidirectional requirements traceability (e.g., between requirements, tests, code reviews, source code, defects, tasks, etc.)
VDC research reports that the standardized implementation of development testing processes within an overarching standardized process not only improves software quality (by aligning development activities with proven best practices) but also increases project predictability. voke research reports that development testing makes software more predictable, traceable, visible, and transparent throughout the software development lifecycle.
Key principles
In each of the above applications, development testing starts by defining policies that express the organization's expectations for reliability, security, performance, and regulatory compliance. Then, after the team is trained on these policies, development testing practices are implemented to align software development activities with these policies. These development testing practices include:
Practices that prevent as many defects as possible through a Deming-inspired approach that promotes reducing the opportunity for error via root cause analysis.
Practices that expose defects immediately after they are introduced—when finding and fixing defects is fastest, easiest, and cheapest.
The emphasis on applying a broad spectrum of defect prevention and defect detection practices is based on the premise that different development testing techniques are tuned to expose different types of defects at different points in the software development lifecycle, so applying multiple techniques in concert decreases the risk of defects slipping through the cracks. The importance of applying broad set of practices is confirmed by Boehm and Basili in the often-referenced "Software Defect Reduction Top 10 List."
Static analysis
The term "development testing" has occasionally been used to describe the application of static analysis tools. Numerous industry leaders have taken issue with this conflation because static analysis is not technically testing; even static analysis that "covers" every line of code is incapable of validating that the code does what it is supposed to do—or of exposing certain types of defects or security vulnerabilities that manifest themselves only as software is dynamically executed.
Although many warn that static analysis alone should not be considered a silver bullet or panacea, most industry experts agree that static analysis is a proven method for eliminating many security, reliability, and performance defects. In other words, while static analysis is not the same as development testing, it is commonly considered a component of development testing.
Additional activities
In addition to various implementations of static analysis, such as flow analysis, and unit testing, development testing also includes peer code review as a primary quality activity. Code review is widely considered one of the most effective defect detection and prevention methods in software development.
See also
Unit testing
Software testing
References
Software testing |
2497175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems%20architect | Systems architect | The systems architect is an information and communications technology professional. Systems architects define the architecture of a computerized system (i.e., a system composed of software and hardware) in order to fulfill certain requirements.
Architect metaphor
The use of any form of the word "architect" is regulated by "title acts" in many states in the US, and a person must be licensed as a building architect to use it.
In the UK the architects registration board excludes the usage of architect (when used in the context of software and IT) from its restricted usage.
References
Further reading
Donald Firesmith et al.: The Method Framework for Engineering System Architectures, (2008)
Mark W. Maier and Rechtin, Eberhardt, The Art of Systems Architecting, Third Edition (2009)
Gerrit Muller, "Systems architecting: A business perspective," CRC Press, (2012).
Eberhardt Rechtin, Systems Architecting: Creating & Building Complex Systems, 1991.
J. H. Saltzer, M. F. Kaashoek, Principles of Computer System Design: An Introduction, Morgan Kaufmann, 2009.
Rob Williams, Computer Systems Architecture: a Networking Approach, Second Edition (December 2006).
External links
Principles of Computer System Design: An Introduction – MIT OpenCourseWare
Systems Architecture: Canaxia Brings an Architect on Board, Article
Architecture occupations
Computer occupations
Enterprise architecture
Systems engineering |
60471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application%20binary%20interface | Application binary interface | In computer software, an application binary interface (ABI) is an interface between two binary program modules. Often, one of these modules is a library or operating system facility, and the other is a program that is being run by a user.
An ABI defines how data structures or computational routines are accessed in machine code, which is a low-level, hardware-dependent format. In contrast, an API defines this access in source code, which is a relatively high-level, hardware-independent, often human-readable format. A common aspect of an ABI is the calling convention, which determines how data is provided as input to, or read as output from, computational routines. Examples of this are the x86 calling conventions.
Adhering to an ABI (which may or may not be officially standardized) is usually the job of a compiler, operating system, or library author. However, an application programmer may have to deal with an ABI directly when writing a program in a mix of programming languages, or even compiling a program written in the same language with different compilers.
Description
Details covered by an ABI include the following:
Processor instruction set, with details like register file structure, stack organization, memory access types, etc.
Sizes, layouts, and alignments of basic data types that the processor can directly access
Calling convention, which controls how the arguments of functions are passed, and return values retrieved; for example, it controls the following:
Whether all parameters are passed on the stack, or some are passed in registers
Which registers are used for which function parameters
Whether the first function parameter passed on the stack is pushed first or last
How an application should make system calls to the operating system, and if the ABI specifies direct system calls rather than procedure calls to system call stubs, the system call numbers
In the case of a complete operating system ABI, the binary format of object files, program libraries, etc.
Complete ABIs
A complete ABI, such as the Intel Binary Compatibility Standard (iBCS), allows a program from one operating system supporting that ABI to run without modifications on any other such system, provided that necessary shared libraries are present, and similar prerequisites are fulfilled.
ABIs can also standardize details such as the C++ name mangling, exception propagation, and calling convention between compilers on the same platform, but do not require cross-platform compatibility.
Embedded ABIs
An embedded-application binary interface (EABI) specifies standard conventions for file formats, data types, register usage, stack frame organization, and function parameter passing of an embedded software program, for use with an embedded operating system.
Compilers that support the EABI create object code that is compatible with code generated by other such compilers, allowing developers to link libraries generated with one compiler with object code generated with another compiler. Developers writing their own assembly language code may also interface with assembly generated by a compliant compiler.
EABIs are designed to optimize for performance within the limited resources of an embedded system. Therefore, EABIs omit most abstractions that are made between kernel and user code in complex operating systems. For example, dynamic linking may be avoided to allow smaller executables and faster loading, fixed register usage allows more compact stacks and kernel calls, and running the application in privileged mode allows direct access to custom hardware operation without the indirection of calling a device driver.
The choice of EABI can affect performance.
Widely used EABIs include PowerPC, Arm EABI and MIPS EABI. Specific software implementations like the C library may impose additional limitations to form more concrete ABIs; one example is the GNU OABI and EABI for ARM, both of which are subsets of the ARM EABI .
See also
Binary-code compatibility
Bytecode
Comparison of application virtual machines
Debugging symbol
Foreign function interface
Language binding
Opaque pointer
PowerOpen Environment
Symbol table
SWIG
Visual C++ ABI instability details
References
External links
Policies/Binary Compatibility Issues With C++ a compendium of development rules of thumb for not breaking binary compatibility between library releases
OS X ABI Function Call Guide
Debian ARM EABI port
μClib: Motorola 8/16-bit embedded ABI
Application Binary Interface (ABI) for the ARM Architecture
MIPS EABI documentation
a summary and comparison of some popular ABIs
M•CORE Applications Binary Interface Standards Manual for the Freescale M·CORE processors
Application programming interfaces
Operating system technology |
505550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Greenblatt%20%28programmer%29 | Richard Greenblatt (programmer) | Richard D. Greenblatt (born December 25, 1944) is an American computer programmer. Along with Bill Gosper, he may be considered to have founded the hacker community, and holds a place of distinction in the communities of the programming language Lisp and of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.
Early life
Greenblatt was born in Portland, Oregon on December 25, 1944. His family moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania when he was a child. He later moved to Columbia, Missouri with his mother and sister when his parents divorced.
Career
Becoming a hacker
Greenblatt enrolled in MIT in the fall of 1962, and around his second term as an undergraduate student, he found his way to MIT's famous Tech Model Railroad Club. At that time, Peter Samson had written a program in Fortran for the IBM 709 series machines, to automate the tedious business of writing the intricate timetables for the Railroad Club's vast model train layout. Greenblatt felt compelled to implement a Fortran compiler for the PDP-1, which then lacked one. There was no computer time available to debug the compiler, or even to type it into the computer. Years later, elements of this compiler (combined with some ideas from fellow TMRC member Steven Piner, the author of a very early PDP-4 Fortran compiler while working for Digital Equipment Corporation) were typed in and "showed signs of life". However, the perceived need for a Fortran compiler had evaporated by then, so the compiler was not pursued further. This and other experiences at TMRC, especially the influence of Alan Kotok, who worked at DEC and was the junior partner of the design team for the PDP-6 computer, led Greenblatt to the AI Lab, where he proceeded to become a "hacker's hacker" noted for his programming acumen as described in Steven Levy's Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, and as acknowledged by Gerald Jay Sussman and Harold Abelson when they said they were fortunate to have been apprentice programmers at the feet of Bill Gosper and Richard Greenblatt.
Indeed, he spent so much time programming the Programmed Data Processor (PDP) machines there that he failed out of MIT as a first-term junior and had to take a job at a firm, Charles Adams Associates, until the AI Lab hired him about 6 months later.
Lisp Machines, Inc.
In 1979, he and Tom Knight were the main designers of the MIT Lisp machine. He founded Lisp Machines, Inc. (later renamed Gigamos Systems), according to his vision of an ideal hacker-friendly computer company, as opposed to the more commercial ideals of Symbolics.
Significant software developed
He was the main implementor of Maclisp on the PDP-6. He wrote Mac Hack, the first computer program to play tournament-level chess and the first to compete in a human chess tournament. AI skeptic Hubert Dreyfus, who famously made the claim that computers would not be able to play high-quality chess, was beaten by the program, marking the start of "respectable" computer chess performances. In 1977, unbeaten chess champion Bobby Fischer played three games in Cambridge, Massachusetts against Greenblatt's computer program, and Fischer won all of them. Greenblatt, along with Tom Knight and Stewart Nelson, co-wrote the Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS), a highly influential time-sharing operating system for the PDP-6 and PDP-10 used at MIT.
References
External links
A speech by Richard Stallman in which he gives some background about Greenblatt
1944 births
Living people
Lisp (programming language) people
People from Portland, Oregon
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
American computer businesspeople
Artificial intelligence researchers |
14757686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network%20Systems%20Corporation | Network Systems Corporation | Network Systems Corporation (NSC) was an early manufacturer of high-performance computer networking products. Founded in 1974, NSC produced hardware products that connected IBM and Control Data Corporation (CDC) mainframe computers to peripherals at remote locations. NSC also developed and commercialized the HYPERchannel networking system and protocol standards, adopted by Cray Research, Tektronix and others. In the late 1980s, NSC extended HYPERchannel to support the TCP/IP networking protocol and released a product allowing HYPERchannel devices to connect to the emerging Internet.
History
The company was formed by former Control Data Corporation employees, James E. Thornton and Peter D. Jones in 1974. Initially based in Saint Paul, Minnesota the company moved to Brooklyn Park, Minnesota after delivering their first high-speed networking computers to the NSA. It merged with Storage Technology Corporation on September 20, 1995. Storage Technology Corporation was purchased by Sun Microsystems during the summer of 2005. Sun Microsystems was purchased by Oracle Corporation on April 20, 2009.
In the late 1980s, after enjoying great success in the mainframe computer market, NSC released its first product supporting the TCP/IP protocol, allowing customers to connect their mainframe computers to their emerging TCP/IP-based corporate and research networks. The market was shifting:
Companies like Sun Microsystems and Apollo Computer had gained momentum showing the efficiency of distributed clusters of smaller workstations connected to a local area network.
Internetworking companies, most notably Cisco Systems, entered the market with local and wide-area networking products using off-the-shelf components and custom software.
Prices for workstations, networking infrastructure and routers plummeted.
NSC found itself in a strange position. Its HYPERchannel networking gear was being supplanted by cheaper and relatively plug-and-play LANs. In addition, the rapid evolution of routing protocols and software was not suited to their products which could neither be upgraded by the customer, nor booted from a server elsewhere on the network. In general, NSC products were maintained on-site by NSC technicians.
The company attempted to respond to market demands in 1991 by merging with Vitalink Communications Corporation, primarily a bridge manufacturer. Vitalink was well entrenched in the LAN/Network industry, however, bridges and issues with large Spanning-Tree domains were allowing the router manufacturers to gain position. Vitalink had a very good router running SPF, the predecessor to OSPF. Eventually, this nifty router proved to be too little too late. Vitalink was the "bridge company" while Cisco, Wellfleet, Proteon, and others were the router companies.
In November 1993 NSC acquired the Boston-based Bytex Corp., a developer and manufacturer of WAN and LAN network switching system products including FDDI, Token Ring, and Ethernet adapters and switches.
By 1995, NSC could not adapt to changing market conditions and merged with StorageTek.
Products
AT10 HyperChannel Coax transceiver
ACT10 HYPERChannel Coax transceiver
A110 HYPERchannel Adapter for Control Data Corporation systems
A120 HYPERchannel Adapter for Control Data Cyber 720/730 systems
A130 HYPERchannel Adapter for Cray low-speed channels (LSP4).
A140 Sperry univac adapter
A160 Burroughs
A161 Honeywell
A220 HYPERchannel Adapter for IBM Block Multiplexer Channels
A240 ICL adapter
A300 HYPERchannel Adapter for UNISYS systems
A400 HYPERchannel Adapter for VME-bus workstations
A510 IBM remote device support
A515 IBM device support (newer version of A510)
A710 link adapter
AC715 series link adapter (uses ACT 10)
A720 Satellite Adapter
DX Series HYPERchannel Adapters (2nd generation) for all types of mainframes & mini-computers (e.g. IBM, UNISYS, Stratus, Sun, Tandem, DEC, etc.)
DXE Series HYPERchannel Adapters (3rd generation) for all types of mainframes & mini-computers (e.g. IBM, UNISYS, Stratus, Sun, Tandem, DEC, etc.)
EN641 Internet Protocol Router: This product connected HYPERchannel devices to Ethernet-based TCP/IP networks, acting as an inter-network router. It supported simple routing protocols through the use of the public-domain gated routing daemon and was based on an early version of BSD Unix adapted to run as an embedded system.
NB130 HYPERchannel Card for connecting Cray systems. Configurable card for DX Series HYPERchannel Adapters
NB220 HYPERchannel Card for IBM streaming-block-multiplexers. Configurable card for DX Series HYPERchannel Adapters
ERS - Enterprise Routing Switch (aka Nortel Passport). Today's Nortel Passport 20K/15K/7K series being the result of the IP technology devised by NSC.
NetSentry - Software Firewall product for NSC ERS/Nortel Passport based on NSC's BCF (Bridge Control Filter) and PCF (Packet Control Filter) software products.
References
Defunct computer companies of the United States
Companies based in Minneapolis |
14393682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20card | Information card | Information cards are personal digital identities that people can use online, and the key component of an identity metasystem. Visually, each i-card has a card-shaped picture and a card name associated with it that enable people to organize their digital identities and to easily select one they want to use for any given interaction. The information card metaphor is implemented by identity selectors like Windows CardSpace, DigitalMe or Higgins Identity Selector.
An identity metasystem is an interoperable architecture for digital identity that enables people to have and employ a collection of digital identities based on multiple underlying technologies, implementations, and providers. Using this approach, customers can continue to use their existing identity infrastructure investments, choose the identity technology that works best for them, and more easily migrate from old technologies to new technologies without sacrificing interoperability with others. The identity metasystem is based upon the principles in "The Laws of Identity".
Overview
There are three participants in digital identity interactions using information cards:
Identity providers issue digital identities for you. For example, businesses might issue identities to their customers, governments might vouch for the identities of their citizens, credit card issuers might provide identities enabling payment, online services could provide verified data such as age, and individuals might use self-issued identities to log onto websites.
Relying parties (RPs) accept identities for you. Online services that you use can accept digital identities that you choose and use the information provided by them on your behalf, with your consent.
Subject is yourself, the party in control of all these interactions. The subject can choose which of its applicable digital identities to use with the relying party.
Selectors
An identity selector is used to store, manage, and use their digital identities. Examples of identity selectors are Microsoft's Windows CardSpace, the Bandit Project's DigitalMe, and several kinds of Identity Selectors from the Eclipse Foundation's Higgins project.
An identity selector performs the following user-centric identity management tasks:
Provides a consistent user experience for authentication (and in some cases other kinds of interactions) with an RP (also known as a Service Provider).
Provides a user interface that displays a set of information card icons from which the user selects their preferred i-card when authentication is required by a local application or relying party (e.g. a website's login page).
Provides a user interface to create and manage personal (also known as self-issued) information cards.
Provides a local security token service that is used to issue the security tokens for personal i-cards.
Provides a user interface to import and export information cards in standard file formats.
Is invoked by a browser extension or by a local rich client application.
An identity selector may also allow the user to manage (e.g. create, review, update, and delete cards within) their portfolio of i-cards.
Identity metasystems
There are five key components to an identity metasystem:
A way to represent identities using claims. Claims are carried in security tokens, as per WS-Security.
A means for identity providers, relying parties, and subjects to negotiate. Dynamically negotiating the claims to be delivered and the security token format used enables the identity metasystem to carry any format of token and any kinds of claims needed for a digital identity interaction. Negotiation occurs using WS-SecurityPolicy statements exchanged using WS-MetadataExchange.
An encapsulating protocol to obtain claims and requirements. The WS-Trust and WS-Federation protocols are used to carry requests for security tokens and responses containing those tokens.
A means to bridge technology and organizational boundaries using claims transformation. Security token services (STS) as defined in WS-Trust are used to transform claim contents and formats.
A consistent user experience across multiple contexts, technologies, and operators. This is achieved via identity selector client software such as Windows CardSpace representing digital identities owned by users as visual i-cards.
Generic qualities
I-cards are created by an entity known as a issuer.
I-cards display the name of the issuer (issuerName) in a text string.
I-cards have a text string to identify the card (cardName) that is initially set by the card issuer. Typically this card name is user-editable.
I-cards may have a (GIF or JPEG) background image (cardImage) set by the card issuer (user-editable).
In most i-cards the user is able to see the value of the claims.
Sign-in capabilities
Using i-cards, users can authenticate without needing a username and password for every website; instead, at sites accepting them, they can log in with an i-card, which may be used at multiple sites.
Each information card utilizes a distinct pair-wise digital key for every realm where a key is requested. A realm may be a single site or a set of related sites all sharing the same target scope information when requesting an information card. The use of distinct pair-wise keys per realm means that even if a person is tricked into logging into an imposter site with an i-card, a different key would be used at that site than the site that the imposter was trying to impersonate; no shared secret is released.
Furthermore, many identity selectors provide a means of phishing detection, where the HTTPS certificate of the relying party site is checked and compared against a list of the sites at which the user has previously used an information card. When a new site is visited, the user is informed that they have not previously used a card there.
Types of i-cards
The Identity Selector Interoperability Profile v 1.5 (or OASIS IMI v1.0 Committee Draft) specifies two types of information cards that an identity selector must support.
Personal Information Cards: (Also called self-issued) these cards allow you to issue claims about yourself to sites willing to accept them. These claims can include your name, address, phone numbers, e-mail address, web address, birth date, gender, and a site-specific key uniquely generated for each site where the card is used.
Managed Information Cards: These cards allow identity providers other than yourself to make claims about you to sites willing to accept them. These claims can include any information that an RP requests, an identity provider is able to provide, and you are willing to send between them.
The Higgins project is defining two new kinds of i-cards as well:
Relationship cards (or R-cards) are used to establish an ongoing relationship between multiple parties.
Zero-knowledge cards (or Z-cards)
However the Information Card format allows for custom types; The Bandit project demonstrated prototype managed cards backed by OpenIDs at the Novell BrainShare conference in March 2007.
Personal cards
The first kind of personal Information cards were also introduced as part of Microsoft’s Windows CardSpace software in November 2006. Their behavior is also defined by the same documents covering the Microsoft-defined managed cards (see above).
Summary of characteristics:
Data format an XML file containing: set of claim type URIs as well as the (user-defined) values of these claims, cardImage, a unique cardID, etc. This data format is defined in the ISIP documents.
Issuer: The user's own Identity Selector. Personal cards can be described as self-issued
Genesis: Created by the user's Identity Selector.
Claims: 15 pre-defined claim types (e.g. firstname, surname, email address, etc.) are defined in the Identity Selector Interoperability Profile v 1.5 (or OASIS IMI v1.0 Committee Draft).
Authority: The user's Identity Selector is the authority for the issued token's set of claim values.
Data flow: On demand (e.g. as needed by a relying site), an STS local to the Identity Selector creates a security token with the current values.
Editability: The claim values are directly editable by the user.
Attribute data source: The personal card XML file contains claim values. When imported into an Identity Selector these data values are then managed internally by the selector.
Managed information cards
The first kind of managed card was introduced as part of Microsoft’s Windows CardSpace software in November 2006. The behavior, file format and interoperability characteristics of these kinds of managed cards are defined by Microsoft documents such as the Identity Selector Interoperability Profile v 1.5 (or OASIS IMI v1.0 Committee Draft; see self-issued.info for a more complete list), in combination with open standards including WS-Trust and others.
Summary of characteristics:
Data format: an XML file containing: network endpoint of the STS, set of claim type URIs, name of the card, cardImage, issuerName, a unique cardID, etc. The XML file format is defined in the ISIP documents.
Issuer: An external, third party token service (representing an external person or organization).
Genesis: A managed card is generated by a Security Token Service running at an Identity Provider site and imported into the user's Identity Selector.
Claims: The list of supported claim types (claim type URIs) is defined by the issuer.
Authority: The issuer is the sole authority for the claim values contained within the token it issues.
Data flow: Managed cards contain a network endpoint reference to an STS that, when requested by the Identity Selector (using WS-Trust, etc.) generates/provides a security token containing the required claims.
Editability: Underlying attribute data is not directly editable by the user.
Attribute data source: Determined by the issuer, and generally managed by the issuer.
I-cards issued by third parties can employ any of four methods for the user to authenticate himself as the card owner:
a Personal Information Card (self-issued),
an X.509 certificate (which can either be from a hardware device such as a SmartCard or it can be a software certificate),
a Kerberos ticket, such as those issued by many enterprise login solutions, or
a username and password for the card.
Additional methods could also be implemented by future identity selectors and identity providers.
Managed i-cards can be auditing, non-auditing, or auditing-optional:
Auditing cards require the identity of the RP site to be disclosed to the Identity Provider. This can be used to restrict which sites the identity provider is willing to release information to.
Non-auditing cards will not disclose the identity of the RP site to the Identity Provider.
Auditing-optional cards will disclose the identity of the Relying Party site if provided by the RP, but do not require this disclosure.
Relationship cards
Relationship cards are under development by the Higgins project (see the report by Paul Trevithick).
Summary of characteristics:
Data format: A managed card that supports a resource-udi claim.
Supported Claims: Like all managed (or personal) cards, r-cards include a list of supported claim types (expressed as URIs) as defined by the issuer. This set defines the maximal set of claims that issuer will include in its generated security token. These claims are inherited from underlying ISIP-m-card upon which it is based and are used for the same purposes. Beyond managed cards the resource-udi "meta" claim provides a reference to a set of attributes.
Authority: The issuer is the authority for the issued token's set of claim values (as per a normal managed or personal card).
Editability: The values of underlying attributes (referenced by the resource-udi claim) may be editable by parties other than the issuer.
Supported Attributes: The value of an r-card's resource-udi claim is an Entity UDI (URI) that "points to" a data entity (representing a person, organization, or other object). The set of attributes of this data entity is distinct from (though usually a superset of) the "supported claims" mentioned above.
Reliance on the Higgins Data Model
Conceptually a managed card is essentially a human-friendly "pointer" to a Token Service—a web service (e.g. a STS) from which security tokens can be requested. A security token is a set of attribute assertions (aka claims) about some party that is cryptographically signed by the issuer (the token service acting as the authority). An r-card, contains a second "pointer" that points to a data entity whose attribute's values (i) shared by all parties to the r-card and (ii) form the underlying attributes that are consumed by the r-card issuer's STS and provide the values of the claims that this STS makes. By including this second "pointer" on the r-card, r-card holders have the potential to access and update some subset of these underlying attributes. The card issuer maintains an access control policy to control who has what level of access.
This second pointer is an Entity UDI—a reference to an Entity object in the Higgins Context Data Model. Entity UDIs may be dereferenced and the underlying Entity's attributes accessed by using the Higgins project's Identity Attribute Service. Once resolved, consumers of this service can inspect, and potentially modify the attributes of the entity as well as get its schema as described in Web Ontology Language (OWL).
In addition to basic identity attribute values like strings and numbers, the data entity referred to by an r-card can have complex attribute values consisting of aggregates of basic attribute types as well as UDI links to other entities.
Claims
Beyond being used to log into sites, Information Cards can also facilitate other kinds of interactions. The Information Card model provides great flexibility because cards can be used to convey any information from an Identity Provider to a Relying Party that makes sense to both of them and that the person is willing to release. The data elements carried in i-cards are called Claims.
One possible use of claims is online age verification, with Identity Providers providing proof-of-age cards, and RPs accepting them for purposes such as online wine sales; other attributes could be verified as well. Another is online payment, where merchants could accept online payment cards from payment issuers, containing only the minimal information needed to facilitate payment. Role statements carried by claims can be used for access control decisions by Relying Parties.
Interoperability and licensing
The protocols needed to build Identity Metasystem components can be used by anyone for any purpose with no licensing cost and interoperable implementations can be built using only publicly available documentation. Patent promises have been issued by Microsoft, IBM, and others ensuring that the protocols underlying the Identity Metasystem can be freely used by all.
The Information Cards defined by the Identity Selector Interoperability Profile v 1.5 (or OASIS IMI v1.0 Committee Draft) are based on open, interoperable communication standards. Interoperable i-card components have been built by dozens of companies and projects for platforms including Windows, Mac OS, and Linux, plus a prototype implementation for phones. Together, these components implement an interoperable Identity Metasystem. Information Cards can be used to provide identities both for Web sites and Web Services applications.
Several interoperability testing events for i-cards have been sponsored by OSIS and the Burton Group, one was at the Interop at the October 2007 European Catalyst Conference in Barcelona and the most recent was at RSA 2008. These events are helping to ensure that the different Information Card software components being built by the numerous participants in the Identity Metasystem work well together.
The protocols needed to build Information Card implementations based on the Identity Selector Interoperability Profile v 1.5 (or OASIS IMI v1.0 Committee Draft) can be used by anyone for any purpose at no cost and interoperable implementations can be built using only publicly available documentation. Patent promises have been issued by Microsoft, IBM, and others, ensuring that this Information Card technology is freely available to all.
In June 2008, industry leaders including Equifax, Google, Microsoft, Novell, Oracle, PayPal and others created the Information Card Foundation in order to advance the use of the Information Card metaphor as a key component of an open, interoperable, royalty-free, user-centric identity layer spanning both the enterprise and the Internet.
In his report on the Interop at the June 2007 Catalyst Conference in San Francisco, analyst Bob Blakley wrote:
The interop event was a milestone in the maturation of user-centric identity technology. Prior to the event, there were some specifications, one commercial product, and a number of open-source projects. After the event, it can accurately be said that there is a running Identity Metasystem.
History of the terminology
The term "information card" was introduced by Microsoft in May 2005 as a name for the visual information card metaphor to be introduced in its forthcoming Windows CardSpace software. Until early 2006, information cards were also sometimes referred to by the code-name “InfoCard”, which was not a name that was freely available for all to use. The name information card was specifically chosen as one that would be freely available for all to use, independent of any product or implementation. The name “information card” is not trademarked and is so generic as to not be trademarkable.
The term i-card was introduced at the June 21, 2006, Berkman/MIT Identity Mashup conference. The intent was to define a term that was not associated with any industry TM or other IP or artifact. At the time, Microsoft had not yet finished applying the Open Specification Promise to the protocols underlying Windows CardSpace and there was also a misunderstanding that the term information card was not freely available for use by all, so to be conservative, the term i-card was introduced.
Mike Jones, of Microsoft, explained to participants of a session at IIW 2007b that Microsoft always intended the term information card to be used generically to describe all kinds of information cards and to be freely usable by all, and tried to correct the earlier misunderstanding that the term might apply only to the kinds of information cards originally defined by Microsoft. He made the case that the industry would be better served by having everyone use the common term information card, than having two terms in use with the same meaning, since there remains no legal or technical reason for different terms. In this case the term i-card would become just the short form of information card, just like e-mail has become the short form of electronic mail.
Software implementations
DACS – open source RP & Information Card STS written in C.
Higgins project – Identity Selector deployment configuration.
Windows CardSpace – runs on Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows Server 2003.
See also
Digital identity
Information Card Foundation
OpenID
SAML
References
Clique Space: another look at identity, Owen Thomas, November 2010.
Parity Provides Free Online Identity Management – Oct 2008 CNET article by Robert Vamosi
Microsoft's Vision for an Identity Metasystem, Michael B. Jones, May 2005.
The Laws of Identity, Kim Cameron, May 2005.
Design Rationale behind the Identity Metasystem Architecture, Kim Cameron and Michael B. Jones, January 2006.
7 Laws of Identity: The Case for Privacy-Embedded Laws of Identity in the Digital Age, Ann Cavoukian, Information and Privacy Commissioner of Ontario, October 2006.
Additional resources
Technology Leaders Favor Online ID Card Over Passwords – New York Times article 24-Jun-08 announcing the Information Card Foundation
Identity Selector Interoperability Profile, Arun Nanda, April 2007.
Identity Selector Interoperability Profile v 1.5
OASIS IMI v1.0 Committee Draft
An Implementer's Guide to the Identity Selector Interoperability Profile V1.0, Microsoft Corporation and Ping Identity Corporation, April 2007.
A Guide to Using the Identity Selector Interoperability Profile V1.0 within Web Applications and Browsers, Michael B. Jones, April 2007.
Design Rationale behind the Identity Metasystem Architecture, Kim Cameron and Michael B. Jones, January 2006.
Patterns for Supporting Information Cards at Web Sites: Personal Cards for Sign up and Signing In, Bill Barnes, Garrett Serack, and James Causey, August 2007.
Microsoft Open Specification Promise, May 2007.
IBM Interoperability Specifications Pledge, July 2007.
External links
Information Card Foundation
Information Card Icon Announcement, June 2007.
Microsoft's Vision for an Identity Metasystem, Michael B. Jones, May 2005.
The Laws of Identity, Kim Cameron, May 2005.
7 Laws of Identity: The Case for Privacy-Embedded Laws of Identity in the Digital Age, Ann Cavoukian, Information and Privacy Commissioner of Ontario, October 2006.
Azigo Identity Selector
Bandit Project
DigitalMe Identity Selector
Eclipse Higgins Project
Burton Group report on OSIS June 2007 User-Centric Identity Interop at Catalyst in San Francisco, August 2007.
Burton Group report on OSIS October 2007 User-Centric Identity Interop at Catalyst in Barcelona, October 2007.
Open Source Identity Systems (OSIS)
Avoco Secure Information Card and Identity Solutions
Identity management
Federated identity |
7561720 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AmigaOS%204 | AmigaOS 4 | AmigaOS 4 (abbreviated as OS4 or AOS4) is a line of Amiga operating systems which runs on PowerPC microprocessors. It is mainly based on AmigaOS 3.1 source code developed by Commodore, and partially on version 3.9 developed by Haage & Partner. "The Final Update" (for OS version 4.0) was released on 24 December 2006 (originally released in April 2004) after five years of development by the Belgian company Hyperion Entertainment under license from Amiga, Inc. for AmigaOne registered users.
History
During the five years of development, purchasers of AmigaOne machines could download pre-release versions of AmigaOS 4.0 from Hyperion's repository as long as these were made available.
On 20 December 2006, Amiga, Inc. terminated the contract with Hyperion Entertainment to produce or sell AmigaOS 4. Nevertheless, AmigaOS 4.0 was released commercially for Amigas with PowerUP accelerator cards in November 2007 (having been available only to developers and beta-testers until then). The Italian computer company ACube Systems has announced Sam440ep and Sam440ep-flex motherboards, which are AmigaOS 4 compatible. Also, a third party bootloader, known as the "Moana", was released by Acube on torrent sites; it allows installation of the Sam440ep version of OS4 to Mac Mini G4s. However this is both unofficial and unsupported as of today, and very incomplete, especially regarding drivers. During the judicial procedure (between Hyperion and Amiga, Inc.), OS4 was still being developed and distributed.
On 30 September 2009, Hyperion Entertainment and Amiga, Inc. reached a settlement agreement where Hyperion is granted an exclusive right to AmigaOS 3.1 and market AmigaOS 4 and subsequent versions of AmigaOS (including AmigaOS 5 without limitation). Hyperion has assured the Amiga community that it will continue the development and the distribution of AmigaOS 4.x (and beyond), as it has done since November 2001.
Description
AmigaOS 4 can be divided into two parts: the Workbench and the Kickstart.
Workbench
The Workbench is the GUI of OS4, a graphical interface file manager and application launcher for the Operating System. It also includes some general purpose tools and utility programs such as a Notepad for typing text, MultiView for viewing images and Amigaguide documents, Unarc for unpacking Archives, a PDF reader, a number of small preferences programs for changing settings of the GUI and OS, among other programs.
Kickstart
The Kickstart contains many of the core components of the OS. Prior to version 4 of AmigaOS the Kickstart had been released mostly on a ROM (hardware included with the computer). In OS4 the Kickstart is instead stored on the hard disk. It consists mainly of:
ExecSG, a preemptive multitasking kernel. ExecSG was licensed to Hyperion Entertainment by Thomas and Hans-Jörg Frieden.
Intuition, a windowing system API.
AmigaDOS and AmigaShell: AmigaDOS is the disk operating system for the OS, whereas AmigaShell is the integrated Command Line Interface (CLI). The CLI and the GUI complement each other and share the same privileges.
Petunia, a Motorola 68020 processor emulator with dynamic recompilation, also called just-in-time compilation (JIT compilation), for PowerPC based Amigas. It gives OS4 backward compatibility to some extent, it will only run system friendly (following the OS3.x API without communicating directly with the classic Amigas' custom chipset) AmigaOS 3.x programs. For the programs that Petunia is unable to handle, such as most "bang the hardware" (using legacy Amiga hardware directly) Amiga games and Amiga demos, UAE can be used which can emulate different Amiga chipsets (OCS, ECS, AGA) as well.
Development process
There have been many different versions of the AmigaOS operating system (OS) during its three decades of history.
Versions 1.0 to 1.3
The first AmigaOS was introduced in 1985 and developed by Commodore International. It was nicknamed Workbench from the name of its Graphical user interface (GUI), due to an error of Commodore Marketing and Sales Department, which labeled the OS disk just with the name "Workbench Disk" and not with the correct name "AmigaOS Disk (Workbench)". The first versions of AmigaOS (1.0 and up to 1.3) are here indicated with the name of their original disks to preserve original custom.
Versions 2.0 to 3.1
Workbench 2.0 improvements introduced a lot of major advances to the GUI of Amiga operating system. The blue and orange colour scheme was replaced with a grey and light blue with 3D aspect in the border of the windows. The Workbench was no longer tied to the 640×256 (PAL) or 640×200 (NTSC) display modes, and much of the system was improved with an eye to making future expansion easier. For the first time, a standardised "look and feel" was added. This was done by creating the Amiga Style Guide, and including libraries and software which assisted developers in making conformant software. Technologies included the GUI element creation library gadtools, the software installation scripting language Installer, and the AmigaGuide hypertext help system.
Versions 3.5 and 3.9
After the demise of Commodore International, the later owners of the Amiga trademark granted a license to a German company called Haage & Partner to update the Amiga's operating system. Along with this update came a change in the way people referred to the Amiga's operating system. Rather than specifying "Kickstart" or "Workbench", the updates were most often referred to as simply "AmigaOS".
Whereas all previous OS releases ran on vanilla Amiga 500 with 68000 and 512 kB RAM, release 3.5 onwards required a 68020 or better and at least 4 MB fast RAM.
Versions 4.0 and 4.1
In 2001 Amiga Inc. signed a contract with Hyperion Entertainment to develop the PowerPC native AmigaOS 4 from their previous AmigaOS 3.1 release. Unlike the previous versions which were based on the Motorola 68k central processor, OS4 runs only on PowerPC computer systems. Amiga, Inc.'s (current Amiga trademark owners) distribution policies for AmigaOS 4.0 and any later versions required that OS4 must be bundled with all new third-party hardware "Amigas", with the sole exception of Amigas with Phase5 PowerPC accelerator boards, for which OS4 is sold separately. This requirement was overturned in the agreement reached between Amiga, Inc. and Hyperion in the settlement of a lawsuit over the ownership of AmigaOS 4.
In 2014 Hyperion introduced AmigaOS 4.1 Final Edition incorporating all previous downloadable updates and some new features like unified graphics library with RTG support and support for more than 2 GB RAM.
Versions 4.2
In May 2012 Hyperion announced that they were working on AmigaOS 4.2. It would introduce hardware accelerated 3D support, multi-core support, a vastly improved file system API and many other features.
AmigaOS 4 prominent features
Prominent features compared to other operating systems or previous versions of AmigaOS:
Appearance
Screens: Users can have as many different screens as they like for any purpose, each with its own application on it; or they can open a public screen which several applications can share. Switching between screens can be done in an instant, and they can come back to an application and find it exactly how they left it. It is even possible to drag the current screen down to reveal another screen behind it (even if they have different display resolutions), so that they can view two screens simultaneously, or even drag and drop files and other content from one screen to another.
Menuing: The menu bar appears at the top of the screen when the right mouse button is pressed down and disappears when it is not needed, thus reducing screen clutter and giving more room to work.
File handling
Descriptive file structure: Operating system files are divided up into clearly labelled drawers (folders). For example, all libraries are stored in "Libs:" standard virtual device and absolute path finder for "Libs" directory, Fonts are all in "Fonts:" absolute locator, the files for language localization are all stored in "Locale:" and so on.
RAM disk: A virtual hard drive, it acts like any other disk, and stores files and data in memory rather than on the hard drive. The RAM disk is dynamically resizable and takes up only as much memory as it needs to. It can be used as a temporary store for the user's own purposes or as a place for software installers to put temporary files, and is cleared out at reboot so the hard drive will not be cluttered with thousands of unnecessary files that bog down your system. Additionally there is an optional RAD disk, a recoverable version of the RAM disk, which preserves contents after a reboot.
Datatypes: Recognises and handles file types: displaying a picture, playing a music file, decoding a video file, rendering a web page etc. Any application can access Datatypes transparently, and thus have the ability to use any file that it has a Datatype for.
Icon handling: A file can have a default icon representing the type of file or a custom icon specific to the individual file. Additionally icons can store extra commands and metadata about the associated file – which program to open it in, for example.
Assigning devices: Instead of assigning drives (devices) a letter or fixed label, each drive can be given a name. Drives can be given more than one name so the system always knows where things are. If it is the system boot drive it is also known as "Sys:". Areas of hard drive can be assigned a label as if they were a virtual disk. For example, it is possible to mount MP3 players as "MP3:" and external networked resources as logical devices.
Other
Live CD: The OS4 installation CD can be used as a Live CD.
Dockies: A fully configurable docking bar for icons, allowing quick access to most used applications. These dock bar icons, "Dockies", are fully dynamic, which means they can show real-time content and act as useful micro tools. A Docky might act as a magnifying glass, display the time, or show you the latest weather forecast or stock market information direct from the Internet.
Scripting: Implemented scripting as a fundamental feature. Using the AREXX scripting language and Python it is possible to automate, integrate and remote control almost every application and function of the computer. Function sets and tools from several applications can be brought together into a single, integrated interface to allow the most complex jobs to be performed with the utmost simplicity.
The Grim Reaper: The "Guru Meditation" is replaced by "The Grim Reaper", a crash handling system that attempts to catch crashes and attempts to stop them from getting out of control. It can provide complete information about the crash and optionally suspend the offending task.
AmiUpdate: Is an updating system designed purely for the latest incarnation of the AmigaOS 4. It is able to update OS files and also all Amiga programs which are registered to use the same update program that is standard for Amiga. Updating AmigaOS requires only few libraries to be put in standard OS location "Libs:", "Fonts:" etc. This leaves Amiga users with a minimal knowledge of the system almost free to perform by hand the update of the system files.
Compatible hardware
Amiga
Released for Amigas equipped with third party PPC add-on boards:
Blizzard PPC equipped Amiga 1200
Blizzard 2604e (prototype card) equipped Amiga 2000
CyberStorm PPC equipped Amiga 3000 or Amiga 4000
AmigaOne
Released for AmigaOne motherboards:
AmigaOne-SE (A1-SE)
AmigaOne-XE (A1-XE)
Micro-AmigaOne (Micro-A1)
AmigaOne X1000 (A1X1K; A1-X1000)
AmigaOne 500 (A1-500), an AmigaOne computer based upon the Sam460ex board introduced by Acube Systems.
AmigaOne X5000 (A1X5K; A1-X5000)
Pegasos
Released for Pegasos systems:
Pegasos II (Peg2)
Samantha
Released for Sam440 systems:
Sam440ep
Sam440ep-flex
Sam460ex
Versions
Future
For the AmigaOS 4.2, Hyperion Entertainment planned the following updates:
Multiple core support (SMP)
New ExecSG scheduler
Selectable policy for scheduling (may include per task)
Scheduling of task groups with internal scheduling of tasks within that group
Scheduling of tasks across multiple CPU cores (may include core affinity)
Support for real-time scheduling
Graphics and Gallium3D
Enables access to full OpenGL implementations like Mesa
Compositing may be done via Gallium3D
Opens the door to replacing the entire graphics subsystem
multi-header support
See also
Amiga
AmigaOS
AmigaOS versions
AROS
History of the Amiga
Linux on Power
MorphOS
References
Notes
Review of Micro-AmigaOne and AmigaOS 4 Developer Prerelease
Ars Technica reviews AmigaOS 4.0
Ars Technica reviews AmigaOS 4.1
A history of the Amiga, part 1
AmigaOS 4.0 - the fourth pre-release update
External links
2006 software
Amiga software
AmigaOS 4 software
Operating system distributions bootable from read-only media
PowerPC operating systems |
7285737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karachi%20Institute%20of%20Economics%20and%20Technology | Karachi Institute of Economics and Technology | Karachi Institute of Economics and Technology (KIET) () was established in 1997. KIET received recognition by the Higher Education Commission (formerly named UGC) vide letter no. 15-22/UGC-SEC/97/1291 dated 1 August 1998. HEC ranks KIET as 8th best university in Business/IT category.
KIET was awarded a degree-granting status through a charter from the government of Sindh on 24 May 2000. KIET has also been granted NCEAC Accreditation for its BSCS, MCS program.
History
In June 2000, Pakistan Air Force and Pakistan Educational Foundation agreed to collaborate for the establishment of an educational institution at PAF Korangi Creek Base.
1997–2000
The Karachi Institute of Economics and Technology was launched in 1997. Academic departments offering degrees in Management Science and Computer Science were established. The Department of Management Science offered BBA and MBA degrees with specializations in the fields of Management, Marketing, and Finance. Department of Computer Science offered BCS with majoring option for Software Engineering/Networking, MCS and MS–IT NCEAC accredited degrees.
2000–2003
In September 2000 the institute moved to its current location at PAF Base Korangi Creek. The campus is spread over .
The City campus of KIET was established in April 2002 to provide evening programs for the working students. The campus is located off Shahrah-e-Faisal near Nursery.
The North campus of KIET is located at North Nazimabad near KDA Chowrangi, Karachi. The North Campus offers Bachelors, Master, MPhil and PhD level degrees.
2003–2006
The departments of Management Sciences and Computer Sciences were elevated to the status of Colleges. The College of Computing & Information Sciences and the College of Management Sciences started offering advanced research oriented degree programs of MS and PhD. Specialization in MIS, Finance and Accounting were added.
Department of Corporate Relations and R&D Departments were launched.
Two more academic colleges were established; namely, the College of Engineering and the College of Humanities and Sciences. The College of Engineering offered a 4-year BE in Electronics with specialization in Electronics and Telecommunications, which has been converted into BE in Electrical with specialization of Electronics and Telecommunications. Additionally, the College offers BE(Mechatronics) and BE (Avionics). The College of Humanities & Social Sciences offers courses in Mathematics, English, Oral and Written Communication and Social Sciences areas.
In 2005 the institute added specializations in the BE in Electronics. These include Computer Systems, Avionics, and Industrial Electronics. MS in Telecommunication Engineering was also launched. In fall 2008 another specialization was added as Mechatronics
An program of Bachelor of Computer Arts (BCA) was launched.
2006–2019
KIET gets PEC Accreditation for its engineering programs and NCEAC accreditation for its Computer Science programs. HEC ranks KIET as a six-star university for its IT Department.
2020–present
Started using full legal name as brand with abbreviation "Karachi Institute of Economics and Technology (KIET)" in newspapers advert.
Colleges & Departments
College of Management Sciences
College of Engineering
College of Computing and Information Sciences
College of Media & Arts
Graduate School of Science and Engineering
College of Management Sciences
Programs
The College of Management offers programs leading to bachelor, master's degree and PHD degree in business administration and Aviation Management. The College offers a 4-year Bachelors of Business Administration degree with specialization in Marketing, Finance, Human Resource Management, logistic and supply chain management, Advertising and Media Management, customer relationship Management, project Management and Production and Operation Management
Market Forces
College of Management Sciences publishes twice a year, research journal recognized by HEC (Y-category).
IRCBM-2020
College of Management Sciences, organized "International Research Conference on Business & Management" (IRCBM-2020) on 1 & 2 April 2020. The theme of the conference was “Redefining Business Opportunities in Emerging Markets”.
College of Engineering
Programs
The College of Engineering offers programs leading to bachelor and master's degrees in Engineering. The college offers a 4-year Bachelor of Engineering degree in electrical engineering with specialization in telecommunication & electronics, Avionics and Mechatronics. The college offers a research-based Master of Science in the field of electronics engineering.
KIET also provides a College of Media Arts 4 year bachelor's degree in film Making, graphics Animation and one year master.
Research at CoE
MS program in Telecommunication Engineering has been designed to provide a framework for research by students and faculty.
There are several students involved in the MS research. Research is taking place in the following areas: Quality of Service for Voice over IP Networks, Mobile Ad hoc Networks, High Speed Data Services for Wireless Networks, MPLS Networks, Reachability and Stability in personal area networks, Security of wireless LANs, and wired and wireless communication devices. Several research papers have been published by the faculty in reputed journals, magazines and conferences.
Intellect 2019
College of Engineering, organized conference, "International Conference on Latest trends in Electrical Engineering and Computing Technologies (Intellect 2019)" on 13–14 November 2019 in Karachi.
Graduate School of Science and Engineering
Fire Fighting Robot!
Fire fighting robots developed by IMR Lab were tested at KIET along with the Pakistan Air Force firefighting team. Two robots were the wheeled mobile robot and the tread based robot. Alhamdulillah both the robots carried the fire hose directly connected from the fire brigade to the testing area and extinguish fire. The cost of the project is 14.68 million PKR funded by ICT RnD.
Guest Speaker Sessions
KIET holds guest speaker sessions. Professional researchers like Dr. Hanif Muhammad of DOW university and Dr.Syed Mehboob, Director Research Karachi Chamber of Commerce and Industry, gave presentations to the students.
References
http://www.digitallibrary.edu.pk/paf-kiet.html
External links
Universities and colleges in Karachi
Engineering universities and colleges in Pakistan |
58955273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiprocessor%20system%20architecture | Multiprocessor system architecture | A multiprocessor system is defined as "a system with more than one processor", and, more precisely, "a number of central processing units linked together to enable parallel processing to take place".
The key objective of a multiprocessor is to boost a system's execution speed. The other objectives are fault tolerance and application matching.
The term "multiprocessor" can be confused with the term "multiprocessing". While multiprocessing is a type of processing in which two or more processors work together to execute multiple programs simultaneously, multiprocessor refers to a hardware architecture that allows multiprocessing.
Multiprocessor systems are classified according to how processor memory access is handled and whether system processors are of a single type or various ones.
Multiprocessor system types
There are many types of multiprocessor systems:
Loosely coupled multiprocessor system
Tightly coupled multiprocessor system
Homogeneous multiprocessor system
Heterogeneous multiprocessor system
Shared memory multiprocessor system
Distributed memory multiprocessor system
Uniform memory access (UMA) system
cc–NUMA system
Hybrid system – shared system memory for global data and local memory for local data
Loosely-coupled (distributed memory) multiprocessor system
In loosely-coupled multiprocessor systems, each processor has its own local memory, input/output (I/O) channels, and operating system. Processors exchange data over a high-speed communication network by sending messages via a technique known as "message passing". Loosely-coupled multiprocessor systems are also known as distributed-memory systems, as the processors do not share physical memory and have individual I/O channels.
System characteristics
These systems are able to perform multiple-instructions-on-multiple-data (MIMD) programming.
This type of architecture allows parallel processing.
The distributed memory is highly scalable.
Tightly-coupled (shared memory) multiprocessor system
Multiprocessor system with a shared memory closely connected to the processors.
A symmetric multiprocessing system is a system with centralized shared memory called main memory (MM) operating under a single operating system with two or more homogeneous processors.
There are two types of systems:
Uniform memory-access (UMA) system
NUMA system
Uniform memory access (UMA) system
Heterogeneous multiprocessing system
Symmetric multiprocessing system (SMP)
Heterogeneous multiprocessor system
A heterogeneous multiprocessing system contains multiple, but not homogeneous, processing units – central processing units (CPUs), graphics processing units (GPUs), digital signal processors (DSPs), or any type of application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs). The system architecture allows any accelerator – for instance, a graphics processor – to operate at the same processing level as the system's CPU.
Symmetric multiprocessor system
Systems operating under a single OS (operating system) with two or more homogeneous processors and with a centralized shared main memory.
A symmetric multiprocessor system (SMP) is a system with a pool of homogeneous processors running under a single OS with a centralized, shared main memory. Each processor, executing different programs and working on different sets of data, has the ability to share common resources (memory, I/O device, interrupt system, and so on) that are connected using a system bus, a crossbar, or a mix of the two, or an address bus and data crossbar.
Each processor has its own cache memory that acts as a bridge between the processor and main memory. The function of the cache is to alleviate the need for main-memory data access, thus reducing system-bus traffic.
Use of shared memory allows for a uniform memory-access time (UMA).
cc-NUMA system
It is known that the SMP system has limited scalability. To overcome this limitation, the architecture called "cc-NUMA" (cache coherency–non-uniform memory access) is normally used. The main characteristic of a cc-NUMA system is having shared global memory that is distributed to each node, although the effective "access" a processor has to the memory of a remote component subsystem, or "node", is slower compared to local memory access, which is why the memory access is "non-uniform".
A cc–NUMA system is a cluster of SMP systems – each called a "node", which can have a single processor, a multi-core processor, or a mix of the two, of one or other kinds of architecture – connected via a high-speed "connection network" that can be a "link" that can be a single or double-reverse ring, or multi-ring, point-to-point connections, or a mix of these (e.g. IBM Power Systems), bus interconnection (e.g. NUMAq), "crossbar", "segmented bus" (NUMA Bull HN ISI ex Honeywell,) "mesh router", etc.
cc-NUMA is also called "distributed shared memory" (DSM) architecture.
The difference in access times between local and remote memory can be also an order of magnitude, depending on the kind of connection network used (faster in segmented bus, crossbar, and point-to-point interconnection; slower in serial rings connection).
Examples of interconnection
To overcome this limit, a large remote cache (see Remote cache) is normally used. With this solution, the cc-NUMA system becomes very close to a large SMP system.
Tightly-coupled versus loosely-coupled architecture
Both architectures have trade-offs which may be summarized as follows:
Loosely-coupled architectures feature high performances of each individual processor but do not enable for easy real-time balancing of the load among processors.
Tightly-coupled architectures feature easy load-balancing and distribution among processors but suffer from the bottleneck consisting in the sharing of common resources through one or more buses.
Multiprocessor system featuring global data multiplication
An intermediate approach, between those of the two previous architectures, is having common resources and local resources, such as local memories (LM), in each processor.
The common resources are accessible from all processors via the system bus, while local resources are only accessible to the local processor. Cache memories can be viewed in this perspective as local memories.
This system (patented by F. Zulian ), used on the DPX/2 300 Unix based system (Bull Hn Information Systems Italia (ex Honeywell)), is a mix of tightly and loosely coupled systems and makes use of all the advancements of these two architectures.
The local memory is divided into two sectors, global data (GD) and local data (LD).
The basic concept of this architecture is to have global data, which is modifiable information, accessible by all processors. This information is duplicated and stored in each local memory of each processor.
Each time the global data is modified in a local memory, a hardware write-broadcasting is sent to the system bus to all other local memories to maintain the global data coherency. Thus, global data may be read by each processor accessing its own local memory without involving the system bus. System bus access is only required when global data is modified in a local memory to update the copy of this data stored in the other local memories.
Local data can be exchanged in a loosely coupled system via message-passing
References
Parallel computing
Classes of computers |
7701005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apamea%20%28moth%29 | Apamea (moth) | Apamea is a genus of moths in the family Noctuidae first described by Ferdinand Ochsenheimer in 1816.
Some Apamea species are pest insects. The larval Apamea niveivenosa is a cutworm known as a pest of grain crops in North America. The larva of A. apamiformis is the rice worm, the most serious insect pest of cultivated wild rice in the Upper Midwest of the United States.
Selected species
Apamea acera (Smith, 1900)
Apamea albina (Grote, 1874)
Apamea alia (Guenée, 1852)
Apamea alpigena (Boisduval, [1837])
Apamea alticola (Smith, 1891)
Apamea altijuga (Kozhantshikov, 1925)
Apamea amputatrix (Fitch, 1857) – yellow-headed cutworm
Apamea anceps (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775) – large nutmeg
Apamea antennata (Smith, 1891)
Apamea apamiformis (Guenée, 1852) – rice worm, wild rice worm
Apamea aquila Donzel, 1837
Apamea arabs (Oberthür, 1881)
Apamea assimilis (Doubleday, 1847)
Apamea atriclava (Barnes & McDunnough, 1913)
Apamea atrosuffusa (Barnes & McDunnough, 1913) (syn. A. grotei (Barnes & McDunnough, 1914))
Apamea auranticolor (Grote, 1873)
Apamea baischi Hacker, 1989
Apamea barbara (Berio, 1940)
Apamea basimacula Boisduval, 1833
Apamea bernardino Mikkola & Mustelin 2000
Apamea boopis (Hampson, 1908)
Apamea brunnea (Leech, 1900)
Apamea brunnescens Kononenko, 1985
Apamea burgessi (Morrison, 1874)
Apamea caesia Hreblay & Ronkay, 1998
Apamea cariosa (Guenée, 1852) – nondescript dagger moth
Apamea centralis (Smith, 1891)
Apamea chalybeata (Walker, 1865)
Apamea chhiringi Hreblay, 1998
Apamea chinensis (Leech, 1900)
Apamea cinefacta (Grote, 1881)
Apamea cogitata (Smith, 1891) – thoughtful apamea
Apamea commixta (Butler, 1881)
Apamea commoda (Walker, 1857) – southern Quaker
Apamea commoda commoda (Walker, 1857)
Apamea commoda parcata (Smith, 1903)
Apamea commoda striolata Mikkola, 2009
Apamea concinna (Leech, 1900)
Apamea contradicta (Smith, 1895) – northern banded Quaker
Apamea crenata Hufnagel, 1766 – clouded-bordered brindle
Apamea cristata (Grote, 1878)
Apamea cuculliformis (Grote, 1875)
Apamea cyanea (Hampson, 1908)
Apamea desegaulxi Viette, 1928
Apamea devastator Brace, 1819 – glassy cutworm
Apamea digitula Mikkola and Mustelin, 2006
Apamea dubitans (Walker, 1856) – doubtful apamea
Apamea epomidion (Haworth, 1809) – clouded brindle
Apamea erythrographa Hreblay, Peregovits & Ronkay, 1999
Apamea euxinia Hacker, 1985
Apamea exstincta (Staudinger, 1892)
Apamea fasciata (Leech, 1900)
Apamea fergusoni Mikkola & Lafontaine, 2009
Apamea ferrago (Eversmann, 1837)
Apamea fervida (Hampson, 1908)
Apamea furva (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775) – the confused
Apamea gabrieli Mikkola & Mustelin 2000
Apamea ganeshi Hreblay, 1998
Apamea gangtoki Hreblay & Ronkay, 1998
Apamea geminimacula (Dyar, 1904)
Apamea genialis (Grote, 1874)
Apamea glenura (Swinhoe, 1895)
Apamea glenurina Hreblay & Ronkay, 1999
Apamea goateri Hacker, 2001
Apamea goperma Hreblay & Ronkay, 1999
Apamea gratissima Hreblay & Ronkay, 1999
Apamea griveaudi Viette, 1967
Apamea groenlandica (Duponchel, [1838])
Apamea hampsoni Sugi, 1963
Apamea heinickei Hreblay, 1998
Apamea helva (Grote, 1875) – yellow three-spot
Apamea illyria Freyer, 1846
Apamea impedita (Christoph, 1887)
Apamea impulsa (Guenée, 1852)
Apamea indocilis (Walker, 1856) – ignorant apamea
Apamea inebriata Ferguson, 1977 – drunk apamea
Apamea inficita (Walker, 1857) – lined Quaker
Apamea inordinata (Morrison, 1875)
Apamea kaszabi Varga, 1982
Apamea kumari Hreblay & Ronkay, 1999
Apamea lateritia (Hufnagel, 1766) – scarce brindle
Apamea leucodon (Eversmann, 1837)
Apamea lieni Hreblay, 1998
Apamea lignea (Butler, 1889)
Apamea lignicolora (Guenée, 1852) – wood-coloured Quaker
Apamea lintneri Grote, 1873
Apamea lithoxylaea Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775 – light arches
Apamea longula (Grote, 1879)
Apamea lutosa (Andrews, 1877) – opalescent apamea
Apamea lysis (Fawcett, 1917)
Apamea macronephra Berio, 1959
Apamea magnirena (Boursin, 1943)
Apamea maraschi (Draudt, 1934)
Apamea maroccana (Zerny, 1934)
Apamea maxima (Dyar, 1904)
Apamea michielii Varga, 1976
Apamea mikkolai Hreblay & Ronkay, 1998
Apamea minnecii (Berio, 1939)
Apamea minoica (Fibiger, Schmidt & Zilli, 2005)
Apamea monoglypha Hufnagel, 1766 – dark arches
Apamea nekrasovi Mikkola, Gyulai & Varga, 1997
Apamea nigrior (Smith, 1891) – black-dashed apamea, dark apamea
Apamea nigrostria Hreblay, Peregovits & Ronkay, 1999
Apamea niveivenosa (Grote, 1879) – snowy-veined apamea
Apamea nubila Moore, 1881
Apamea obliviosa (Walker, 1858)
Apamea oblonga (Haworth, 1809) – crescent striped
Apamea occidens (Grote, 1878) – western apamea
Apamea ontakensis Sugi, 1982
Apamea ophiogramma Esper, 1793 – double lobed
Apamea pallifera (Grote, 1877)
Apamea permixta Kononenko, 2006
Apamea perpensa (Grote, 1881)
Apamea perstriata (Hampson, 1908)
Apamea platinea (Treitschke, 1825)
Apamea plutonia (Grote, 1883) – dusky Quaker, dusky apamea
Apamea polyglypha (Staudinger, 1892)
Apamea pseudoaltijuga Grosser, 1985
Apamea purpurina (Hampson, 1908)
Apamea quinteri Mikkola & Lafontaine, 2009
Apamea rectificata Hreblay & Plante, 1995
Apamea relicina (Morrison, 1875)
Apamea relicina relicina (Morrison, 1875)
Apamea relicina migrata (Smith, [1904])
Apamea remissa Hübner, 1809 – dusky brocade
Apamea reseri Hreblay & Ronkay, 1998
Apamea robertsoni Mikkola and Mustelin, 2006
Apamea roedereri Viette, 1976
Apamea rubrirena (Treitschke, 1825)
Apamea rufa (Draudt, 1950)
Apamea rufomedialis (Marumo, 1920)
Apamea rufus (Chang, 1991)
Apamea sanyibaglya Hreblay & Ronkay, 1998
Apamea schawerdae (Draeseke, 1928)
Apamea scolopacina (Esper, 1788) – slender brindle
Apamea scoparia Mikkola, Mustelin & Lafontaine, 2000
Apamea shibuyoides Poole, 1989
Apamea sicula (Turati, 1909)
Apamea sinuata (Moore, 1882)
Apamea siskiyou Mikkola & Lafontaine, 2009
Apamea smythi Franclemont, 1952
Apamea sodalis (Butler, 1878)
Apamea sora (Smith, 1903)
Apamea sordens Hufnagel, 1766 – rustic shoulder-knot
Apamea spaldingi (Smith, 1909) – Spalding's Quaker
Apamea stagmatipennis (Dyar, 1920)
Apamea striata Haruta & Sugi, 1958
Apamea sublustris (Esper, [1788]) – reddish light arches
Apamea submarginata (Leech, 1900)
Apamea submediana (Draudt, 1950)
Apamea superba (Turati, 1926)
Apamea syriaca (Osthelder, 1932)
Apamea tahoeensis Mikkola & Lafontaine, 2009
Apamea taiwana (Wileman, 1914)
Apamea terranea (Butler, 1889)
Apamea unanimis (Hübner, [1813]) – small clouded brindle
Apamea unita (Smith, 1904)
Apamea verbascoides (Guenée, 1852) – boreal apamea, mullein apamea
Apamea veterina (Lederer, 1853)
Apamea vicaria (Püngeler, 1902)
Apamea vulgaris (Grote & Robinson, 1866) – common apamea
Apamea vultuosa (Grote, 1875) – airy apamea
Apamea walshi Lafontaine, 2009
Apamea wasedana Sugi, 1982
Apamea wikeri Quinter & Lafontaine, 2009
Apamea xylodes Mikkola & Lafontaine, 2009
Apamea zeta (Treitschke, 1825)
Former species
Apamea formosensis is now Leucapamea formosensis (Hampson, 1910)
Apamea mixta is now Melanapamea mixta (Grote, 1881)
References
Further reading
Butler (1881). Transactions of Entomological Society of London 1881: 174.
Apameini
Noctuoidea genera
Taxa named by Ferdinand Ochsenheimer |
54005030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IdentityForce | IdentityForce | IdentityForce, Inc. provides Identity Theft Protection software to consumers, businesses, organizations, and U.S. government agencies.
Headquartered in Framingham, Massachusetts, IdentityForce was founded by Bearak family members, Steven Bearak (brother) and Judy Leary (sister) in 2005.
IdentityForce was originally incorporated in Massachusetts, on October 30, 1978, as Stop-Loss Associates, Inc. a Sub Chapter S Corporation. On August 15, 2018 IdentityForce announced it was acquired as a subsidiary of EZShield. In June, 2019, EZShield and IdentityForce re-branded under parent company, Sontiq, Inc.
Early History (1978 – 1996)
In 1978, Herbert P. Bearak (patriarch of Bearak family) founded and incorporated Stop-Loss Associates, Inc., a Loss Prevention Analysis company, which included the development, implementation, and testing of security policy and procedure best practices as well as security equipment and systems.
In 1992, Bearak Reports was established as a Service Division of Stop-Loss Associates, Inc. Using credit and widely available non-credit information, the company sold a broad range of Asset Search, Background Screening, Business Intelligence and Public Record Information Services to Law Firms, Financial Services Companies, Government Agencies, and general corporate and private users.
In 1996, Stop-Loss Associates was acquired in an asset sale by the Marcom Group, with Herbert Bearak and other family members retaining 100% of the company’s stock and original Employer Identification Number (EIN). Following the sale the company officially changed its name to Bearak Reports, Inc.
In late 1996, The Privacy Group was launched as a Service Division of Bearak Reports, Inc. The Privacy Group created a toolkit to help consumers protect their personal privacy during the early years of the digital internet revolution.
Establishment of IdentityForce, Inc.
In 2006, Bearak Reports, Inc. launched IdentityForce, to serve companies and government agencies that experience a data breach. Shortly thereafter, public concern over the security of personal information stored by the federal government was raised when the U. S. Department of Veterans Affairs revealed that it had suffered a data breach that compromised the personal information of more than 28,650,000 active duty personnel and veterans. Subsequently, the U.S. General Services Administration] (GSA) awarded Bearak Reports, Inc., d/b/a IdentityForce a government-wide Federal Supply Schedule Blanket Purchase Agreement (BPA) for identity monitoring, and data breach response and protection services.
In 2011 and 2013 the company was awarded other Blanket Purchase Agreements for similar products. In 2015 IdentityForce, was awarded Tier One status as an approved provider of identity protection services for data breaches affecting over 21.5 million people. In 2016 Bearak Reports, Inc. officially changed its name to IdentityForce, Inc.
Acquisition by EZShield (2018)
On August 15, 2018, IdentityForce was acquired by EZShield, a portfolio company of the Wicks group, for an undisclosed amount. EZShield said the acquisition will expand its capabilities to offer digital security measures as cybercrime increases.
Rebrand Under Sontiq, Inc. (2019)
On June 26, 2019, IdentityForce merged with EZShield under a new name, Sontiq. The new combined company is headquartered in Framingham, Massachusetts. Brian J. Longe joined Sontiq in March 2020 as the company's President and CEO.
References
Companies based in Framingham, Massachusetts
American companies established in 2005 |
49177971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Phillips%20%28speech%20recognition%29 | Mike Phillips (speech recognition) | Michael Phillips (born August 1, 1961) is the CEO and co-founder of Sense Labs and a pioneer in machine learning, including mobile speech recognition and text-to-speech technology.
Education
Phillips was a student in electrical engineering at Carnegie Mellon University. He was also a researcher for Carnegie Mellon and then a research scientist at the Spoken Language Systems group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he helped to develop VOYAGER, an “urban navigation and exploration system” that could recognize and interpret basic spoken queries. VOYAGER was one of the first research systems to combine speech recognition and natural language processing to have a conversation with a user.
Career
In 1994, Phillips co-founded and became CTO of Boston-based SpeechWorks, which became one of the leading US-based vendors of speech recognition technology at the time, alongside Nuance Communications and IBM. The startup developed interactive voice response systems, including call-center interfaces for clients including Amtrak and FedEx. SpeechWorks’ technology worked for call-center interfaces because the customer could verbally answer questions posed by the human-sounding speech recognition program, rather than navigating through a menu. The technology also had time-saving “barge-in” capabilities, meaning that a customer could interrupt the system before it finished offering the full list of options. The system could also “learn.” It kept a record of names or phrases customers had used in the past so that it could learn to understand names and phrases that slightly differed from its original vocabulary.
SpeechWorks’ value more than tripled after its initial public offering, and it was acquired by ScanSoft in 2003. While Phillips was CTO at ScanSoft, he worked on technologies across the company's products, including the leading dictation software Dragon NaturallySpeaking. ScanSoft then acquired Nuance Communications in 2005, and adopted the latter's name.
Phillips returned to MIT as a visiting scientist and co-founded Vlingo in 2006, with former SpeechWorks colleague John Nguyen. An intelligent software assistant, Vlingo is a speech-to-text application integrated with user-facing apps for iPhone, Android, BlackBerry, and other smartphones. Vlingo software allowed users to text and navigate smartphones via voice recognition. The first cell phone speech recognition software that successfully interpreted user input and learned over time, the software would later be adapted into the popular personal assistant software Siri.
In 2008, Nuance Communications attempted to sue Vlingo on the grounds of patent infringement. Phillips was offered the choice to either sell Vlingo to Nuance or be sued. After six lengthy lawsuits, Phillips won, but the $3 million in legal fees drained his company's research and development funds. Vlingo was sold to Nuance in December 2011.
In 2013, Phillips co-founded a startup, Sense Labs. Headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Sense home energy monitor is an in-development device. Once attached to a home's electric panel, it “listens” to a home's electricity usage and identifies the wattage various appliances draw. The first wave of Sense energy monitors began shipping in early December 2015.
Phillips has served on various boards and holds more than 20 patents.
Awards
2004: Top Leader in Speech from Speech Technology Magazine
2005: Winner of the Speech Technology Magazine Lifetime Achievement Award
Selected works
References
American chief executives
American chief technology officers
Carnegie Mellon University College of Engineering alumni
1961 births
Living people |
21775255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal%20Desktop%20Core%20Configuration | Federal Desktop Core Configuration | The Federal Desktop Core Configuration is a list of security settings recommended by the National Institute of Standards and Technology for general-purpose microcomputers that are connected directly to the network of a United States government agency.
The FDCC is a list of agreed upon Microsoft Windows operating system common core system functions, applications, files, and services that are changed in their configuration around which a framework for a more secure, and security-reliable MS Windows operating system was created. The standards were then made mandatory for every federal government computer effective Feb 1, 2008. If you wanted to connect to a federal office computer network your system had to meet or exceed the FDCC standard or you were denied access.
FDCC applied only to Windows XP and Vista desktop and laptop computers and was replaced by the United States Government Configuration Baseline (USGCB), which included settings for Windows 7 and Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5.
For Windows 7, the NIST changed the naming convention to the US Government Computer Baseline (USGCB ver 2.0). In addition to un-classifying a general Windows settings guide, the NIST also publishes guides specifically for Windows Firewall, Internet Explorer, and a guide (Vista-Energy, for example) created to capture settings that adhere to energy conservation policies.
History
On 20 March 2007, the Office of Management and Budget issued a memorandum instructing United States government agencies to develop plans for using the Microsoft Windows XP and Vista security configurations. The United States Air Force common security configurations for Windows XP were proposed as an early model on which standards could be developed.
The FDCC baseline was developed (and is maintained) by the National Institute of Standards and Technology in collaboration with OMB, DHS, DOI, DISA, NSA, USAF and Microsoft, with input from public comment. It applies to Windows XP Professional and Vista systems only—these security policies are not tested (and according to the NIST, will not work) on Windows 9x/ME/NT/2000 or Windows Server 2003.
Major Version 1.1 (released 31 October 2008) had no new or changed settings, but expanded SCAP reporting options. As with all previous versions, the standard is applicable to general-purpose workstations and laptops for end users. Windows XP and Vista systems in use as servers are exempt from this standard. Also exempt are embedded computers and "special purpose" systems (defined as specialized scientific, medical, process control, and experimental systems), though still recommends that FDCC security configuration be considered "where feasible and appropriate".
The FDCC settings, generally speaking, block open connections in operating systems, disables functions, disables rarely used applications in the SOHO environment, disables unnecessary services, changes permissions on items, changes the way log files are collected and recorded, affects Group Policy Object (GPO) settings, and alters entries in the Windows system registry.
InfoWeek introduced the FDCC to mostly administrators and engineers with the article titled ‘The Feds Don’t Allow It. Should You?’ written by Kelly Jackson Higgins of DarkReading.com and published on February 4, 2008.
Due to the complexity of the guidelines response initially was slow. Implementation took time while the settings were internally researched by both government and enterprise implementation techs. The NIST and the NSA published guidelines in hundreds-of-page texts and introduced what they called SCAP files for applications. (See Wikipedia SCAP page)
The Windows platform was built for easy interoperability and networking and therefore left opportunities within the operating systems for all types of auto- and semi-automatic connections to other computers. These weren’t flaws or programming mistakes, it was purposefully built that way. An example of this can be found by looking at the Windows Remote Connection program which is enabled by default after a typical Windows operating system installation. The FDCC/USGCB configuration, for instance, reverses that setting so that you have to manually re-enable to allow remote connections.
Requirements
Organizations required to document FDCC compliance can do so by using SCAP tools.
There are 600+ settings in the average FDCC/USGCB document – but not all of them are usable for the average small or home office (SOHO) computer. For instance, released on 20 June 2008, FDCC Major Version 1.0 specifies 674 settings. For example, "all wireless interfaces should be disabled". In recognition that not all recommended settings will be practical for every system, exceptions (such as "authorized enterprise wireless networks") can be made if documented in an FDCC deviation report.
Strict implementation of all of the recommended settings has been known to cause usability issues. The NIST publishes a list of known issues and it can be found here (https://usgcb.nist.gov/usgcb/microsoft_content.html). There are a few third-party software vendors that have emerged that claim to have tested settings in a SOHO environment however, at this time, the general public still remains relatively unaware of the FDCC and USGCB security settings developed and put forward by the NIST.
External links
References
Computer security |
10200687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L.%20Jean%20Camp | L. Jean Camp | L. Jean Camp (born in Charlotte, North Carolina) is a professor at the Indiana University School of Informatics and Computing. She was previously an associate professor at the John F. Kennedy School of Government, before which she was at Sandia National Laboratories. She is best known for her work which combines computer security and the social sciences. In particular her work on Economics of security dates from 2001. She was an original participant in the Workshops on Economics of Information Security.
Camp is a graduate of the Engineering and Public Policy Program from Carnegie Mellon, where she completed her doctoral research on Internet Commerce. She has over one hundred forty additional works. These are focused primarily on security, privacy and trust; although there is early work on the opposition to censoring women's health information. Her work in opposing censorship arose from her activism with Donna Riley for free information while they were students at Carnegie Mellon during the CyberPorn Scare.
In 2016, Camp was a part of a small computer group which was involved in analysis of various DNS logs, making a relation between Trump Organization and Alfa Bank. She has published the details of her finding at her website, including a graph which shows the timeline of the connections made between the two parties. She also advocated against the subpoena filed by Alfa Bank requiring to identify the security researchers, who initially found the logs. In November 2020, the Indiana Court quashed the subpoena filed by Alfa Bank resulting in the identites of the researchers being kept a secret.
Her research on open code, internet governance, and internet diffusion in developing countries primarily dates from her time at the Kennedy School. More recent work on Internet Governance addresses the full allocation of the v4 space.
Currently she has three major projects. The first is risk communication using mental models in order to inform security; the second is measuring and communicating risk using a formal mission framework; and the third is security of SDN. Her recently completed projects address macroeconomic indicators of ecrime; and privacy perception in considering both true and perceived risks.
Camp is the author of Trust and Risk in Internet Commerce, Economics of Medical and Financial Identity Theft and the editor of Economics of Information Security. She coined the term anonymous atomic transactions by resolving the conflict between anonymity and Atomicity (database systems). Camp is also the Indiana University Representation for the Institute for Information Infrastructure Protection.
Camp is a lead researcher in the ETHOS project - Ethical Technology in the Homes Of Seniors which focuses on designing security and privacy-aware technologies for elders.
Camp was an Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IEEE Congressional Fellow in 2010, under the aegis of the American Association for the Advancement of Science Science and Technology Fellowship Program. She served as the Legislative Assistant in military, telecommunications, and intellectual property in North Carolina's 2nd congressional district.
Camp is a Senior Member of the IEEE, on the US Association for Computing Machinery Council, long-standing member of the IEEEUSA, and was one of the Internet engineers who were early objectors to SOPA. She was named a 2021 ACM Fellow "for contributions to computer security and e-crime measures".
Bibliography
Trust and Risk in Internet Commerce ()
Economics of Identity Theft ()
editor, Economics of Information Security ()
References
External links
School of Informatics and Computing
Belfer Center
Economics of Information Security
Harvard Kennedy School faculty
Indiana University faculty
Computer security academics
Living people
Sandia National Laboratories people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery |
15794879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum%20digital%20signature | Quantum digital signature | A Quantum Digital Signature (QDS) refers to the quantum mechanical equivalent of either a classical digital signature or, more generally, a handwritten signature on a paper document. Like a handwritten signature, a digital signature is used to protect a document, such as a digital contract, against forgery by another party or by one of the participating parties.
As e-commerce has become more important in society, the need to certify the origin of exchanged information has arisen. Modern digital signatures enhance security based on the difficulty of solving a mathematical problem, such as finding the factors of large numbers (as used in the RSA algorithm). Unfortunately, the task of solving these problems becomes feasible when a quantum computer is available (see Shor's algorithm). To face this new problem, new quantum digital signature schemes are in development to provide protection against tampering, even from parties in possession of quantum computers and using powerful quantum cheating strategies.
Classical public-key method
The public-key method of cryptography allows a sender to sign a message (often only the cryptographic hash of the message) with a sign key in such a way that any recipient can, using the corresponding public key, check the authenticity of the message. To allow this, the public key is made broadly available to all potential recipients. To make sure only the legal author of the message can validly sign the message, the public key is created from a random, private sign key, using a one-way function. This is a function that is designed such that computing the result given the input is very easy, but computing the input given the result is very difficult. A classic example is the multiplication of two very large primes: The multiplication is easy, but factoring the product without knowing the primes is normally considered infeasible.
easy
very difficult
Quantum Digital Signature
Like classical digital signatures, quantum digital signatures make use of asymmetric keys. Thus, a person who wants to sign a message creates one or more pairs of sign and corresponding public keys. In general we can divide quantum digital signature schemes into two groups:
A scheme that creates a public quantum-bit key out of a private classical bit string:
A scheme that creates a public quantum-bit key out of a private quantum bit string:
In both cases f is a one-way quantum function that has the same properties as a classical one-way function.
That is, the result is easy to compute, but, in contrast to the classical scheme, the function is impossible to invert, even if one uses powerful quantum cheating strategies.
The most famous scheme for the first method above is provided by Gottesman and Chuang
Requirements for a good and usable signature scheme
Most of the requirements for a classical digital signature scheme also apply to the quantum digital signature scheme.
In detail
The scheme has to provide security against tampering by
The sender after the message was signed (see bit commitment)
The receiver
A third party
Creating a signed message has to be easy
Every recipient has to get the same answer, when testing the message for validity (Valid, Non-Valid)
Differences between classical and quantum one-way functions
Nature of the one-way function
A classical one-way function as said above is based on a classical infeasible mathematical task, whereas a quantum one-way function exploits the uncertainty principle which makes it impossible even for a quantum computer to compute the inverse.
This is done by providing a quantum output state, with whom one cannot learn enough about the input string to reproduce it.
In case of the first group of schemes this is shown by Holevo's theorem, which says, that from a given n-qubit quantum state one cannot extract more than n classical bits of information.
One possibility to ensure that the scheme uses less qubits for a bit string of a certain length is by using nearly orthogonal states
That gives us the possibility to induce a basis with more than two states.
So to describe an information of bits, we can use less than n qubits.
An example with a 3 qubit basis
Only m qubits are needed to describe n classical bits when holds.
Because of Holevo's theorem and the fact, that m can be much smaller than n, we can only get m bits out of the n bits message. More general, if one gets T copies of the public key he can extract at most Tm bits of the private key.
If is big becomes very large, which makes it impossible for a dishonest person to guess the sign key.
Note: You cannot distinguish between non-orthogonal states, if you only have a small amount of identical states. That's how the quantum one-way functions works.
Nevertheless leaks information about the private key, in contrast to the classical public key, which forces one to get nothing or all about the private key.
Copying the public key
In the classical case we create a classical public key out of a classical sign key, thus it is easy to provide every potential recipient with a copy of the public key. The public key can be freely distributed.
This becomes more difficult in the quantum case, because copying a quantum state is forbidden by the no cloning theorem, as long as the state itself is unknown.
So public keys can only be created and distributed by a person who knows the exact quantum state he wants to create, thus who knows the sign key (This can be the sender or in more general a trustful institution).
Nevertheless, in contrast to the classical public key there is an upper bound for the number of public quantum keys T which can be created, without enabling one to guess the sign key and thus endangering the security of the scheme ( has to be big)
Public Key should be the same for every recipient (Swap Test)
To make sure that every recipient gets identical results when testing the authenticity of a message, public keys distributed have to be the same.
This is straightforward in the classical case, because one can easily compare two classical bit strings and see if those match.
Nevertheless, in the quantum state it is more complicated.
To test, if two public quantum states are the same one has to compare the following
This is done with the following quantum circuit which uses one Fredkin gate F, one Hadamard gate H and an ancilla qubit a.
First of all the ancilla qubit is set to a symmetric state .
Right after the ancilla qubit is used as a control on the targets and in a Fredkin Gate.
Furthermore, a Hadamard gate is applied on the ancilla qubit and finally the first qubit gets measured.
If both states are the same, the result is measured.
If both states are nearly orthogonal, the result can be either or .
The calculation of the swap test in more detail:
The overall state
After the Fredkin gate is applied
After the Hadamard gate is applied on the first qubit
After sorting for
Now it is easy to see, if the states then , which gives us a 0 whenever it is measured.
An example of a signing-validation process using a simplified Gottesman-Chuang scheme
Signing Process
Let Person A (Alice) want to send a message to Person B (Bob).
Hash algorithms won't be considered, so Alice has to sign every single bit of her message. Message-Bit b .
Alice chooses M pairs of private keys
All the keys will be used to sign the message-bit if b = 0.
All the keys will be used to sign the message-bit if b = 1.
The function which maps is known to all parties.
Alice now computes the corresponding public keys and gives all of them to the recipients. She can make as many copies as she needs, but has to take care, not to endanger the security .
Her level of security limits the number of identical public keys she can create
If
message-bit b = 0, she sends all her private keys along with the message-bit b to Bob
message-bit b = 1, she sends all her private keys along with the message-bit b to Bob
Remember: In this example Alice picks only one bit b and signs it. She has to do that for every single bit in her message
Validation Process
Bob now possesses
The message-bit b
The corresponding private keys
All public keys
Now Bob calculates for all received private keys (either ).
After he has done so he makes use of the swap test to compare the calculated states with the received public keys.
Since the swap test has some probability to give the wrong answer he has to do it for all the M keys and counts how many incorrect keys he gets r. It is obvious, that M is some kind of a security parameter. It is more unlikely to validate a bit wrong for bigger M.
If he only gets a few incorrect keys, then the bit is most probably valid, because his calculated keys and the public keys seem to be the same.
If he gets many incorrect keys, then somebody faked the message with high probability.
Avoid a message to be validated differently
One problem which arises especially for small M is, that the number of incorrect keys different recipients measure differ with probability. So to define only one threshold is not enough, because it would cause a message to be validated differently, when the number of incorrect keys r is very close to the defined threshold.
This can be prevented by defining more than one threshold.
Because the number of errors increase proportional with M, the thresholds are defined like
Acceptance
Rejection
If the number of incorrect keys r is below , then the bit is valid with high probability
If the number of incorrect keys r is above , then the bit is faked with high probability
If the number of incorrect keys r is in-between both thresholds, then the recipient cannot be sure, if another recipient gets the same outcome, when validating the bit. Furthermore, he can't be even sure, if he validated the message right.
If we assume perfect channels without noise, so the bit can't be changed due to the transfer, then the threshold can be set to zero, because the swap test passes always, when the compared states are the same
Message authentication
Message authentication codes (MACs) mainly aim at data origin authentication, but they can also provide non-repudiation in certain realistic scenarios when a trusted third party is involved. In principle, the same idea can be exploited in the framework of quantum MACs. However, a broad class of quantum MACs does not seem to offer any advantage over their classical counterparts.
See also
Lamport signature - A practical digital signature method invented in the 1970s and believed to be secure even against quantum computing attacks.
Quantum cryptography
Quantum fingerprinting
References
Digital signature schemes
Key management
Quantum information science
Theoretical computer science |
69024956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cher%20Scarlett | Cher Scarlett | Cher Scarlett (born ) is an American software engineer. She is known for her workers' rights activism and organizing at Apple, Activision Blizzard, and Starbucks. She was a leader of the #AppleToo movement, which gathers and shares stories of mistreatment from current and former Apple employees, and filed complaints against the company with the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) and U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).
Early life and education
Scarlett was born in Walla Walla, Washington, and grew up in Kirkland with her mother, who worked in construction. Her father and step-father were mostly absent from her life. She said she grew up poor, coming from generational poverty in a family of farm laborers that settled in Eastern Washington descended from the Volga Germans.
She attended Juanita High School in the early 2000s, and says she earned a nearly perfect score on the SAT. Scarlett was interested in science and video gaming, and says she wanted to be a scientist and go to space after being a junior astronaut and studying biotechnology while in school. She taught herself to code during middle school, creating a website for her guild in EverQuest and continued experimenting with web development on the blogging platform LiveJournal.
Scarlett experienced sexual abuse at a young age, and when she was in high school began battling drug addiction, eventually dropping out and attempting to overdose. Prior to starting her career, Scarlett worked as a stripper, but says getting pregnant prompted her to change her life.
Career and activism
2007–2015
In 2007, Scarlett worked briefly in a web development position at a real-estate firm. She worked as a freelance developer until 2011, when she was recruited as a web developer at USA Today, where her manager referred to her as a "talented developer".
Activision Blizzard (2015–2016)
In 2015, Scarlett was hired as a software engineer at Activision Blizzard and worked on their Battle.net platform. While there, she pressed the human resources department on gender-based pay discrimination and sexism she had observed. She said that her manager and she developed the games publisher's first interactive esports brackets and esports data API, and her manager told The Washington Post that she was an "incredibly driven" employee and "shows passion with every project she works on and she doesn't stop until she gets it right."
Scarlett left Blizzard in 2016, and in 2021, provided testimony to the California Department of Fair Employment and Housing as part of a lawsuit alleging systemic discrimination, sexual harassment, and retaliation. Scarlett encouraged others to come forward, helped direct them to the agency, and later supported a walkout staged by current workers. Scarlett alleged in the amended lawsuit she was groped by Alex Afrasiabi, a former developer of World of Warcraft (WoW), at a work event, who was named as "a blatant example" of Blizzard's "refusal to deal with a harasser because of his seniority/position," and that she had been told by a friend that he had done the same to her the year prior at BlizzCon. Afrasiabi was fired in 2020.
Scarlett spoke publicly about what she alleged to be poor treatment of female employees through underpayment, sexual harassment, and abuse. Scarlett alleged that she was unfairly reprimanded, touched inappropriately, and sexually harassed on a regular basis. Scarlett and others referred to the behavior described in the lawsuit as normalized at the company, Scarlett saying, "this behavior was normal and protected here". She outed the unnamed chief technology officer (CTO) from the lawsuit as Ben Kilgore in a series of tweets, claiming he had been the subject of numerous complaints about inappropriate behavior, some of which had also been reported to authorities years earlier. This was later corroborated by Bloomberg and The Wall Street Journal. Kilgore was terminated in 2018.
She also spoke about what she said was improper handling of a 2018 incident when she outed one of Overwatch League's unpaid moderators for previously hoarding and distributing revenge porn. The moderator was removed from his role without notice, and his public complaints about the company's treatment of volunteer workers went viral, gaining significant sympathy from the community. A few hours later, Scarlett wrote a Medium post about her history with the moderator, dating back to 2012 when Twitch was still small and she livestreamed WoW. The moderator initially denied the allegations, but later retracted his denial and apologized. Blizzard later dissolved community moderation teams.
Scarlett criticized working in a "dream job" like Blizzard. She said that because of the sacrifices employees make to get there, "you ignore everything that's happening because you want to be there so badly" and "you stop seeing things that are bad as bad." The company said it appreciated Scarlett's bravery in coming forward, and said they were prioritizing equity and safety in the workplace.
2016–2020
Scarlett joined World Wide Technology in 2016, working there until 2017, when she was recruited at Starbucks as a lead software engineer, where she worked remotely from Greater St. Louis, Missouri. At Starbucks, she joined a successful campaign to address gender-based pay disparities. After leaving in 2019 to work at Webflow, she wrote about what she alleged to be a practice at Starbucks of paying lower wages to workers in areas that were predominantly Black or had high proportions of underrepresented groups. She continued to write, primarily advocating for equity in tech, and became a maintainer for a website that advocates for healthy work–life balance in tech, 1x.engineer, a play on the heavily stereotyped idea of a "10x engineer".
Apple (2020–2021)
In April 2020, Scarlett began working as a principal software engineer on Apple's software security team, where she worked remotely from St. Louis, and later, the Seattle metropolitan area.
A year into her employment, Scarlett got involved in workplace activism in the company's Slack, which was repeatedly leaked to the press. Scarlett became the most vocal, public-facing advocate for workplace issues at Apple, where employees previously rarely spoke to the media, especially about the company's "unprecedented" secretive culture. Scarlett was credited for inspiring others to speak out, but was also criticized for breaking the company's unwritten rules, such as not speaking unsolicited about Apple publicly. She said that while hundreds of people asked for help with concerns around pay equity, discrimination, and restrictive work-from-home policies, she was also accused of ruining the company’s culture. Scarlett said that Apple's "cult-like" and "self-policing" culture of loyalty and secrecy has discouraged employees from speaking out, and told The New York Times, "Never have I met people more terrified to speak out against their employer".
Scarlett requested medical leave in September 2021, saying that harassment from colleagues began to affect her mental health. She said that while discussing her request, Apple asked her to stop discussing the company publicly. She said she felt forced to comply, and was subsequently granted paid time off (PTO) instead of medical leave. Scarlett described several incidents of harassment from colleagues at Apple, including a "nasty email" from a teammate she tried unsuccessfully to address with their manager, accusations of leaking confidential information, anonymous hateful messages on various platforms, obscene submissions to her compensation survey, and an incident of doxing on Blind. Though the company helped her take safety precautions, Scarlett said that Apple enabled the abuse by not condemning the behavior.
On November 19, 2021, after briefly returning to work, Scarlett quit, later alleging she was isolated, intimidated and retaliated against, after filing NLRB and SEC complaints against the company.
Antonio García Martínez
In May 2021, Scarlett tweeted that she was "gutted" by the hiring of Antonio García Martínez, and that she "believe[d] in leadership to do the right thing". García Martínez had previously written in a book that women in the Bay Area were "soft and weak, cosseted and naive". Scarlett edited a letter that a group of employees had drafted to send to management, which spoke out against the hire as not being aligned with Apple's diversity and inclusion (D&I) policies and made a list of demands. After the letter leaked to the press, Scarlett's tweet about García Martínez appeared in Bloomberg, which she said triggered an onset of abuse, based on misconceptions that she had written the letter.
Scarlett said she was contacted by the company's public relations department, who seemed only interested in suppressing bad publicity. She gave a quote to CNN, saying she "trust[ed] in Apple's culture", but the hire was "starkly contradictory" of her feelings. Garcia Martinez was quickly fired, and Apple commented that "Behavior that demeans or discriminates against people for who they are has no place [at Apple]."
Remote work advocacy
Around June 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Apple announced they would be requiring most employees to return to working in the office several days a week. Scarlett helped to lead employees in organizing to be allowed to continue working remotely. Scarlett tweeted about the importance of remote work for disabled employees, caregivers, and workers from poverty. She encouraged some colleagues to request accommodations under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 to continue working from home. She later tweeted a medical release form she was given, which gave the company access to medical records normally protected by Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, which made Scarlett and other employees uncomfortable.
Apple responded to the group’s requests for more flexible remote work policies stating that "in-person collaboration is essential" to the company’s culture and future. Scarlett criticized the company’s response saying, "There’s this idea that people skateboarding around tech campuses are bumping into each other and coming up with great new inventions. That’s just not true," pointing to the company's already-distributed workforce.
Apple's return-to-work plans were later delayed indefinitely due to surging COVID-19 cases.
#AppleToo movement and Apple Together
Scarlett, along with Janneke Parrish, was a leader of the #AppleToo movement. In August 2021, the group created a website and Medium page, on which they posted anonymous reports of mistreatment, including verbal and sexual abuse, retaliation, discrimination, poor working conditions, and unequal pay experienced by Apple employees and contractors. Scarlett said the group received over 600 stories from employees. Parrish was later fired, and the group started more formally organizing as Apple Together, where Scarlett and Parrish are reportedly supporting retail unionization efforts. Organizers said that they are not being paid fairly for the work they are doing, and that many are struggling to survive. Scarlett asked The Washington Post, "If the richest company in the world won’t pay its workers enough to live, who will?"
Apple has said that they trust in their "framework for the implementation and oversight of [Apple's] human rights commitments", and that they have "always strived to create an inclusive, welcoming workplace where everyone is respected and accepted".
Pay equity and NLRB charge
On September 1, 2021, Scarlett filed a charge with the NLRB, alleging that Apple had violated the law in stopping employees from discussing their salaries and gathering data to examine racial or gender-based wage gaps. A month prior, she launched a wage transparency survey at the company, after the company shut down previous attempts by other employees. It gained over 3,000 submissions.
Scarlett and the company reached a non-board settlement in November 2021, which included a severance of one year's pay to be split with her attorneys, and withdrawal of the charge, under the condition that Apple make a "public, visible affirmation" that employees could freely discuss workplace conditions and pay. In December, Scarlett said that Apple had not made changes to the settlement requested by the NLRB, and the withdrawal was subsequently denied by the agency. The company posted the stipulated notice, but only during the week of Thanksgiving, which Apple had given the entire company off. As a result, she said that Apple had not upheld the agreement, and she would not be making another request to withdraw the charge. As of February 2022, the charge was still being investigated by the agency.
Scarlett's allegations with the NLRB, along with other employee activism around D&I, prompted SOC Investment Group, Trillium Asset Management, and Service Employees International Union to introduce a shareholder proposal for a "civil-rights audit." The proposal cited diversity statistics, and alleged that the company's public philanthropy in racial justice is not reflected in the company's own workforce, writing, "It is unclear how Apple plans to address racial inequality in its workforce," and Scarlett said the company's "behavior is not reflective of the mission and values they portray to their shareholders and the public." She said charts she tweeted showed "alarming" trends, alleging "white men have much more opportunities to advance within the company, and are more likely to be working in technical roles". She said her coworkers wanted "a third-party investigation into salary data, or an audit that [employees] have insight into." Apple recommended shareholders vote against the proposal.
Apple has stated that they examine compensation annually and ensure that they maintain pay equity, and that "underrepresented communities represent nearly half of the U.S. workforce".
NDA and SEC whistleblowing
On October 25, 2021, Scarlett filed a whistleblower complaint with the SEC over Apple's statements in a no-action letter claiming that the company does not use non-disclosure agreements" (NDAs) in the context of harassment, discrimination, and other unlawful acts." Scarlett provided the SEC with the NDA that Apple had included as a part of a separation agreement, which she had refused to sign. In the complaint, Scarlett alleged that Apple had tried to stipulate that she describe her choice to "leav[e] the company [as] being a personal decision, rather than fleeing a hostile work environment". Ashley Gjøvik, a former program manager at Apple, also filed a complaint, saying she believed Apple had made false statements. Apple's no-action request was subsequently denied by the SEC.
Scarlett received less than half a year's severance, and received notice Apple would not be paying her attorneys, or making future severance and COBRA payments, because she "repeatedly" breached her NDA. The letter also stated Apple was "preserving its right to seek liquidated damage for each separate breach", to which Scarlett said, "I don't have anything for them to take". In an essay for The Olympian, Scarlett, along with Gretchen Carlson and Julie Roginsky, who had both signed NDAs in settlements with Fox News, described a financial cost to speaking out and being driven from their careers and urged Washington to pass legislature making such NDAs illegal.
After leaving Apple in November 2021, Scarlett accepted a position with the nonprofit Seattle Cancer Care Alliance. During her background screening, it was discovered that Apple had furnished her job title incorrectly as "associate" to Equifax's employment verification databases, causing a delay in her hiring, and eventually the job offer being rescinded. A lawyer, Laurie Burgess, said the practice of reporting false job titles, which it follows for all past employees, may be illegal. Scarlett filed a retaliation complaint with the SEC, which is reportedly being investigated, along with her previous tip, after eight state officials urged the agency to look into Scarlett's allegations.
2021–present
Scarlett is on the Tech Worker Committee of The Solidarity Fund, an emergency fund for Apple and Netflix workers involved with organizing. The fund was created by Liz Fong-Jones and Coworker.org. Of the fund, Scarlett said, "There’s a solidarity movement happening and there are hundreds of people from different parts of the company that are coming together to support the most vulnerable". In December 2021, Apple Together advertised the fund to encourage workers to strike in solidarity with workers at a retail store in Jacksonville, Florida. According to Jess Kutch, who co-founded Coworker.org, the call to action resulted in a real time increase of "significantly large" contributions from Apple employees.
Legislation
In 2021, Scarlett was assisted by Ifeoma Ozoma in lobbying for legislation in her home state of Washington similar to the Silenced No More Act, a bill Ozoma worked on with California lawmakers that prevents employers from silencing whistleblowers. Scarlett worked with Senator Karen Keiser and House Representative Liz Berry on bills presented to the Washington State Senate and Washington House of Representatives in the 2022 Washington State Legislature session.
On January 18, 2022, Scarlett, along with Chelsey Glasson, who was also credited with inspiring the bills, testified in support of HB 1795. Scarlett testified in support of the bill a second time, on February 17, 2022, after the bill was passed through the House. Scarlett argued that confidentiality clauses make "corporations the judges and juries of their own wrongdoing". Of her testimony, Scarlett said the legislation was needed to "eradicate abuses that fester in tech," but also in other industries, like Washington's agriculture industry, which is among the state's largest economy drivers. Testimony from the Deputy Director of Columbia Legal Services, Blanca Rodriguez, expanded how NDAs are used to silence farm laborers. Scarlett also provided similar testimony to for SB 5520.
Personal life
, Scarlett resided in Kirkland with her child, and was married, but did not reside with her husband and his child. She has Bipolar I disorder and ADHD.
Scarlett is active on Twitter, where she is known for her advocacy for marginalized groups.
See also
Timnit Gebru
Chris Smalls
Sophie Zhang
Jaz Brisack
Emma Kinema
References
External links
1980s births
21st-century American activists
21st-century American women activists
21st-century American women writers
21st-century American writers
Activists from Washington (state)
American lobbyists
American people of German descent
American social activists
American social justice activists
American software engineers
American trade unionists of German descent
American whistleblowers
American women activists
American women engineers
American women scientists
American women's rights activists
American women trade unionists
Apple Inc. employees
Blizzard Entertainment people
Computer programmers
Living people
People from Kirkland, Washington
People from Walla Walla, Washington
People with bipolar disorder
People with mental disorders
People with mood disorders
Software engineers
Starbucks people
Trade unionists from Washington (state)
USA Today people
Video game developers
Web developers
Workers' rights activists
Writers from Kirkland, Washington
Volga German people
Year of birth missing (living people) |
18187459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficus%20insipida | Ficus insipida | Ficus insipida is a common tropical tree in the fig genus of the family Moraceae growing in forest habitats along rivers. It ranges from Mexico to northern South America.
Taxonomy
The tree was described in 1806 under the scientific name Ficus insipida (literally "insipid fig") by Carl Ludwig Willdenow, having studied the herbarium specimens collected in Caracas by the gardener Franz Bredemeyer in the 1780s during the . Willdenow reports its fruit are tasteless. Incongruously, among the many species of figs to grow in the region, this species is in fact recognisable by its large and sweet figs (when ripe).
In the 1960 Flora of Panama, Gordon P. DeWolf Jr. lumped the species F. adhatodifolia and F. crassiuscula as synonyms of F. insipida, but his taxonomic interpretation was not followed by subsequent authorities.
Ficus expert Cees Berg distinguished two allopatric or almost allopatric subspecies in 1984:
Ficus insipida subsp. insipida Willd. - Largely glabrous twigs, leaves and petioles. Occurs in Mesoamerica, the Caribbean, Venezuela to Bolivia.
Ficus insipida subsp. scabra C.C.Berg - Much hairier plant. Occurs in the Guianas, from Venezuela to northeast Brazil.
With about 750 species, Ficus (Moraceae) is one of the largest angiosperm genera. F. insipida is classified in subgenus Pharmacosycea, section Pharmacosycea, subsection Bergianae (for which it is the type species), along with F. adhatodifolia, F. carchiana, F. crassiuscula, F. gigantosyce, F. lapathifolia, F. mutisii, F. oapana (spec. nov.? ined.), F. obtusiuscula, F. piresiana, F. rieberiana and F. yoponensis. Although recent work suggests that subgenus Pharmacosycea is polyphyletic, section Pharmacosycea appears to be monophyletic and is a sister group to the rest of the genus Ficus.
Mysteriously, genetic testing of a single individual of the three fig species F. maxima, F. tonduzii and F. yoponensis, each collected on Barro Colorado Island in Panama, found each species to be phylogenetically nestled within F. insipida. All four species occur together in a similar large range, but nonetheless, these species are quite easily differentiated morphologically. Strangely, in the case of the F. maxima and F. tonduzii specimens, these were nestled within a different haplotype, with an Amazonian distribution, as opposed to clustering within the haplotype found contemporaneously in Panama. An explanation for this is not readily apparent: the species may have recently evolved from F. insipida, although this would seem unlikely, or perhaps all three specimens just happened to be hybrids, another unlikely possibility.
Description
This is a tree with buttress roots that ranges from tall. Because this is a pioneer species which quickly colonises secondary forest, and it is also a fast-growing species which can grow into a massive tree in only 100 years or so, it is generally readily recognisable as the largest trees in such secondary woodlands.
Leaves vary shape from narrow to ellipse-shaped; they range from long and from wide.
Similar species
In Costa Rica or Panama it may be confused with Ficus yoponensis, but this similar lowland fig tree has smaller leaves, stipules and fruit, and only occurs in primary forest, whereas F. insipida is also found in secondary forest. Another similar fig species in this area is F. crassivenosa, but this species has differently shaped leaves and does not have the same habitat preference (the tendency to grow in association with water courses).
Distribution
The nominate subspecies occurs from Mexico south throughout Central America to Colombia and Venezuela and thence to Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru and Amazonian Brazil, and north from Venezuela to Trinidad and Tobago and the Lesser Antilles, whereas subspecies scabra occurs from the Guianan Shield of northeast Venezuela eastwards through the Guianas to northwestern Brazil in the states of Amapá and Pará.
In Mexico it has been recorded to occur in the states of Chihuahua, Durango, San Luis Potosí, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tamaulipas and Zacatecas in the north, southwards to Campeche, Chiapas, Colima, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jalisco, México, Michoacán de Ocampo, Morelos, Nayarit, Oaxaca, Puebla, Querétaro, Tabasco and Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave. In both Costa Rica and Nicaragua it is found in lowlands along both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, as well as in the central valleys.
In Bolivia it has been recorded in the northern and eastern departments of Beni, Cochabamba, La Paz, Pando and Santa Cruz: most of the country except the Andes in the southwest. In Ecuador it is known from the provinces of Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Manabí, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza, Sucumbíos and Zamora-Chinchipe. In Colombia the species has been recorded in the departments of Amazonas, Antioquia, Bolívar, Boyacá, Caquetá, Casanare, Cauca, Chocó, Cundinamarca, La Guajira, Guaviare, Huila, Magdalena, Meta, Nariño, Norte de Santander, Putumayo, Risaralda, Santander, Tolima and Valle.
The distribution in Brazil includes, besides Amapá and Pará mentioned above, the states of Acre, Amazonas and Rondônia. In the state of Pará both subspecies appear to occur, although this is unclear.
Prehistoric distribution
Although it is often stated that the Amazon rainforest is ancient, much of it has in fact grown quite recently, after the end of the last Ice Age and with a large expansion to the south 3,000 years ago. During the Ice Age large tracts of the Amazon were covered in savanna, with the forest having retreated to numerous refugia. Traces of this were found in the genetic structure of the populations of the nominate subspecies: although populations are reasonably diverse from Mexico to the Andes area, the trees in the populations in most of the Amazon area are genetically similar to one another, with the occurrence of a "single widespread haplotype" and the trees in much of Bolivia having no discernable genetic diversity found in the tested sequences at all, indicating they only recently colonised this region. In this the species shows a similar pattern to other lowland, rainforest trees.
Spatial distribution
The nominate subspecies is quite common in Nicaragua and Panama, but subspecies scabra is conversely said to be a rare tree in the Guianas.
Ecology
Habitat
The typical habitat of the nominate subspecies is lowland forests down to the coast. Ficus insipida subsp. insipida does not grow above 1,100m in Costa Rica, and is found down to 50m, or sea level. It grows between 0–700m in altitude in Nicaragua (exceptionally up to 1300m). It can be found in either very humid, humid or dry climates, but it is almost always encountered growing along rivers, and often on slopes. It is found in thickly wooded small hills abutting the coast in Atlantic Costa Rica.
The scabra subspecies appears to have a slightly different habitat preference, being typically found on slopes in either rainforest or mountain savannas in the Guianas.
Lifecycle and community ecology
Like many figs and other rainforest fruit trees, F. insipida is a 'mass-fruiter', and like many (tropical rainforest) figs but unlike many rainforest fruit trees, individual F. insipida trees fruit according to a staggered, asynchronous schedule with respect to other neighbouring conspecifics. Thus, irrespective of the season, there is always a fig flowering and fruiting somewhere, which can be advantageous to wildlife, and functions to force its wasp pollinators to seek out a new tree, and thus foster cross pollination. Like the fruit, the new leaves are produced in asynchronous flushes.
It is a monoecious species, the figs, actually a specialised inflorescence called a synconium, are densely coated in minute flowers ('florets') on the inside, both functionally male and female. The female flowers mature first; they are found in two different versions, with a short or long style. The stigmas of the female flowers are thickly intertwined and coherent to each other at the same height (short-styled florets are simply positioned somewhat higher using pedicels and somewhat longer ovaries to maintain the stigma surface), and form a surface layer a certain distance from the inner wall of the fig, called the synstigma - this synstigma essentially functions as a platform on which the pollinating wasps must walk and from where they must oviposit their eggs. The synstigma is so coherent, pollen tubes may grow from one stigma into the ovule of another neighbouring floret. The length specified by the distance between the synstigma and the ovules helps determine which wasp species may live in a particular fig species, and also cause the females to mostly lay their eggs in the short-styled florets (although in F. insipida this is not so strict, and both types of florets are fertile and both can host a wasp larva).
The flowers found within the figs of F. insipida are pollinated by the females of tiny wasps belonging to the genus Tetrapus, which complete much of their lifecycle within the developing figs. The female wasps are weak-jawed, and rely on the males to free them from their figs and individual fruit in which they develop and pupate, but only the females are winged, and can thus fly to the next fig to lay their eggs. The males develop first, they are wingless but have stronger jaws, which they use to chew their way to freedom from their host ovule. Once free, they chew free the females, copulating with them while the females are still largely trapped in their ovules -this ensures each female has sex, females which do not copulate will only produce males as offspring. The males also chew holes through the walls of the fig and open up the ostiole (a small opening at the apex of the fig), allowing the females to escape. Meanwhile, the male flowers within the fig finally shed their pollen, which adhere to the females in specialised pockets or simply onto their body surface. The females search for a new fig in which to lay their eggs, and upon arriving upon one must embark upon their greatest challenge: forcing their way within through the ostiole. Although the wasps are quite minuscule, they nonetheless regularly undertake reasonable journeys, as can be seen in the genetic structure of the fig tree populations: there is clear evidence of abundant outcrossing in the nuclear DNA (which is transported in the pollen dusted on the females, as opposed to mitochondrial DNA). The ostiole is barred by a series of bracts, but unlike in many other Ficus species, only the uppermost ostiolar bracts are interlocking and patent, with the inner bracts positioned inward and relatively open, thus forming a long slit-like tunnel allowing access to the central cavity. Nevertheless, entering the cavity is a strenuous task, and the females are often die in the tunnel, or are damaged by the ordeal, with their wings invariably torn off from forcing their way through the bracts. Once inside, the females inject their eggs with their ovipositor, through the styles of the correct length, into the ovules: one egg an ovule. While doing so, the females pollinate the other flowers when walking around on the synstigmatic surface. The seeds and the larvae mature in a few weeks, at approximately the same rate.
It uses zoochory to disperse its seeds. The figs are eaten by bats, howler, spider and capuchin monkeys in the Guianas. An especially important species to aid in dispersal via endozoochory in Costa Rica is possibly the large and common trout-like fish Brycon guatemalensis, of which the adults primarily feed upon the fallen leaves and figs of F. insipida. The seeds can survive the passage through the gut of the fish, although their viability is significantly diminished. Nonetheless, the fish may have a specific value for the fig as a dispersal agent: this fig species primarily and typically is found along rivers, and fish have the advantage of generally dispersing the seeds along rivers. Furthermore, fish are able to disperse upriver, and thus maintain upriver populations, whereas dispersal by floating the figs in water (hydrochory) alone is generally in a downriver direction (in most habitats). The leaves and especially the fruit of F. insipida and F. yoponensis are a preferred food of howler monkeys in Panama (Alouatta palliata), with one troop on Barro Colorado Island spending one quarter of its time feeding on these two types of trees. The asynchronous plant characteristics, and the food preference of the monkeys, results in the monkeys adopting specific foraging routes in order to check up on the status of as much of the potential trees as can be done efficiently.
Uses
The latex is sold in North and South American as an anthelmintic, marketed as 'doctor oje' (ojé in Brazil). The crude latex is toxic, fatal overdoses due to use as folk medicine occur reasonably often, but it remains a popular drug in certain regions. In mice, F. insipida latex was found to have only weak anthelmintic activity, and the mice developed haemorrhagic enteritis, thus the traditional medicine is not recommended.
The latex and other solutes can be removed from the sap, leaving purified ficin enzymes, a white powder that was first produced in 1930. This product is likely safe. It was initially observed how intestinal nematodes dissolved in a ficin solution, which rose interest in the product at the time as an anthelmintic, although it was not widely adopted. Purified ficin is not actually 'pure', it is a mix of different enzymes and can be produced from many different species of Ficus. The main proteolytic enzyme found in ficin produced from F. insipida has officially been named ficain. Purified ficin has numerous medical and industrial uses, and its presence in the latex sap was thought to be the reason it might have an anthelmintic effect, although later research found it to be ineffective and potentially unhealthy for this purpose. It is used for cleaning in the production of stitching material for sutures, to prepare animal arteries before transplantation into humans, and for unmasking antigens in serology. It is similarly used for cleaning the animal intestines used as sausage or cheese-casings. It is used as an additive to make freeze-resistant beer, and has been added to certain formulations of meat tenderizers along with related protease-type enzymes.
According to Schultes and Raffauf in their 1990 book The Healing Forest, the fruit of Ficus anthelmintica (an antiquated synonym of F. insipida) has been used by an unknown people somewhere in the northern Amazon of Brazil as an aphrodisiac and for what they categorise as a 'memory enhancer'.
Conservation
As of 2021, the conservation status has not been assessed by the Centro Nacional de Conservação da Flora, nor in the IUCN Red List, nor by the Costa Rican national authority. In Costa Rica this species is present in numerous protected areas, such as Estación Biológica La Selva, Carara National Park, Corcovado National Park, and Jairo Mora Sandoval Gandoca-Manzanillo Mixed Wildlife Refuge.
References
insipida
Flora of Morelos
Flora of the State of Mexico
Trees of Central America
Trees of Chiapas
Trees of Colima
Trees of Durango
Trees of Guerrero
Trees of Jalisco
Trees of Mexico
Trees of Michoacán
Trees of Nayarit
Trees of Oaxaca
Trees of Puebla
Trees of Querétaro
Trees of Sinaloa
Trees of San Luis Potosí
Trees of Sonora
Trees of South America
Trees of Tabasco
Trees of Tamaulipas
Trees of Veracruz
Trees of Peru |
7520666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OTPW | OTPW | OTPW is a one-time password system developed for authentication in Unix-like operating systems by Markus Kuhn. A user's real password is not directly transmitted across the network. Rather, a series of one-time passwords is created from a short set of characters (constant secret) and a set of one-time tokens. As each single-use password can only be used once, passwords intercepted by a password sniffer or key logger are not useful to an attacker.
OTPW is supported in Unix and Linux (via pluggable authentication modules), OpenBSD, NetBSD, and FreeBSD, and a generic open source implementation can be used to enable its use on other systems.
OTPW, like the other one-time password systems, is sensitive to a man in the middle attack if used by itself. This could for example be solved by putting SSL, SPKM or similar security protocol "under it" which authenticates the server and gives point-to-point security between the client and server.
Design and differences from other implementations
Unlike S/KEY, OTPW is not based on the Lamport's scheme in which every one-time password is the one-way hash value of its successor. Password lists based on the Lamport's scheme have the problem that if the attacker can see one of the last passwords on the list, then all previous passwords can be calculated from it. It also does not store the encrypted passwords as suggested by Aviel D. Rubin in Independent One-Time Passwords, in order to keep the host free of files with secrets.
In OTPW a one-way hash value of every single password is stored in a potentially widely readable file in the user’s home directory. For instance, hash values of 300 passwords (a typical A4 page) require only a four kilobyte long .otpw file, a typically negligible amount of storage space.
The passwords are carefully generated random numbers. The random number generator is based on the RIPEMD-160 secure hash function, and it is seeded by hashing together the output of various shell commands. These provide unpredictability in the form of a system random number seed, access times of important system files, usage history of the host, and more. The random state is the 160-bit output of the hash function. The random state is iterated after each use by concatenating the old state with the current high-resolution timer output and hashing the result again. The first 72 bits of the hash output are encoded with a modified base64 scheme to produce readable passwords, while the remaining 88 bits represent the undisclosed internal state of the random number generator.
In many fonts, the characters 0 and O or 1 and l and I are difficult to distinguish, therefore the modified base64 encoding replaces the three characters 01l by corresponding :, = and %. If for instance a zero is confused with a capital O by the user, the password verification routine will automatically correct for this. S/KEY uses sequences of short English words as passwords. OTPW uses by default a base64 encoding instead, because that allows more passwords to be printed on a single page, with the same password entropy. In addition, an average human spy needs over 30 seconds to write a 12-character random string into short-term memory, which provides a good protection against brief looks that an attacker might have on a password list. Lists of short words on the other hand are much faster to memorize. OTPW can handle arbitrary password generation algorithms, as long as the length of the password is fixed. In the current version, the otpw-gen program can generate both base-64 encoded (option -p) and 4-letter-word encoded (option -p1) passwords with a user-specified entropy (option -e).
The prefix password ensures that neither stealing the password list nor eavesdropping the line alone can provide unauthorized access. Admittedly, the security obtained by OTPW is not comparable with that of a challenge-response system in which the user has a PIN protected special calculator that generates the response. On the other hand, a piece of paper is much more portable, much more robust, and much cheaper than a special calculator. OTPW was designed for the large user base, for which an extra battery-powered device is inconvenient or not cost effective and who therefore still use normal Unix passwords everywhere.
In contrast to the suggestion made in RFC 1938, OTPW does not lock more than one one-time password at a time. If it did this, an attacker could easily exhaust its list of unlocked passwords and force it to either not login at all or use the normal Unix login password. Therefore, OTPW locks only one single password and for all further logins a triple-challenge is issued. If more than 100 unused passwords remain available, then there are over a million different challenges and an attacker has very little chance to perform a successful race attack while the authorized user finishes password entry.
Usage
One-time password authentication with the OTPW package is accomplished via a file .otpw located in the user’s home directory. No state is kept in any system-wide files, therefore OTPW does not introduce any new setuid root programs. As long as a user does not have .otpw in his home directory, the one-time-password facility has not been activated for him.
A user who wants to set up the one-time-password capability just executes the otpw-gen program. The program will ask for a prefix password and it will then write a password list to standard output. The chosen prefix password should be memorized and the password list can be formatted and printed.
Where one-time-password authentication is used, the password prompt will be followed by a 3-digit password number. Enter first the prefix password that was given to otpw-gen, followed directly (without hitting return between) by the password with the requested number from the printed password list:
login: kuhn
Password 019: geHeimOdAkH62c
In this example, geHeim was the prefix password.
A clever attacker might observe the password being entered and might try to use the fact that computers can send data much faster than users can finish entering passwords. In the several hundred milliseconds that the user needs to press the return key after the last character, an attacker could on a parallel connection to the same machine send the code of the return key faster than the user.
To prevent such a race-for-the-last-key attack, any login attempt that is taking place concurrently with another attempt will require three one-time passwords to be entered, neither of which will ever be the password which is locked by the concurrent authentication attempt.
login: kuhn
Password 022/000/004: geHeimQ=XK4I7wIZdBbqyHA5z9japt
See also
OPIE Authentication System
One-time passwords
One-time pad
S/KEY
External links
Cryptographic software
Password authentication |
31626763 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-generated%20imagery | Computer-generated imagery | Computer-generated imagery (CGI) is the application of computer graphics to create or contribute to images in art, printed media, video games, simulators, computer animation and VFX in films, television programs, shorts, commercials, and videos. The images may be dynamic or static, and may be two-dimensional (2D), although the term "CGI" is most commonly used to refer to the 3-D computer graphics used for creating characters, scenes and special effects in films and television, which is described as "CGI animation".
The first feature film to make use of CGI was the 1973 movie Westworld. Other early films that incorporated CGI include Star Wars (1977), Tron (1982), Golgo 13: The Professional (1983), The Last Starfighter (1984), Young Sherlock Holmes (1985) and Flight of the Navigator (1986). The first music video to use CGI was Dire Straits' award-winning "Money for Nothing" (1985), whose success was instrumental in giving the process mainstream exposure.
The evolution of CGI led to the emergence of virtual cinematography in the 1990s, where the vision of the simulated camera is not constrained by the laws of physics. Availability of CGI software and increased computer speeds have allowed individual artists and small companies to produce professional-grade films, games, and fine art from their home computers.
The term virtual world refers to agent-based, interactive environments, which are now created with CGI.
Static images and landscapes
Not only do animated images form part of computer-generated imagery; natural looking landscapes (such as fractal landscapes) are also generated via computer algorithms. A simple way to generate fractal surfaces is to use an extension of the triangular mesh method, relying on the construction of some special case of a de Rham curve, e.g. midpoint displacement. For instance, the algorithm may start with a large triangle, then recursively zoom in by dividing it into four smaller Sierpinski triangles, then interpolate the height of each point from its nearest neighbors. The creation of a Brownian surface may be achieved not only by adding noise as new nodes are created but by adding additional noise at multiple levels of the mesh. Thus a topographical map with varying levels of height can be created using relatively straightforward fractal algorithms. Some typical, easy-to-program fractals used in CGI are the plasma fractal and the more dramatic fault fractal.
Many specific techniques been researched and developed to produce highly focused computer-generated effects — e.g., the use of specific models to represent the chemical weathering of stones to model erosion and produce an "aged appearance" for a given stone-based surface.
Architectural scenes
Modern architects use services from computer graphic firms to create 3-dimensional models for both customers and builders. These computer generated models can be more accurate than traditional drawings. Architectural animation (which provides animated movies of buildings, rather than interactive images) can also be used to see the possible relationship a building will have in relation to the environment and its surrounding buildings. The processing of architectural spaces without the use of paper and pencil tools is now a widely accepted practice with a number of computer-assisted architectural design systems.
Architectural modeling tools allow an architect to visualize a space and perform "walk-throughs" in an interactive manner, thus providing "interactive environments" both at the urban and building levels. Specific applications in architecture not only include the specification of building structures (such as walls and windows) and walk-throughs but the effects of light and how sunlight will affect a specific design at different times of the day.
Architectural modeling tools have now become increasingly internet-based. However, the quality of internet-based systems still lags behind that of sophisticated in-house modeling systems.
In some applications, computer-generated images are used to "reverse engineer" historical buildings. For instance, a computer-generated reconstruction of the monastery at Georgenthal in Germany was derived from the ruins of the monastery, yet provides the viewer with a "look and feel" of what the building would have looked like in its day.
Anatomical models
Computer generated models used in skeletal animation are not always anatomically correct. However, organizations such as the Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute have developed anatomically correct computer-based models. Computer generated anatomical models can be used both for instructional and operational purposes. To date, a large body of artist produced medical images continue to be used by medical students, such as images by Frank H. Netter, e.g. Cardiac images. However, a number of online anatomical models are becoming available.
A single patient X-ray is not a computer generated image, even if digitized. However, in applications which involve CT scans a three-dimensional model is automatically produced from many single-slice x-rays, producing "computer generated image". Applications involving magnetic resonance imaging also bring together a number of "snapshots" (in this case via magnetic pulses) to produce a composite, internal image.
In modern medical applications, patient-specific models are constructed in 'computer assisted surgery'. For instance, in total knee replacement, the construction of a detailed patient-specific model can be used to carefully plan the surgery. These three-dimensional models are usually extracted from multiple CT scans of the appropriate parts of the patient's own anatomy. Such models can also be used for planning aortic valve implantations, one of the common procedures for treating heart disease. Given that the shape, diameter, and position of the coronary openings can vary greatly from patient to patient, the extraction (from CT scans) of a model that closely resembles a patient's valve anatomy can be highly beneficial in planning the procedure.
Cloth and skin images
Models of cloth generally fall into three groups:
The geometric-mechanical structure at yarn crossing
The mechanics of continuous elastic sheets
The geometric macroscopic features of cloth.
To date, making the clothing of a digital character automatically fold in a natural way remains a challenge for many animators.
In addition to their use in film, advertising and other modes of public display, computer generated images of clothing are now routinely used by top fashion design firms.
The challenge in rendering human skin images involves three levels of realism:
Photo realism in resembling real skin at the static level
Physical realism in resembling its movements
Function realism in resembling its response to actions.
The finest visible features such as fine wrinkles and skin pores are the size of about 100 µm or 0.1 millimetres. Skin can be modeled as a 7-dimensional bidirectional texture function (BTF) or a collection of bidirectional scattering distribution function (BSDF) over the target's surfaces.
Interactive simulation and visualization
Interactive visualization is the rendering of data that may vary dynamically and allowing a user to view the data from multiple perspectives. The applications areas may vary significantly, ranging from the visualization of the flow patterns in fluid dynamics to specific computer aided design applications. The data rendered may correspond to specific visual scenes that change as the user interacts with the system — e.g. simulators, such as flight simulators, make extensive use of CGI techniques for representing the world.
At the abstract level, an interactive visualization process involves a "data pipeline" in which the raw data is managed and filtered to a form that makes it suitable for rendering. This is often called the "visualization data". The visualization data is then mapped to a "visualization representation" that can be fed to a rendering system. This is usually called a "renderable representation". This representation is then rendered as a displayable image. As the user interacts with the system (e.g. by using joystick controls to change their position within the virtual world) the raw data is fed through the pipeline to create a new rendered image, often making real-time computational efficiency a key consideration in such applications.
Computer animation
While computer-generated images of landscapes may be static, computer animation only applies to dynamic images that resemble a movie. However, in general, the term computer animation refers to dynamic images that do not allow user interaction, and the term virtual world is used for the interactive animated environments.
Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to the art of stop motion animation of 3D models and frame-by-frame animation of 2D illustrations. Computer generated animations are more controllable than other more physically based processes, such as constructing miniatures for effects shots or hiring extras for crowd scenes, and because it allows the creation of images that would not be feasible using any other technology. It can also allow a single graphic artist to produce such content without the use of actors, expensive set pieces, or props.
To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer screen and repeatedly replaced by a new image which is similar to the previous image, but advanced slightly in the time domain (usually at a rate of 24 or 30 frames/second). This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television and motion pictures.
Virtual worlds
A virtual world is a simulated environment, which allows the user to interact with animated characters, or interact with other users through the use of animated characters known as avatars. Virtual worlds are intended for its users to inhabit and interact, and the term today has become largely synonymous with interactive 3D virtual environments, where the users take the form of avatars visible to others graphically. These avatars are usually depicted as textual, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional graphical representations, although other forms are possible (auditory and touch sensations for example). Some, but not all, virtual worlds allow for multiple users.
In courtrooms
Computer-generated imagery has been used in courtrooms, primarily since the early 2000s. However, some experts have argued that it is prejudicial. They are used to help judges or the jury to better visualize the sequence of events, evidence or hypothesis. However, a 1997 study showed that people are poor intuitive physicists and easily influenced by computer generated images. Thus it is important that jurors and other legal decision-makers be made aware that such exhibits are merely a representation of one potential sequence of events.
Motion-capture
Computer-generated imagery is often used in conjunction with motion-capture to better cover the faults that come with CGI and animation. Computer-generated imagery is limited in its practical application by how realistic it can look. Unrealistic, or badly managed computer-generated imagery can result in the Uncanny Valley effect. This effect refers to the human ability to recognize things that look eerily like humans, but are slightly off. Such ability is a fault with normal computer-generated imagery which, due to the complex anatomy of the human-body, can often fail to replicate it perfectly. This is where motion-capture comes into play. Artists can use a motion-capture rig to get footage of a human performing an action and then replicate it perfectly with computer-generated imagery so that it looks normal.
The lack of anatomically correct digital models contributes to the necessity of motion-capture as it is used with computer-generated imagery. Because computer-generated imagery reflects only the outside, or skin, of the object being rendered, it fails to capture the infinitesimally small interactions between interlocking muscle groups used in fine motor-control, like speaking. The constant motion of the face as it makes sounds with shaped lips and tongue movement, along with the facial expressions that go along with speaking are difficult to replicate by hand. Motion capture can catch the underlying movement of facial muscles and better replicate the visual that goes along with the audio, like Josh Brolin's Thanos.
See also
References
Citations
Sources
External links
A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animation – a course page at Ohio State University that includes all the course materials and extensive supplementary materials (videos, articles, links).
CG101: A Computer Graphics Industry Reference Unique and personal histories of early computer graphics production, plus a comprehensive foundation of the industry for all reading levels.
F/X Gods, by Anne Thompson, Wired, February 2005.
"History Gets A Computer Graphics Make-Over" Tayfun King, Click, BBC World News (2004-11-19)
NIH Visible Human Gallery
Visual effects
Special effects
imagery
Articles containing video clips |
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